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3-Ct. 


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Book 


University  of  Chicago  Library 

GIVEN  BY 

Besides  the  main  topic  this  book  also  treats  of 
Subject  No,  Oh  faze        Subject  No.  On  page 


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WADE 


Dup, 
U.  of  C. 
M.  L.  N. 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 

in  2007  with  funding  from 

IVIicrosoft  Corporation . 


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.e,. 


NATIONAL    educational)  ASSOCIATION  V^^  ^ 


JOURNAL 


PROCEEDINGS  AND  ADDRESSES 


OF  THE  '    / r 

THIRTY-NINTH  ANNUAL  MEETING 


HELD  AT 

CHARLESTON,  SOUTH    CAROLINA 

JULY    7-13,   1900 


1900 
publtdbed  b^  tbe  Bddociatton 


i 
IS 


PRINTED    BY 

?rbe  TnnivergftB  of  Cbicacio  press 

CHICAGO 


138229 


CONTENTS 


PAGE 


Constitution,         .----.--.----  i 

By-Laws,     -         -"         -         -         -         -         -         -         -         -         -         -      .    -         -  4* 

Act  of  Incorporation,   ----- -  4 

Calendar  of  Meetings,           ..-...-----  6 

Officers  for  1899-1900,           ..-.-.-----  8 

Officers  for  1900-1901,           .....------  12 

Treasurer's  I^eport,       ------------16 

Report  of  Board  of  Trustees,         .-.---..-.  19 

GENERAL    SESSIONS 

Journal  of  Proceedings,         ...--------21 

Report  of  Committee  on  Necrology,      ---------  23 

Minutes  of  Annual  Business  Meeting  of  Active  Members,      -----  24 

Report  of  Committee  on  Nominations,           -         .         - 25 

Report  of  Committee  on  Resolutions,    ---------  31 

Declaration  of  Principles,     -         -         -         -         -         -         -         -         -         -         -  31 

Minutes  of  Meeting  of  Board  of  Directc^,    -------  35 

Minutes  of  Meeting  of  New  Board  of  Directors,    -         -         -----  38 

Addresses  of  Welcome  —  McSweeney,  McMahan,  Smyth,  Archer,  -         -         -         -  41 

Responses — Lyte,  Carr,  Foshay,   ----------  49 

President's  Address — Corson,       ----- 58 

The  Small  College: 

I.  Its  Work  in  the  Past  —  Thompson,      --------  61 

II.  Its  Prospects — Harper,      ----------  67 

Contributions  of  Religious  Organizations  to  Education  : 

I.  By  the  Baptist  Church  —  Cooper,         --------  87 

II.  By  the  Catholic  Church  — /*«//<•«,       -         -         - 94 

The  State  University  —  Swain,     -         -         -         -         -         -         -         -         -         -  106 

The  Problem  of  the  South -— W;jz*W»?4'-/o«,     -         -         -         -         -         -         -         -  114 

The  Problem  of  the  Grades  : 

I.  Discipline — Edmund,     -         -         -         -         -         -         -         -         -         -  123 

II.  Classification  and  Promotion  —  Buchanan,        -         -          -          -          -          -  128 

III.  Instruction  —  Cooley,         ----------  137 

The  Influence  of  Music  upon  National  Life — Gantvoorl,       -----  145 

The  Influence  of  Poetry  in  Education — Beardshear.      -         -         -         -         -         -  I53 

The  Value  of  English  Literature  in  Ethical  Training — Halleck,    -         -         -         -  160 

Educational  Principles  in  the  Teaching  of  Literature — Brtimbangk,     ■         -         -  169 

What  Manner  of  Child  Shall  This  Be  ?  — 6^/^«;/,  - 174 

Closing  Address  —  Montague,       ---------  180 

DEPARTMENT    OF    SUPERINTENDENCE 

(CHICAGO   meeting) 

ijecretary's  Minutes,     -         -         -         -         -         -         -         -.        -          -         -         -  183 

Status  of  Education  at  the  Close  of  the  Century  —  Butler,     -         -         -         -         -  188 

Discussion  —  Eliot,  Harris,         -         -         -         -         -         -         -         -         -  196 

Administration  of  Graded  Schools  —  Harvey,        -------  203 

Discussion  —  Bayliss,  -         -         -         -         -         -         -         -         -         -210 


AV'^ 


i,V  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION 

The  Trail  of  the  City  Superintendent — Gove,       .......  214 

The  Superintendent  in  Small  Cities  —  Gorton,       .......  222 

Alcohol  Physidlogy  and  Superintendence  —  A(7i>ater,    ------  229- 

Discussion,         ------------  250 

Obligations  and  Opportunities  of  Scholarship  —  Alderman,  -----  266 

Improving  the  Efificiency  of  Teachers — Cook,        ----♦--.  276 

The  Superintendent  as  an  Organizer  and  Executive — Denfeld,      -         -         -         -  286 

Discussion  —  Mark,  -----------  294 

NATIONAL   COUNCIL 

Constitution, - 297 

Officers  for  1 899-1 900, 299 

Officers  for  1900-1901,          .-- ._  299 

List  of  Members,          -..- ^00- 

Honorary  Members,     ------------  300 

List  of  Members  Deceased,           ----------  301 

Secretary's  Minutes,     ------------  302 

Education  in  the  Colonies  —  Coz/^,        -         -         -         -         -         -         -         -         -  305 

Discussion,         .-------.--.  310. 

Educational  Progress  During  the  Year — Hinsdale,        ------  312 

Class  Intervals  in  Graded  Schools  —  Harris,         -------  332 

Discussion,         ------------  3^0 

Report  on  High-School  Statistics  —  Greenwood,    -------  340 

Discussion,         ------------351 

General  Culture  as  an  Element  in  Professional  Training — Boone,          -         -         -  351 

KINDERGARTEN    DEPARTMENT 

Secretary's  Minutes,     ------------  365. 

President's  Address  —  Kraus-Boelte,     ---------  367 

A  Mother's  Advice  to  Kindergartners— J/<f/<f«<j',           .---..  370- 

The  Need  of  Kindergartners  in  the  South  —  Claxton,    ------  376- 

The  Kindergarten  Gifts— iViW, 383 

The  Kindergarten  and  the  Primary  School  —  Newman,         -----  390 

Educational  Use  of  Music  for  Children  under  Seven  Years  —  Hofer,      -         -         -  397 

ELEMENTARY   DEPARTMENT 

Secretary's  Minutes, 403 

Nature  Study  in  the  Public  Schools  — •  Lange,                 ......  404 

The  Geographical  Phase  —  Redway,         -         -         -         -         -         -         -         -  411 

English  in  the  Grades — Reed, -         -  416- 

Discussion,          -.------..-.  422' 

The  Elimination  of  the  Grammar  School  —  As/imore,     ------  424 

Discussion,         ------------  426 

SECONDARY    DEPARTMENT 

Secretary's  Minutes,     -         -         -         -         -         -         -         -         -         -         -         -  428^ 

^  Election  in  High-School  Studies — Bryan, 428^ 

Discussion, - 435 

How  to  Teach  Correct  Use  of  English  Language — Westcott,          -         .         .         .  437 

Discussion,         .         -         - .         .  ^^j 

Discussion  of  Report  of  Committee  on  College- Entrance  Requirements — Hinsdale,  451 

HIGHER    DEPARTMENT 

Secretary's  Minutes, 454 

The  Satisfactions  of  Being  a  College  President — Thwing,  -         -         .         .         .  455, 


CONTENTS 


HIGHER    DEPARTMENT — continued 

State  Aid  to  Higher  Education  in  Europe  and  America — Swain,         -         -         -  457 

Discussion,         .-..-- 462 

An  Ethnic  View  of  Higher  Education — Howerth,        ......  ^55 

The  Function  of  the  Land-Grant  College  in  American   Education — Beardshear,  473 

NORMAL    DEPARTMENT 

Secretary's  Minutes,     ------------  480 

Training  of  Teachers  for  White  Schools — Mclver,       ------  481 

The  Training  of  Negro  Teachers  —  Frissell,          ......  482 

Discussion, -.--..-  ^89 

MANUAL-TRAINING    DEPARTMENT 
Secretary's  Minutes,      -.-  -._--.         .-4^1 

Teaching  Trades  in  Connection  with  the  Public  Schools  —  Warner,       -         -         -  492 

High-School  Courses  in  Manual  Training  —  Lenfest,     ......  495 

Manual  Training  for  the  Ordinary  High  School  —  Van  Sickle,        .         .         .         .  501 

ART    DEPARTMENT 

Secretary's  Minutes-,     -----------  505 

Address  of  Welcome — Willis,       ..........  506 

Response  and  Presidential  Address  —  Ransom,     -         -         -         -         -         -         -  507 

Art  in  Everything  —  Parker,         -         -         -         -         -.        -         -         -         -         -  509 

Picture  Study — Orr,    ------------  514 

Relative  Value  of  Brush  and  Pencil — Snow,         .--....  516 

The  Relation  of  Nature  Study  to  Drawing  in  Public  Schools  —  Stone,    -         -         -  524 

MUSIC    DEPARTMENT 
Secretary's  Minutes,     -------.--.-531 

•Common-Sense  as  an  Aid  to  the  School-Music  Supervisor  —  Weaver,    -         -         -  532 

Should  Music  be  Taught  from  the  Song  to  the  Exeicise  1- — Congdon,    -         -         -  537 

BUSINESS    DEPARTMENT 

Secretary's  Minutes,     ------...---  542 

■Curriculum  for  a  School  of  Commerce — Her  rick,          ......  543 

Should  Colleges  Educate  for  Business  ?  —  Anderson,     ------  549 

The  Commercial  High-School  Course  —  Doggett,           ......  555 

Commercial  Branches  in  Grammar  and  High  Schools  —  Kowe,     -         -         -         -  562 

School  and  Business  Arithmetic — Stitt,        ........  ^55 

Advertising  as  Applied  to  Business  Colleges — Wheeler,         -         -    •     -         -         -  573 

Essentials  of  Modern  Business  Penmanship — Haeberle,        -         -         -         -         -  576 

CHILD-STUDY    DEPARTMENT 

Secretary's  Minutes,     ------         -----         -  582 

Some  Difficulties  of  Child  Study  —  Bailey,           .......  582 

Is  there  a  Nationality  Problem  in  Our  Schools  ?  —  Broken,             .         .         .         .  585 

A  Study  in  Musical  Interpretation  —  Kratz,          .......  590 

SCIENCE    DEPARTMENT 

Secretary's  Minutes,     ------------  592 

Relation  of  Advanced  Science  to  Nature  Work  —  Wilson,     -----  592 

Nature  Study  for  the  Graded  Schools^^ZJ^/^^ar, 600 

SCHOOL-ADMINISTRATION    DEPARTMENT 

Secretary's  Minutes, -         -         .         -                  .         -  609 

Schoolhouse  Architecture  —  Parsons,    ---------  610 

School-Administration  Problems  in  the  South  —  Peres,-         .         .         .         .         .  618 

The  Relations  of  the  School  Board  and  the  Teachers  —  Hunt,      .         .         .         .  625 

School-Board  Organization  —  Ellis, -         -         .  631 


NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION 


LIBRARY    DEPARTMENT 

Secretary's  Minutes,     ------------  63? 

How  to  Direct  Children  in  Their  Reading  —  Schreiber,         -----  636 

The  Greater  School  —  Elmendorf,         .-....-..  643^ 

Discussion,         -.---.--.--.  647 , 

Tlie  Free  Traveling  Library  —  Heard,  --.-.--.  5^8 

Discussion,         ------------  55^ 

DEPARTMENT    FOR    DEAF,    BLIND,    AND     FEEBLE-MINDED 

Secretary's  Minutes,     ----------..  6s6.5 

Southern  Schools  for  the  Deaf  —  Dobyns,      ..-.-...  65S 

The  State  of  the  Case  —  Garrett,  --.-.....  661 

Pennsylvania  Institution  for  the  Deaf  and  Dumb  —  Crouter,  -         .         -         .  663 

Statistics  of  Speech-Teaching  in  Schools  for  the  Deaf — Booth,     -         -         -         -  668 

The  Higher  Education  of  the  Blind  —  Swearinnen,       -         -         -         -         -         -  671 

The  Claims  of  the  Feeble-Minded  —  Bancroft,      -------  674 

On  the  Training  of  the  Feeble-Minded  — Johnstone,      ------  677 

INDIAN-EDUCATION    DEPARTMENT 

Secretary's  Minutes,     -         -         -         - ,-         -681 

The  Indian  Problem — Frissell,    ----------  682 

Literary  and  Industrial  F^ducation  of  Indians  —  Standing,    -----  692 

The  Health  of  the  Indian  —  l-Vainiuright,     --------  696 

The  Training  of  Teachers  for  Indian  Schools— ZJyy^f,  -----  696 

'I'he  Teaching  of  Trades  to  the  Indian  —  Rogers,  ------  5gg 

The  Training  of  the  Indian  Girl  as  the  Uplifter  of  the  Home  —  Richards,     -         -  701 

Kindergarten  Work  among  the  Indians  —  Finley,         ------  705 

Sanitary  Conditions  among  the  Indians  —  Bulloch,       ......  706 

Practical  Methods  in  Indian  Education  —  Seger,  -         -         -         -         -         -         .  708 

MISCELLANEOUS  \ 

Report  of  the  Committee  on  Necrology,        -         -         -         -         -         -         -         -712 

List  of  Corresponding  Members,  ---.--.-.  ^29 

List  of  Active  Members,       -------.--.  729 

Index  to  Active  Membership  List,         ---------  -j^q 

Statistical  Table  of  Membership  for  1900,     - -  800 

Statistical  Table  of  Membership  since  1884,  -         -         -         -         -         -         -  801 

Inventory  and  Price  List  of  Publications,      --------  802 

General  Index,    -------------  803 


CONSTITUTION 


NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION 


PREAMBLE 


To  elevate  the  character  and  advance  the  interests  of  the  profession  of 
teaching,  and  to  promote  the  cause  of  popular  education  in  the  United 
States,  we,  whose  names  are  subjoined,  agree  to  adopt  the  following 

CONSTITUTION 
ARTICLE  I  — NAME 
This  association  shall  be  styled  the  National  Educational  Association. 

ARTICLE  II  — DEPARTMENTS 

Section  i.  It  shall  consist  of  eighteen  departments:  first,  of  Superintendence; 
second,  of  Normal  Schools;  third,  of  Elementary  Education;  fourth,  of  Higher  Educa- 
tion ;  fifth,  of  Manual  Training ;  sixth,  of  Art  Education ;  seventh,  of  Kindergarten 
Education;  eighth,  of  Music  Education;  ninth,  of  Secondary  Education;  tenth,  of  Busi- 
ness Education  ;  eleventh,  of  Child  Study;  twelfth,  of  Physical  Education;  thirteenth,  of 
Natural  Science  Instruction  ;  fourteenth,  of  School  Administration  ;  fifteenth,  the  Library 
Department ;  sixteenth,  for  the  Education  of  the  Deaf,  Blind,  and  Feeble-Minded ;  seven- 
teenth, of  Indian  Education;  and  eighteenth,  the  National  Council  of  Education. 

Sec  2.  Other  departments  may  be  organized  in  the  manner  prescribed  in  this  con- 
stitution. 

ARTICLE  III  — MEMBERSHIP 

Section  i.  There  shall  be  three  classes  of  members,  namely,  active,  associate, 
and  corresponding. 

Sec.  2.  Teachers  and  all  v?ho  are  actively  associated  with  the  management  of 
educational  institutions,  including  libraries  and  periodicals,  may  become  active  members. 
All  others  who  pay  an  annual  membership  fee  of  two  dollars  may  become  associate  mem- 
bers. Eminent  educators  not  residing  in  America  may  be  elected  by  the  Directory  to 
be  corresponding  members.  The  number  of  corresponding  members  shall  at  no  time 
exceed  fifty. 

Sec.  3.  Any  person  eligible  may  become  an  active  member  upon  application 
indorsed  by  two  active  members,  and  the  payment  of  an  enrollment  fee  of  two  dollars 
and  the  annual  dues  for  the  current  year. 

Active  members  only  have  the  right  to  vote  and  to  hold  office  in  the  general  associa- 
tion or  in  the  several  departments. 

All  active  members  must  pay  annual  dues  of  two  dollars,  and  will  be  entitled  to  the 
volume  of  proceedings  without  "  coupon  "  or  other  conditions.     The  annual  membership 


NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION 


tee  shall  be  payable' at  the  time  of  the  annual  convention,  or  by  remittance  to  the  Secre- 
tary before  September  i  of  each  year.  Any  active  member  may  discontinue  membership 
by  giving  written  notice  to  the  Secretary  before  September  i,  and  may  restore  the  same 
only  on  payment  of  the  enrollment  fee  of  two  dollars  and  the  annual  dues  for  the  current 
year. 

All  life  members  and  life  directors  shall  be  denominated  active  members,  and  shall 
enjoy  all  the  powers  and  privileges  of  such  members  without  the  payment  of  annual  dues. 

Associate  members  may  receive  the  volume  of  proceedings  in  accordance  with  the 
usual  "coupon"  conditions,  as  printed  on  the  membership  certificate. 

Corresponding  members  will  be  entitled  to  the  volume  of  proceedings  without  the 
payment  of  fees  or  other  conditions. 

Sec.  4.  The  names  of  active  and  corresponding  members  only  will  be  printed  in 
the  volume  of  proceedings,  with  their  respective  educational  titles,  offices,  and  addresses, 
the  list  to  be  revised  annually  by  the  Secretary  of  the  association. 

ARTICLE  IV  — OFFICERS 

Section  i.  The  officers  of  this  association  shall  consist  of  a  President,  twelve  Vice- 
Presidents,  a  Secretary,  a  Treasurer,  a  Board  of  Directors,  a  Board  of  Trustees,  and  an 
Executive  Committee,  as  hereinafter  provided. 

Sec.  2.  The  Board  of  Directors  shall  consist  of  the  President  of  the  National 
Educational  Association,  First  Vice-President,  Secretary,  Treasurer,  chairman  of  the 
Board  of  Trustees,  and  one  additional  member  from  each  state,  territory,  or  district,  to  be 
elected  by  the  association  for  the  term  of  one  year,  or  until  their  successors  are  chosen, 
and  of  all  life  directors  elected  previous  to  July  10,  1895. 

All  past  presidents  of  the  association  now  living  (July  10,  1895),  ^"^  all  future 
presidents  at  the  close  of  their  respective  terms  of  office,  and  the  United  States  Com- 
missioner of  Education  shall  be  life  directors  of  the  association. 

The  President  of  the  National  Educational  Association,  First  Vice-President,  Treas- 
urer, chairman  of  the  Board  of  Trustees,  and  a  member  of  the  association  to  be  chosen 
annually  by  the  Board  of  Directors,  which  member  shall  hold  office  for  one  yea!r,  shall 
constitute  the  Executive  Committee. 

Sec.  3.  The  elective  officers  of  the  association,  with  the  exception  of  the  Secretary, 
shall  be  chosen  by  the  active  members  of  the  association  by  ballot,  unless  otherwise 
ordered,  on  the  third  day  of  each  annual  session,  a  majority  of  the  votes  cast  being 
necessary  for  a  choice.  They  shall  continue  in  office  until  the  close  of  the  annual  session 
subsequent  to  their  election,  and  until  their  successors  are  chosen,  except  as  hereinafter 
provided. 

Sec.  4.  Each  department  shall  be  administered  by  a  president,  vice-president,  sec- 
retary, and  such  other  officers  as  it  shall  deem  necessary  to  conduct  its  affairs ;  but  no 
person  shall  be  elected  to  any  office  of  the  association,  or  of  any  department,  who  is  not,  at  the 
time  of  the  election,  an  active  member  of  the  association. 

Sec.  5.  The  President  shall  preside  at  all  meetings  of  the  association  and  of  the 
Board  of  Directors,  and  shall  perform  the  duties  usually  devolving  upon  a  presiding 
officer.  In  his  absence,  the  first  vice-president  in  order,  who  is  present,  shall  preside ; 
and  in  the  absence  of  all  vice  presidents  a  pro-tempore  chairman  shall  be  appointed  on 
nomination,  the  Secretary  putting  the  question. 

Sec.  6.  The  Secretary  shall  keep  a  full  and  accurate  report  of  the  proceedings  of 
the  general  meetings  of  the  association  and  all  meetings  of  the  Board  of  Directors,  and 
shall  conduct  such  correspondence  as  the  directors  may  assign,  and  shall  have  his 
records  present  at  all  meetings  of  the  association  and  of  the  Board  of  Directors.  The 
secretary  of  each  department  shall,  in  addition  to  performing  the  duties  usually  pertaining 
to  his  office,  keep  a  list  of  the  members  of  his  department. 


CONSTITUTION 


Sec.  7.  The  Treasurer  shall  receive,  and  under  the  direction  of  the  Board  of 
Trustees  hold  in  safe-keeping,  all  moneys  paid  to  the  association ;  shall  expend  the  same 
only  upon  the  order  of  said  board ;  shall  keep  an  exact  account  of  his  receipts  and 
expenditures,  with  Vouchers  for  the  latter,  which  accounts,  ending  the  ist  day  of  July  each 
year,  he  shall  render  to  the  Board  of  Trustees,  and,  when  approved  by  said  board,  he  shall 
report  the  same  to  the  Board  of  Directors.  The  Treasurer  shall  give  such  bond  for  the 
faithful  discharge  of  his  duties  as  may  be  required  by  the  Board  of  Trustees ;  and  he 
shall  continue  in  office  until  the  first  meeting  of  the  Board  of  Directors  held  prior  to  the 
annual  meeting  of  the  association  next  succeeding  that  for  which  he  is  elected. 

Sec.  8.  The  Board  of  Directors  shall  have  power  to  fill  all  vacancies  in  their  own 
body;  shall  have  in  charge  the  general  interests  of  the  association,  excepting  those  herein 
intrusted  to  the  Board  of  Trustees ;  shall  make  all  necessary  arrangements  for  its  meet- 
ings, and  shall  do  all  in  its  power  to  make  it  a  useful  and  honorable  institution.  Upon 
the  written  application  of  twenty  active  members  of  the  association  for  permission  to 
establish  a  new  department,  it  may  grant  such  permission.  Such  new  department  shall 
in  all  respects  be  entitled  to  the  same  rights  and  privileges  as  the  others.  The  forma- 
tion of  such  department  shall  in  effect  be  a  sufficient  amendment  to  this  constitution  for 
the  insertion  of  its  name  in  Art.  II,  and  the  Secretary  shall  make  the  necessary  alterations. 

Sec.  9.  The  Board  of  Trustees  shall  consist  of  four  members,  elected  by  the  Board 
of  Directors  for  the  term  of  four  years,  and  the  President  of  the  association,  who  shall 
be  a  member  ex  officio  during  his  term  of  oflSce.  At  the  election  of  the  trustees  in  1886, 
one  trustee  shall  be  elected  for  one  year,  one  for  two  years,  one  for  three  years,  and  one 
for  four  years ;  and  annually  thereafter,  at  the  first  meeting  of  the  Board  of  Directors 
held  prior  to  the  annual  meeting  of  the  association,  one  trustee  shall  be  elected  for  the 
term  of  four  years.  All  vacancies  occurring  in  said  Board  of  Trustees,  whether  by  resig- 
nation or  otherwise,  shall  be  filled  by  the  Board  of  Directors  for  the  unexpired  term ;  and 
the  absence  of  a  trustee  from  two  successive  annual  meetings  of  the  board  shall  forfeit 
his  membership  therein.  The  Board  of  Trustees  thus  elected  shall  constitute  the  body 
corporate  of  the  association,  as  provided  in  the  certificate  of  incorporation  under  the  pro- 
visions of  the  Act  of  General  Incorporation,  Class  Third,  of  the  Revised  Statutes  of  the 
District  of  Columbia,  dated  the  24th  day  of  February,  1886,  at  Washington,  D.  C,  and 
recorded  in  Liber  No.  4,  "Acts  of  Incorporation  for  the  District  of  Columbia." 

Sec.  10.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  Board  of  Trustees  to  provide  for  safe-keeping 
and  investment  of  all  funds  which  the  association  may  receive  from  donations ;  and  the 
income  of  such  invested  funds  shall  be  used  exclusively  in  paying  the  cost  of  publishing 
the  annual  volume  of  proceedings  of  the  association,  excepting  when  donors  shall  specify 
otherwise.  It  shall  also  be  the  duty  of  the  board  to  issue  orders  on  the  Treasurer  for  the 
payment  of  all  bills  approved  by  the  Board  of  Directors,  or  by  the  President  and  Secre- 
tary of  the  association  acting  under  the  authority  of  the  Board  of  Directors  ;  and,  when 
practicable,  the  trustees  shall  invest  all  surplus  funds  exceeding  one  hundred  dollars  that 
shall  remain  in  the  hands  of  the  Treasurer  after  paying  the  expenses  of  the  association 
for  the  previous  year. 

Sec.  1 1 .  The  Board  of  Trustees  shall  elect  the  Secretary  of  the  association,  who  shall 
also  be  secretary  of  the  Executive  Committee,  and  shall  fix  the  compensation  and  the  term 
of  office  for  a  period  not  to  exceed  four  years. 

ARTICLE  V— MEETINGS 

Section  i.  The  annual  meeting  of  the  association  shall  be  held  at  such  time  and 
place  as  shall  be  determined  by  the  Board  of  Directors. 

Sec.  2.  Special  meetings  may  be  called  by  the  President  at  the  request  of  five 
directors. 

Sec.  3.  Any  department  of  the  association  may  hold  a  special  meeting  at  such  time 
and  place  as  by  its  own  regulations  it  shall  appoint. 


NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION 


Sec.  4.  The  Board  of  Directors  shall  hold  its  regular  meetings  at  the  place  and 
not  less  than  two  hours  before  the  assembling  of  the  association. 

Sec.  5.  Special  meetings  may  be  held  at  such  other  times  and  places  as  the  board 
or  the  President  shall  determine.  * 

Sec.  6.  Each  new  board  shall  organize  at  the  session  of  its  election.  At  its  first 
meeting  a  committee  on  publication  shall  be  appointed,  which  shall  consist  of  the  Presi- 
dent and  the  Secretary  of  the  association  for  the  previous  year,  and  one  member  from 
each  department. 

ARTICLE  VI  — BY-LAWS 

By-laws  not  inconsistent  with  this  constitution  may  be  adopted  by  a  two-thirds  vote 
of  the  association. 

ARTICLE  VII  — AMENDMENTS 

This  constitution  may  be  altered  or  amended  at  a  regular  meeting  by  the  unanimous 
vote  of  the  members  present ;  or  by  a  two-thirds  vote  of  the  members  present,  provided 
that  the  alteration  or  amendment  has  been  substantially  proposed  in  writing  at  a  previous 
meeting. 

BY-LAWS 

1.  At  the  first  session  of  each  annual  meeting  of  the  association  there  shall  be 
appointed  by  the  President  a  committee  on  resolutions ;  and  at  the  third  session  of  such 
meeting  there  shall  be  appointed  a  committee  on  nominations,  consisting  of  one  member 
from  each  state  and  territory  represented,  the  same  to  be  appointed  by  the  President  on 
the  nomination  of  a  majority  of  the  active  members  in  attendance  from  such  state  or 
territory ;  provided,  however,  that  such  appointment  shall  be  made  by  the  President  with- 
out such  nomination,  when  less  than  three  active  members  from  a  state  or  territory  are  in 
attendance,  and  also  when  a  majority  of  the  active  members  in  attendance  from  any 
state  or  territory  shall  fail  to  make  a  nomination. 

The  meetings  of  active  members  to  nominate  members  of  the  nominating  committee 
shall  be  held  at  5  :  30  p.  M.  on  the  first  day  of  the  annual  meeting  of  the  association,  at 
such  places  as  shall  be  announced  in  the  general  program. 

2.  The  President  and  Secretary  shall  certify  to  the  Board  of  Trustees  all  bills 
approved  by  the  Board  of  Directors. 

3.  Each  paying  member  of  the  association  shall  be  entitled  to  a  copy  of  its  pro- 
ceedings. 

4.  No  paper,  lecture,  or  address  shall  be  read  before  the  association  or  any  of  its 
departments  in  the  absence  of  its  author,  nor  shall  any  such  paper,  lecture,  or  address  be 
published  in  the  volume  of  proceedings  without  the  consent  of  the  association,  upon 
approval  of  the  Executive  Committee. 

5.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  President,  Secretary,  and  Treasurer  of  the  association 
to  appoint  annually  some  competent  person  to  examine  the  securities  of  the  Permanent 
Fund  held  by  the  Board  of  Trustees,  and  his  certificate,  showing  the  condition  of  the  said 
fund,  shall  be  attached  to  the  report  of  the  Board  of  Trustees, 


ACT  OF  INCORPORATION 

At  a  meeting  of  the  Board  of  Directors  of  the  National  Educational 
Association,  held  at  Saratoga  Springs,  N.  Y.,  July  14,  1885,  the  following 
resolution  was  passed  : 

Resolved,  That  a  committee  of  three  be  appointed  to  secure  articles  of  incorporation 
for  the  National  Educational  Association,  under  United  States  or  state  laws,  as  speedily 
as  may  be. 


ACT  OF  INCORPORATION 


N.  A.  Calkins,  of  New  York ;  Thomas  W,  Bicknell,  of  Massachusetts ; 
and  Eli  T.  Tappan,  of  Ohio,  were  appointed  such  committee. 

Under  the  authority  of  the  resolution  quoted  above,  and  with  the 
approval  of  the  committee,  and  by  competent  legal  advice,  the  chairman 
obtained  a 

CERTIFICATE  OF  INCORPORATION 

We,  the  undersigned,  Norman  A.  Calkins,  John  Eaton,  and  Zalmon  Richards,  citizens 
of  the  United  States,  and  two  of  them  citizens  of  the  District  of  Columbia,  do  hereby 
associate  ourselves  together,  pursuant  to  the  provisions  of  the  Act  of  General  Incorpora- 
tion, Class  Third,  of  the  Revised  Statutes  of  the  District  of  Columbia,  under  the  name 
of  the  "  National  Educational  Association,"  for  the  full  period  of  twenty  years,  the  pur- 
pose and  objects  of  which  are  to  elevate  the  character  and  advance  the  interests  of  the 
profession  of  teaching,  and  to  promote  the  cause  of   popular  education  in  the  United 

States To  secure  the  full  benefit  of  said  act,  we  do  here  execute  this  our  certificate 

of  incorporation  as  said  act  provides. 

In  witness  whereof  we  severally  set  our  hands  and  seals  this  24th  day  of  February, 
1886,  at  Washington,  D.  C. 

Norman  A.  Calkins.       [l.  s.] 
John  Eaton.  [l.  s.] 

Zalmon  Richards.  [l.  s.] 

Duly  acknowledged  before  Michael  P.  Callan,  notary  public  in  and  for  the  District 
of  Columbia,  and  recorded  in  Liber  No.  4,  Acts  of  Incorporation  for  the  District  of 
Columbia. 


CALENDAR  OF  MEETINGS 


NATIONAL  TEACHERS'  ASSOCIATION 


1857.— PHILADELPHIA,  PA.     (Organized.) 
James  L.  Enos,  Chairman. 
W.  E.  Sheldon,  Secretary. 

1858.— CINCINNATI,  O. 

Z.  Richards,  President. 
J.  W.  BuLKLEY,  Secretary. 
A.  J,  RiCKOFF,  Treasurer. 

1859.— WASHINGTON,  D.  C. 

A.  J.  RiCKOFF,  President. 
J.  W.  BuLKLEY,  Secretary. 
C.  S.  Pennell,  Treasurer. 

i860.— BUFFALO,  N.  V. 

J.  W.  BuLKLEY,  President. 
Z.  Richards,  Secretary. 
O.  C.  Wight,  Treasurer. 

i86i,  1862.— No  session. 


1864.— OGDENSBURG,  N.  Y. 
W.  H.Wells,  President. 
David  N.  Camp,  Secretary. 
Z.  Richards,  Treasurer. 

1865.— HARRISBURG,  PA. 

S.  S.  Greene,  President. 
W.  E.  Sheldon,  Secretary. 
Z.  Richards,  Treasurer. 

1866.— INDIANAPOLIS,  IND. 

J.  P.  Wickersham,  President. 
S.  H.  White,  Secretary. 
S.  P.  Bates,  Treasurer. 

1867. — No  session. 

1868.— NASHVILLE,  TENN. 

J.  M.  Gregory,  President. 
L.  Van  Bokkelen,  Secretary. 
James  Cruikshank,  Treasurer. 


1863.— CHICAGO,  ILL.  1869. 

John  D.  Philbrick,  President. 
James  Cruikshank,  Secretary. 
O.  C.  Wight,  Treasurer. 

1870.— CLEVELAND,  O. 

Daniel  B.  Hagar,  President. 
A.  P.  Marble,  Secretary. 
W.  E.  Crosby,  Treasurer. 


TRENTON,  N.  J. 
L.  Van  Bokkelen,  President. 
W.  E.  Crosby,  Secretary. 
A.  L.  Barber,  Treasurer, 


NAME  CHANGED  TO 
NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION 


1871.— ST.  LOUIS,  MO. 

J.  L.  Pickard,  President. 
W.  E.  Crosby,  Secretary. 
John  Hancock,  Treasurer. 

1872.— BOSTON,  MASS. 

E.  E.  White,  President. 
S.  H.  White,  Secretary. 
John  Hancock,  Treasurer. 

1873.— ELMIRA,  N.  Y. 

B.  G.  Northrop,  President. 
S.  H.  White.  Secretary. 
John  Hancock,  Treasurer. 

1874.— DETROIT,  MICH. 

S.  H.  White,  President. 
A.  P.  Marble,  Secretary. 
John  Hancock,  Treasurer. 

1875.  -MINNEAPOLIS,  MINN. 
W.  T.  Harris,  President. 
W.  R.  Abbott,  Secretary. 
A.  P.  Marble,  Treasurer. 


1876.— BALTIMORE,  MD. 

W.  F.  Phelps,  President. 
W.  D.  Henkle,  Secretary. 
A.  P.  Marble,  Treasurer. 

1877.— LOUISVILLE,  KY. 

M.  A.  Newell,  President. 
W.  D.  Henkle,  Secretary. 
J.  Ormond  Wilson,  Treasurer. 

1878. — No  session. 


1879.— PHILADELPHIA.  PA. 

John  Hancock,  President. 
W.  D.  Henkle,  Secretary. 

J.  Ormond  Wilson,  Treasurer. 

• 

1880.— CHAUTAUQUA,  N.  Y. 

J.  Ormond  Wilson,  President. 
W.  D.  Henkle,  Secretary.   * 
E.  T.  Tappan,  Treasurer. 


CALENDAR  OF  MEETINGS 


1881.— ATLANTA,  GA. 

James  H.  Smart,  President. 
W.  D.  Henkle,  Secretary. 
E.  T.  Tappan,  Treasurer. 

1882.— SARATOGA  SPRINGS,  N.  Y. 
G.  J.  Orr,  President. 
W.  E.  Sheldon,  Secretary. 
H.  S.  Tarbell,  Treasurer. 

1883.— SARATOGA  SPRINGS,  N.  Y. 

E.  T.  Tappan,  President. 
W.  E.  Sheldon,  Secretary. 
N.  A.  Calkins,  Treasurer. 

1884.— MADISON,  WIS. 

Thomas  W.  Bicknell,  President. 
H.  S.  Tarbell,  Secretary. 
N.  A.  Calkins,  Treasurer. 

1885.— SARATOGA  SPRINGS,  N.  Y. 

F.  Louis  Soldan,  President, 
W.  E.  Sheldon,  Secretary. 
N.  A.  Calkins,  Treasurer. 

1886.— TOPEKA,  KAN. 

N.  A.  Calkins,  President. 
W.  E.  Sheldon,  Secretary, 
E.  C.  Hewktt,  Treasurer, 

1887.— CHICAGO,  ILL. 

W,  E.  Sheldon,  President. 
J.  H.  Canfi^ld,  Secretary. 
E.  C.  Hewett,  Treasurer. 

t888.— SAN  FRANCISCO,  CAL. 
Aaron  Gove,  President. 
J.  H.  Canfield,  Secretary. 
E.  C.  Hewett,  Treasurer. 

1889.— NASHVILLE,  TENN. 

Albert  P.  Marble,  President, 
J.  H.  Canfield,  Secretary, 
E.  C.  Hewett,  Treasurer. 

1890.— ST.  PAUL.  MINN. 

J.  H.  Canfield,  President. 
W.  R.  Garrett,  Secretary. 
E.  C.  Hewett,  Treasurer. 


1891.— TORONTO,  ONTARIO. 

W.  R.  Garrett,  President. 

E.  H.  Cook,  Secretary. 

J.  M.  Greenwood,  Treasurer. 

1892.— SARATOGA  SPRINGS,  N.  Y. 
E.  H.  Cook,  President. 
R.  W.  Stevenson,  Secretary. 
J.  M.  Greenwood,  Treasurer. 

1893.-CHICAGO,  ILL. 

(International  Congress  of  Education.) 
Albert  G.  Lane,  President. 
Irwin  Shepard,  Secretary. 
J.  M.  Greenwood,  Treasurer. 

1894.— ASBURY  PARK,  N.  J. 

Albert  G.  Lane,  President. 
Irwin  Shepard,  Secretary. 
J.  M.  Greenwood,  Treasurer. 

1895.— DENVER,  COLO. 

Nicholas  Murray  Butler,  President. 
Irwin. Shepard,  Secretary. 
I.  C.  McNeill,  Treasurer. 

1896.— BUFFALO,  N.  Y. 

Newton  C.  Dougherty,  President. 
Irwin  Shepard,  Secretary. 
I.  C.  McNeill,  Treasurer. 

1897.— MILWAUKEE,  WIS. 

Charles  R.  Skinner,  President. 
Irwin  Shepard,  Secretary. 
I.  C.  McNeill,  Treasurer. 

1898.— WASHINGTON,  D.  C. 

J.  M.  Greenwood,  President 
Irwin  Shepard,  Secretary. 
I.  C.  McNeill,  Treasurer. 

1899.— LOS  ANGELES.  CAL. 

E.  Oram  Lyte,  President. 
Irwin  Shepard,  Secretary. 
I.  C.  McNeill,  Treasurer. 

1900.— CHARLESTON,  S.  C. 

Oscar  T.  Corson,  President. 
Irwin  Shepard,  Secretary, 
Carroll  G.  Pearse,  Treasurer, 


NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION 

OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 


OFFICERS  FOR  1899-1900 


GENERAL  ASSOCIATION 

OSCAR  T,  CORSON President Columbus,  O. 

IRWIN  SHEPARD Secretary Winona,  Minn. 

CARROLL  G.  PEARSE Treasurer Omaha,  Neb. 

VICE-PRESIDENTS 

E.  Oram  Lytk,  Millersville,  Pa.  W.  H.  Bartholomew,  Louisville,  Ky. 

J.  A.  FosHAY,  Los  Angeles,  Cal.  W.  A.  Bell,  Yellow  Springs,  O. 

H.  M.  Slauson,  Ann  Arbor,  Mich.  W.  F.  Slaton,  Atlanta,  Ga. 

E.  B.  McElroy,  Eugene,  Ore.  L.  W.  Buchholz,  Tampa,  Fla. 

J.  P.  Hendricks,  Butte,  Mont.  Mrs.  Gaston  Boyd,  Newton,  Kan. 

J.  M.  Green,  Trenton,  N.  J.  George  H.  Conley,  Boston,  Mass. 

BOARD  OF  TRUSTEES  • 

(See  Art.  IV,  sec,  q,  of  the  constitution.) 

Albert  G.  Lane Chairman Chicago,  111. 

Nicholas  Murray  Butler Secretary New  York,  N,  Y. 


J.  Ormond  Wilson Washington,  D,  C Term  expires  July,  1900 

F.  Louis  SoLDAN St.  Louis,  Mo Term  expires  July,  1901 

Nicholas  Murray  Butler New  York,  N.  Y Term  expires  July,  1902 

Albert  G.  Lane ■. . . .     Chicago,  111 Term  expires  July,  1903 

Oscar  T.  Corson Columbus,  O Ex  officio 

EXECUTIVE  COMMITTEE 
(See  Art.  IV,  sees,  2  and  it,  of  the  constitution.) 

Oscar  T.  Corson President Columbus,  O. 

E.  Oram  Lyte First  Vice-President Millersville,  Pa. 

Carroll  G.  Pearse Treasurer Oniaha,  Neb. 

Albert  G.  Lane Chairman  Board  of  Trustees  . . .  Chicago,  111. 

Wm.  T.  Harris Member  by  election Washington,  D.  C. 


Irwin  Shepard Secretary Winona,  Minn. 

BOARD  OF  DIRECTORS 

Directors  ex  officio 

(See  Art.  IV,  sec.  2,  of  the  constitution.) 
Oscar  T.  Corson,  Columbus,  O.  C.  G.  Pearse,  Omaha,  Neb. 

E.  Oram  Lyte,  Millersville,  Pa.  Albert  G.  Lane,  Chicago,  111. 

Irwin  Shepard,  Winona,  Minn. 

liife  Directors 

(See  Art.  IV,  sec.  2,  of  the  constitution.) 
BiCKNELL,  Thomas  W.,  Providence,  R.  I.  Canfield,  James  H.,  New  York,  N.  Y. 

Board  of  Education,  Nashville,  Tenn.  Cook,  E.  H.,  Yonkers,  N.  Y. 

Butler,  Nicholas  Murray,  New  York,  N.  Y.  Dougherty,  Newton  C,  Peoria,  111, 

8 


DIRECTORS 


Iiife  Directors 


Fairchild,  George  T.,  Berea,  Ky, 
Garrett,  W.  R.,  Nashville,  Tenn. 
Gove,  Aaron,  Denver,  Colo. 
Graham,  H.  A.,  Grayling,  Mich. 
Greenwood,  J.  M.,  Kansas  City,  Mo. 
Hall,  Caleb  G.,  New  Berlin,  N.  Y. 
Harris,  Wm.  T.,  Washington,  D.  C. 
Hunt,  Mary  H.,  Boston,  Mass. 
Jewett,  a.  v.,  Abilene,  Kan. 
Lane,  Albert  G.,  Chicago,  111. 
Lvte,  E.  Oram,  Millersville,  Pa. 
Marble,  Albert  P.,  New  York,  N.  Y. 
Marshall,  T.  Marcellus,  Glenville,  W.  Va. 
Parker,  Charles  I.,  South  Chicago,  III. 


—  continued 

Phelps,  W.  F.,  St.  Paul,  Minn. 
PicKARD,  Josiah  L.,  lowa  City,  la. 
Pike,  Joshua,  Jerseyville,  111. 
Richards,  Zalmon,  Washington,  D.  C. 
Sheldon,  W.  E.,  Boston,  Mass. 
Skinner,  Charles  R.,  Albany,  N.  Y. 
Smart,  James  H.,  Lafayette,  Ind. 
SoLDAN,  F.  Louis,  St.  Louis,  Mo. 
Stratton,  C.  C,  University  Park,  Ore. 
Taylor,  A.  R.,  Emporia,  Kan. 
Teachers'  Institute,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 
White,  Charles  G.,  Lake  Linden,  Mich. 
White,  E.  E.,  Columbus,  O. 
Wilson,  J.  Ormond,  Washington,  D.  C. 


Directors  by  Election 

North  Atlantic  Division 

Maine John  S.  Locke Saco 

New  Hampshire Channing  Folsom Dover 

Vermont Mason  S.  Stone Montpelier 

Massachusetts Will  S.  Monroe Westfield 

Rhode  Island George  E.  Church Providence 

Connecticut C.  N.  Kendall New  Haven 

New  York Augustus  S.  Downing New  York 

New  Jersey H.  Bkbwstbk  Willis New  Brunswick 

South  Atlantic  Division 

Penn.sylvania H.  W.  Fisher Pittsburg 

Delaware A.  H.  Berlin Wilmington 

Maryland     E.  B.  Prbttvman Baltimore 

District  of  Columbia W.  B.  Powell Washington 

Virginia E.  C.  Glass Lynchburg 

West  Virginia J.  N.  Deahl Claude 

North  Carolina E.  A.  Alderman Chapel  Hill 

South  Carolina F.  C.  Woodward Columbia 

Florida W.  N.  Sheats Tallahassee 

South  Central  Division 

Kentucky McHenry  Rhoads Frankfort 

Tennessee H.  C.  Weber Nashville 

Georgia William  M.Slaton Atlanta 

Alabama J.H.Phillips Birmingham 

Mississippi R.  B.  Fulton University 

Louisiana Warren  Easton New  Orleans 

Texas Alexander  Hogg Fort  Worth 

Oklahoma David  R.  Boyd Norman 

Arkansas J.  R.  Rightsell Little  Rock 

Indian  Territory W.  A.  Caldwell Muskogee 


North  Central  Division 

Ohio J.  A.  Shawan Columbus 

Indiana J.  W.  Carr Anderson 

Illinois J.  H.  Collins Springfield 

Michigan D.  W.  Springer Ann  Arbor 

Wisconsin L.  D.  Harvey Milwaukee 

Iowa W.  M.  Beardshear Ames 

Minnesota F.  V.  Hubbard Red  Wing 

Missouri    W.  T.  Carrington Jefferson  City 

NorthDakota  W.E.Hoover Park  River 

South  Dakota  Frank  Crane  Watertown 

Nebraska   J.  H.  Miller Lincoln 

Kansas  Frank  R.  Dyer Wichita 


NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION 


Directors  by  'EXqgWotx— continued 

Western  Division 

Montana Samuel  D.  Largent Great  Falls 

Wyoming EsTELLE  Reel Washington,  D.  C. 

Colorado L.  C.  Greenlee Denver 

New  Mexico Mrs.  E.  R.  Jackson Silver  City 

Arizona F.  A.  Cooley Tucson 

Utah F.B.Cooper Salt  Lake  City 

Nevada J.  E.  Stubbs Reno 

Idaho J.  W.  Daniels Boise 

Washington O.  C.  Whitney Tacoma 

Oregon E.  D.  Ressler Eugene 

California John  Swett Martinez 


DEPARTMENT  OFFICERS 

National  Council 

F.  LOUIS  SOLDAN President St.  Louis,  Mo. 

ELMER  E.  BROWN Vice-President Berkeley,  Cal. 

Miss  BETTIE  A.  DUTTON Secretary Cleveland,©. 

NICHOLAS  MURRAY  BUTLER....     Executive  Committee New  York,  N.  Y. 

Miss  LUCIA  STICKNEY Executive  Committee Cleveland,©. 

ELMER  E.  BROWN Executive  Committee Berkeley,  Cal. 

Kindergarten 

Mrs.  KRAUS- BOELTE President New  York,  N.  Y. 

Miss  MINNIE  MACFEAT Vice-President Rock  Hill,  S.  C. 

Miss  EVELYN  HOLMES Secretary Charleston,  S.  C. 

Slementary 

Miss  N.  CROPSEY President Indianapolis,  Ind. 

J.W.DINSMORE Vice-President Beatrice,  Neb. 

Miss  BETTIE  A.  DUTTON Secretary Cleveland,  O, 

Secondary 

E.  W.  COY President Cincinnati,©. 

G.  B.  MORRISON Vice-President Kansas  City,  Mo. 

H.  L.  BOLTWOOD Secretary Evanston,  111. 

Higher 

JEROME  H.  RAYMOND President Morgantown,  W.  Va. 

WILLIAM  F.  KING Vice-President Mt.  Vernon,  la. 

OSCAR  J.  CRAIG Secretary Missoula,  Mont. 

Normal 

JAMES  E.  RUSSELL President New  York,  N.  Y. 

Miss  N.  CROPSEY Vice-President  Indianapolis,  Ind. 

CHARLES  B.  DYKE Secretary Hampton,  Va. 

Superintendence 

A.  S.  DOWNING President New  York,  N.  Y. 

G.  R.  GLENN First  Vice-President Atlanta,  Ga. 

J.  A.  SHAWAN Second  Vice-President Columbus,©. 

C.  M.  JORDAN Secretary Minneapolis,  Minn. 

Manual 

CHARLES  H.  KEYES ...     President Hartford,  Conn. 

CHARLES  A.  BENNETT Vice-President \ Peoria,  111. 

L.  A.  BUCHANAN '. Secretary Stockton,  Cal. 

Art 

Miss  FRANCES  E.  RANSOM President New  York,  N.  Y. 

HENRY  T.  ARDLEY Vice-President Berkeley,  Cal. 

Miss  MARY  A.  WO©DMANSEE Secretary Dayton,©. 

WILLIAM  A.  M AS©N Executive  Committee Philadelphia,  Pa. 


DEPARTMENT  OFFICERS 


Music 

HERBERT  GRIGGS President Denver,  Colo. 

Mrs.  GERTRUDES.  PARSONS Vice-President Los  Angeles,  Cal. 

Mrs.  CONSTANCE  B.  SMITH Secretary Jacksonville,  111. 

Business 

CARLC.  MARSHALL President Battle  Creek,  Mich. 

M.  B.  WICKS Vice-President Philadelphia,  Pa. 

I.  O.CRISSY Secretary Albany,  N.  Y. 

W.  C.  STEVENSON Chairman  Executive  Committee Emporia,  Kan. 

Child  Study 

FREDERIC  L.  BURK President Santa  Barbara,  Cal. 

THOMAS  P.  BAILEY,  JR Vice-President Berkeley,  Cal. 

MissCELESTIA  S.  PARRISH Secretary Lynchburg,  Va. 

Physical  Training 

GEORGEW.   FITZ President Cambridge,  Mass. 

W.  O.KROHN First  Vice-President Hospital,  111. 

Miss  ELLEN  le  GARDE Second  Vice-President Providence,  R.  I. 

Miss  MABEL  PRAY Secretary Toledo,  O. 

Science 

GEORGE  MANN  RICHARDSON President Stanford  Univ.,  Cal. 

CHARLES  WILLIAM  DABNEY Vice-President Knoxville,  Tenn. 

CHARLES  B.  WILSON Secretary  and  Acting  President Westfield,  Mass. 

School  Administration 

E.  E.  BARTHELL President Nashville,  Tenn. 

THOMAS  M.  GAFNEY First  Vice-President Syracuse,  N,  Y. 

E.  F.  BRADT Second  Vice-President Ishpeming,  Mich. 

WILLIAM  GEORGE  BRUCE  .  .• Secretary.         Milwaukee,  Wis. 

CHARLES  CASSATT  DAVIS Chairman  of  Executive  Committee  ...  Los  Angeles,  Cal. 

Library 

SHERMAN  WILLIAMS President Glens  Falls,  N.  Y. 

Mrs.  HARRIET  CHILD  WADLEIGH     Vice-President Los  Angeles,  Cal. 

Miss  MARY  EILEEN  AHERN..   Secretary Chicago,  111. 

Deaf,  Blind,  etc. 

WARRING  WILKINSON President Berkeley,  Cal. 

Miss  MARY   McCOWEN V.-Pres.Subdeft.  for  the  Deaf Chicago,  111. 

EDWARD  E.  ALLEN V.-Pres.  Subdept.  for  the  Blind Overbrook,  Pa. 

Miss  MARGARET  BANCROFT V.-Pres.  Subdept.  for  Ment.  Deficient  Haddonfield,  N.  J. 

EDWARD  ALLAN  FAY Secretary Washington,  D.  C. 

Indian  education 

Major  R.  H.  PRATT President Carlisle,  Pa. 

MERRILL  E.  GATES Vice-President  .    Washington,  D.  C. 

EDGARA.ALLEN Secretary Albuquerque,  N.  M. 


NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION 

OF   THE   UNITED   STATES 


OFFICERS   FOR    1900-1901 


GENERAL    ASSOCIATION 

JAMES  M.  GREEN President Trenton,  N.  J, 

IRWIN  SHEPARD  Secretary Winona,  Minn. 

LEWIS  C.GREENLEE Treasurer Denver,  Colo. 

VICE-PRESIDENTS 

Oscar  T.  Corson,  Columbus,  O.  W.  H.  Bartholomew,  Louisville,  Ky. 

J.  A.  FosHAV,  Los  Angeles,  Cal.  O.  H.  Cooper,  Waco,  Tex. 

H.  P.  Archer,  Charleston,  S.  C.  William  M.  Davidson,  Topeka,  Kan. 

H.  B.  Brown,  Valparaiso,  Ind.  R.  B.  Fulton,  University,  Miss. 

Francis  W.  Parker,  Chicago,  111.  Gertrude  Edmund,  Lowell,  Mass. 

L.  W.  BucHHOLZ,  Tampa,  Fla.  •        H.  E.  Kratz,  Sioux  City,  la. 

BOARD  OF  TRUSTEES 
(See  Art,  IV,  sec.  q,  of  the  constitution.') 

Albert  G.  Lane Chairman Chicago,  111. 

Nicholas  Murray  Butler Secretary New  York,  N.  Y. 


F.  Louis  Soldan St.  Louis,  Mo Term  expires  July,  1901 

Nicholas  Murray  Butler New  York,  N.  Y Term  expires  July,  1902 

Albert  G.  Lane Chicago,  111 Term  expires  July,  1903 

Newton  C.  Dougherty Peoria,  III Term  expires  July,  1904 

James  M,  Green Trenton,  N.  J Ex  officio 

EXECUTIVE  COMMITTEE 
(See  A  rt.  IV,  sees.  2  and  11,  of  the  constitution^ 

James  M.  Green President Trenton,  N.  J. 

Oscar  T.  Corson First  Vice-President Columbus,  O. 

Lewis  C.  Greenlee Treasurer Denver,  Colo. 

Albert  G.  Lane Chairman  Board  of  Trustees Chicago,  111. 

Wm.  T.  Harris Member  by  election Washington,  D.  C. 


Irwin  Shepard Secretary Winona,  Minn. 

BOARD  OF  DIRECTORS 

Directors  ex  officio 

(See  Art.  IV,  sec,  s,  of  the  constitution.) 

James  M.  Green,  Trenton,  N.  J.  Lewis  C.  Greenlee,  Denver,  Colo. 

Oscar  T.  Corson,  Columbus,  O.  Albert  G.  Lane,  Chicago,  111. 

Irwin  Shepard,  Winona,  Minn. 

Life  Directors 

(See  Art.  IV,  sec,  2,  of  the  constitution.') 
Bicknell,  Thomas  W.,  Providence,  R.  I.  Canfjeld,  James  H.,  New  York,  N.  Y. 

Board  of  Education,  Nashville,  Tenn.  Cook,  E.  H.,  Yonkers,  N.  Y. 

Butler,  Nicholas  Murray,  New  York,  N,  Y,  Corson,  Oscar  T.,  Columbus,  O. 

12 


oPficeHs  6P  the  Association 


13 


Ijife  HixeotOTB  — continued 


Dougherty,  Newton  C,  Peoria,  111, 
Fairchild,  George  T.,  Berea,  Ky. 
Garrett,  W.  R.,  Nashville,  Tenn. 
Gove,  Aaron,  Denver,  Colo. 
Graham,  H.  A.,  Grayling,  Mich. 
Greenwood,  J.  M.,  Kansas  City,  Mo. 
Hall,  Caleb  G.,  New  Berlin,  N.  Y. 
Harris,  Wm.  T.,  Washington,  D.  C. 
Hunt,  Mary  H.,  Boston,  Mass. 
Jewett,  a.  v.,  Abilene,  Kan. 
Lane,  Albert  G.,  Chicago,  111. 
Lyte,  E.  Oram,  Millersville,  Pa, 
Marble,  Albert  P.,  New  York,  N,  Y. 


Marshall,  T.  Marcellus,  Glenville,  W,  Va, 
Parker,  Charles  I.,  South  Chicago,  111, 
Phelps,  W,  F.,  St.  Paul,  Minn. 
PiCKARD,  JosiAH  L.,  lowa  City,  la. 
Pike,  Joshua,  Jerseyville,  111. 
Skinner,  Charles  R.,  Albany,  N.  Y. 
SoLDAN,  F.  Louis,  St.  Louis,  Mo, 
Stratton,  C.  C,  University  Park,  Ore. 
Taylor,  A.  R.,  Emporia,  Kan. 
Teachers'  Institute,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 
White,  Charles  G.,  Lake  Linden,  Mich. 
White,  E.  E.,  Columbus,  O. 
Wilson,  J.  Ormond,  Washington,  D.  C. 


Directors  by  Election 
North  Atlantic  Division 

Maine John  S.  Locke Saco 

New  Hampshire Vacant 

Vermont John  L.  Alger Bennington 

Massachusetts Frank  A.  Fitzpatrick Boston 

Rhode  Island George  E.  Church Providence 

Connecticut Charles  H.  Keyes Hartford 

New  York A,  S,  Downing New  York 

New  Jersey H,  Brewster  Willis New  Brunswick 

Pennsylvania H.W.Fisher Pittsburg 

South  Atlantic  Division 

Delaware A.  H.  Berlin Wilmington 

Maryland M.  Bates  Stephens Baltimore 

District  of  Columbia W.  B.  Powell Washington 

Virginia George  J.  Ramsey Richmond 

West  Virginia J.  Walter  Barnes Fairmont 

North  Carolina W,  T.  Whits ett Whitsett 

South  Carolina W.  K.  Tate Charleston 

Florida Miss  Clem  Hampton Live  Oak 

South  Central  Division 

Kentucky McHenry  Rhoads Frankfort 

Tennessee M,  M,  Ross Nashville 

Georgia D.  Q.  Abbott Macon 

Alabama John  W.  Abercrombie Montgomery 

Mississippi H.  L.  Whitfield Jackson 

Louisiana Warrkn  Easton New  Orleans 

Texas J.  M.  Fendlev Galveston 

Oklahoma David  R.  Bovd Norman 

Arkansas J,  R,  Rightsell Little  Rock 

North  Central  Division 

Ohio N.  H.  Chaney Chillicothe 

Indiana T.  A.  Mott Richmond 

Illinois J.  H.  Collins Springfield 

Michigan D.  W.  Springer Ann  Arbor 

Wisconsin L.  D.  Harvey Madison 

Iowa W.  M.  Beardshear Ames 

Minnesota CM.  Jordan Minneapolis 

Missouri W.  T.  Carrington Jefferson  City 

North  Dakota W.  E.  Hoover Park  River 

South  Dakota E.E.Collins Vermillion 

Nebraska C.  G.  Pearse Omaha 

Kansas Frank  R.  Dyer Wichita 

JVestern  Division 

Montana E.  A,  Carleton Helena 

Wyoming Miss  Estelle  Reel Washington,  D.  C 

Colorado H.  S.  Phillips Denver 


14  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION 

Directors  by  Election  — fo«tf»«?rf 
Western  Division  —  continued 

New  Mexico Mrs.  E.  R.  Jackson Silver  City 

Arizona Milton  J.  Needham Algert 

Utah F.  B.  Cooper Salt  Lalce  City 

Nevada J.  E.  Stubbs Reno 

Idaho J.  C.  Black Albion 

Washington O.  C.  Whitney Tacoma 

Oregon E.  B.  McElrov Eugene 

California T.  J,  KiRK Sacramento 


DEPARTMENT  OFFICERS 

National  Council 

CHARLES  M.JORDAN President Minneapolis, Minn. 

Miss  BETTIE  A.  BUTTON Vice-President Cleveland,  O. 

J.  H.  PHILLIPS Secretary Birmingham,  Ala. 

ELMER  E.BROWN Executive  Committee Berkeley,  Cal. 

NICHOLAS  MURRAY  BUTLER Executive  Committee ; New  York,  N.  Y, 

JOSEPH  SWAIN Executive  Committee Bloomington,  Ind. 

Kindergarten 

Miss  EVELYN  HOLMES President Charleston,  S.  C. 

Miss  CAROLINE  HART Vice-President Baltimore,  Md. 

Miss  ANNIE  LAWS Secretary Cincinnati,©. 

Elementary 

J.  W.  CARR President Anderson,  Ind. 

J.C.HARRIS Vice-President Rome,  G  a. 

Mrs.  SARA  D.  JENKINS Secretary Ithaca,  N.  Y. 

Secondary 

W.  J.  S.  BRYAN President St.  Louis,  Mo. 

Miss  NETTIE  FILLMORE Vice-President Cincinnati,©. 

C.  A.  GRAESER Secretary Charleston,  S.  C. 

Higher 

CHARLES  F.  THWING President Cleveland,©. 

WILLIAM  M.  BEARDSHEAR Vice-President Ames,  la. 

WILLIAM  H.  BLACK Secretary Marshall,  Mo. 

Normal 

CHARLES  D.  McIVER President Greensboro,  N.  C. 

Z.X.  SNYDER Vice-President Greeley,  Colo. 

N.  A.  HARVEY Secretary Chicago,  111. 

Superintendence 

L.D. HARVEY President Madison,  Wis. 

A.  K.  WHITCOMB .• First  Vice-President Lowell,  Mass. 

W.  F.  SLAT©N Second  Vice-President Atlanta,  Ga. 

F.  B.  COOPER Secretary Salt  Lake  City,  Utah 

Manual 

CHARLES  A.  BENNETT President Peoria,  111. 

B.  A.  LENFEST Vice-President W^altham,  Mass. 

L.  A.  BUCHANAN Secretary. Stockton,  Cal. 

Art 

Miss  BONNIE  E.  SNOW.. President Minneapolis,  Minn. 

Miss  MYRA  JONES Vice-President Detroit,  Mich. 

FREDJ.ORR Secretary Athens,  Ga. 

Music 

A.  J.  GANTVOORT President Cincinnati,©. 

H.  W.  FAIRBANKS  . . .  , Vice-President Chicago.  III. 

H.W.  GRAY Secretary New  York,  N.  Y 


DEPARTMENT  OFFICERS  15 

Susiness 

WILLIAM  E.  DOGGETT President Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 

WILLARD  J.  WHEELER Vice-President Birmingham,  Ala. 

EDWARD  W.  STITT Secretary New  York,  N.  Y. 

Child  Study 

THOMAS  P.  BAILEY,  Jr President Berkeley,  Cal. 

Miss  MARION  BROWN Vice-President New  Orleans,  La. 

PATTERSON  WARDLAW Secretary ". Columbia,  S.  C. 

Physical  Training 

GEORGEW.  FITZ President Boston,  Mass. 

W.O.  KROHN First  Vice-President Hospital,  III. 

Miss  ELLEN  le  GARDE Second  Vice-President Providence,  R.  I. 

Miss  MABEL  PRAY Secretary Toledo,  O. 

Science 

N.A.HARVEY President Chicago,  111. 

CHARLES  B.  WILSON Vice-President Westfield.  Mass. 

CHARLES  N.  COBB Secretary Albany,  N.  Y. 

School  Administration 

W.  S.  ELLIS President Anderson,  Ind. 

ISRAEL  H.  PERES First  Vice-President Memphis,  Tenn. 

JOHNOGREN Second  Vice-President Charleston,  S.  C. 

W.  A.  HUNT Third  Vice-President Northfield,  Minn. 

WILLIAM  GEORGE  BRUCE Secretary Milwaukee,  Wis. 

Library 

ROBERT  C.  METCALF President Boston,  Mass. 

JEROME  H.  RAYMOND Vice-President Morgantown, W.  Va. 

Miss  MARY  EILEEN  AHERN Secretary Chicago,  111. 

Deaf,  Blind,  etc. 

Miss  MARY  McCOWEN President Chicago,  111, 

E.  R.  JOHNSTONE Vice-President Vineland,  N.  J. 

E.  A.  GRUVER Secretary New  York,  N.  Y. 

EDWARD  E.ALLEN Chairman  of  Executive  Committee..  ..  Overbrook,  Pa. 

Indian  Education 

H.  B.  FRISSELL President Hampton,  Va. 

Miss  ESTELLE  REEL Vice-President Washington,  D.  C. 

F.  F.AVERY Secretary Miles,  Wash. 


TREASURER'S  REPORT 


NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATIO.N 

July  i,  1899,  to  June  30,  1900 
MEETING  AT  LOS  ANGELES.  CAL. 


Carroll  G.  Pearse,  Treasurer,  in  account  with  the  National  Educational 

Association 


Dr. 

'lo  Balance  from  last  report : 

In  Union  National  Bank,  Denver,  (unavailable) $      66.19 

Cash ■ , 2,489,99 

To  Receipts: 

From  railroad  and  steamship  lines,  delayed  receipts,  Washington  meeting $    823.00 

From  railroad  receipts,  Los  Angeles  meeting: 

Gross $30,2x6.00 

Less  refunded  membership 1,277.00 

18,939.00 

From  memberships  and  enrollments  paid  Secretary  at  Los  Angeles 7,029.00 

From  Secretary's  office  during  year : 

Membership,  enrollment,  etc $  3,436.26 

Sale  of  back  volumes 1,141.50 

Sale  of  committee  reports,  etc 677,35 

S.25S-" 

From  Board  of  Trustees,  interest  on  permanent  funds 3>4S'-39 

From  meeting  of  Department  of  Superintendence,  Chicago,  February,  1900 624.00 

From  copyrights 69.95 


Bv  Expenditures: 

Of  department  meetings : 

National  Council  (971)* $      13.94 

School  Administration  (972)   25.00 

Music  (972) 35.00 

Art  Instruction  (972) 35.00 

Manual  Training  (972) 13.10 

Secondary  Education  (972) 14.50 

Business  Education  (972)  .  . .' 24,65 

Physical  Education  (972) 21,00 

Kindergarten  (972) 14,00 

Higher  Education  (972) 24.06 

Science  (972) 8.50 

Child  Study  (972)  7.28 

Normal  Schools  (972) 22.50 

Elementary  Education  (972) IQ-IS 

Library  (972) 25.00 

Deaf,  Dumb,  etc.  (972) .   33.10 

Superintendence  (1000,  1008,  1013,  1014,  1017,  1018) 201.10 

*  Denotes  number  of  trustees'  order  on  which  payment  was  made, 

16 


$    2,556.18 


36,190.45 
$38,746.63 


$      506.88 


TREASURER  '5  RE  FOR  7  i  7 


Of  state  directors  and  managers : 

Maine  (973) $       14.7S 

Massachusetts  (973) 11.56 

Rhode  Island  (973) 9.75 

Connecticut  (973) 12.50 

New  York  (973) 20.00 

New  Jersey  (973)  20.00 

Pennsylvania  (973) 20.00 

Delaware  (973) .  2.00 

District  of  Columbia  (973) 20.00 

West  Virginia  (973)   20.00 

North  Carolina  (984) 11.00 

Florida  (973) 15.00 

Georgia  (973)     20.00 

Mississippi  (973) 16.00 

Arkansas  (973) 20.00 

Ohio  (973) 20.00 

Indiana  (973) 20.00 

Illinois  (973) 20.00 

Michigan  (973) 20.00 

Wisconsin  (973) .' 20.00 

Iowa  (973) 11,00 

Minnesota  (973)   20.00 

Missouri  (973)    20,00 

North  Dakota  (973)   20,00 

South  Dakota  (973) 20.00 

Nebraska  (973) 5,50 

Kansas  (973) 18.35 

Montana  (973) 20.00 

Wyoming  (995) 20.00 

Colorado  (973) 20.00 

New  Mexico  (973) 11.00 

Arizona  (973) 20.00 

Utah  (973) 16.00 

Washington  (973)  20.00 

Oregon  (958) 18.00 

California  (973) 20.00 

Of  special  committees: 

Committee  on  College -Entrance  Requirements: 


A.  F.  Nightingale  (969)  $      32,00 

Committee  on  Necrology : 

E,  C,  Hewett  (968) 5,00 

Committee  on  Normal  Schools : 

N,  C,  Schaeffer  (970) 16.62 

Committee  on  Libraries : 

J,  C,  Dana  (945) $      65.96 

Louise  Jones  (945) 32,00 

F.  A,  Hutchins  (945)  17,00 

Sherman  Williams  (945) 2,99 

117.9s 

Of  Executive  Committee :  

0,  T.  Corson,  President : 

Traveling  (979,  986,  994,  1013,  1045) $     165.80 

Stenographer  (1045) 75.00 

Miscellaneous  office  expenses  (1045) 33  74 

E,  O,  Lyte,  President  (1898-99) :  ^    '7^-SA 

Traveling  (957)  $    113.42 

Stenographer  (957) 100.00 

E.O.  Lyte,  Vice-President:  "^•*' 

Traveling  (980,  989,  1022) 183,06 

1.  C.  McNeil,  Treasurer  (1898-99)  : 

.  Traveling  (967) $      72.95 

Stenographer  and  clerk  (967) 70,70 

Miscellaneous  oflfice  expenses  (967) n,6o 

155-25 


612.41 


1 8  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION 

C.  G.  Pearse,  Treasurer : 

Traveling  (987,  1004,  1023) $     140.10 

Premium  on  bond  (956) 5o-SO 

Miscellaneous  office  expenses  (955) 32.18 


222.78 


1,201,80 


6,520.79 


A.  G.  Lane,  chairman  Board  of  Trustees: 

Traveling  (953,985) $      9S.SS 

Miscellaneous  office  expenses  (953) 8.15 

103.70 

W.  T.  Harris,  member  of  Executive  Committee : 

Traveling  (988) 49'OS 

Of  Secretary's  office : 

Salary  (946,  983,  1007, 1031) $  4,000,00 

Stenographer  (952,  977,  981,  990,  999,  1009,  1019,  1027,  1030,  1040,  1042) 464,33 

Postage   (952,  977,  981,  990,  999,  1009,  1019,  1027,  1030,  1040,  1042) 642,76 

Telegraph  (952,  977,  981,  990,  999, 1009, 1019, 1030, 1040, 1042) 118,86 

Freight  and  express  (952,  977,  981,  loog,  1019,  1027,  1030,  1042) 55,44 

Traveling  (952,  981,  990,  999,  1009,  1017,  1019,  1027,  1042) 398,63 

Miscellaneous  office  expenses  (952,  977,981,990,  999,  1009,  1019,1027,1030, 

1040,  1042) 160,07 

Clerks  and  messengers,  Los  Angeles  (965,  966,  951) 561,55 

Filing  cabinets  (962,  950) 91,29 

Office  desk  (1015)  27.86 

For  printing  and  stationery : 

7,500  volumes  of  proceedings  (997,  1021) $5,514.98 

Committee  reports  (1002,  1020,  1041,  954) 2,096.80 

Bulletins,  programs,  etc,  (959,  960,  1029,  1038) 1,021,60 

Miscellaneous  (961,  963,  1005,  1006,  1016,  1028,  1037) 288,63 

8,922,01 

For  telegraph  (964) 32,23 

For  express  and  freight : 

Volumes  of  proceedings  (982,  991,  996,1001,  1003,  loio,  ion.  1025,  1032,  1033, 

1034,  1035,  1044) , $  2,662.43 

Committee  reports,  bulletins,  etc.  (948,  949,  1024,  1026,  1039) 80,00 

2,742.43 

Rent  depository  at  Washington  (944,  978,  998,  1026) 100.00 

Official  stenographer,  Los  Angeles  meeting  (947) 64,10 

Auditing  of  securities  in  hands  of  trustees  (993) 11.92 

J,  O,  Wilson,  services  as  custodian  (975) $      50.00 

Office  expenses  (97s) 2,15 

52-15 

Press  clippings  (1043)  11.67 

Total  expenditures $20,949.96 

Excess  of  receipts  over  expenditures 17,796,67 

$38,746,63 


Summary 

Excess  of  receipts  over  expenditures ■     $17,796.67 

Transferred  to  Board  of  Trustees  for  permanent  investment  (974,  992,  1036) $14,000,00 

In  Union  National  Bank,  Denver,  (unavailable) $       66.19 

Cash  on  hand 3,730,48 

3,796.67 


$17,796.67 


Charleston,  S,  C,  July  9,  1900, 
The  undersigned  trustees  of  the  National  Educational  Association  have  this  day  examined  and  approved 
the  foregoing  accounts  of  Mr,  C.  G,  Pearse,  the  Treasurer,  with  all  statements  of  receipts  and  vouchers  for 
expenditures. 


Albert  G,  Lane,  Chairman, 
(Signed)   \   Oscar  T,  Corson, 

OCHOLAS   MyRRAY   BuTLEI^ 


(   Al 
I   Os 

(  Ni' 


FOURTEENTH  ANNUAL  REPORT  OF  THE 
BOARD  OF  TRUSTEES 


To  the  Board  of  Directors  of  the  National  Educational  Association: 

The  Board  of  Trustees  presents  the  following  report  of  the  Permanent  Fund  of  the  National  Educational 
Association,  and  its  income,  for  the  year  ending  June  30,  igoo: 

Permanent  Fund,  July  i,  1899: 

Mortgages  on  real  estate $21,000.00 

Kansas  school  and  municipal  bonds     27,000,00 

Illinois,  Indiana,  and  Missouri  school  bonds 19,500.00 

Cash  on  hand  for  investment 6,500.00 


Cash  received  from  C.  G.  Pearse,  Treasurer,  transferred  to  Permanent  Fund  from 
proceeds  of  Los  Angeles  meeting  and  from  income  of  Permanent  Fund 

Total  in  Permanent  Fund  July  i,  1900 


$74,000.00 


In  the  following  items : 

Mortgages  on  real  estate $45,500.00 

Kansas  school  and  municipal  bonds 18,890.00 

Illinois,  Indiana,  and  Missouri  school  bonds 18,500.00 


Total $82,890.00 

Cash  on  hand  for  investment 5,110.00 

Total $88,000.00 

INVESTMENTS 
Investment  July  i,  1899 $67,500.00 

Bonds  paid  during  the  year : 

AVhite  township,  Kingman  county,  Kan $  7,000.00 

Washington  county,  Kan.,  S.  D.  136 500.00 

Greenwood  county,  Kan.,  S.  D.  2 200.00 

Osborne  county,  Kan.,  S.  D.  52 310.00 

Eudora  City,  Kan.,  Bond  No.  8 100.00 

DeKalb,  III.,  Bond  No.  i 1,000.00 

9,110.00 

,  ,     .       ,  ,  V  $58,390.00 

Investments  durmg  the  year — real-estate  mortgages: 

First  mortgage,  5603  Madison  avenue,  Chicago 5,000.00 

First  mortgage.  First  Universalist  Church,  Englewood,  Chicago     .    10,000.00 

First  mortgage,  4762  Lake  avenue,  Chicago 5,000.00 

First  mortgage,  4802  Lake  avenue,  Chicago 4,500.00 

Total  investment  July  i,  1900 $82,890.00 

INCOME  STATEMENT 

KBCEIFTS 

Receipts  from  interest $  3,474.12 

DISBURSEMENTS 

Paid  exchange  for  coupon  collections $         3.51 

Paid  express  charges  on  bonds 6.82 

Paid  rent  of  box.  Merchants'  Safe  Deposit  Co.,  Chicago xo.00 

Paid  expense  on  loans 2.40 

Total $       22.73 

Paid  C.  J.  Pearse,  Treasurer 3,451*39 

Total $3,474.13 

19 


NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION 


STATEMENT  OF  SECURITIES  AND  BONDS  BELONGING  TO  THE  PERMANENT  FUND  OF 
THE  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION,  JULY  i,  1900 

KANSAS    SCHOOL  BONDS 


County 

Number 
school 
district 

Amount 

Rate  of 
interest 
per  cent. 

Interest  payable 

Bond  due 

66 
143 
24 
41 
70 
95 
51 
129 

$   330 
360 
800 

200 
500 
200 
1,000 
300 

$3,690 

6 
6 
6 
6 
6 
6 
6 
6 

Jan.  and  July 

July,       1900 
]iuly  I,  1900 
Jan.,       1910 
July,       1905 
July,       1903 
July,       1902 
July,       1902 
Jan.,       1902 

Garfield* 

Ness 

KANSAS   COUNTY   AND   MUNICIPAL   BONDS 


County 

Kind  of  bond 

Bond 

Nos. 

Amount 

Interest 
per  cent. 

Interest  payable 

Bond  due 

Cloud 

City  of  Concordia,    In- 
vested on  Sept.  24, 189s 
Eudora  City 

County 
County 
County 
City  of  Marion 
Sharp's  Creek  Tp,     In- 
vested Dec.  12, 1895 
Caney  township 
City  South  Hutchinson 
With  Bentley  &  Hat- 
field, Wichita,  Kan. 

35  to  40 
9  to  20 

47,48 

I 
II  to  13 

I 

I 

I.     2 
I>     2 

$3,000 

I,200 

2,000 
1,000 
3,000 
1,000 

1,000 
1,000 
1,000 

1,000 

6 
6 

6 
6 
6 
5Ji 

6 
6 
7 

Jan.  and  July 
March 

Jan.  and  July 
Jan.  and  ,fuly 
Jan.  and  July 
Mar,  and  Sept. 

Jan.  and  July 
April  and  Oct. 
Feb.  and  Aug. 

Judgm't  obtain'd 

Douglass 

Grant* 

July  I,  1918 
One  due  each 

year  March  i 
February,  1920 
July  I,  1918 
July  I,  1918 
March  i,  1900 

Sept.   I,  1916 
Oct.     I,    1916 
April,  1908 

Hodgeman 

Lane* 

Marion* 

McPherson 

Montgomery 

Reno* 

Seward* 

$15,200 

ILLINOIS,    INDIANA,   AND   MISSOURI   SCHOOL   BONDS 


County 


Jackson,  Kansas  City,  Mo 

Noblesville,  Ind 

DeKalb,  111 

Cook,  village  of  Morgan  Park,  III 

Lemont,  111.,  School  Nos.  4,  6,  8,  12,  14, 16, 
18,  20,  22,  24,  30,  32  

REAL    ESTATE 

Providence  real  estate,  first  mortgage 

First  mortgage,  1919  Wabash  ave.,  Chicago. . 
First  mortgage,  5136  Hibbard  ave.,  Chicago. 
First  mortgage,  428  W.  Adams  st.,  Chicago. 
First  mortgage  5605  Madison  ave.,  Chicago. 
First  mortgage,    First  Universalist  Church, 

Chicago 

First  mortgage,  4762  Lake  ave.,  Chicago.  . . . 
First  mortgage,  4802  Lake  ave.,  Chicago. . . . 

Total 


$  2,000 
S.ooo 
2,000 
3,500 

6,000 
$18,500 


$  3,000 
5,000 
5, 000 
8,000 
5,000 

10,000 
5, 000 
4,500 

$45,500 


Interest 
per  cent. 


Interest   payable 


January  and  July 
January  and  July 

April   I 
March  and  Sept. 

June  and  Dec. 


May  and  Nov.  i 
May  and  Nov.  i 
March  and  Sept.  15 
July  and  January 

October  and  April 
March  and  Sept. 
March  and  Sept. 


Bond  due 


July  I,  1901 
July  I,  1912 
April  I,  1902 
September,  1905 

Issue  $16,000, 
$1,000  due  each 
year,  Dec.  i 


May  I,  1903 
Nov.  1, 1903  , 
March  15,  1904 
July  I,  1905 

October,  1905 
March,  1905 
March,  1905 


Respectfully  submitted, 

(  Albert  G.  Lane,  Chairman, 
I   Nicholas  Mukrav  Butler, 
ic-       A\   J   Oscar  T.  Corson, 
(Signed)  ■<^    p  Lo^jjg  Soldan, 

I   J.  Ormond  Wilson, 
V  Trustees. 

The  foregoing  securities  were  examined  at  the  Merchants'  Safety  Deposit  Vaults,  Chicago,  June  29^ 
1900,  and  I  certify  that  the  above  is  a  correct  statement  of  the  investments  belonging  to  the  Permanent  Fund 
of  the  National  Educational  Association  in  the  custody  of  A.  G.  Lane,  chairman  of  the  Board  of  Trustees. 

(Signed)        George  P.  Brown. 
*Interest  or  principal  in  default. 


JOURNAL  OF  PROCEEDINGS 

OF   THE 

THIRTY-NINTH  ANNUAL  MEETING 

OF   THE 

NATIONAL  EDUCATIONALASSOCIATION 

CHARLESTON,  S.  C,  JULY  10-13,  1900 


FIRST  DAY'S  PROCEEDINGS 

OPENING  SESSION.— Tuesday,  July  10,  3:30  p.  m. 

The  association  met  in  Thomson  Auditorium,  and  was  called  to  order  by  W.  H, 
Welch,  Esq.,  chairman  of  the  Local  Executive  Committee  of  Charleston. 

Prayer  was  offered  by  Rev.  A.  Toomer  Porter,  D.D.,  rector  of  Porter  Military  Acad- 
emy, Charleston,  S.  C. 

Music  by  the  First  United  States  Artillery  band,  under  the  leadership  of  Professor 
Gustav  Koitzsch. 

Addresses  of  welcome  were  made  by  Hon.  Miles  B.  McSweeney,  governor  of  South 
Carolina,  on  behalf  of  the  state  ;  Hon.  J.  B.  McMahan,  state  superintendent  of  public 
instruction,  on  behalf  of  the  educational  interests  of  the  state ;  Hon.  J.  Adger  Smyth, 
mayor  of  Charleston,  on  behalf  of  the  city  of  Charleston  ;  and  Henry  P.  Archer,  superin- 
tendent of  city  schools,  on  behalf  of  the  educational  interests  of  the  city. 

The  conduct  of  the  meeting  was  then  transferred  by  the  chairman  of  the  Local 
Executive  Committee  to  Hon.  Oscar  T.  Corson,  President  of  the  National  Educational 
Association. 

Responses  to  the  addresses  of  welcome  were  made  by  Dr.  Eliphalet  Oram  Lyte,  prin- 
cipal of  the  First  Pennsylvania  State  Normal  School,  Millersville,  Pa.;  J.  W.  Carr,  super- 
intendent of  city  schools,  Anderson,  Ind.;  and  James  A.  Foshay,  superintendent  of  city 
schools,  Los  Angeles,  Cal. 

Music  by  the  First  United  States  Artillery  band. 

President  Oscar  T.  Corson  then  delivered  the  annual  presidential  address. 

The  President  then  announced  the  following  Committee  on  Resolutions : 
Nicholas  Murray  Butler,  New  York,  chairman. 
EUlwin  A.  Alderman,  Louisiana,  James  A.  Foshay,  California. 

Charles  D.  Mclver,  North  Carolina  James  H.  Van  Sickle,  Maryland. 

William  B.  Powell,  District  of  Columbia.  William  R.  Harper,  Illinois. 

Alfred  Bayliss,  Illinois.  Charles  F.  Thwing,  Ohio. 

The  Secretary  read  the  following  announcement : 

"  I  am  instructed  by  the  Board  of  Directors  to  give  notice  of  proposed  amendments 
to  Art.  Ill  of  the  constitution,  concerning  membership,  to  the  effect — 

"  First,  that  active  members  only  shall  have  the  right  to  vote  in  the  general  associa- 
tion and  in  the  several  departments. 

"  Second,  that  active  membership  dues  shall  be  payable  at  the  time  of  the  annual 
meeting,  or  subsequently  before  September  i  of  each  year,  and  that  notice  of  discontinu- 
ance shall  be  given  before  September  i  to  be  effective  for  that  year," 

Adjourned. 

21 


NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION 


SECOND  SESSION.— Tuesday,  July  io,  8  :3o  p.  m. 

The  meeting  was  called  to  order  in  Thomson  Auditorium  by  President  Corson. 

Music  by  the  First  United  States  Artillery  band. 

The  topic  of  the  evening,  "  The  Small  College,"  was  presented  by  President  W.  O. 
Thompson  of  the  Ohio  State  University,  who  spoke  on  "  Its  Work  in  the  Past,"  and  by 
President  W.  R.  Harper  of  the  University  of  Chicago,  who  spoke  on  "  Its  Prospects." 

The  meeting  then  adjourned. 


SECOND  DAY'S  PROCEEDINGS 

THIRD  SESSION.— Wednesday,  July  ii,  io  a.  m. 

The  association  was  called  to  order  in  Thomson  Auditorium,  President  Corson  in  the 
chair. 

Prayer  was  offered  by  Rev.  D.  M.  Ramsey,  D.D.,  pastor  of  Citadel  Square  Baptist 
Church  of  Charleston. 

Music  by  the  P"irst  United  States  Artillery  band. 

The  topic  for  the  morning  discussion  was  "  The  Contributions  of  Religious  Organi- 
zations to  the  Cause  of  Education."  Papers  were  presented  by  President  Oscar  H. 
Cooper  of  Baylor  University,  Waco,  Tex.,  on  "Contributions  by  the  Baptist  Church," 
and  by  Dr.  Conde  B.  Pallen,  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  on  "  Contributions  by  the  Catholic  Church." 

The  following  Committee  on  Necrology  was  appointed  : 

E.  E.  White,  of  Ohio,  chairman, 
Aaron  Gove,  of  Colorado.  R.  C.  Metcalf ,  of  Massachusetts. 

E.  Oram  Lyte,  of  Pennsylvania.  Alexander  Hogg,  of  Texas. 

The  Committee  on  Nominations,  appointed  by  the  President  in  accordance  with  sec. 
I  of  the  By-Laws,  was  announced  as  follows : 

COMMITTEE  ON  NOMINATIONS 

John  R.  Kirk,  of  Missouri,  chairman. 
North  Atlantic  Division 

Maine  John  S.  Locke        Rhode  Island T.  B.  Stockwell 

New  Hampshire Vacant        Connecticut F.  E.  Howard 

Vermont Mason  S.  Stone        New  York A.  S.  Downing 

Massachusetts Gertrude  Edmund        New  Jersey J.  L.  Hays 

South  Atlantic  Division 

Pennsylvania J.  W.  Lansinger        West  Virginia J.  Walter  Barnes 

Delaware A.  H.  Berlin        North  Carolina Charles  B.  Mclver 

Maryland E.  B.  Prettyman        South  Carolina ....  Henry  P.  Archer 

District  of  Columbia W.  B.  Powell        Florida J.  L.  Hollingsworth 

Virginia Wm.  F.  Fox 

South  Central  Division 

Kentucky W.  H.  Bartholomew        Louisiana Miss  Marion  Brown 

Tennessee M.  M.  Ross        Texas Alexander  Hogg 

Georgia M.  L.  Brittain        Oklahoma David  R.  Boyd 

Alabama J.  H.  Phillips        Arkansas J.  R.  Rightsell 

Mississippi John  C.  Fant 

North  Central  Division 

Ohio ' John  A.  Heizer        Minnesota Charles  M.  Jordan 

Indiana  Joseph  Swain        Missouri John  R.  Kirk 

Illinois Alfred  Bayliss        North  Dakota J.  G.  Halland 

Michigan William  Lightbody        South  Dakota W.  D.  Anderson 

Wisconsin Miss  Mae  E.  Schreiber        Nebraska A.  H.  Waterhouse 

Iowa Richard  C.  Barrett        Kansas William  B.  Davidson 


JOURNAL  OF  PROCEEDINGS  23 

COMMITTEE  ON  NOMINATIONS  — <r<»«//«»^rf 
Western  Division 

Montana S.  D.  Largent        Nevada T.B.Brown 

Wyoming Miss  Estelle  Reel        Idaho Miss  Doris  McMaster 

Colorado Aaron  Gove        Washington R,  S.  Bingham 

New  Mexico Hiram  Hadley        Oregon E.  B.  McElroy 

Arizona M.  J.  Needham        California J.  H.  Francis 

Utah Frank  B.  Cooper 

The  meeting  then  adjourned. 

FOURTH  SESSION.— Wednesday,  July  ii,  8 :  30  p.  m. 

The  meeting  was  called  to  order  by  President  Corson. 

Music  by  the  First  United  States  Artillery  band. 

An  address  on  "  The  State  University,"  by  President  Joseph  Swain  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Indiana,  was  followed  by  an  address  by  Booker  T.  Washington,  president  of 
the  Normal  and  Industrial  Institute,  Tuskegee,  Ala. 

Adjourned. 

THIRD  DAY'S  PROCEEDINGS 

FIFTH  SESSION.— Thursday,  July  12,  10  a.  m. 

The  association  met  in  Thomson  Auditorium,  President  Corson  in  the  chair. 

Prayer  was  offered  by  Rev.  E.  O.  Watson,  pastor  of  Bethel  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church  of  Charleston. 

Music  by  the  First  United  States  Artillery  band. 

The  topic  of  the  morning  was  "  The  Problem  of  the  Grades." 

"  The  Problem  of  Discipline  "  was  discussed  by  Miss  Gertrude  Edmund,  principal 
of  the  Teachers'  Training  School,  Lowell,  Mass. 

"The  Problem  of  Classification  and  Promotion "  was  presented  by  Miss  Elizabeth 
Buchanan,  Kansas  City,  Mo. 

"  The  Problem  of  Instruction "  was  presented  by  Mrs.  Alice  Woodworth  Cooley, 
supervisor  of  primary  grades,  Minneapolis,  Minn. 

Dr.  Emerson  E.  White,  chairman  of  the  Committee  on  Necrology,  submitted  the  fol- 
lowing report  of  the  committee  : 

REPORT  OF  COMMITTEE  ON  NECROLOGY 

Your  Committee  on  Necrology,  appointed  on  Wednesday,  finds  it  not  possible  to  obtain  the  necessary 
information  for  the  preparation  of  its  report  in  time  for  submission  at  this  meeting  of  the  association.  We 
therefore  ask  for  permission  to  present  a  report,  when  prepared,  to  the  Secretary  for  insertion  in  the  volume 
of  proceedings. 

It  has  received  from  the  Secretary  the  names  of  the  following  ez-ofiicers  and  active  members  of  the  asso- 
ciation who  have  departed  this  life  since  our  last  annual  meeting : 

Zalmon  Richards,  District  of  Columbia.  Louis  H.  Galbreath,  New  York. 

James  H.  Smart,  Indiana.  Elias  J.  Beardsley,  New  York. 

William  E.  Sheldon,  Massachusetts.  Frederick  H.  Lane,  New  York. 

Henry  Barnard,  Connecticut.  Christine  Gordon  Sullivan,  Ohio. 

Larkin  Dunton,  Massachusetts.  W.  H.  Morgan,  Ohio. 

Emanuel  R.  Boyer,  Illinois.  John  T.  Flavin,  Wisconsin. 

Edwin  H.  Owen,  Illinois.  Frank  Ostrander,  Wisconsin. 

H.  R.  Blaisdell,  Kentucky.  Miss  A.  N.  Miller.  Colorado. 

John  Russell  Olin,  Massachusetts.  William  H.  Shelley,  Maryland. 

S.  S.  Parr,  Minnesota.  Charles  M.  Davis,  New  Jersey. 

A.  E.  Engstrom,  Minnesota.  S.  Olin  Garrison,  New  Jersey. 

Miss  M.  J.  B.  Thomas,  New  Jersey.  John  Braden,  Tennessee. 

The  committee  will  be  greatly  obliged  if  those  who  can  supply  needed  data  for  an  appropriate  minute  of 
any  of  the  deceased  named  will  communicate  the  same  to  the  chairman  of  the  committee  at  an  early  day. 

Respectfully  submitted, 

Emerson  E.  Whitb. 
£.  Oram  Lvte. 
Aakon  Gove. 
R.  C.  Metcalf. 
Alkx.  Hoec. 


2  4  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION 

Dr.  White  then  spoke  as  follows : 

"  It  seems  fitting  that  we  pause  in  our  proceedings  long  enough  to  place  at  least  a 
few  flowers  on  these  fresh  graves.  The  committee's  report  contains  the  names  of  three 
ex-Presidents  of  the  association,  and  also  the  names  of  several  other  deceased  members, 
who  contributed  much  to  the  success  of  the  association  in  its  earlier  history.  Their  work 
is  done,  and  the  places  that  once  knew  them  will  know  them  no  more. 

"Zalmon  Richards  was  the  first  President  of  this  association,  and  for  near  forty 
years  he  was  a  faithful  attendant  upon  its  meetings.  It  is  believed  that  Mr.  Richards 
attended  more  meetings  of  the  association,  and,  to  do  this,  traveled  more  miles,  and  at 
greater  expense,  than  any  other  member.  He  always  took  a  deep  interest  in  the  work  of 
the  association,  frequently  participated  in  its  proceedings,  and  held  various  important 
offices,  which  he  filled  with  marked  fidelity  and  ability.  For  years  past  he  has  been 
looked  up  to  and  honored  as  one  of  the  fathers  of  the  association. 

"  William  E.  Sheldon  was  the  first  Secretary  of  the  association,  and,  like  Dr.  Richards, 
he  was  a  most  faithful  member  for  near  forty  years.  He  presided  at  the  great  meeting 
in  Chicago  in  1887,  the  largest  meeting  then  held,  and  outnumbered  by  few  meetings 
since.  His  organization  and  conduct  of  this  meeting  put  Mr.  Sheldon  among  the  most 
successful  Presidents  in  the  history  of  the  association.  Mr.  Sheldon  filled  the  office  of 
Secretary  several  years  at  different  times,  and  always  with  marked  ability.  He  was  called 
to  various  other  positions,  which  he  filled  most  acceptably.  No  face  or  voice  was  more 
familiar  in  the  association  than  his.  We  missed  him  at  Milwaukee,  and  were  pained  to 
learn  that  he  was  ill,  but  all  rejoiced  to  see  him  again  at  Washington,  showing  his  old- 
time  vigor  and  activity.  This  was  his  last  meeting,  and  we  sadly  miss  him  from  his 
accustomed  place. 

"  Dr.  Henry  Barnard  was  never  an  officer  of  the  association,  but  he  took  a  lively 
interest  in  its  success  in  all  its  history,  and  especially  in  its  early  history  —  the  years  of 
struggle  and  promise.  Dr.  Barnard  was  in  a  large  sense  the  organizer  of  public  educa- 
tion in  several  states,  notably  in  Connecticut  and  Rhode  Island.  He  was  the  forerunner, 
and  later  colleague,  of  Horace  Mann  in  what  has  been  called  the  'common-school 
revival  in  New  England.'  He  was  not  only  among  the  earliest,  but  the  ablest  advocates 
of  common  schools,  and  in  his  later  years  he  carried  in  his  memory  the  history  of 
common-school  progress  in  the  United  States.  He  was  a  part  of  that  history.  Dr.  Bar- 
nard, as  well  as  Horace  Mann,  anticipated  by  many  years  the  more  important  features  of 
what  is  now  called  the  'new  education.'  His  great  work  on  the  kindergarten  preceded 
the  practical  recognition  of  kindergarten  training  in  the  United  States.  Dr.  Barnard  was 
the  first  United  States  Commissioner  of  Education. 

"  Time  forbids  even  the  briefest  reference  to  other  distinguished  members  of  the 
association  who  have  departed  this  life  since  our  last  annual  meeting.  It  is  hoped  that 
the  volume  of  proceedings  may  contain  fitting  tributes  to  their  memory. 

"We  thus  must  take  our  leave  of  the  dear  colleagues  with  whom  we  have  been  so 
closely  associated  in  the  years  that  are  passed.  They  have  passed  out  of  sight  and  into 
silence,  but  at  each  recurring  annual  meeting  memory  will  bring  back  their  forms,  and 
we  shall  hear  again  their  voices.  As  we  stand  for  the  moment  by  their  fresh  graves,  our 
prayer  is  that  our  memory  of  them  may  long  be  green," 

The  meeting  then  adjourned. 

MINUTES  OF  THE  ANNUAL  BUSINESS    MEETING  OF  THE  ACTIVE  MEM- 
BERS OF  THE  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION 

THOMSON    AUDITORIUM,    THURSDAY,   JULY    I3 

The  annual  meeting  of  active  members  was  called  to  order  by  President  Corson  at  12  M. 

The  first  order  of  business  was  the  presentation  of  the  annual  report  of  the  Treasurer, 

C.  G.  Pearse,  of  Omaha,  following  which  the  annual  report  of  the  Board  of  Trustees  was 


JOURNAL  OF  PROCEEDINGS  25 

read  by  Chairman  A.  G.  Lane,  of  Chicago.  Both  of  these  reports  had  been  printed  and 
distributed  to  the  members.     A  few  explanations  were  called  for  and  were  duly  made. 

Attention  was  called  to  the  fact  that  both  reports  had  been  carefully  examined  by 
the  Board  of  Directors,  and  had  been  adopted  by  that  body  without  dissent. 

On  motion,  each  report  was  adopted  and  ordered  printed  in  the  annual  volume  of 
proceedings,  and  a  vote  of  thanks  tendered  the  Treasurer  and  the  chairman  of  trustees 
for  their  efficient  services,  and  for  the  complete  and  satisfactory  financial  reports  pre- 
sented. 

The  report  of  the  Committee  on  Nominations  was  read  by  the  chairman,  John  R. 
Kirk,  of  Missouri,  with  the  introductory  statement  that  the  nominating  committee  under- 
stood it  to  be  the  policy  of  the  association,  since  the  election  of  a  permanent  Secretary, 
to  make  the  Treasurer's  office  an  honorary  office  to  be  held  for  one  year  only,  as  in  the 
case  of  the  office  of  President. 

Explanation  was  made  that  Miss  Estelle  Reel,  of  Wyoming,  had  been  nominated  as 
the  thirteenth  vice-president,  but  as  the  constitution  provides  for  only  twelve  vice-presi- 
dents, the  nomination  was  necessarily  withdrawn. 

REPORT  OF  THE  COMMITTEE  ON  NOMINATIONS 

Charleston,  S.  C,  July  12,  1900. 
To  the  Members  of  the  National  Educational  Association: 

Your  Committee  on  Nominations  respectfully  reports  and  recommends  the  following  nominees  to  fill  the 
offices  of  the  National  Educational  Association  for  the  ensuing  year  : 

NOMINATIONS 

President    ..       J.M.Green New  Jersey 

Treasurer L.  C.  Greenlee Colorado 

First  Vice-President    • O.  T.  Corson Ohio 

Second  Vice-President J.  A.  Foshay California 

Third  Vice-President H.  P.  Archer South  Carolina 

Fourth  Vice-President H.  B.  Brown Indiana 

Fifth  Vice-President Francis  W.  Parker Illinois 

Sixh  Vice-President L.  W.  Buchholz Florida 

Seventh  Vice-President W.  H.  Bartholomew Kentucky 

Ei{;hth  Vice-Pressdent O.  H.  Cooper Texas 

Ninth  Vice-President William  M.  Davidson Kansas 

Tenth  Vice-President R.  B.  Fulton Mississippi 

Eleventh  Vice-President Gertrude  EDMimo Massachusetts 

Twelfth  Vice-President H.  E.  Kratz Iowa 

DIRECTORS 

North  Atlantic  Division 

Maine John  S.  Locke        Connecticut Charles  H.  Keyes 

,  New  Hampshire Vacant        New  York A.  S.  Downing 

Vermont Vacant        New  Jersey H.  Brewster  Willis 

Massachusetts Frank  Fitzpatrick        Pennsylvania H.  W.  Fisher 

Rhode  Island Vacant 

South  Atlantic  Division 

Delaware Vacant        West  Virginia J.  Walter  Barnes 

Maryland M.  Bates  Stephens        North  Carolina W.  T.  Whifsett 

District  of  Columbia W.  B.Powell        South  Carolina W.  K.  Tate 

Virginia George  J.  Ramsey        Florida Miss  Clem  Hampton 

South    Central  Division 

Kentucky McHenry  Rhoads        Louisiana Warren  Easton 

Tennessee M.  M.  Ross        Texas J.  M,  Fendley 

Georgia D.Q.Abbott        Oklahoma D.  R.  Boyd 

Alabama John  W.  Abercrombie        Arkansas J.  R.  Rightsell 

Mississippi H.  L.  Whitfield        Indian  Territory J.D.Benedict 


26  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION 

North  Central  Division 

Ohio N.  H.  Chaney  Minnesota C.  M.  Jordan 

Indiana T.  A.  Mott  Missouri W.  T.  Carrington 

Illinois J.  H.  Collins  North  Dakota Vacant 

Michigan D.  W.  Springer  South  Dakota E.E.Collins 

Wisconsin L.  D.  Harvey  Nebraska C.  G.  Pearse 

Iowa W.  M.  Beardshear  Kansas ...     F.  R.  Dyer 

Western  Division 

Montana E.  A.  Carleton        Nevada Vacant 

Wyoming Estelle  Reel        Idaho J.  C.  Black 

Colorado ...  H.  S.Phillips        Washington O.  C.Whitney 

New  Mexico. Mrs.  E.  R.  Jackson        Oregon E.  B.  McElroy 

Arizona M.  J.  Needham        California T.  J.  Kirk 

Utah F.  B.  Cooper 

On  motion,  it  was  agreed  to  recommend  that  vacancies  left  in  the  Directory  by  this  committee  should  be 
filled  by  the  Executive  Committee  of  the  National  Educational  Association. 

Respectfully  submitted, 

John  R,  Kirk,  Chairman, 
J.  H.  Phillips,  Secretary, 

Carroll  G.  Pearse,  of  Omaha,  moved  that  the  rules  be  suspended  and  the  Secretary 
instructed  to  cast  the  ballot  of  the  association  for  the  nominees  presented.  The  motion 
being  duly  seconded  and  unanimously  carried,  the  Secretary  cast  the  ballot  as  directed, 
and  the  nominees  were  declared  elected. 

President-elect  Green  was  escorted  to  the  platform  by  ex-Presidents  Lane  and  Lyte, 
and  briefly  thanked  the  members  of  the  association  for  the  confidence  shown  in  electing 
him  to  the  high  and  honorable  office  of  President  of  the  National  Educational  Associa- 
tion. 

The  Secretary  reported  a  communication  from  the  Board  of  Directors  recommending 
that  certain  amendments  to  the  constitution  be  made,  as  follows  : 

In  Art.  Ill,  sec.  3,  to  be  added  to  the  first  paragraph  the  following : 

Active  members  only  have  the  right  to  vote  and  to  hold  office  in  the  general  association  or  in  the  several 
departments. 

In  the  second  paragraph,  the  second  sentence  to  be  amended  to  read  : 

The  annual  (active)  membership  fee  shall  be  payable  at  the  time  of  the  annual  convention  or  by  remit- 
tance to  the  Secretary  before  September  i  of  each  year.  Any  active  member  may  discontinue  membership  by 
giving  written  notice  to  the  Secretary  before  September  i,  and  may  restore  the  same  only  on  payment  of  the 
enrollment  fee  and  the  annual  dues  for  the  current  year. 

President  Corson  :  What  is  the  pleasure  of  the  association  with  respect  to  the 
amendments  to  the  constitution  proposed  and  recommended  by  the  Board  of  Directors  ? 

A  motion  was  made  and  duly  seconded  that  the  amendments  be  adopted. 

Dr.  E.  E.  White,  of  Ohio :  I  hesitate  to  say  a  word  in  opposition  to  the  recom- 
mendation of  the  Board  of  Directors.  We  may  play  a  little  fast  and  loose  with  constitu- 
tional provisions  that  refer  simply  to  detail,  but  when  we  come  to  amendments  that 
involve  the  fundamental  rights  of  members,  we  must  regard  and  follow  strictly  the  terms 
of  the  constitution  respecting  its  amendment.  There  is  nothing  clearer  than  that  no 
changes  can  be  made  in  the  constitution  except  in  the  manner  provided  by  the  constitu- 
tion itself.  Now,  under  our  present  constitution  —  and  I  have  had  occasion  to  study  it 
carefully  recently — the  active  members  have  not  the  authority  to  change  the  constitution. 
No  amendment  can  be  made  in  the  constitution  except  by  vote  of  "  the  members  of  the 
association,"  active  and  associate,  at  a  regular  meeting  ;  and  no  amendment  can  be  made 
at  a  meeting  without  notice  at  a  previous  meeting,  except  by  unanimous  vote.  Now,  it  is 
clear  that  if  amendments  to  the  constitution  are  to  be  made  by  the  members  of  the  associa- 
tion, then  such  amendments  cannot  be  made  at  a  meeting  of  the  active  members  called 
for  business.     This  can  only  be  done  at  a  meeting  of  the  association.     And  then,  further, 


JOURNAL  OF  PROCEEDINGS  2? 

note  the  infelicity  of  active  members  assuming  the  right  of  disfranchising  all  the  other 
members  of  the  association.  As  I  see  it,  that  question  must  be  submitted  to  the  member- 
ship of  the  association,  and  my  suggestion  is  that  these  amendments  be  postponed  one 
year,  and  that  they  then  be  referred  to  the  general  association  at  a  regular  meeting. 
Prior  to  1897  all  amendments  to  the  constitution  were  made  by  the  general  association, 
and  I  think  this  is  the  proper  course  to  take. 

A.  H.  Nelson,  of  Chicago,  111.:  Mr.  President,  I  am  in  favor  of  the  motion  that  the 
proposed  amendment  be  adopted.  As  1  understand  the  matter.  Dr.  White  is  in  error  with 
respect  to  the  right  of  associate  members  as  well  as  active  members  to  act  on  matters  of 
this  kind.  Associate  members  in  no  organization  with  which  I  am  acquainted  have  a 
right  to  act  upon  so  vital  a  question  as  amendment  of  the  constitution.  Unless  it  is  spe- 
cifically provided  in  the  constitution  of  this  organization  that  associate  as  well  as  active 
members  shall  vote  upon  such  questions  as  this,  I  believe  that  this  body  of  active  mem- 
bers has  rightfully  the  authority  and  power  to  amend  the  constitution  in  accordance  with 
the  recommendations  of  the  Board  of  Directors. 

Upon  request  the  Secretary  read  the  provision  of  the  constitution  as  to  amendments, 
as  follows : 

Art.  VII  —  Amendments.  This  constitution  may  be  altered  or  amended  at  a  regular  meeting  by  the 
unanimous  vote  of  the  members  present;  or  by  a  two-thirds  vote  of  the  members  present,  provided  that  the 
alteration  or  amendment  has  been  substantially  proposed  in  writing  at  a  previous  meeting. 

The  Secretary  then  stated  that  notice  of  the  proposed  amendments  was  given  in  accord- 
ance with  the  constitutional  provision  at  the  first  meeting  of  the  association  on  Tuesday 
afternoon,  July  10,  to  the  effect  that  action  would  be  taken  at  this  time  on  the  amend- 
ments proposed  by  the  Board  of  Directors. 

Carroll  G.  Pearse,  of  Omaha, Neb.:  Assuming  that  Dr.  White's  idea  is  the  correct 
one,  since  notice  was  given  at  a  former  public  meeting  that  action  would  be  taken  this  day 
on  this  question,  is  there  any  reason  why  all  members,  associate  and  others,  should  not  have 
been  here  at  this  time,  had  they  desired  to  vote  on  this  question  ? 

Dr.  White:  This  is  an  unusual  interpretation.  You  cannot  give  a  notice  on  one 
day  of  a  meeting  and  have  that  avail  in  place  of  a  notice  at  a  previous  meeting.  Only 
one  meeting  of  the  association  is  held  in  1900,  and  no  amendment  can  be  adopted  at  this 
meeting  if  proposed  at  any  of  its  sessions  except  by  unanimous  vote.  The  word  "  meeting  " 
has  been  thus  understood  ever  since  the  adoption  of  the  constitution.  But  my  contention 
is  that  the  constitution  cannot  be  amended  by  vote  of  the  active  members.  Notice  the 
reading  of  Art.  VII  :  "by  vote  of  the  members  present."  Who  are  the  members  of 
this  association  ?  The  railroads  have  sold  membership  tickets  thruout  the  country,  and 
it  is  understood  that  those  who  pay  two  dollars  are  members  of  the  National  Educational 
Association.  It  ought  to  be  clear  that  the  fundamental  right  of  a  member  of  an  organiza- 
tion to  vote  on-all  questions  that  come  before  it  cannot  be  abridged  except  by  a  specific 
provision  of  the  constitution.  Now,  the  constitution  limits  the  voting  of  members  in  but 
one  direction,  to  wit :  the  active  members  alone  can  elect  the  officers  of  the  general 
association.  On  all  other  questions  in  this  association  the  associate  members  have  the 
same  right  to  vote  that  the  active  members  have.  And  for  one,  I  shall  resist  the  dis- 
franchising of  the  great  body  of  the  members  by  a  change  in  the  constitution  without 
their  consent,  without  their  vote  —  a  change  by  the  active  members  of  the  association.  We 
must  respect  the  fundamental  rights  of  the  members  of  the  association,  and  we  can  limit 
fundamental  rights  only  in  the  way  in  which  the  constitution  provides.  The  amendments 
must  be  adopted  by  the  members  of  the  association ;  and  this  business  meeting  of  active 
members  cannot  pass  the  amendments  proposed. 

Dr.  Nicholas  Murray  Butler,  of  New  York  :  I  regret  to  detain  the  members  of 
the  association,  even  for  a  brief  moment,  but  I  am  surprised  at  the  obvious  misunder- 
standing of  the  provisions  of  our  constitution  and  the  obvious  forgetfulness  of  our  con- 
stitutional history. 


2B  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION 

The  amendments  recommended  by  the  Board  of  Directors  accomplish  a  change  in 
the  merest  details,  and  affect  no  existing  principle  and  no  existing  practice  other  than  to 
make  perfectly  clear  what  was  the  intent  of  the  far-reaching  amendments  adopted  at 
Denver  in  1895.  Those  amendments  were  the  result  of  an  investigation,  extending  over 
four  years,  by  a  committee  consisting  of  some  of  our  oldest  and  most  prominent  members. 
The  report  was  signed,  if  I  remember  correctly,  by  Aaron  Gove,  of  Colorado ;  Irwin 
Shepard,  of  Minnesota ;  and  James  M.  Greenwood,  of  Missouri.  The  purpose  of  those 
amendments  was  to  rescue  this  association  from  the  undignified  and  uneducational  posi- 
tion of  having  its  name,  fame,  and  policies  in  the  hands  of  any  persons  in  the  United 
States  who  might  choose,  under  the  provisions  of  the  Interstate  Commerce  Law,  to  buy 
one  of  our  excursion  tickets  with  the  coupon  attached.  Those  gentlemen  recommended, 
and  we  then  unanimously  adopted,  a  provision  which  was  intended  to  make  this  impos- 
sible in  the  future.  It  was  my  fortune  to  be  in  the  chair  at  the  Denver  meeting,  and  I 
followed  each  stage  of  the  discussion  with  great  interest.  It  was  clear  to  me  then,  as  it 
has  been  since,  and  as  has  been  the  consistent  ruling  of  every  President  since  1895,  that 
the  amendments  made  this  an  educational  association  by  limiting  its  active  membership 
to  teachers,  and  to  those  teachers  and  others  interested  in  education  who  cared  to  take 
the  trouble  to  pay  an  additional  enrollment  fee  of  two  dollars  and  to  keep  up  their  mem- 
bership whether  they  attended  the  annual  meetings  or  not.  .  If  you  will  go  back  to  the 
old  volumes  of  proceedings,  you  will  find  that  the  membership  roll  contained  the  names  of 
commercial  travelers,  ordinary  tourists — a  great  collection  of  the  names  of  persons  who 
had  bought  the  tickets.  Under  the  provisions  of  the  Interstate  Commerce  Law  we  could 
not  procure  our  reduced  rates  without  throwing  them  open  to  the  public,  and  the  question 
was  :  Shall  the  association  be  educational  or  excursional  ?  The  intent  of  the  new  amend- 
ments was  not  expressed  with  sufficient  definiteness,  and  therefore  it  is  the  purpose  of  the 
impending  amendment  to  make  clear  to  everybody,  what  has  been  our  practice  for  six 
years,  and  what  every  President  has  ruled,  that  no  one  but  an  active  member  is  a  real 
voting  member  of  the  association,  able  to  participate  in  the  formation  of  its  policies  or 
the  conduct  of  its  business.  The  associate  members,  who  need  not  be  teachers  at  all,  but 
simply  excursionists,  are  not  in  the  least  discriminated  against.  Our  duty  to  them  is  dis- 
charged when  they  are  given  an  opportunity  to  travel  upon  our  tickets  and  to  attend  our 
public  meetings.  If  they  are  teachers,  they  should  simply  pay  the  additional  fee  and 
come  in  on  our  roll.  If  you  will  look  at  that  roll  now,  you  will  find  that  it  includes  num- 
bers of  the  best  teachers  of  the  United  States,  and  if  you  will  contrast  it  with  the  old 
rolls,  you  will  see  what  has  been  accomplished.  Every  President  has  ruled  consistently, 
and  there  is  no  trouble  here ;  but  we  have  several  departments,  whose  proceedings 
occupy  several  hundred  pages  in  our  annual  volume,  and  it  has  not  been  made  clear  to 
them  that  they  are  subject  to  this  general  rule.  This  amendment  makes  that  clear  and 
nothing  else.  No  person  could  be  elected  President  of  this  association  who  would  reverse 
the  present  ruling  and  turn  over  the  control  of  the  National  Educational  Association  to 
chance  excursionists. 

Why  was  it  provided  that  in  some  cases  a  unanimous  vote  should  be  required  to 
amend  the  constitution,  and  in  others  a  two-thirds  vote  only  ?  Was  it  the  idea  that  this 
association,  coming  together  annually  from  all  over  the  United  States,  could  not  take  any 
step  whatever  to  amend  its  constitution  at  one  of  these  great  annual  gatherings  ?  Obvi- 
ously not.  Why  not  ?  Because  the  Denver  amendments  were  passed  in  this  way  — 
notice  was  given  on  Tuesday  and  the  amendments  passed  on  Thursday.  The  Milwaukee 
amendments  were  passed  in  that  way;  the  Washington  amendments  were  passed  in  that  way, 

I  ask  the  members  of  this  association  not  to  be  led  into  supposing  that  any  great 
change  is  proposed.  That  was  all  accomplished  in  the  most  admirable  and  far-reaching 
manner  at  Denver,  but  the  gentlemen  who  framed  the  amendments  did  not  make  it 
sufficiently  clear  that  it  included  the  departments.  The  directors  have  now  framed  an 
amendment  to  make  that  clear.  The  other  amendment  merely  has  reference  to  the  con- 
duct of  the  Secretary's  office. 


JOURNAL  OF  PROCEEDINGS  29 

I  desire  to  submit  that  by  an  unbroken  series  of  rulings  and  acts,  and  by  every  prin- 
ciple for  which  we  stand,  this  proposal  is  in  order,  and  this  amendment  may  be  adopted 
by  a  two-thirds  vote  of  the  active  members  present  in  this  hall. 

President  Corson  :  In  view  of  what  has  been  stated  and  of  the  precedents  of  the 
past  several  years,  and  in  view  of  the  fact  that  these  proposed  amendments  do  not  in  any 
far-reaching  way  affect  the  policy  of  this  association,  it  is  the  ruling  of  your  chairman  that 
the  motion  before  the  house  is  in  order  and  may  be  acted  upon  at  this  meeting,  and  that 
the  constitution  may  be  amended  by  a  two-thirds  vote  of  the  active  members  present. 

A  motion  was  offered  by  Dr.  White,  and  duly  seconded,  that  the  consideration  of  the 
proposed  amendment  be  postponed  for  one  year. 

Dr.  White  :  The  article  of  the  constitution  referring  to  its  amendment  is  the  old 
article  ;  it  is  not  a  new  article,  but  the  article  under  which  all  of  the  amendments  were 
made  up  to  1897 ;  ^^^  ^ow  I  think  we  are  bound  by  the  constitution,  whatever  may  be 
the  rulings,  or  whatever  may  have  been  the  practice  for  three  years  past.  Naturally,  all 
were  quite  surprised  to  find  that  the  constitution  did  not  contain  the  provisions  on  which 
this  ruling  and  practice  were  based.  It  is  clear  that  the  constitution  has  not  justified  the 
course  that  has  been  pursued.  The  question  is  whether  it  is  too  late  to  return  to  the  con- 
stitution itself  for  direction  and  guidance.  My  judgment  is  that  the  constitution  is  the 
sole  determiner  of  whether  this  motion  is  a  correct  one  or  not.  All  amendments  to  the 
constitution  prior  to  the  Milwaukee  meeting,  in  1897,  were  made  by  the  members  of  the 
association  and  by  unanimous  vote.  It  seems  to  me  the  best  way  would  be  to  put  this 
action  off  for  one  year,  consider  it  carefully,  and  then  in  the  proper  way,  as  the  constitu- 
tion provides,  submit  the  matter  to  the  association.  We  need  not  fear  the  vote  of  excur- 
sionists. Excursionists  who  are  not  teachers  do  not  attend  the  business  meetings  of 
the  association. 

Mr.  Pearse  :  May  I  be  permitted  to  call  attention  again  to  a  point  which  it  seems 
to  me  that  we  ought  to  remember  ?  I  am  entirely  disposed  to  agree  with  the  gentlemen 
who  support  the  proposed  amendments  ;  but  waiving  that  point  for  a  moment,  and  assum- 
ing Dr.  White's  position  on  the  matter  of  amendment  to  be  right,  notice  of  proposed  action 
has  been  duly  given.  The  custom  in  this  association  has  been  to  give  notice  one  day  and 
to  act  on  another  day.  Every  member  of  the  association  can  be  summoned  between  the 
meeting  of  one  day  and  the  meeting  of  the  next.  There  can  be  no  snap  judgment  or  advan- 
tage taken.  The  provision  for  amending  the  constitution  evidently  means  what  every 
President  for  five  years  past  has  said  it  did  mean,  viz.,  that  notice  may  be  given  one  day 
and  action  taken  the  next. 

The  motion  of  Dr.  White  to  postpone  consideration  was  then  put  and  lost. 

In  response  to  a  request,  the  Secretary  explained  the  purpose  of  the  second  proposed 
amendment,  in  substance  as  follows  :  The  constitution  provides  that  membership  shall 
lapse  if  not  paid  during  the  fiscal  year,  which  closes  nearly  one  year  after  the  time  of  the 
annual  meeting ;  but  the  active  membership  list  must  be  compiled  for  publication,  the 
annual  volume  published  and  delivered,  before  the  fiscal  year  is  half  over.  The  Secretary 
is  not  able  to  determine  who  intend  to  continue  on  the  active  membership  list  unless 
payment  of  dues  is  made  or  notice  of  discontinuance  given  before  the  annual  volume 
goes  to  press.  The  amendment  proposed  provides  that  notice  of  discontinuance  of  mem- 
bership to  be  applicable  for  any  year  must  be  given  before  September  i  of  that  year  — 
and  simply  removes  the  present  indefiniteness  as  to  the  time  when  annual  dues  are  pay- 
able and  when  notice  of  discontinuance  shall  be  given. 

A  standing  vote  was  taken  on  the  motion  to  amend.  The  Secretary's  count  showing 
53  for  and  3  against  the  motion,  the  President  declared  the  motion  carried  and  the 
amendments  adopted  as  proposed. 

There  being  no  further  business,  on  motion  the  meeting  adjourned. 

Irwin  Shepard, 

Secretary. 


30  NATIONAL  EDLCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION 

SIXTH  SESSION.— Thursday,  July  12,  8  :  30  p.  m. 

The  meeting  was  called  to  order  in  Thomson  Auditorium  at  8  :  30  P.  M.  by  President 
Corson, 

Introductory  to  the  exercises  of  the  evening  the  audience,  under  the  leadership  of  the 
author,  joined  in  singing  the  "National  Teachers'  Rallying  Song,"  composed  by  Professor 
Arnold  J.  Gantvoort,  words  by  W.  H.  Venable,  of  Cincinnati,  O.,  as  follows  : 

Under  the  banner  of  freedom  rally- 
States  of  the  snowdrift  and  states  near  the  sun, 

Lakeshore  and  seaside  and  mountain  and  valley, 
Glorious  commonwealths  —  many  in  one. 

CHORUS 

Swelling  the  chorus  of  proud  exultation, 
Army  of  peacemakers  marching  along ! 

Spreading  the  empire  of  free  education, 
Sing  we  the  school-teachers'  national  song ! 

Legions  of  soldiers  we  drill  in  the  college, 

Reason's  our  arm'ry  and  books  our  supplies. 
Pens  are  our  sabers,  our  ars'nal  is  knowledge, 
•  War  we  on  ignorance,  battle  with  lies. 

Join  in  our  anthem  of  conquering  science,  ^ 

Now  be  the  banner  of  violence  furled ; 
Truth,  Love,  and  Justice,  in  holy  alliance, 
Shall,  by  our  victory,  govern  the  world. 

A  special  program  of  patriotic  music  was  presented  by  the  First  United  States  Artil- 
lery band,  under  the  leadership  of  Professor  Gustav  Koitzsch. 

The  topic  "  The  Influence  of  Music  on  National  Life  "  was  presented  by  Arnold  J. 
Gantvoort,  of  the  College  of  Music,  Cincinnati,  O.,  and  president  of  the  National  Asso- 
ciation of  Music  Teachers. 

The  address  of  President  Gantvoort  was  interspersed  by  illustrative  patriotic  and 
national  airs  rendered  by  the  First  United  States  Artillery  band. 

Adjourned. 

FOURTH  DAY'S  PROCEEDINGS 
SEVENTH  SESSION.— Friday,  July  13,  10  a.  m. 

The  association  met  in  Thomson  Auditorium,  and  was  called  to  order  by  President 
Corson. 

Prayer  was  offered  by  Rev.  Charles  S.  Vedder,  pastor  of  the  Huguenot  Church  of 
Charleston. 

Music  —  "The  National  Teachers' Rallying  Song  "  —  by  the  audience,  led  by  Pro- 
fessor Gantvoort  and  accompanied  by  the  First  United  States  Artillery  band. 

The  topic  of  the  session  was  "  Relations  of  Literature  to  Education." 

The  "  Influence  of  Poetry  in  Education "  was  discussed  by  President  William  M. 
Beardshear,  State  College  of  Agriculture  and  Mechanic;  Arts,  Ames,  la. 

"  The  Value  of  English  Literature  in  Ethical  Training  "  was  presented  by  Principal 
Reuben  Post  Halleck  of  the  Boys'  High  School,  Louisville,  Ky. 

"  Educational  Principles  Applied  to  the  Teaching  of  Literature  "  was  discussed  by 
Dr.  Martin  G.  Brumbaugh,  professor  of  pedagogy,  University  of  Pennsylvania,  and  com- 
missioner of  education  for  Porto  Rico. 

Adjourned. 

EIGHTH  SESSION.— Friday,  July  13,  8  :  30  p.  m. 

The  association  met  for  its  closing  session  in  Thomson  Auditorium,  President  Corson 
in  the  chair. 


JOURNAL  OF  PROCEEDINGS  3^ 

Music  by  the  First  United  States  Artillery  band. 

"  The  National  Teachers'  Rallying  Song  "  was  sung  by  the  convention,  led  by  Pro- 
fessor Gantvoort. 

An  address  was  delivered  by  Hon.  G.  R.  Glenn,  state  superintendent  of  public 
instruction,  Atlanta,  Ga.;  subject,  "What  Manner  of  Child  Shall  This  Be  ?" 

By  special  request.  Dr.  A.  P.  Montague,  president  of  Furman  University,  Greenville, 
S.  C,  addressed  the  association  in  remarks  appropriate  to  the  closing  of  the  thirty-ninth 
meeting  of  the  National  Educational  Association. 

Dr.  Nicholas  Murray  Butler,  as  chairman,  read  the  report  of  the  Committee  on  Reso- 
lutions, which  was,  on  motion,  unanimously  adopted,  as  follows  : 

REPORT  OF  COMMITTEE  ON  RESOLUTIONS 

National  Educational  Association,  Charleston,  S.  C,  July  13,  1900. 

In  accordance  with  established  custom,  and  in  order  better  to  enforce  those  beliefs 
and  practices  which  tend  most  powerfully  to  advance  the  cause  of  popular  education  and 
a  civilization  based  on  intelligent  democracy,  the  National  Educational  Association, 
assembled  in  its  thirty-ninth  annual  meeting,  makes  this 

declaration  of  principles 

The  common  school  is  the  highest  hope  of  the  nation.  In  developing  character,  in 
training  intelligence,  in  diffusing  information,  its  influence  is  incalculable.  In  last 
resort  the  common  school  rests,  not  upon  statutory  support,  but  upon  the  convictions  and 
affections  of  the  American  people.  It  seeks  not  to  cast  the  youth  of  the  country  in  a 
common  mold,  but  rather  to  afford  free  play  for  individuality,  and  for  local  needs  and 
aims,  while  keeping  steadily  in  view  the  common  purpose  of  all  education.  In  this 
respect  it  conforms  to  our  political  ideals  and  to  our  political  organization,  which  bind 
together  self-governing  states  in  a  nation,  wherein  each  locality  must  bear  the  respon- 
sibility for  those  things  which  most  concern  its  welfare  and  its  comfort.  A  safe  motto  for 
the  school  as  for  the  state  is:  In  essentials,  unity;  in  nonessentials, liberty;  in  all  things, 
charity. 

A  democracy  provides  for  the  education  of  all  its  children.  To  regard  the  common 
schools  as  schools  for  the  unfortunate  and  the  less  well-to-do,  and  to  treat  them  as  such, 
is  to  strike  a  fatal  blow  at  their  efficiency  and  at  democratic  institutions ;  it  is  to  build 
up  class  distinctions  which  have  no  proper  place  on  American  soil.  The  purpose  of  the 
American  common  school  is  to  attract  and  to  instruct  the  rich,  as  well  as  to  provide  for 
and  to  educate  the  poor.  Within  its  walls  American  citizens  are  made,  and  no  person 
can  safely  be  excluded  from  its  benefits. 

What  has  served  the  people  of  the  United  States  so  well  should  be  promptly  placed 
at  the  service  of  those  who,  by  the  fortunes  of  war,  have  become  our  wards.  The  exten- 
sion of  the  American  common-school  system  to  Cuba,  Porto  Rico,  and  the  Philippine 
Islands  is  an  imperative  necessity,  in  order  that  knowledge  may  be  generally  diffused 
therein,  and  that  the  foundations  of  social  order  and  effective  local  self-government  may 
be  laid  in  popular  intelligence  and  morality. 

The  provisions  of  law  for  the  civil  government  of  Porto  Rico  indicate  that  it  is  the 
intention  of  the  Congress  of  the  United  States  to  increase  the  responsibilities  of  the 
Bureau  of  Education.  We  earnestly  urge  upon  the  Congress  the  wisdom  and  advisability  of 
reorganizing  the  Bureau  of  Education  upon  broader  lines ;  of  erecting  it  into  an  independ- 
ent department  on  a  plane  with  the  Department  of  Labor ;  of  providing  a  proper  compensa- 
tion for  the  Commissioner  of  Education  ;  and  of  so  constituting  the  Department  of  Education 
that,  while  its  invaluable  function  of  collating  and  diffusing  information  be  in  no  wise 
impaired,  it  may  be  equipped  to  exercise  effective  oversight  of  the  educational  systems  of 
Alaska  and  of  the  several  islands  now  dependent  upon  us,  as  well  as  to  make  some  pro- 
vision for  the  education  of  the  children  of  the  tens  of  thousands  of  white  people  domi- 
ciled in  the  Indian  Territory,  who  are  without  any  educational  opportunities  whatever. 


32  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION 

Such  reorganization  of  the  Bureau  of  Education  and  such  extension  of  its  functions  we 
believe  to  be  demanded  by  the  highest  interests  of  the  people  of  the  United  States,  and 
we  respectfully  but  earnestly  ask  the  Congress  to  make  provision  for  such  reorganization 
and  extension  at  its  next  session.  The  action  so  strongly  recommended  will  in  no 
respect  contravene  the  principle  that  it  is  one  of  the  recognized  functions  of  the  national 
government  to  encourage  and  to  aid,  but  not  to  control,  the  educational  instrumentalities 
of  the  country. 

We  note  with  satisfaction  the  rapid  extension  of  provision  for  adequate  secondary 
and  higher  education,  as  well  as  for  technical,  industrial,  and  commercial  training. 
National  prosperity  and  our  economic  welfare  in  the  years  to  come  will  depend,  in  no 
small  measure,  upon  the  trained  skill  of  our  people,  as  well  as  upon  their  inventiveness, 
their  persistence,  and  their  general  information. 

Every  safeguard  thrown  about  the  profession  of  teaching,  and  every  provision  for  its 
proper  compensation,  has  our  cordial  approval.  Proper  standards  —  both  general  and 
professional  —  for  entrance  upon  the  work  of  instruction,  security  of  tenure,  decent  sala- 
ries, and  an  adequate  pension  system  are  indispensable  if  the  schools  are  to  attract  and  to 
hold  the  service  of  the  best  men  and  women  of  the  United  States ;  and  the  nation  can 
afford  to  place  its  children  in  the  care  of  none  but  the  best. 

We  welcome  the  tendency  on  the  part  of  colleges  and  scientific  schools  to  co-operate 
in  formulating  and  administering  the  requirements  for  admission  to  their  several  courses 
of  instruction,  and  we  rejoice  that  this  association  has  consistently  thrown  its  influence 
in  favor  of  this  policy,  and  has  indicated  how,  in  our  judgment,  it  may  best  be  entered 
upon.  We  see  in  this  movement  a  most  important  step  toward  lightening  the  burdens 
which  now  rest  upon  so  many  secondary  schools,  and  are  confident  that  only  good 
results  will  follow  its  success. 

The  efficiency  of  a  school  system  is  to  be  judged  by  the  character  and  the  intel- 
lectual power  of  its  pupils,  and  not  by  their  ability  to  meet  a  series  of  technical  tests. 
The  place  of  the  formal  examination  in  education  is  distinctly  subordinate  to  that  of 
teaching,  and  its  use  as  the  sole  test  of  teaching  is  unjustifiable. 

We  renew  our  pledge  to  carry  on  the  work  of  education  intrusted  to  us  in  a  spirit 
which  shall  be  not  only  non-sectarian  and  non-political,  but  which  shall  accord  with  the 
highest  ideals  of  our  national  life  and  character.  With  the  continued  and  effective  sup- 
port of  public  opinion  and  of  the  press  for  the  work  of  the  schools,  higher  and  lower 
alike,  we  shall  enter  upon  the  new  century  with  the  high  hope  born  of  successful  experi- 
ence and  of  perfect  confidence  in  American  policies  and  institutions. 

Nicholas  Murray  Butler,  New  York,  Chairman; 

Edwin  A.  Alderman,  Louisiana ; 

Charles  D.  McIver,  North  Carolina ; 

Wm.  B.  Powell,  District  of  Columbia ; 

Alfred  Bayliss,  Illinois; 

James  A.  Foshay,  California  ; 

James  H.  Van  Sickle,  Maryland ; 

William  R.  Harper,  Illinois; 

Charles  F.  Thwing,  Ohio ; 

Committee  on  Resolutions, 

resolutions  of  thanks. 

The  following  resolution  was  offered  by  Dr.  Butler,  on  behalf  of  the  Committee  on 
Resolutions,  and  was,  oh  motion,  unanimously  adopted : 

Resolved,  That  the  National  Educational  Association  hereby  tenders  an  expression 
of  sincere  thanks  and  appreciation  to  all  those  persons,  committees,  and  associations 
which  have  co-operated  to  promote  the  comfort  and  success  of  its  thirty-ninth  annual 
meeting  at  Charleston,  S.  C.     Special  mention  is  due  of  the  obligation  of  the  association 


JOURNAL  OF  PROCEEDINGS  33 

to  W.  H.  Welch,  chairman,  and  to  W.  K.  Tate,  secretary,  and  their  associates  upon  the 
Local  Executive  Committee,  as  well  as  to  Superintendent  Henry  P.  Archer,  and  the  teachers 
who  have  cordially  co-operated  with  him  in  his  labors  on  behalf  of  this  meeting. 

The  hospitality  of  the  citizens  of  Charleston  has  touched  our  hearts,  and  for  it  we 
are  deeply  grateful.  The  full,  accurate,  and  eminently  satisfactory  reports  of  our  meet- 
ings by  the  press  deserve  especial  mention  and  commendation. 

We  are  again  indebted  to  Messrs.  Wyckoff,  Seamans,  and  Benedict,  proprietors  of 
the  Remington  typewriters,  and  to  their  representatives,  for  typewriter  service  gratui- 
tously placed  at  the  disposal  of  the  convention  and  its  officers.  For  these  services  and 
attentions,  one  and  all,  we  offer  an  expression  of  grateful  appreciation. 

Dr.  Butler  then,  on  behalf  of  the  Committee  on  Resolutions,  offered  the  following 
resolution,  which  was,  upon  motion,  put  by  the  Secretary  and  unanimously  adopted: 

Resolved,  That  to  our  retiring  President,  Oscar  T.  Corson,  of  Ohio,  and  to  our 
retiring  Treasurer,  Carroll  G.  Pearse,  of  Nebraska,  we  make  a  sincere  expression  of  our 
thanks  for  their  efficient  services  to  the  National  Educational  Association,  and  we  assure 
them  of  our  confidence,  respect,  and  best  wishes. 

President   Corson   then   introduced  President-elect  Dr.  James  M.  Green,  of  New 
Jersey,  who  responded  as  follows  : 
Members  of  the  National  Educational  Association,  Ladies  and  Gentlemen: 

One  would  be  insensible  indeed  who  did  not  appreciate  most  sincerely  the  conferring 
upon  him  of  so  great  an  office  of  honor  and  trust  as  the  presidency  of  the  National  Educa- 
tional Association.  In  making  your  choice  you  have  been  consistent  with  your  tradi- 
tionary custom  of  seeking  your  executive,  rather  than  have  him  come  to  you.  I  trust  that 
this  fact  may  be  an  assurance  of  your  cordial  support  of  my  administration. 

It  is  especially  gratifying  that  you  should  honor  me  on  this  occasion  of  our  meeting 
in  this  historic  city.  From  boyhood  I  have  found  a  charm  in  reading  the  story  of  the 
statesmen,  orators,  and  soldiers  of  this  section  of  our  beloved  country ;  hence,  to  be  pre- 
ferred in  this  presence  brings  an  added  sense  of  responsibility. 

I  am  not  expected  to  map  out  a  policy  for  the  year  at  this  time,  but  it  may  be  fitting 
to  suggest  two  or  three  leading  thoughts. 

First,  we  should  aim  to  render  good  instruction  more  uniform  thruout  every  part  of 
our  country.  While  in  our  recent  history  we  have  stood  emphatically  for  the  common 
school,  the  close  observer  must  recognize  the  fact  that  good  common  schools  are  found 
as  yet  only  in  spots ;  that  there  are  large  sections  of  our  country  where  attendance  at 
school  is  but  for  a  small  portion  of  the  year,  and  where  instruction  given  during  that 
attendOTce  is  of  an  indifferent  character.  This  means  that  many  of  our  youths  are  still 
growing  into  manhood  and  womanhood  without  the  blessings  of  that  education  necessary 
to  good  citizenship. 

Secondly,  our  land  is  more  and  more  becoming  a  distinctly  commercial  land.  Our 
exports  are  now  entering  the  markets  of  all  the  nations  of  the  world,  and  he  who  inter- 
prets the  national  thought  must  recognize  that  it  is  largely  upon  commercial  enterprises. 
Yet  it  is  true,  as  will  appear  if  we  will  study  the  curricula  of  the  schools,  that  economic 
and  commercial  branches  are  rarely  set  for  instruction  in  any  thoro  manner.  What  is 
the  meaning  of  price  and  value  ?  What  is  the  meaning  of  co-operation  and  what  are  its 
possibilities  ?  What  is  the  meaning  of  corporation  ?  What  are  its  advantages  and  what 
its  dangers  ?  These  and  similar  questions  are  not  sufficiently  answered  to  the  youth  of 
our  land.  Those  who  observe  our  great  social  agitations  cannot  help  feeling  that,  what- 
ever may  be  the  virtue  of  the  questions  involved,  more  light  is  needed. 

Thirdly,  we  should  aim  to  popularize  the  higher  education.  Every  nation,  as  every 
individual,  has  its  distinct  destiny  and  its  distinct  purpose. 

What  is  it  that  distinguishes  among  France,  Germany,  Italy,  England,  America, 
and  their  respective  citizens,  no   matter  what  may  be   the   time  or  condition  ?     I  will 


34  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION 

not  undertake  to  define  the  national  purpose  of  other  nations,  but  it  seems  to  me  the 
germinal  idea  of  our  country  was  defined  by  its  earliest  settlers.  When,  in  the  cabin  of 
the  "Mayflower,"  that  little  band  of  nation-builders  asked  their  scribe  to  write,  as  he 
lifted  the  pen  he  must  have  been  touched  by  the  inspiration  of  a  longing  that  reached 
down  thru  the  ages,  and  he  wrote :  "  Equality  before  the  law,  freedom  to  worship  God." 
In  other  words,  the  emancipation  of  the  human  soul.  To  work  out  this  definition  into  its 
fulfillment  should  be  our  greatest  aim.     No  other  purpose  can  offer  so  tempting  a  goal. 

If  we  seek  empire,  we  can  scarcely  hope  to  rival  Rome  under  the  Caesars.  If  we 
seek  territory,  we  can  scarcely  expect  to  surpass  Russia.  If  we  seek  wealth  and  com- 
merce, we  can  hardly  expect  to  outstrip  Great  Britain.  But  if  we  seek  the  complete 
emancipation  of  the  human  mind  from  the  thraldom  of  heritage,  ignorance,  and  depend- 
ence, we  shall  appear  in  the  family  of  nations  as  a  star  with  an  entirely  new  luster,  and 
one  that  surpasses  all  others.  This  is  the  highest  possible  education,  the  sole  aim  in  life, 
individual  or  national. 

In  this  presence  I  ask  that  the  educators  from  every  part  of  the  nation  will  join  me 
in  an  effort  to  make  our  association  prosper  during  the  coming  year  as  never  before,  and 
this  in  view  of  all  the  brilliant  success  of  the  past. 

And  now,  to  you,  sir,  our  retiring  President :  This  meeting  is  distinctly  yours  in  all  the 
greatness  of  its  success,  and  I  wish  to  place  again  in  your  hands  the  gavel  you  have 
wielded  so  justly  and  with  such  satisfaction  to  your  many  admirers,  and  ask  that  you 
hold  it  until  the  close  of  this  session. 

President  Corson  resumed  the  gavel,  and  called  for  the  singing  of  "America  "  by  the 
audience,  under  the  leadership  of  Professor  A.  J.  Gantvoort,  accompanied  by  the  First 
United  States  Artillery  band. 

After  benediction  by  Rev.  John  Kershaw,  rector  of  St.  Michael's  Church,  the  thirty- 
ninth  meeting  of  the  National  Educational  Association  was  declared  adjourned. 

Irwin  Shepard, 

Secretary. 


MINUTES  OF  MEETING  OF  OLD   BOARD  OF 
DIRECTORS  FOR  1899-1900 


CHARLESTON,  S.  C,  Tuesday,  July  io,  12  m. 

The  annual  meeting  of  the  Board  of  Directors  was  called  to  order  in  Masonic  Tem- 
ple, Charleston,  S.  C,  July  10,  at  12  M.,  by  President  Oscar  T.  Corson. 
The  following  directors  responded  to  roll-call : 

Oscar  T.  Corson,  Ohio ;  E.  Oram  Lyte,  Pennsylvania ;  C.Xr.  Pearse,  Nebraska ;  Albert  G.  Lane,  Illinois ; 
Irwin  Shepard,  Minnesota;  Nicholas  Murray  Butler, New  York;  Aaron  Gove,  Colorado;  J.  M.  Greenwood, 
Missouri ;  Charles  R.  Skinner,  New  York ;  John  S.  Locke,  Maine ;  Augustus  S.  Downing,  New  York ;  H. 
W.  Fisher,  Pennsylvania;  W.  B.  Powell,  District  of  Columbia;  E.  A.  Alderman,  North  Carolina;  F.  C. 
Woodward,  South  Carolina;  W.  N.  Sheats,  Florida;  McHenry  Rhoads.  Kentucky;  William  M.  Slaton, 
Georgia;  J.  H.  Phillips,  Alabama;  Alexander  Hogg,  Texas;  J.  R.  Rightsell,  Arkansas;  J.  W.  Carr, 
Indiana;  J.  H.  Collins,  Illinois;  D.  W.  Springer,  Michigan;  L.  D.  Harvey,  Wisconsin ;  W.  M,  Beardshear, 
Iowa;  W.  T.  Carrington,  Missouri;  Frank  R.  Dyer,  Kansas;  Estelle  Reel,  Wyoming:  L.  C.  Greenlee, 
Colorado;  Mrs.  E.  R.  Jackson,  New  Mexico;  F.  B.  Cooper,  Utah;  O.  C.  Whitney,  Washington. 

The  following  were  elected  as  directors  to  fill  vacancies : 

Charles  H.  Keyes,  of  Connecticut,  vice  C.  N.  Kendall,  resigned. 

J.  Walter  Barnes,  of  West  Virginia,  vice  J.  N.  Deahl,  resigned, 

M.  M.  Ross,  of  Tennessee,  vice  H.  C.  Weber,  resigned. 

Miss  Gertrude  Edmund,  of  Massachusetts,  vice  Will  S,  Monroe,  resigned. 

James  A.  Foshay,  of  California,  vice  John  Swett,  resigned. 

Charles  M.  Jordan,  of  Minnesota,  vice  F.  V.  Hubbard,  resigned. 

E.  B.  McElroy,  of  Oregon,  vice  E.  D.  Ressler,  resigned. 

John  A.  Heizer,  of  Ohio,  vice  J.  A.  Shawan,  resigned.  ' 

Total  number  of  directors  present,  forty-one. 

On  motion  of  Director  Butler,  the  reading  of  the  minutes  of  the  last  meeting,  held  at 
Los  Angeles,  Cal.,  July  14,  1899,  was  dispensed  with,  and  the  same  approved  as  printed 
in  the  volume  of  proceedings  of  the  Los  Angeles  meeting. 

The  annual  report  of  the  Treasurer  was  read  and  explained  in  detail  by  Treasurer 
C.  G.  Pearse.  Special  attention  was  called  to  the  fact  that  the  receipts  from  the  Depart- 
ment of  Superintendence  at  its  meeting  in  Chicago  exceeded  the  expenditures  by  over 
JI400,  which  was  an  unusual  occurrence. 

Explanation  was  also  made  of  the  increased  expenses  of  the  Secretary's  office,  owing 
to  the  fact  that  practically  all  of  the  business  of  the  association  now  falls  to  the  Secre- 
tary, and  that  all  expenses  of  the  registration  of  members  at  the  time  of  the  annual  meet- 
ing, and  the  collection  of  all  receipts  during  the  year  from  railroads  and  other  sources, 
which  had  formerly  been  charged  to  the  Treasurer's  office,  are  now  included  in  the 
expenses  of  the  Secretary's  office.  Attention  was  called  to  the  large  items  for  printing, 
postage,  and  expressage  due  to  the  unusually  large  editions  of  the  volume  of  proceedings, 
and  of  the  three  special  reports  published  and  distributed  during  the  year. 

Statement  was  made  that  the  receiver  of  the  Union  National  Bank  of  Denver  had 
given  notice  that  the  amount  reported  as  unavailable  would  be  paid  in  full  at  an  early 
date. 

On  motion,  the  report  of  the  Treasurer  was  adopted  and  ordered  printed  in  the 
annual  volume  of  proceedings,  and  a  unanimous  vote  of  approval  and  thanks  tendered 
to  him  for  his  efficient  services  during  the  year  and  for  the  excellent  report  rendered. 

Director  A.  G.  Lame,  chairman  of  the  Board  of  Trustees,  presented  the  annual 
report  of  the  Trustees. 

35 


36  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION 

In  explanation  of  the  report,  Chairman  Lane  called  attention  to  a  number  of  Kansas 
bonds  paid  during  the  year,  amounting  to  over  $8,000,  and  expressed  his  opinion  that 
ultimately  nearly  all  of  the  Kansas  county  and  municipal  bonds  would  be  paid.  In  the 
case  of  the  Grant  county  bond,  reliable  assurances  had  been  made  to  the  board  that  pay- 
ment of  both  interest  and  principal  would  be  made. 

At  present  certain  compromise  settlements  had  been  tendered  to  the  Board  of 
Trustees  in  the  case  of  the  Lane  county  and  the  Reno  county  bonds,  but  these  had  not 
been  accepted  in  view  of  the  prospects  for  a  more  favorable  basis  of  settlement. 

In  the  case  of  the  Seward  county  bond  on  which  judgment  had  been  obtained,  favor- 
able report  of  progress  toward  final  settlement  was  made. 

The  default  in  the  case  of  the  Marion  county  bonds  had  been  due  to  neglect  of  the 
proper  officers  to  make  the  necessary  tax  levy  to  meet  the  indebtedness.  An  agreement 
had  been  reached  by  which  the  full  amount  of  this  indebtedness  would  be  provided  for 
in  the  next  tax  levy. 

In  the  case  of  the  Providence  real-estate  mortgage,  report  was  made  that  the  security 
was  entirely  satisfactory,  the  semi-annual  interest  being  promptly  paid,  and  the  loan 
being  practically  renewed  with  each  interest  payment. 

Full  explanation  was  made  to  the  Board  of  Directors  as  to  the  character  of  the 
securities  in  the  other  real-estate  investments,  and  as  to  the  care  taken  in  inspecting  titles 
and  securing  reliable  guarantees  for  the  same. 

After  full  discussion  of  the  details  of  the  report,  a  motion  prevailed  to  adopt  the 
report  and  to  extend  to  the  Board  of  Trustees,  and  particularly  to  Chairman  Lane,  the 
thanks  of  the  Board  of  Directors  for  the  care  exercised  over  the  investments  of  the 
association  and  for  the  efficient  conduct  of  all  of  the  affairs  under  their  charge. 

In  this  connection  especial  attention  was  called  to  the  valuable  business  skill  and 
judgment  which  for  many  years  have  been  generously  given  to  the  financial  affairs  of  the 
association  by  Chairman  Lane  without  compensation  and  practically  without  incidental 
expense  to  the  association. 

Under  miscellaneous  business  Director  Butler  offered  the  following  amendments  to 
the  constitution,  to  remove  obscurity  in  language  which  had  previously  existed,  and  moved 
that  the  same  be  recommended  by  the  Board  of  Directors  to  the  active  members  for  adop- 
tion at  the  regular  meeting  on  July  12,  as  follows : 

In  Art.  Ill,  sec.  3,  to  be  added  to  the  first  paragraph  the  following : 

Active  members  only  have  the  right  to  vote  and  to  hold  office  in  the  general  association  or  in  the  several 
departments. 

In  the  second  paragraph,  the  second  sentence  of  the  same  section  to  be  amended  to 
read  : 

The  annual  (active)  membership  fee  shall  be  payable  at  the  time  of  the  annual  convention,  or  by  remit- 
tance to  the  Secretary  before  September  i  of  each  year.  Any  active  member  may  discontinue  membership 
by  giving  written  notice  to  the  Secretary  before  September  i,  and  may  restore  the  same  only  on  payment  of 
the  enrollment  fee  and  the  annual  dues  for  the  current  year. 

After  full  discussion  of  the  proposed  amendments,  the  motion  of  Director  Butler  pre- 
vailed, and  the  Secretary  was  instructed  to  give  notice  of  the  proposed  amendments  at 
the  first  meeting  of  the  association  to  be  held  at  3  :30  P.  M.,  July  10. 

A  communication  was  read  by  the  Secretary  from  Mr.  W.  Scott,  secretary  of  the 
Cheap  Library  Post  Association,  asking  the  co-operation  of  the  National  Educational 
Association  in  securing  the  passage  of  a  bill  providing  for  the  transmission  of  library 
books  thru  the  mails  at  second-class  rates  of  postage. 

On  motion,  the  matter  was  referred  to  the  Committee  on  Resolutions. 

A  communication  was  read  from  Dr.  B.  A.  Hinsdale  suggesting  the  propriety  of 
furnishing  to  each  author  of  a  paper  before  the  association  or  any  of  the  departments  a 
certain  number  of  reprints  without  charge.  The  letter  was  referred  to  the  Executive 
Committee,  with  power  to  act. 


PROCEEDINGS  OF  TJfJE  BOARD  OF  DIRECTORS  H 

A  communication  from  the  Missouri  State  Teachers'  Association  requesting  the 
Board  of  Directors  to  make  an  appropriation  to  advance  the  cause  of  spelling  reform  was 
referred  to  the  National  Council  for  recommendation. 

Communications  were  read  from  Professor  Charles  Mills  Gayley,  of  Berkeley,  Cal., 
who  was  appointed  by  the  Board  of  Directors  at  the  Los  Angeles  meeting  as  a  delegate 
to  the  Alfred  Millennial  Celebration  to  be  held  in  England  in  October,  1900.  Professor 
Gayley  desired  to  know  what  appropriation  would  be  made  for  the  expenses  of  the  dele- 
gate, and  estimated  such  expenses  as  likely  to  range  from  $500  to  5700. 

On  motion,  the  application  for  an  appropriation  to  pay  the  expenses  of  a  delegate  to 
the  Alfred  Millennial  Celebration  was  laid  on  the  table,  and  the  Secretary  was  instructed 
to  convey  to  Professor  Gayley  the  understanding  of  the  board  that  his  appointment  as  a 
delegate  was  an  honorary  appointment,  and  that  it  was  not  expected  at  the  time  it  was 
made  that  the  association  would  be  called  upon  to  provide  for  the  expenses  of  such 
delegate. 

After  announcements,  the  board  adjourned. 

Irwin  Shepard, 

Secre/ary. 


MINUTES  OF  MEETING  OF  NEW  BOARD  OF 
DIRECTORS  FOR  1900-1901 


CHARLESTON,  S.  C,  Thursday,  July  12,  4  130  p.  m. 

The  newly  elected  Board  of  Directors  was  called  to  order  in  Masonic  Temple  at 
4  :  30  p.  M,,  July  12,  by  President  James  M.  Green.  The  following  directors  responded 
to  roll-call : 

James  M.  Green,  of  New  Jersey;  A.  G.  Lane,  of  Illinois;  L.  C.  Greenlee,  of  Colorado;  Nicholas  Mur- 
ray Butler,  of  New  York ;  Aaron  Gove,  of  Colorado ;  E.  Oram  Lyte,  of  Pennsylvania ;  Frank  A.  Fitzpatrick, 
of  Massachusetts ;  Charles  A.  Keyes,  of  Connecticut ;  Augustus  S.  Downing,  of  New  York ;  H,  Brewster 
Willis,  of  New  Jersey;  M.  Bates  Stephens,  of  Maryland;  W.  B.  Powell,  of  the  District  of  Columbia;  George 
J.  Ramsey,  of  Virginia;  J.  Walter  Barnes,  of  West  Virginia;  W.  T.  Whitsett,  of  North  Carolina;  W.  K. 
Tate,  of  South  Carolina;  Miss  Clem  Hampton,  of  Florida;  M.  M,  Ross,  of  Tennessee;  D.  Q.  Abbott,  of 
Georgia;  John  W.  Abercrombie,  of  Alabama;  J.  M.  Fendley,  of  Texas;  J.  R.  Rightsell,  of  Arkansas;  N.  H. 
Chaney,  of  Ohio ;  T.  A.  Mott,  of  Indiana;  J.  H.  Collins,  of  Illinois;  D.  W.  Springer,  of  Michigan;  L.  D, 
Harvey,  of  Wisconsin;  W.  M.  Beardshear,  of  Iowa;  C.  M.  Jordan,  of  Minnesota;  C.  G.  Pearse,  of 
Nebraska;  Frank  R.  Dyer,  of  Kansas;  E.  A.  Carleton,  of  Montana;  J.  C.  Black,  of  Idaho;  O,  C.  Whitney, 
of  Washington ;  Irwin  Shepard,  of  Minnesota.    Total  present,  thirty-five. 

The  minutes  of  the  meeting  of  the  Board  of  Directors  held  on  July  10  were  read 
and  approved. 

On  motion,  a  committee,  consisting  of  Directors  Lane,  Gove,  and  Willis,  was 
appointed  to  nominate  members  of  the  National  Council. 

On  motion  of  Director  Lyte,  Newton  C.  Dougherty,  of  Illinois,  was  nominated 
trustee  for  four  years,  to  succeed  J.  Ormond  Wilson,  of  Washington,  D.  C,  whose  term 
of  ofl5ce  had  expired.  No  other  nominations  being  offered,  the  Secretary  was  by  unani- 
mous vote  directed  to  cast  the  ballot  of  the  directors  for  the  nominee.  The  ballot  was 
so  cast,  and  Director  Dougherty  was  declared  elected. 

On  motion  of  Director  Ramsey,  the  Secretary  was  directed  by  unanimous  vote  to 
cast  the  ballot  of  the  directors  for  William  T.  Harris  to  succeed  himself  as  member  of  the 
Executive  Committee. 

The  ballot  was  so  cast,  and  Dr.  Harris  declared  elected. 

President  Green  announced  as  the  next  order  of  business  the  receiving  of  invita- 
tions for  the  next  place  of  meeting. 

The  roll  of  states  was  called  by  the  Secretary. 

Director  D.  W.  Springer,  of  Michigan,  extended  an  invitation  to  meet  in  the  city  of 
Detroit,  and  submitted  written  communications  from  the  authorities  of  that  city  in  sup- 
port of  the  invitation.  Director  B.  A.  Hinsdale,  of  Ann  Arbor,  Mich.,  on  behalf  of  the 
teachers  of  the  state  of  Michigan,  supported  the  invitation  of  the  city  of  Detroit. 

Superintendent  Richard  G.  Boone,  of  Cincinnati,  O.,  presented  an  invitation  on 
behalf  of  that  city  for  the  meeting  in  1901,  submitting  ofHcial  communications  from  the 
various  authorities  of  Cincinnati  supporting  the  invitation. 

Mr.  Harry  Walter  Hutchins,  of  Cincinnati,  spoke  on  behalf  of  the  commercial  and 
business  organizations  of  Cincinnati. 

When,  under  the  roll-call  of  states,  Washington  was  reached.  Superintendent  R.  S. 
Bingham,  of  Tacoma,  presented  an  invitation  from  the  city  of  Tacoma  to  meet  in  that 
city  either  in  1901  or  in  any  subsequent  year,  at  the  pleasure  of  the  association.  Superin- 
tendent Bingham  announced  the  intention  of  the  city  which  he  represented  to  invite  the 
association  annually  until  a  favorable  response  should  be  received. 

38 


PROCEEDINGS  OF  THE  NEW  BOARD  OF  DIRECTORS  39 

After  the  close  of  the  roll-call,  H.  W.  Prentis,  of  St.  Louis,  extended  an  official  invita- 
tion from  that  city  and  from  the  board  of  directors  of  the  World's  Louisiana  Purchase 
Centennial  to  meet  in  St.  Louis  in  1903. 

On  motion  of  Director  Ramsey,  the  selection  of  a  place  for  the  next  meeting  of  the 
association  was  referred,  without  vote  of  preference,  to  the  Executive  Committee  of  the 
association,  with  power  to  act. 

Director  Gove  presented  the  question  of  making  a  special  appropriation  for  the 
expenses  of  the  Department  of  Superintendence  at  the  meeting  to  be  held  in  Chicago  in 
P'ebruary  next,  and  urged  that  an  adequate  sum  for  such  expenses  be  placed  at  the  dis- 
posal of  the  president  of  that  department. 

On  motion,  an  appropriation  of  six  hundred  dollars  (;5!6oo),  or  so  much  thereof  as 
should  be  necessary,  was  made  for  the  expenses  of  the  Department  of  Superintendence 
for  the  year  1901. 

Director  Downing  presented  a  resolution  indorsing  the  South  Carolina  Interstate 
and  West  Indian  Expositon,  which,  on  motion  of  Director  Lane,  was  referred  to  the 
Committee  on  Resolutions  of  the  general  association. 

Director  Lane  presented  the  report  of  the  committee  to  nominate  members  of  the 
National  Council,  as  follows: 

Members  of  the  Board  of  Directors  of  the  National  Educational  Association: 

Your  committee  finds  the  following  vacancies  in  the  membership  of  the  National  Council,  viz. : 
By  expiration  of  term : 

James  A.  Foshay,  of  California. 

J.  H.  Phillips,  of  Alabama. 

Emerson  E.  White,  of  Ohio.  " 

James  H.  Baker,  of  Colorado. 

Oscar  H.  Cooper,  of  Texas. 
By  absence  from  two  consecutive  meetings,  term  expiring  in  — 

1901,  Ellen  C.  Sabin,  of  Wisconsin. 

190a,  Arnold  Tompkins,  of  Illinois. 

1903,  George  T.  Fairchild,  of  Kentucky. 

1904,  James  H.  Canfield,  of  New  York. 

The  following  are  nominated  to  fill  the  vacancies  as  indicated : 
Term  expiring  in 

1906,  James  A.  Foshay,  of  California,  to  succeed  himself. 

J.  H.  Phillips,  of  Alabama,  to  succeed  himself. 

Emerson  E.  White,  of  Ohio,  to  succeed  himself. 

James  H.  Baker,  of  Colorado,  to  succeed  himself. 

Oscar  H.  Cooper,  of  Texas,  to  succeed  himself. 

1901,  Charles  D.  Mclver,  of  North  Carolina,  to  succeed  Ellen  C.  Sabin,  of  Wisconsin. 

1902,  Charles  F.  Thwing,  of  Ohio,  to  succeed  Arnold  Tompkins,  of  Illinois. 

1903,  George  J.  Ramsey,  of  Virginia,  to  succeed  George  T.  Fairchild,  of  Kentucky. 

1904,  Carroll  G.  Pearse,  of  Nebraska,  to  succeed  James  H.  Canfield,  of  New  York. 

The  report  of  the  Committee  on  Nominations  was,  on  motion,  unanimously  adopted, 
and  the  nominees  declared  duly  elected  for  the  respective  terms  stated  in  the  report. 

Director  Fitzpatrick  called  the  attention  of  the  Board  of  Directors  to  the  matter  of 
hotel  rates  during  the  sessions  of  the  annual  convention,  suggesting  that  the  local  com- 
mittees of  the  cities  inviting  the  convention  should  secure  written  agreements  from  the 
hotel  proprietors  of  these  cities  that  they  shall  not  raise  their  usual  rates  during  the  con- 
vention. 

By  common  consent,  the  matter  was  referred  to  the  Executive  Committee,  with  the 
suggestion  that  the  necessary  conditions  to  secure  proper  hotel  rates  be  incorporated  in 
the  contract  with  the  city  chosen. 

There  being  no  further  business,  the  meeting  adjourned. 

Irwin  Shepard, 

Secretary, 


GENERAL  SESSIONS  OF  THE  ASSOCIATION 


ADDRESSES  OF  WELCOME 


HON.    MILES    B.    McSWEENEY,    GOVERNOR    OF    SOUTH    CAROLINA 

Mr.  Chairman,  Ladies  and  Gentlemen : 

"The  schoolmaster  is  abroad,"  and  I  might  add  with  propriety  on 
this  occasion,  the  schoolmistress  too.  I  am  glad  that  we  have  you  with 
us  in  this  historic  old  city.  On  behalf  of  South  Carolina  I  greet  you  with 
a  hearty  welcome. 

The  soldier  is  abroad  even  in  this  day  of  civilization  and  enlighten- 
ment. There  are  those  who  claim  that  it  is  our  duty  to  carry  civilization 
and  Christianity  to  the  heathen,  even  tho  we  have  to  open  the  way  with 
leaden  bullets.  It  seems  that  we  are  about  on  the  verge  of  another  war. 
It  may  be  the  hand  of  Providence  to  carry  our  civilization  to  the  utter- 
most parts  of  the  earth.  This  is  not  the  place  nor  the  time  to  discuss 
this  question.  We  have  with  us  today  another  personage  more  important 
in  maintaining  our  civilization  than  the  soldier. 

You  remember  what  Lord  Brougham  said  in  a  speech  on  the  elevation 
of  Wellington,  the  military  hero,  to  the  premiership  :  "  Field  Marshal  the 
Duke  of  Wellington  may  take  the  army,  he  may  take  the  navy,  he  may 
take  the  miter.  I  make  him  a  present  of  them  all.  Let  him  come  on 
with  his  whole  force,  against  the  constitution,  and  the  English  people  will 
not  only  beat  him  back,  but  laugh  at  his  assaults."  In  other  times  the 
country  may  have  heard  with  dismay  that  the  soldier  was  abroad,  but  now 
"  the  schoolmaster  is  abroad,  and  I  trust  to  him  armed  with  his  primer 
against  the  soldier  in  full  military  array." 

"The  hand  that  rocks  the  cradle,"  it  has  been  said,  "rules  the  world," 
and  second  only  to  this  hand  in  power,  and  in  influence  over  the  destiny 
of  nations,  is  the  power  and  influence  of  the  school-teacher.  His  influence 
for  the  weal  or  the  woe  of  the  children  under  his  care  "  will  remain  as 
long  as  the  susceptibility  of  the  mind  to  retain  impressions  shall  endure." 

Then  how  important  a  personage  is  the  school-teacher!  "In  intel- 
lectual attainments  his  mind  should  be  a  fountain  and  not  a  reservoir. 
His  knowledge  should  gush  up  of  itself,  and  not  have  to  be  drawn  up  as 
by  a  windlass.  He  should  be  fresh  in  his  feelings  and  sympathies ;  his 
heart  should  be  young  in  all  its  pulsations,  tho  his  head  may  be  as  bald 
as  Eiisha's."  He  must  know  and  study  human  nature  as  well  as  books. 
And  yet  he  must  be  a  scholar  who  knows  more  than  the  simple  routine  of 

41 


42  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [General 

the  schoolroom,  "and  not  a  man  whose  half-dozen  thoughts  rattle  in  his 
vacant  head  like  shrunken  kernels  in  a  beanpod."  And,  in  addition  to 
his  mental  and  intellectual  attainments,  he  must  be  a  man  of  character 
and  moral  rectitude  and  purity  of  life,  fully  imbued  with  the  spirit  of  truth, 
and  his  whole  being  should  be  guided  by  the  light  of  a  Christian  faith. 

But  I  am  not  here  to  eulogize  the  teacher,  however  pleasant  the  task 
might  be.  Neither  am  I  here  to  speak  of  the  teacher,  and  his  duties  and 
responsibilities,  tho  there  is  scarcely  any  subject  of  so  much  importance, 
of  so  much  interest,  and  so  fruitful.  But  I  am  here  rather  to  bid  you 
welcome  to  this  grand  old  city,  full  of  historic  interest  and  noted  for  her 
hospitality  wherever  her  name  is  known.  I  am  here  to  bid  you  welcome 
to  the  Palmetto  State,  the  peer  of  any  in  the  galaxy  of  states.  I  am  here 
to  bid  you  welcome  to  the  cradle  of  secession  and  the  home  of  nullifica- 
tion, "which  finally  put  the  North  on  the  pension  list  and  the  South  on 
crutches."  In  material  development  we  are  able  now  to  lay  aside  our 
crutches,  and  with  our  magnificent  natural  resources  and  advantages  we 
have  taken  our  position,  and  are  able  to  stand  erect  amid  the  rest  of  this 
great  country  in  material  progress,  and  before  many  years  will  lead  all 
others. 

Our  people  you  will  find  hospitable,  kind,  courteous,  generous  to  a 
fault ;  and  yet  I  doubt  if  there  is  another  city  in  the  union  with  the  nerve 
and  the  energy  and  the  determination  to  rise  Phoenix-like  from  war, 
cyclone,  tornado,  fire,  and  earthquake,  as  the  city  of  Charleston  has 
done. 

We  are  glad  to  welcome  to  our  midst  so  many  distinguished  educators 
from  all  sections  of  this  great  country.  Your  coming,  I  hope,  will  not 
only  be  beneficial  to  you,  but  an  inspiration  to  us. 

South  Carolina  from  the  earliest  period  of  her  history  has  fostered 
education.  Contemporaneous  with  the  settlement  of  the  country  and  the 
establishment  of  the  colony  was  the  organization  of  societies  for  the 
teaching  of  children.  The  first  free  school  in  the  state  dates  back  to 
1710,  less  than  forty  years  after  the  first  permanent  settlement,  and  when 
the  population  had  scarcely  reached  five  thousand.  From  that  day  there 
has  been  great  interest  in  education,  and  many  private  schools  flourished, 
and  even  during  the  Revolution  "learning  did  not  languish." 

In  1777  were  incorporated  Mount  Zion  Society,  Winnsboro,  and 
Catholic  Society,  Camden  ;  and  in  1785  three  colleges  were  incorporated, 
one  being  the  College  of  Charleston,  which  is  in  existence  to  this  day; 
one  was  Mt.  Zion  College  at  Winnsboro,  which  subsequently  became  an 
academy  widely  known,  of  great  influence  and  usefulness ;  the  other  was 
at  Cambridge.  There  were  numerous  other  societies,  most  of  them 
endowed  by  private  benefactions.  The  most  noted  of  them  possibly  was 
the  Willington  Academy,  in  Abbeville  district,  conducted  by  Dr.  Moses 
Waddell,  and  here  some  of  the  most  distinguished  men  of  this  state  and 


Sessions]  ADDRESSES  OF  WELCOME  43 

this  nation  received  their  early  training.  James  L.  Petigru,  Hugh  S. 
Legare,  George  McDuffie,  Patrick  Noble,  D.  L.  Wardlaw,  J.  H.  Wardlaw, 
and  A.  B.  Longstreet  —  the  latter  the  first  president  of  the  South  Carolina 
College,  and  all  distinguished  South  Carolinians  —  A.  P.  Butler  and  P.  M. 
Butler,  besides  a  host  of  other  noted  men  who  won  fame  in  other  states, 
all  received  their  first  inspiration  to  learning  in  this  famous  academy, 
presided  over  by  that  stern  Presbyterian,  Dr.  Moses  Waddell. 

South  Carolina  College  was  incorporated  in  1801  upon  the  strong 
recommendation  of  Governor  John  Drayton  in  his  message  to  the  legis- 
lature. It  will  soon  have  rounded  out  the  century  with  a  history  of  which 
it  and  the  state  are  justly  proud. 

Other  colleges  were  founded,  and  public  and  private  schools  were  fos- 
tered, and  the  rudiments  of  an  education  were  within  the  reach  of  every 
child  in  South  Carolina.  The  census  of  1850  showed  that  the  expendi- 
tures for  education  within  the  state  amounted  to  $510,179,  most  of  which 
was  raised  by  tuition  fees.  By  the  end  of  the  next  decade  the  sum 
expended  for  education  had  increased  to  $690,412,  and  during  that 
decade  there  were  in  successful  operation  the  South  Carolina  College,  the 
State  Military  Academy,  the  Charleston  College,  Erskine  College,  Wof- 
ford  College,  Furman  University,  Newberry  College,  the  Medical  College 
of  Charleston,  besides  classical  institutes  and  academies  in  different  parts 
of  the  state. 

At  the  close  of  this  decade  the  dark  clouds  of  war  hung  over  this  fair 
land,  and  for  four  long  years  the  men  and  the  boys  of  Carolina  went  from 
workshop  and  the  plow,  the  counting-house  and  tRe  professor's  chair,  the 
classic  halls  of  the  college  and  the  country  schoolhouse,  to  the  tented 
field,  and  when  defeat  came  to  our  arms  "  the  desire  for  knowledge  gave 
place  to  craving  for  bread." 

But  one  of  the  first  acts  of  the  legislature,  after  the  storm  was  over 
and  military  rule  had  ceased,  was  to  open  the  South  Carolina  College, 
and  with  it  came  the  opening  of  the  doors  of  academies  and  schools  in 
all  parts  of  the  state. 

By  the  constitution  of  1868  a  system  of  public  schools  was  incor- 
porated in  the  organic  law,  but  on  account  of  bad  management  very  little 
was  accomplished  for  the  first  eight  or  ten  years.  This  system  was 
reaffirmed  by  the  constitution  in  1895,  and  the  special  tax  for  common 
schools  raised  to  three  mills  on  the  dollar. 

Tho  it  was  long  neglected.  South  Carolina  now  provides  for  the 
higher  education  of  her  daughters  as  well  as  her  sons,  and  possibly  no 
state  in  the  union,  in  proportion  to  population  and  wealth,  does  as  much 
for  the  higher  education  of  her  youth.  Besides  the  denominational  col- 
leges already  mentioned  we  have  Winthrop  and  several  other  private  col- 
leges for  our  daughters,  and  Clemson  College,  South  Carolina  College, 
the  Citadel,  and  a  college  at  Orangeburg  for  the  colored  people. 


44  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [General 

According  to  the  report  of  the  superintendent  of  education,  South 
Carolina  spent  last  year  for  her  white  schools  $536,353.26,  and  for  the 
colored  schools  $193,461.30 ;  and  this  does  not  include  the  appropriations 
for  the  colleges.  And  yet  we  are  not  doing  for  the  children  what  we 
should  or  what  we  would  like  to  do. 

It  is  worthy  of  note  that  the  first  manual-labor  school  in  the  United 
States  was  established  in  Abbeville  district  in  1796,  when  Dr.  John  De 
la  Howe  by  his  will,  dated  September  7,  1796,  gave  the  greater  part  of 
his  property  to  the  Agricultural  Society  of  South  Carolina  in  trust  "  for 
the  purpose  of  establishing  and  maintaining  forever  at  his  former  resi- 
dence in  this  district  an  agricultural  school  for  twelve  poor  boys  and 
twelve  poor  girls,  to  be  boarded  and  clothed,  and  well  educated,  and 
taught  to  work."  The  trust  was  resigned  to  the  state  in  1805.  Much  of 
the  endowment  was  lost  during  the  war,  but  the  school  is  still  kept  open. 

Then  there  is  the  Winyah  Indigo  Society,  the  Cheraw  Lyceum,  and 
other  noted  societies  and  academies  that  have  contributed  to  the  educa- 
tion of  our  youth.  In  fact,  the  subject  of  education  in  South  Carolina  is 
an  interesting  one,  well  worthy  of  careful  study.  These  societies  and 
public  schools  have  largely  been  supplanted  by  the  graded  school  and  the 
college.  I  hope  it  is  an  advanced  step.  In  almost  every  incorporated 
town  and  city  we  have  the  graded  school,  and  in  many  of  the  country 
districts  the  public-school  fund  is  supplemented  by  local  taxation. 

But  I  must  desist.  I  trust  you  will  find  the  sea  breezes  pleasant, 
tho  the  mercury  may  play  around  the  100°  mark.  We  are  assured  by  the 
News  and  Courier  thati:his  is  the  most  delighful  summer  resort  on  the 
Atlantic  coast,  and  cooler  and  more  pleasant  even  than  some  secluded 
spot  on  the  mountain  top.  And  it  must  be  so.  It  may  require  faith,  and 
a  strong  faith,  on  your  part  to  make  it  so,  but  a  sufficient  faith  is  all  that 
is  needed. 

Of  course,  you  will  take  time  from  your  deliberations  to  take  a  sail 
around  the  harbor,  and  to  make  a  visit  to  Fort  Sumter  and  Fort  Moultrie, 
and  the  other  historic  points  of  interest,  which  will  be  pointed  out  to  you. 
No  one  has  ever  been  to  Charleston  who  has  not  visited  old  St.  Michael's 
and  listened  to  the  melody  of  her  chimes,  which  rang  the  curfew  for  162 
years.  These  chimes  first  reached  Charleston  in  1764,  and  when  the  city 
was  evacuated  by  the  British  army  in  1782  they  were  carried  off  by  one  of 
the  officers  and  afterward  brought  back.  For  nearly  a  hundred  years 
they  summoned  to  worship,  or  tolled  the  mourning  of  the  departed,  or 
sounded  the  chimes  of  rejoicing,  until  1862,  when  they  were  taken  to 
Columbia  for  safe-keeping,  and  were  destroyed  when  the  capital  city  was 
burned.  The  fragments  were  again  sent  to  England  and  recast  out  of 
the  same  amalgam  and  in  the  same  mold,  and  they  still  send  forth  the 
same  sweet  sounds  of  joy  or  the  soft,  sad  notes  of  mourning.  Of  course, 
you  will  visit  this  historic  church. 


Sessions]  ADDRESSES  OF  WELCOME  45 

Once  more  I  bid  you  welcome  to  our  hearts  and  our  homes,  with  the 
hope  that  your  coming  may  be  a  benediction  to  us  and  a  blessing  to  you. 


r 


HON.     JOHN     J.      McMAHAN,     STATE     SUPERINTENDENT     OF     EDUCATION      OF 

SOUTH    CAROLINA 

In  welcoming  the  teachers  of  the  broad  union  to  the  ancient  city 
of  this  distinctively  southern  state — a  historic  individual  whose  char- 
acter is  known  of  all  men,  and,  we  are  proud  to  believe,  respected  by 
all,  if  not  beloved  —  I  feel  that,  whatever  of  pleasure  and  profit  your 
coming  may  mean  to  you,  to  us  it  brings  a  valued  stimulus  and  many  a 
useful  lesson.  In  return  we  pledge  you  our  hearty  gratitude  and  a  long 
remembrance.  That  fad  of  the  day,  "  lest  we  forget,"  has  not  been 
adjudged  the  frailty  of  the  Southron. 

This  association,  tho  many  educators  from  all  classes  of  schools  con- 
tribute to  its  results,  would  not  be  possible  but  for  the  great  public-school 
systems,  the  establishment  of  which  has  changed  the  self-complacent, 
isolated  pedagog  of  old  into  the  rational  and  gregarious  being  of  the  pres- 
ent day,  is  transforming  our  educational  ideals  to  the  practical  promo- 
tion of  human  welfare,  and  constitutes  the  most  significant  and  the  most 
beneficent  world-influence  of  the  age.  On  behalf,  therefore,  of  more 
than  five  thousand  public-school  teachers  of  South  Carolina  I  welcome 
you.  We  are  not  asleep  to  the  opportunities  and  obligations  of  our  pro- 
fession, yet  from  conference  with  you  we  shall  feel  a  quicker  pulsation  of 
ambition,  a  stronger  dissatisfaction  with  conditions  that  should  be  changed, 
and  hence  can  be  changed  and  shall  be  changed. 

We  have  a  noble  body  of  teachers  in  South  Carolina.  I  would  that 
you  might  know  them  as  some  of  us  know  them.  They  teach  largely  for 
the  love  of  the  work  —  it  must  be  so,  for  the  money  received  is  a  very 
inconsiderable  item. 

This  year  closes  the  thirty-third  year  of  our  public-school  system  — 
public-school  education  as  a  complete  system  ;  not  "pauper  schools," 
which  we  had  before  the  war,  which  did  a  certain  work  for  a  certain  class 
of  people,  but  a  complete  system  of  schools  for  all  the  people,  which  the 
richest  as  well  as  the  humblest  patronize  and  are  proud  of ;  a  system  in 
which  are  now  the  best  schools  in  the  state,  and  upon  which  we  rely  for 
the  best  education  of  the  future.  This  year,  which  marks  the  close  of 
the  first  generation  of  public-school  education  in  South  Carolina,  and  is 
the  last  year  of  the  nineteenth  century,  is  signalized  by  your  meeting 
here  with  us.  We  thank  you.  As  we  look  back  we  have  reason  to  be 
encouraged  and  to  be  assured  of  the  future.  All  differences  of  opinion 
on  the  principle  of  public  education  have  disappeared.  Our  people,  with 
one  accord,  are  now  demanding  better  schools,  and  we  are  ready  to  profit 
by  your  experience  and  to  receive  light  from  you.  You  will  be  interested 
to  know  something  of  our  educational  conditions,  and  I  cannot  use  better 


46  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [General 

the  time  I  am  expected  to  occupy  than  by  pointing  out  to  you  some  of 
our  weaknesses.     I  shall  not  attempt  to  tell  you  of  our  strong  points. 

Of  our  forty  counties,  in  only  three  does  the  school  term  average 
more  than  seven  months,  and  in  only  two  others  does  it  average  over  six 
months  —  and  that  is  for  white  schools;  for  negro  schools,  on  an  average, 
the  school  year  in  these  counties  is  about  four  months.  In  nine  counties 
out  of  our  forty  we  have  an  average  school  year  of  less  than  four  months 
for  white  and  from  two  to  three  months  for  negro  schools  —  a  condition 
sadly  discouraging  to  the  teacher's  profession.  In  our  country  schools 
we  have  few  teachers  who  have  had  normal-school  training.  Yet  when 
last  year  the  legislature  rendered  possible  a  four-weeks'  school  for  teach- 
ers in  each  county,  and  I  made  an  appeal  to  the  trustees  and  teachers 
to  make  it  possible  that  the  teachers  might  attend,  out  of  somewhat  more 
than  three  thousand  white  teachers  more  than  two  thousand  attended 
these  schools,  and  out  of  something  over  two  thousand  negro  teachers 
over  eight  hundred  attended.  So  there  is  a  response  of  professional 
pride  and  ambition  manifested  that  gives  us  hope  for  the  future. 

We  have  had  for  educational  purposes  for  many  years  a  two-mill  tax 
on  all  the  property  in  the  state,  besides  one  dollar  a  head  on  voters,  with 
the  possibility  in  some  instances  of  extra  taxes.  In  1895  the  constitu- 
tional convention  which  passed  an  educational  qualification  for  suffrage 
raised  the  school  tax  from  two  mills  to  three  mills,  and  provided  easy 
machinery  by  which  any  district  may  vote  an  additional  tax  of  not  exceed- 
ing four  mills.  Many  districts  have  levied  this  tax  and  established  excel- 
lent schools.  Our  honor-roll  now  is  the  roll  of  districts  that  each  year 
add  themselves  to  this  list. 

Tho  the  average  of  schools  is  as  I  have  stated,  we  take  pride  in  the 
fact  that  here  and  there,  in  even  the  poorest  counties,  thru  the  energy 
and  ambition  of  a  few  men,  we  have  country  schools  that  are  in  session 
for  eight  or  ten  months  in  a  year,  and  do  as  good  work  as  is  done  any- 
where in  rural  schools. 

There  are  sections,  however,  where  a  local  tax  would  be  ineffective 
because  of  the  lack  of  taxable  property.  But  we  shall  soon  have  a  state 
tax  to  bring  up  these  deficiencies  and  to  insure  to  every  community  a 
good  school,  worthy  the  name  in  every  sense,  so  that  adequate  education 
shall  be  within  the  reach  of  all.  To  this  achievement  we  pledge  ourselves 
here  in  your  presence,  and  as  South  Carolinians  and  Americans  we  will 
accomplish  it. 

HON.  J.  ADGER  SMYTH,  MAYOR  OF  CHARLESTON 

Ladies  and  Gentlemen : 

It  is  a  great  honor  as  well  as  a  great  pleasure  to  voice  Charleston's 
greetings  to  the  distinguished  ladies  and  gentlemen  I  see  gathered  here 
today,  in  this  convention  of  the  National  Educational  Association. 


Sessions]  ADDRESSES  OF  WELCOME  47 

That  we  were  in  earnest  in  wanting  you  to  come  to  Charleston  was 
proven  by  our  sending  that  delegation  of  persuasive  men  thousands  of 
miles  across  the  continent  to  urge  you  to  accept  our  invitation.  That  we 
are  glad  to  have  you  with  us  we  trust  we  have  shown  you  by  our  deeds ; 
hence  words  are  not  necessary  to  prove  the  sincerity  of  our  welcome. 

Gathered  as  you  are  from  all  sections  of  this  great  American  republic, 
we  welcome  you  to  this  city,  where  the  first  ordinance  of  secession  was 
passed,  and  across  the  waters  of  whose  bay  that  April  morning  the  first 
gun  sent  its  hurtling  sound  which  echoed  and  re-echoed  all  over  this 
broad  land. 

We  want  you  to  realize  from  your  own  experience  that  there  is  no 
longer  any  bloody  chasm  across  which  we  must  clasp  hands  today.  It  is 
not  only  filled  up,  but  the  tramping  feet  of  our  sons  and  brothers,  those 
boys  in  blue  of  our  army  and  our  navy,  as  they  marched  side  by  side,  under 
a  common  flag,  to  glorious  victory  over  a  common  enemy,  have  forever 
obliterated  every  trace  of  its  existence.  We  are  Americans  just  as  you 
are  Americans,  and  as  such  we  extend  to  you  a  heartfelt  welcome. 

Representing  as  you  do  the  educational  interests  of  this  great  coun- 
try, we  esteem  it  a  high  privilege  to  be  your  entertainers,  and  to  sit  at 
your  feet  as  learners.  For  we  realize  that  your,  influence  in  shaping  the 
destinies  of  our  land  is  not  confined  to  the  present,  but  extends  to  the 
future. 

A  man  without  education  is  like  marble  in  the  quarry.  It  shows  none 
of  its  inherent-  beauties  until  the  skill  of  the  artist  brings  out  the  colors, 
causes  the  surface  to  shine,  and  makes  patent  every  ornamental  vein  and 
spot  that  runs  through  it.  So  the  educator  works  upon  a  noble  mind  and 
draws  out  to  view  every  latent  virtue  and  perfection. 

Aristotle  tells  us  that  there  is  a  statue  hidden  in  every  block  of  marble, 
and  that  the  skill  of  the  sculptor  only  clears  away  the  superfluous  matter 
and  removes  the  rubbish.  The  figure  is  in  the  stone.  The  artist  only 
finds  and  reveals  it. 

What  sculpture  is  to  the  block  of  marble  education  is  to  the  human 
soul.  Michael  Angelo,  walking  with  some  friends  through  an  obscure 
street  in  Florence,  saw  a  block  of  marble  lying  neglected  and  covered 
with  dirt  and  rubbish.  To  the  surprise  of  his  friends,  regardless  of  his 
holiday  attire,  he  ran  to  it  and  at  once  commenced  cleaning  away  the  filth, 
striving  to  lift  it  from  the  slime  and  mire.  His  astonished  companions 
demanded  what  he  was  doing  and  what  he  wanted  with  this  worthless 
piece  of  stone.  "  There  is  an  angel  in  the  stone,"  he  answered  ;  "I  must 
let  it  out."  The  block  was  removed  to  his  studio.  With  patient  toil, 
with  earnest  labor,  with  repeated  blows  of  chisel  and  of  mallet,  he  let  the 
angel  out.  What  to  others  seemed  a  rude,  unsightly  stone  to  his  eye 
contained  the  buried  glory  of  his  art.  A  mason  would  have  built  the 
stone  into  the  wall  of  an  edifice,     A  cartman  would  have  hauled  it  to  fill 


48  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [General 

a  hole  or  grade  a  street.  By  the  process  of  his  calling,  the  artist  trans- 
formed it  into  a  creation  of  genius,  and  made  it  a  thing  of  beauty  and  a 
joy  forever. 

All  around  us  lie  human  souls  buried  in  the  sloughs  of  ignorance  and 
vice.  There  is  an  angel  in  each  soul.  Your  noble  mission  as  teachers  is 
by  training  and  by  discipline,  by  constant  and  by  unwearied  toil,  day  after 
day,  over  and  over  again,  so  to  shape  and  mold  and  change  those  souls  that 
the  imprisoned  angel  will  be  freed  from  its  environment  and  soar  out 
into  the  glorious  light  of  intellectual  liberty.  The  mother  and  the 
teacher  are  the  powers  behind  the  throne.  "The  hand  that  rocks  the 
cradle  rules  the  world,"  but  the  teacher  who  plants  the  immortal  seeds  of 
truth  and  light  in  the  young  and  ardent  mind  comes  next  in  influence  and 
in  authority  to  the  mother,  and  shares  her  responsibility  and  her  reward. 

As  we  look  backward  over  our  life-story,  while  the  mother's  love  and 
gentle  warnings  mark  the  initial  chapter  and  lay  the  foundation  of  all 
our  future,  we  recognize  with  tender  gratitude  the  guiding  and  training 
hand  of  the  beloved  teacher,  who  early  in  our  experience  helped  us  so 
powerfully  and  shaped  our  characters  for  all  time. 

That  man  must  live  with  a  soul  dead  indeed  whose  heart  does  not 
overflow  with  grateful  thoughts  and  loving  memories  of  the  teacher  whose 
constant  and  gentle  influence  drew  out  all  that  was  good  within  him,  and 
filled  him  with  lofty  hopes  and  noble  aspirations. 

Reverencing  as  I  do  from  my  own  experience  your  heaven-born  mis- 
sion and  your  world-wide  influence,  it  is  with  no  idle  words  that  I  bid 
you  welcome  to  this  ancient  city,  which  has  ever  held  the  education  of 
the  young  its  highest  duty,  and  has  always  esteemed  and  honored  its 
teachers  and  its  educators. 

As  you  wander  by  the  sad  sea  waves,  the  ocean  breezes,  as  they  whistle 
through  the  palms,  will  sing  the  soprano,  and  the  seabirds  with  their  cries, 
as  they  wheel  and  dart  about,  the  tenor  and  the  alto,  while  the  mighty 
waves  of  the  grand  Atlantic,  as  they  roar  and  pound  the  shore,  will  furnish 
the  solemn  bass,  all  joining  in  unison  in  a  glad  and  joyful  song  of 
welcome,  welcome,  welcome,  to  this  city  by  the  sea. 


HENRY    p.    ARCHER,    SUPERINTENDENT    OF   THE    CITY    SCHOOLS    OF 

CHARLESTON 

[stenographic  report] 
Mr.  President,  Ladies  and  Gentlemen  : 

Believing  that  brevity  is  the  soul,  not  only  of  wit,  but  also  of  a  speech 
on  a  July  afternoon,  I  feel  sure  that  I  can  add  nothing  to  the  words 
which  have  already  been  spoken  by  the  distinguished  gentlemen  who 
have  preceded  me.  They  have  but  echoed  the  chorus  of  the  welcome 
extended  by  the  state  of  South  Carolina,  and  by  her  metropolis,  to  the 


Sessions]  ADDRESSES  OF  WELCOME  49 

National  Educational  Association.  But  I  feel  that  I  reflect  the  welcome 
and  the  greetings,  not  only  of  the  school  authorities  of  my  native  city, 
but  of  the  trustees  and  presidents  of  the  colleges  of  the  state  and  the 
city  of  Charleston.  In  the  name  of  the  commissioners  of  the  public 
schools ;  in  the  name  of  their  humble  servants,  the  superintendent,  the 
principals  and  teachers  ;  in  the  name  of  the  pupils,  from  the  kindergarten 
to  the  college,  we  not  only  welcome  you,  but  we  thank  you. 

We  thank  you,  fellow-members  —  for  I  am  now  one  of  you  —  for  hav- 
ing brought  this  grand  army  of  representative  and  influential  educators 
to  this  grand  old  city  by  the  sea.  We  thank  you  for  the  enthusiasm 
which  your  presence  has  even  already  inspired.  We  thank  you  for  those 
expressions  of  fellowship  and  good-will,  of  sincere  and  genuine  brother- 
hood, which  have  come  from  your  hearts  and  from  your  hands.  We 
thank  you  above  all  that  you  have  come  to  this  southern  city  to  lead  us 
by  an  example  which,  God  granting  it,  we  will  follow. 

Yes,  my  fellow-members  of  the  National  Educational  Association,  we 
thank  you  more  than  we  are  able  to  tell  you  ;  but  more  especially  and 
above  all  we  thank  you  "for  that  expression  of  a  broad,  liberal,  national 
spirit  of  which  that  holy  ensign,  our  national  flag,  is  the  symbol.  We 
thank  you  that  you  are  here  today  as  our  friends  and  our  helpers,  and 
above  all  as  our  brethren.  For  us,  today  and  henceforth,  as  long  as  that 
national  ensign  floats,  there  is  no  North,  no  South,  no  East,  no  West. 

In  spite  of  differences  in  educational  thought,  methods,  and  opinions, 
we  are  all  here  today  on  a  common  platform  of  education  in  its  broadest 
sense.  I  repeat  :  We  thank  you  for  your  presence,  and  we  bid  you  thrice 
welcome. 

RESPONSES 


ELIPHALET    ORAM     LVTE,    PRINCIPAL    OF     THE    FIRST     PENNSYLVANIA 
NORMAL    SCHOOL,    MILLERSVILLE,    PA. 

Mr.  President,  Ladies  and  Gentlemen : 

If  there  had  been  any  doubts  in  our  minds  as  to  the  wisdom  of  hold- 
ing this  meeting  in  this  beautiful  city  by  the  sea,  the  eloquent  words  of 
welcome  to  which  we  have  all  listened  with  so  much  interest  would  have 
dispelled  these  doubts.  But  we  had  no  doubts.  The  fame  of  the  hos- 
pitality of  the  city  of  Charleston  is  world-wide,  and  we  have  come  to  this 
lovely  seaside  town  from  the  north  Atlantic's  rock-bound  coast  and  the 
waters  of  the  far-off  Pacific,  from  the  valleys  of  the  middle  West  and  the 
snow-capped  heights  of  the  Rockies,  from  the  great  lakes  and  the  great 
gulf,  knowing  that  we  should  be  received  as  brethren,  the  members  of  one 
great  family,  the  citizens  of  one  great  republic. 

This  is  not  the  first  time  that  some  of  us  have  come  south.  Many  years 
ago,  with  some  companions,  I  crossed  the  Long  Bridge  at  Washington  and 


5°  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [General 

trod  the  sacred  soil  of  Old  Virginia.  There  I  was  met  with  flags  flying, 
cannon  booming,  and  musketry  rattling.  From  every  part  of  the  sunny 
South  men  had  come  to  meet  us,  and  the  warmth  of  the  reception  they 
then  extended  to  us  overcame  us,  and  the  name  of  Bull  Run  passed  into 
history  with  more  of  truth  than  poetry  in  the  name.  Today  we  are  met 
again  by  a  great  army,  but  this  time  we  do  not  fear  the  arms  you  bear. 
Today  we  acknowledge  that  you  have  conquered  us,  but  this  time  we 
shall  not  run  away.  Many  years  ago  I  risked  my  life  to  escape  from 
being  taken  to  Libby  Prison.  Now  I  gladly  surrender  to  the  same  brave 
men — I  have  met  some  of  them  here  —  foes  no  longer,  thank  God,  but 
friends,  and  friends  forever. 

We  are  here  in  this  land  of  bright  skies  to  become  better  acquainted 
with  you.  Nearly  ten  years  ago  I  happened  to  visit  one  of  the  schools  of 
Charleston.  It  was  just  before  the  Christmas  holidays,  and  several  hun- 
dred children  were  assembled  in  a  large  room  for  their  closing  exercises. 
The  teacher  in  charge  of  this  multitude  of  little  folk  asked  me  to  say  a 
word  to  them,  and  I  began  my  remarks  by  telling  the  little  ones  that 
when  I  left  home  my  three-year-old  boy  commissioned  me  to  buy  him  a 
pair  of  skates  and  a  sled,  and  I  asked  the  children  where  I  lived.  A 
bright,  blue-eyed,  golden-haired  little  maiden  said  :  "  At  the  north  pole." 
I  have  sometimes  thought  that  some  of  our  southern  brethren  imagined 
that  we  lived  in  as  cold  and  inhospitable  a  region  as  the  little  girl  ima- 
gined I  came  from.  But  no  ;  we  are  like  you  in  thoughts,  in  feelings,  in 
aims,  and  in  prejudices;  and  we  rejoice  at  the  opportunity  of  meeting 
you  in  order  that  hereafter  there  shall  be  no  north  pole  in  your  notions 
of  us. 

We  have  come  into  this  beautiful  south  land  as  teachers  and  as 
learners.  We  want  to  teach  you  that  you  of  the  South  can  help  us  of  the 
North  in  many  ways,  and  that  possibly  we  can  be  of  some  service  to  you. 
And  we  have  come  as  learners.  We  need  to  learn  by  actual  observation 
somewhat  of  the  great  problems  that  confront  you,  and  that  you  are 
endeavoring  with  so  much  of  bravery  and  patience  and  wisdom  to  solve. 
Each  part  of  this  great  union  —  I  do  not  use  the  word  "section,"  Mr. 
Chairman — each  part  of  this  great  union  has  its  peculiar  problems  that 
the  educator  must  study  ;  and  while  the  South  is  compelled  to  face  ques- 
tions of  unusual  difficulty,  the  North  and  the  West  and  the  central  states 
are  not  exempt  from  obstacles  that  bar  the  way  to  rapid  progress.  The  old 
and  vexed  problem  of  immigration,  which  will  be  solved  only  when  our 
laws  are  so  framed  and  executed  as  to  offer  a  premium  for  honest  industry 
and  bar  out  the  vicious  and  the  lazy,  confronts  both  East  and  West. 
The  tramp  question  is  almost  wholly  unsolved.  The  capital-and-labor 
question,  which  agitates  all  sections,  and  which  is  most  burning  where 
capital  has  most  accumulated — these  three  great  questions  are  in  a  sense 
one  mighty  educational  problem,  which  demands  the   most  thoughtful 


Sessions]  ADDRESSES  OF  WELCOME  51 

attention  of  our  most  thoughtful  educators,  but  which  we  can  scarcely 
hope  can  be  solved  thru  the  schools  alone.  In  the  next  few  months 
we  shall  hear  much  of  trusts  —  one  form  of  the  capital-and-labor  problem 
—  much  of  "imperialism,"  and  much  of  "  i6  to  i."  These  questions 
have  grown  beyond  the  schools  into  the  wider  field  of  business  and 
governmental  life ;  but  it  is  within  bounds  to  assert  that  even  these  prob- 
lems are  not  unaffected  by  the  work  of  the  schoolmaster.  The  schools 
should  teach  that  it  is  not  dishonorable  to  be  rich  ;  that  wealth  properly 
used  brings  its  possessor  honor  and  happiness.  But  they  should  also 
teach  that  the  twofold  aristocracy  of  character  and  culture  should  not  be 
pushed  to  the  rear  by  the  aristocracy  of  money.  While  the  banking 
house  is  important,  the  church  and  the  school  are  more  important.  The 
citizens  of  a  republic  must  not  forget  that  man  as  man  is  greater  than 
man  as  a  money-maker,  or  even  as  a  soldier,  a  statesman,  or  a  scholar. 
We  must  not  forget  that  the  greatest  thing  in  man,  or  about  him,  or 
belonging  to  him,  is  his  manhood. 

While  the  questions  I  have  mentioned  are  the  subjects  of  discussion, 
and  possibly  of  disturbance,  in  many  parts  of  our  country,  there  are  also 
serious  questions  that  directly  confront  the  schoolmaster.  The  terrible 
waste  of  time  and  energy  in  child  education,  the  question  of  laying  a 
proper  educational  foundation  in  our  new  possessions,  upon  which  the 
future  prosperity  and  permanency  of  the  government  of  these  possessions 
will  largely  depend  —  these  and  hosts  of  other  subjects  must  engage  our 
attention  as  we  gather  together  year  after  year. 

But,  if  I  may  speak  plainlyj  probably  the  greatest  good  to  be  expected 
of  this  educational  gathering  is  the  liberalizing  influence  that  we  shall 
carry  away  with  us  and  that  we  hope  we  shall  leave  with  you.  Let  me 
give  you  a  concrete  illustration  of- what  I  mean  when  I  say  that  we  need 
the  leaven  of  liberality  in  all  parts  of  our  common  country.  On  the 
battlefields  of  Chattanooga  and  Chickamauga  the  lines  of  both  armies 
that  contended  there  are  marked  by  handsome,  enduring  monuments 
that  commemorate  the  valor  of  the  brave  boys  who  gave  their  lives  for 
what  they  believed  to  be  right.  My  heart  filled  with  emotion  as  I  fol- 
lowed those  long  lines  of  silent  witnesses  to  the  heroic  deeds  of  your 
brethren  and  mine.  A  battlefield  thus  marked  is  an  illuminated  history 
lesson,  to  be  known  and  read  by  all  who  visit  it.  1  have  said  in  the 
North  —  and  I  have  been  criticised  for  saying  so  —  that  I  hope  the  day  is 
not  far  distant  when  our  one  battlefield  in  Pennsylvania,  Gettysburg,  will 
be  as  thickly  dotted  with  monuments  erected  by  the  South  as  it  now  is  with 
those  erected  by  the  North.  He  reads  history  with  a  contracted  vision,  with 
a  narrow  understanding  of  its  lessons,  who  does  not  read  that  the  genera- 
tion that  ended  the  great  conflict  had  nothing  to  do  with  its  beginning. 
May  we  not  hope  that  one  result  of  this  fraternal  meeting  which  begins 
today  with  the  cordial  words  of  welcome  of  the  distinguished  gentlemen 


52  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [General 

who  preceded  me  may  be  to  broaden  our  views  of  the  greatness  and  one- 
ness of  our  fair  land  ? 

I  have  felt  that  these  rambling  remarks  upon  the  purposes  of  our 
association  would  not  be  inappropriate  in  the  first  response  to  the 
addresses  of  welcome.  You  may  glean  from  what  has  been  said  on  this 
platform  and  in  your  enterprising  newspapers  why  we  have  come  together 
and  why  your  greetings  are  received  with  peculiar  pleasure.  We  are  here 
to  consider  some  of  the  great  educational  questions  that  confront  us,  and 
we  rejoice  at  the  knowledge  your  kind  and  complimentary  words  give  us 
that  our  deliberations  will  be  held  among  sympathetic  and  appreciative 
friends,  who,  by  their  presence  and  words  of  counsel  and  assistance,  will 
make  our  common  labors  lighter. 

More  than  this :  We  hope  to  leave  this  charming  city  with  clearer 
ideas  of  our  duty  than  when  we  came.  We  hope  to  appreciate  more 
highly  the  real  purpose  of  education,  the  high  ideal  that  must  be  before 
every  teacher.  We  hope  to  carry  away  stronger  convictions  of  the 
responsibilities  of  those  who  attempt  to  mold  and  fashion  the  plastic 
mind  of  childhood  and  youth.  We  hope  to  realize  more  fully  than  ever 
that  the  safety  of  a  nation  rests  largely  with  its  schools.  Finally,  we 
hope  to  be  filled  with  something  of  the  spirit  of  the  Great  Teacher,  and 
carry  with  us  into  our  different  fields  of  labor  over  all  this  broad  land  a 
clearer  knowledge  of  our  profession,  a  fuller  feeling  of  devotion  to  our 
profession,  and  a  deeper  determination  to  realize  the  loftiest  ideals  of 
our  profession. 

J.   W.  CARR,  SUPERINTENDENT  OF  SCHOOLS,  ANDERSON,  IND. 

Mr.  President,  Ladies  and  Gentlemen  of  the  City  of  Charleston : 

Never  till  now  have  I  been  able  to  understand  the  joy  of  the  meeting 
of  Jacob  and  Esau.  For  years  they  had  been  estranged  and  separated ; 
each  had  had  his  joys  and  sorrows — his  triumphs  and  defeats.  Now 
they  meet  and  embrace  each  other  and  mingle  their  tears  of  rejoicing. 
They  are  brothers  once  more.  The  old  hatred  is  dead.  The  bitter 
words,  the  threats  of  vengeance,  the  wrongs  of  former  days  are  all  for- 
gotten. They  think  of  their  boyhood,  of  Isaac  and  Rebekah.  They 
talk  of  their  trials  and  triumphs,  and  of  the  wonderful  providence  of  God 
that  blessed  them  in  so  many  ways.  Then  Esau  shows  Jacob  his  horse- 
men and  warriors,  and  tells  of  his  power  and  glory;  and  Jacob  shows 
Esau  his  wives  and  children,  and  servants  and  flocks,  and  tells  of  his 
wealth  and  power ;  and  they  kiss  each  other  and  thank  God  that  they  are 
again  united  as  brothers,  with  a  common  faith  and  a  common  destiny. 

This  magnificent  welcome  affects  me  greatly.  No  other  portions  of 
our  country  have  been  farther  apart  in  the  past  than  Indiana  and  South 
Carolina.  So  little  intercourse  and  sympathy  between  the  people,  so 
much  remembrance  of  the  estrangement  of  the  past,  so  little  knowledge 


Sessions]  ADDRESSES  OF  WELCOME  53 

of  and  regard  for  each  other,  so  much  prejudice  and  so  little  love  —  these 
have  kept  us  apart  too  long.  But  at  last  came  your  kind  invitation  to 
visit  you  in  your  homes  in  this  beautiful  city,  and  our  joyful  acceptance. 
Yet,  as  we  journeyed  hitherward,  the  thought  uppermost  in  our  minds, 
like  that  in  Jacob's  of  old,  was  :  How  shall  we  be  received  ?  Shall  we  be 
admitted  to  your  houses,  but  denied  access  to  your  hearts  ?  Or  will  the  old 
love  which  has  lain  dormant  so  long  wake  once  more  "when  touched  by 
the  better  angels  of  our  nature"? 

But  all  misgivings  are  dispelled.  The  warmth  of  your  greeting,  your 
words  of  welcome,  the  hospitality  of  your  homes,  the  deference  and 
respect  shown  us  by  all  classes  of  your  people,  your  innumerable  courte- 
sies and  civilities,  and,  best  of  all,  your  soul-greetings,  which  the  tongue 
cannot  describe,  but  which  the  heart  understands  —  these  assure  us  beyond 
doubt  that  we  are  being  entertained,  not  simply  as  guests,  but  as  brethren. 
We  appreciate  your  hospitality  and  accept  it  in  the  generous  spirit  in  which 
it  is  given.  We  accept  the  freedom  of  your  city,  and  assure  you  that 
we  are  already  at  home  in  your  midst.  We  rejoice  in  your  prosperity,  in 
your  enterprise,  in  your  wealth,  in  your  beautiful  scenery,  and  in  your  com- 
fortable homes.  We  take  a  just  pride  in  your  history,  and  we  honor  the 
names  of  your  distinguished  living  and  illustrious  dead.  Forts  Moultrie 
and  Sumter,  and  the  city  of  Charleston,  and  the  state  of  South  Carolina, 
and  the  whole  South  are  ours.  Marion  and  Laurens  and  Pinckney  and 
Hayne  and  Calhoun  and  Beauregard  and  Hampton  and  Jackson  and 
Robert  E.  Lee  —  they  too  are  ours.  Likewise  "Dixie"  and  the  "Bonny 
Blue  Flag,"  and  whatever  is  cherished  in  the  southern  home,  or  is  dear  to 
the  southern  heart,  or  is  sacred  to  the  southern  altar  —  these  too  are  ours, 
for  we  have  received  them  as  gifts  from  our  brethren. 

While  we  receive  so  much  from  you,  what  can  we  give  in  return  ? 
What  tokens  and  mementos  that  will  compare  with  your  priceless  treas- 
ures ?  Poor,  indeed,  seem  the  gifts  we  have  to  offer.  But  here  are  our 
hands,  my  brothers ;  and  in  giving  them  we  give  our  hearts  also.  We 
pledge  you  our  faith  that  whatever  we  have  of  wealth  and  of  learning  and 
of  fame  and  of  honor  is  yours.  Franklin  and  Hamilton  and  Webster 
and  Sherman  and  Sheridan  and  Grant  and  Abraham  Lincoln  —  all  are 
yours.  For  we  are  yours  and  you  are  ours,  brethren  indeed,  under  one 
flag,  with  a  common  hope  and  a  common  destiny. 

How  appropriate  it  is  that  this,  the  first  great  national  gathering  to 
meet  in  this  city  since  before  the  war,  should  be  the  National  Educational 
Association  —  an  association  whose  sole  aim  is  the  elevation  of  character, 
the  exaltation  and  glory  of  our  national  life!  How  beautiful  is  the  thought, 
also,  that  the  childhood  of  the  nation  should  be  the  mystic  power  that 
has  drawn  us  together,  making  this  meeting  truly  national !  Again  is 
fulfilled  in  our  midst  that  divine  prophecy :  "And  a  little  child  shall  lead 
them." 


54  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [General 

But  while  we  make  joyous  this  occasion,  let  us  not  forget  that  it  is 
the  duty  of  the  hour  to  plan  for  the  future.  And,  as  never  heretofore, 
this  association  is  to  be  national,  let  us  mutually  pledge  each  other  that 
it  shall  have  a  new  birth,  and  that  public  education  shall  receive  a  new 
impetus.  Much  has  been  accomplished  educationally  in  the  United 
States  in  the  past.  Public  education,  primary,  secondary,  and  higher, 
has  become  firmly  rooted,  and  has  already  borne  much  excellent  fruit. 
But,  if  the  public  schools  are  to  perform  their  true  mission  in  the  republic, 
much  still  remains  to  be  done.  They  must  be  freed  from  the  blighting 
domination  of  politics  and  every  other  sinister  influence,  and  administered 
according  to  business  and  educational  principles,  and  in  the  sole  inter- 
est of  the  children.  The  profession  of  teaching  must  be  so  elevated  and 
ennobled  that  it  will  be  impossible  for  untrained  men  and  women  to  enter 
it  as  a  stepping-stone  to  some  other  occupation  or  profession,  or  as  a  mere 
makeshift.  The  true  teachers  must  not  be  the  poorest  paid  and  the  least 
honored  servants  of  the  state,  but  they  must  receive  compensation  ade- 
quate to  the  service  rendered,  and  respect  and  honor  due  to  their  high 
calling.  The  course  of  study  in  our  schools  must  be  freed  from  the  flot- 
sam and  jetsam  that  have  drifted  from  every  shore,  and  be  made  to  meet 
the  needs  of  our  people.  Children  must  not  go  thru  school  with  the  idea 
that  a  high-school  diploma  will  admit  them  to  the  aristocracy  of  learn- 
ing, and  that  from  the  day  of  their  graduation  they  can  make  a  living 
without  labor.  On  the  contrary,  the  gospel  of  work  must  be  preached 
and  practiced  thruout  this  broad  land.  Children  must  be  taught  from  the 
beginning  that  an  education  is  to  fit  \htmfor  work,  not  to  get  out  of  it. 
The  schools  must  give  to  the  country  trained  leaders  and  trained  follow- 
ers —  leaders  who  are  able  to  direct  every  form  of  human  activity,  and 
followers  who  can  intelligently  carry  out  directions.  The  schools  must 
also  teach  the  patriotism  of  peace  as  well  as  the  patriotism  of  war  —  a 
patriotism  which  spurns  the  wrong  and  upholds  the  right ;  a  patriotism 
which  the  arts  of  the  demagog  cannot  seduce,  the  emoluments  of  office 
cannot  bribe,  the  wine  of  party  zeal  cannot  intoxicate  ;  a  patriotism  which 
demands  efficient  public  service,  the  honest  enforcement  of  law,  the  free 
and  impartial  administration  of  justice,  and  the  security  of  the  rights  of 
the  humblest  citizen.  The  schools  must  give  more  knowledge,  power, 
skill,  courage,  freedom,  and  conscience,  so  that  the  problems  of  life,  both 
private  and  public,  may  be  dealt  with  skillfully,  intelligently,  and  sympa- 
thetically, whether  they  be  the  honest  performance  of  a  day's  work,  the 
choice  of  an  occupation,  the  proper  care  for  one's  family,  the  government 
of  a  city,  the  preaching  of  the  gospel  to  the  rich,  the  solution  of  the  race 
problem,  the  abolition  of  the  liquor  traffic,  the  adjustment  of  the  conflict 
between  capital  and  labor,  or  the  formation  of  a  code  of  laws  for  the  gov- 
ernment of  a  nation.  And,  finally,  the  school  must  teach  a  faith  that  is 
immovable  in  the  ultimate  triumph  of  truth,  justice,  and  righteousness. 


Sessions]  ADDRESSES  OF  WELCOME  55 

JAMES    A.    FOSHAY,    SUPERINTENDENT    OF    SCHOOLS,    LOS    ANGELES,  CAL. 

Mr.  Chairman,  Ladies  and  Gentlemen  : 

After  the  distinguished  gentlemen  who  have  preceded  me,  there 
remains  but  little  for  me  to  say,  unless  I  repeat,  and  thus  emphasize,  our 
thanks  for  your  generous  welcome,  which  I  gladly  do. 

Having  had  the  pleasure  of  entertaining  this  grand  organization  at  its 
last  meeting,  Los  Angeles  sends  congratulations  to  Charleston  for  her 
present  opportunity.  The  eyes  of  many  people  are  now  turning  upon 
this  fair  city,  and  the  proceedings  of  this  week  will  be  watched  with 
earnest  expectations.  We  have  been  looking  forward  to  this  time  when 
we  should  be  guests  instead  of  hosts  ;  but  the  welcome  accorded  us  has 
taught  us  that  all  the  stories  about  southern  hospitality  fall  far  short  of 
expressing  its  warmth  and  genuineness. 

We  pride  ourselves  in  our  free  and  untrammeled  West  on  "Cali- 
fornian  hospitality,"  and  have  always  felt  that  to  have  it  said  that  we 
"  entertain  like  southerners  "  was  a  cherished  compliment ;  now  we  fully 
realize  the  value  of  such  a  compliment,  while  we  are  learning  that  true 
southern  hospitality  lives  in  the  South  only. 

Last  year  we  met  in  what,  in  many  ways,  is  a  new  land ;  this  year  we 
stand  on  old  historic  ground,  made  sacred  to  all  of  us  thru  many  loving 
memories.  Our  cities  are  far  apart.  Not  only  by  miles,  but  by  industries, 
by  associations,  and  by  landscapes  do  we  differ.  The  Californian  stands 
in  his  rose-embowered  garden,  and  his  gaze  travels  far  across  the  yellow 
grainfields  to  the  bright  green  foothills,  and  beyond,  miles  away,  to  the 
rugged,  snow-capped  Sierras : 

"Mountains  on  whose  barren  breast 
The  laboring  clouds  do  often  rest." 

All  about  him  is  bathed  in  brilliant  sunshine ;  above  him  is  the  vivid  blue 
of  his  California  sky.  When  his  sunset  comes  it  is  a  gorgeous  moment  of 
orange  and  red  and  deep  purple  lights.  How  different  the  view  all  about 
us  today !  Have  the  old,  the  historic,  the  sacred  memories  mellowed 
even  the  landscape  and  the  skies  of  your  lovely  South  ?  Has  nature 
rewarded  you  loyal  South  Carolinians  by  giving  to  you  alone  the  restful, 
quiet  blue  of  your  bay  and  sky,  the  tender  pinks  and  yellows  and  greens 
that  lie  all  about  you,  and  the  soft  splendor  of  your  sunsets  ? 

After  we  of  the  newer  states  have  thrown  off  a  little  of  the  glamour  of 
the  beauty  of  your  city,  we  find  much  busy  life  to  interest  us.  Your  broad 
harbor,  with  the  many  vessels  anchored  at  peace  upon  its  bosom,  we  com- 
pare with  our  own  long-fought-for  San  Pedro  harbor.  Your  cotton-mills 
speak  of  a  great,  an  ever-growing,  permanent  industry.  We  contrast 
them  in  our  minds  with  the  thousands  of  oil-derricks  that  now  cover  our 
state  like  a  new  kind  of  forest.  Yes,  the  East  and  the  West  are  different ; 
each  has  its  own  attractions. 


56  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [General 

It  is  fitting  that  the  meetings  of  the  greatest  and  grandest  association 
of  our  country  should  be  held  in  different  places,  in  order  that  its  influ- 
ence may  fall  on  those  who  could  not  otherwise  be  brought  in  touch  with 
it,  and  that  we  may  learn  of  the  various  cities  of  our  land. 

After  all,  the  East  and  the  West  are  one.  Charleston  and  Los  Angeles 
do  not  seem  so  far  apart  when  we  realize  that  the  ideas  of  those  before  us  to 
build  the  great  system  of  education  on  firm  foundations  for  the  future 
have  been  adopted  by  our  whole  nation,  "to  elevate  the  character  and 
advance  the  interests  of  the  profession  of  teaching,  and  to  promote  the 
cause  of  popular  education  in  the  United  States."  There  is  much  dis- 
cussion and  careful  thought  upon  the  question  :  What  shall  constitute  the 
curriculum  of  our  schools?  Our  ideas  of  teaching  are  so  different  from 
those  of  the  past  that  we  must  make  a  general  change.  Today  we  teach 
children  instead  of  subjects  or  facts ;  lead  the  children  to  use  facts  as  an 
aid  in  developing  power.  Our  aim  should  be  to  furnish  to  the  children 
such  training  as  will  fit  them  to  become  faithful,  practical,  intelligent  men 
and  women,  prepared  to  perform  the  duties  of  life. 

The  responsibility  of  the  teacher  cannot  be  passed  lightly,  and  when  we 
reflect  how  great  these  obligations  are,  we  are  led  to  ask  :  "  Who  is  suffi- 1 
cient  for  these  things  ? "  We  attempt  to  excel  the  Athenian  in  our 
desire  for  intellectual  accomplishments,  and  to  imitate  the  Spartan  in  our 
physical  culture ;  for  we  must  have  the  sound  body  for  the  sound  mind, 
and  hold  the  lessons  of  morality  that  have  descended  thru  the  ages,  that 
our  children  may  be  educated  harmoniously. 

Certain  periods  furnish  much  greater  opportunities  for  man  than 
others.  We  are  passing  thru  a  critical  period  in  our  nation's  history,  and 
deciding  a  national  policy  which  will  affect  the  history  of  the  world  for 
centuries  to  come.  The  great  energy  of  education  is  more  than  counter- 
balancing the  opposing  forces,  and  the  next  few  years  will  bring  to  us 
greater  developments  than  the  world  has  ever  witnessed. 

The  various  systems  of  education  in  our  country  have  originated  in 
necessity,  and  have  been  built  upon  the  needs  of  the  country.  The  events 
of  the  recent  war  have  shown  us  that  a  people  trained  in  the  public 
schools  of  a  free  country,  where  children  of  all  classes  and  denominations 
work  together  in  the  same  grades,  play  together  on  the  same  grounds, 
and  learn  the  same  great  truths  of  life,  can  be  counted  upon  to  do  its 
duty. 

A  large  proportion  of  the  multitudes  coming  to  our  shores  are  youths. 
The  question  arises  :  What  shall  be  done  with  them  in  order  that  they  may 
become  an  element  of  power  instead  of  a  source  of  danger  ?  The  public 
school  is  the  best  place  for  them  to  be  trained  for  American  citizenship. 
They  must  come  in  contact  with  one  another,  and  learn  to  recognize  the 
rights  of  their  fellows.  They  roust  learn  to  give  and  take;  and  thus  they 
are  prepared  to  come  naturally  into  tne  conditions  of  the  true  American. 


Sessions]  ADDRESSES  OF  WELCOME  57 

They  learn  that  the  state  maintains  schools  because  ignorance  is  danger- 
ous and  intelligence  is  a  necessity  for  every  citizen. 

The  full  duty  is  not  done  when  the  flag  is  hoisted  over  the  school 
building,  the  children  taught  to  sing  "America,"  "Red,  White, and  Blue," 
and  even  when  the  excellent  pledge,  "  I  pledge  allegiance  to  my  flag,"  is 
given.  But  the  children  who  will  soon  become  active  and  intelligent  citizens 
must  be  given  a  practical  knowledge  of  the  political  system  under  which 
they  live.  They  must  know  their  rights  as  American  citizens,  and  realize 
their  duties  to  their  fellows ;  they  must  be  taught  that  the  security  of  their 
individual  liberty  depends  upon  laws  and  their  enforcement.  Thus  they 
will  acquire  the  idea  of  the  political  system  of  which  they  are  a  part,  and 
learn  to  recognize  their  duties,  which  they  owe  to  the  community,  the 
state,  and  the  nation. 

The  Spartan  general  who  was  asked  to  show  the  walls  of  Sparta 
pointed  to  his  soldiers  and  said:  "These  are  the  walls  of  Sparta,  and 
every  man  is  a  stone."  The  bulwarks  of  our  nation  are  our  teachers  and 
pupils — mightier  than  our  army  and  navy,  and  accomplishing  more  than 
we  realize. 

While  our  attention  is  being  called  to  the  fleets  of  other  nations,  and 
while  we  are  preparing  our  battleships,  cruisers,  and  torpedo  boats,  and 
caring  for  our  army  and  navy,  we,  as  a  nation,  must  not  forget  that 
our  greatest  foes  are  within  our  own  country ;  that  intemperance,  idleness, 
and  vice,  in  its  many  forms,  are  doing  more  to  destroy  our  people  than 
we  need  fear  from  foreign  enemies.  These  are  in  our  midst,  and  are  well 
fortified ;  the  teachers  of  today  must  prepare  to  overcome  them.  They 
must  dignify  labor,  and  assist  in  establishing  and  maintaining  a  society 
which  shall  be  composed  of  self-supporting  people. 

The  greatest  need  of  this  country  is  men  of  personal  worth  and  sta- 
bility, who  will  not  be  swayed  from  truth  and  right,  and  who  will  see  to  it 
that  justice  is  not  perverted,  and  who  will  do  their  duty  by  participating 
in  public  affairs. 

"  God  give  us  men  ;  a  lime  like  this  demands 

Strong  minds,  great  hearts,  true  faith  and  ready  hands. 

Men  whom  the  lust  of  office  does  not  kill, 

Men  whom  the  spoils  of  office  cannot  buy. 

Men  who  will  obey  the  people's  will, 

Men  who  have  honor  —  men  who  will  not  lie. 

Men  who  can  stand  before  a  demagogue 

And  damn  his  treacherous  flatteries  without  winking. 

Tall  men,  sun-crowned,  who  live  above  the  fog 

In  public  duty  and  in  private  thinking." 

The  schools  and  colleges,  the  churches  and  homes,  must  furnish  such 
men. 

On  behalf  of  the  teachers  of  the  far  West  who  are  present,  and  on 
behalf  of  the  thousands  of  others  who  could  not  come,  I  thank  you  for 
your  generous  welcome, 


58  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [General 


ADDRESSES 


PRESIDENTS  ADDRESS 

OSCAR    T.    CORSON,  COLUMBUS,  O. 

Custom  long  established  makes  it  the  duty  of  the  President  of  this 
association  to  give  expression  to  his  views  regarding  some  of  the  educa- 
tional problems  of  the  day,  and  in  obedience  to  that  custom  I  shall  pro- 
ceed as  best  I  can  to  perform  that  duty.  I  desire  in  the  first  place  to 
state  frankly  that  I  am  not  an  educational  philosopher,  and  hence  have 
nothing  of  a  profound  or  mysterious  nature  to  offer  for  your  considera- 
tion ;  neither  am  I  an  educational  reformer,  and  hence  I  have  nothing 
new  or  startling  to  suggest ;  I  am  sure  that  I  am  not  a  chronic  pessimist, 
and  hence  I  have  nothing  in  particular  to  condemn.  It  is  my  honest 
conviction,  however,  that  the  whole  problem  of  education  is  an  intensely 
practical  one,  requiring  for  its  satisfactory  solution  the  best  thought  and 
effort  of  practical  men  and  women  everywhere.  In  my  judgment,  the 
educational  welfare  of  our  country  depends  very  largely  upon  the  con- 
tinued confidence  of  the  people  in  the  wisdom  bf  those  who  aspire  to 
educational  leadership.  If  this  leadership  is  unsettled  and  erratic  in  its 
policy,  confidence  on  the  part  of  the  people  is  destroyed,  and  the  schools 
thereby  become  the  prey  of  designing  politicians  who  are  always  wise 
enough  to  remember  —  what  so  many  people  with  much  better  intentions 
so  easily  forget  —  that  the  people  are  the  real  source  of  power.  Educa- 
tional leadership  which  inspires  and  retains  public  confidence  must  not 
only  have  high  ideals,  but  must  also  recognize  positive  limitations. 
While  it  must  ever  strive  to  bring  about  better  conditions,  it  must  not  lose 
sight  of  those  which  actually  exist.  These  principles  should  guide  in  the 
consideration  of  the  school  problem  from  both  the  financial  and  educa- 
tional standpoint. 

With  a  yearly  expenditure  of  over  $200,000,000  in  the  United  States 
for  public  education  alone,  it  is  very  important  that  those  who  assume  to 
lead  in  forming  and  directing  the  educational  sentiment  of  our  country 
shall  possess,  not  only  educational  qualifications,  but  also  that  business 
ability  which  will  inspire  confidence  in  the  business  world.  Care  should 
be  exercised  lest  we  go  too  far  in  the  modern  movement  of  separating  the 
business  and  educational  management  of  our  schools,  and  thereby  develop 
the  false  idea  that  business  and  education  have  nothing  in  common. 
Our  real  educational  experts  are  not  the  visionary  theorists  whose  opinions 
change  so  often  as  to  make  them  practically  worthless,  but  the  thought- 
ful, conservative  men  and  women  whose  business  sense  leads  them  care- 
fully to  consider  the  conditions  which  actually  do  exist,  as  well  as  the ' 


gessions]  PRESIDENT'S  ADDRESS  5^ 

ideal  ones  which  many  good  people  wish  might  exist ;  and,  as  a  result  of 
such  consideration,  enables  them  to  originate  and  execute  policies  which 
always  command  the  confidence  of  the  people.  The  real  educational 
leaders  of  this  age  whose  influence  will  be  permanent  are  those  who  have 
the  business  capacity  to  appreciate  and  comprehend  the  business  problems 
which  are  always  a  part  of  the  educational  problem.  Leadership  of  this 
character  recognizes  at  once  the  impracticability  of  any  attempt  to  carry 
on  the  work  of  public  education  in  schools  whose  cost  of  equipment  and 
maintenance  is  so  great  as  to  render  their  operation  a  financial  impossi- 
bility. 

Such  leadership  also  recognizes  the  fact  that,  if  the  schools  are  to  con- 
tinue to  have  the  financial  support  which  is  essential  to  their  success,  the 
people  must  be  led  to  feel  that  education  pays ;  that  money  judiciously 
invested  in  good  schools  and  well-equipped  teachers  will  bring  in  large 
returns,  not  alone  in  the  higher  intelligence,  happiness,  and  culture  of  the 
people,  but  in  a  financial  sense  as  well ;  that  the  two  most  important 
factors  which  enter  into  the  value  of  property  cannot  appear  on  the  tax 
duplicate,  viz.:  the  intelligence  and  morality  of  the  people.  The  success- 
ful prosecution  of  the  work  of  public  education  will  be  aided  to  a  far 
greater  extent  by  impressing  parents  and  boards  of  education  with  a  keen 
appreciation  of  the  financial  value  of  a  child's  time  during  the  years  of 
school  age  than  by  requiring  teachers  to  exhaust  their  time  and  energy  in 
a  fruitless  study  of  the  peculiarities  of  children.  While  we  must  never 
lose  sight  of  the  higher  ideals  in  education,  and  strive  in  every  possible 
way  to  lead  the  youth  of  our  land  to  look  beyond  the  mere  making  of  a 
living  to  the  making  of  noble  lives,  on  the  other  hand  it  is  never  wise  to 
ignore  the  bread-and-butter  phase  of  existence,  and  what  the  common 
people  consider  an  important  and  immediate  end  in  education.  With 
the  large  majority  of  the  people  of  every  community  the  struggle  of  life 
is  both  difficult  and  constant.  With  each  passing  year  the  competition 
seems  to  become  more  intense,  and  we  cannot  change  the  facts  or  better 
the  conditions  by  closing  our  eyes  and  sentimentally  regretting  that 
practical  people  everywhere  are  demanding  that  the  schools  shall  so  train 
their  boys  and  girls  as  to  enable  them  to  go  out  into  life  prepared  to 
meet  its  difficulties  and  make  an  honest  living.  Much  of  the  sentimental 
talk  of  the  present  day  —  that  the  schools  must  cease  to  be  utilitarian  in 
their  aims  and  purposes,  and  devote  all  their  time  and  energy  to  the 
development  of  character — would  not  be  worthy  of  consideration  were  it 
not  so  misleading.  No  one  doubts  that  true  character  is  the  true  end  and 
aim  of  all  true  education  ;  but  it  is  equally  important  that  we  also  rec- 
ognize that  true  character  is  not  a  visionary  something  which  grows  up 
separate  and  apart  from  practical  life,  but  is  the  product  of  right  training 
and  earnest  living,  and  usually  thrives  best  in  the  midst  of  toil  and  diffi- 
culty. 


6o  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [General 

In  the  educational  management  of  our  schools  there  is  also  great  need 
of  that  stability  and  conservatism  which  will  beget  confidence  and  insure 
thoroness.  In  their  anxiety  to  be  considered  progressive  those  to  whom 
the  people  look  for  guidance  in  educational  affairs  should  ever  be  mind- 
ful of  the  fact  that  all  genuine  reforms  have  their  roots  down  deep  in  the 
hearts  of  the  common  people,  and  that  all  true  growth  is  slow  growth.  To 
correct  one  wrong  tendency  an  attempt  should  not  be  made  to  create 
a  worse  one  in  an  opposite  direction.  Text-book  teaching  may  have 
been  carried  to  a  harmful  extreme  in  the  past,  but  that  is  no  reason 
why  it  should  be  abolished  now.  It  will  ever  remain  true  that  one  of 
the  best  things  that  any  school  can  do  for  any  pupil  is  to  teach  him 
how  to  make  proper  use  of  the  books  of  the  schoolroom  and  library. 
Courses  of  study  in  the  old-time  schools  may  have  been  too  much 
abridged,  and  as  a  result  narrowing  in  their  tendency,  but  many  thought- 
ful people  among  both  patrons  and  teachers  are  today  seriously  ques- 
tioning the  modern  attempt  of  teaching  something  of  everything  to 
children.  Schools  in  which  formal  tasks  assigned  by  heartless  teachers 
make  children  unhappy  need  reformation,  but  it  is  not  wise  to  replace 
them  with  playhouses  in  which  amusement  and  entertainment  are  mis- 
taken for  interest.  A  firm  belief  in  the  doctrine  of  hard  work  is  still 
necessary  to  both  happiness  and  success,  and  the  gospel  of  labor  needs  to 
be  preached  anew  in  many  localities.  The  public-school  critic  who 
imagines  that  he  sees  in  what  he  terms  the  "overwork"  of  the  school  the 
only  source  of  "nervous  prostration"  should  turn  his  attention  for  a  time 
to  society,  the  premature  entrance  to  which,  on  the  part  of  many,  leads  to 
physical,  mental,  and  moral  decay.  The  student  of  trained  mind  and 
mature  judgment  should  certainly  be  allowed  some  choice  of  studies  in 
making  preparation  for  his  special  life-work,  but  many  old-fashioned 
people  still  insist  that  children  in  grammar  and  high  schools  should  have 
very  definite  direction  in  their  work. 

In  dealing  with  all  these  important  phases  of  the  work  of  public  edu- 
cation, what  is  needed  more  than  anything  else  to  give  it  that  stability  and 
solidity  which  will  insure  the  support  of  public  sentiment  without  which 
true  progress  is  impossible,  is  the  active  influence  of  broad-minded,  great- 
hearted, liberally  educated  teachers,  who  are  superior  to  all  methods  and 
systems,  and  whose  influence  is  always  inspiring  and  uplifting.  With  the 
majority  of  those  who  compose  this  audience,  I  have  practically  forgotten 
all  the  formal  experiences  of  my  schoolboy  life.  The  course  of  study, 
the  methods  of  instruction,  the  plans  of  promotion,  and  many  other 
things  of  minor  importance,  have  practically  all  passed  out  of  mind ;  but 
there  remain  as  a  part  of  my  very  being  the  hallowed  memories  and  help- 
ful influences  of  a  teacher  or  two  —  great  personalities  in  whose  presence 
intellect  developed  and  character  grew.  He  does  most  for  education  in 
this  age  who  leads  the  people  to  appreciate  that  the  one  great  necessity  of 
any  school  is  a  great  teacher. 


Sessions]  THE  SMALL  COLLEGE— ITS  WORK  IN  THE  PAST  6i 

While  it  is  right  that  in  the  consideration  of  the  educational  problem 
great  emphasis  is  today  placed  upon  a  proper  recognition  of  the  rights 
and  needs  of  the  individual,  on  an  occasion  like  this  no  one  can  be 
unmindful  of  the  importance  of  education  from  a  national  standpoint. 
We  believe  that  the  intelligence  of  the  common  people  is  the  real  safe- 
guard of  our  republic,  and  that  the  free  public  school  must  ever  remain 
the  one  great  source  of  this  intelligence. .  In  this  great  work  of  preparing 
an  intelligent  citizenship,  capable  of  exercising  the  rights  of  freemen,  we 
know  no  North,  no  South,  no  political  party,  no  sectarian  creed. 

With  the  firm  belief  that  the  national  educational  sentiment  already 
so  firmly  established  in  all  sections  of  our  country  would  be  deepened  and 
strengthened  thereby,  the  National  Educational  Association  accepted  the 
cordial  invitation  extended  at  Los  Angeles,  and  today  meets  in  this  beau- 
tiful southern  city  under  circumstances  both  delightful  and  impressive. 
I  desire,  as  President  of  this  association,  to  join  with  those  who  have 
already  spoken  in  expression  of  appreciation  of  the  cordial  words  of  wel- 
come which  have  come  to  us  from  our  distinguished  friends  whose  acts  of 
kindness  and  hospitality  have  already  endeared  them  to  the  teachers  of 
this  great  union.  I  am  sure  that  our  stay  here  will  not  only  broaden  our 
ideas,  but  also  deepen  our  common  sympathy  and  interest  in  the  great 
cause  which  we  represent.  As  teachers  and  citizens  we  all  have  an 
abiding  faith  in  the  future  destiny  of  our  united  country,  whose  flag,  the 
beautiful  stars  and  stripes,  today  floats  so  majestically  over  land  and 
sea.  With  a  faith  in  the  God  of  nations  which  knows  no  wavering,  and 
with  unselfish  purpose  and  loyal  devotion,  let  us  as  members  of  this  great 
association  rededicate  and  reconsecrate  ourselves  to  the  great  principle 
and  work  of  popular  education. 


THE  SMALL  COLLEGE 

I.    ITS  WORK  IN  THE  PAST 

PRESIDENT    WILLIAM    OXLEY    THOMPSON,    OHIO    STATE    UNIVERSITY, 

COLUMBUS,    O. 

There  is  no  disguising  the  fact  that  there  is  a  widespread  feeling  that 
the  small  college  has  seen  its  best  days.  Within  twenty-five  years  there 
has  grown  up  a  sentiment  that  the  place  to  educate  a  boy  is  in  a  large 
crowd.  It  looks  very  much  as  if  in  the  popular  mind  mere  bigness  was  a 
virtue  and  littleness  a  vice.  It  will  help  us  to  understand  this  remarkable 
state  of  mind  when  we  remember  that  a  generation  ago  there  was  nothing 
but  the  small  college  in  America.  The  development  of  the  large  college 
has  come  since  1870.  The  fact  that  the  development  is  so  recent  may 
explain  why  we  who  have  seen  the  genesis  of  the  large  college  should 
regard  it  as  precisely  the  thing.  Otherwise  we  should  not  be  loyal  to  the 
progress  the  world  is  making. 


62  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [General 

Let  me  remind  you  that  in  1850  Yale  had  432  students,  and  Harvard 
296.  These  were  the  largest  colleges  in  the  country.  In  i860  Yale  had 
521,  and  Harvard  451.  In  1870  Yale  had  522,  and  Harvard  616.  As  late 
as  1870  no  other  college  in  the  country,  so  far  as  I  can  learn,  had  400 
students. 

In  1850  the  whole  number  of  students  in  American  colleges  was  a 
little  less  than  9,000;  in  i860,  a  little  over  13,000;  in  1870,  a  little  over 
16,000;  and  now,  not  far  from  40,000.  There  has  been  a  remarkable 
growth  in  the  attendance  at  colleges  during  the  lifetime  of  most  of  the 
members  of  this  association. 

Prior  to  1800  Yale  and  Harvard  were  pretty  small  colleges.  In  1800 
Harvard  graduated  a  class  of  47.  For  the  first  ten  years  of  the  century 
the  average  was  44.    This  could  not  be  called  a  very  large  college. 

Yale  shows  a  considerable  increase  about  the  beginning  of  the  cen- 
tury. In  1800  she  graduated  36,  as  against  47  from  Harvard.  The  first 
ten  years  of  the  century  Yale  averaged  52  in  a  class,  as  against  44  from 
Harvard. 

To  get  an  average  of  some  of  the  best  colleges  in  the  country  for  the 
period  from  1850  to  i860,  I  have  taken  the  best  New  England  colleges, 
with  this  result,  viz.:  Bowdoin  averaged,  for  the  ten  years,  32;  Amherst, 
44;  Williams,  48;  Dartmouth,  56;  Harvard,  82;  Yale,  95. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  that  Yale  up  to  1859  had  graduated  6,810 
men,  while  in  1898  she  had  graduated  12,468.  That  is  to  say,  from  1859 
to  1898  she  graduated  5,658  as  against  6,810  from  1702  to  1859.  Or,  to 
put  it  another  way,  Yale  graduated  almost  as  many  in  the  last  forty  years  as 
in  157  years  previous  to  that  time.  The  average  size  of  a  class  from  Yale 
from  1702  to  1898  is  64.  From  1702  to  1859  it  is  43.  From  1859  to 
1898  it  is  145.  This  shows  very  clearly  where  Yale's  great  growth  has 
been.     At  Harvard  the  story  is  much  the  same. 

In  1870  Yale's  catalog  was  a  pamphlet  of  seventy  pages.  The  library 
had  50,000  volumes  —  the  collection  of  169  years.  It  shows  that  the 
college  proper  had  nineteen  professors,  including  the  president.  The 
students  numbered  522.  The  terms  of  admission  were  not  beyond  what 
would  be  standard  in  a  good  small  college  today.  It  was  specified  that  a 
freshman  must  be  fourteen  years  of  age.  In  those  days  college  students 
were  still  boys.  They  are  men  now,  so  far  as  I  see  in  the  newspapers. 
A  bond  was  then  required  in  the  amount  of  $200  from  all  students.  The 
work  was  nearly  all  prescribed.  Certain  concessions  were  made  to  Ger- 
man in  the  junior  year,  but  there  was  nothing  that  a  modern  student 
would  call  the  privilege  of  electives. 

The  average  class  of  Bowdoin  for  115  years  up  to  1890  numbered 
19.  The  average  class  at  Amherst  from  1821  to  1885  numbered  43. 
The  class  at  Williams  from  1795  to  1890  averaged  37.  At  Dartmouth 
from  177 1  to  1890  the  classes  averaged  41. 


Sessions]  THE  SMALL  COLLEGE—  ITS  WORK  IN  THE  PAST  63 

I  detail  these  figures  out  of  the  great  array  of  statistics  simply  to 
enforce  my  statement  that  the  history  of  higher  education  in  this  country 
prior  to  1870  was  the  history  of  the  small  college,  a  fact  often  apparently 
lost  sight  of.  Since  1870  there  has  been  a  rapid  development  in  higher 
education,  and  the  country  now  has  a  considerable  number  of  schools 
where  great  congregations  of  students  are  found,  and  where  catalogs  are 
so  bulky  that  a  college  faculty  of  fifty  years  ago  would  have  been  hope- 
lessly lost  in  an  effort  to  explain  their  contents. 

It  is  within  this  period  that  the  state  universities  have  made  their 
wonderful  growth.  In  the  same  time  have  arisen  such  institutions  as 
Cornell,  Chicago,  and  Stanford.  The  older  institutions  of  the  East,  like 
Columbia,  Harvard,  Yale,  Princeton,  and  the  University  of  Pennsylvania, 
have  in  this  same  period  made  a  phenomenal  development,  both  in 
resources  and  in  students. 

Out  of  this  condition  of  things  has  arisen  a  considerable  debate  about 
the  college  of  the  future.  Many  have  thought  that  the  great  institutions 
were  to  be  the  only  ones,  and  that  the  small  institutions  would  soon  have 
no  place  in  the  educational  econonfy.  It  were  a  hopeless  task  to  under- 
take to  settle  the  question,  but  it  is  a  very  pleasant  privilege  to  bring 
before  you  a  few  truths  concerning  the  past  of  the  small  college. 

First  of  all  I  desire  to  emphasize  the  fact  that  the  criticism  often  made 
of  the  small  college  by  inference,  if  not  by  direct  statement,  is  both  unfair 
and  untrue.  It  is  not  quite  fair  for  us  to  cast  a  reflection  upon  the  only 
institution  that  fostered  higher  education  prior  to  the  past  thirty  years. 
That  institution,  as  we  have  seen,  was  the  small  college.  Furthermore,  the 
test  of  greatness  is  the  ability  to  meet,  or  the  actual  meeting  of,  the 
emergencies  of  the  hour.  The  questions  at  issue,  therefore,  are  whether 
the  small  college  met  the  issues  of  its  time  and  whether  present  small 
colleges  are  actually  meeting  an  existing  need.  Presently  I  shall  state 
the  evidence  in  support  of  an  affirmative  reply  to  these  questions.  I 
remark,  in  passing,  that  the  inference  against  the  small  college  is  not 
drawn  from  any  facts  that  prove  that  the  large  college  or  modern  uni- 
versity would  have  done  the  work  then  needed  in  any  superior  way. 
Indeed,  there  is  a  lack  of  evidence  that  the  modern  idea  would  have  been 
at  all  suitable  to  conditions  fifty  years  ago,  and  we  are  not  at  all  sure  but 
the  close  of  the  twentieth  century  may  see  present  universities  so  changed 
and  modified  as  to  be  practically  new.  The  business  of  an  educational 
institution  is  to  meet  the  needs  of  the  times.  The  fact  that  in  our  attempt 
to  meet  present  needs  we  have  developed  a  considerable  number  of  great 
institutions  does  not  at  all  prove  that  the  small  college  has  not  had  a 
place,  or  that  it  is  not  now  meeting  a  real  need.  The  fact  is,  the  large 
college  and  modern  university  are  rather  new  institutions.  They  are  so 
young  that  their  real  value  and  efficiency  are  still  problematical.  The 
alumni  of  the  modern  large  university  have  yet  to  win  a  distinction  that 


64  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [General 

will  eclipse  the  glory  of  their  fathers.  It  may  yet  develop  into  an  eclipse 
of  the  son.  However,  we  hope  for  better  things.  Let  us  now  turn  to  a 
brief  statement  of  the  ideals  of  the  small  college.  These  will  tell  us 
something  of  its  character  and  work. 

First,  I  remark  that  the  small  college  was  set  for  the  development  of 
manhood.  In  1854  President  William  A.  Stearns,  in  his  inaugural 
address  at  Amherst,  said  :  "The  idea  of  education  is  the  formation  of  men, 
men  capable  of  high  scholarship,  of  professional  eminence  and  honorable 
achievement,  but  first  of  all  men." 

This  was  neither  new  doctrine  nor  unfamiliar  statement.  It  was  the 
common  and  popular  sentiment.  The  college  of  those  days  was  set  for 
the  upbuilding  of  character  in  men.  Often  it  was  declared  to  be  a  Chris- 
tian character  and  manhood.  The  college  recognized  that  character  and 
manhood  were  the  supreme  need  of  society.  The  college  curriculum  was 
an  instrument  that  men  of  lofty  ideals  used  to  these  great  ends. 

The  measure  of  success  that  has  attended  these  efforts  is  but  little 
appreciated.  To  read  the  alumni  roll  of  Yale,  Harvard,  and  Princeton, 
when  they  were  very  small  colleges,  or  the  rolls  of  Amherst,  Bowdoin,  and 
Williams  in  New  England,  of  Hamilton  in  New  York,  or  of  Washington 
and  Jefferson  in  Pennsylvania,  Centre  College  in  Kentucky,  and  Miami  in 
Ohio,  is  an  inspiration  to  any  young  man  struggling  for  place  and  use- 
fulness in  his  generation.  I  freely  confess  that  three  hours  with  these 
rolls  gave  me  a  new  appreciation  of  the  splendid  possibilities  of  American 
manhood.  These  men  have  been  the  embodiment  of  the  best  things  in 
civilization.  They  have  stood  for  the  best  things  in  religion,  in  scholar- 
ship, in  politics,  in  society,  and  in  the  state.  What  the  world  would  have 
been  without  them  I  khow  not,  but  for  what  it  has  been  with  them  we  are 
indebted  to  the  small  college.  That  debt  will  forever  remain  unpaid,  but 
it  is  here  most  gratefully  acknowledged. 

Secondly,  I  remark  that  the  small  college  put  an  important  emphasis 
upon  the  personal  contact  between  the  professor  and  student  as  a  power- 
ful influence  in  determining  character.  The  professor  in  the  small  college 
has  always  been  a  man  of  character,  who  recognized  his  opportunity. 
The  heroic  service  that  many  of  these  men  have  rendered  is  sufficient 
testimony  to  their  excellence.  Senator  Hoar  has  recently  said,  in  speak- 
ing of  the  Harvard  of  fifty-eight  years  ago,  that  men  were  then  called  to 
professorships  because  they  had  attained  an  eminence  in  their  professions. 
The  result  was  that  young  men  were  brought  under  the  instruction  of 
men  whose  lives  were  an  inspiration  and  whose  characters  were  a  most 
wholesome  influence.  These  men  recognized  the  possibilities  in  their 
service.  Without  offering  any  criticism  upon  the  modern  professor,  I  may 
say  that  eminent  men  are  not  now  called  to  professorships.  The  condi- 
tions have  so  changed  that  they  prefer  another  life.  The  modern  Long- 
fellow or  Holmes  is  not  a  professor.     The  college  of  these  days  must 


Sessions]  THE  SMALL  COLLEGE— ITS  WORK  IN  THE  PAST  65 

train  its  professors  up  to  eminence.  They  attain  it  as  a  part  of  their 
reward  to  patch  out  a  meager  salary.  Moreover,  the  modern  professor 
with  his  specialty  often  looks  upon  his  work  as  merely  teaching,  and 
makes  a  rather  narrow  business  of  it.  A  broad  education  is  looked  upon 
as  impossible,  or  undesirable,  and  broad  and  deep  sympathy  with  the 
student  as  unnecessary.  Just  here  the  small  college  has  always  put  its 
emphasis.  It  has  insisted  that  teaching  is  personal  where  inspiration  and 
leadership  are  quite  as  important  as  instruction.  To  lead  out  into  the 
larger  world  with  a  proper  perspective  requires  a  master-workman.  This 
leadership,  I  grant  you,  may  be  found  in  the  larger  colleges.  If  not,  then 
something  vital  is  wanting.  That  such  work  has  been  done  and  is  still 
done  in  the  small  college  is  beyond  any  question. 

Thirdly,  I  remark  that  the  small  college  has  done  a  great  work  in 
cultivating  a  respect  for  scholarship.  It  may  as  well  be  conceded  that  no 
very  great  scholarship  is  possible  within  the  limits  of  a  college  course. 
One  of  the  silliest  fallacies  in  modern  times  is  the  frequent  assumption 
that  because  a  boy  has  graduated  from  a  large  college  he  is  both  a  gentle- 
man and  a  scholar.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  he  is  often  neither  the  one  nor 
the  other.  The  honest  college  has  never  made  any  pretensions  in  this 
regard.  Scholarship  is  the  ripe  fruit  of  years  of  patient  toil.  It  is  to  be 
kept  in  mind,  however,  that  the  college-bred  man  has  been  usually  a  man 
of  broad  sympathies,  of  a  reasonably  liberal  culture,  and  of  a  sufficient 
intelligence  to  appreciate  the  scholarship  of  men  who  have  been  the  path- 
finders in  the  world's  research.  The  considerable  body  of  such  men  in 
the  country  has  made  it  possible  for  the  scholar  to  hope  for  a  reward  in 
his  labor.  The  college  has  been  the  bulwark  of  scholarship.  In  this  field 
the  college  man  has  done  a  great  service.  The  fact  that  his  studies  in  the 
small  college  have  widened  his  horizon  and  given  him  a  bird's-eye  view 
of  the  knowledge  and  scholarship  of  his  day  is  a  reason  for  his  readiness 
to  appreciate  scholarship.  The  elective  principle  has  deepened  the  study 
of  many  a  student,  but  often  at  the  expense  of  his  sympathy  with  other 
men.  The  lack  of  unity  in  college  life  so  often  apparent  in  the  larger 
schools  is  no  doubt  due  in  a  considerable  degree  to  the  relative  isolation 
of  the  student  in  his  work.  He  does  not  know  his  classmate.  There  is 
no  common  feeling,  and  but  little  that  is  common  in  their  thinking,  and 
hence  no  fellowship  in  scholarship.  I  regard  this  appreciation  of  scholar- 
ship as  a  great  help  in  the  progress  of  the  world.  There  is  no  man  who 
should  more  appreciate  the  work  of  the  small  college  than  the  man  whose 
life  is  given  to  research  and  the  development  of  critical  scholarship.  The 
small  college  is  something  more  than,  and  better  than,  a  feeder  for  the 
university.  It  is  building  and  maintaining  the  foundation  on  which  the 
university  must  rest.  But  for  the  work  of  the  college  the  university  would 
not  have  had  a  field  in  which  to  work.  That  it  is  now  preparing  the  men 
who  will  in  the  future  do  the  best  things  for  scholarship  is  perhaps  not 


66  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [General 

too  much  to  say.     Whether  the  large  college  can  do  this  work  without 
the  aid  of  the  small  college  is  at  any  rate  a  debatable  question. 

Fourthly,  I  remark  that  the  small  college  has  done  great  service  for 
its  immediate  vicinage.  It  is  so  evident  as  to  need  only  a  passing  remark 
that  all  colleges  receive  the  large  portion  of  their  support  from  the  adja- 
cent territory.  Even  Harvard  still  draws  a  considerable  proportion  of  its 
students  from  the  immediate  vicinity.  This  has  been  the  history  of  the 
small  college.  It  has  done  great  things  for  its  territory.  Here  young 
men  have  received  an  intellectual  awakening  that  has  been  an  intellectual 
regeneration  to  them.  Many  a  so-called  poor  college  has  been  the  birth- 
place of  a  noble  soul.  It  has  brought  within  the  reach  of  these  boys  an 
uplift  that  the  larger  school  could  not  have  brought.  In  this  small  college 
the  individual  more  easily  rose  to  a  limited  leadership.  You  may  say  the 
opportunities  were  limited,  but  they  were  sufficient  to  arouse  the  boy  to 
his  own  prophetic  powers.  My  own  native  state  has  been  sneeringly 
called  the  land  of  freshwater  colleges.  Men  have  spoken  disparagingly 
of  her  numerous  colleges.  There  is  a  justice  in  some  of  this  criticism,  but 
quite  as  much  injustice.  The  most  luminous  pages  of  Ohio's  history  have 
been  made  and  written  by  men  trained  in  her  small  colleges.  Those 
trained  at  home  have  not  fainted  in  the  race  with  those  who  were  able  to 
go  to  more  expensive  schools  without  her  borders.  Ohio  would  never 
have  had  her  men  or  her  leadership  but  for  the  small  college.  But,  aside 
from  the  men  graduated  from  those  colleges,  there  is  no  room  to  doubt 
that  the  presence  of  such  colleges  has  done  a  great  deal  to  give  tone  and 
character  to  the  communities.  They  have  been  an  object  of  pride  to  the 
citizens  and  something  of  an  inspiration  to  the  people.  Of  the  450 
colleges  in  the  country  a  large  proportion  must  be  classed  as  small  col- 
leges. They  are,  however,  centers  of  life  and  light  to  hosts  of  people 
whom  the  greater  schools  do  not  and  cannot  reach.  They  are  constantly 
seeking  out  boys,  many  of  whom  rise  to  eminence.  These  men  more 
than  justify  the  reason  for  existence.  In  the  poorer  grade  of  the  small 
college  there  may  be  found  much  to  criticise.  No  doubt  the  standards 
are  often  too  low.  Some  harmful  results  do  follow,  but  it  is  a  mistake  to 
be  too  sweeping  in  our  condemnation.  The  small  college  is  winning 
today  more  than  its  proper  share  of  the  honors  in  our  great  universities. 
These  facts  persist  and  are  very  stubborn  things.  The  self-denial,  the 
hardship,  the  heroism  still  found  in  many  of  these  colleges  with  the  lack 
of  some  modern  fancies,  are  pretty  useful  ingredients  in  the  coming  man. 
The  small  college  has  usually  been  the  poor  man's  college.  It  cultivated 
the  habits  of  economy  and  has  usually  been  free  from  the  vices  that 
accompany  a  liberal  use  of  money.  Its  own  poverty  and  economy  have 
been  an  object-lesson  to  the  student.  The  democratic  sentiment  usually 
prevailing  has  bound  the  studenij  in  a  close  friendship.  Here  have 
been  trained  many  of  the  recruits  who  have  saved  the  interests  of  the 


Sessions] 


THE  SMALL  COLLEGE— ITS  PROSPECTS  67 


people.  Some  of  them  have  risen  to  eminence,  but  more  of  them  have 
quietly  but  efficiently  served  the  community  which  supported  the  college. 
The  unwritten  history  of  the  small  college  is  liable  to  be  overlooked  and 
forgotten  in  the  annals  of  the  great,  but  there  are  a  thousand  hillsides 
and  as  many  fruitful  valleys  in  our  country  where  the  service  is  gratefully 
recognized.  What  Webster  said  of  Dartmouth  many  a  man  will  say  of 
others :  "  She  is  small,  but  there  are  those  who  love  her." 


THE  SMALL  COLLEGE 

II.    ITS  PROSPECTS 

WILLIAM  RAINEY  HARPER,  PRESIDENT  OF  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  CHICAGO 

In  my  opinion  the  two  most  serious  problems  of  education  which 
require  to  be  solved  within  the  next  quarter  of  a  century  are,  first,  the 
problem  of  rural  schools,  which  falls  within  the  domain  of  lower  educa- 
tion ;  and,  secondly,  the  problem  of  the  small  college,  which  lies  within 
the  domain  of  higher  education. 

This  second  problem,  which  forms  the  subject  of  our  consideration 
here,  is  at  the  same  time  serious  and  delicate ;  serious,  because  the  great- 
est interests,  both  material  and  spiritual,  are  at  stake ;  delicate,  because 
there  are  involved  special  and  peculiar  questions  of  privilege  and  right. 
The  study  of  the  problem  is  a  difficult  one,  because  it  deals  with  data 
insufficiently  gathered  and  not  yet  properly  tabulated ;  because,  also,  the 
territory  covered  is  so  vast  and  so  differently  situated. 

I  may  be  pardoned  for  mentioning  my  personal  experience :  My 
student  life  was  divided,  my  undergraduate  work  being  done  in  a  small 
college,  my  graduate  work  in  a  large  college  or  university.  My  life  as  a 
teacher  has  been  almost  evenly  divided,  twelve  years  having  been  spent 
in  institutions  termed  "small,"  thirteen  in  institutions  which  may  be 
calted  "larger."  I  approach  the  subject,  therefore,  with  no  prejudice 
born  of  lack  of  experience  in  one  or  the  other  kind  of  educational  insti- 
tution. 

We  shall  consider  — 

I.  Some  factors  which  would  seem  to  guarantee  the  life  and  the 
growth  of  the  smaller  institutions. 

II.  Some  factors  which  will  be  found  to  stand  in  the  way  of  such 
development. 

III.  Some  changes  affecting  the  small  colleges  which  are  to  be 
expected  and  which  are  to  be  desired. 

I.     SOME    FACTORS  WHICH  WOULD  SEEM  TO  GUARANTEE  THE    LIFE  AND  THE 
GROWTH  OF  THE  SMALLER  INSTITUTIONS 

Prevalence  of  belief  in  the  advantages  of  smaller  colleges. — Let  us  notice, 
first  of  all,  as  constituting  one  of  these  factors,  the  widely  prevailing 


68  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [General 

belief  that  the  smaller  institution  has  certain  decided  advantages  over  the 
larger  in  the  character  of  the  results  produced.  This  belief  is  entertained 
so  strongly  and  in  so  many  quarters  that,  whether  true  or  false,  it  fur- 
nishes a  substantial  element  of  strength  to  the  cause  of  the  smaller  col- 
lege. It  cannot  be  said  that,  if  this  belief  is  false,  its  falsity  will  soon 
become  apparent ;  for,  in  weighing  evidence  on  both  sides  of  so  delicate 
a  question,  the  number  of  points  to  be  considered  is  very  great,  and  the 
individual  equation,  in  each  case,  is  altogether  different.  Who  can  say 
dogmatically  that  it  would  have  been  better  or  worse  for  this  or  that  boy 
if  he  had  gone  to  the  larger  institution  instead  of  to  the  smaller;  or  to 
the  smaller  instead  of  to  the  larger? 

Contact  with  instructors. —  The  student  of  the  small  college,  it  is  urged, 
has  greater  advantage  because  of  the  closer  contact  into  which  he  comes 
with  the  officers  of  the  faculty.  It  is  certainly  true,  everything  being 
equal,  that  the  student  who  knows  intimately  his  instructor,  and  is  him- 
self intimately  known  by  him,  has  a  much  greater  chance  of  achieving 
satisfactory  results  than  the  student  who  has  little  or  no  personal  contact 
with  his  instructor.  But  here  two  things  should  be  noted.  Is  it  a  fact 
that  in  the  larger  institutions  the  student  comes  into  less  vital  touch  with 
his  teachers  ?  A  study  of  this  question  extending  over  several  years 
has  convinced  me  that  the  student  in  the  larger  institutions  not  only 
comes  into  relationship  with  a  greater  number  of  instructors,  but  also 
touches  in  the  closest  possible  way  as  many  of  this  number  as  he  would 
have  touched  in  the  smaller  college.  It  is  not,  however,  a  question 
merely  of  close  contact,  but  of  receiving  that  incitement  which  stirs  the 
soul  to  its  very  depths.  I  have  known  instructors  in  both  large  and  small 
institutions,  close  touch  with  whom  would  deaden  rather  than  quicken 
any  higher  life ;  and  it  is  only  fair  to  say  that  the  number  of  such  is  as 
great  proportionally  in  the  small  as  in  the  large  institution. 

Higher  rank  of  instructors. — Again,  the  student  of  the  small  college, 
it  is  urged,  has  great  advantages,  especially  in  the  earlier  college  years, 
because  in  most  cases  he  does  his  work  under  men  who  have  the  rank  of 
professor,  while  in  the  larger  institutions  he  is  turned  over  to  young  men 
who  are  only  tutors  or  instructors.  And  yet  it  should  be  remembered 
that  these  same  tutors  and  instructors,  if  they  were  in  the  smaller  institu- 
tions, would  enjoy  the  rank  of  professor.  I  have  in  mind  a  university 
in  which  every  man  who  is  ranked  as  an  assistant  professor,  instructor,  or 
tutor  has  been  offered  a  full  professorship  in  a  small  college,  and  several 
of  them,  the  presidency  of  such  an  institution. 

Development  of  responsibility. — Further,  the  student  of  the  small  college, 
it  is  urged,  has  greater  opportunity  to  develop  responsibility;  the  number 
of  students  being  small,  each  one  stands  out  more  definitely  and  receives 
greater  recognition,  while,  at  the  same  time,  he  actually  counts  for  more 
in  the  various  activities  of  the  college  life.     It  should  be  remembered, 


Sessions]  THE  SMALL  COLLEGE— ITS  PROSPECTS  69 

however,  that  the  incentive  to  excel  and  the  number  of  activities  which 
present  themselves  to  the  student-ambition  increase  even  more  rapidly 
than  the  proportionate  increase  in  numbers  ;  and  that  these  opportunities 
are  higher  in  character  and  more  varied  in  proportion  to  the  horizon  of 
those  who  find  themselves  in  this  or  that  environment. 

But  I  have  allowed  myself  to  wander  somewhat.  The  point  I  wish  to 
present  is  this :  The  belief  in  the  superior  advantages  of  the  small  col- 
lege has  taken  so  strong  a  hold  upon  the  minds  of  men  in  general  that,  , 
altho  it  rests  upon  grounds  which  are  in  large  measure  fancied  or  sen- 
timental, it  will  serve  as  a  strong  factor  in  assisting  to  maintain  and  to 
advance  the  interests  of  the  smaller  as  against  those  of  the  larger  insti- 
tutions. 

Hostility  to  powerful  institutions. — A  second  factor  which  has  helped 
the  smaller  institutions  in  the  past,  and  one  which  will  continue  to 
render  strong  assistance,  is  that  feeling,  sometimes  of  awe  and  almost 
fear,  at  other  times  of  jealousy  and  hostility,  which  is  invariably  aroused 
in  the  minds  of  many,  toward  an  institution  that  has  grown  large  and 
powerful.  The  small  college  is  loved  and  cherished,  in  most  cases, 
just  because  it  is  small  and  weak;  while  the  larger  institution  is  hated 
and  opposed,  because  it  is  powerful.  This  has  been  the  history  of  every 
institution  that  has  become  great.  It  is  the  history  of  nearly  every 
one  of  the  state  universities  in  the  western  states.  It  is  the  same  feeling 
with  which  the  smaller  towns  or  cities  in  a  state  regard  the  one  great 
city  of  a  particular  region. 

Legitimate  use  may  be  made  of  this  characteristic  of  human  nature. 
Please  observe  that  I  do  not  call  it  a  weakness.  It  is  a  mark  of 
strength  when  a  man,  or  a  community,  or  a  nation,  turns  in  sympathy 
and  compassion  toward  that  which  is  small  and  weak  ;  and  when  this 
very  weakness  is  in  itself  so  strong  as  to  serve  as  a  ground  of  appeal 
for  help.  The  small  college  will  always  have  friends  because  of  its 
weakness.  And  the  corollary  of  this  is  equally  true  :  the  larger  insti- 
tution will  have  enemies  because  of  its  strength.  Moreover,  this  is 
as  it  should  be ;  that  which  is  strong  will  be  more  likely  to  become 
stronger  as  the  result  of  opposition  than  as  the  result  of  sympathy  and 
help.  The  latter,  too,  is  often  weakening,  instead  of  strengthening.  This 
feeling,  therefore,  of  hostility  toward  the  larger  institutions  —  a  feeling 
entirely  natural  and  altogether  general  —  is  in  itself  a  guaranty  of  a  con- 
tinued interest  in  the  small  as  opposed  to  the  large  institutions. 

Loyal  support  of  faculty  and  alumni.  —  Closely  associated  with  this  is 
a  third  factor,  which,  thru  all  time,  will  stand  arrayed  on  the  side  of 
the  small  college  —  a  strong  and  noble  phalanx  of  supporters.  I  mean 
the  faculty  and  the  alumni  of  the  institution. 

No  greater  acts  of  heroism  or  self-sacrifice  have  been  performed  on 
battlefield,  or  in  the  face  of  danger,  than  those  which  are  written  down  in 


70  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [General 

the  book  of  the  recording  angel  to  the  credit  of  the  teachers  whose  very 
blood  has  gone  into  the  foundations  of  some  of  our  weak  and  struggling 
colleges.  Blood  thus  freely  and  nobly  given  can  never  have  been  given 
in  vain.  It  will  cry  out  to  heaven  in  behalf  of  the  cause  for  which  it 
was  spent,  and  this  cry' will  be  heard  and  answered,  and  new  friends  will 
be  raised  up.  The  love  of  an  alumnus  for  his  alma  mater  is  something 
sacred  and  very  tender.  Does  the  true  son  think  less  of  his  natural 
mother  because  she  is,  perhaps,  poor  and  weak,  or  even  sick  and 
deformed?  The'true  college  man  is  and  will  be  all  the  more  devoted  to 
his  spiritual  mother,  if,  perchance,  in  the  varying  tides  of  human  vicissi- 
tudes, she  has  become  low ;  or  if,  in  spite  of  long  and  weary  years  of 
struggle,  she  has  failed  to  grow  into  full  and  perfect  vigor.  There  are 
scores  of  colleges  which  live  today,  and  in  God's  providence  will  continue 
to  live,  because  of  the  devotion,  even  at  terrible  cost,  of  a  few  teachers, 
or  a  few  alumni.  Such  devotion  money  cannot  purchase.  It  is  worth 
more  than  money.  It  is  a  gift  more  precious  than  anything  material. 
It  is,  moreover,  the  very  essence  of  the  life  of  the  institution  for  which 
it  is  cherished.  And,  as  the  essence  of  that  life,  it  is  the  guaranty  of  the 
life  of  the  institution. 

Sympathy  of  men  of  wealth  in  vicinity. —  Another  factor  in  the  preser- 
vation and  upbuilding  of  the  small  college  —  a  factor  the  potency  of 
which  will  increase  with  passing  decades  —  is  the  desire  of  men  who  have 
been  successful  in  accumulating  wealth  to  do  something  with  that  wealth 
which  will  be  constructive,  creative.  The  faculty  of  amassing  wealth  is  a 
constructive  faculty,  a  creative  faculty,  and  the  man  who  has  this  faculty, 
if  he  is  of  a  benevolent  disposition,  is  likely  to  turn  it  to  a  work  which  is 
likewise  of  the  constructive  or  creative  type  ;  for  example,  to  the  develop- 
ment of  college  work. 

It  might  almost  be  said  to  be  a  law  of  philanthropy  that  it  is  exercised 
within  a  territory  co-extensive  with  the  horizon  of  the  philanthropist. 
The  great  majority  of  men  who  have  achieved  a  moderate  success  in  life 
are  known  only  within  a  certain  district.  Occasionally  a  man  is  strong 
enough  and  large  enough  to  have  his  name  and  fame  extend  beyond  the 
locality  in  which  his  work  is  done;  such  men  are  an  exception.  And 
just  so,  men  whose  hearts  and  minds  are  large  enough  to  take  in  the 
whole  world,  whose  benefactions  are  bestowed  over  a  wide  area,  are 
exceptions.  Most  men  of  liberal  mind  limit  their  benevolences  to  those 
causes  with  which  they  themselves  may  keep  in  close  touch.  In  every 
section  of  the  country,  and  in  almost  every  county  of  every  state,  there 
are  men  who  are  disposed  to  use  their  means  for  the  improvement  of  the 
particular  locality  in  which  their  wealth  has  been  accumulated.  It  is 
impossible  to  interest  such  men  in  any  kind  of  benevolent  work  at  a  dis- 
tance. If  rightly  approached,  they  will  undertake  work  at  home.  Altho 
interested  in  educational  work,  they  are  nevertheless  not  interested  in 


Sessions] 


THE  SMALL  COLLEGE— LTS  PROSPECTS 


71 


the  work  of  the  large  institution,  even  when  it  is  close  by.  They  cannot 
be  persuaded  that  the  larger  institution,  with  the  several  millions  of 
dollars  which  it  has  already  secured,  can  need  additional  endowment ; 
and,  in  any  case,  they  cannot  be  persuaded  that  the  smaller  gifts  which 
they  might  make  would  be  appreciated  in  the  midst  of  so  much  wealth. 
Here  then  is  a  condition  of  things  which  will  bring  about  benevolence 
toward  the  smaller  institution  within  reach.  The  number  of  such  men 
today  is  very  large,  and  that  number  is  constantly  increasing  with  the 
increasing  prosperity  of  the  country.  The  small  college  furnishes  an 
opportunity  for  these  men,  within  their  own  circle,  to  do  a  work  for  the 
cause  of  higher  education  —  a  cause  which  has  a  peculiar  fascination  for 
many  minds,  because  it  is  a  constructive  and  creative  work.  In  this  con- 
dition of  things  there  is  a  guaranty  that  provision  will  be  made  in  the 
future,  here  and  there  thruout  the  entire  country,  for  the  development 
of  the  smaller  institutions. 

Adaptation  to  need  of  certain  individuals.  —  Still  another  guaranty  for 
the  future  of  the  institution  under  consideration  is  the  fact  that,  whatever 
may  be  said  of  the  relative  advantages  of  the  small  and  the  large  institu- 
tion for  the  average  young  man  or  woman,  it  cannot  be  denied  that  the 
small  college  is  particularly  adapted  to  the  needs  of  many  an  individ- 
ual. And  yet  I  do  not  mean  to  say  that  these  individuals  are  below 
the  average ;  for  many  of  them  certainly  are  far  above  the  average.  I 
have  in  mind  young  men  and  women  of  certain  peculiar  temperaments, 
as  well  as  those  in  whose  case  the  transition  from  a  certain  mode  of  life 
to  the  more  free  and  liberal  atmosphere  of  the  larger  institution,  the 
university,  would  prove  to  be  too  sudden.  Just  so  long  as  there  are 
localities  in  which,  for  one  reason  or  another,  the  privilege  of  thinking 
for  oneself  upon  every  subject  is  denied,  or  in  which  the  habit  has  not  yet 
been  cultivated,  there  will  be  needed  for  those  who  are  destined,  in  the 
providence  of  God,  to  reach  out  and  attain  higher  possibilities,  places  of 
transition  between  that  which  is  more  restricted  and  that  which  is  more 
free.  To  step  suddenly  from  one  atmosphere  to  another  will  seriously 
interfere  with  proper  growth.  The  smaller  college  furnishes  such  a  place 
of  transition,  and  prepares  minds  that  have  been  under  restriction  for  the 
broader  and  higher  privileges  of  the  university.  This  narrowness  to 
which  I  have  alluded  may  be  the  outcome  of  an  imperfect  religious 
system,  or  of  a  lack  of  proper  facilities  in  the  lower  spheres  of  educa- 
tional activity;  or,  as  in  certain  districts  of  our  country,  the  result  of 
geographical  separation  from  the  great  centers  of  influence,  or  isolation 
from  the  great  routes  of  travel ;  but,  in  any  case,  the  small  college  is 
specially  adapted  to  the  needs  of  such  persons.  The  demand  for  this 
peculiar  work,  being  so  strong  and  so  universal,  constitutes  in  itself  a 
guaranty  for  the  future  existence  of  the  college. 

Economic  advantages, — Perhaps  it  is  at  this  point  that  I  may  mention 


72  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [General 

the  economic  side  of  student  life,  which  controls,  far  more  generally  than 
perhaps  we  might  suppose,  the  possibilities  of  higher  education.  The 
average  young  man  or  woman  who  desires  a  college  education  finds  more 
or  less  difficulty  in  securing  the  means  with  which  to  make  such  educa- 
tion possible.  It  is  a  question  of  so  many  hundred  dollars  a  year.  It  is 
evident  that  in  large  institutions  the  expense  is  more  considerable  than 
in  the  smaller  institutions.  It  is  true  that  all-of  the  larger  universities 
furnish  aid  to  many  students,  and  that  in  general  any  deserving  student 
is  able  to  secure  help  sufficient  to  assist  him  in  completing  his  work;  but 
many  men  are  unwilling  to  accept  such  assistance.  Many  have  neither 
the  courage  nor  the  cleverness  to  secure  it ;  and  if  all  who  desire  an  edu- 
cation were  to  make  application  to  the  larger  institutions,  the  funds  used  for 
that  purpose  would  prove  sadly  inadequate.  It  is  only  because  the  smaller 
institutions,  scattered  thruout  the  country,  are  able  to  do  the  work  for 
the  young  man  or  woman  of  moderate  means  that  the  larger  institutions 
can,  in  any  satisfactory  way,  meet  the  demand  which  is  made  upon  them. 
Only  a  few  comparatively  can  gather  together  so  large  a  sum  as  five  or  six 
hundred  dollars  a  year  for  a  course  of  college  study,  and  yet  such  a  sum, 
in  most  of  our  larger  institutions,  is  quite  small,  in  view  of  the  many  and 
varied  demands  made  upon  the  student.  There  must  be  institutions  in 
which  the  man  who  can  command  only  two  or  three  hundred  dollars  a 
year  may  find  help  and  guidance  in  his  pursuit  of  higher  education.  The 
larger  institutions,  located  in  many  cases  where  rents  and  food  are  more 
expensive,  and  where  the  demands  of  society  compel  a  style  of  living 
which  would  not  be  considered  necessary  elsewhere,  are  prohibitive  to  the 
sons  and  daughters  of  families  whose  annual  income  is  fifteen  hundred 
dollars  or  less  ;  and  if  an  estimate  were  made,  the  great  majority  of 
families  would  find  their  classification  in  this  category.  As  long  as  there 
are  families  with  small  incomes,  and  as  long  as  in  these  families  there  are 
sons  and  daughters  who  desire  a  higher  education,  there  must  be  colleges 
in  which  this  education  may  be  obtained  at  a  minimum  of  expense.  The 
future  of  the  small  college  is,  therefore,  absolutely  assured. 

Geographical  law  of  limitaiion. — In  this  same  connection  there  is  to  be 
considered  what  may  be  called  the  geographical  law  of  higher  education. 
In  accordance  with  this  law,  about  90  per  cent,  of  those  who  attend  col- 
lege select  for  that  purpose  an  institution  within  one  hundred  miles  of 
home ;  or,  to  put  the  matter  in  another  form,  the  constituency  of  even 
the  largest  institutiorre  comes  in  great  measure  from  within  one  hundred 
miles  of  the  institution  itself.  This  fact  is  at  once  an  explanation  of  the 
large  number  of  colleges  scattered  thruout  our  land,  and  the  ground 
for  belief  that  this  large  number  will,  in  one  form  or  another,  remain  for 
the  most  part  undiminished. 

Educational  tradition. — It  is  to  be  noted  still  further  that  educational 
tradition  is  peculiarly  conservative,     The  tradition  in  the  Uiiited  States, 


i 


Sessions]  TJ/E  SMALL  COLLEGE— ITS  PROSPECTS  73 

established  two  and  one-half  centuries  ago,  and  continuing  almost  without 
change  until  within  the  last  quarter  of  this  century,  has  been  in  favor  of 
the  small  college.  It  is  only  within  twenty  or  twenty-five  years  that  the 
larger  institution,  or  the  university,  has  been  known  on  American  soil. 
The  tradition  is  deeply  rooted.  This  fact  points  unmistakably  to  the 
policy  of  the  future  ;  and  while  the  university  idea,  which  has  so  recently 
sprung  up  among  us,  has  before  it  large  and  unlimited  possibilities,  the 
policy  of  establishing  small  colleges  here  and  there  is  one  so  strongly 
fixed  that  no  great  modification  of  it  may  be  anticipated.  The  additional 
fact  that,  side  by  side  with  the  more  recent  development  along  university 
lines,  the  colleges  have  grown,  financially  as  well  as  numerically,  is  evi- 
dence in  favor  of  the  proposition  just  mentioned.  There  is  no  reason  to 
suppose  that  the  larger  institution,  however  influential  it  may  become,  will 
supplant  the  smaller.  The  two  may  go  forward  side  by  side,  each  exert- 
ing upon  the  other  a  helpful  influence.  It  is  not  conceivable  that  the 
policy  of  two  centuries  and  a  half,  a  policy  which  has  been  found  so 
acceptable  on  every  side,  should  suffer  serious  modification.  In  any  case, 
such  modifications  will  be  gradual,  and  will  permit  an  easy  adjustment 
under  the  new  conditions  which  may  arise. 

Religious  affiliation  and  support. — One  of  the  most  important  factors 
to  be  considered  in  any  study  of  the  small  college  is  the  religious  pur- 
pose and  control  with  which  a  great  majority  of  these  colleges  stand  con- 
nected. The  smaller  colleges,  for  the  most  part,  have  been  founded  with 
a  distinct  and  definite  religious  aim.  This  aim  has  been,  in  some  cases, 
to  protect  certain  peculiar  tenets  of  religious  faith ;  in  others,  to  provide  a 
religious  atmosphere  which  should  be  in  harmony  with  the  feelings  and 
opinions  of  its  patrons ;  in  still  others,  to  secure  a  definite  and  tangible 
guaranty  of  specific  Christian  influence.  In  all  these  cases  there  was  a  dis- 
tinctly religious  motive.  The  fact  that  so  many  of  these  colleges  are  sup- 
ported by  particular  denominations  of  Christians,  and  that  almost  every 
denomination  feels  the  necessity  of  supporting  colleges  in  the  territory 
in  which  that  denomination  is  represented,  shows  the  strong  and  all- 
pervading  influence  of  the  religious  spirit.  If  denominationalism  in  Chris- 
tianity were  to  disappear,  one  of  the  strongest  foundations  of  our  small 
colleges  would  likewise  be  removed  ;  but  just  as,  in  these  United  States, 
the  denominational  spirit  has  developed  and  flourished,  and  has  become 
a  marked  characteristic  of  American  life  in  contrast  with  European  life, 
so  the  small  college,  inseparably  connected  with  the  denominational 
spirit,  has  grown  and  developed  in  striking  contrast  with  the  educational 
policy  of  Europe.  If  men  of  deep  religious  convictions  continue  to 
cherish  such  convictions,  and  to  propagate  them,  they  will  find  it  necessary 
to  educate  those  who  shall  hand  down  these  same  traditions.  To  do  this 
with  economy  and  certainty,  there  must  be  institutions  for  higher  study 
which  shall  be  pervaded  by  the  spirit  of  the  denomination  desirous  of 


74  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [General 

maintaining  and  developing  this  growth.  This  factor  is  as  strong  as  any 
that  has  been  mentioned,  perhaps  strongest  of  all ;  and  yet  this  and  all 
that  have  preceded  it  find  their  basis  in  another  factor  —  the  last  which  I 
shall  present. 

An  expression  of  the  American  spirit. — The  small  colleges,  scattered 
everywhere,  are  but  the  natural  and  inevitable  expression  of  the  Ameri- 
can spirit  in  the  realm  of  higher  education.  The  universities  of  Cam- 
bridge and  Oxford,  as  now  constituted,  are  an  expression  of  English 
aristocracy.  The  universities  of  Berlin  and  Leipsic,  and  the  gymnasia 
of  Germany,  represftit  most  fittingly  the  German  imperial  spirit.  The 
small  colleges  in  Ohio  and  Missouri,  in  Iowa  and  South  Carolina,  and  in 
every  state  of  our  magnificent  union,  are  the  expression  of  the  democratic 
spirit,  which  is  the  true  American  spirit.  The  small  college  exists  today 
as  a  legitimate  result  of  the  working  of  that  spirit.  It  is  as  truly  Ameri- 
can as  is  any  other  institution  of  our  country.  The  American  spirit 
which  has  created  these  colleges  is,  after  all,  the  highest  and  the  most  cer- 
tain guaranty  of  their  continuance,  and  in  this  fundamental  fact  and  fac- 
tor the  others  to  which  I  have  referred  find  their  basis. 

II.   FACTORS  WHICH  WILL  BE  FOUND  TO  STAND  IN  THE  WAV  OF  THE 
DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  SMALL  COLLEGE 

The  modern  high  school. — Among  the  factors  which  will  be  found  to 
stand  in  the  way  of  the  development  of  the  small  college,  first  let  us  note 
the  development  of  the  high  schools.  The  modern  high  school,  some- 
times called  the  "people's  college,"  is  a  development  of  twenty-five 
years.  Much  of  the  work  formerly  done  by  the  colleges  is  now  being 
done  by  the  high  schools.  The  course  of  study  in  many  of  the  high 
schools  is  more  extensive  and  more  thoro  than  was  the  course  of  study  in 
many  of  the  better  colleges  thirty  or  forty  years  ago.  This  course  of 
study  is  likewise  stronger  and  more  effective  in  the  results  produced  than 
is  the  course  of  study  provided  in  many  of  the  smaller  colleges  of  today. 
There  is  no  evidence  that  the  public  attitude  toward  the  high  school  will 
change.  If  there  were  no  other  reason  for  the  support  of  the  high  school 
by  the  public,  reason  enough  would  be  found  in  the  fact  that  without 
such  work  it  would  be  impossible  to  provide  teachers  for  the  lower  schools. 
While  much  of  the  constituency  of  the  high  school  is  a  new  constituency, 
a  considerable  portion  of  it  has  been  drawn  away  from  the  preparatory 
schools  and  the  colleges.  So  great  a  degree  of  perfection  has  been 
reached  in  the  work  of  the  high  school  in  many  quarters  that  even  those 
parents  who  have  the  means  prefer  the  public  high  school  to  the  private 
academy  or  college  ;  and  by  many,  a  great  incentive  to  patronize  the  high 
school  is  found  in  the  absence  of  a  tuition  fee.  The  requirements  for 
admission  to  the  high  school  and  the  length  of  the  curriculum  have  been 
steadily  increasing,  and  it  seems  quite  certain  that  the  end  has  not  yet 


Sessions]  THE  SMALL  COLLEGE  — ITS  PROSPECTS  75 

been  reached,  since  satisfactory  arrangements  have  been  made  in  many 
schools  for  the  work  of  the  freshman  year.  This  is  a  serious  menace  to 
the  small  college.  The  fact  that  the  equipment  of  the  high  school  for 
scientific  work  is  often  better  than  the  equipment  of  the  college  which 
confers  the  bachelor's  degree,  brings  reproach  upon  the  college  work 
when  compared  with  that  of  the  high  school.  The  preparatory  schools 
of  colleges  in  the  West  and  South  are  no  longer  crowded,  because  students 
are  able  to  secure  the  desired  instruction  in  the  high  school.  The  influ- 
ence of  this  is  felt  very  keenly,  and  officers  of  the  small  colleges  are  regard- 
ing with  considerable  apprehension  the  rapid  growth  of  this,  to  say  the 
least,  distracting  element. 

Tendency  toward  specialism. — In  earlier  years,  when  the  entrance 
requirements  were  lower,  it  was  possible  for  the  student  to  give  four  years 
of  time  to  work  the  aim  of  which  was  general  culture.  In  these  latter 
days,  when  the  requirements  for  admission  are  so  high  that  they  in  them- 
selves constitute  an  equivalent  of  the  college  course  of  twenty  or  thirty 
years  ago,  and  when  young  men  and  women  are  unable  to  enter  college 
at  an  earlier  age  than  nineteen  or  twenty,  it  is  impossible  and  undesirable 
to  hold  the  student  to  four  years  of  general  work.  Already  the  tendency 
to  specialize  is  seen  at  the  beginning  of  the  third  year  of  college  work. 
This  is  a  natural  result  of  the  privilege  of  election,  and  also  a  necessary 
result  flowing  from  the  large  number  of  subjects  offered  in  the  curricu- 
lum. The  small  college  does  not  furnish  the  opportunity  to  follow  out 
this  tendency,  and  in  the  case  of  many  students  a  longer  period  than  is 
really  necessary  is  spent  on  subjects  which  sustain  no  particular  relation 
to  the  future  work  of  the  student.  It  is  easy  to  see  the  great  disadvantage 
under  which  the  student  works  when  brought  into  touch  with  his  profes- 
sional studies.  In  many  professions  it  is  essential  that  the  technical  work 
of  the  profession  be  taken  up  before  the  age  of  physical  and  mental 
flexibility  has  passed,  and  especially  in  lines  of  scientific  work  the  small 
college  is  unable  to  meet  the  demand  made  upon  it. 

The  whole  tendency  toward  specialism,  therefore,  even  when  held 
within  reasonable  and  legitimate  bounds,  is  a  movement  with  which  the 
small  college  finds  difficulty  in  keeping  pace,  the  more  so  because  it  is 
evidently  not  justified  in  providing  instruction  in  this  or  that  special 
line  of  work,  when  the  number  of  its  students  interested  in  such  subjects  is 
so  small.  Instruction  higher  than  that  of  an  exceedingly  elementary 
character  may  not  be  provided  in  a  great  majority  of  subjects  to  advantage, 
if  the  college  has  a  smaller  attendance  than  150  students;  and  yet  of  the 
480  colleges  and  universities  in  the  United  States,  about  160,  or  one-third, 
belong  to  this  class  —  that  is,  160  colleges  have  less  than  150  students. 

Decline  of  sectarian  spirit. — As  has  been  said,  by  far  the  larger  number 
of  our  smaller  colleges  have  had  their  origin  in  the  religious  spirit.  In 
many  of  these  even   to'day  the  spirit  is  not  simply  religious,  nor  indeed 


76  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [General 

simply  Christian  —  it  is  the  sectarian  spirit.  Even  from  New  England 
one  not  infrequently  hears  the  cry  from  denominational  bosses  that  the 
denominational  college  must  be  supported,  its  halls  must  be  filled  by 
students  from  the  families  of  those  belonging  to  the  denomination,  and 
the  denominational  ideas  must  be  propagated,  or  dishonor  is  shown  the 
founders  of  the  institution  and  the  denomination  of  which  it  is  a  repre- 
sentative. But,  on  the  whole,  the  sectarian  idea  in  religion  is  disappear- 
ing; except  in  certain  sections,  a  broader  spirit  prevails,  and  sectarianism 
in  education  is  destined  to  die  within  the  next  half  century  or  so.  In  this 
struggle  against  sectarianism  the  colleges  everywhere  take  the  lead,  and  one 
need  only  study  the  history  of  educational  institutions  during  the  last 
quarter  of  a  century  to  see  how  one  institution  after  another  has  quietly 
passed  out  from  under  ecclesiastical  control ;  and  how  one  institution 
after  another  has  gradually,  but  surely,  thrown  off  the  shackles  of  the 
sectarian  spirit.  If  now  these  colleges  have  in  themselves  strength  to 
endure  the  struggle,  they  will  be  stronger  and  better  institutions  when 
the  struggle  has  passed.  But  many  of  them  are  so  closely  identified  with 
the  sect  whose  teachings  they  were  established  to  promulgate  that  with  the 
gradual  disappearance  of  the  sectarian  spirit  there  remains  no  longer 
good  ground  for  their  existence,  and  we  see  them  steadily  losing  the  place 
which  they  once  occupied  and  taking  a  lower  position ;  in  some  cases, 
indeed,  entirely  disappearing.  This  is  especially  true  when,  on  account 
of  the  rivalry  between  different  sects,  more  institutions  have  been  crowded 
into  a  particular  territory  than  the  territory  could  possibly  support. 
Death  in  these  cases  is,  of  course,  a  blessing — not  only  to  the  institutions 
that  have  died,  but  to  the  world  about  them. 

With  the  gradual  weakening  of  this  narrow  religious  spirit — often 
confounded  with  the  denominational  spirit,  but  indeed  something  entirely 
separate  therefrom  —  a  great  success  of  power  and  strength  which  has 
hitherto  lent  support  to  the  building  up  of  the  small  college  will  be 
removed.  Here  is  a  serious  menace  to  the  future  of  many  institutions  of 
this  class. 

Multiplication,  of  professional  schools. —  The  professional  schools  with 
low  requirements  for  admission  attract  many  students  who  might  other- 
wise take  a  college  course.  This  multiplication  of  medical  schools  and 
law  schools  of  a  low  grade  is  one  of  the  greatest  evils  in  connection  with 
educational  work.  It  is  an  evil  which  seems  to  be  increasing,  and  one 
which,  in  many  sections  of  the  country,  is  encouraged  for  political  reasons 
by  our  legislators. 

Of  an  entirely  different  character  is  the  policy,  adopted  in  many 
institutions,  of  allowing  the  college  senior  to  substitute  for  regular  college 
work  the  first  year  of  the  professional  school.  This  concession,  brought 
about  because  of  the  feeling  that  men  must  enter  the  professional  schools 
at  an  earlier  age  than  has  been  the  custom,  is  a  distinct  blow  at  the  small 


Sessions]  THE  SMALL  COLLEGE  —  tTS  PROSPECTS  77 

college,  where  no  such  connection  with  the  professional  school  exists, 
and  where,  consequently,  such  concession  cannot  be  granted.  The  rela- 
tionship of  college  training  to  the  training  of  the  professional  school  is 
as  yet  indefinitely  formulated,  but  the  facts  already  in  evidence  show  that 
the  whole  tendency  of  the  development  of  professional  work  is  antago- 
nistic to  the  work  of  the  small  college.  Men  have  come  to  see  that  in  all  of 
the  courses  directly  preparatory  to  a  professional  training,  and  indeed  in 
many  of  the  technical  courses  included  in  that  training,  there  is  a  culture 
as  large  and  strong  and  uplifting  as  in  any  subject  to  which  the  student 
might  devote  himself ;  and,  besides,  it  is  evident  that  in  work  bearing 
directly  upon  one's  life-work  the  student  has  a  stronger  motive  and  a 
deeper  interest  than  he  would  have  in  some  subject  the  significance  of 
which  he  himself  did  not  appreciate.  The  problem  of  correlating  college 
and  professional  training  is  one  toward  the  solution  of  which  many  minds 
are  turning,  and  from  the  study  of  which  much  good  may  be  expected  in 
the  years  that  are  to  come.  But  in  every  case  it  will  be  found  that  serious 
encroachment  is  being  made  by  the  professional  schools  on  the  territory 
of  the  college. 

Development  of  the  university  idea. —  Closely  associated  with  the  develop- 
ment of  the  professional  schools  is  the  development  of  the  university  idea. 
As  has  already  been  said,  this  idea  was  scarcely  in  existence  twenty-five 
years  ago.  But  now  that  the  spirit  has  taken  root,  great  things  are  to  be 
expected,  and  during  the  next  quarter  of  a  century  important  strides  for- 
ward will  be  made  in  many  centers  of  intellectual  influence.  To  a  con- 
siderable extent  the  constituency  of  the  university  will  be  a  new 
constituency.  In  large  measure,  however,  this  constituency  is  drawn 
directly  from  the  field  of  the  small  college.  The  phenomenal  increase  in 
numbers  of  the  larger  institutions  of  learning  within  the  past  ten  years  is 
an  indication  of  what  is  to  be  expected  in  the  future.  The  same  spirit 
which  today  draws  men  to  the  city,  where  special  advantages  are  thought 
to  exist,  and  where  special  privileges  may  be  secured,  will  draw  men  to 
the  larger  institutions,  with  their  larger  libraries,  their  better-equipped 
laboratories,  and  their  more  direct  contact  with  life  and  modern  civiliza- 
tion. With  this  tendency  the  small  college  must  battle.  But,  however 
strong  the  effort  made,  in  the  end  the  larger  institutions  will  prevail,  and 
the  smaller  institutions  will  suffer. 

The  personnel  of  the  faculty. —  One  of  the  more  important,  perhaps  the 
most  important,  of  the  difficulties  with  which  the  small  college  must  con- 
tend is  the  difficulty  of  securing  the  strongest  men  to  do  work  upon  the 
salary  that  may  be  offered ;  and,  further,  its  inability  to  hold  such  men  if 
once  they  have  been  secured.  This  leads  to  the  adoption  of  one  of  two 
policies.  In  some  cases  the  college  is  wise  enough  to  be  satisfied  with 
having  young  instructors  who  are  strong  and  vigorous,  even  with  the  con- 
sciousness that  vacancies  will  constantly  occur,   and  thus   innumerable 


78  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [General 

changes  be  made.  The  disadvantage  of  this  policy  is,  of  course,  the  lack 
of  continuity  in  the  spirit  of  the  institution ;  but  in  any  case  it  is  an 
infinitely  better  policy  than  the  other  one,  in  accordance  with  which  men 
of  second-  or  third-  or  even  fourth-rate  ability  are  employed,  with  the 
feeling  that  no  other  institution  will  cause  trouble  by  calling  away  the 
members  of  the  staff.  On  the  other  hand,  the  larger  institution  is  able, 
not  only  to  select  the  strongest  men  and  to  pay  them  a  salary  which  will 
make  them  satisfied  to  remain  indefinitely,  but  also  to  employ  younger 
men,  even  at  a  lower  salary  than  is  paid  by  the  small  colleges,  because  the 
younger  men  see  that  there  is  always  opportunity  ahead.  The  women's 
college,  even  when  a  large  one,  labors  under  the  same  difficulty,  because 
the  strongest  men  will  not  consent  to  devote  their  lives  to  work  in  a 
women's  college.  This  is  a  serious  factor  in  the  situation,  and  one  the 
difficulties  of  which  increase  every  year. 

The  migration  idea. —  The  habit  of  moving  from  one  institution  to 
another  is  beginning  to  gain  ground.  This  is  in  some  sense  in  imitation 
of  the  German  custom,  and  when  thoroly  considered  it  is  a  custom  the 
advantages  of  which  cannot  be  denied.  Hundreds  and  hundreds  of  stu- 
dents, I  might  perhaps  say  thousands,  find  it  to  their  advantage,  for  one 
reason  or  another,  to  spend  a  portion  of  their  college  life  in  one  institu- 
tion and  another  portion  in  another.  An  examination  of  several  hun- 
dreds of  these  cases  shows  that  in  nine  out  of  ten  cases  it  is  a  migration 
from  the  small  college  to  the  larger  one.  Impelled  by  a  desire  to  go  out 
into  the  larger  world,  led  by  the  reputation  of  some  great  teacher  or 
investigator,  driven  perhaps  by  the  necessity  of  earning  his  livelihood,  or 
forced  by  reason  of  the  removal  of  the  family  home,  the  student  finds  his 
way  to  the  university  and  finishes  the  work  begun  in  the  small  college. 
Migration  from  the  large  to  the  small  college  is  comparatively  rare.  This 
is  an  index  of  the  situation,  and  points  conclusively  to  a  tendency  from 
the  development  of  which  greater  embarrassment  will  fall  to  the  lot  of  the 
small  college  in  the  future  than  ever  yet  in  the  past. 

The  state  university. —  The  source  of  greatest  trouble  to  many  of  our 
small  colleges  in  the  South,  and  especially  in  the  western  states,  is  the 
state  university.  Slowly  the  influence  of  the  state  university  has  gained 
ground,  until  in  some  states  it  has  become  almost  impossible  for  the  col- 
leges to  continue  their  work  with  satisfaction.  So  strong  has  the  antago- 
nism come  to  be  that  in  more  than  one  state  the  smaller  colleges  have 
joined  themselves  together  in  an  alliance,  the  object  of  which  is  to  meet 
the  rapid  encroachments  of  the  state  institution.  In  the  whole  Mississippi 
valley  there  are  not  more  than  two  or  three  non-state  institutions  which 
today  do  not  stand  in  actual  fear  of  the  state  institutions.  The  explana- 
tion of  this  is  clear.  With  a  political  influence  which  naturally  lends  itself 
to  the  state  institution ;  with  the  large  number  of  alumni  occupying  the 
chief  positions  as  principals  and  teachers  in  high  schools ;  with  no  tuition 


Sessions]  THE  SMALL  COLLEGE— ITS  PROSPECTS  79 

fee,  because  provision  has  been  made  by  the  state,  and  instruction  is 
offered  free;  with  excellent  facilities  for  work  in  nearly  every  line;  with 
fully  equipped  laboratories,  and  with  libraries  far  more  complete  than  any 
ordinary  college  can  ever  hope  to  possess,  the  state  university  presents 
an  inducement  to  the  prospective  student  which  the  smaller  college  can- 
not under  any  circumstances  duplicate. 

A  great  outcry  has  always  been  made  against  the  state  university  that 
its  tendencies  were  anti-Christian,  and  that  its  students  were  under  influ- 
ences many  of  which  were  evil  and  powerful  ;  but  a  careful  study  of  these 
institutions  shows  that  the  facts  do  not  support  these  charges.  In  many, 
if  not  in  all,  of  the  state  universities  there  is  cultivated  a  deep  religious 
spirit,  and  the  Christian  activity  and  interest  in  Bible  study  are  greater 
by  far  in  proportion  than  in  some  of  the  smaller  colleges  which  are  under 
denominational  control.  This  fact  is  coming  to  be  more  and  more 
largely  appreciated,  and  with  the  appreciation  of  it  there  will  come  a  still 
larger  shrinkage  of  the  constituency  of  the  small  coljege.  There  have 
come  to  me  within  one  week  letters  from  the  presidents  of  three  colleges 
in  a  single  state  asking  for  aid  in  securing  the  principalship  of  a  high 
school  in  the  city  of  Chicago  or  in  its  vicinity.  The  request  was  made 
upon  the  ground  that  it  was  no  longer  possible  to  continue  the  struggle 
of  building  up  a  college  when  the  adverse  influences  were  so  many  and 
so  stiong.  It  is  an  important  fact  that  in  some  states  the  influence  of 
the  state  institutions  has  been  so  great  as  actually  to  prevent  the  organi- 
zation of  any  considerable  number  of  small  colleges.  I  do  not  at  this 
point  say  whether  this  condition  of  things  is,  upon  the  whole,  favorable 
or  unfavorable  to  the  general  cause  of  education.  I  merely  cite  it  as  an 
example  of  what  the  small  colleges  may  expect  in  the  future  when  the 
state  institutions  in  their  vicinity  shall  have  become  stronger  and  more 
powerful. 

Lack  of  financial  resources. —  But,  after  all,  the-  greatest  difficulty  of 
the  small  college  is  its  lack  of  means  with  which  to  do  the  work  demanded 
in  these  days  of  modern  methods,  the  methods  of  the  library  and  the 
laboratory.  The  number  of  institutions  called  colleges  with  an  endowment 
of  less  than  one  hundred  thousand  dollars  is  appallingly  large,  and  yet  today 
the  income  of  an  endowment  of  one  hundred  thousand  dollars  may  be 
reckoned  at  only  4  or  5  per  cent.  How  much  opportunity  does  this  afford 
for  furnishing  instruction  of  a  higher  grade  ?  It  should  be  remembered 
that,  as  has  been  already  shown,  only  66  per  cent,  of  all  the  colleges  and 
universities  have  more  than  150  students.  This  total  income  is  scarcely 
sufficient  to  pay  the  salary  of  three  or  four  men ;  and  yet  out  of  it  must  be 
paid  expenditures  for  administration,  for  fuel  and  light,  for  circulars  and 
catalogs,  for  expenses  of  every  kind.  How  is  it  possible  to  do  adequate 
work?  A  well-equipped  academy  for  250  students  cannot  be  conducted 
in  these  days  for  less  than  forty  thousand  dollars  a  year.     The  cost  per 


8o  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [General 

capita  of  instruction  furnished  the  high-school  students  in  some  of  our 
cities,  even  where  the  classes  are  crowded,  exceeds  the  average  cost  per 
capita  of  the  instruction  furnished  in  many  of  our  colleges.  The  demands 
of  modern  methods  have  quadrupled  the  difficulty  in  this  respect.  So 
long  as  the  curriculum  could  be  restricted  in  large  measure  to  the  study 
of  Latin,  Greek,  and  mathematics,  no  great  cost  was  incurred  for  equip- 
ment ;  but  with  the  introduction  of  work  in  history,  political  economy, 
and  political  science  the  requirements  for  books  and  periodicals  is  very 
great.  With  the  introduction  of  laboratory  work  in  the  various  sciences 
the  expenditures  required  for  laboratories  and  for  equipment  are  very 
great.  Without  money  these  demands  cannot  be  met,  and  yet  without 
meeting  the  demands  of  the  present  age  our  colleges  all  over  the  land  are 
graduating  students  who  are  impressed  with  the  belief  that  they  have 
been  educated  in  accordance  with  modern  ideas.  An  institution  consists 
of  the  men  who  make  up  the  faculty,  of  the  buildings,  and  of  the  equip- 
ment. These,  however,  can  be  obtained  and  maintained  only  with 
resources  of  a  liberal  character. 

These,  then,  are  some  of  the  difficulties  which  confront  those  who  are 
responsible  for  the  maintenance  and  development  of  the  small  college. 

III.     CHANGES  AFFECTING    THE    SMALL    COLLEGE    WHICH    MAY  BE  EXPECTED 
AND    WHICH    ARE    TO    BE    DESIRED 

Strengthening  of  the  surviving  colleges. — We  come  now  to  the  consid- 
eration of  the  changes  affecting  the  small  colleges  which  may  be  expected 
and  are  to  be  desired.  First  among  these  will  be  the  strengthening  of 
some.  The  laws  of  institutional  life  are  very  similar  to  those  of  indi- 
vidual life,  and  in  the  development  of  institutions  we  may  confidently 
believe  in  "  the  survival  of  the  fittest."  The  severe  tests,  to  which  the 
life  of  many  institutions  is  subjected,  serve  to  purify  and  to  harden  these 
lives.  The  institution  which  has  survived  the  trials  and  tribulations  of 
early  years,  and  which,  by  this  survival,  has  justified  its  existence,  not  only 
to  its  constituency,  but  to  the  world  at  large,  deserves  to  live;  and  its  sub- 
sequent life  will  be  all  the  stronger  and  heartier  because  of  the  difficul- 
ties thru  which  it  has  passed.  The  purpose  of  suffering  is,  therefore, 
much  the  same  in  the  case  of  an  institution  as  in  the  case  of  an  individual. 
There  will,  of  course,  be  fluctuation,  and  the  institution  destined  to 
live  and  to  exert  a  strong  influence  will  at  times  be  less  strong  than  at 
other  times,  its  clientage  less  numerous  and  earnest,  its  standard  less 
ideal,  and  its  life  less  vigorous ;  but,  here  and  there,  as  determined  by  the 
needs  of  spiritual  life,  and  by  the  conveniences  of  practical  life,  an  insti- 
tution will  gradually  grow  into  strength  which,  in  the  face  of  even  the 
greatest  difficulties  and  disasters,  will  prove  invincible. 

The  small  college,  as  has  already  been  said,  is  an  expression  of  the 
American  spirit,  and,  unless  this  spirit  is  fundamentally  changed,  there  is 


Sessions]  THE  SMALL  COLLEGE— ITS  PROSPECTS  8i 

no  reason  to  suppose  that  the  time  will  ever  come  when,  under  proper 
conditions,  there  will  not  be  a  function  and  a  mission  for  the  smaller 
institution.  Whatever  may  be  the  development  of  the  university  spirit, 
however  strong  the  work  of  professional  education  shall  come  to  be,  the 
need  of  the  other  kind  of  institution  will  continue  to  exist  and  to  grow; 
and  if  only  the  means  may  be  secured  for  providing  the  proper  facilities, 
the  worth  and  standing  of  such  colleges  will  be  increased  and  the  advan- 
tages of  such  work  will  be  unchallenged. 

Reduction  of  some  colleges  to  academies. —  In  this  struggle  for  existence, 
however,  some  of  the  colleges  that  have  already  been  organized,  and 
others  the  organization  of  which  is  in  the  future,  will  be  compelled  to 
limit  their  activity  to  the  sphere  of  work  known  commonly  as  the  aca- 
demic, or  preparatory,  field.  It  is  probable  that  a  careful  examination  of 
the  colleges  now  chartered  in  the  United  States  would  show  that  at  least 
20  to  25  per  cent,  are  doing  work  of  a  character  only  little  removed  from 
that  of  an  academy.  This  means  simply  that  the  term  "  college  "  has 
been  misappropriated  by  these  institutions.  Surely  an  institution  with  a 
library  of  less  than  a  thousand  volumes,  with  scientific  apparatus  and 
equipment  which  has  cost  less  than  one  thousand  dollars,  with  a  single 
building  which  has  cost  less  than  forty  thousand  dollars,  and  with  an 
income  of  less  than  six  to  eight  thousand,  is  not  in  a  position  to  do  col- 
lege work ;  and  yet  it  is  probably  true  that  more  than  one  hundred 
so-called  "colleges"  belong  to  this  category.  Forty  years  ago  such  a 
college,  if  its  small  faculty  had  contained  a  few  strong  men,  might  have 
justified  itself;  but  today  the  situation  is  changed,  and  institutions  of 
this  kind  are  recognized  at  a  distance,  if  not  at  home,  at  their  true  worth. 
These,  and,  in  addition,  some  that  in  times  past  have  been  more  prosper- 
ous, will,  in  the  course  of  educational  development,  come  to  occupy  a 
more  honest  position  before  the  world,  and  nothing  could  occur  which 
would  be  more  advantageous  to  the  cause  of  education.  Strong  acade- 
mies are  needed  side  by  side  with  the  high  schools  of  the  state,  just  as 
strong  colleges  and  universities,  founded  by  private  means,  are  needed  to 
work  side  by  side  with  the  universities  of  the  state. 

While,  therefore,  25  per  cent,  of  the  small  colleges  now  conducted 
will  survive,  and  be  all  the  stronger  for  the  struggle  thru  which  they 
have  passed,  another  25  per  cent,  will  yield  to  the  inevitable,  and,  one  by 
one,  take  a  place  in  the  system  of  educational  work  which,  while  in  one 
sense  lower,  is  in  a  true  sense  higher.  It  is  surely  a  higher  thing  to  do 
honest  and  thoro  work  in  a  lower  field  than  to  fall  short  of  such  work 
in  a  higher  field. 

The  modification  of  some  to  Junior  colleges. — Another  group  of  these 
smaller  institutions  will  come  to  be  known  as  junior  colleges.  I  use  the 
words  "junior  colleges,"  for  lack  of  a  better  term,  to  cover  the  work  of 
the  freshman  and  sophomore  years.     With  these  may  usually  be  closely 


82  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [General 

associated  the  work  of  the  preparatory  department,  or  academy:  This 
period  of  six  years  is,  I  am  inclined  to  think,  a  period  which  stands  by 
itself  as  between  the  period  of  elementary  education  and  that  of  the  uni- 
versity. The  work  of  the  freshman  and  sophomore  years  is  only  a  con- 
tinuation of  the  academy  or  high-school  work.  It  is  a  continuation,  not 
only  of  the  subject-matter  studied,  but  of  the  methods  employed.  It  is 
not  until  the  end  of  the  sophomore  year  that  university  methods  of 
instruction  may  be  employed  to  advantage.  It  is  not  until  the  end  of  the 
sophomore  year  that  the  average  student  has  reached  an  age  which 
enables  him  to  do  work  with  satisfaction,  except  in  accordance  with  acad- 
emy methods.  At  present  this  consecutive  period  of  preparation,  cover- 
ing six  years,  is  broken  at  the  end  of  the  fourth  year,  and  the  student 
finds  himself  adrift.  He  has  not  reached  the  point  when  work  in  any  of 
his  preparatory  subjects  is  finished.  He  is  compelled  to  continue  the 
same  work  under  new  and  strange  conditions,  with  new  and  strange 
instructors.  Not  infrequently  the  instructors  under  whom  he  is  placed  in 
the  freshman  year  of  college  are  inferior  to  those  with  whom  he  has  been 
associated  in  the  academy.  A  great  waste  of  energy,  time,  and  interest 
follows  this  unnatural  break  in  the  prosecution  of  the  student's  work. 
Nature  has  marked  out  the  great  divisions  of  educational  work,  and  the 
laws  of  nature  may  not  be  violated  without  injury.  My  firm  conviction 
is  that  in  time  this  difficulty  will  be  appreciated,  and  that  a  large  num- 
ber, perhaps  even  a  majority,  of  the  colleges  now  attempting  to  do 
the  four  years  of  preparatory  course  and  the  four  years  of  college  work 
will  be  satisfied  to  limit  their  work  to  the  six  years  which  would  include 
the  preparatory  training  and  the  first  two  years  of  college  life.  The 
motives  to  this  change  will  be  found  in  its  economy,  and  in  the  possi- 
bility of  doing  thoro  and  satisfactory  work,  where  today  such  work  is 
impossible. 

There  are  at  least  two  hundred  colleges  in  the  United  States  in  which 
this  change  would  be  desirable.  These  institutions  have  a  preparatory 
school  as  well  as  a  college  course.  The  number  of  students  in  the  pre- 
paratory school  is  perhaps  a  hundred  and  fifty.  In  the  freshmen  and 
sophomore  classes  they  have  thirty  to  forty  students,  and  in  the  junior  and 
senior  classes  twenty  to  thirty.  The  annual  income  of  these  institutions 
is  restricted  for  the  most  part  to  the  fees  of  the  students,  and  will  average 
from  all  sources,  let  us  say,  eight  to  ten  thousand  dollars.  In  order  to 
keep  up  the  name  of  the  college,  the  income  is  made  to  cover  the  expenses 
of  eight  years  —  that  is,  the  preparatory  and  the  collegiate  departments. 
In  order  to  do  the  work  of  the  junior  and  senior  years  of  the  college, 
even  superficially,  where  the  classes  are  so  small,  as  much  of  the  total 
income  is  spent  upon  the  instruction  during  these  two  years  as  upon  that 
of  the  five  or  six  years  below.  It  is  evident  that,  even  with  this  dispropor- 
tionate expenditure,  the  work  of  the  junior  and  senior  college  years  can  be 


b 


Sessions]  tllE  SMALL  COLLEGE— ITS  PROSPECTS  83 

done  only  in  a  superficial  way,  because  the  library  and  laboratory  facilities 
are  meager,  the  range  of  instruction  is  very  narrow,  and  a  single  instructor 
is  often  required  to  teach  in  three  or  four  subjects. 

But  this  is  not  the  most  significant  fact.  When  the  money  paid  by 
the  students  of  the  first  six  years  has  been  used  for  instruction  of  a  few 
men  who  are  working  in  the  last  two  years,  in  order  that  the  college  may 
continue  to  be  known  as  a  college,  there  does  not  remain  sufficient 
income  to  do  justice  to  the  work  of  the  lower  years.  This  is  an  attempt 
to  do  higher  work  at  the  cost  of  the  lower.  Nor  are  examples  of  this  kind 
limited  to  states  in  the  West  and  South.  More  than  one  instance  will  be 
found  in  the  state  of  New  York,  while  in  Pennsylvania  and  Ohio,  Indiana, 
Illinois,  and  Michigan,  such  institutions  abound. 

The  reduction  of  institutions  of  this  class  to  the  rank  of  colleges  which 
shall  do,  in  addition  to  the  preparatory  work,  only  the  work  of  the  fresh- 
man and  sophomore  years,  will  accomplish  several  results. 

1.  The  money  now  wasted  in  doing  the  higher  work  superficially 
could  be  used  to  do  the  lower  work  more  thoroly. 

2.  The  pretense  of  giving  a  college  education  would  be  given  up,  and 
the  college  could  become  an  honest  institution. 

3.  The  student  who  was  not  really  fitted  by  nature  to  take  the  higher 
work  could  stop  naturally  and  honorably  at  the  end  of  the  sophomore 
year. 

4.  Many  students  who  might  not  have  the  courage  to  enter  upon  a 
course  of  four  years*  study  would  be  willing  to  do  the  two  years  of  work 
before  entering  business  or  the  professional  school. 

5.  Students  capable  of  doing  the  higher  work  would  be  forced  to  go 
away  from  the  small  college  to  the  university.  This  change  would  in 
every  case  be  most  advantageous. 

6.  Students  living  near  thie  college  whose  ambition  it  was  to  go  away 
to  college  could  remain  at  home  until  greater  maturity  had  been  reached 
—  a  point  of  the  highest  moment  in  these  days  of  strong  temptation. 

The  substitution  of  the  six-year  institution,  including  the  academic  or 
high-school  course,  for  the  present  four-year  institution,  without  prepara- 
tory work,  would,  at  one  stroke,  touch  the  greatest  evils  of  our  present 
situation. 

Development  of  high  schools  into  Junior  colleges. —  Directly  along  this 
line  will  be  another  change,  namely,  the  development  of  high  schools  into 
junior  colleges.  Evidence  that  this  change  is  already  taking  place  may 
be  found  on  every  hand.  The  establishment  of  hundreds  of  high  schools 
thru  all  the  states  is  in  itself  a  new  element  in  our  educational  machin- 
ery which  has  disarranged  the  former  system,  but  has,  at  the  same 
time,  greatly  advanced  the  interests  of  education  itself.  The  quickening 
influence  of  these  institutions  is  seen,  not  only  in  the  increased  number 
of  those  who  continue  their  work  in  the  college  and  the  university,  nor 


§4  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [General 

merely  in  the  fact  that  a  larger  number  of  more  intelligent  men  and 
women  is  thus  contributed  to  the  various  communities,  but  especially  in 
the  fact  that  the  teachers  of  the  schools  of  a  lower  grade  are  vastly 
stronger  and  better  prepared  for  their  work. 

The  suggestion  is  made  from  time  to  time  that  the  people  will  not 
consent  to  continue  the  public  support  of  these  high  schools.  But,  as  a 
matter  of  fact,  they  do  continue  to  support  them  ;  and,  more  than  this, 
these  schools  are  constantly  increasing  their  requirements  for  admission, 
as  well  as  their  facilities  for  instruction  and  the  number  of  years  of  the 
curriculum.  It  has  now  come  to  be  generally  recognized  that  the  ideal  high 
school  must  have  a  curriculum  of  four  years,  and  in  many  sections  of  the 
country  this  has  already  been  secured.  In  others,  it  is  coming.  The  next 
step  in  the  development  of  this  work  will  be  the  addition  of  one  or  two  years 
to  the  present  courses ;  or,  in  other  words,  the  carrying  of  the  high 
school  up  to  the  end  of  the  sophomore  college  year.  Already  this  has 
practically  been  accomplished  in  certain  schools  in  Michigan  and  in  some 
of  our  cities.  It  can  be  done  at  a  minimum  of  cost.  Today  only  lo  per 
cent,  of  those  who  finish  the  high  school  continue  the  work  in  college.  If 
the  high  schools  were  to  provide  work  for  two  additional  years,  at  least 
40  per  cent,  of  those  finishing  the  first  four  years  would  continue  to  the 
end  of  the  sophomore  year. 

With  this  modification  of  the  high  school  on  the  one  hand,  and  with 
the  suggested  modification  of  many  of  our  colleges  upon  the  other,  there 
would  come  to  be  a  system  of  colleges,  state  or  non-state,  which  would 
meet  the  demands  of  the  situation  today  as  they  are  not  met.  Many 
of  the  normal  schools  of  western  states  practically  occupy  this  position. 

Greater  variation  of  type. — Again,  the  small  college  of  America  is 
everywhere  practically  of  the  same  type.  So  far  as  general  plan  is  con- 
cerned, each  college  is  a  duplicate  of  its  nearest  neighbors.  A  terrible 
monotony  presents  itself  to  the  eye  of  one  who  makes  any  attempt  to 
study  the  aims  and  motives  of  these  institutions.  All  alike  try  to  cover 
too  much  ground,  and,  worse  than  this,  all  alike  practically  cover  the 
same  ground.  A  change  in  this  respect  is  desirable,  and  inevitable.  This 
change  will  come  partly  in  the  way  of  establishment  of  colleges  for  par- 
ticular purposes ;  a  college,  for  example,  established  principally  for  the 
study  of  science  ;  another  college  established  principally  for  the  study  of 
literature  ;  another  for  the  study  principally  of  historical  subjects.  The 
principle  of  individualism,  which  has  already  been  applied  in  education 
to  the  work  of  the  student  and  to  the  work  of  the  instructor,  must  find 
application  to  the  work  of  the  institution.  The  idea  has  prevailed 
that  every  newly  founded  institution  should  duplicate  the  work  of 
those  which  had  preceded  it,  and  in  consequence  the  colleges  of  our 
country  are,  with  a  few  notable  exceptions,  institutions  of  a  single  char- 
acter.    This  means  narrowness,  but  it  means  more.     Inasmuch  as  each 


Sessions!  THE  SMALL  COLLEGE— LTS  PROSPECTS  85 

institution  tries  to  cover  the  same  ground,  and  all  the  ground,  the  result 
has  been  that  no  effort  has  been  undertaken  to  establish  a  school  which 
will  allow  thoroness  or  depth.  The  college  that  has  no  endowment, 
or  an  endowment  of  a  hundred  thousand  dollars,  seeks  to  do  the  same 
thing  which  the  institution  with  millions  of  dollars  of  endowment  finds  it 
difficult  to  accomplish.  The  technical  school  with  no  endowment,  or  an 
endowment  of  a  hundred  thousand  dollars,  seeks  to  cover  every  field  of 
technical  work.  The  time  will  come  when  institutions  will  cultivate 
individualism  ;  when  one  institution  will  give  a  large  measure  of  its 
strength  and  energy  to  the  development  of  a  department  of  history  and 
politics,  another  to  physics  and  chemistry,  and  another  to  the  biological 
sciences,  another  perhaps  putting  all  its  efforts  into  the  great  field  of  elec- 
tricity. This  will  be  in  striking  contrast  with  the  present  policy,  in  accord- 
ance with  which  the  most  poorly  equipped  college  announces  courses  in 
every  department  of  human  learning  ;  and  students  are  compelled,  in  self- 
defense,  to  dabble  in  everything  rather  than  to  do  work  in  a  few  things. 

Notable  examples  of  what  may  be  done  in  this  way  are  to  be  found  in 
the  case  of  the  splendid  work  of  the  late  Professor  March,  in  philology 
and  Anglo-Saxon,  in  Lafayette  College,  and  the  equally  notable  results 
secured  at  Haverford  College,  under  Professor  J.  Rendel  Harris,  in  the 
department  of  New  Testament  Greek.  These  institutions,  lacking  the 
means  to  develop  equally  all  the  departments,  chose  to  select  a  single 
department  on  which  to  spend  the  highest  energy,  and  the  character  of 
the  work  done  in  this  department  gave  tone  and  coloring  to  the  entire 
work  of  the  college.  In  these  institutions,  altho  colleges,  work  was 
done  of  which  even  a  university  might  be  proud. 

Closer  relationship  with  each  other. — Yet  a  further  change  will  be  the 
development  of  a  spirit  of  co-operation.  It  is  only  within  a  few  years 
that  there  has  been  any  co-operation  worth  mentioning  among  colleges 
and  universities,  and  the  co-operation  which  has  so  far  been  inaugurated 
is  of  an  exceedingly  superficial  character.  Enough  of  it  has  been  worked 
out,  however,  to  make  those  who  have  tasted  it  desire  still  more,  and  the 
few  steps  already  taken  are  but  precursors  of  many  that  are  to  follow. 

It  is  not  enough  that  there  should  be  associations  in  which,  once  a 
year,  the  representatives  of  certain  institutions  may  come  together  for  the 
reading  of  papers  and  the  passing  of  resolutions.  With  better  classifica- 
tion of  educational  work,  with  the  greater  similarity  of  standards  for 
admission  and  for  graduation,  and  with  the  variety  of  type  secured,  so  that 
individual  institutions  will  have  individual  responsibilities,  there  will  be 
found  a  basis  for  co-operation  such  as  has  not  hitherto  existed.  This 
association  will  be  similar  to  that  which  men  in  all  divisions  of  the 
business  world  have  found  necessary  and  helpful.  Such  relationship  will 
serve  as  a  protection  for  all  who  thus  stand  together,  against  misunder- 
standing and  ignorance.     It  will  secure  results  which  no  institution  of  its 


86  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [General 

own  strength  could  secure.  It  will  lift  educational  work  above  the  petty 
jealousies  and  rivalries  which  today  bring  reproach  and  disgrace  upon  it. 
It  will  mitigate  the  evils  of  competition,  and,  indeed,  will  substitute  for 
these  evils  the  blessings  which  follow  honorable  and  legitimate  rivalry. 

Such  a  relationship  entered  into  by  the  colleges  of  a  certain  district 
will  dignify  the  work  of  the  small  college  and  secure  for  it  a  proper  place 
by  the  side  of  the  institution  under  state  control.  This  relationship  will 
be,  in  effect,  a  federation  of  higher  institutions,  and  thru  this  federa- 
tion it  will  be  possible  for  each  of  the  interested  colleges  to  strengthen  its 
faculties.  There  is  no  reason  why  a  great  specialist  in  a  particular  depart- 
ment might  not  be  the  servant  of  two  or  three  institutions,  to  the  advan- 
tage of  the  subject  represented,  the  colleges  thus  associated,  and  the 
cause  of  higher  learning.  Such  an  association,  in  brief,  will  open  up  new 
possibilities  for  the  small  college,  and  it  will  secure  privileges  which  today 
are  far  beyond  its  reach. 

Closer  association  with  larger  institutions. — There  will  also  exist  in  the 
days  that  are  coming  a  more  and  more  close  association  of  the  smaller 
colleges  with  the  larger  institutions  or  universities.  The  great  advantages 
which  will  be  found  to  accrue  both  to  the  college  and  to  the  university  in 
such  association  will  bring  it  about ;  for,  after  all,  institutions,  like  indi- 
viduals, move  along  the  line  of  least  resistance. 

I  am  unable  to  point  out  these  advantages  in  detail,  but  among  them 
will  be  included  : 

1.  The  intermingling  of  the  teachers  and  lecturers,  those  of  the  col- 
lege doing  work  in  the  university  and  those  of  the  university  doing  work 
in  the  college  —  the  interchange  of  blood,  as  it  were. 

2.  The  recognition  of  university  appointment  thus  bestowed  directly 
and  indirectly  upon  the  teacher  of  the  college. 

3.  The  opportunities  for  special  investigation  at  the  university  afforded 
the  younger  college  instructors. 

4.  The  special  assistance  of  many  kinds  which  the  university  may 
render  the  college  in  the  conduct  of  its  work. 

5.  The  prestige  secured  to  the  degrees  of  the  college  in  view  of  re-en- 
actment by  the  university. 

6.  The  loan  of  books  and  apparatus  to  the  college  by  the  university. 

7.  The  establishment  of  scholarships  and  fellowships  in  the  university 
open  to  students  of  the  college. 

8.  The  assistance  rendered  in  the  selection  of  instructors. 

9.  The  financial  confidence  created,  upon  the  basis  of  which  larger 
endowments  may  be  secured. 

10.  And,  in  general,  that  help  which  a  stronger  agent  may  furnish 
one  not  so  strong  in  the  accomplishment  of  the  latter's  work. 

Development  of  a  system  in  higher  educational  work. —  All  this  points  to 
the  development  of  a  system  in  our  higher  educational  work.    The  change 


Sessions]       CONTRIBUTIONS  TO  EDUCATION— BAPTIST  CHURCH  87 

of  certain  colleges  into  junior  colleges,  and  of  others  into  academies,  the 
association  of  the  colleges  of  a  denomination  or  a  geographical  district 
with  each  other,  and  the  close  association  of  such  colleges  with  the  univer- 
sities—  all  this  will  contribute  toward  a  system  of  higher  education  (some- 
thing which  does  not  now  exist  in  America),  the  lack  of  which  is  sadly 
felt  in  every  sphere  of  educational  activity.  System  means  organization, 
and  without  organization,  without  the  sharp  distinctions  and  the  recognized 
standards  which  come  with  organization,  the  work,  however  excellent, 
lacks  that  essential  element  which  gives  it  the  highest  character  and  pro- 
duces the  best  results. 

There  are  some  advantages,  perhaps,  in  lack  of  system  ;  if  so,  we  have 
enjoyed  these  advantages  long  enough.  The  time  is  ripe  for  something 
more  definite  and  regular  and  tangible,  and  the  modifications  which  have 
been  suggested  in  the  policy  of  secondary  and  college  education  will 
contribute  in  this  direction. 

Conclusion. —  I  may  sum  up  all  that  I  have  said  in  these  sentences  : 

1.  The  small  college  is  certain  of  its  existence  in  the  future  educational 
history  of  the  United  States. 

2.  It  must,  however,  pass  thru  a  serious  struggle  with  many  antagonistic 
elements,  and  must  adjust  itself  to  other  similar  and,  sometimes,  stronger 
agencies. 

3.  In  the  process  of  this  struggle  and  adjustment  some  colleges  will 
grow  stronger ;  some  will  become  academies ;  some,  junior  colleges ; 
the  high  schools  will  be  elevated  to  a  still  more  important  position  than 
that  which  they  now  occupy;  while,  all  together,  high  schools,  colleges, 
and  universities,  will  develop  greater  similarity  of  standard  and  greater 
variety  of  type ;  and,  at  the  same  time,  they  will  come  into  closer  and 
more  helpful  association  one  with  another.  The  general  result  will  be 
the  growth  of  system  in  the  higher  educational  work  of  the  United  States, 
where  now  no  system  exists. 

4.  The  future  of  the  small  college  will  be  a  great  future ;  a  future 
greater  than  its  past,  because  that  future  will  be  better  equipped,  better 
organized,  and  better  adjusted. 


CONTRIBUTIONS     OF     RELIGIOUS    ORGANIZATIONS     TO 
THE   CAUSE   OF  EDUCATION 

7.   BY  THE  BAPTIST  CHURCH 

OSCAR    H.    COOPER,   PRESIDENT    OF    BAYLOR    UNIVERSITY,    WACO,   TEX. 

The  Baptist  church  is  the  most  democratic  organization  in  the  world. 
Each  church  is  sovereign.  Large  educational  enterprises  require  co  op- 
eration, hence  the  difficulties  in  the  way  of  educational  organization  are 
greater  under  Baptist  auspices  than  under  the  direction  of  churches  more 


88  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [General 

highly  centralized  in  administration.  The  Baptist  church  emerged  into 
the  light  of  modern  history  during  the  great  century  that  gave  birth  to 
the  Reformation.  Historians  differ  as  to  whether  this  stream  of  evangeli- 
cal Christianity  had  been  flowing  on  in  unbroken  continuity  from  the 
days  of  the  apostles,  or  whether  it  had  originated  in  the  sixteenth  century. 
But  there  seems  little  doubt  that  in  its  simple  creed,  its  ordinances,  and 
its  democratic  organization  it  conforms  very  closely  to  the  Christian 
church  of  the  earliest  centuries.  For  nearly  two  centuries  after  the 
Reformation  Baptists  gave  little  attention  to  the  establishment  of  educa- 
tional institutions  ;  yet  the  church  grew.  Baptists  were  often  persecuted 
and  were  generally  misrepresented,  even  by  the  best  men  of  other  forms 
of  Christian  faith.  They  were  a  factor,  however,  of  considerable  impor- 
tance in  the  great  rebellion  under  Cromwell,  and  the  faith  spread  early  to 
the  American  colonies.  Altho  the  growth  was  checked  by  repressive 
legislation  in  most  of  the  colonies,  yet  they  were  a  factor  in  the  American 
Revolution,  and  in  1800  they  numbered  about  2  per  cent,  of  the  popula- 
tion of  the  United  States.  The  vast  majority  of  the  Baptists  were  poor, 
and  doubtless  a  large  percentage  were  illiterate  during  this  period.  This 
was  true  both  of  preacher  and  people;  yet,  intense  in  conviction 
and  having  the  courage  of  their  convictions,  they  believed  and 
studied  the  Bible.  Many  of  the  preachers,  altho  uneducated  in  the 
technical  sense,  have  always  been  men  of  great  power  and  rare  nobility 
of  character.  They  were  masters  of  the  marvelous  imagery  and  diction 
of  the  Sacred  Book.  They  understood  the  hearts  of  the  people,  and 
preached  with  transcendent  power  the  simple  story  of  the  cross.  If  their 
outlook  on  life  was  narrow,  it  was  at  the  same  time  intense,  for  it  included 
and  impressed  honesty,  virtue,  courage,  and  fidelity.  Baptists  have 
always  been  loyal  to  the  ideals  of  Christian  education,  as  they  have 
understood  them ;  but  to  them  always  life  has  meant  far  more  than 
learning,  character  more  than  intellect.  Their  attention  has  been 
directed,  in  large  measure,  to  the  seamy  side  of  humanity,  and  by  their 
efforts  to  improve  that  side  they  have  contributed  in  lasting  and  perma- 
nent ways  to  the  improvement  of  the  whole. 

In  a  wide  and  true  sense,  all  genuine  Christian  work  is  educative,  and 
all  genuine  Christian  workers  are  educators,  whether  with  reference  to 
individuals,  communities,  states,  or  humanity.  But  I  shall  treat  the  sub- 
ject in  a  narrower  sense,  as  signifying  directly  the  training  given  as 
preparation  thru  the  well-recognized  instrumentalities  of  institutions  for 
education,  the  great  educational  leaders  who  shape  educational  thought, 
and  the  underlying  ideas  of  which  both  leaders  and  institutions  are 
exponents. 

Further,  I  deem  it  best  to  confine  my  views  to  the  educational  record 
of  the  Baptists  of  the  United  States,  because  it  is  in  our  country  that  their 
chief  educational  work  has  been  done. 


r 


Sessions]       CONTRIBUTIONS  TO  EDUCATION— BAPTIST  CHURCH  89 

I.  The  Baptists  emerged  from  the  obscurity  of  a  thousand  years  with  a 
doctrine  new  to  civilization,  but  destined,  under  God's  guiding  hand,  to 
reorganize  society  and  thus  create  a  new  era  in  the  world's  history.  This 
was  the  doctrine  that  man  is  responsible  for  his  religious  faith  to  God 
alone.  Wherever  Baptists  appear  in  history,  from  the  sixteenth  century 
on,  we  find  them  maintaining  with  marvelous  clearness  of  thought  and 
inflexible  firmness  of  conviction  this  great  truth  of  soul-liberty.  It  is  the 
peculiar  glory  of  this  denomination  that  the  first  state  ever  established 
on  the  principle  of  liberty  of  conscience  was  founded  by  a  Baptist,  who 
had  learned  the  significance  of  this  truth  thru  persecution.  Yet  Roger 
Williams  only  applied  the  lessons  already  taught  by  the  Baptists  of  Eng- 
land and  Holland,  whose  noble  pleas  for  liberty  of  conscience,  issued 
many  years  before  and  undoubtedly  known  to  Williams,  are  still  pre- 
served. The  revelation  of  this  transcendent  truth  came  not  to  the  great 
reformers  —  not  to  Luther  nor  to  Calvin,  not  to  Melanchthon  nor  to 
Knox  ;  for  they  all,  great  and  good  men  as  they  were,  were  stained  by 
persecution.  May  we  not  say  that  this  obscure  and  lowly  church,  "  the 
sect  everywhere  spoken  against,"  was  selected  by  God  himself  to  teach 
this  the  most  far-reaching  truth  of  modern  times — absolute  liberty  of  con- 
science— that  the  glory  might  be  to  Him,  and  not  to  man?  The  removal 
of  the  jurisdiction  of  religious  faith  from  the  courts  of  earth  to  the  court 
of  heaven  was  the  last  step  in  the  evolution  of  the  Master's  prophecy : 
"And  ye  shall  know  the  truth,  and  the  truth  shall  make  you  free." 

"  Right  of  individual  judgment  in  religion,  the  requirement  of  personal  faith  and  obe- 
dience, lead  inevitably  to  civil  freedom.  Individuality  in  relation  to  God  and  Christ  and 
salvation,  the  Scriptures  and  judgment  and  eternity,  conducts  by  an  irresistible  sequence 
to  freedom  of  thought  and  speech  and  press,  to  popular  government,  to  unfettered  scien- 
tific investigation,  and  to  universal  education." 

I  hold  that  the  most  important  contribution  made  by  Baptists  to  edu- 
cation has  been  their  vindication  of  this  fundamental  doctrine  of  soul- 
liberty.  A  striking  example  of  their  general  attitude  on  this  subject  — 
soul-liberty — was  given  when  the  constitution  of  the  United  States  was 
pending.  The  Baptists  of  Virginia  thought  that  Article  VI  of  the  origi- 
nal draft  did  not  guarantee  full  liberty  of  conscience,  and  accordingly 
their  general  committee  sent  a  memorable  letter  about  the  matter  to 
Washington  himself.  Washington's  reply  bore  testimony  to  the  loyalty 
of  the  Baptists  to  civil  liberty,  and  their  generous  part  in  promoting  "our 
glorious  revolution,"  and  gave  pledge  of  his  devotion  to  the  principle 
of  freedom  of  conscience.  With  the  approval  of  Washington,  Madison 
then  submitted  the  first  amendment  to  the  constitution  :  "  Congress  shall 
make  no  law  respecting  an  establishment  of  religion,  or  prohibiting  the 
free  exercise  thereof,  or  abridging  the  freedom  of  speech  or  of  the  press, 
or  the  right  of  the  people  peaceably  to  assemble  and  petition  the  govern- 
ment for  a  redress  of  grievances,"     And  so,  from  wh^t  might  be  deemed 


90  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [General 

the  squeamishness  of  Virginia  Baptists,  the  fullest  freedom  of  conscience 
was  established  in  America  forever.  I  deem  the  establishment  of  soul- 
liberty  the  most  important  contribution  to  educational  progress  made 
since  Christ  uttered  the  prophecy  and  the  command:  "Ye  shall  know  the 
truth,  and  the  truth  shall  make  you  free." 

2.  I  shall  devote  brief  space  to  some  of  the  educational  leaders  contrib- 
uted by  this  denomination.  Thru  all  modern  times  there  have  been 
Baptists  whose  leadership  in  the  world  of  thought,  both  religious  and 
secular,  has  contributed  toward  the  shaping  of  the  educational  ideal. 

John  Milton,  of  whom  Dryden  wrote, 

Three  poets,  in  distant  ages  born, 
Greece,  Italy  and  England  did  adorn. 
The  first  in  loftiness  of  thought  surpassed ; 
The  next  in  majesty ;  in  both  the  last. 
The  force  of  Nature  could  no  further  go. 
To  make  a  third  she  joined  the  other  two. 

was  a  Baptist ;  and  not  only  indirectly  by  his  immortal  poetry,  but  also 
directly  by  his  Tractate  on  Education,  and  other  educational  writings, 
did  he  aid  in  shaping  the  educational  ideal  for  all  coming  time. 

And  what  shall  I  say  of  Bunyan,  whose  marvelous  allegory.  Pilgrim's 
Progress,  has  been  second  only  to  the  Bible  in  advancing  intense  religious 
life,  thereby  making  an  imperishable  contribution  to  the  educational 
ideal  ? 

In  our  own  country  many  of  the  foremost  educators  have  been 
Baptists,  or  have  been  trained  in  Baptist  institutions  —  especially  Brown 
University.  I  may  mention  only  a  few  of  these.  Henry  Dunster,  the 
first  president  of  Harvard  College,  was  a  Baptist.  President  Eliot  said 
last  year,  at  the  inauguration  of  President  Faunce  of  Brown  University : 

Two  hundred  and  forty-five  years  ago  Henry  Dunster,  first  president  of  Harvard 
College,  was  turned  out  of  his  office  by  the  Congregationalists,  who  then  ruled  Massachu- 
setts, because  he  was  a  Baptist ;  but  today  Henry  Dunster  is  one  of  Harvard's  saints  and 
heroes,  and  for  a  hundred  years  Harvard  has  been  devoted  in  every  fiber  of  her  body  and 
in  every  drop  of  her  blood  to  freedom  of  thought  and  speech. 

Few  men  [says  Boone,  the  historian  of  education  in  the  United  States]  have  done 
so  much  for  American  education  as  Dunster.  In  a  chaotic  period  he  gave  it  form.  During 
his  office  Harvard  acquired  such  repute  that  youths  of  opulent  families  in  the  parent 
country  were  sent  to  the  American  Cambridge  for  a  finishing  education. 

It  is  not  improbable  that  John  Harvard  himself  was  a  Baptist,  but  the 
evidence  on  this  point  seems  to  me  inconclusive.  It  is  certain,  however, 
that  Thomas  Hollis,  who  endowed  the  first  professorship  established  at 
Harvard,  or  for  that  matter  in  America,  was  a  Baptist. 

I  may  not  omit,  in  mention  of  the  Baptist  leaders,  the  name  of  Francis 
Wayland,  the  peer  as  president  and  professor  of  the  foremost  men  in  the 
nation.  The  nobility,  sincerity,  and  charm  of  his  life  left  an  indelible 
impress  on  the  thousands  of  students  who  passed  under  his  instruction. 
By  his  energy  and  wisdom  Brown  University  was  raised  to  a  high  place 


I 


Sessions]       CONTRIBUTIONS  TO  EDUCATION— BAPTIST  CHURCH  91 

in  American  education,  and  his  writings  influenced  for  righteousness  all 
civilized  nations.  Wayland  was  what  Carlyle  called  Luther,  "  a  true, 
great  man."     President  Faunce,  in  his  inaugural,  has  recently  said  : 

The  revolt  against  the  narrowness  of  the  old  education  in  America  began  with  the 
memorable  report  of  President  Francis  Wayland  to  the  corporation  of  Brown  University 
in  1850.  Whoever  reads  that  report  will  perceive  that  this  university  (and  he  might  have 
added  the  other  universities  of  America)  in  broadening  its  courses  of  study  is  simply 
realizing  the  vision  of  fifty  years  ago.  Whoever  reads  that  report  will  see  that  our  most 
radical  educators  are  not  yet  ready  to  adopt  what  Dr.  Wayland  fearlessly  advocated.  He 
affirmed  that  the  college  course  should  no  longer  be  confined  to  a  fixed  term  of  four  years, 
or  to  any  other  term ;  that  every  student  should  study  what  he  chose ;  and  that  in  addition 
to  the  present  courses  of  instruction  such  should  be  established  as  the  wants  of  the  various 
classes  of  the  community  required. 

American  colleges  have  been  following  out  for  the  last  thirty  years, 
more  or  less  boldly,  the  ideas  projected  in  this  famous  report  of  Wayland, 
which  produced  the  most  remarkable  debate  on  higher  education  ever 
known  in  this  country.  President  Wayland  also  projected  the  establish- 
ment of  a  department  of  education  in  the  university,  thus  anticipating 
more  fully  than  has  been  realized  in  many  at  least  of  our  higher  institu- 
tions the  creation  of  departments  of  pedagogy. 

Wayland  must  be  regarded  as  a  creative  factor  in  American  education. 
After  Wayland  I   should  name  as  the  most  significant  Baptist  leader  in 
education,  Barnes  Sears;  for  Horace  Mann,  altho   a  graduate  of  Brown 
University,  was  not  a   Baptist.     To   Dr.  Sears,  who  while  a  student  in 
[Germany  had  baptized  Oncken,  and  thus  become  the  father  of  the  German 
[Baptists,  and  who  in  his  manhood  had  worn  the  mantle  of  Horace  Mann 
[in  Massachusetts  and  of  Wayland  at  Brown,  was   intrusted  the  delicate 
land  difficult  work  of  sowing  the  seeds  for  a  sound  and  healthy  public- 
tschool  sentiment  thruout  the  South,  under  the  auspices  of  the  Peabody 
education   fund.     How  quietly,  how  skillfully,  how  effectively  this  work 
was  done  has  not  yet  been  adequately  told.     I  may  give  an  illustration 
from  my  own  experience.     In   1878  Dr.  Sears  came  to  Austin  during  a 
session  of  the  Texas  legislature.     I  was  an  eyewitness  to  the  following. 
"I  will  give,"  said  Dr.  Sears  to   Governor  Roberts,   "56,000  from  the 
Peabody  education    fund  to  support  a  normal    school,  if  the  state  will 
give  an  equal  amount."     The  Sam  Houston  Normal  Institute,  the   most 
influential  institution  for  the  training  of  teachers  in  the  South,  the  Pea- 
body Normal  College  at  Nashville  alone  excepted,  was  the  result. 

The  great  work,  begun  so  wisely  by  Sears,  was  carried  forward  by 
another  Baptist,  to  whom  the  South  and  the  nation  owe  an  imperishable 
obligation.  I  refer  to  Dr.  J.  L.  M.  Curry,  statesman,  diplomatist,  historian, 
teacher,  and  preacher.  I  am  not  sure  that  Dr.  Curry  has  not  been  the 
most  potent  individual  factor  in  our  generation,  at  least  in  the  advance- 
ment of  broader  ideas  and  sounder  methods  in  educational  matters  in 
the  South. 


92  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [General 

Time  would  fail  me  to  tell  of  the  work  of  others  who  have  built  for 
all  time  the  educational  foundations  of  our  denominational  institutions  — 
of  Richard  Furman,  Jesse  Mercer,  Broadus,  Harper,  and  a  host  of  other 
eminent  men,  whose  efforts,  often  put  forth  under  circumstances  of  great 
discouragement  and  difficulty,  under  God's  guiding  hand,  have  been 
crowned  with  success. 

3.  I  pass  now  to  the  institutions  which  constitute  the  chief  contributions 
of  Baptists  to  education.  These  institutions  immortalize  and  embody 
ideas.  They  are  the  centers  where  the  leaders  gather,  and  reinforce  each 
other ;  whence  the  superior  young  men  and  women  go  forth  to  their 
appointed  stations  to  serve  and  conquer  in  their  day  and  generation.  An 
institution  is  rarely  the  lengthened  shadow  of  any  one  man  ;  many  men 
and  women  must  have  wrought— some  in  the  glare  of  publicity,  some  in 
the  darkness  of  obscurity;  some  with  the  plaudits  of  the  multitudes,  some 
in  the  silence  of  privacy;  but  all  to  realize  the  ideal  which  the  institu- 
tion embodies. 

The  present  century  is  the  century  of  the  establishment  and  develop- 
ment of  Baptist  institutions.  Of  the  two  hundred  institutions  now 
existing  and  bearing  the  Baptist  name,  only  five  belong  to  the  first 
quarter  of  the  present  century ;  twenty-eight  originated  during  the  sec- 
ond quarter;  sixty-six  were  established  during  the  third  quarter;  and 
nearly  one  hundred  belong  to  the  last  quarter.  Brown  University  is 
the  only  Baptist  college  which  has  celebrated  its  centennial.  The  insti- 
tutions of  the  first  quarter  are  as  follows:  Brown,  founded  in  1764, 
has  endowment  and  property  now  valued  at  about  three  million  ;  Colby 
University,  founded  in  18 18,  has  endowment  and  property  valued  at  about 
three-quarters  of  a  million;  Colgate  University,  in  1819,  is  now  valued 
at  something  more  than  two  million  ;  Columbian,  at  Washington,  in  182 1, 
has  a  present  valuation  of  1^1,200,000.  To  the  second  quarter  of  the 
century  belong  Shurtleff  College,  1827,  $250,000;  Georgetown,  in 
Kentucky,  1829,  valuation  about  $4.00,000  ;  Denison  University,  1831,  val- 
uation of  more  than  $600,000;  Richmond  College,  Virginia,  1832,  valua- 
tion of  about  $1,000,000;  Wake  Forest  University,  North  Carolina,  1833, 
valuation  of  about  $310,000.  To  the  same  year  belong  Kalamazoo, 
Mich.,  valuation  $260,000;  Franklin  College,  Indiana,  1834,  valuation 
$400,000  ;  Mercer  University,  Georgia,  1837,  valuation  of  about  $500,000. 
In  1841  Howard  College  was  established  in  Alabama;  in  1845  was  estab- 
lished Baylor  University  in  Texas,  an  institution  from  which  about  ten 
thousand  students  have  gone  out,  and  which  has  a  present  valuation,  with 
Baylor  Female  College,  of  about  $500,000.  The  enrollment  in  these  two 
institutions  during  the  past  year  has  reached  a  thousand  students.  To 
the  same  year  belong  Limestone  College,  South  Carolina;  Southwestern 
Baptist  University  of  Tennessee ;  and  several  other  institutions  of  lesser 
note.     In  1849  William  Jewell  College  was  established  in  Missouri.     In 


Sessions]       CONTRIBUTIONS  TO  EDUCATION— BAPTIST  CHURCH  93 

1850  the  University  ot  Rochester,  the  present  valuation  of  which  is  a 
million  and  a  quarter;  Furman  University  in  South  Carolina,  the  present 
valuation  of  which  is  about  $165,000;  and  several  institutions  which  need 
not  here  be  named.  To  these  institutions  of  the  first  half  of  the  century 
belongs  the  glory  of  having  given  shape  and  tone  to  the  tremendous  work 
which  has  followed.  The  development  of  the  denomination  in  its  edu- 
cational contribution  during  this  period  has  been  marvelous :  at  the 
beginning  of  the  century,  one  institution,  in  Rhode  Island,  with  ninety- 
two  students  ;  at  the  end  of  the  century  200  institutions,  in  every  state,  with 
40,000  students ;  at  the  beginning  of  the  century,  property  and  endow- 
ment of  $50,000 ;  at  the  end  of  the  century,  property  and  endowment  of 
$44,000,000.  During  this  period  all  the  theological  seminaries  of  the 
denomination  have  been  established:  Hamilton  in  1819,  Newton  in 
1825,  Rochester  in  1850,  the  Southern  Baptist  Theological  Seminary 
in  1859,  the  Chicago  Divinity  School  in  1857,  the  Richmond  Theological 
Seminary  (for  colored  students)  in  1868,  and  the  Crozer  in  the  same  year. 
One  of  these  institutions,  the  Southern  Baptist  Theological  Seminary, 
has  the  largest  enrollment  of  theological  students  of  any  institution  in 
the  United  States.  The  total  valuation  of  these  institutions  is  about  five 
millions  of  dollars.  The  time  has  surely  passed  when  it  could  be  said  that 
the  Baptists  do  not  require  and  provide  for  an  educated  ministry. 

There  have  been  four  great  movements  toward  educational  progress 
in  this  denomination  in  this  century.  The  first  was  in  181 7,  when  the 
triennial  Baptist  convention,  under  the  leadership  of  Richard  Furman, 
and  the  impassioned  advocacy  of  Luther  Rice,  committed  the  denomina- 
tion forever  to  educational  as  well  as  to  missionary  work.  Interest  was 
stirred  in  Christian  education  from  Maine  to  Mississippi.  The  second 
great  impulse  was  given  by  the  educational  commission  from  1870  to 
1876.  By  this  movement  the  Baptist  denomination  was  moved  to  deeper 
interest  in  every  form  of  education,  and  from  it  resulted  a  great  number 
of  the  Baptist  institutions  of  the  preseiit  quarter  of  the  century.  The 
third  impulse  was  the  noteworthy  work  of  the  American  Baptist  Home 
Mission  Society,  which  committed  itself  in  1865  to  educational  work  for 
the  negroes  and  Indians.  The  fourth  great  impulse  came  from  the 
organization,  in  1888,  of  the  American  Baptist  Education  Society,  an 
association  representing  the  whole  country,  and  devoted  to  the  creation 
of  sentiment  in  favor  of  larger  endowments  of  existing  institutions. 
During  the  twelve  years  of  the  life  of  this  society  greater  material  progress 
has  been  made  than  during  any  previous  period  of  the  century.  Many 
noteworthy  gifts  in  money  have  been  made  to  our  Baptist  colleges.  In 
New  England,  Gardner  Colby,  Joseph  B.  Hoyt,  and  Chester  W.  Kingsley 
have  each  given  more  than  $100,000.  In  New  York,  Trevor  has  given 
about  $350,000  to  Rochester,  James  B.  Colgate  more  than  $1,000,000  to 
Colgate   University,    and    Mr.   John    D.    Rockefeller   has    given    about 


94  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Genera 

$10,000,000  to  Chicago  and  other  institutions.  In  Pennsylvania  the 
Crozer  family,  has  given  to  Crozer  about  $500,000.  Baptist  universities 
have  been  the  beneficiaries  at  times  of  large  contributions  from  members 
of  other  denominations.  Mr.  Corcoran  gave  Columbian  about  $170,000, 
Matthew  Vassar  gave  Vassar  $800,000,  and  this  institution  has  received 
from  other  members  of  the  Vassar  family  about  $575,000.  Hiram  Sibley 
gave  to  Rochester  $100,000,  and  the  same  institution  received  from  the 
Fayerweather  estate  nearly  $200,000;  while  the  gifts  of  others  than 
Baptists  to  Chicago  University,  ranging  from  $100,000  to  $250,000,  have 
been  unprecedented  in  the  history  of  American  colleges. 

Beyond  question  the  most  striking  contributions  made  by  the  Baptists 
to  educational  progress  in  America  in  the  last  quarter  of  the  century 
have  been  Vassar  College,  the  pioneer  in  the  higher  education  of  women, 
and  the  University  of  Chicago,  which,  under  President  Harper's  magic 
touch,  has  reached  within  ten  years  a  place  beside  the  most  venerable  and 
powerful  universities  of  the  world. 

God  has  blessed  the  Baptists  in  this  century.  Under  the  light  of  free 
institutions  their  progress  has  been  marvelous.  At  the  opening  of  the 
century  the  Baptists  numbered  about  eighty  thousand,  at  the  close  of  the 
century  they  number  more  than  four  million.  During  this  period  they 
have  increased  fifty-fold,  or  three  times  as  fast  as  the  population  of  the 
nation  has  increased.  They  will  enter  upon  the  new  century  with 
resources  vastly  augmented  and  possibilities  immeasurably  increased. 
Let  us  hope  that  they  will  meet  their  mighty  responsibilities  with  ade- 
quate faith  and  courage. 

My  friends,  education  must  be  loyal  to  the  highest  ideals  of  the  race. 
I  believe  implicitly  that  these  ideals  are  those  furnished  by  the  Christian 
religion.  If  God  rules  this  universe,  if  Christ  died  to  save  mankind,  we 
may  not  dissever  the  Christian  religion  and  the  higher  education  without 
disaster  to  the  highest  interests  of  the  race. 


CONTRIBUTIONS  OF  REIIGIOUS  ORGANIZATIONS  TO  THE 
CAUSE  OF  EDUCATION^ 

II.    BY  THE  CATHOLIC  CHURCH 

COND]6    B.    FALLEN,    LL.D.,    ST.    LOUIS,    MO. 

At  the  time  of  the  advent  of  Christianity  into  the  world  the  elder  type 
of  Roman  education  had  disappeared,  the  old  political  education  (woXitik^ 
watSeta),  akin  in  purpose  to  that  of  elder  Greece  prior  to  the  period  of 
decadence.     Its  scope  was  to  fashion  the  capable  citizen,  to  train  and 

I  By  request  of  the  author,  the  amended  spellings  adopted  by  the  Board  of  Directors  do  not  appear  in  this 
address.     ["See  resolution  of  Board  of  Directors  adopted  at  I^s  Angeles,  July  13,  1899.] 


Sessions]       CONTRIBUTIONS  TO  EDUCATION— CATHOLIC  CHURCH  95 

prepare  the  child  for  the  duties  and  functions  of  civic  life.'  The  state  as 
the  end  of  human  living,  both  in  early  Greece  and  early  Rome,  was  the 
vital  principle  of  all  individual  and  public  action.  The  conservation  and 
welfare  of  the  state  was  the  substance  of  their  religious  cults.  Education 
was  directed  and  inspired  by  that  end  ;  it  was  definite,  vital,  and  purpose- 
ful, and  accomplished  its  end  with  a  success  which  has  left  a  distinct  and 
luminous  mark  in  the  history  of  mankind.  But  this  primitive  political 
education  had  been  long  superseded  by  encyclopaedic  education  {lyK\r)(Kio<i 
jrai8€ia),  which  Rome  had  adopted  from  decadent  Greece  long  before 
the  Christian  dispensation  had  spread  among  the  nations.  With  the 
extinction  of  the  autonomy  of  the  Greek  cities  perished  the  systems  of 
political  education.  In  its  stead  arose  encyclopaedic  education ;  a  type 
which  proclaimed  education  for  education's  sake,  culture  for  culture's 
sake.  When  Rome  ceased  to  be  republican  and  became  imperial,  when 
the  spirit  of  her  ancient  simplicity  was  corrupted  by  the  luxury  of 
dominion,  and  the  stern  example  of  her  Catos  had  lost  the  active  virtue 
of  typical  models  for  Roman  statesmen,  the  ancient  and  the  virile  type  of 
her  political  education  yielded  to  the  deleterious  influence  of  the  Greek 
importation.  Roman  education  ceased  to  have  a  definite  purpose ;  it  no 
longer  aimed  at  the  training  of  the  citizens,  but  merely  to  fashion  the 
votary  of  culture. 

Such  was  the  general  educational  condition  of  the  Roman  world, 
whose  rule  was  then  universal,  when  the  Church  entered  upon  her  mission, 
as  commanded  by  her  Divine  Founder,  to  go  forth  to  teach  all  men  and 
all  nations.  The  encyclopaedic  system  was  in  universal  vogue ;  it  was 
steeped  to  the  lips  in  paganism  ;  it  had  lost  the  virility  of  the  ancient 
discipline  ;  it  had  nothing  of  the  ancient  integrity  of  the  primitive  politi- 
cal education,  where  at  least  the  civic  virtues  had  flourished  in  view  of  the 
civic  end  enjoined. 

The  divine  commission  to  the  Church  to  teach  was  not  directly  and 
formally  pedagogical,  but  indirectly  and  by  implication  that  commission 
includes  the  education  of  all  mankind,  in  the  highest  and  fullest  signifi- 
cance of  the  word.  By  inference  education,  in  the  sense  of  pedagogical 
training,  is  a  function  of  the  Church  ;  and  she  has  acted  upon  this  con- 
ception of  her  ministry  from  the  beginning.  With  her  the  school  has 
always  been  the  vestibule  of  the  church.  It  is  true  that,  at  the  outset, 
she  did  not,  for  she  could  not  under  her  primitive  untoward  conditions, 
act  upon  this  in  all  the  fullness  which  subsequently  characterized  her 
pedagogical  activity.  But  even  in  her  days  of  persecution,  when  her 
children  were  hunted,  driven,  and  slaughtered  like  the  beasts  of  the  field 
for  Christ's  sake,  she  entered  upon  the  duties  of  the  pedagogue,  and 
sowed  the  seeds  of  an  educational  system  which  was  destined,  not  only  to 
revitalize  the  Greek  and  Roman  systems  in  all  that  was  good  in  them, 

'CouRTHOPK,  History  of  English  Poetry,  Vol.  I,  chap.  ii. 


96  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [General 

but  to  create  pedagogy  anew  by  giving  it  a  scope  and  an  end  as  much 
higher,  broader,  and  completer  than  the  ancient  systems  of  paganism  as 
Christianity  transcends  Greek  and  Roman  civilization  in  all  that  makes 
for  the  temporal  and  eternal  welfare  of  mankind.' 

Man's  concern  of  his  eternal  welfare  is  logically  bound  up  with  his 
temporalities,  for  the  stage  of  this  life  has  its  exit  in  eternity  ;  the  charac- 
ter of  his  probation  here  determines  the  state  of  his  hereafter.  To 
instruct  men  in  truth  at  all  is  to  teach  its  unity,  to  show  that  the  higher 
and  the  lower  truth  have  an  indissoluble  connection.  An  institution 
which  teaches  religious  truth,  which  is  the  explication  of  man's  relations 
with  God,  necessarily  brings  all  other  truth  into  correlation  with  that 
primary  and  fundamental  truth.  When  the  Church  set  out  upon  her  mis- 
sion to  go  forth  and  teach  all  nations,  and  therefore  to  regenerate  the 
peoples  of  the  world  by  rehabilitating  fallen  human  nature  and  by  illu- 
minating the  pagan  intellect  with  the  light  of  her  revelation,  she  neces- 
sarily came  into  contact  and,  in  large  measure,  into  conflict  with  that  vast 
body  of  doctrine  which  the  ancient  civilization  had  elaborated  into  a 
philosophic  and  educational  system.*  This  conflict  was  at  first  waged  in 
the  concrete,  with  the  powers  of  the  state,  and  issued  in  the  Christian 
persecutions.  The  Christian  franchise  of  the  liberty  of  the  sons  of  God, 
which  was  the  gift  of  truth,  was  essentially  incompatible  with  the  des- 
potism of  the  empire.  Caesar  had  usurped  the  things  that  are  God's,  and 
felt  by  instinct  that  the  subtle  and  intangible  power  of  Christianity  was  a 
menace  to  his  own  domination.  He  therefore  sought  to  sweep  the 
Church  away  in  the  blood  of  her  own  children. 

But  it  was  not  long  before  that  conflict  entered  into  other  spheres. 
In  the  speculative  order  Christian  revelation  met  the  philosophies  of 
paganism.  The  defense,  exposition,  and  explication  of  the  body  of 
Christian  truth  grew  and  expanded  as  the  lines  of  battle  variously  shaped 
themselves  through  the  centuries.  In  all  this  was  necessarily  implied  an 
educational  process  which  would  lead  up  to  a  maturity  and  equipment  of 
mind  equal  to  the  conflict.  The  Church  must  teach  and  train  to  that 
purpose ;  she  must  assume  the  duties  of  the  pedagogue.  The  truth  she 
taught  stood  in  sharp  contrast  with  the  medley  of  pagan  doctrines  around 
about  her.  Pedagogy  was  a  logical  and  imperative  necessity ;  was  and 
always  will  be ;  she  therefore,  according  to  her  circumstances,  began  the 
foundation  of  schools. 

At  first  her  teaching  was  domestic.  The  family  was  the  school.^  The 
parents,  as  far  as  in  them  lay,  educated  their  children,  and  in  this  far  her 
educational  system  resembled  that  of  early  Rome  —  the  political  education 
which  had  built  up  the  stern  and  admirable  character  of  the  fathers  of  the 

1  See  Rev.  Eugene  Mageveney,  S.  J.,  Christian  Education  in.  First  Centuries.  New  York: 
Cathedral  Library  Association. 

2  See  Allies,   Formation  of  Christendom,  Part  III. 

3  Mageveney,  Christian  Education  in  First  Centuries,  p.  9. 


Sessions]       CONTRIBUTIONS  TO  EDUCATION— CATHOLIC  CHURCH  97 

republic.  But  this  did  not,  of  course,  suffice ;  the  exigencies  of  the  situa- 
tion and  the  opportunities  of  changed  circumstances  demanded  and 
offered  an  amplification  of  the  earlier  methods.  By  the  end  of  the  sec- 
ond century  we  find  a  well-defined  system  of  Christian  schools  in  opera- 
tion, the  seed  of  which  was  the  catechetical  school  founded  by  St.  Mark, 
the  evangelist,  at  Alexandria,  in  the  sixth  year  of  Nero's  reign  and- the 
sixtieth  of  the  new  dispensation.'  At  first  of  a  purely  religious  character, 
St.  Mark's  foundation,  under  the  fostering  care  of  his  successors,  developed 
into  an  institution  of  lower  and  higher  learning  embracing  all  the  branches 
of  the  period.  Elsewhere  throughout  the  empire  rose  Christian  schools 
modeled  upon  the  Alexandrian  exemplar.  These  institutions,  however, 
enjoyed  no  unbroken  peace,  and  suffered  from  all  the  vicissitudes  which 
the  stress  of  persecution  brought  upon  the  church  of  the  first  three  cen- 
turies. It  is  not  to  be  supposed,  however,  that  these  early  schools  were 
so  plentiful  or  so  prosperous  as  to  fulfill  all  the  needs  of  education  in 
their  day,  and  to  accommodate  all  the  faithful.  They  were  not  everywhere, 
and  where  they  were  they  were  not  always  available  to  all  nor  for  all  pur- 
poses. The  Church  must  needs  educate  her  own  clergy  in  an  especial 
manner  for  their  sacred  vocation.  Out  of  this  need  grew  up  the  episcopal 
or  cathedral  schools."  From  the  beginning  it  was  an  apostolic  tradition, 
after  the  example  of  the  Twelve  themselves,  to  gather  the  aspirants  to  the 
ministry  in  the  house  of  the  bishop  for  that  training  and  instruction 
which  might  fit  them  for  their  sacred  office.  At  first  the  curriculum  of 
studies  was  confined  to  ecclesiastical  subjects,  but  as  time  grew  the  exi- 
gencies of  new  conditions,  and  the  natural  development  of  the  character 
of  theological  subjects  confronted  with  the  learned  paganism  of  the  times, 
brought  about  a  more  amplified  plan,  until  the  episcopal  school  embraced, 
not  only  those  branches  of  studies  which  were  formally  ecclesiastical,  but 
all  that  was  included  in  the  liberal  education  of  the  times. 

As  the  episcopal  schools  grew  and  developed,  another  type  of  educa- 
tional institution  arose,  destined  to  become  later  on,  in  an  especial 
manner,  the  great  teaching  force  of  the  Church.  The  cathedral  schools 
had  as  their  specific  end  the  training  of  the  clergy.  The  laity,  for  obvj- 
ous  reasons,  rarely  enjoyed  their  advantages.  To  meet  this  need,  and  to 
withdraw  the  faithful  from  the  pernicious  influence  of  the  paganized  public 
schools  of  the  empire,  the  monastic  schools  began  to  spread.  After 
the  advent  of  St.  Athanasius  to  Rome  in  the  middle  of  the  fourth  century, 
the  monastic  institution,  which  had  grown  up  in  the  East,  multiplied 
rapidly  throughout  the  West.  It  possessed  a  twofold  system  of  schools, 
the  interior  and  the  exterior;  the  former  for  the  education  of  those  who 
entered  upon  the  monastic  life,  the  latter  for  the  laity.     Within  a  century 

•  Newman,  Historical  Sketches,  Vol.  Ill,  chap,  viii;  also  Allies,  •CA«rcA  and  State,  p.  355; 
Drake,  Christian  Schools  and  Scholars,  chap.  i. 

2  See  Newman,  Idea  of  a  University,  p.  341 ;  also  Magbveney,  Christian  Education  in  First  Cen- 
turies, pp.  931  ff. 


98  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [General 

the  monastic  schools  were  numerously  planted  and  flourished  in  Italy, 
Gaul,  Britain,  and  Ireland  ;  and  when  the  empire  of  the  West  fell  crum- 
bling under  the  sledge-hammer  blows  of  the  barbarian  invaders,  it  was  in 
the  monastic  institution  that  learning  and  letters  found  their  only  secure 
shelter.  When  the  eclipse  of  learning  came  in  the  darkness  of  the  fifth 
and  sixth  centuries  on  the  continent,  the  monastic  institutions  in  Britain 
and  Ireland,  free  from  the  stress  of  the  storms  raging  on  the  continent, 
not  only  preserved  the  ancient  learning,  but  fostered  and  developed  a 
system  of  culture  both  brilliant  and  substantial.' 

With  the  dissolution  of  Rome  came  social  and  civic  chaos  in  Europe. 
Society  was  in  a  maelstrom  of  ferment  and  change.  It  took  some  three 
centuries  to  bring  order  and  stability  out  of  the  chaos.  A  new  element 
had  entered  into  the  fabric  of  European  society.  Rome  and  its  civiliza- 
tion had  passed  forever.  A  new  formation  was  taking  place  out  of  "bar- 
barian elements ;  a  new  civilization  in  travail.  It  was  being  fashioned  on 
a  new  ideal  absolutely  transcending  the  ancient.  Education  was  to  be 
organized  and  energized  on  the  new  lines.  The  spirit  of  the  old  encyclo- 
paedic system  had  passed  away,  the  framework  remained.  The  old  frame- 
work was  to  be  seized  upon  and  animated  by  the  new  ideal,  which  had 
been  slowly  and  laboriously  working  its  way  through  the  corrupt  social 
body  of  the  dying  Roman  world.  With  the  death  of  the  Roman  body  it 
was  freed  from  the  ancient  trammels ;  with  the  advent  of  the  barbarians  it 
met  with  new  obstacles  and  new  difficulties,  but  which,  in  the  order  of 
Providence,  were  to  be  transformed  into  instruments  of  its  triumph.'' 

The  political  education  of  early  Greece  and  Rome  had  been  vital  and 
effective ;  it  was  based  upon  an  ideal,  and  energetically  achieved  its  end. 
The  encyclopaedic  system  which  followed  it  possessed  no  ideal  and  had 
no  definite  end.  It  was  mere  education  without  scope  or  object.  The 
older  system  had  its  purpose,  the  making  of  the  citizen  ;  it  was  under- 
stood to  be  a  means  to  a  definite  end,  and  it  was  so  conducted.  The 
educational  system  of  the  Church  was  akin  to  the  political  education  of 
the  ancient  republic ;  it  also  rested  upon  an  ideal  and  had  a  well-defined 
end  in  view ;  its  purpose  was  to  train  the  citizen  —  not  the  citizen  of  a 
temporal  polity,  like  that  of  Athens  or  Rome,  but  the  citizen  of  the  city  of 
God.  Here  was  an  ideal  utterly  transcending  the  ancient.  The  ancient 
ideal  had  been  temporal  and  particular;  the  new  ideal  is  eternal  and  uni- 
versal. As  long  as  Rome  lasted  and  her  influence  predominated  in  the 
western  world,  so  long  would  the  incubus  of  the  apathy,  which  had  seized 
upon  her  body  going  the  way  of  death,  weigh  upon  and  retard  the  free 
play  of  the  new  ideal  in  the  practical  order.  The  barbarians  had  no  edu- 
cational system,  no  tradition,  no  ideals ;  and  in  so  far  as  they  lacked 
an  ideal,  just  so   far  were  they  incapable  of  receiving  any  educational 

1  S«e  Dranb,  Christian  Schools  and  Scholars,  chaps,  ii  and  iii. 

2  See  Allies,  The  Wandering^  of  the  Nations,  chap,  i. 


Sessions]       CONTRIBUTIONS  TO  EDUCATION  —CATHOLIC  CHURCH  99 

advancement.  It  was  first  necessary  to  create  an  ideal  among  them 
before  there  could  be  hope  of  any  systematic  educational  movement. 
They  had  destroyed  the  elder  civilization  ;  or  rather,  they  had  fallen  upon 
it  as  a  legitimate  prey  at  the  moment  of  its  agony;'  and  civilization  had 
to  be  made  over  anew,  not  upon  the  old  lines,  but  upon  foundations  set 
deep  enough  in  eternal  principles  to  carry  the  superstructure  whose  pin- 
nacles towered  into  the  empyrean  of  a  divine  faith. 

Here  was  the  task 'of  building  up,  not  a  little  city  of  Athens  with  its 
philosophies  and  its  literature  and  its  art,  nor  the  huge  city  of  Rome  with 
its  world-wide  lust  of  dominion  and  its  pride  of  life;  but  the  city  of  God, 
built  up  of  all  nations  and  all  peoples  of  all  climes  and  of  all  times,  here 
and  hereafter,  now  and  forever.'  The  foundations  of  this  city  had  been 
laid  under  the  streets  of  old  Rome  in  the  faith  of  the  catacombs,  and  its 
stones  sealed  and  cemented  with  the  blood  of  the  martyrs.  These  founda- 
tions the  barbarians  did  not,  for  they  could  not,  destroy.  Nay,  out  of 
these  very  barbarians  was  to  be  built  the  great  superstructure  in  the 
order  of  time.  For  three  centuries  they  were  cut  and  fashioned  in  the 
spiritual  quarries  of  the  Church,  slowly  and  laboriously,  but  surely  and 
gloriously. 

In  the  eighth  century,  under  Charles  the  Great,  the  revival  began.  At 
the  invitation  of  the  emperor,  and  under  his  liberal  patronage,  scholarly 
masters  flocked  to  the  continent  from  England  and  Ireland,  laden  with 
the  sweets  of  learning  garnered  there  in  peace  during  the  centuries  of 
turmoil  which  had  afflicted  Europe.  The  emperor  and  his  family  set  the 
laudable  example  of  scholars  in  the  great  palace  school.  Edicts  were 
issued  in  the  interest  of  learning,  and  the  subjects  of  the  empire  com- 
manded to  promote  the  new  educational  movement.  Schools  were 
founded  wherever  possible.  Under  the  guidance  of  the  famous  Alcuin 
the  movement  rapidly  spread  and  flourished.  The  political  stability  of 
Europe  assured  under  the  firm  hand  of  a  master  like  Charles  the  Great, 
the  cause  of  learning  at  once  revived  and  put  forth  shoots  of  promise. 
Blasted  by  three  centuries  of  social  and  civic  devastation,  the  tree  of 
culture  had  withered  and  shrunk  until  only  its  roots  retained  a  hidden 
vitality  beneath  a  soil  encumbered  with  the  ruins  of  a  fallen  civilization 
and  wasted  by  the  incessant  harries  of  barbarian  wars.  It  needed,  how- 
ever, but  the  cherishing  touch  of  the  hand  of  peace  to  send  forth  shoots 
again  and  bud  once  more  under  the  tender  and  solicitous  care  of  the 
dove  of  Christianity.  The  monastic  institution,  transplanted  in  the  fourth 
century  from  the  Orient  to  Europe,  had  become  a  permanent  and  wide- 
spread system,  and  under  its  safeguard,  like  the  nestling  beneath  the 
mother's  wings,  letters  found  shelter  and  protection.     Monasticism  was 

»  C/.  De  QuiNCBV,  "Philosophy  of  Roman  History,"  in  Historical  Essays;  also  Courthope, 
History  of  English  Poetry,  chap,  ii,  p.  so, 

»  St.  Augustine,  City  of  God, 


lOO  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [General 

the  cradle  and  the  ark  of  learning  during  the  period  of  storm  and  the 
subsequent  development.  Happily  England  and  Ireland  had  been 
spared  the  frightful  havoc  of  the  barbarian  invasions,  and  from  these 
islands  of  the  West,  as  from  a  fresh  and  limpid  spring,  issued  the  stream 
of  learning  to  again  irrigate  the  long  uncultivated  soil  of  the  continent.' 

From  this  period  date  the  beginnings  of  the  great  mediaeval  educa- 
tional movement ;  for,  though  temporarily  interrupted  by  the  disorders  of 
the  tenth  century  following  the  dismemberment  of  Charlemagne's  empire, 
the  educational  system  of  the  Middle  Ages  has  its  foundation  and  takes  its 
character  from  Charlemagne's  institution.  The  framework  of  the  Roman 
encyclopaedic  system  was  retained.  The  trivium  and  quadrivium  of  the 
seven  liberal  arte  formed  the  method  of  the  curriculum.  But,  unlike  the 
encyclopaedic  method,  education  was  no  longer  mere  education.  While 
encyclopaedic  in  its  mode,  it  was  political  in  its  spirit  and  scope ;  its  pur- 
pose was  to  train  and  develop  the  citizen  of  the  city  of  God,  the  mem- 
ber and  subject  of  the  kingdom  of  Christ.  Not  merely  Athenian  or 
Roman  was  its  citizen  to  be,  but  Christian.  Neither  Greek  nor  Roman 
nor  gentile  nor  Jew  was  to  be  there  met  with  ;  its  citizenship  transcended 
all  these;  herein  all  men  were  to  be  of  one  family;  its  walls  were  not 
made  of  brick  nor  mortar,  but  its  foundations  and  its  superstructure  were 
built  of  the  souls  of  men  cemented  and  sealed  with  the  blood  of  Christ; 
all  dwelling  within  its  walls  were  brethren  in  a  celestial  city.  Not  simply 
cosmopolitan,  but  more  than  this,  was  the  final  mark  of  its  citizenship  ;  it 
aspired  to  the  fullest  and  completest  and  supremest  life  beyond  the 
bounds  of  time,  in  the  eternal  franchise  of  that  celestial  city  which  Christ 
had  come  to  bestow  upon  mankind.' 

Aspiration  was  the  dominant  note  of  mediaeval  education,  as  it  was  of 
mediaeval  life.  It  was  a  deeply  and  intensely  spiritual  life,  working  in 
and  through  gigantic  elements,  forming  and  fashioning  masses  of  rugged 
people  into  one  vast  polity,  and  yet  differentiating  into  a  variety  of  diver- 
gent expressions.  While  it  aimed  at  one  dominant  unity,  it  diversified 
into  many  varieties,  each  in  its  own  way  exemplifying  that  unity.  The 
Gothic  cathedral,  its  own  peculiar  creation,  is  typical  of  its  spirit;  here  is 
fundamental  massiveness  soaring  into  the  finest  lightness  of  aspiration, 
unity  of  plan  with  an  endless  variety  of  expressive  detail ;  its  dominant 
trait  aspiration,  a  reaching  upward  and  beyond,  yet  deeply  and  substan- 
tially founded  below.  Scholastic  philosophy,  which  is  also  the  elabora- 
tion of  this  period,  evinces  the  same  elevated  character.  Its  basis  is 
the  Aristotelian  system,  broad  and  deep  in  the  fundamentals  of  human 
reason,  but  lifted  and  carried  up  far  beyond  the  Aristotelian  substruc- 
ture.    The  mass  of  its  foundation,  like  the  Gothic  cathedral,  ascends  in 

1  Sec  Newman,  "  Benedictine  Schools,"  in  Historical  Sketches,  Vol.  II. 

2  For  account  of  schools  of  Charlemagne  see  Newman,  Idea  of  a  University,  chap,  xiii;  also  Dramb, 
Christian  Schools  and  Scholars,  chap.  vi. 


Sessions]       COMTRIB  UTIONS  TO  ED  UCA  TtON—  CA  THOLIC  CHURcH        i  O  i 

columned  lightness  into  airiest  pinnacles  of  thought,  with  marvelous  preci- 
sion of  distinction  and  detail.  In  scholastic  philosophy,  as  the  intellectual 
fruit  of  these  ages,  we  have  evidence  of  the  educational  activity  of  the 
middle  period.  The  vigor  of  the  schools  in  the  speculative  world  was 
as  great  as  the  social  and  architectural  energy  of  the  age.  By  this  time 
the  monastic  institution  had  reached  its  apogee.  With  its  growth  the 
life  of  letters  expanded.  Monasticism  flourished  throughout  all  Europe, 
and  herein  was  the  center  of  the  educational  development  of  the  day. 
Monasticism  was  the  hive  of  learning,  and  from  it  flowed  the  richness  of 
the  stream  of  letters  over  the  land.* 

Out  of  this  fertile  soil  rose  the  great  banyan  tree  of  the  university 
system.  Universities  sprang  up  in  the  great  centers.  Students  by  the 
thousand  flocked  to  them.  Intellectual  life  grew  phenomenally ;  the 
student  became  as  distinctive  and  familiar  as  the  soldier  in  the  life  of 
the  period.'  The  speculative  ferment  grew  apace.  In  the  thirteenth 
century  the  universities  had  become  the  great  organs  of  education.  The 
character  of  mediaeval  university  education  is  made  manifest  ip  Dante. 
The  vast  scope  of  its  conception  and  its  spiritual  intensity  is  revealed  to 
us  in  the  Divina  Commedia.  In  this  great  poem  the  state  of  learning  is 
accurately  and  substantially  set  forth,  not  as  a  formal  exposition,  but  as 
living  fiber  in  the  make-up  of  the  work.  Dante  was  clearly  well-versed 
in  the  physical  sciences  of  his  tiroes,  though  the  stage  of  their  develop- 
ment at  this  period  was  extremely  crude.  But  it  is  in  theological  and 
philosophical  science,  coupled  with  a  profound  spiritual  insight  and 
reach,  that  the  poem  is  luminously  typical  of  his  age.  Dante's  knowl- 
edge is  accurate,  precise,  and  yet  comprehensive.  In  him  is  manifest  a 
well-poised  mind,  a  balanced  judgment,  faculties  thoroughly  trained  and 
drilled ;  what  in  the  fullest  sense  of  the  word  is  to  be  called  an  educated 
mind.  With  an  imagination  so  vast  that  it  ranged  the  very  confines  of 
the  universe  from  deepest  hell  to  highest  heaven,  yet  he  is  never  vague 
and  indefinite.  The  entire  scheme  of  the  Divina  Commedia  is  planned 
according  to  measure,  weight,  and  number ;  in  his  profoundest  mysticism 
he  is  ever  accurate  and  precise ;  the  proportions  of  the  Inferno  are 
given  foot  for  foot.  And,  notwithstanding  all  this  minuteness  of  detail, 
the  imaginative  power,  which  is  essentially  the  poet's  faculty,  is  never 
minimized  or  weakened ;  its  flight  is  always  vigorous  and  large,  its  heat 
intense,  its  coloring  harmonious.  In  Dante  the  man,  and  in  the  Divina 
Commedia  the  work,  we  have  the  ripe  fruit  of  the  political  education  of 
the  Church.  In  the  man  we  have  the  enfranchised  citizen  of  the  city  of 
God,  with  his  eyes  on  eternal  things  as  the  finality  of  all  human  living 
and  endeavor,  using  the  things  of  this  world  as  stepping-stones  to  the 
higher  things,  thoroughly  trained  in  all  his  powers,  well-versed  in  the 

I  See  Vaughan,  Life  of  St.  Thomas^  chaps,  xxiii  and  xxiv. 

»  Vaughan,  Life  of  St.  Thomas,  chap,  xvi ;  also  Nbwman,  Idea  of  a  University,  chap.  xiv. 


102  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [General 

arts  and  sciences  of  his  day,  imbued  to  the  very  core  of  his  soul  with  the 
tremendous  sense  of  the  right  performance  of  his  duty  here  as  the  means 
to  his  welfare  hereafter;  his  conscience  freighted  with  the  responsibility 
of  his  power  of  freedom,  upon  whose  correspondence  with  the  divine 
gift  of  grace  depends  his  eternal  salvation.  In  the  Divina  Commedia  is  set 
forth  a  deep  and  comprehensive  spiritual  insight  into  the  divine  scheme  of 
the  universe  ;  the  harmonious  concatenation  of  human  and  divine'things  ; 
the  reconciliation  of  human  reason  with  the  sublimity  of  faith  ;  human 
philosophy  illuminated  by  the  light  of  revealed  wisdom  ;  all  the  relations 
of  human  living  made  clear  and  definite  in  the  higher  knowledge  of 
faith,  which  has  as  its  beginning  and  end  the  eternal  Love,  the  source 
and  aim  of  creation.  Man's  domestic,  social,  civic,  and  religious  life 
here  takes  on  an  infinite  meaning ;  under  this  penetrating  light  there  is 
no  duty,  no  detail  of  human  living,  which  escapes  illumination  ;  here  is 
no  room  for  doubt,  hesitation,  difficulty;  life  is  all  action,  explicitly  set 
forth  in  its  final  end  and  aim.  The  Middle  Ages  were  dominated  by 
this  supreme  idea.  It  was  essentially  a  period  of  vast  and  gigantic 
activity;  it  strove  largely,  earnestly,  and  untiringly  after  a  great  ideal, 
placed  before  it  in  distinct  and  comprehensive  outline.  It  was  upon 
this  principle  it  built  its  great  cathedrals,  generation  after  generation 
toiling,  irrespective  gf  its  own  temporal  realization  of  the  result,  toward 
the  great  end,  which  was  as  clearly  before  the  minds  of  those  who  laid 
the  huge  foundations  as  it  was  to  be  in  actuality  to  those  who  should  cap 
the  myriad  pinnacles  in  the  far-off  century  which  was  to  witness  the  con- 
summation of  the  vast  work. 

All  this  was  the  result  of  that  political  system  of  education  of  the 
Church  which  held  aloft  a  supreme  and  eternal  ideal ;  for  men  never 
work  better  in  time  than  with  a  view  to  eternity.  This  was  not  mere 
education.  It  achieved  its  results  because  it  possessed  a  great  and  lofty 
ideal ;  it  had  a  definite  end,  a  clear-cut  and  concrete  object  to  attain  ;  its 
scope  was  universal  and  eternal.  It  brought  its  purpose  home  to  every 
individual  soul,  it  formed  every  conscience  ;  excused  none  and  held  all 
to  the  vast  consequences  of  its  responsibilities. 

Unfortunately,  the  intensely  creative  energy  of  the  Middle  Ages  began 
to  wane  in  the  fifteenth  century.  The  accumulation  of  wealth  in  the 
dominant  European  states  began  to  undermine  the  hardihood  of  both 
rulers  and  people.  Political  corruption  grew  apace,  luxury  and  ostenta- 
tion spread  like  a  cancer,  eating  deep  into  the  bowels  of  the  social  body, 
and  the  great  ideal  which  had  animated  and  lifted  up  the  vast  activities 
of  the  middle  period  waned  and  weakened.  To  trace  the  causes  of  this 
change  in  detail  is  beyond  the  scope  of  my  present  consideration.'  What 
I  wish  to  note  is  that  with  this  deterioration  came  a  change  in  the  spirit 

I  For  an  account  of  the  literary,  moral,  social,  and  religious  conditions  of  this  period  see  the  respective 
introductions  to  Vols.  I  and  V  of  Pastor's  History  of  the  Popes.  The  distinction  between  true  and  false 
Humanism  is  admirably  pointed  out. 


Sessions]       CONTRIBUTIONS  TO  EDUCATION— CATHOLIC  CHURCH         103 

of  learning  and  a  corresponding  change  in  education.  This  was  the  period 
of  the  predominance  of  Humanism.  All  learning  sought  its  model  in  the 
classics ;  the  excellence  of  letters  depends  upon  the  closeness  of  imita- 
tion to  the  writing  of  the  ancients.  The  originality  and  the  vigor  of  native 
life,  which  had  so  characterized  the  middle  period,  had  passed  away ;  all 
was  rhetoric.  The  ideal  of  Humanism  was  the  polish  of  Cicero,  imitation 
of  a  dead  model.  The  spirit  that  had  begot  Cicero  was  dead  and  buried 
these  thousand  years  and  more.  To  revive  that  spirit  was  an  impossi- 
bility ;  the  Europe  or  the  Italy  of  the  fifteenth  century  was  as  far  from  the 
Rome  of  Cicero  in  spirit  as  we  are.  The  movement  called  Humanism  was 
therefore  mere  rhetoric,  the  lifeless  closet-copy  of  a  long-perished  model.' 

In  the  folly  of  its  zeal  and  the  mimicry  of  its  folly,  it  did  revive  the 
lust  of  paganism,  where  it  could  not  resuscitate  the  ancient  spirit  of  the 
classics.  We  have,  therefore,  in  Humanism  the  vicious  anomaly  of  a 
literature  endeavoring  to  revive  the  cult  of  a  perished  paganism  without 
the  vital  reality  which  once  vivified  it  and  could  alone  extenuate  it.  A 
discordant  sensualism  was  the  result  of  this  effort ;  a  literature  so 
debauched  in  morals  that  even  its  pagan  prototype  was  cast  into  the 
shade  in  its  impotency  to  shame  human  nature  as  an  example  of  the 
debauched  profligacy  to  which  the  human  mind  can  sink.  It  was  a 
period  of  letters  for  letters'  sake,  and,  we  may  add,  shame  for  shame's  sake. 

As  a  result,  education  in  a  large  measure  fell  back  into  the  old 
encyclopaedic  scheme  of  education  for  mere  education's  sake.  The 
universal  political  character  which  had  made  it  so  powerful  and  effective 
during  the  Middle  Ages  yielded  in  great  part  to  the  literary  tendencies 
of  the  times.  Its  vitality,  for  the  lack  of  a  definite  end,  ebbed  away  into 
a  scheme  of  mere  rhetoric.  Humanism,  instinctively  feeling  itself  to  be 
no  true  duplicate  of  the  classics,  sought  its  real  basis  in  a  scoffing  ration- 
alism, and  the  education  of  the  day,  naturally  taking  its  cue  from  the 
character  of  its  letters,  or,  rather,  being  their  effect,  fell  under  the  same 
deteriorating  influence. 

The  inroads  of  rationalism  and  the  weakening  of  the  political  ideal 
in  education  became  widespread  in  the  sixteenth  century.*  The  religious 
and  political  dissensions  of  the  period  contributed  to  the  general  con- 
fusion. It  was  at  this  time  that  the  greatest  teaching  body  the  world  has 
ever  seen  sprang  into  existence.  In  the  latter  part  of  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury Ignatrtis  of  Loyola,  a  Spanish  ex-captain,  founded  the  Society  of 
Jesus,  devised  and  drew  up  the  famous  Ratio  Studiorum,  or  system  of 
studies,  which  has  always  been  the  order's  governing  rule  in  the  conduct 
of    its    pedagogical  work.'     This    instrument   possesses   the  stability  of 

1  Rhetorical  effect  was  the  dominant  trend  of  the  literature  of  that  day.  The  revival  of  the  classics  as 
sources  of  literary  inspiration  is  commendable,  but  the  slavish  imitation  of  ancient  writers  as  mere  models  is 
evidence  of  literary  decay.    The  so-called  Renaissance  was,  for  the  most  part,  of  the  latter  character. 

2  See  Magevenev,  The  Jesuits  as  Educators. 

3  See  Hughes,  Loyola,  in  the  "  Great  Educators  "  series. 


I04  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [General 

principle  and  the  elasticity  of  adaptation  ;  it  is  organic  in  its  character, 
a  thing  of  growth,  designed  to  meet  the  changes  of  the  development  of 
time  without  sacrificing  the  roots  of  principle.  What  was  a  crying  need 
in  the  time  of  Ignatius  was  an  organized  system  of  education  from  the 
rudiments  up  to  the  higher  studies,  between  which  there  had  always  existed 
a  gap  to  be  made  up  only  by  the  private  exertion  of  the  student.  This 
was  thoroughly  supplied  by  the  Ratio.  Another  urgent  want  was  a  system 
providing  not  merely  for  the  education  of  the  pupil,  but  for  the  thorough 
formation  of  the  master.  As  no  other  system  had  done,  or  has  ever  done 
since,  the  institution  of  Ignatius  prepares  and  forms  the  master  with  a 
special  view  to  the  work  of  teaching.  The  specific  purpose  of  the  order 
is  to  teach,  and  the  entire  training  of  its  members,  covering  a  period  of 
some  fifteen  years,  has  this  sole  object  in  view,  with  a  thoroughness,  care, 
and  patience  unequaled  in  the  world's  pedagogical  history. 

But  above  all  things  the  need  of  bringing  back  the  educational  world 
to  the  old  ideal  of  education,  under  which  the  Church  had  led  the  bar- 
barians from  the  wilderness  of  savagery  to  the  temple  of  civilization, 
actuated  and  guided  the  founders  of  the  society  at  a  time  when  men  were 
abandoning  and  forgetting  the  traditions  and  work  of  their  mediaeval 
forefathers,  whence  had  issued  the  blessing  they  enjoyed.  Education 
must  needs  become  again  Christian  in  the  full  sense  of  the  word ;  it  must 
needs  be  dominated  by  the  imperishable  ideal ;  its  purpose  must  again 
be  to  train  and  fashion  the  citizen  of  the  city  of  God.  Under  this  inspi- 
ration, though  bitterly  antagonized,  the  Society  of  Jesus  spread  and  devel- 
oped its  institution  throughout  the  civilized  world,  the  model  of  teachers  as 
well  as  the  most  powerful  influence  in  the  educational  world.  In  1710 
the  society  had  "a  sum  total  of  more  than  200,000  students  in  the 
collegiate  and  university  grades,  all  being  formed  at  a  given  date,  under 
one  system  of  studies  and  government,  intellectual  and  moral.'" 

As  time  advanced  educational  needs  increased;  the  area  of  pedagogi- 
cal activity  was  constantly  widening.  Extensive  as  was  the  spread  of  the 
Jesuit  institution,  it  could  not  keep  pace  with  the  growth  of  the  sentiment 
which  it  itself  had  done  so  much  to  create.  Wise  and  ardent  minds  saw  the 
need  of  some  organized  educational  force  to  take  up  practical  educational 
work  among  the  poor  of  the  parishes.  St.  Vincent  de  Paul,  the  great 
apostle  of  organized  charity,  deplored  this  need  and  prayed  for  its 
remedy,  and  lived  to  see  his  prayers  answered.  Jean  Baptiste  de  La  Salle 
in  the  latter  half  of  the  seventeenth  century  founded  the  great  teaching 
institution  of  the  Brothers  of  the  Christian  Schools,  designed  especially 
to  teach  the  poor  in  the  rudimentary  branches.  Like  all  great  and  fruit- 
ful undertakings,  destined  to  become  permanent  institutions,  its  begin- 
nings were  hampered  by  a  series  of  constant  struggles   against  hostile 

I  Mageveney,  The  Jesuits  as  Educators,  gives  a  concise  summary  of  the  famous  Ratio  Studiorum; 
HuOHES,  Loyola,  a  more  extensive  analysis. 


Sessions]       CONTRIBUTIONS  TO  EDUCATION— CATHOLIC  CHURCH        105 

jealousy  and  ignorance.  But,  emerging  triumphant  from  its  persecutions, 
it  grew  and  spread,  until  it  is  now  coextensive  with  the  civilized  world,  its 
great  army  of  teachers  laboring  with  sacrificial  love  in  the  cause  of  the 
education  of  the  poor  wherever  the  Church  carries  the  divine  word  to 
men. 

In  this  century  the  teaching  congregations  of  both  men  and  women 
have  multiplied  tenfold,  until  now  they  are  legion.'  Educational  activity 
under  the  inspiration  of  the  Church  has  more  than  kept  pace  with  the 
spread  of  pedagogical  interest  throughout  the  civilized  world.  There  is 
practically  now  no  church  without  its  school.  It  is  a  universal  axiom 
that  a  flourishing  parish  means  a  good  school.  The  educational  system 
of  the  Church  is  that  same  system  of  political  education  which  made 
Athens  and  Rome  great,  the  system  which  educates  for  a  definite  purpose ; 
with  this  difference  that  hers  is  the  Christian  ideal,  transcending  theirs  as 
the  citizen  of  the  city  of  God  excels  in  height  and  breadth  and  universality 
of  culture  the  pagan  exclusiveness  of  Rome  or  Athens.  Her  educational 
method  in  its  accidents  varies  with  the  times  and  circumstances ;  in  its 
substance  it  is  ever  one  and  the  same.  Education  with  her  means  the 
training  and  development  of  the  whole  being,  all  powers  and  faculties  to 
be  co-educated  in  concord  and  harmony,  as  radicated  in  the  same  essential 
unity  of  human  nature  to  one  and  the  same  definite  end.  With  her  the 
religious  being  is  never  separated  from  the  intellectual,  and  the  moral 
character  one  with  the  religious.  She  knows  no  division  in  man ;  she 
acknowledges  no  secular  compartment  marked  off  from  his  moral  and 
mental  being.  The  religious  influence  in  the  schoolroom  is  the  ozone 
of  its  atmosphere.  As  the  flower  cannot  grow  without  sunlight  from  the 
nutriment  of  the  soil  alone,  so  she  insists  upon  the  sunlight  of  religion 
in  the  schoolroom  in  the  expansion  and  development  of  the  child's  nature. 
The  creature  of  God  should  be  brought  up  in  the  knowledge  of  God.  If 
man  be  not  religiously  educated,  his  being  is  incomplete  and  stunted. 
What  to  teach  is  first  to  be  understood;  how  to  teach  follows.  What  to 
teach  depends  upon  the  objective  purpose  of  education,  upon  the  ideal 
set  up;  method  is  merely  the  means  to  that  end.  The  first  essential  in  a 
teacher  is  to  be  something  more  than  a  pedagogue ;  he  must  be  a  gardener 
of  the  soul.  The  teacher  should  be  filled  with  the  enthusiasm  of  his 
vocation,  clearly  and  definitely  understand  the  objective  aim  of  his  work ; 
he  should  be  an  idealist  with  power  to  lift  and  carry  his  pupil  to  the  end 
in  view.  Above  all  he  is  not  a  mere  instructor,  a  pourer-in  of  knowledge ; 
for  education  is  not  mere  learning,  You  may  have  an  educated  man, 
who  is  well  trained  and  matured,  of  ji^alanced  and  symmetrical  character, 
and  yet  not  an  erudite  man.  It  is  not  how  much  a  man  knows,  but  his 
trained  capacity  to  acquire,  harmonize,  systematize,  and  apply  knowledge, 

« In  the  Untied  States  alone  the  church  has  10  universities;  30 secular  seminaries  with  2,630  students ;  79 
religious  seminaries  with  1,998  students;  178  colleges  for  boys ;  662  academies  for  girls ;  3,811  parish  schools 
with  an  attendance  of  854,533  pupils.    The  Catholic  population  of  the  United  States  is  estimated  at  to,ooo,ooo. 


ro6  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  LGeneral 

that  is  the  test  of  real  education.  In  other  words,  true  education  aims 
at  the  formation  of  character  and  the  development  of  power.  In  propor- 
tion to  the  ideal  aimed  at  in  an  educational  system  will  be  its  value  in  the 
formation  of  character.  The  aim  of  the  Church  in  her  educational  scheme 
has  always  been  to  form  the  citizens  of  the  city  of  God.  Her  ideal  is  all- 
inclusive,  for  in  it  are  embraced  all  the  virtues,  natural  and  supernatural. 
The  patriot  and  the  enlightened  and  virtuous  member  of  civil  society  are 
the  logical  effect.  In  seeking  the  higher  things  all  lesser  things  shall  be 
added  unto  you. 

THE  STATE  UNIVERSITY 

PRESIDENT   JOSEPH  SWAIN,  STATE    UNIVERSITY    OF    INDIANA,  BLOOMINGTON, 

IND. 

The  rapid  development  of  institutions  of  higher  learning  in  the  United 
States  is  one  of  the  most  remarkable  historical  facts  of  the  closing  quarter 
of  the  nineteenth  century.  Within  this  period  small  and  struggling 
institutions  have  grown  into  great  universities,  with  large  storehouses  of 
libraries  and  laboratories  and  other  equipment.  These  institutions  have 
been  heavily  endowed,  employ  hundreds  of  trained  and  skillful  specialists, 
and  educate  thousands  of  students  from  this  and  other  lands. 

The  recognition  by  this  body  of  the  value  of  higher  education  may  be 
taken  for  granted.  It  may  also  be  assumed  that  it  is  the  duty  and  privilege 
of  the  state,  under  such  regulations  and  supervision  as  wisdom  and 
experience  approve,  to  make  conditions  favorable  to  the  growth  and 
development  of  all  the  different  kinds  of  institutions  of  higher  education. 
The  church  school,  promoted  by  the  love  and  devotion  of  its  members 
for  its  doctrinal  teachings,  educates  for  its  own  work.  We  recognize 
the  great  good  to  society  which  these  institutions  have  wrought.  Our 
nation  is  also  profoundly  grateful  for  the  work  of  inestimable  value  per- 
formed by  those  private  institutions  of  higher  learning  which  in  recent 
years  have  played  such  a  leading  part  in  the  higher  educational  work  of 
the  United  States.  The  state  higher  educational  institutions,  especially 
in  the  West  and  South,  are  growing  year  by  year  in  public  appreciation, 
and  form  an  important  part  of  our  educational  development. 

The  state  university,  like  all  other  parts  of  our  public-school  system 
created,  supported,  and  controlled  by  the  state,  must  commend  itself  ta 
the  whole  people ;  otherwise  its  right  to  existence  will  be  questioned.  Rec- 
ognizing, as  this  association  does,  that  the  state  university  is  as  necessary 
a  part  of  the  public-school  system  as  the  high  school  or  the  lower  grades, 
the  grounds  for  its  existence,  its  aim  and  field,  cannot  too  frequently  be  stated: 

HISTORICAL    STATEMENT 

The  extent  of  state  support  of  higher  education  in  the  past,  and  the 
practice  of  the  present,  create  a  strong  presumption  of  its  continuance  in 
the  future  with  increasing  liberality. 


Sessions]  THE  STATE  UNIVERSITY  107 

The  first  university  of  the  world  was  the  museum  of  Alexandria,  sup- 
ported from  the  public  treasuries  under  the  Ptolemies.  State  support  of 
higher  education  became  the  policy  of  the  Roman  empire.  It  was  rec- 
ognized that  if  the  state  would  have  leaders  it  must  have  trained  men.  In 
the  Middle  Ages  there  was  perhaps  no  greater  man  than  Charlemagne. 
His  proudest  claim  to  distinction  was  his  patronage  of  all  forms  of  higher 
education. 

France  maintains  fifteen  state  universities  at  an  annual  expense  to  the 
government  of  about  fifteen  million  francs.  Education  in  Sweden  is 
chiefly  an  affair  of  the  state.  The  universities  of  Upsala  and  Lund  are 
both  state  institutions.  No  better  illustration  of  the  advantages  of  higher 
education  to  the  state  need  be  given  than  the  wonderful  advances  of  the 
German  empire  in  the  present  century,  and  these  advantages  are  conceded 
to  be  due  to  the  establishment  and  support  by  the  state  of  her  public 
education.  Germany's  rapid  advance  to  commercial  rivalry  with  England 
is  due  in  large  part  to  the  absorption  of  university  men  into  the  trades. 
Oxford  and  Cambridge  have  received  large  contributions  from  royal  favors. 
The  University  of  Edinburgh  has  received  support  from  the  British  gov- 
ernment. Private  wealth  did  early  what  the  state  might  have  done  later. 
The  existence  of  colonial  state  universities  is  ample  evidence  that  Eng- 
lish spirit  favors  higher  education  by  the  state.  To  the  early  American 
colonists  learning  was  a  trust  which  had  been  carried  across  the  sea  to  be 
fostered  and  handed  down  to  posterity,  and  was  sacred  alike  to  the  church 
and  to  the  society  of  the  new  community.  Like  Harvard  in  Massachu- 
setts, Yale  College  in  Connecticut  received  constant  support  from  the 
legislature  of  the  colony  in  which  it  was  situated.  The  appropriations 
took  the  form  of  land  grants,  taxes,  bills  of  credit,  and  the  like.  At  the 
end  of  the  last  century  the  first  president,  Dwight,  declared  that  the  state 
of  Connecticut  had  been  the  chief  benefactor  of  Yale  College.  In  the 
early  colonial  education  the  church  and  the  state  were  closely  allied.  The 
dominant  spirit  was  benevolence.  The  whole  emphasis  was  upon  moral 
elevation  and  the  support  of  religion.  After  the  Declaration  of  Inde- 
pendence there  was  a  movement  in  favor  of  universities  "  created,  con- 
trolled, and  supported  "  by  the  state.  There  was  a  demand  for  a  political 
education  —  "an  education  of  the  individual  as  a  sovereign  citizen." 

Nearly  every  state  constitution  has  a  section  relating  to  the  encour- 
agement of  higher  education.  Several  constitutions  have  provisions  rec- 
ognizing certain  schools  as  state  universities,  while  twenty-four  states 
have  established  state  universities  by  state  laws. 

That  the  state  should  provide  higher  education  was  a  doctrine  of 
Washington,  Jefferson,  Madison,  Franklin,  Monroe,  and  later  Edward 
Everett  and  all  American  statesmen  of  the  first  order,  and  such  weighty 
authority  has  done  much  to  promote  public  higher  education.  The  belief 
of  Jefferson  that  the  university  is  as  much  a  public  trust  as  the  primary 


Io8  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [General 

schools  is  one  that  is  receiving  practical  acceptance  in  the  development 
of  the  state  universities  in  the  West  and  Northwest. 

From  an  educational  point  of  view  the  ordinance  of  1787  was  one  of 
the  most  important  documents  ever  penned.  This  ordinance  declares 
that  "religion,  morality,  and  knowledge  being  necessary  to  good  govern- 
ment and  the  happiness  of  mankind,  schools  as  the  means  of  education 
shall  be  forever  encouraged."  A  few  days  after  the  adoption  of  the  ordi- 
nance of  1787  Congress  placed  its  own  interpretation  upon  it  by  making 
an  appropriation  for  higher  education  in  the  territory  of  Ohio. 

Jefferson  saw  very  clearly  the  necessity  for  public  higher  education  in 
the  United  States.  He  had  observed  that  never  in  the  history  of  the 
world  had  higher  education  been  successful  except  when  it  had  been 
established  and,  at  least  in  its  childhood  and  youth,  been  encouraged  and 
supported  by  all  the  forces  in  the  state. 

Before  1821  it  was  estimated  that  more  than  six  million  acres  of  land 
had  been  appropriated  to  the  purposes  of  higher  education. 

It  thus  appears  that  the  policy  of  state  support  of  higher  education 
has  been  the  accepted  policy  for  centuries  in  Europe ;  that  it  had  an  inde- 
pendent growth  in  America,  was  established  as  a  colonial  policy,  was 
adopted  by  Congress,  and  has  become  the  national  policy  of  the  United 
States. 

While  the  above  historical  facts  furnish  an  excellent  reason  for  the 
support  of  higher  education  by  the  state — the  justification  of  experience 
—  we  naturally  seek  a  rational  ground  for  it.  This  is  found  in  the  func- 
tion of  the  state. 

THEORY    OF    THE    STATE 

There  are  two  extreme  views  of  the  function  of  the  state  held  by 
political  theorists.  The  one  magnifies,  the  other  minimizes  its  duties. 
The  one  regards  the  state  as  merely  a  great  police  force.  Its  chief 
function,  according  to  this  view,  is  the  administration  of  justice.  Under 
this  theory  there  is  no  sense  of  obligation  on  the  part  of  the  state  to  its 
citizens  to  improve  their  physical,  intellectual,  and  ethical  conditions. 
The  exigency  of  war  is  more  important  than  the  possibilities  of  peace. 

The  other  view,  the  magnifying  theory,  is  to  make  .the  state,  not  just, 
but  benevolent. 

"  It  would  feed  the  hungry,  clothe  the  needy,  furnish  work  for  the  idle,  provide 
bounties  for  those  engaged  in  a  losing  business,  and  protection-  for  those  who  feel  too 
keenly  the  competition  inherent  to  the  struggle  for  existence.  It  would  make  the  state  a 
gigantic  trust  in  which  all  citizens  might  take  part,  and  by  which  all  should  be  lifted 
from  the  condition  of  poverty." 

Between  these  extreme  views  there  is  a  better  one,  and  one  which  is 
receiving  practical  acceptance  in  the  United  States.  "That  unworthy 
theory  of  the  state,"  says  President  Angell,  "  which  makes  it  a  mere 
policeman  to  protect  life  and  property  has  rarely  appealed  to  men  as 
strongly  as  the  Aristotelian  conception,  which  commands  the  state  to 


Sessions]  THE  STATE  UNIVERSITY  109 

seek  every  high  and  noble  end  that  it  can  secure  better  than  the  private  citi- 
zen." This  obligation  rests  upon  the  acknowledged  necessity  in  a  republic 
for  diffusion  of  intelligence  and  nurture  of  character.  These  are  essential, 
not  only  to  the  prosperity,  but  even  to  the  existence,  of  a  free  state. 

The  ultimate  control  of  and  responsibility  for  education  must  rest 
with  the  state.  In  a  democracy  there  can  be  no  other  power  to  which  it 
can  be  delegated.  This  does  not  mean  that  every  state  must  of  neces- 
sity have  a  state  university  in  the  sense  of  the  term  as  used  in  the  West 
and  South.  If  Massachusetts  can  secure  all  her  needs  in  higher  educa- 
tion thru  Harvard  and  other  private  institutions,  well  and  good.  But 
Harvard  College  in  her  earlier  history  was  fostered  by  the  state.  The 
state  can  only  secure  for  her  children  the  advanced  training  they  need 
thru  the  control  and  support,  if  need  be,  of  her  higher  institutions. 

An  education  which  is  to  train  men  for  the  duty  of  citizenship  in  a 
free  state  must  train  men  beyond  the  limits  of  elementary  knowledge. 
They  must  have  that  large  knowledge  which  prepares  them  to  under- 
stand and  discharge  their  duties  to  each  other,  to  society,  to  the  state. 
It  is  the  function  of  the  state  to  provide  educational  opportunities,  limited 
only  by  the  ability  of  its  citizens  to  embrace  these  opportunities.  Any 
argument  which  justifies  the  state  in  supporting  or  aiding  high  schools 
is  a  justification  of  supporting  and  aiding  the  higher  institutions. 

CRITICISMS    ANSWERED 

Some  oppose  the  state  university  on  the  ground  that  all  cannot  use 
it.  This  is  as  valid  against  high  schools  or  elementary  schools  as  against 
universities.  On  the  same  ground  one  might  reply  that  bachelors  or 
childless  men  can  object  to  being  taxed  for  the  common  schools.  If  the 
university  existed  merely  for  those  who  are  students  within  its  walls, 
there  might  indeed  be  objection  to  giving  it  state  support ;  but,  as  a 
matter  of  fact,  the  state  gets  the  benefit  of  the  finished  product.  Has  the 
skilled  physician  most  benefited  himself  or  the  community?  Has  the 
teacher  most  benefited  himself  or  his  pupils  ?  Graduates  of  universities 
could  not,  if  they  would,  appropriate  to  themselves  the  fruits  of  their 
university  training. 

The  university  is  sometimes  opposed  on  the  ground  that  it  is  unjust 
to  tax  men  of  modest  means  to  support  higher  instruction,  as  none  but 
the  wealthy  can  go  to  college.  Statistics  of  our  state  universities  do  not 
support  such  a  view,  as  more  than  half  of  the  students,  in  many  of  our 
state  institutions  at  least,  are  sons  and  daughters  of  farmers  and 
mechanics.  The  number  of  poor  boys  who  earn  their  money  and  send 
themselves  to  college  is  increasing  from  year  to  year. 

It  is  sometimes  said  that  a  state  university  is  not  necessary,  that  stu- 
dents can  go  to  institutions  outside  the  state.  There  are  serious  objec- 
tions to  this  idea.     A  majority  of  the  students  in  our  state  universities 


116  J^ATJOI^AL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Ceneral 

cannot  afford  to  pay  the  necessary  expense  incurred  by  attending 
institutions  in  other  states.  "  The  rich  can  send  their  sons  to  distant 
institutions.  Not  so  with  the  poor  and  those  of  modest  means.  They 
must  have  institutions  near  at  hand  or  be  excluded  from  its  advan- 
tage." 

The  state  institution  furnishes  a  common  meeting-ground  where  the 
young  men  and  young  women  of  the  state  are  free  from  any  influences 
except  those  which  are  accepted  by  the  state  itself.  It  becomes  a  forum 
where  the  rising  young  men  and  women  of  the  whole  state  may  know 
one  another  and  value  one  another  rightly.  The  lack  of  a  state  uni- 
versity would  be  a  great  loss  to  the  state  in  every  way.  Many  of  the 
young  men  who  go  to  institutions  outside  the  state  lose  their  state  affilia- 
tions and  become  citizens  of  other  states.  I  have  heard  President 
Angell  of  the  University  of  Michigan  say,  with  force  and  truth,  that  one  of 
the  great  benefits  of  the  university  to  the  state  of  Michigan  was  the  fact 
that  able  young  men  who  came  to  the  University  of  Michigan  to  study  not 
infrequently  take  up  their  residence  in  the  state  and  become  useful  and 
influential  citizens. 

Can  we  not  depend  wholly  on  wealthy  men  to  furnish  higher  edu- 
cation?    This  would  be  un-American. 

Wealthy  men  might  grade  our  roads,  build  our  courthouses,  conduct  our  courts, 
do  anything  for  the  public  good,  if  the  state  should  neglect  these  matters,  or  turn  them 
over  to  private  hands.  But  this  would  not  release  the  people  from  their  duty  in  the  mat- 
ter.    The  people  have  safety  only  in  independence.' 

There  is  [says  President  White]  no  system  more  unrepublican  than  that  by  which  a 
nation  or  state,  in  consideration  of  a  few  hundreds  or  thousands  of  dollars,  delivers  over 
its  system  of  advanced  instruction  to  be  controlled  and  limited  by  the  whim  of  living 
donors  or  dead  testators.  In  more  than  one  nation  dead  hands  stretching  out  from 
graves  closed  generations  gone  have  lain  with  a  deadly  chill  upon  institutions  for 
advanced  instruction  for  centuries.  More  than  one  institution  in  our  own  country  has 
felt  its  grip  and  chill.     If  we  ought  to  govern  ourselves  in  anything,  it  ought  to  be  in  this. 

THE    NECESSITY    FOR    A    STATE    UNIVERSITY 

The  people  must  provide  for  the  things  they  need,  or  these  things 
will  never  be  properly  and  adequately  furnished.  Private  provision  for 
education  cannot  guarantee,  and  cannot  be  expected  to  guarantee,  abso- 
lute freedom  from  bias  in  religion,  politics,  and  morals.  The  state  can 
secure  unsectarian  instruction,  unpartisan  institutions,  only  by  providing 
these  itself.  This  fact  does  not  in  the  least  disparage  the  existence  of 
private  and  denominational  colleges,  but  indicates  that  these  alone  are  not 
sufficient. 

Of  ail  the  state  treasures  [says  Andrew  D.  White]  the  genius  and  talent  of  citizens 
is  the  most  precious.  It  is  the  duty  of  society  to  itself,  a  duty  which  it  cannot  throw  off, 
to  see  that  the  stock  of  talent  and  genius  in  each  generation  may  have  a  chance  for  devel- 
opment, that  it  may  be  added  to  the  world's  stock  and  aid  in  the  world's  work. 

I  Jordan. 


Sessions]  THE  STATE  UNIVERSITY  m 

"The  common  school  is  the  hope  of  our  country."  In  like  manner, 
the  high  school  and  college  are  the  hope  of  the  common  school,  and  the 
university  the  hope  of  the  college.  Each  part  of  the  system  depends  on 
the  next  higher  for  its  standards  and  for  its  inspiration.  From  those  edu- 
cated in  the  higher  schools  the  teachers  in  the  lower  must  come.  Lop  off 
the  upper  branches  of  the  tree,  and  the  sap  ceases  to  rise  in  its  trunk.  Cut 
off  the  higher  schools  from  the  educational  system,  and  its  growth  and 
progress  stop.  Weakness  at  the  head  means  paralysis  of  the  members. 
The  state  educational  institutions  should  bring  to  the  state  the  best 
thought  of  the  world.  This  best  thought  should  go  to  the  high  school 
thru  the  college  graduates  who  teach  in  the  high  school,  and  thus  be  dis- 
seminated thruout  the  state.  Thus  have  come  to  my  own  state  the  thought 
and  inspiration  of  Agassiz  in  the  study  of  animal  life,  of  Asa  Gray  in  the 
study  of  plants,  of  Sylvester  and  Crystal  in  the  study  of  mathematics,  of 
Tait,  Thompson,  and  Helmholtz  in  the  study  of  physics,  of  Zeller  in  the 
history  of  philosophy,  of  Pickering  in  the  study  of  astronomy,  of  Hall  in 
pedagogy  and  experimental  psychology,  of  White  in  history,  of  Goodwin 
and  Gildersleeve  in  Greek,  of  Fresenius  in  chemistry,  and  of  Child, 
Hart,  and  Cook  in  English. 

The  state  university  exists  for  the  state,  and  must  therefore  be  demo- 
cratic. The  young  man  from  the  farm,  from  behind  the  counter,  stands 
side  by  side  with  the  son  of  the  minister,  the  doctor,  and  the  lawyer.  In 
a  people's  university  there  can  be  no  aristocracy  of  trade,  profession,  or 
wealth.  The  only  road  to  high  regard  and  distinction  is  thru  the  ave- 
nue of  superior  excellence.  This  avenue  is  one  thru  which  the  poor  man's 
son  is  more  likely  to  pass  than  the  son  of  the  rich  man.  Poverty  in  itself 
has  no  virtue ;  but  the  qualities  of  mind  and  heart  which  have  grown 
while  overcoming  poverty,  and  have  led  the  young  man  to  consecrate 
himself  to  the  highest  things,  are  "more  to  be  desired  than  gold,  yea 
than  much  fine  gold." 

THE    UNIVERSITY    A  PUBLIC    TRUST 

A  state  university  is  indeed  a  public  trust,  and  sooner  or  later  the 
people  of  most  of  our  states  will  see  to  it  that  the  state  university  is  built 
"higher  and  broader  and  deeper"  than  any  ideal  which  we  may  now  con- 
template. It  is  well  that  Leiand  Stanford  and  John  D.  Rockefeller 
devote  their  millions  to  the  building  of  great  universities,  but  these 
endowed  institutions  have  only  strengthened  and  not  retarded  the  growth 
of  the  state  universities  of  the  West  and  Northwest.  The  efficiency  of  the 
University  of  California  has  increased  more  within  the  past  nine  years 
than  within  any  other  period  of  the  same  length  in  its  history.  This  is 
manifest,  not  only  in  the  number  of  its  students,  but  in  the  improvement 
and  breadth  of  its  work.  Thus  the  establishment  of  Stanford  University 
has  not  only  given  California  a  new  institution,  but  it  has  at  the  same 


112  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [General 

time  been  of  great  service  to  the  state  university.  There  are  six  students 
now  where  there  was  one  before.  In  turn,  the  state  university  is  necessary 
to  the  highest  development  of  the  newer  institution,  and  the  efficient 
work  of  the  former  has  made  the  latter  possible. 

In  contributing  to  the  maintenance  and  growth  of  the  state  university 
we  not  only  make  better  every  high  school  in  the  state,  and  therefore  the 
common  schools,  but  every  step  of  the  university  in  advance  compels  like 
steps  in  other  colleges  and  private  schools  of  the  state. 

IDEALS 

"I  would  found,"  said  Ezra  Cornell,  "an  institution  where  any  per- 
son can  find  instruction  in  any  study."  Make  this  the  best  instruction  in 
any  study,  and  we  have  the  ideal  university.  "Its  course  of  study  should 
be  so  broad,  so  thoro  and  complete,  that  no  young  man  or  woman 
need  to  leave  his  state  to  secure  the  best  education  the  world  affords." 
Such  a  university  must  be  modern,  democratic,  human,  and  its  instruction 
must  be  largely  individual.  The  modern  university  is  the  product  of 
modern  life.  All  subjects  which  can  be  reduced  to  a  science  should  have 
attention  in  its  curriculum,  and  every  branch  of  human  inquiry  should 
command  its  share  of  the  time  and  attention  of  the  university  men. 

While  it  must  sacredly  "  preserve  all  the  treasures  of  the  past,  and 
must  not  neglect  the  spirit  and  refinement  of  the  old-time  scholars,"  it 
must,  most  of  all,  recognize  the  demands  of  the  living  present,  and  extend 
the  boundaries  of  human  knowledge  by  countless  pathways  into  the 
infinite  creations  and  thoughts  of  God,  in  whom  these  pathways  meet. 

A  university  must  recognize  its  environment.  Yet  an  institution  of 
learning  would  be  foolish  indeed  should  it  accept  and  promulgate  any 
current  theory  simply  because  it  is  current.  To  teach  either  free  trade 
or  protection  because  either  is  the  theory  of  the  party  in  power  would  be 
unworthy  of,  and  wholly  contrary  to,  the  ideals  of  the  scholar.  It  should 
be  the  duty  of  the  university  to  examine  into  every  question,  industrial, 
historical,  philosophical,  political,  scientific,  which  is  of  present  or  future 
interest  to  the  people  of  the  state.  To  gather  together  all  the  facts  of 
experience  and  the  thoughts  of  the  profoundest  thinkers  on  these  ques- 
tions, and  place  before  the  students  and  people  a  scientific  treatment  of 
the  subject,  is  of  the  utmost  importance. 

The  university  exists  for  the  good  of  the  student,  and,  therefore,  every 
sort  of  personal  helpfulness  is  part  of  the  university's  duty.  A  student 
should  not  be  forced  to  do  what  is  not  best  for  him,  either  for  entrance, 
continuance,  or  graduation.  He  is  taking  his  own  course,  not  one  pre- 
arranged for  someone  else.  With  this  view  of  the  duty  of  the  university, 
the  teacher  must  know  the  student.  He  must  live  with  him.  He  must 
occasionally  have  him  at  his  home,  be  with  him  in  his  leisure  hours.  He 
must  be  an  elder  brother,  who  has  gone  a  little  farther  on  the  road  to 


I 


Sessions]  THE  STATE  UNIVERSITY  113 

learning,  and  is  in  the  university  to  give  the  benefit  of  his  experience  to 
those  who  are  younger  and  have  not  traveled  so  far  on  the  journey. 

The  encouraging  lesson  is  this :  The  greater  the  development  of  the 
higher  institutions  of  learning,  the  more  determination  there  seems  to  be 
on  the  part  of  the  states  to  provide  still  more  ample  means  for  their 
expansion  and  for  increasing  their  efficiency. 

WHAT    CAN    THE    UNIVERSITY    DO    FOR    THE    STATE? 

The  universities  should  send  out  into  every  township  of  the  state,  to 
her  schools,  to  her  professions,  to  her  farms  and  her  shops,  strong  young 
men  and  young  women  who  are  trained  in  "plain  living  and  high  think- 
ing," and  who  by  this  training  are  armed  against  the  shams  of  the  world,  in 
education  and  in  politics.  This  is  the  age  of  specialization,  and  the  com- 
plex question  of  capital  and  labor,  the  best  means  for  the  growth  of  the 
product  of  the  soil,  the  best  meansof  dispensing  charity,  the  best  methods 
of  municipal  government,  the  best  methods  of  taxation,  the  vexed  ques- 
tions of  finance,  of  dealing  with  criminals,  of  treating  insane  people — 
these  are  only  a  few  of  the  many  scientific  questions  which  must  be 
settled,  if  at  all,  by  the  searching  methods  of  scientific  and  trained 
specialists.  The  scholarship  and  training  of  the  schools  should  form  a 
background  for  the  wisdom  gained  from  a  knowledge  of  affairs.  The 
great  problems  of  our  day,  scientific,  historical,  political,  and  industrial, 
can  best  be  settled  by  those  who  have  special  training  for  their  special 
work.  We  are  living  in  an  age  when  there  is  a  demand  for  re-examination 
of  all  things.  We  are  not  satisfied  simply  because  a  belief  or  a  custom 
had  the  sanction  of  our  fathers.  We  are  not  willing  to  say  that  anything 
is  true,  or  that  any  method  is  the  best  method,  until  all  the  facts  available 
are  examined  by  those  who  know  how  to  estimate  the  value  of  data.  The 
modern  university  is  an  institution  where  all  subjects  are  considered  of 
value,  and  the  great  ambition  of  the  teacher  of  each  subject  is,  first,  to 
gain  a  complete  mastery  of  his  subject,  and  then  to  assist  his  students  to 
such  mastery ;  and,  in  the  second  place,  to  contribute  something  to  the 
sum  total  of  human  knowledge  in  his  own  line  of  work.  The  university 
does  not  do  its  duty  to  the  state  if  it  does  not,  in  some  degree  at  least, 
widen  the  field  of  human  knowledge.  It  is  chiefly  thru  the  discov- 
eries and  contributions  of  original  workers  that  those  facts  and  principles 
are  discovered  thru  which  the  state  seeks  a  more  advanced  stage  of 
civilization  and  culture. 

It  would  be  easy  enough  to  make  a  catalog  of  the  things  the  higher 
educational  institutions  should  do  for  the  state,  and  show  by  an  appeal 
to  history  that,  even  from  a  pecuniary  point  of  view,  higher  institutions  of 
learning  have  been  worth  more  than  they  have  cost ;  but  the  best  thing 
that  they  have  done  is  in  the  direction  of  intellectual  freedom.  Every 
dollar  expended  properly  in  a  university  is  so  rawch  toward  freeing  the 


114  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [General 

human  mind  from  the  bondage  of  prejudice,  ignorance,  and  superstition. 
To  free  the  American  slave  from  the  shackles  of  human  slavery  was  a 
holy  office,  but  to  provide  the  young  men  and  women  of  our  country  with 
the  means  and  opportunities  of  freeing  themselves  of  all  the  shackles  that 
bind  them  to  the  lower  allurements  of  life  is  not  only  a  holy  office,  but 
the  most  sacred  obligation  of  the  state. 


THE  PROBLEM  OF  THE  SOUTH 

BY    BOOKER    T.    WASHINGTON,    PRINCIPAL,    TUSKEGEE    NORMAL    AND 
INDUSTRIAL    INSTITUTE,    TUSKEGEE,    ALA. 

[stenographic  report] 
Ladies  and  Gentlemen  : 

We  stand  tonight  on  historic  ground.  Charleston  and  South  Carolina 
have  made  history  —  history  that  will  always  occupy  a  prominent  place  in 
the  annals  of  our  country.  But  South  Carolina  was  never  greater  or 
prouder  than  tonight,  when,  with  open  arms  and  generous  hospitality,  she 
extends  a  welcome  to  the  educators  of  America,  regardless  of  race  or 
color.  The  world  is  moving  forward,  not  backward.  Under  the  shadow 
of  Fort  Sumter  we  find  ourselves  tonight.  If  history  be  true,  I  think  that 
it  was  nearly  forty  years  ago  that  a  little  company  of  men,  moved  by  a 
different  spirit,  clad  in  different  uniforms,  armed  with  different  weapons, 
came  to  this  vicinity  to  bring  cheer,  comfort,  food,  and  reinforcement  to 
an  endangered,  suffering,  and  starving  garrison.  The  army  that  comes 
into  Charleston  today  comes  with  guns  beaten  into  plowshares,  and  swords 
into  pruning-hooks.  It  comes  with  no  special  regalia.  Already  we  find 
that  Fort  Sumter  has  surrendered  and  Charleston  is  ours.  It  is  in  this 
spirit  and  with  this  object  we  come  to  you — ^to  bring  relief,  the  relief  that 
comes  from  the  spreading  of  education  and  intelligence,  kindness  and 
brotherly  love,  among  all  nations  and  all  classes.  It  is  when  we  witness 
such  scenes  as  this  that  our  belief  in  the  ability  of  our  country  to  work 
out  all  its  problems  becomes  stronger,  and  that  the  education  of  all  the 
people,  in  heart,  head,  and  hand,  will  be  the  solution  of  all  the  trying 
problems  that  surround  and  confront  this  southland,  where  both  races 
have  had  difficulties  to  contend  with  which  no  other  people  have  ever 
met. 

When  we  disarm  ourselves  of  prejudices  and  passions,  we  must 
acknowledge  that  the  white  South  owes  much  to  the  Negro,  and  that  the 
Negro  owes  much  to  the  white  South.  The  Negro  has  a  right  to  cherish 
love  for  the  South.  It  was  here  that  we  came  centuries  ago  in  our 
heathenism,  and  here  we  were  taught  the  religion  of  Christ ;  here  we  came 
without  a  language,  and  here  we  were  taught  the  Anglo-Saxon  tongue; 
here  we  came  without  habits  pf  thrift,  and  here  we  were  taught  industry 


Sessions]  THE  PROBLEM  OF  THE  SOUTH  1 1 5 

and  economy.  The  Negro  has  a  right  to  cherish  memories  of  the  South. 
In  a  large  degree  it  has  been  the  brawn  and  muscle  of  the  black  man  that 
have  cleared  the  forests,  opened  the  mines,  and  built  the  railroads ;  that 
have  grown  the  rice  and  cotton  and  the  sugar-cane  ;  that  have  made  the 
South  rich  and  prosperous. 

In  all  discussion  and  legislation  bearing  upon  this  subject  we  must 
keep  in  mind  that  the  Negro  has  a  peculiar  claim  upon  the  conscience, 
the  intelligence,  and  the  hearts  of  the  American  people.  You  must 
remember  that  you  are  dealing  with  a  race  not  only  forced  to  come  into 
this  country  against  its  will,  but  in  the  face  of  its  most  earnest  protest. 
These  people  have  a  claim  upon  your  intelligence  and  your  sympathies 
that  perhaps  no  other  people  can  have.  And,  now  that  we  are  here,  the 
great  problem  that  is  confronting  us  is  how  to  solve  this  problem  in  justice 
to  southern  white  men,  among  whom  the  Negro  must  live,  and  in  jus- 
tice to  the  Negro  himself. 

During  the  last  thirty-five  years  quite  a  number  of  suggestions  have 
been  made  looking  to  a  solution  of  this  problem.  A  few  years  ago  some 
six  hundred  of  our  people  sailed  from  Savannah,  Ga.,  bound  for  Liberia, 
and  people  said  all  at  once  :  "  We  have  found  a  way  to  solve  this  problem  ; 
our  people  have  sailed  for  Africa,  and  the  problem  is  solved."  But  those 
people  forgot  that  on  this  same  morning,  here  in  the  black  belt  of  the 
South,  perhaps  before  breakfast,  about  six  hundred  more  black  children 
came  into  the  world. 

I  have  a  good  friend  in  the  state  of  Georgia  who  is  very  earnest  in  his 
belief  that  the  way  to  solve  this  difficulty  is  to  set  aside  some  territory  in 
the  far  West  and  put  the  Negro  in  it,  and  let  him  grow  up  there  a  distinct 
race.  There  is  difficulty  in  that  way.  In  the  first  place,  you  would  have 
to  build  a  wall  about  that  territory  to  keep  the  black  man  in  it,  and,  in 
the  second  place,  you  would  have  to  build  a  wall  about  it  —  and  I  sus- 
pect a  much  higher  one  —  to  keep  the  white  man  out  of  it. 

I  was  on  the  train  not  very  long  ago  with  a  gentleman  who  had  a  third 
suggestion.  He  contended  that  the  problem  was  solving  itself,  because 
the  Negro  was  so  fast  becoming  a  part  of  other  races  that  there  soon  would 
be  no  negro  race  in  this  country.  There  is  difficulty  about  that.  If  it  is 
proven  that  a  man  has  even  i  per  cent,  of  African  blood,  he  becomes  a 
Negro  every  time ;  the  99  per  cent,  of  Anglo-Saxon  blood  counts  for 
nothing  —  the  man  always  falls  to  our  pile  in  the  count  of  the  races.  It 
takes  100  per  cent,  to  make  a  white  man,  and  i  per  cent,  will  make  a 
Negro  every  time.     So,  you  see,  we  are  a  stronger  race  than  the  white  race. 

This  problem  will  not  be  solved  in  any  of  these  ways.  There  is  only 
one  way  to  solve  it  —  by  treating  the  Negro  with  humanity  and  justice, 
just  as  I  find  the  people  of  Charleston  treating  the  black  man  today.  When 
you  go  still  farther  in  the  study  of  this  question,  you  will  find  that  the 
Negro  is  the  only  race  that  has  ever  had  the  rare  privilege  of  coming  to 


1 1 6  NA  TIONAL  EDUCA  TIONAL  ASSOCIA  TION  \ General 

America  by  reason  of  having  a  very  special  and  very  pressing  invitation 
to  come  here.  The  unfortunate  white  race  came  here  against  the  protests 
of  the  leading  citizens  of  this  country  in  1492  and  later;  while,  for  some 
reason,  we  seem  to  have  been  so  important  to  the  business  prosperity  of 
this  country  that  we  had  to  be  sent  for,  and  sent  for  at  great  cost  and  incon- 
venience on  the  part  of  our  white  friends.  And  now  we  have  the  repu- 
tation of  being  rather  an  obliging  and  polite  race  ;  after  having  put  our 
white  friends  to  so  much  trouble,  expense,  and  inconvenience  to  get  us 
here,  it  would  be  rather  unkind  and  ungracious  on  our  part  not  to  stay 
here.  Now,  my  friends,  that  we  have  got  the  white  men  of  the  North  and 
the  white  men  of  the  South  face  to  face,  I  want  to  make  one  request  of 
them,  and  I  want  to  do  it  in  the  form  of  a  story  : 

At  one  time  an  old  colored  man  in  South  Carolina  sold  a  hog  to  a 
white  man  for  $5.  The  white  man  paid  his  money,  took  the  hog,  and 
went  on  his  way.  When  he  got  about  half  way  home  the  hog  got  out  of 
the  pen  and  went  back  home  to  the  old  Negro,  Uncle  Zeke.  About 
noon  another  white  man  came  along  and  wanted  to  buy  a  hog  ;  and 
Uncle  Zeke  sold  him  the  same  hog  for  another  $5.  The  second  white 
man  went  on  his  way  home,  and  met  the  first  coming  back  to  Uncle 
Zeke's  house  for  his  hog.  He  said  :  "  Mister,  where  did  you  get  that  hog  ? 
Uncle  Zeke  sold  me  that  hog  this  morning  for  $5,  and  he  got  away  from 
me  and  went  back."  "Well,"  said  the  other,  "he  sold  him  to  me  this 
afternoon."  "How  are  we  going  to  settle  this  thing?"  said  the  first  pur- 
chaser. "  Let's  go  back  and  see  Uncle  Zeke  about  it,"  said  the  other.  They 
went  back  to  Uncle  Zeke's,  and  the  first  one  said  :  "  How  about  this  hog  ? 
Didn't  you  sell  him  to  me  this  morning  for  ^5?"  "I  sure  did,"  said 
Uncle  Zeke.  "Didn't  you  sell  him  to  me  this  afternoon  for  $5?"  said 
the  other  man.  "  I  sure  did,"  said  Uncle  Zeke.  "Well,  how  about  this 
thing?"  they  said,  "we  don't  understand  it."  Uncle  Zeke  said:  "Fore 
Gawd,  can't  you  white  people  go  settle  that  thing  among  yourselves  ?  " 

Now,  for  thirty-five  years,  my  friends,  you  white  people  of  the  North 
and  of  the  South  have  been  contending  as  to  which  one  of  you  is  respon- 
sible for  bringing  the  black  man  into  this  country.  Now  that  you  are 
here  face  to  face,  I  want  you  to  get  together  and  settle  this  thing  among 
yourselves. 

But  I  assure  you,  my  friends,  I  am  not  here  this  evening  to  plead  for 
education  merely  in  behalf  of  the  Negro.  Those  of  you  who  understood 
slavery  and  what  it  meant  will  agree  with  me  when  I  say  that  slavery 
wrought  almost  as  much  permanent  injury  to  the  white  man  during  its 
existence  as  to  the  black  man.  And  those  of  ypu  who  understand  condi- 
tions as  they  are  today  in  the  South  will  agree  with  me  that  so  long  as 
the  rank  and  file  of  our  people  are  in  poverty  and  ignorance,  so  long 
will  there  be  a  millstone  about  the  neck  of  progress  in  the  South.  So 
I  plead,  not  for  the  Negro  alone,  but  in  a  higher  spirit,  that  you  will 


I 


Sessions]  THE  PROBLEM  OF  THE  SOUTH  1 1 7 

remove  the  burden  of  poverty  and  ignorance  from  both  races  thruout 
the  South. 

In  a  larger  degree,  if  we  would  work  out  our  problem  as  black  people, 
we  have  got  to  consider  the  immediate  needs  that  surround  and  confront 
us  as  a  race  ;  and  in  a  brief,  earnest  manner  get  down  to  the  bottom  facts 
of  our  conditions. 

At  one  time,  in  Alabama,  an  old  colored  man,  teaching  a  Sunday- 
school  class,  was  trying  to  explain  to  the  class  how  the  children  of  Israel 
were  able  to  cross  the  Red  Sea  without  getting  wet,  and  how  the  forces  of 
Pharaoh  got  into  the  water.  He  said  :  "It  was  this  way :  When  the  first 
party  came  along  it  was  early  in  the  morning,  and  it  was  cold,  and  the  ice 
was  hard  and  thick,  and  they  had  no  trouble  in  crossing.  But  when  the 
next  party  came  along  it  was  12  o'clock  in  the  day,  and  the  ice  had 
begun  to  melt,  and  when  they  went  on  it  it  broke  and  they  went  down." 
There  was  in  the  class  a  man  who  had  been  going  to  school, and  he  said: 
"I  don't  understand  that  kind  of  an  explanation.  I  have  been  studying 
that  kind  of  thing,  and  my  geography  teaches  me  that  ice  does  not  form 
so  near  the  equator."  The  old  minister  said  :  "I  was  expecting  just  that 
sort  of  a  question.  The  time  I  am  speaking  'bout  was  before  they  had  any 
gografys  or  'quators  there."  That  old  minister,  in  his  straightforward 
way,  was  simply  trying  to  brush  aside  all  the  artificiality  and  get  to  the 
bedrock  of  common-sense  ;  and  that  is  what  we  have  to  do  to  lift  our 
people  up. 

I  claim  that,  in  the  present  condition  of  our  people,  industrial  educa- 
tion will  have  a  special  place  in  helping  us  out  of  our  present  state.  We 
find  that  in  many  cases  it  is  a  positive  sin  to  take  a  black  boy  from  an 
agricultural  district  and  send  him  to  a  school  or  a  city  where  he  is  edu- 
cated in  everything  in  heaven  and  earth  that  has  no  connection  with 
agricultural  life,  with  the  result  that  he  remains  in  the  city  in  an  attempt 
to  live  by  his  wits.  And  again,  my  friends,  you  will  find  that  in  propor- 
tion as  we  give  industrial  training  in  connection  with  academic  training, 
there  go  with  it  a  knowledge  and  a  feeling  that  there  is  a  dignity,  a 
civilizing  power,  in  intelligent  labor.  And  you  will  find  at  those  institu- 
tions where  industrial  education  is  emphasized,  and  the  student  enabled 
to  work  out  his  own  expenses,  that  the  very  effort  gives  him  a  certain 
amount  of  self-reliance  or  backbone  he  would  not  get  without  such  effort 
on  his  own  part.  When  the  Bible  says,  "Work  out  your  own  salvation 
with  fear  and  trembling,"  I  am  tempted  to  believe  it  means  about  what  it 
says.  I  believe  it  is  largely  possible  for  a  race  as  well  as  an  individual  to 
work  out  its  own  salvation,  and  in  the  South  we  are  to  work  out  our  salva- 
tion in  a  large  measure  in  the  field,  in  the  college,  in  the  shop,  and  with 
the  hammer  and  the  saw. 

Once,  in  the  South,  an  old  colored  man  was  very  anxious  to  have 
turkey  for  his  Christmas  dinner,  and  he  prayed  for  it  night  after  night : 


Ii8  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [General 

"  Lord,  please  send  this  darkey  a  turkey ; "  but  no  turkey  came.  So  one 
night,  when  it  got  near  Christmas  time,  he  prayed  :  "  Lord,  please  send 
this  darkey  to  a  turkey ;  "  and  he  got  it  that  same  night.  I  don't  know 
how  you  white  people  get  hold  of  turkeys,  but,  my  friends,  we  don't  get 
hold  of  very  much,  as  a  race  or  as  individuals,  unless  we  put  forth  some- 
thing of  the  kind  of  effort  that  old  black  man  put  forth.  There  are  three 
things  as  a  race  we  have  to  learn  to  do  if  we  want  to  get  on  our  feet.  We 
have  got  to  learn  to  put  skill  and  dignity  and  brains  into  all  our  occupa- 
tions. A  few  days  ago  a  gentleman  asked  me  in  what  way  the  North 
could  protect  the  Negro  in  the  exercise  of  his  rights  in  the  South.  I 
answered,  as  I  say  to  you  tonight :  Make  the  Negro  the  most  useful  man 
in  the  community.  It  will  constitute  his  most  lasting  and  most  competent 
protection,  whether  in  the  North  or  in  the  South.  Help  him  to  do  things 
so  well  that  no  one  can  do  them  better.  Help  him  to  do  a  common  thing 
in  an  uncommon  manner,  and  that  will  in  a  large  measure  help  to  solve 
our  problem. 

The  black  man,  in  connection  with  all  this,  has  to  learn  that  we  have 
to  pay  the  price ;  that  a  race,  like  an  individual,  must  pay  the  price  for 
anything  that  it  gets.  No  individual  or  race  can  get  hold  of  something 
for  nothing;  it  has  got  to  pay  the  price  —  starting  at  the  bottom,  and 
gradually,  earnestly,  thru  a  series  of  years,  working  up  toward  the 
highest  civilization.  One  of  the  hardest  lessons  for  a  race,  like  an  indi- 
vidual, to  learn  is  that  it  will  grow  strong  and  powerful  in  proportion  as 
it  learns  to  do  well  the  little  things  about  its  doors.  The  race  that  learns 
this  lesson  may  be  retarded  in  its  upward  progress,  but  it  can  never  be 
defeated.  In  a  larger  measure  thruout  this  country  the  black  man 
should  seek  to  make  himself,  not  a  burden,  but  a  helper  to  the  community 
in  which  he  lives  ;  not  a  receiver,  but  a  giver ;  not  a  destroyer,  but  a  pro- 
ducer in  the  highest  sense.  I  want  to  see  the  Negro  put  that  intelligence 
into  labor  which  will  dignify  it,  and  lift  it  out  of  the  atmosphere  of  sloth 
and  drudgery  into  that  atmosphere  where  people  will  feel  that  labor  is 
glorified  and  dignified. 

A  short  time  ago  I  was  in  the  state  of  Iowa,  and  I  saw  a  white  man 
out  there  planting  corn,  and  this  white  man  was  sitting  down  upon  some 
kind  of  a  machine.  All  the  work  this  white  man  seemed  to  do  was  to  hold 
back  two  fine  spirited  horses  and  keep  them  from  working  themselves  to 
death.  He  was  not  only  sitting  down  planting  corn,  but  he  had  a  big 
red  umbrella  hoisted  over  him.  When  it  went  over  the  ground,  I  think 
that  machine  plowed  up  the  ground,  and  I  think  it  made  all  the  furrows ; 
I  am  sure  it  dropped  the  corn  in  the  furrows  and  covered  the  corn.  I 
was  in  one  of  our  southern  states  later,  and  I  saw  a  black  man  planting 
corn.  I  saw  him  competing  in  the  market  with  this  white  man  in  Iowa. 
He  had  a  mule  going  about  a  mile  an  hour.  He  had  a  pole  on  the  plow. 
The  mule  would  go  a  step  or  two  and  stop,  and  he  would  get  the  pole 


Sessions]  THE  PROBLEM  OF  THE  SOUTH  1 1 Q 

and  hit  him  to  make  him  start  again.  He  would  go  on  again  and  stop, 
and  the  old  fellow  would  go  and  get  a  stone  and  knock  the  old  plow 
together.  He  would  go  on  a  little  farther,  and  then  the  old  fellow  would 
have  to  stop  and  fix  up  the  harness — made  partly  of  rags  and  partly  of 
leather.  He  would  go  on  a  little  farther,  and  have  to  stop  and  fix  his  "gal- 
luses "  before  he  got  to  the  end  of  the  row.  He  was  what  we  call  a  "  one 
gallus  farmer" — had  only  a  strap  across  one  shoulder.  He  would  go  on 
in  that  fashion  and  plow  up  the  ground,  and  another  black  man,  with  the 
same  kind  of  mule,  would  come  behind  him  and  lay  off  the  furrows ; 
another  would  come  behind  him  and  put  in  the  corn,  and  a  fourth  would 
come  behind  and  cover  the  corn.  Under  no  conceivable  circumstances 
is  it  possible  for  that  black  man,  following  that  mule  in  the  South,  to 
compete  with  that  white  man  in  Iowa  sitting  under  that  red  umbrella. 
You  are  going  to  buy  your  corn  every  time  from  the  individual  who 
can  produce  it  cheapest,  no  matter  what  his  color ;  all  you  want  is  the 
cheapest  and  best  corn.  My  object  in  emphasizing  industrial  education 
is  to  help  give  the  Negro  boy  in  the  South  so  much  brain  and  skill  that 
he  can  sit  under  a  red  umbrella  and  raise  corn  just  as  that  white  man 
does  in  Iowa;  and  we  have  got  to  do  the  same  kind  of  a  thing  for  the 
poor  white  boy — go  and  take  him  from  that  mule  and  put  him  under  that 
umbrella,  so  as  to  make  the  forces  of  nature  in  a  large  degree  work  for 
him.  When  that  is  done  we  shall  cease  to  buy  our  corn,  and  to  compete 
as  we  do  now  in  so  large  a  degree  with  the  West  and  the  North.  We  will 
free  the  poor  white  boy  and  free  the  poor  black  boy  in  the  South  at  the 
same  time. 

I  was  in  Boston  some  time  ago,  and  I  saw  a  white  man  washing  shirts ; 
and,  as  usual,  this  white  man  was  sitting  down.  You  don't  see  a  white 
man  doing  much  work  unless  he  is  sitting  down.  But  he  "gets  there" — 
he  gets  results,  and  results  are  what  the  world  is  looking  for.  When  it 
wants  corn  and  cotton,  it  does  not  care  whether  it  is  made  by  a  black  man 
standing  up  or  a  white  man  sitting  down ;  all  it  wants  is  the  best  and 
cheapest  corn  and  cotton.  You  must  put  brains  and  skill  into  all  these 
common  but  important  occupations  if  we  would  hold  our  own  as  a  race  in 
this  country. 

All  this  pertains  to  the  material  side,  and  not  to  the  ethical,  higher  growth 
of  the  Negro,  you  say.  I  do  not  overlook  or  undervalue  that  side  of  our 
development.  But  show  me  a  race  that  is  living  from  day  to  day  on  the 
outer  edges  of  the  industrial  world  ;  show  me  a  race  living  on  the  skimmed 
milk  of  other  people,  and  I  will  show  you  a  race  that  is  a  football  for  polit- 
ical parties.  The  black  man,  like  the  white  man,  must  have  this  industrial, 
commercial  foundation  upon  which  to  rest  his  higher  life.  The  black  man 
in  the  South  is  very  emotional ;  but,  my  friends,  it  is  hard  to  make  a 
Christian  out  of  a  hungry  man,  whether  black  or  white.  I  have  tried  that, 
but  always  failed.     In  proportion  as  the  black  man  gets  into  habits  of 


I20  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [General 

thrift  and  industry,  in  the  same  proportion  he  improves  in  his  moral 
and  industrial  life.  Would  you  think  the  average  black  man  can  feel  as 
much  in  ten  minutes  as  the  white  man  can  in  an  hour?  In  our  religion 
we  feel  more  than  you  do.  When  the  black  man  gets  religion  he  is 
expected  to  shout  and  jump  around.  If  he  does  not,  we  get  skeptical,  and 
we  say  he  has  the  white  man's  religion.  This  emotional  side  of  our  nature 
puts  us  in  awkward  circumstances  sometimes.  Some  time  ago  a  good  old 
colored  woman  in  some  southern  city  went  to  the  Episcopal  church, 
and  they  gave  her  a  seat  in  the  gallery.  When  the  good  preacher  got 
warmed  up  in  his  sermon,  the  old  woman  got  "  happy"  and  got  to  groan- 
ing and  singing.  One  of  the  officers  of  the  church  heard  her  going  on 
and  went  to  her.  "What  is  the  matter?"  he  asked;  "why  do  you  dis- 
turb us  ?"  She  said:  "I  am  happy;  I  got  religion."  "  Why,"  he  said, 
"this  is  no  place  to  get  religion." 

But  gradually  thruout  the  South,  as  we  watch  the  influence  of  this 
industrial  education  as  it  strikes  the  rank  and  file  of  our  people  in  the 
corners  of  the  South,  it  not  only  changes  them  into  habits  of  industry,  but 
it  is  helping  them  in  that  moral  and  religious  life.  Some  time  ago  I  met 
an  old  colored  man  going  to  camp-meeting.  I  asked  :  "  Where  are  you 
going?"  "  I  am  going  to  camp-meeting,"  he  said.  "  I  haven't  been  in 
eight  years,  and  now  I  am  going.  I  heard  you  tell  us  some  time  ago  to 
buy  land  and  stop  mortgaging  crops.  I  followed  your  advice.  I  ain't 
been  to  camp-meeting  in  eight  years,  but  I  am  going  now,  sure.  I  bought 
fifty  acres  of  land,  and  I  done  paid  the  last  dollar  on  it.  I  got  a  house  on 
it  with  four  rooms,  all  painted,  and  I  going  to  camp-meeting  this  year. 
Do  you  see  this  wagon  ?  I  done  paid  the  last  dollar  on  it  —  ain't  no  man 
got  a  mortgage  on  it,  and  the  wagon  got  a  right  to  go  to  camp-meeting 
too  this  year.  Do  you  see  these  two  big  mules  ?  They  belong  to  Sam. 
I  paid  the  last  dollar  on  them,  and  they  got  a  right  to  go  to  camp-meet- 
ing. Do  you  see  this  bread  in  this  basket  ?  My  old  woman  cooked  the 
bread ;  I  raised  it,  and  the  old  woman  cooked  it.  We  are  all  going  to 
camp-meeting,  and  are  going  to  shout  and  have  a  big  time.  We  have 
food  in  our  stomachs  and  religion  in  our  hearts." 

Gradually  we  are  changing  the  moral  condition  of  the  colored  people 
thruout  the  South.  We  are  making  progress  in  the  settlement  of  these 
problems.  The  black  man  is  gradually  buying  land  and  teaching  schools 
in  every  part  of  the  South.  The  Negro  is  not  only  getting  an  education, 
but  is  fast  converting  the  white  man  to  believe  in  the  education  of  the 
black  man  thruout  this  country.  And  in  proportion  as  we  can  convince 
the  white  men  in  every  part  of  the  South  that  education  makes  black  men 
more  useful  citizens,  in  the  same  proportion  will  our  problem  as  a  race 
be  solved.  And  I  want  you  all  to  remember  that  when  you  hear  of  crime 
being  committed  in  the  South,  this  crime  is  not  being  committed  by  the 
educated  black  men  of  the  race.     It  is  very  seldom,  if  ever,  that  anyone 


Sessions]  THE  PROBLEM  OF  THE  SOUTH  121 

has  heard  of  a  black  man  who  has  been  thoroly  educated  in  industrial 
schools  or  in  colleges  committing  any  of  these  heinous  crimes  so  often 
charged  up  against  our  race.  In  a  larger  degree  you  must  learn  to  judge 
the  Negro  race  as  you  do  other  races,  by  the  best  that  the  race  can  produce, 
and  not  by  the  worst.  You  must  judge  us  by  those  in  the  schoolroom, 
and  not  by  those  in  the  penitentiary;  by  those  who  are  in  the  field  and  in 
the  shop,  not  by  those  on  the  streets  in  idleness ;  by  those  who  have 
bought  homes  and  are  taxpayers,  not  by  those  in  dens  of  misery  and  crime ; 
by  those  who  have  learned  the  laws  of  health  and  are  living,  not  by  those 
who  are  breaking  the  laws  of  health  and  are  dying  out.  Keep  the  search- 
lights constantly  focused  upon  the  weaker  elements  of  any  race,  and  who 
among  them  can  be  called  successful  people?  You  judge  the  English 
by  Gladstone,  the  Germans  by  Bismarck,  the  French  by  Loubet  —  by 
those  who  have  succeeded,  not  by  those  who  have  failed. 

We  are  making  progress  in  another  direction,  and  the  Negro  is  not 
unappreciative  of  the  opportunity  the  South  gives  him  in  this  respect. 
Go  out  here  about  a  mile  from  the  center  of  this  city,  and  I  will  show  you 
a  spectacle  that  perhaps  no  other  city,  in  the  North  or  West,  can  present 
—  the  spectacle  of  the  white  South  giving  to  the  black  boy  and  the  black 
girl  an  opportunity  to  work  in  a  cotton  factory.  In  proportion  as  we  get 
these  business  opportunities,  in  the  same  proportion  shall  we  go  forward 
as  a  race. 

At  one  time,  in  a  certain  part  of  the  South,  there  was  a  white  man  who 
wanted  to  cross  a  river,  and  he  went  to  a  colored  man  near  by  and  asked 
him  to  lend  him  3  cents  to  pay  his  way  across  the  ferry.  The  colored 
man  said:  "Boss,  how  much  money  have  you  got?"  The  white  man 
replied  :  "  I  haven't  got  any  today.  I  am  broke  and  in  bad  circumstances, 
and  I  want  to  borrow  3  cents  to  pay  my  way  across  the  ferry."  "Boss," 
said  the  colored  man,  "I  know  you  are  a  white  man,  and  I  expect  you 
got  more  sense  than  this  old  'nigger,'  but  I  ain't  going  to  loan  you  no 
3  cents.  The  man  that  ain't  got  no  money  is  just  as  well  off  on  one 
side  of  the  river  as  on  t'other."  Now,  in  reference  to  our  race,  I  would 
say  that  a  race  that  is  without  bank  accounts,  or  property,  or  business  stand- 
ing, is  just  as  well  off  on  one  side  of  the  river  as  on  the  other.  Whether 
i  we  live  in  the  North  or  the  South,  we  have  got  to  enter  into  the  industries 
and  enterprises  of  the  community  in  which  we  live.  And  in  proportion  as 
we  do  that  the  whites  will  respect  us  more,  no  matter  where  we  live. 

Whenever  a  black  man  has  $500  to  loan  there  is  never  any  trouble 
getting  a  white  tnan  to  borrow  it  from  him.  I  never  heard  of  any 
such  thing.  A  short  time  ago  one  of  our  men  at  Tuskegee  tried  to  find 
how  many  bushels  of  sweet  potatoes  he  could  produce  on  a  single  acre  of 
land.  He  got  a  yield  last  year  of  266  bushels.  The  average  production 
in  that  community  before  had  been  forty-nine  bushels.  When  he  produced 
those  266  bushels,  you  should  have  seen  the  white  men  coming  to  see 


122  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [General 

how  he  did  that  thing.  They  forgot  all  about  the  color  of  his  skin ;  they 
did  not  have  any  prejudice  against  those  potatoes;  they  simply  knew 
there  was  a  Negro  who  by  his  knowledge  of  improved  methods  of  agri- 
culture could  produce  more  potatoes  than  they  could.  Every  white  man 
there  was  ready  to  take  off  his  hat  to  that  black  man.  Put  such  a  black 
man  in  every  community  in  the  South,  and  you  will  find  that  the  race 
problem  will  begin  to  disappear. 

In  discussing  this  problem  further,  I  thank  God  that  I  have  come  to  a 
point  in  the  struggle  where  I  can  sympathize  with  the  white  man  as  much 
as  I  can  sympathize  with  the  black  man.  And  I  thank  God  further — 
and  I  make  a  statement  here  which  I  have  made  in  our  northern  cities  — 
that  I  have  grown  to  the  point  where  I  can  sympathize  with  even  a  south- 
ern white  man  as  much  as  I  can  with  a  northern  white  man.  To  me  "  a 
man  is  a  man  for  a'  that  and  a'  that."  And  in  extending  this  sympathy 
I  believe,  as  a  race,  we  shall  strengthen  ourselves  at  every  point ;  for  no  race, 
black  or  white,  can  go  on  cherishing  hatred  or  ill-will  toward  another 
race  without  itself  being  narrowed  and  drawn  down  in  everything  that 
builds  character  and  manhood  and  womanhood.  I  propose  that  no  race 
shall  drag  down  and  narrow  my  soul  by  making  me  hate  it.  I  propose 
that  the  Negro,  if  possible,  shall  be  bigger  in  his  sympathies  than  even 
the  white  man,  and  if  the  white  man  in  any  part  of  this  country  would 
hate  us,  let  us  love  him  ;  if  he  would  treat  us  cruelly,  let  us  extend  to 
him  the  hand  of  mercy;  if  he  would  push  us  down,  let  us  help  to  push 
him  up. 

No  race  has  ever  made  such  immense  progress,  under  similar  condi- 
tions, as  the  black  race  of  this  country.  You  must  not,  however,  measure 
us  by  the  distance  we  have  traveled  so  much  as  by  the  obstacles  we  have 
overcome  in  traveling  that  distance. 

In  conclusion,  my  friends  of  the  white  race,  this  problem  concerns 
nearly  ten  millions  of  my  people  and  sixty  millions  of  yours.  We  rise 
as  you  rise,  fall  as  you  fall.  Where  we  are  strong  you  are  strong.  There 
is  no  power  that  can  separate  our  destiny.  No  member  of  your  race  in 
any  part  of  this  country  can  harm  the  weakest  member  of  mine  without 
the  proudest  and  bluest  blood  in  your  civilization  being  degraded.  I  believe 
the  time  has  come  in  the  history  of  this  problem  when  the  culture,  the 
education,  the  refinement  of  the  white  South  is  going  to  take  hold  and 
help  lift  the  black  man  up  as  it  has  never  done  before.  No  race  can 
oppress  or  neglect  a  weaker  race  without  that  race  itself  being  degraded 
and  injured.,  No  strong  race  can  help  a  weaker  race  without  the  strong 
race  being  made  stronger.  Oppression  degrades,  assistance  elevates. 
But  you  as  white  people  and  we  as  black  people  must  remember  that  mere 
material,  visible  accumulation  alone  will  not  solve  our  problem,  and  that 
education  of  the  white  people  and  of  the  black  people  will  be  a  failure 
unless  we  keep  constantly  before  us  the  fact  that   the  final  aim  of  all 


Sessions]  PROBLEM  OF  THE  GRADES— DISCIPLINE  123 

education,  whether  industrial  or  academic,  must  be  that  influence  which 
softens  the  heart,  and  brings  to  it  a  spirit  of  kindness  and  generosity ; 
that  influence  which  makes  us  seek  the  elevation  of  all  men,  regardless  of 
race  or  color.  The  South  will  prosper  in  proportion  as  with  development 
in  agriculture,  in  mines,  in  domestic  arts,  in  manufacture  there  goes 
that  education  which  brings  respect  for  law,  which  broadens  the  heart, 
sweetens  the  nature,  and  makes  us  feel  that  we  are  our  "brother's 
keeper,"  whether  that  brother  was  born  in  England,  Italy,  Africa,  or  the 
Islands  of  the  Sea. 


THE  PROBLEM  OF  THE  GRADES 

I.     DISCIPLINE 

MISS    GERTRUDE     EDMUND,    PRINCIPAL     OF     TEACHERS'    TRAINING    SCHOOL, 

LOWELL,    MASS. 

The  best  discipline  is  that  which  produces  the  natural  development 
of  the  ideal  within  the  nature  of  the  child.  Such  development  depends 
primarily  on  the  personality  of  the  teacher  and  the  influence  she  exerts 
thru  the  power  of  suggestion.  Natural  aptitude  to  control  and  govern ; 
personal  magnetism  to  rivet  with  links  of  steel ;  the  power  to  express  the 
beautiful  impulses  and  noble  emotions  of  a  strong,  steadfast  character — 
these  are  fundamental  factors. 

Pedagogy  has  been  defined  as  the  science  of  translating  yourself  into 
your  pupil's  exact  environment,  so  that  you  maybe  able  to  think  with  his 
mind,  to  experience  the  thousand  and  one  embarrassments  under  which  his 
struggling  brain  labors,  and  to  view  your  own  tuitional  approaches  to 
him  thru  his  eyes.  Thus  to  put  yourself  in  his  place,  sympathetically, 
scientifically,  habitually,  is  at  the  same  time  the  simplest,  hardest,  and 
most  important  lesson  the  professional  school  has  to  teach,  or  an  intend- 
ing teacher  to  learn ;  and  I  know  of  no  better  means  to  this  end  than  the 
training  in  dramatic  art,  and  the  study  of  childhood  and  youth. 

Our  best  schools  of  acting  claim  that  personal  magnetism  is  developed 
thru  practice  in  reading  and  reciting  such  literary  productions  as  require 
strong  emotions  for  their  portrayal.  Dramatic  art  teaches  pupils  to 
become  keen  students  of  life,  and  their  imaginations  are  trained  to  be  in 
sympathy  with  the  joy  and  pathos,  heights  and  depths  of  that  humanity 
which  they  are  to  interpret.  Pupils  are  trained,  not  only  to  observe  the 
slightest  detail  of  expression,  but  to  reproduce  such  expression  thru 
voice,  face,  and  gesture. 

O  the  power  of  the  human  voice  !    The  living  agent  of  the  soul,  the  agent 

of  the  imagination  and  feeling,  as  well  as  of  thought !     To  the  student  of 

i  vocal  expression  every  note  in  nature  is  alive  with  suggestions.     In  every 

wind    that    blows,  in    every   thunderpeal   that    rolls,   in  every  laughing, 

> dancing  brook,  in  every  storm-tossed  wave,  there  are  instructive  lessons. 


124  NATIONAL  Educational  association  [General 

But  of  far  more  value  than  the  voice,  in  the  discipline  of  the  school, 
is  the  power  of  facial  expression.  It  is  with  the  countenance  we  supplicate, 
we  threaten,  we  soothe,  we  rouse,  we  rejoice,  we  mourn,  we  triumph,  we 
express  submission.  Thru  the  eye  are  expressed,  with  the  utmost  power, 
joy,  grief,  anger,  love,  hatred,  affection,  pity,  contempt — all  the  passions, 
all  the  emotions,  of  the  human  heart. 

The  time  is  coming  when  every  professional  school  for  the  training 
of  teachers  will  follow  in  the  footsteps  of  Colonel  Parker,  and  organize  a 
department  of  dramatic  art;  when  the  systematic  study  of  children  will 
constitute  a  regular  part  of  the  normal  course  of  study,  and  the  child's 
physical  and  moral  well-being  will  be  considered  of  as  much  importance 
as  his  intellectual  progress  in  passing  from  grade  to  grade,  and  each 
temperament  will  be  dealt  with  according  to  its  nature ;  when  the  training 
departments  of  our  professional  schools  will  be  so  organized  that  the 
teacher  will  have  her  own  children  in  her  own  room  to  manage  in  her 
own  way  without  unnecessary  interference.  If  you  take  away  the  oppor- 
tunity for  testing  the  teacher's  ability  to  govern  a  school,  she  can  get  no 
growth  in  this  direction,  and  you  have  failed  to  train  the  teacher,  in  that 
which  is  most  essential  to  her  success  and  usefulness,  and,  without  know- 
ing it,  you  may  turn  out  upon  the  public  an  incompetent  teacher. 

To  stimulate  and  direct  energy  and  impulse,  to  arouse  and  develop 
the  moral  elements,  to  get  into  sympathy  with  the  children,  to  get  a 
strong  hold  of  their  inner  life,  and  to  strengthen  the  moral  character  so 
that  it  becomes  self-poised  and  self-controlled,  is  far  more  than  ability  to 
give  good  lessons.  This  can  be  done  only  when  the  harmony  without 
arouses  the  harmony  within,  when  "deep  calleth  unto  deep."  The 
teacher  who  would  inspire  and  raise  young  people  to  higher  ideals  of 
life,  enabling  them  to  see  the  good,  the  true,  and  the  beautiful  in  life, 
because  it  is  right,  and  not  thru  any  false  incentives,  must  possess  the 
warmth  and  magnetism  of  an  ardent  and  passionate  soul. 

The  happy  teacher  with  a  strong  sense  of  humor  suggests  a  cheerful, 
sunshiny  schoolroom.  When  a  teacher  is  suffering  from  some  derange- 
ment of  the  nervous  system,  brought  on  by  excessive  work  with  some  fifty 
or  sixty  children,  she  should  be  excused  from  her  duties,  paid  full  salary, 
and  a  substitute  teacher  provided. 

The  teacher  whose  education  has  developed  a  wide  range  of  thought 
stimulates  broader  interests  in  her  pupils.  If  the  teacher  knows  and  loves 
geometry,  the  majority  of  her  pupils  will  entertain  a  similar  feeling  for 
the  subject.  She  who  has  had  wide  experience  in  life,  who  has  met 
temptations  and  conquered  them,  inspires  self-control  in  others.  Large 
sympathies,  a  personal  interest  in  each  pupil,  ability  to  appreciate  the 
good  in  him,  furnish  the  surest  means  of  developing  heart-power,  and 
winning  affection  in  return.  When  the  teacher  puts  something  of  her 
actual  self  into  the  task  that  is  set  before  her,  it  is  no  longer  a  task,  it  is  a 


Sessions]  PROBLEM  OF  THE  GRADES— DISCIPLINE  125 

joy  —  it  is  an  art;  and  that  subtle  influence  enters  into  the  life  of  every 
child. 

To  nriy  mind,  discipline  is  the  very  essence  of  the  teacher's  individu- 
ality, and  should  be  allowed  to  follow  the  outlines  of  one's  peculiar 
powers ;  it  should  furnish  an  outlet  of  expression  for  the  teacher's  spirit. 
The  stronger  the  teacher,  the  more  spontaneity  will  she  allow,  the  more 
will  she  encourage  self-direction;  for  if  self-government  be  the  whole 
object  of  political  freedom,  then  self-control  is  the  legitimate  primary 
object  of  a  child's  instruction.  Discipline  should  in  no  way  repress 
activity,  but  direct  it  by  means  of  regulated  restraint.  Activity  we  must 
have,  for  without  it  there  would  be  nothing  to  discipline.  As  teachers, 
our  problem  is  to  retain  the  immense  vitality  of  children,  to  purify  it  by 
admixture  of  higher  life-qualities,  and,  above  all,  to  keep  it  in  continuous 
expression.  Set  the  child  to  do  what  you  think  he  can  do  well,  and  show 
him  how.  Let  him  learn  self-control  in  contributing  toward  results,  where 
responsibility  may  be  exacted  and  co-operation  is  a  necessity. 

Good  order,  a  necessity  in  every  schoolroom,  is  but  the  merest  inci- 
dent in  the  series  of  steps  by  which  the  child  learns  self-government.  In 
the  child's  earliest  years  the  most  we  can  hope  to  do  is  to  develop  a  habit 
of  right  obedience  by  applying  true  moral  stimuli  and  requiring  regular 
obedience  to  them.  This  basis  of  habit  is  what  we  have  to  work  with 
when  the  development  of  reason  proceeds,  and  the  child  learns  that  above 
him  is  the  law,  and  that  the  law  is  for  his  good  and  the  good  of  his 
fellows,  and  that  obedience  to  that  law  must  be  absolute.  To  bring  him 
into  a  right  attitude  toward  this  law,  he  must  first  be  taught  its  purpose 
and  operation,  and  then  led  to  adopt  it  voluntarily  as  the  rule  of  his  life. 

In  the  hands  of  a  capable  teacher  the  so-called  self-government  plan 
for  high  schools  and  the  upper  grades  of  the  grammar  schools  is  not 
only  practical,  but,  recognizing  students  as  citizens  of  the  school  com- 
munity, with  the  rights,  privileges,  and  responsibilities  which  such 
citizenship  implies,  is  directly  in  line  with  our  republican  institutions. 
We  do  not  want  to  train  men  and  women  who  will  follow  the  cry  in  reli- 
gion or  politics,  but  men  and  women  who  are  capable  of  holding  an 
independent  opinion,  and  of  voluntary  obedience  to  personal  con- 
viction. If  we  trace  the  history  of  woman  thruout  the  ages,  we  find 
that  it  was  only  as  she  was  allowed  personal  freedom  and  accorded  intel- 
lectual training  that  she  became  a  teacher  worthy  of  our  admiration.  We 
gather  back  the  thick  curtain  of  the  past,  and  lo !  there  appear  before 
us  the  palmy  days  of  Egypt,  \fhere  women  contributed  so  largely  in 
forming  that  brilliant  intellectuality  which  had  its  home  on  the  banks  of 
the  Nile  so  many  thousand  years  ago.  Higher  education  has  not  passed 
her  by,  for  we  find  her  in  the  colleges  as  a  teacher  and  a  student ;  we  find 
her  the  founder  of  Egyptian  literature  —  the  "Sacred  Songs  of  Isis,"  said 
by  Plato  to  be  10,000  years  old;  we  find  her  as  a  physician  alleviating 


126  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  fGeneral 

the  sufferings  of  humanity ;  we  find  her  on  the  throne  directing  the  civ- 
ilization of  the  country  from  first  until  last. 

If  we  cross  the  sea  and  come  down  to  Greece,  during  the  Homeric  era, 
we  find  woman  an  important  member  of  society,  the  instructor,  to  a  great 
extent,  of  the  youth  of  the  Homeric  age.  Women  were  free  to  come  and 
go,  but  this  freedom  did  not  deprive  them  of  any  womanly  virtues,  for  we 
find  the  finest  traits  of  tenderness  and  affection  for  husband  and  children 
thruout  the  poems  of  Homer. 

When  we  come  down  to  democratic  Greece,  where  a  man's  vote  alone 
counted,  we  find  woman  pushed  aside  to  make  room  for  the  politician, 
for  the  man  who  carried  arras  and  exercised  civic  rights. 

When  culture  advanced  there  inevitably  rose  the  question  what  to  do 
with  the  women :  should  they  be  admitted  to  share  this  culture,  or 
should  they  be  excluded  ?  Athens,  under  the  leadership  of  Asiatic 
models,  said,  "  We  will  expel  them;"  while  the  ^olian  colonies,  espe- 
cially Lesbos,  admitted  both  culture  and  women.  It  was  here,  in  the  fair 
city  of  Mitylene,  on  whose  rocky  promontory  the  softly  wooded  hills  of 
silvery  olive,rdarker  pomegranate,  and  scarlet  oleander  looked  down  upon 
the  fair  waters  of  the  ^gean,  that  Sappho,  the  "  Lesbian  nightingale," 
lived  and  wrote  and  sang. 

Young  women  from  all  parts  of  Greece  came  thronging  to  the  olive 
groves  of  Mitylene,  and  the  first  woman's  college  in  Greece  was  estab- 
lished. Here,  with  her  devoted  pupils  about  her,  she  taught  the  accom- 
plishments of  the  age,  and  created  the  first  lyric  and  dramatic  poetry  of 
Greece,  and,  therefore,  of  the  world. 

She  knew  of  but  one  method  of  culture  —  poetry;  and  she  trained  her 
pupils  to  be  poets,  to  weave  into  verse  the  noblest  maxims  of  the  intellect 
and  the  deepest  emotions  of  the  heart. 

Pindar  and  Anacreon  were  both  pupils  of  women  who  were  Sappho's 
imitators,  while  "Latin  poets,"  says  Higginson,  "draw  avowedly  from 
these  ^olian  models,  to  which  nearly  all  the  meters  have  been  traced." 
Modern  critics  generally  admit  the  loss  of  her  poems  to  be  the  greatest 
over  which  we  have  to  mourn  in  the  whole  range  of  Greek  literature. 

A  perfect  picture  of  health  and  grace  is  the  Spartan  woman,  who 
stands  before  us ;  but  for  her  individual  freedom  is  but  a  name,  and  cul- 
ture has  no  place  in  Sparta. 

Engraven  in  marble,  adorning  the  proudest  niches  of  forum  and 
temple,  we  find  portrayed  the  physical  beauty  of  the  Athenian  woman  to 
whom  culture  has  been  excluded. 

Could  a  Pygmalion  but  come  and  waken  into  life  these  Galateas, 
should  we  find  here  our  highest  types  of  beauty — beauty  in  its  truest 
sense,  beauty  not  only  of  form  but  of  soul  ? 

What  is  needed  to  blend  with  beauty  to  keep  it  fresh  ?  Is  it  not  intel- 
lect and  culture  ?     Is  there  anything  that  destroys  the  bloom  so  quickly 


Sessions]  PROBLEM  OF  THE  GRADES— DISCIPLINE  127 

as  dull  vegetation  in  mindless  monotony?  To  be  beautiful  is  not  a  con- 
dition, but  an  act.  Beauty  is  the  highest  activity,  no  dead  object  of  admi- 
ration, no  motionless  light,  but,  like  the  sunbeams,  a  living  dance  of  rays, 
a  shower  of  sparks.     We  let  the  curtain  fall  o'er  Athens. 

Rome,  surely,  in  the  Christian  era,  must  give  us  a  higher  type  of 
women,  and  in  this  we  are  not  mistaken.  Many  of  the  early  Christians 
realized  the  great  career  that  lay  open  before  woman,  and  they  threw 
open  to  her  all  the  stores  of  learning,  all  the  methods  of  education  then 
available.  They  did  not  content  themselves  with  stimulating  the  emotions, 
affections,  and  submissiveness  of  women  into  disproportionate  promi- 
nence, for  their  psychology  was  too  clear-sighted  to  lead  them  into  such 
moral  quagmire.  But  they  aimed  at  strengthening  them  in  solid  reflec- 
tion, breadth  of  view,  accuracy  of  reasoning,  justness  of  aim,  and  stead- 
fastness of  purpose.  Woman's  power  as  a  teacher  in  these  early  days 
was  exceedingly  great.  She  might  preach,  baptize,  administer  church 
sacraments,  and  fill  church  offices.  The  grand  ideal  of  the  Roman  matron, 
with  her  strength  of  character  softened,  purified,  and  ennobled  by  the 
Savior's  teachings,  produced  those  exquisite  flowers  of  womanly  worth 
many  of  whom,  alas,  were  destined  to  martyrdom. 

When  the  white  dove  of  chivalry  spread  its  fair  wings  over  the  land, 
we  find  revived,  in  a  lesser  sense,  the  high-born  woman  of  chivalry,  chaste 
in  conduct,  modest  in  bearing,  courteous  to  her  inferiors,  gentle  and 
loving ;  in  very  truth,  a  lily  in  the  darkness  round  about  her.  But  chiv- 
alry, altho  it  was  the  means  of  uplifting  woman  as  a  being  to  be  revered, 
did  not  aim  at  broadening  her  intellect,  for  her  education  was  made  to 
consist  mainly  in  studying  those  subjects  which  appeal  to  the  emotional 
nature. 

When  the  Renaissance,  that  glorious  culture  of  the  Middle  Ages, 
unfolded  itself  in  Italy,  it  was  in  a  land  where  tyranny  and  fraud  reigned 
supreme.  No  man  was  certain  of  his  life  even  for  a  day,  and  when  the 
light  of  the  intellect  of  the  past  ages  was  opened  to  the  perusal  of  the 
haughty  noble,  he  eagerly  grasped  the  opportunity  of  finding  pleasure  in 
and  solace  from  the  cruelties  of  the  times  in  his  revels  amid  the  literature 
of  ancient  Greece  and  Rome.  Nor  was  he  willing  that  his  daughter 
should  be  excluded  from  the  rare  enjoyments  into  which  he  had  plunged, 
and  it  followed  that  the  women,  as  well  as  the  men,  contributed  toward 
this  glorious  opening  of  new  and  tender  blossoms  in  science  and  art. 
Striving  after  a  characteristic  and  complete  individuality,  we  find  them  in 
the  highest  places  in  educational  circles,  occupying  chairs  of  law,  medi- 
cine, Greek,  and  philosophy  in  the  universities  of  Heidelberg,  Padua,  and 
Bologna. 

Wherever  freedom,  training,  and  responsibility  are  given  them,  we  find 
better-disciplined  minds,  increased  strength  of  character,  more  perfect 
teachers,  and  mankind  attaining  a  higher  state  of  civilization. 


128  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [General 

"  So  much  as  man  holds  woman  in  esteem, 
Purely  or  basely  as  he  deals  with  love, 
So  much  is  his  regard  for  honor,  or 
So  little  ;  such  the  honor  he  receives ; 
Who  not  himself  respects,  honors  not  woman  ; 
Who  does  not  honor  woman,  does  he  love  ? 
Who  knows  not  love,  can  he  know  honor  then  ? 
Who  knows  not  holior,  what  has  he  beside  ?  " 

These  lessons  from  the  history  of  womaji's  progress  are  full  of  sugges- 
tions for  those  who  would  develop  in  our  young  men  and  women  a 
stronger  personality,  and  train  the  brighter  intellects  for  leadership  and 
co-operation. 

Freedom,  responsibility  for  both  teacher  and  pupil,  are  necessary  for 
the  development  of  the  ideal  within  the  nature  of  the  child,  and  are  the 
chief  elements  in  our  broader  ideas  of  school  life  and  discipline. 


THE  PROBLEM  OF  THE  GRADES 

II.     CLASSIFICATION  AND  PROMOTION 

MISS  ELIZABETH  BUCHANAN,  KANSAS  CITY,  MO. 

While  there  is  probably  no  more  important  element  in  the  successful 
management  of  a  modern  city  school  than  proper  classification  and  pro- 
motion of  the  pupils,  yet  just  how  to  do  this  in  order  to  subserve  the  best 
interests  of  the  school  as  a  whole,  as  well  as  of  the  individual  child,  is  an 
ever-recurring  problem. 

There  can  be  no  ideal  classification  and  promotion  unless  all  teachers 
and  pupils  be  reduced  to  a  uniform  dead  level  of  ability  and  attain- 
ments. Each  city  in  America  has  worked  out  a  system  of  its  own,  and 
each  claims  a  reasonable  degree  of  satisfaction  in  the  success  of  its  plan, 
tho  many  are  as  yet  only  in  the  experimental  stage,  and,  from  the 
nature  of  the  question  and  the  changing  conditions  and  environments  of 
the  schools,  always  will  be. 

There  were  many  excellent  features  in  the  old  ungraded  schools,  but 
there  were  equally  as  many  objectionable  ones.  The  graded  schools,  in 
trying  to  avoid  these  faults,  fell  into  others  no  less  grievous.  An  effort 
is  now  being  made  to  combine  the  advantages  of  both ;  to  bring  into  the 
class  work  of  the  present  schools  the  individual  attention  enjoyed  by 
children  of  the  ungraded  schools.  When  this  is  successfully  accom- 
plished, then  "marking-time"  of  pupils  on  certain  portions  of  the  school 
work  and  the  "lock-step"  system  of  promotion  will  be  done  away  with, 
and  with  them  will  vanish  one  of  the  most  serious  complaints  ever  made 
against  the  public  schools. 

A  move  in  the  right  direction  is  to  make  the  interval  between  classes 
short.     It    is    much  easier    to  assign    children    their    places,  and  more 


J 


Sessions]      GRADE  PROBLEM— CLASSIFICATION  AND  PROMOTION  129 

convenient  for  the  superintendent  to  make  reports  in  a  system  of  schools 
having  the  year  or  half-year  interval  between  classes.  But  such  a  classifi- 
cation is  at  times  manifestly  unjust. 

Because  of  a  few  weeks'  absence  from  school,  on  account  of  ill-health 
probably,  children  are  required  to  go  back  a  year  or  half-year  in  their 
work,  or  else  be  placed  under  a  great  strain  to  overtake  their  classes  when 
they  are  least  able,  physically,  to  do  it. 

An  interval  of  a  year,  or  even  a  half-year,  between  classes  is  too  long 
for  primary  and  lower  grammar  grades.  In  a  school  year  of  nine  months, 
three  divisions  of  twelve  weeks  each  will  give  a  better  opportunity  for  the 
correct  placing  of  children  in  grade  work.  Then,  if  for  any  cause  a 
child  is  debarred  from  school  for  a  time,  he  will  the  more  cheerfully 
return,  knowing  that  at  the  most  he  need  go  over  only  a  third  of  the 
year's  work,  probably  only  over  a  sixth,  because  in  a  large  school  some 
of  the  classes  are  only  six  weeks  apart.  He  thus  takes  up  his  studies 
where  he  was  forced  to  lay  them  down,  and  his  future  work  is  not 
weakened  by  omitted  or  hastily  reviewed  lessons,  nor  is  it  made  wearisome 
by  his  being  compelled  to  idle  his  time  away  while  the  next  lower  class 
catches  up  with  him.  This  division  of  the  year  into  three  terms  gives 
opportunity  for  an  equal  number  of  promotions.  The  classes,  however, 
need  not  change  rooms  or  teachers  in  making  these  promotions.  They 
remain  with  one  teacher  during  the  year  and  pass  to  more  advanced  work 
in  that  room,  as  too  frequent  change  of  teachers  has  been  found  detri- 
mental to  the  progress  of  young  children. 

In  the  highest  grammar  grade  the  half-year  interval  can  satisfactorily 
be  introduced,  and  promotions  be  made  twice  a  year  to  correspond  with 
class  promotion  in  the  high  school.  The  pupils  in  a  room  are  divided 
into  two  classes ;  these  classes  may  be  three  months  apart  in  their  work,  or 
they  may  all  be  together  at  the  beginning  of  the  year. 

If  their  attainments  are  so  nearly  equal  that  they  begin  the  work  as 
one  class,  the  brighter  ones,  in  a  few  weeks,  show  ability  to  outstrip  their 
slower  classmates.  At  the  end  of  six  weeks  it  is  better  to  rearrange  the 
classes,  and  give  the  brighter  children  the  opportunity  to  advance  as 
rapidly  as  their  ability  will  justify,  and  at  the  same  time  accord  a  like 
privilege  to  the  slower  ones.  These  classes  will  gradually  drift  farther 
apart,  until  by  the  end  of  the  year  the  slower  class  has  accomplished  only 
five-sixths  as  much  as  the  other,  or  possibly  only  two-thirds  as  much.  The 
children  of  slower  development  are  thus  accorded  more  time  than  the 
brighter  children  to  cover  a  given  amount  of  work,  and  are  not  dragged, 
bound  to  the  chariot  wheels  of  the  brighter  ones,  rapidly  over  the  year's 
work,  and  then  assigned,  at  the  end  of  the  year,  to  go  over  the  same 
ground,  or  part  of  the  ground,  again. 

Such  an  arrangement  might  be  deplorable  if  it  threw  all  the  bright 
children  permanently  into  one  class,  and  the  dull  ones  into  another ;  or  if 


130  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [General 

the  teacher  having  a  bright  class  and  a  slow  one  so  poorly  understood 
her  mission  as  to  make  the  slow  class  feel  like  Ishmaelites,  forsaken  of 
God  and  man.  There  is  a  remedy  for  both  evils ;  for  the  latter,  the  watch- 
fulness of  the  principal ;  for  the  former,  recruits  who  come  in  as  special 
promotions  from  below,  and  the  readjus'tment  of  the  slow  children  with 
different  classes  each  year. 

Instead  of  placing  forty  or  fifty  children  of  the  same  class  under  one 
teacher,  it  affords  a  better  opportunity  for  harmonious  work  to  separate 
them  into  two  divisions  and  place  them  under  different  teachers,  with 
classes  three  months  behind  or  in  advance  of  them.  These  classes  are  near 
enoughtogether  to  combine  them  in  music,  writing,  drawing,  calisthenics, 
or  any  oral  instruction  necessary;  and  far  enough  apart  to  prevent  one 
class  absorbing  most  of  the  freshness  of  the  lessons  before  the  second 
class  reaches  them. 

If  one  of  these  teachers  is  inexperienced  in  the  work,  she  has  the 
stronger  teacher  as  a  model,  and  will  endeavor  to  hold  her  class  to  the 
same  work;  or  if  a  child  and  his  teacher  are  antagonistic,  as  sometimes 
they  will  be,  instead  of  driving  that  child  from  school  or  making  the 
teacher's  task  almost  unendurable,  a  quiet  transfer  from  one  room  to  the 
other  often  restores  peace,  and  the  classes  continue  their  work  without 
serious  friction. 

If  at  any  time,  under  either  arrangement  of  classes,  a  child  in  the  lower 
class  shows  an  awakening,  a  desire  to  undertake  the  work  of  the  advanced 
class,  he  can,  with  a  little  extra  study  and  assistance,  bridge  the  interven- 
ing gap  ;  and  should  one  of  the  upper  class  become  lazy  or  indifferent, 
he  can,  after  having  been  warned  of  his  shortcoming  and  given  sufficient 
time  in  which  to  retrieve  himself,  be  demoted  to  the  lower  class,  if  he  has 
failed  to  do  so,  and  review  the  work  not  satisfactorily  learned  at  first. 

The  children  in  the  class  that  has  completed  only  five-sixths  or  two- 
thirds  of  the  year's  work  ought  not  to  be  forced  to  go  over,  next  year,  the 
work  already  performed,  as  they  surely  must  in  a  system  of  schools  where 
the  classes  are  a  year  or  half  a  year  apart.  This  would  be  a  most  serious 
wrong  done  to  each  child  in  the  class.  If  they  were  permitted  to  begin 
each  year's  study  at  the  point  where  they  left  off  the  year  before,  they  may, 
at  some  stage  in  their  school  life,  under  the  right  teacher,  not  only  accom- 
plish a  full  year's  work  as  prescribed  by  the  course  of  study,  but  they  may 
do  more  than  .this ;  the  one-third  or  one-sixth  lost  in  a  grade  below  may 
be  compassed  also,  and  the  children  enter  high  school  on  schedule  time. 

Children  seem  to  have  periods  of  mental  as  well  as  physical  growth, 
and  can  during  such  times  accomplish  wonders.  In  any  city  the  indi- 
vidual schools  must  conform,  in  a  general  way,  to  the  system  of  classifi- 
cation and  promotion  in  favor  with  the  superintendent  and  board  of 
education  ;  yet  each  school  in  the  system  has  to  meet  and  solve  its  own 
special   problems  along   this   line,  and   not  a  little  of   the  success  and 


Sessions]      GRADE  PROBLEM—  CLASSIEICA  TION  AND  PROMOTION         1 3 1 

harmony  of  the  school  depends  on  the  man  or  woman  in  charge  of  it,  and 
the  relations  existing  between  principal  and  teachers.  It  is  impossible  to 
have  a  fair  and  just  method  of  classification  and  promotion  where  the 
principal  is  a  "faddist,"  or  where  there  is  constant  friction  between  him 
and  his  teachers  regarding  methods  of  instruction  or  requirements  for 
promotion.  For  the  successful  solution  of  these  questions  the  school 
needs  in  its  principal  a  keen,  incisive  mind  that  looks  closely  into  condi- 
tions of  affairs  ;  is  not  daunted  by  the  seeming  hopelessness  of  gathering 
up  the  many  threads  of  this  reticulated  work  and  weaving  them  into  a 
cable ;  is  sympathetic  with  childhood,  yet  firm  enough  to  resist  the  pres- 
sure brought  by  those  who,  ignorant  of  the  requirements  of  the  school, 
urge  their  children's  promotion  with  undue  haste.  He  must  be  able  to 
see  clearly  and  distinctly  the  design  or  purpose  of  each  division  and  sub- 
division of  the  school,  and  then  systematize  the  whole  into  a  splendid 
working  force. 

If  behind  the  general  running  plan  of  the  school  there  is  not  a  clear 
knowledge  and  definite  purpose  of  each  class  and  grade,  then  there  is, 
and  can  be,  no  system  of  classification  and  promotion.  Each  room  is  a 
school,  separate  and  apart  from  all  the  rest,  with  only  one  tie  to  bind  them 
together — the  misfortune  of  being  crowded  into  the  same  building  with 
many  others. 

In  a  well-graded  and  long-established  system  of  schools  the  placing 
of  those  children  who  have  been  regularly  in  the  schools,  to  their  best 
advantage  for  work,  is  readily  determined.  It  is  far  more  difficult  to 
classify  the  children  who  are  new  to  the  schools,  whose  educational 
antecedents  are  unknown,  whose  attainments  are  obscured  either  by  a 
timid  manner  or  by  an  overconfidence  in  their  scholarship. 

If  children  come  from  other  schools  in  the  same  city,  or  if  they  have 
never  attended  school  before,  it  is  an  easy  matter  to  assign  them  to  their 
classes;  but  the  children  from  different  cities  or  towns,  or  from  the 
ungraded  country  schools,  add  to  this  question  the  perplexing  element, 
and  awaken  in  the  minds  of  both  principal  and  teacher  a  feeling  of 
uncertainty  and  hesitancy  in  passing  judgment  on  their  ability  or 
attainments,  and  thus  defining  their  places  in  the  school. 

Many  cities  have  an  eight-year  course  of  instruction  before  the  pupils 
are  prepared  for  the  high  school,  while  others  do  this  work  in  seven  years. 
-Children  from  the  former  cities  cannot,  regularly,  fit  into  the  grades  of 
corresponding  number  in  the  latter  cities.  The  seven-year  course  natu- 
rally compresses  into  each  year  more  of  the  work  than  the  eight-year 
course,  and  a  child  in  the  sixth  grade  of  the  eight-year  schools  will  prob- 
ably fall  somewhere  in  the  fifth  grade  of  the  seven-year  system. 

Just  to  which  division  or  class  of  the  fifth  grade  to  assign  him,  and  at 
the  same  time  remove  from  his  mind  the  suspicion  of  being  "put  back," 
that  great  "bugbear"  to  most  children  in  changing  schools,  is,  in  my 


132  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [General 

opinion,  more  satisfactorily  accomplished  by  a  conversation  with  the 
child  than  by  a  formal  written  examination.  He  has  forgotten  many 
things  in  the  migration  from  one  place  to  another,  is  surrounded  by  new 
faces  and  conditions,  and  probably  could  not  acquit  himself  creditably  if 
put  thru  the  ordeal  of  a  written  examination.  A  few  pertinent  questions 
will  discover  enough  of  the  child's  attainments  to  give  him  a  trial  in  a 
certain  class,  with  the  understanding  that  if  he  prove  himself  able  to  do 
more  advanced  work,  he  will  at  once  be  placed  in  a  higher  class:  but  if, 
on  the  contrary,  he  finds  the  work  beyond  him,  he  must  be  willing  to  take 
a  lower  class  and  not  feel  demoted,  since  he  is  only  endeavoring  to  find 
his  proper  place  in  the  school. 

The  child  from  the  ungraded  school  is  even  more  difficult  to  classify. 
His  reading  is  usually  very  mechanical  —  merely  the  indifferent  pronun- 
ciation of  words;  his  writing  execrable;  music  and  drawing,  nil.  If  he 
has  studied  arithmetic,  grammar,  geography,  and  history,  he  has  been  per- 
mitted to  devote  most  of  his  time  to  the  one  subject  that  suited  his  fancy, 
to  the  partial  neglect  of  all  the  others.  It  is  rare  that  such  children  can 
be  advantageously  placed  in  a  graded  school.  They  feel  discouraged  and 
humiliated  when  placed  where  they  really  belong,  with  children  much 
younger  than  themselves;  yet  they  are  a  clog  in  the  wheel  of  progress 
when  assigned  to  a  class  with  children  near  their  own  age.  In  either 
class  they  are  a  source  of  worry  and  distress  to  the  teacher.  Some  edu- 
cators advocate  the  idea  of  placing  such  children  with  pupils  more 
advanced,  rather  than  with  younger  children  whose  scholarship  is  more 
nearly  that  of  the  ungraded  pupils,  trusting  to  the  reserve  force  in  them 
for  determined  effort  to  bring  up  the  studies  hitherto  neglected.  The 
majority  of  children  who  have  been  allowed  to  arrive  at  this  condition 
have  no  great  amount  of  reserve  force.  They  are  content  to  do  the  little 
tasks  set  for  them  and  feel  that  they  have  accomplished  all  that  could  be 
desired.  For  such  children  it  would  be  well,  in  large  schools  especially, 
to  have  a  room  set  apart  and  presided  over  by  a  strong,  enthusiastic 
teacher.  There,  if  the  child  has  this  reserve  force,  he  can  more  readily 
repair  the  damage  done  by  neglect  or  lack  of  opportunities  in  his  earlier 
years.  A  few  cities  have  tried  this  plan,  and  they  speak  enthusiastically 
of  its  success.  There  is  no  reason  why  it  could  not  be  made  a  success  if 
no  reproach  be  attached  to  that  room.  A  knowledge  and  appreciation  of 
its  mission  in  the  school  should  be  a  well-established  fact. 

As  soon  as  a  child  had  made  sufficient  progress  in  the  neglected  studies, 
he  could  be  placed  in  the  class  and  grade  to  which  he  now  belonged.  But, 
if  he  could  not  accomplish  this,  he  could  still  in  this  room  pursue  his 
studies  according  to  his  inclination,  with  credit  and  honor. 

In  many  schools  the  basic  study  for  classification  or  promotion  is 
arithmetic.  If  the  child  is  proficient  in  the  amount  of  work  assigned  to 
the  grade,  he  is  promoted,  tho  not  up  to  the  mark  in  reading,  spelling, 


Sessions]      GRAD^.  PROBLEM  —  CLASSIFICATION  AND  PROMOTION         I33 

language,  geography,  or  other  subjects.  So  completely  does  this  arith- 
metic idea  prevail  in  certain  localities  that  a  child  is  promoted,  and  his 
weaknesses  in  other  branches  readily  condoned,  if  he  is  well  up  in  arith- 
metic ;  and  the  child  whose  strength  lies  in  history,  geography,  or  language 
is  actually  frowned  upon  and  held  back  from  promotion  if  he  cannot  show 
a  clean  bill  of  health  in  handling  numbers  also.  While  it  is  necessary 
for  children  to  learn  certain  combinations  of  numbers  and  certain  funda- 
mental processes  before  they  can  attempt  higher  work  in  arithmetic,  it  is 
not  essential  that  they  should  fully  understand  the  philosophy  underlying 
these  processes.  They  are  to  go  over  this  field  again  and  again,  and  on 
each  journey  can  be  taught  to  look  for  new  and  different  meanings  to 
those  puzzling,  hieroglyphic  signs  of  a  year  or  so  ago.  If  a  child  can 
only  do  this  work  mechanically — and  I  believe  most  children  do  it  so^ — let 
him  do  it  and  be  promoted.  He  will  learn  the  reason  why  he  does  it  the 
next  time  he  comes  across  this  subject  in  a  higher  grade,  with  a  mind 
better  trained  to  look  into  the  secrets  of  number.  He  here  repeats  the 
earlier  processes,  and  associates  them,  with  a  broadened  understanding, 
in  new  and  varied  colors  that  his  mental  eye  could  not  have  seen  and 
enjoyed  in  the  lower-grade  work,  tho  he  had  been  detained  there  indefi- 
nitely. 

It  is  an  injustice  to  the  child  to  promote  him,  or  withhold  promotion 
from  him,  on  the  strength  or  weakness  of  his  attainments  in  one  study 
alone.  If  he  has,  as  we  claim,  a  many-sided  nature,  then  we  should  be 
consistent  in  our  methods  of  development  and  training  for  him,  that  this 
nature  may  have  symmetrical  unfolding,  instead  of  producing  a  one-sided 
creature  by  retarding  his  advance  along  certain  lines  while  we  apply  hot- 
house forcing  processes  to  produce  abnormal  growth  in  another.  Nor 
can  it  be  necessary  to  hold  a  child  in  one  class  or  grade  until  he  thoroly 
understands  every  subject  taught  in  that  grade.  Thoroness  is  not  char- 
acteristic of  childhood  ;  still  he  must  have  a  reasonable  degree  of  pro- 
ficiency in  the  subjects  taught  in  each  grade  before  he  can  be  eligible  for 
promotion  to  the  next  higher,  or  the  standard  of  scholarship  will  be  held 
in  light  esteem.  In  the  primary  grades  both  reading  and  arithmetic 
should  be  considered  essential  studies  in  promotion,  while  in  the  higher 
grades  the  required  ones  should  be  reading,  arithmetic,  language  or 
grammar,  geography,  and  history. 

The  greater  number  of  children  in  a  school  will  meet  the  require- 
ments in  these  branches  of  study  as  well  as  in  all  others,  but  if  pupils  are 
detained  in  any  grade  until  they  are  thoro  in  the  work,  some  child  would 
be  kept  at  the  same  monotonous  task  long  after  the  children  of  his  age 
have  gone  to  newer  and  higher  duties.  Not  that  it  is  unnecessary  for 
some  children  to  go  over  certain  portions  of  their  studies  again,  but  the 
retardation  of  children  in  school  is  often  too  thoughtlessly  done  by  both 
principal  and  teachers.     If  a  child  has  been  regular  in  his  attendance  at 


134  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [General 

school,  and  has  made  a  reasonable  effort  to  perforin  the  work  assigned 
him,  he  should  have  the  opportunity  to  attempt  the  work  of  the  next 
grade,  even  if  he  rank  among  the  poorer  ones  of  his  class.  It  has  been 
my  experience  that  such  children,  if  detained  another  year  in  the  same 
grade,  are  no  better  the  second  year  than  the  first.  They  may,  by  this 
extra  time,  be  more  accurately  drilled  in  certain  portions  of  arithmetic  or 
grammar,  but  they  show  no  more  ability  to  grasp  the  subjects  and  no 
more  familiarity  with  them  than  the  children  who  are  attacking  the  les- 
sons for  the  first  time;  and  the  teacher  has  the  disadvantage  of  contend- 
ing with  a  feeling  on  the  part  of  the  delayed  children  that  they  have 
been  unfairly  dealt  with,  and  that  the  pupils  regularly  promoted  always 
have  a  pitying  regard  for  them.  If  held  too  long  on  any  part  of  their 
earlier  work,  they  are  apt  to  drop  out  of  school  before  reaching  the 
grades  where  they  take  the  studies  that  enable  them  to  widen  their  hori- 
zon beyond  the  mere  drill  stage,  and  their  after-lives  are  not  brightened 
by  the  memory  of  enjoyable  school  days. 

The  progress  of  the  great  majority  of  children  from  one  class  to 
another,  or  from  a  lower  to  a  higher  grade,  should  be  easy  and  natural. 
The  parents,  teachers,  and  the  children  themselves  expect  this ;  yet  in 
this  onward  movement  of  the  great  body  of  students  each  child  should 
be  individualized  in  the  school.  The  teacher  should  know  his  ability  to 
receive  instruction,  his  power  of  application,  his  relative  age  to  his  grade, 
his  possible  future  opportunities  for  attending  school,  and  in  all  doubt- 
ful cases  for  promotion  these  facts  should  have  due  consideration. 

It  may  be  that  a  child  is  not  so  well  prepared  as  other  children  in  the 
same  class  on  a  certain  portion  of  the  year's  work,  and  yet  it  would  not 
be  wise  to  hold  him  on  that  work  for  further  instruction  and  drill.  The 
latter  half  or  third  of  the  grade  work  may  be  still  harder  and  require 
longer  time.  Some  children  are  not  of  the  nature  to  show  satisfactory 
results  from  the  instruction  given,  no  matter  how  long  they  may  stay  on 
a  subject,  nor  how  often  they  may  go  over  it.  It  is  better  to  give  such 
children  the  opportunity  to  find  pastures  fresh  and  green,  where  they 
may  search  out  a  few  rich,  juicy  leaves  of  truth,  than  keep  them  treading 
worn-out  fields  with  vacant  eye  and  listless  manner,  in  the  vain  hope  of 
making  them  thoro  before  the  next  teacher  above  receives  them  with  the 
disparaging  remarks  of  the  previous  teacher's  training. 

No  system  of  promotion  should  be  so  iron-clad  that  it  cannot  be  bent 
to  suit  the  needs  of  the  individual  pupil.  Whenever  a  child  studies 
away  from  and  ahead  of  his  class,  the  principal  of  the  school  should  be 
notified  of  the  fact,  that  he  may  give  that  child  special  attention  for  a 
short  time.  If,  after  observing  the  child's  power  of  thought  and  applica- 
tion, he  feels  that  it  will  not  be  an  injury,  but  rather  an  advantage,  to  pro- 
mote the  child  to  the  class  above,  the  parent  should  be  informed  of  the 
joint  decision  of  principal  and  teacher,  and   his  advice  asked.     If  the 


Sessions]      GRADE  PROBLEM— CLASSIFICATION  AND  PROMOTION         135 


child's  physical  health  is  good,  the  parent  usually  gives  his  consent,  but 
not  always.  , 

In  any  special  promotion  or  demotion  the  parents  should  always  be 
consulted  before  final  action  is  taken.  A  special  promotion  is  not  always 
desirable,  because  of  outside  duties  that  would  overtax  the  child  if  extra 
school  work  be  put  upon  it,  and  a  demotion  can  often  be  avoided  if 
the  aid  of  the  home  be  invoked  in  time  to  check  the  backward  movement 
of  the  child  in  school. 

The  evil  attendant  on  tardy  prom(Wion  is  no  greater  than  that  associ- 
ated with  hasty,  ill-considered  advancement.  Here  is  a  pupil  leading  his 
class  and  taking  great  pride  in  the  fact.  He  is  specially  promoted  to  the 
class  above,  thus  passing  without  notice  or  drill  many  important  connect- 
ing truths  between  the  two  classes.  Conscious  elation  at  his  promotion 
will  sustain  him  for  a  short  time,  but  unless  he  is  exceptionally  bright 
and  studious  he  will  find  himself  at  the  foot  ot  the  class  to  which  he  has 
been  promoted.  He  does  not  fully  grasp  the  meaning  of  his  present 
lessons  because  of  the  loss  of  the  intervening  lessons.  He  feels  bewil- 
dered in  this  wider  sea  of  knowledge,  becomes  discouraged,  loses  interest, 
and  finally  drifts  along  in  a  mechanical  sort  of  way,  his  rtynd  dulled  and 
wearied.  He  is  as  a  man  who  has  bounded  up  a  long  flight  of  stairs, 
skipping  two  or  three  steps  at  each  jump,  and  finds  when  he  has  reached 
the  top  of  the  first  stairs  that  there  are  longer  and  steeper  flights  just 
ahead  to  be  climbed,  while  he  is  already  tired  and  out  of  breath.  The 
next  stairs  will  be  more  and  more  toilsome  as  he  ascends  ;  he  has  lost  the 
vigor  and  enthusiasm  that  spurred  him  up  the  first  steps,  and  which 
might  have  carried  him  even  to  the  highest .  point  in  the  tower,  had  he 
calmly  walked  up  each  step  at  first. 

-Promotions  based  on  formal  written  examinations  alone  are,  in  many 
cities,  a  thing  of  the  past.  The  schools  have  outgrown  that  idea,  and  now 
promote  on  the  daily  work  of  the  pupils  and  the  judgment  of  the 
teacher  as  to  their  ability  to  undertake  the  studies  of  the  next  higher 
class,  deeming  it  a  wiser  and  better  method  to  develop  in  the  child  a 
habit  of  study  and  the  power  to  think  than  to  crowd  his  mind  with 
isolated  facts  that  he  may  pass  a  creditable  examination. 

Among  the  many  teachers  employed  in  every  city  or  town  will  always 
be  found  the  weak  and  inexperienced  teacher  whose  work  needs  to  be 
carefully  watched,  and  the  results  in  some  way  tested.  Frequent  written 
examinations  or  tests  in  all  grades  above  the  primary  for  the'  purpose  of 
showing  both  teacher  and  pupil  where  further  instruction  or  additional 
drill  is  necessary  are  very  beneficial  to  such  teachers,  and  no  hardship  to 
the  teacher  whose  class  is  always  well  taught.  These  tests,  however, 
should  count  no  more/^r  or  against  promotion  than  an  ordinary  recitation. 

In  doubtful  cases  probably  it  is  well  to  have  a  written  examination  to 
determine  the  promotion,  but  these  cases  should  be  exceedingly  rare  in  a 


136  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [General 

school  well  supervised.  Such  children  for  the  last  half  of  each  term 
should  be  carefully  watched  and  weighed  in  the  balance ;  the  children 
themselves  should  have  full  knowledge  that  tliis  is  being  done,  and  when 
the  decision  is  finally  reached  in  regard  to  their  classification  for  the 
next  term  or  the  next  year,  they  may,  if  the  decision  is  unfavorable  for 
promotion,  feel  somewhat  depressed  over  it,  but  few  will  ever  question 
the  justice  of  the  assignment. 

As  the  judgment  of  the  teacher  must  always  count  a  great  deal  in  the 
promotion  of  children,  the  principal  should  know  his  teachers  well  before 
relying  implicitly  upon  their  judgment  as  to  promotions  or  demotions, 
for  several  reasons  : 

1.  She  may  not  fully  understand  the  requirements  of  the  grade  above 
her. 

2.  Her  standard  for  judging  the  work  of  her  own  grade  may  be  poor. 

3.  She  may  fear  the  criticism  of  the  teacher  above,  and  unduly  hold 
back  from  promotion. 

4.  She  may  have  such  a  prejudice  against  a  child  that  she  cannot 
accord  him  proper  credit  for  his  work. 

5.  She  may  wish  to  gain  favor  with  patrons  and  with  children,  and 
promote  indiscriminately. 

6.  She  may  be  fluctuating  in  her  power  of  discrimination.  The 
same  pupil,  with  the  same  effort  put  forth,  will  at  certain  periods  receive 
commendation  at  her  hands,  and  at  others  condemnation.  If  the  latter 
period  should  unfortunately  fall  near  promotion  time,  that  pupil  is  apt  to 
suffer,  unless  one  who  understands  the  situation  interfere  in  his  behalf. 

If  the  principal  makes  frequent  tours  of  special  inquiry  into  the 
progress  of  each  pupil  in  the  school,  and  keeps  a  record  of  the  same,  it 
will  be  a  check  to  the  children  who  are  falling  back  in  their  work,  and 
an  encouragement  to  those  who  always  do  their  best.  They  look  for  this 
visit  from  time  to  time,  and  if  on  any  occasion  it  has  been  necessary  for 
the  teacher  to  report  unfavorably  on  a  child's  work  —  or  if  he  reports  his 
own  case  —  he  will,  after  a  calm  talk  with  the  principal  over  the  causes  of 
failure,  determine  to  remove  them,  and  he  usually  succeeds.  On  the 
next  visit  he  will  meet  with  the  statement  from  the  child,  and  be  con- 
firmed by  the  teacher,  that  he  is  improving,  and  soon  there  is  perfect 
accord.  If  the  pupil  does  not  improve  after  two  or  three  visits,  then  his 
parents  are  notified  of  the  unsatisfactory  condition  of  affairs  and  their 
assistance  asked  ;  it  is  usually  most  heartily  given,  and  the  combined 
influence  of  school  and  home  arouses  the  seemingly  incorrigible  from  his 
lethargy  ;  but  if  this  fails,  the  child  is  then  demoted  to  the  next  lower 
class. 

If  this  plan  is  followed  thruout  the  year,  it  will  be  found  that  at  the 
close  of  the  year's  work  the  children  are  in  their  proper  classes  and  ready 
for  the  next  step  forward.     It  will  not  need  an  examination  to  decidf 


Sessions] 


PRoblMM  of  the  grades— instruction 


m 


who  shall  be  promoted ;  the  work  during  the  year  has  been  looked  into, 
and  parents,  principal,  teachers,  and  pupils  all  know  if  the  work  has  been 
satisfactory  or  not.  No  child  is  surprised  at  his  grading  for  the  next 
term.  "Snap"  judgment  has  not  been  taken  on  anyone,  but  all  come 
up  with  full  knowledge  to  the  final  adjustment  of  the  classes  for  next 
year. 

One  fault  of  our  schools,  and  one  that  causes  much  of  the  confusion 
in  the  matter  of  promotions,  is  the  teaching  of  each  subject  separately,  and 
apart  from  all  other  subjects  in  the  course  of  study,  instead  of  regarding 
them  as  wheels  within  wheels,  where  each  revolves  on  its  own  axis,  yet 
crosses  and  recrosses  the  paths  of  the  others  at  every  revolution.  The 
reading  class  is  heard  at  a  given  period  and  dismissed  for  the  day ;  the 
teacher  complains  that  her  children  are  poor  readers  because  she  has  not 
time  enough  to  drill  them,  not  knowing  that  every  recitation  in  arith- 
metic, language,  geography,  history,  etc.,  is  in  one  sense  a  reading  lesson. 
The  drawing,  so  little  understood  or  appreciated  by  many  teachers, 
should  be  a  valuable  aid  in  arithmetic,  geography,  history,  reading,  lan- 
guage, literature,  and  in  many  other  branches. 

Thus  it  is  with  each  study  taken  up  in  the  school,  and  when  we  have 
learned  the  value  of  each  subject  we  are  attempting  to  teach,  and  its  inter- 
dependence on  every  other  subject,  we  shall  then  be  capable  of  dealing 
with  this  special  problem  of  school  management ;  and  when  the  question 
of  promotion  presents  itself  for  consideration,  we  shall  not  say  the  child 
is  weak  in  this  branch  or  strong  in  that,  but  shall  take  into  account  his 
general  proficiency  in  the  work  he  has  accomplished,  and  the  power  and 
breadth  of  mind  acquired  for  the  work  of  the  class  or  grade  above  him. 


THE  PROBLEM  OE  THE  GRADES 

III.    INSTRUCTION 

MRS.    ALICE    WOODWORTH    COOLEY,    SUPERVISOR    OF    PRIMARY    GRADES, 
MINNEAPOLIS,    MINN. 

More  fully  expressed,  the  fourfold  problem  of  instruction  is:  the  child 
instructed  (his  evolution),  the  means  of  instruction  (curriculum),  the 
manner  of  instruction  (method),  and  the  personality  and  power  of  the 
instructor. 

This  is  the  greatest  world-problem,  past  and  present,  because,  once 
solved,  and  its  results  proven,  all  other  problems  relating  to  human  life 
are  solved — industrial  and  sociological,  ethical  and  religious;  since  "in 
the  grades"  means  the  all-important  time  when  men  and  women  are  "  in 
the  making." 

Thirty  minutes  is  the  time  allotted  for  presenting  this  world-problem 
in   the  present   stage  of  its  evolution  to  the  highest  representative  body 


138  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [General 

—  the  senate  —  of  American  educators,  who  are  themselves  making  it 
their  life-study ! 

Can  you  not  feel  the  tumult  of  the  brain,  as  the  multiform  and  mani- 
fold phases  of  this  problem  go  tumbling  about  in  the  head,  challenging  — 
yes,  daring  —  attack?  Educational  values;  formale  ducation  ;  "the  three 
R's "  and  the  so-called  "fads;"  the  old  education  and  the  new;  the 
value  and  place  of  nature  study,  music,  drawing,  painting,  and  modeling ; 
industrial  training,  ethical  training,  aesthetic  training  ;  correlation,  con- 
centration, and  all  the  other  "-ations"  that  follow  in  this  train  ;  methods 

—  text-book  and  laboratory,  synthetic  and  analytic,  hygienic  and  dys- 
peptic; the  evolution  of  the  child,  "culture  epochs;"  and  so  on,  ad  infi- 
nitum!    All  under  cover  of  this  tremendous  subject  1 

Can  one  thought  be  found  to  unify  the  many  ?  Reminding  ourselves 
that  upon  the  platform  of  the  National  Educational  Association  one  is 
expected  merely  to  state  problems  —  not  to  settle  them  —  we  take  courage. 
In  this  case  the  attempt  will  be  to  state  the  problem  from  the  point  of 
view  of  the  elementary  schools ;  to  state  it  in  its  highest,  therefore 
simplest,  terms ;  so  to  state  it  that  we  may  go  back  to  the  children  for 
the  solution,  with  clearer  insight,  renewed  enthusiasm,  earnestness,  deter- 
mination of  will,  consecration  of  heart  and  will,  courage,  faith,  and  joy. 

A  problem,  as  defined,  is  a  "  matter  of  uncertainty  requiring  further 
light  to  determine  the  truth."  A  clear  statement  must  indicate  desired 
results  in  illuminated  as  well  as  simple  terms,  since  to  bring  into  view 
the  outlines  of  the  to-be-struggled-for  quantity  is  to  draw  it  in  lines  of 
light.  This  implies  clear  understanding  of  conditions,  and  of  the  specific, 
definite  character  of  the  unknown  to-be-found  quantity.  Whence  shall 
come  the  "further  light"  needed?  It  does  not  emanate  from  the  class- 
room of  the  doctor  of  philosophy,  tho  here  must  be  sensitized  the  eye 
that  would  see  ;  nor  from  the  pages  of  the  notebook  filled  with  the 
wisdom  of  the  psychologist  who  makes  occasional  visits  to  the  school- 
room and  views  conditions  from  behind  his  learned  spectacles  (blue  or 
otherwise),  tho  he,  too,  serves  as  an  oculist.  It  does  emanate  from  the 
room  in  which  children  daily  live.  Here  philosophy,  insight,  sympathy 
with  child-life,  combined,  must  read  as  well  as  solve  the  problem.  Is  it 
possible  so  to  express  it  as  both  to  illuminate  the  ideal  and  radiate  side- 
lights upon  the  means  to  be  used  in  reaching  it  ?  We  take  the  question 
to  the  schoolroom.  The  combined  and  accumulated  wisdom  of  the  phi- 
losopher and  of  the  poet  earnestly  asks  of  the  child  whom  it  would  serve  : 
What  are  you?  What  are  your  needs?  Browning,  the  poet-philosopher, 
has  voiced  the  answer  that  comes  to  every  truthseeker  that  has  "  ears  to 
hear":  "I  am  made  up  of  an  intensest  life;  ....  a  principle  of  rest- 
lessness which  would  be  all — -have,  see,  know,  taste,  feel  all." 

Unquestionably  the  teacher's  present  concern  is  how  to  nourish  this 
throbbing,   pulsating,  all-demanding    life   that  now    is.      That,  too,  has 


Sessions]  PROBLEM  OF  THE  GRADES-  INSTRUCTION  139 

been  answered.  The  "  letter  killeth,  but  the  spirit  [the  essence  of  life] 
giveth  life."  Life  is  generated  by  life  only.  The  life  of  mind  and  soul 
is  quickened  by  contact  with  life.  It  cannot  be  touched  by  the  "outer 
shells  and  skin  of  life."  The  child  of  today  gives  the  same  answer  that 
has  been  proclaimed  and  reiterated  by  every  educational  prophet ;  and  still 
we  offer  many  a  stone  for  bread.  We  recall  Goethe's  ridicule  of  methods 
of  instruction  of  his  time  : 

He  who  would  know  and  treat  of  aught  alive 
Seeks  first  the  living  spirit  thence  to  drive ; 
*     .       *  *  *  *  * 

Then  are  the  lifeless  fragments  in  his  hand. 

And  Mrs.   Browning's  burst  of  gratitude  for  salvation  from  the  general 

wreck  : 

In  looking  down 
Those  years  of  education  .... 
I  wondered  if  Brinvilliers  suffered  more 
In  water  torture,  ....  flood  succeeding  flood 
To  drench  the  incapable  throat  and  split  the  veins. 
....  Certain  of  your  feebler  souls 
Go  out  in  such  a  process ;  many  pine 
To  a  sick,  inodorous  light ;  my  own  endured  ; 
I  had  relations  in  the  Unseen. 
I  kept  the  life,  thrust  on  me,  on  the  outside 
Of  the  inner  life,  with  all  its  ample  room 
For  heart  and  lungs,  for  will  and  intellect. — God, 
I  thank  thee  for  that  grace  of  thine ! 

This  order  of  things  is  passing  away,  but  has  not  yet  passed.  The 
great  need  of  today  is  the  vitalization  of  the  curriculum,  of  methods, 
and  of  ourselves.  Life  is  the  result  of  instruction  ;  life  is  to  receive  the 
instruction  by  means  of  life.  Here,  then,  is  the  desired  statement :  Life 
demands  life.  Life-stuff  in  the  curriculum  !  Methods  born  of  life  and 
touching  life  !     Education,  a  life-process  ! 

We  know  that  the  life  of  mind  and  soul  means  seeing,  knowing, 
thinking,  and  feeling ;  yet  we  have  often  seemed  to  believe  that  life  in  the 
schoolroom  is  sui  generis,  a  life  of  knowing  facts,  or  perchance  of  know- 
ing with  a  little  incidental  thinking;  while  it  is  quite  traditional  that  the 
schoolroom  feeling  shall  be  one  of  dislike  for  school  tasks.  "  How  else 
could  the  doing  of  tasks  give  proper  discipline  ? "  But  what  are  the 
manifestations  of  the  true  life  that  grows  ?  Up-reaching  ;  desires ;  loves ; 
out-reaching  toother  lives  and  to  life  in  nature;  response  to  beauty; 
movement  within  ;  activity  ;  dynamic  force  ;  power  to  do  and  to  overcome  ; 
joy  in  receiving,  in  expressing,  in  achieving.  Is  this  "in  the  air"  ?  That 
is  just  where  we  want  it  first.  In  the  air  of  every  schoolroom  —  elemen- 
tary, college,  and  university  —  so  that  it  must  be  breathed  into  the  lungs. 
Ihen  shall  we  develop  the  clear  eye  that  can  see  the  beauty  of  the  flowers 
of  the  field  beneath,  of  the  stars  in  the  sky  above,  and   the  beauty  of 


I40  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [General 

everyday  living  and  loving  and  working ;  the  open  air  that  can  hear  the 
songs  of  the  birds,  the  murmur  of  the  winds  in  the  treetops,  and  also  the 
call  to  share  the  joys  and  griefs  of  those  about  us  ;  the  tender  heart  to 
feel  "  the  throb  of  spring,"  and  the  singing  bird,  and  the  rejoicing  or 
sorrowing  neighbor;  the  nerve  that  thrills  with  aspiration  and  faith;  the 
firm  muscle  of  determination  that  overcomes ;  the  vitalized  blood  that 
carries  vigor  and  health  to  each  and  every  part  —  the  vigor  that  makes  for 
dynamic  force,  for  radiating  power  of  personality,  for  power  to  reach 
others,  to  stir  them  to  new  life,  in  turn  to  quicken,  hearten,  and  uplift. 

This  life-test  is  intensely  practical.  Let  us  apply  it  to  the  curriculum, 
method,  and  teacher,  and  ask  of  each,  in  turn  :  Do  you  awaken  loves 
and  aspirations  for  what  is  healthful  and  high  ?  Do  you  promote  sym- 
pathetic relations  with  life  in  nature  or  with  human  life  ?  Do  you 
awaken  the  fundamental  interest  that  holds  to  concentrated  attention  and 
continued  effort  ?  Do  you  create  a  desire  to  express ;  open  a  new  avenue 
of  expression  ;  give  to  the  child  the  joy  of  expression  ?  Do  you  help  to 
habitual  use  of  more  fitting,  more  effective,  and  more  beautiful  form^  of 
expression  by  voice,  hand,  or  body  ?  Do  you  open  eye  or  ear  to  the 
beauties  of  the  world  ?  Do  ybu  cultivate  appreciation  of  beauty  ?  Do 
you  vivify  the  imagination  —  that  gift  of  gifts— the  power  to  see  that 
which  is  not  visible  to  the  physical  eye  ?  Do  you  generate  increased 
power  to  do  ;  greater  joy  in  doing  ? 

The  affirmative  of  each  one  of  these  questions  means  the  life-touch,  as 
regards  both  the  child  and  what  is  given  him.  Instruction  in  the  grades 
must  meet  every  one  of  these  demands ;  give  "right  of  way  "  to  what  meets 
most  of  them  ;  shut  out  everything  that  meets  none.  That  which  cannot 
bear  the  life-test  must  go  —  the  sooner  the  better.     It  is  dead.    Bury  it. 

What  of  knowledge-getting,  observation-training,  and  form-study  ? 
Each  is  a  necessary  element  of  that  which  stands  the  life-test.  But  these 
means  are  not  ends,  and  must  be  felt  as  all-important  because  they  serve 
higher  purposes.  Men  feel  and  have  learned  to  know  by  observing.  God 
planned  it  so.  Knowledge  of  the  facts  of  life  deepens  his  feelings  of 
wonder,  awe,  love,  and  sympathy.  God  planned  it  so.  This  is  as 
true  of  the  child  of  today  as  of  the  child-man  of  the  past.  Obser- 
vation is  the  divinely  ordered  first  step  in  the  life-process.  But  physical 
seeing,  mind-seeing,  and  heart-seeing  (seeing,  knowing,  feeling)  go  hand 
in  hand,  and  here  is  where  we  have  failed  to  work  in  harmony  with  the 
divine  plan.  It  is  not  years  of  observation-training  for  observation's 
sake,  and  of  knowledge-getting  for  its  own  sake,  with  vague  thoughts 
of  life  in  the  future;  nor  is  it  a  sentimental  working  upon  the  emo- 
tions; but  daily  training  to  observe,  daily  "knowing  for  certain"  some 
new  truth  that  shall  at  once  cause  the  heart  to  respond.  God  planned 
it  so.  That  which  stands  the  life-test  does  so  because  observation  and 
knowledge  are  the  building-stones,  but  living  relationship  with  things 


Sessions]  PROBLEM  OF  THE  GRADES— INSTRUCTION  14* 

that  only  knowledge  can  breed  is  the  final  goal;  the  knowledge  is  not 

itself  life. 

"  Let  knowledge  grow  from  more  to  more, 
But  more  of  reverence  in  us  dwell." 

The  relation  of  form-study  to  the  life-test  is  that  of  perfecting  or 
mastering  the  forms  of  expression  in  order  that  they  may  more  effectively 
and  beautifully  reveal  or  express  a  larger  measure  of  life. 

Our  curriculum,  then,  has  two  divisions  :  subjects  that  bring  in  vital 
contact  with  life-sources ;  exercises  that  develop  power  to  express  and 
communicate  that  life  in  various  forms. 

To  bring  in  these  subjects  and  exercises  at  the  right  time,  §o  as  to  touch 
the  life  of  the  child  at  that  time,  is  the  life-test  applied  to  method. 

Now  to  the  daily  program  with  our  standard.  Since  all  life  is  either 
that  of  nature  or  of  man,  every  life- idea  relates  to  the  knowledge  of 
truths  concerning  life  in  nature  or  in  man,  or  to  their  interpretation. 

We  challenge  nature  study.  There  is  a  so-called  study  of  nature  that 
is  a  study  of  death.  Carlyle  gives  us  a  hint  of  the  life-method  by  which 
the  race-child  has  grown  by  contact  with  nature.  It  is  as  truly  a  hint  as 
to  the  life-method  needed  by  the  child  of  today  : 

The  young  generations  of  the  world,  who  had  in  them  the  freshness  of  young  children, 
did  not  think  that  they  had  finished  off  all  things  in  heaven  and  earth  by  merely  giving 
them  scientific  names,  but  had  to  gaze  direct  at  them  there,  with  awe  and  wonder. 

True  nature  study,  founded  in  observation-training  and  knowledge  of 
facts,  rouses  the  thought  and  the  determined,  persistent  effort  to  express 
it,  that  results  in  discovery  and  mastery  of  forces  —  inventions;  it  also 
awakens  a  response  to  the  inner  meanings  of  things  —  appreciation 
of  beauty,  wonder,  reverence. 

Over  our  manhood  bend  the  skies  ; 

Against  our  fallen  and  traitor  lives 
The  great  winds  utteV  prophecies  ; 

With  our  faint  hearts  the  mountain  strives  ; 
Its  arms  outstretched,  the  Druid  wood 

Waits  with  its  benedicite ; 
And  to  our  age's  drowsy  blood 

Still  shouts  the  inspiring  sea, 

says  Lowell.  We  would  have  our  children  see  the  bending  skies,  hear 
the  prophecies  of  the  winds,  respond  to  the  strivings  of  the  mountains,/!?^/ 
the  blessing  of  the  wood,  be  urged  to  action  by  the  shouts  of  the  sea. 

Truly,  we  dare  not  transplant  the  child  from  the  world  of  nature  in 
which  God  placed  him  into  a  world  of  our  own  planning.  If  we  are  not 
ready  to  lead  him  there,  we  must  either  get  ready  or  "  get  out." 

History,  the  story  of  the  life  of  man  —  his  thoughts,  loves,  hopes, 
efforts,  defeats,  and  victories  —  in  its  elementary  phases  (child-life, 
primitive  life,  and  biography)  makes  the  direct  appeal  to  the  child  that 
is   the    life-touch,   rousing  the   imagination,   sympathy,  aspiration,   and 


142»  MATIONAL  educational  association  [General 

determination  to  reach  ideals.  Led  along  this  line  he  becomes  conscious 
that  "through  the  ages  one  eternal  purpose  runs,"  and  later  learns  to  know 
history  as  the  story  of  human  life  in  sequence ;  the  story  that  sounds  the 
bugle-call  to  his  own  duties,  as  his  part  in  this  world-life  takes  on  new 
meaning  and  significance.     This  is  the  true  teaching  of  patriotism. 

Geography  finds  its  place  as  a  study  of  mutual  relations. 

Literature,  the  queen  of  the  curriculum,  brings  the  higher  —  yes,  the 
highest — touch.  Thru  experience,  as  we  have  noted,  the  child  gains  a 
knowledge  of  life-truths  and  more  or  less  vaguely  feels  their  inner  mean 
ing ;  he  may  even  be  able  to  express  a  part  of  what  he  sees  and  feels ;  but 
in  literature  he  finds  the  thought  of  those  who  have  seen  and  felt  more 
deeply ;  he  catches  the  spirit  and  takes  a  deeper  breath.  This,  however, 
only  when  he  has  himself  lived  to  some  degree  the  life  portrayed.  It  is 
in  this  sense — considering  the  previous  contact  with  nature  and  human 
life  as  essential  elements  of  interpretation  of  literature  —  that  it  becomes 
the  queen  which  all  others  must  serve.  But,  like  a  true  queen,  it  also 
serves  right  royally.  The  word  "reading"  on  our  daily  programs  should 
have  all  the  significance  of  literature,  and  more,  the  oral  reading  of  litera- 
ture; both  life  and  its  expression.  Thus  interpreted,  life-lessons  and 
literature  precede  reading-lessons.  To  the  former  the  child  is  entitled 
from  the  first  day  of  school ;  there  are  many  reasons  for  postponing  the 
latter.     And  literature  in  abundance  is  his. 

Fairy  stories  and  myths  have  in  them  the  life-touch  for  little  children, 
because  here  are  word-pictures  of  what  they  are  themselves  living  in  the 
world  they  know,  which  is  but  enlarged  for  new  fairies,  and  fancies  with 
new  meanings.  The  myth,  the  "report  of  the  dawning  of  great  truths  on 
the  minds  of  primitive  men,"  is  eagerly  devoured,  because  there  is  a 
similar  dawning  on  the  minds  of  the  primitive  men  of  the  schoolroom. 
Such  poems  as  those  of  Stevenson  and  Eugene  Field  are  a  delight  to 
them,  because  they  find  there  pictures  of  everyday  plays  and  loves  of 
their  own  child-world.  Hiawatha  is,  perhaps,  the  children's  favorite. 
He  lives  in  their  plane  and  in  their  beloved  out  of-doors ;  his  little 
brothers  are  theirs ;  his  rainbow  of  flowers  is  theirs ;  his  fondness  for  the 
great  story-teller  is  theirs;  his  "What  is  that,  Nokomis  ?."  is  but  the  echo 
of  their  daily  refrain  —  and  the  poem  "Hiawatha"  is  literature.  It  is  full 
of  life  and  beauty,  set  in  the  rhythm  beloved  of  childhood.  Longfellow's 
"Children's  Hour"  appeals  to  another  side  of  their  life.  They  find  here 
painted  the  tenderness  and  strength  of  the  love  of  a  father  —  what  they 
have  unconsciously  felt,  either  by  having  or  missing. 

Boys  and  girls  that  have  tasted  the  delight  of  wandering  in  November 
woods  see  and  feel  the  pictures  in  such  poems  as  Helen  Hunt  Jackson's 
"  November,"  and  go  back  to  the  woods  with  deeper  sympathy  with  all 
wild  things  as  they  "  lie  down  to  sleep."  They  delight  in  the  stanzas 
from  "  Barefoot  Boy  "  that  portray  their  own  experiences.    (The  last  stanza 


Sessions] 


PROBLEM  OF  THE  GRADES— INSTRUCTION 


143 


is  not  for  them.)  Said  one  small  boy  (what  thousands  have  felt):  "I 
like  best  that  place  where  he  sat  barefooted  on  the  doorstep  and  ate  his 
bread  and  milk  and  looked  around  at  the  sunset,  and  said  'I  am  mon- 
arch !'  "  Parts  of  "  Snowbound"  are  very  dear  to  them  also,  because  of 
the  home-feeling  and  home-loves  pictured,  as  well  as  out-of-door 
delights.  Yes,  literature  daily ;  first  thru  the  teacher,  later  in  the  daily 
reading-lessons. 

Considering  reading  as  the  oral  expression  of  literature,  we  have  a 
test,  not  only  of  what  shall  be  read,  but  of  the  methods  of  learning  to 
read.  With  reading-lessons  proper,  begun  at  the  right  — because  the 
ripe — stage  for  such  lessons,  symbols  vivified  by  thought  are  easily 
mastered  without  previous  study  as  symbols.  This  is  not  a  theory,  but  a 
proven  fact,  and  the  rapid  mastery  of  vocabulary  under  the  impulse  of 
thought  seems  marvelous.  Children  taught  in  this  way  are  readers,  and 
are  not  cursed  with  that  false  glibness  in  using  words  that  sacrifices  mental 
pictures  and  definite  thought. 

There  are  so-called  exercises  in  reading  that  are  ready  for  burial. 
These  are  built  on  the  plan  of  making  and  polishing  beautiful  shells,  into 
which  life  is  later  to  be  induced  to  creep  and  find  a  magnificent  home. 
This  hermit-crab  method  of  teaching  reading  does  not  recognize  the  fact 
that  life  must  make  the  shells,  and  cast  them  off  as  it  "builds  more  stately 
mansions;"  that  the  word  is  of  value  only  as  it  is  itself  vitalized;  that  we 
have  lowered,  degraded  it  in  the  eyes  and  the  heart  of  the  child  by  giving 
him  devitalized  words  with  which  to  perform  gymnastic  tricks.  He 
enjoys  the  feeling  of  mastery  as  he  finds  himself  able  to  make  new  com- 
binations and  untangle  others,  but  such  appeal  to  the  trick-performing 
power  should  be  made  with  other  material  than  the  word.  This  trick 
performance  is  in  no  way  akin  to  the  pleasure  of  reading  to  which  the 
child  is  entitled,  and  which  he  may  taste  in  some  degree  from  his  first 
reading-lesson  to  his  last.  The  great  wrong  lies  in  the  resulting  mental 
attitude  toward  the  printed  word  as  dead  and  cold,  instead  of  winged  with 
life;  and  first  impressions  are  seldom,  if  ever,  quite  erased.  Reading  is 
the  Cinderella  of  the  kitchen  and  not  Cinderella  the  queen,  so  long  as 
doggerel  and  sentences  prepared  for  word-calling  are  substituted  for  the 
sentences  that  are  alive  because  the  breath  of  thought  and  feeling  is  in 
them.     How  dare  we  sell  the  child's  birthright  for  a  mess  of  pottage  ? 

We  turn  to  the  second  division  of  the  curriculum  :  modes  of  life- 
expression.  It  is  a  recognized  law  of  growth  that  live  thought  and  feeling 
must  break  forth  in  some  form,  not  only  that  it  may  give  to  others,  but 
also  express  itself,  and  become  a  means  of  mind-  and  soul-expansion.  It 
seeks  expression  in  terms  of  beauty  and  effectiveness.  The  development 
of  the  child,  then,  demands  of  us  that  we  open  many  avenues  of  expres- 
sion, and  also  develop  skill  in  the  use  of  most  beautiful  and  effective  forms. 
What  avenues?     Again  we  turn  to  the  children  for  answer.     We  find 


144  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  LGenera) 

that  those  forms  which  child-life  seeks  are  oral  language  (expression  by 
the  spoken  word);  representation  by  painting,  drawing,  modeling,  and 
making  (expression  by  hand) ;  song,  and  later  written  language  (involv- 
ing writing  and  spelling).  We  believe  that  every  one  of  these  bears  a 
vital  relation  to  growth.  Again  we  recall  the  questions  in  the  life-test, 
and  note  the  affirmative  answers.  We  have  not  time  to  note  the  specific 
value  and  place  of  each,  but  must  pause  to  give  thanks  for  the  truer  as 
well  as  the  enlarged  vision,  the  deeper  appreciation  of  beauty,  the  more 
vivid  imagination,  and  the  increased  joy  that  have  come  to  thousands  of 
children  with  the  use  of  brush  and  color  in  the  elementary  schools;  for 
the  help  that  illustrative  drawing  has  proven  in  the  interpretation  of 
literature;  for  the  quickening  of  brain,  as  well  as  practical  skill  in  doing, 
that  are  coming  with  greater  opportunities  for  hand-training.  And,  then, 
the  joy  of  achievement  when  the  child  has  made  something,  has  created  ! 
We  need  a  systematic  course  in  industrial  work  from  the  first  to  the  last 
grade,  but  it  must  touch  life,  and  not  be  merely  a  set  of  formal  exercises. 

The  methods  of  training  to  express  in  terms  of  beauty  and  effective- 
ness must  also  be  shaped  by  the  life-test.  Every  art  has  its  technique, 
but  the  approach  to  it  is  thru  quickened  thought  and  feeling,  that  desire 
and  attempt  to  express  may  lead  to  appreciation  of  need  of  skill  in  use  of 
its  forms.  These  are  best  shaped  and  perfected  by  using.  The  propor- 
tion of  form-study  will  increase,  but  remain  subordinate  to  the  thought 
and  feeling  expressed.  Study  of  structure  and  pure  technique  belong  to 
the  later  stages  of  the  development  of  child  and  of  art. 

Our  curriculum   is  still  incomplete.     Physical  training  is  felt  to  be 
necessary  because  of  the  life-relation  between  body  and  soul. 
"  The  soul  is  not  the  body,  and  the  breath  is  not  the  flute ; 
Both  together  make  the  music ;  eitlier  marred,  and  all  is  mute." 

The  body  must  be  trained  to  serve,  and  to  express  health,  strength, 
harmony,  and  beauty  of  soul. 

Arithmetic,  or  number,  finds  its  place  in  the  elementary  school  —  its 
touch  with  life  —  as  a  necessary  means  of  exchange,  enabling  men  to  live 
together  in  communities.  This  must  not  be  interpreted  to  mean  that  all 
that  is  in  our  text-books  in  this  guise  has  any  excuse  for  being  there,  or 
anywhere  else,  but  in  dust  and  ashes. 

Nature  study,  history,  geography,  oral  reading  of  literature  and  oral 
language  (including  training  to  express  in  clear,  well-modulated  tones 
and  with  correct  pronunciation);  representation  by  drawing  and  painting; 
music ;  manual,  training ;  written  language  (including  writing  and  spell- 
ing) ;  physical  training ;  number.  All  these  ?  Yes,  every  one  !  Not  the 
arbitrary  will  of  pedagogs,  but  life  demands  it.  Will  it  not  mean 
superficiality  and  dissipation  of  energy  ?  It  may ;  or  it  may  mean  con- 
centration of  forces  and  energy,  if  the  subject  of  thought  and  feeling  be 
made  the  keynote,  and  each  exercise  contribute  to  the  seeing  of  a  new 


Sessions] 


INFLUENCE  OF  MUSIC  UPON  NATIONAL  LIFE 


M5 


phase,  or  to  the  mastery  of  another  mode  of  expression.  (We  believe 
that  exercises  in  physical  culture,  and  number,  and  these  only,  should 
be  excepted  from  this  direct  unification  ;  that  the  latter  makes  its  funda- 
mental associations  with  form -study.)  •^ 

It  is,  perhaps,  needless  to  add  that  this  life-test  is  the  supreme  test  of 
the  educator.     Nothing  is  of  value  in  the  hands  of  a  dead  leader. 
Again  a  message  from  Goethe  : 

If  feeling  prompt  not,  if  it  doth  not  flow 

Fresh  from  the  spirit's  depths,  with  strong  control, 

Idle  your  toil. 
****** 
Oh,  if  it  rush  not  from  thine  inmost  soul. 
Thou  hast  not  now  the  life-restoring  draft. 

Ourselves  winning  this  life-restoring  draft,  we  may  hold  it  to  the  lips 
of  the  children,  that  they  may  go  out  from  us  knowing  a  few  things  "for 
certain,"  believing  more  things,  hoping  all  things,  loving  high  ideals, 
responding  to  beauty,  able  and  eager  to  do  honest,  efficient  work  in  the 
world,  and  finding  joy  in  doing,  in  achieving,  in  being.  This  is  the  life 
that  knows  no  end. 


THE  INFLUENCE    OF  MUSIC  UPON  NATIONAL   LIFE 

ARNOLD    J.    GANTVOORT,    LECTURER,    COLLEGE     OF     MUSIC,    CINCINNATI,    O. 

When  Louis  XIV.  asked  his  prime  minister,  Colbert,  how  it  was  that 
so  great  and  popular  a  nation  as  France  was  unable  to  subdue  or  conquer 
a  little  country  like  Holland,  the  prime  minister  answered:  "Sire,  the 
greatness  of  a  nation  does  not  depend  upon  the  extent  of  its  territory, 
but  rather  upon  the  character  of  its  citizens." 

Luther,  in  summing  up  the  elements  of  national  greatness,  said : 
The  life  and  character  of  a  nation  do  not  depend  upon  the  abundance  of  its  reve- 
nues, the  strength  of  its  fortifications,  the  size  of  its  army,  the  beauty  of  its  buildings ;  but 
on  the  number  of  its  cultivated  citizens :  its  men  of  education,  enlightenment,  and  char- 
acter.    In  them  He  its  chief  strength,  true  greatness,  and  real  power. 

An  English  poet  wrote  : 

What  constitutes  a  state  ? 
Not  high-raised  battlement  or  labored  mound, 

Thick  wall  or  moated  gate. 
Not  cities  proud  with  spires  and  turrets  crowned, 

Not  bays  and  broad  armed  ports. 
****** 

No :  men,  high-minded  men. 
With  powers  as  far  above  dull  brutes  endued 

In  forest,  brake,  or  den. 
As  beasts  excel  cold  rocks  and  brambles  rude. 

Men  who  their  duties  know, 
But  know  their  rights,  and  knowing,  dare  maintain. 
*  *  *  *  *  * 

These  constitute  a  state. 


146  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [General 

Here  are  the  opinions  of  three  great  men ;  the  first,  a  warrior  and 
statesman  ;  the  second,  a  minister,  philosopher,  and  thinker;  the  third,  a 
poet  and  seer. 

Judging  from  these  statements,  to  affect  the  life  of  a  nation  effectu- 
ally and  permanently  we  must  affect  the  lives  of  its  individual  citizens; 
and  to  affect  those  lives  we  must  begin  with  them  in  the  plastic  years  of 
childhood,  when  the  mind  responds  most  readily  to  the  invitation  and 
incitation  of  the  great  truths  placed  before  it. 

The  child  who  comes  to  us  in  the  first  years  of  his  school  life,  still 
almost  fresh  from  the  hand  of  God,  is,  as  someone  has  said,  a  bundle  of 
possibilities.  But  still  more  might  we  say  that  he  is  a  bundle  of  likes 
and  dislikes,  the  result  of  his  inborn  emotions.  It  is  universally  recog- 
nized that  childhood  is  the  most  favorable  time  for  character-formation, 
because  the  character  is  then  in  its  formative  state,  consisting  only  of  a 
number  of  tendencies  or  emotions.  During  the  child-life  these  emotions 
are  usually  the  springs  that  move  the  child  to  action  ;  but  action  oft 
repeated  results  in  habit,  and  habit  of  action  in  childhood  forms,  later  on, 
everyday  conduct,  and  everyday  conduct  results  in  character  for  the  man 
that  is  to  be.  The  process  of  education  is  but  the  continuous  battle 
between  the  inherent  egoistic  and  the  desirable  altruistic  emotions  which 
we,  as  teachers,  endeavor  to  instill  into  the  child  by  the  processes  of 
modern  education.  The  subsequent  character  of  the  man  to  be  is 
dependent  upon  the  final  outcome  of  this  struggle.  If  the  egoistic 
triumphs,  man  becomes  an  undesirable  quantity  in  society;  while  if  the 
altruistic  gains  the  ascendency,  conquering  and  subduing  some  of  the 
egoistic  emotions  and  casting  out  others,  then  man  becomes  a  man  in 
the  fullest  sense  of  the  word ;  a  man  who  can  rise  not  only  above  his 
surroundings,  his  labor,  the  circumstances  of  his  life,  but  who  can  rise 
above  himself,  and 

"  Unless  above  himself  he  can 
Erect  himself,  how  mean  a  thing  is  man ! " 

The  question  now  presents  itself  whether  music  can  help  in  this 
struggle  between  the  egoistic  and  altruistic  emotions,  and  upon  which 
side  it  arrays  itself  ;  for  upon  that  will  depend  its  influence  in  the  forma- 
tion of  individual  character;  and  when  these  individuals  are  banded 
together  into  societies  which  we  call  town,  city,  state,  or  nation,  the 
cumulative  influence  of  music  will  be  felt  upon  the  life  of  these  societies, 
upon  the  life  of  that  nation. 

I  spoke  a  moment  ago  of  the  struggle  between  the  egoistic  and 
the  altruistic  emotions.  The  first  of  these  are  fear,  hatred,  sullenness, 
cruelty,  despair,  etc.  These,  as  it  is  well  known,  are  forever  and  forever 
bitterly  and  unutterably  opposed  to,  and  engaged  in  deadly  fray  with, 
their  opposites,  the  altruistic  emotions  of  courage,  love,  cheerfulness, 
kindness,  hope,  sympathy,  etc.     The  very  archenemy  of  all  soul-expansion 


Sessions]  INFLUENCE  OF  MUSIC  UPON  NATIONAL  LIFE  i47 

is  fear.  When  fear  is  cast  out  the  soul  expands  in  courage,  which  is 
simply  the  sense  of  the  soul's  triumph  over,  and  its  escape  from,  the 
prison  of  self  in  which  it  had  lain  captive.  Fear  is  but  the  preponderance 
of  self.  Courage  is  the  forgetfulness  of  self.  All  egoistic  emotions  are 
the  assertions  of  self,  while  courage,  love,  kindness,  hope,  and  sympathy 
are  the  results  of  self-forgetfulness. 

Can  music  cast  out  fear  and  thus  permit  courage  to  assert  itself? 
The  battlefield  is  pre-eminently  the  place  where  we  expect  to  see  exhibi- 
tions of  greatest  courage ;  and  we  shall  find  a  striking  answer  to  our 
question  if  we  wiJl  but  note  the  prominence  given  to  music  in  warfare, 
among  all  nations,  savage  or  civilized.  There  has  never  been  a  people 
so  poor  that  it  did  not  have  some  simple  song  or  ballad,  dear  to  the 
common  heart,  to  serve  as  a  source  of  comfort  or  inspiration  in  the  time 
of  sorrow  or  peril.     How  many  times  has 

"  The  hollow  eye  grown  bright  , 

And  the  poor  heart  almost  gay  " — 

when  the  wearied  and  disheartened  soldier  has  heard  some  well-known 
strain  and  felt  his  pulse  beat  in  unison  to  its  measure ! 

A  recent  instance  is  but  one  of  many  hundreds  which  might  be  given 
to  illustrate  :  On  June  24,  1898,  when  the  memorable  battle  of  Santiago 
was  being  fought,  the  regulars  of  the  United  States  army,  firmly  sup- 
ported by  the  volunteers,  were  arrayed  against  the  very  flower  of  the 
Spanish  forces,  and  were  suffering  from  a  fearful  rain  of  shot  and  shell 
and  most  deadly  rifle-fire.  Men  fell  wounded  and  dead  on  all  sides. 
Reinforcements  were  constantly  in  demand.  An  unseen'  enemy  was 
decimating  our  troops,  and  it  seemed  as  if  all  were  lost  in  the  face  of 
that  awful  fire.  Suddenly  one  brave,  enthusiastic  soldier  struck  up  the 
strain  of  the  "  Star-Spangled  Banner.'^  Others,  as  they  caught  a  fresh 
gleam  of  the  bit  of  sacred  bunting,  joined  in  the  song ;  and  with  souls 
thrilled  anew,  and  hearts  nerved  by  what  seemed  almost  superhuman 
power,  they  pressed  forward,  and  victory  crowned  our  arms. 

A  great  and  thoughtful  writer  has  said  that  when  at  the  last  day  the 
recording  angel  opens  the  books  and  reads  the  story  of  the  battle  of 
Waterloo,  it  will  be  found  that  a  very  large  portion  of  the  dead  who  fell 
in  the  latter  part  of  that  conflict  is  set  down  on  the  debit  side  of  that 
intrepid  military  band  of  the  Old  Guard  which  persisted  in  playing  the 
"Marseillaise"  long  after  Napoleon  had  uttered  the  never-to-be-forgotten 
words,  "Sauve  qui peut!"  and  had  himself  left  the  field. 

History  is  full  of  examples  of  the  wonderful  power  of  song  and 
music  upon  the  battlefield,  in  turning  the  tide  of  battle  and  in  invigo- 
rating men  with  a  courage  that  was  simply  sublime.  Lifted  out  of  him- 
self, the  soul  of  man,  when  listening  to  the  inspiring  strains  of  music, 
lives  temporarily  in  an  atmosphere  and  in  a  clime  whose  air  and  sun- 
shine are  the  result  of  the  most  exalted  emotions. 


148  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [General 

Sound  is  a  social  agent,  and  musical  sound  the  soul's  agent  par 
excellence.  Pain  and  sorrow  expressed  in  music  move  us  far  more  than 
words  or  gestures  ever  could ;  and  when  we  would  give  voice  to  our 
highest  joy,  music  is  the  medium  employed.  It  addresses  itself  directly 
to  the  emotions  and  to  the  soul  in  a  language  understood  only  by  the 
emotions  and  by  the  soul ;  yet  it  is  a  universal  language,  and  speaks  as 
many  dialects  and  idioms  as  there  are  nations,  races,  and  individuals. 
The  modern  development  of  music  is  but  a  response  to  the  needs  of 
humanity  for  a  vehicle  for  the  expression  of  the  emotions,  the  soul- 
feelings,  which  cannot  find  utterance  in  words,  and  for  a  medium  which 
will  calm  these  emotions  or  will  exalt  them  beyond  the  power  of  words. 
Music  is  the  most  popular  of  all  arts.  It  can  reach  and  move  the 
impersonal  soul  of  a  crowd,  and  arouse  it  to  the  noblest  deeds,  or 
calm  the  violent  emotions  which  prevail  in  times  of  panic.  Music 
also  fosters  love  tor  refined  pleasures,  and  leads  from  low  and  degrad- 
ing pastimes. 

That  nation  is  best  educated  in  which  knowledge  is  most  diffused, 
in  which  learning  is  in  the  grasp  of  the  greatest  number;  and  only  so 
far  as  any  art  or  science  becomes  a  part  of  popular  education  can  that 
art  or  science  become  a  power,  an  influence  in  the  land.  But  there  are 
some  people  who  would  make  the  keynote  of  their  educational  creed 
"utility,"  and  would  bar  out  music  as  useless.  Well,  they  have  one  thing 
in  common  with  the  savages,  who  are  the  most  utilitarian  people  on 
earth.  And  yet  even  they,  these  savages  (according  to  the  testimony  of 
Stanley,  Grant,  and  other  travelers),  chant  a  sort  of  song  when  cleaning 
their  rice,  rowing  their  boats,  or  traveling,  knowing  that  they  can  work 
better  and  accomplish  more  when  thus  accompanied.  Field  Marshal 
Wolseley,  viewing  the  subject  from  his  standpoint,  wrote  not  long  ago 
these  words:  "Troops  that  sing  on  the  march  not  only  get  to  their 
destination  soonest,  but  they  get  there  in  better  condition  ;  and  not  only 
that,  but  they  get  there  with  a  feeling  of  self-confidence  which  is  the 
mother  of  victory." 

Popular  education  today  means  more  than  mathematics,  language,  or 
the  natural  sciences.  We  have  finally  learned  that  mental  experience 
alone  does  not  make  the  most  desirable  character,  and  that  emotional 
experience  is  absolutely  necessary.  After  the  instinct  of  self-preservation, 
the  strongest  motives  of  action  spring  from  the  emotional  nature.  To 
the  purest  elements  of  that  emotional  nature  music  appeals;  therefore, 
how  can  this  most  desirable  experience  be  better  gained  than  by  music  ? 
We  are  now  speaking  a  great  deal,  and  doing  a  great  deal  as  well,  for 
the  culture-education  of  our  children.  The  schoolroom  of  today  is  full 
of  pictures  and  casts,  copies  of  some  of  the  greatest  art  works,  because 
we  believe  that  the  contemplation  of  these  copies  will  be  of  lasting  benefit 
in  the  formation  of  the  characters  of  these   children.     It   must   not  be 


Sessions]  INFLUENCE  OF  MUSIC  UPON  NATIONAL  LIFE  149 

forgotten,  however,  that  none  of  these  copies  can  in  any  way  be  con- 
sidered equal  to>  the  originals  which  remain  in  the  possession  of  the 
owners. 

With  music,  however,  it  is  otherwise.  The  performance  of  a  great 
musical  art  work  by  an  orchestra  or  by  a  chorus  is  not  a  copy  of  the  origi- 
nal, but  is  the  original  itself,  living,  breathing,  pulsing,  fresh  as  it  came 
from  the  soul  of  the  composer.  It  is  therefore  not  at  all  to  be  considered 
as  optimistic  if  we  say  that,  if  the  contemplation  of  the  copy  of  an  art 
work  is  considered  elevating,  the  contemplation  of  the  original,  especially 
if  we  ourselves  can  help  in  re-creating  this  original,  will  undoubtedly  be 
far  more  elevating.  Even  the  person  who  knows  nothing  of  the  musical 
art  receives  often  his  greatest  joy  from  music  because  it  is  to  him  a  men- 
tal, and  unconsciously  also  an  emotional,  stimulant  and  food.  Music, 
perhaps  more  than  in  any  other  way,  discloses  its  power  in  its  indirect 
effects.  Christ  said,  "  He  that  would  be  greatest  among  you,  let  him  be 
servant  of  all,"  and  it  is  when  music  becomes  the  servant  that  it  is  most 
divine.  Busy  men,  thoughtful  men,  and  profound  thinkers,  understand- 
ing this,  have  often  put  themselves  in  contact  with  music,  not  to  listen  to 
the  music  itself  perhaps,  but  for  the  effect  which  it  had  upon  them  uncon- 
sciously. George  Sand  "wrote  many  of  her  best  thoughts  while  listening 
to  Chopin,  and  Browning  has  often  expressed  his  debt  to  music  as  a 
quickening  influence  upon  the  mind. 

Music  has  held  a  prominent  place  in  the  educational  systems  of  all 
nations.  It  has  gone  hand  in  hand  with  intellectual  and  aesthetic  culture, 
and  has  ever  been  reckoned  as  a  divine  art,  an  acknowledged  force  in 
molding  character  and  government.  The  most  highly  educated  and 
civilized  people  have  been  the  most  musical. 

The  first  great  musical  awakening  in  America  began  in  New  England. 
And  it  is  a  significant  fact  that  this  awakening  came  at  the  time  when  the 
new  spirit  of  culture,  in  its  fullest,  broadest  sense,  became  rife.  The  love 
for  good  music  came  with  the  conquering  ideas  ;  those  ideas  which  "  pro- 
claimed liberty  throughout  all  the  land  to  all  the  inhabitants  thereof;" 
liberty  of  thought  and  conscience,  freedom  from  the  traditional  bonds  of 
church  and  state ;  those  ideas  which  placed  deeds  above  creeds,  mind 
above  matter,  and  the  dignity  of  human  nature  above  the  mere  chance  of 
birth  or  circumstance ;  which  believed  in  worth  as  the  standard  of 
political  justice,  and  in  the  common  heritage  of  all  in  whatsoever  things 
were  good,  pure,  and  beautiful. 

This  was  culture  in  the  free  unfolding  of  the  best  of  character ;  the 
kindling  anew  of  that  divine  spark  in  the  human  heart  which  brings  man 
to  see,  understand,  and  feel  the  beauty  of  the  world  about  him  and 
within  him.  But  when  man  reaches  this  point  there  is  sure  to  be  some 
tangible  evidence  of  his  advancement,  and  we  find  these  higher  elements 
of    culture  expressing  themselves  in    art  —  art,   which    is   the  harmonic 


15°  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [General 

expression  of  the  human  emotions  ;  the  sphere  of  man's  activity  wherein 
the  creative  energy  asserts  itself,  and  his  kinship  with  the  divine  is  made 
more  plain.  And  what  form  of  art,  what  appeal  to  that  part  of  man's 
being  which  is  wiser  than  the  intellect,  was  peculiarly  the  need  of  our  age, 
this  Christian  age,  this  age  where  "Thou  shalt  love  thy  neighbor  as  thy- 
self" is  the  principle  by  which  we  seek  to  live  ?  What  form  of  art,  we  say, 
was  so  widely  available  and  so  eminently  fitted  to  meet  these  wants  as 
music  ?  The  people  who  began  to  see  deeply  saw  musically.  And  those 
who  turned  to  Emerson  and  his  fellow-philosophers  for  spiritual  food 
found  in  Beethoven  and  his  musical  associates  that  which  likewise  met 
their  desire  for  "something  more  and  more  divine."  We  are  told  that 
the  people  from  Brook  Farm  often  walked  seven  miles  to  Boston  to  drink 
in  the  great  symphonies,  and  trudged  home  unconscious  of  fatigue,  happy 
in  the  joys  thus  experienced,  and  carrying  with  them  a  new  genius,  beau- 
tiful and  strong,  to  help  them  in  the  next  day's  labor.  These  people 
were  scoffed  at  by  their  more  pfosaic  neighbors,  but  they  did  much  to 
make  music  respected,  and  to  bring  its  merits,  as  one  of  the  humanities, 
to  the  attention  of  thoughtful  people.  Their  ideas  have  permeated  the 
thought  and  culture  of  our  entire  land.  In  the  fierce  heat  of  controversy 
which  they  aroused,  creeds  have  been  melted,  the  lines  of  demarcation 
between  sects  almost  obliterated,  great  national  wrongs  righted,  and  the 
brotherhood  of  man  more  firmly  established. 

From  these  beginnings  have  sprung  those  mighty  forces,  of  which 
music  is  not  the  least,  which  are  now  molding,  refining,  and  humanizing 
our  too  crude  and  boastful  civilization.  Great  reforms  are  the  product 
of  great  ideas ;  and  great  songs  are  the  living  embodiment  of  these  ideas. 
Great  music,  into  which  great  men  have  breathed  their  inmost  souls,  calls 
forth  lofty  thoughts  and  impulses,  and  often  renews  the  spirit  of  the  times. 
Music  is  the  most  fluid,  subtile,  and  sympathetic  of  all  arts.  It  is  a  bit  of 
heaven  upon  earth,  breathing  of  life  and  its  possibilities,  and  immortality 
and  its  joys.  Music,  therefore,  must  become  an  integral  part  of  our 
common,  our  atmospheric  education.  It  must  be  made  the  people's 
possession,  not  alone  a  source  of  enjoyment  and  cultivation,  but  a  mighty 
means  for  a  mighty  end  —  the  upbuilding  and  strengthening  of  this  great 
American  nation.  Music  has  ever  been  a  potent  agent  in  civilization. 
We  Americans  are  a  conglomerate  people,  "half-brothers  of  the  world, 
with  something  good  and  bad  of  every  land,"  and  we  need  music  more 
than  any  other  nation.  We  need  some  ever-present,  far-reaching,  potent 
influence,  which  shall  weld  into  one  mighty  whole  these  different  elements 
of  our  national  character,  subdue  our  self-assertion,  round  off  the  sharp 
corners,  and  efface  our  glaring  inconsistencies ;  that  shall  sweeten  the 
bitterness  engendered  by  the  conflict  of  opinion,  temper  party  strife,  and 
pervade  the  masses;  bringing  out  the  genial  humanity  of  each  individual, 
and  freeing  him  from  the  thralldom  of  party,  creed,  or  fashion — an  influence 


Sessions]  INFLUENCE  OF  MUSIC  UPON  NATIONAL  LIFE  151 

that  shall  give  us  a  proper  conception  of  the  meaning  of  the  word  "  freedom  ; " 
that  shall  teach  us  that  freedom  is  not  license,  but  a  source  of  action 
governed  by  certain  fixed  laws ;  that  the  highest  freedom,  and  that  which 
should  be  the  real  motive  for  the  assertion  of  our  individuality,  takes 
cognizance  of  the  laws  of  divine  order  and  unity;  that, 

"True  freedom  is  to  share 
All  the  chains  our  brothers  wear. 
And,  with  heart  and  hand,  to  be 
Earnest  to  make  others  free." 

But  this  very  spirit  of  freedom  must  be  properly  restrained,  or  it  will 
rush  to  its  own  destruction.  It  must  be  controlled  by  some  gentler,  more 
harmonious,  more  humanizing  agency,  which  shall  pervade  the  whole 
mass  of  the  people  with  a  beautiful  enthusiasm,  and  a  deep  reverence  tor 
something  far  above  themselves  —  something  beautiful  and  pure,  which 
will  waken  the  sleeping  ideality  in  their  souls,  and  lift  them  above  the 
dead  level  of  daily  life  and  toil.  Legal  enactment  or  stern  prohibition 
cannot  exert  this  power.  It  must  be  something  which  shall  touch  that 
part  of  human  nature  from  which  the  actions  spring;  something  which 
shall  put  into  the  soul  higher  motives  and  broader  sympathies.  What  can 
do  all  this,  and  do  it  so  effectually,  as  music  ?  What  can  so  quickly 
magnetize  a  people  into  harmony  of  thought  and  action  as  this  divine 
art  ? 

The  more  prosaic  and  sordid  a  man's  life  and  daily  occupation,  the 
more  he  needs  the  outlooks  and  leadings  to  a  higher  life.  The  more  he 
dwells  among  things,  the  greater  his  need  of  contact  with  a  spirit  greater 
than  mere  things ;  the  material  life  must  touch  the  immaterial ;  the  body 
must  have  an  indwelling  soul  with  aspirations  and  affinities,  with  a  life 
above  and  beyond  the  routine  of  everyday  life.  The  solution  of  our  labor 
problems  will  speedily  be  reached  when  we  come  to  realize  that  the  need  of 
the  millions  of  toilers  in  our  land  is  soul-expansion,  and  the  ennobling, 
revivifying  influence  of  pure  joy.  When  these  people  learn  to  look  for  a 
larger,  freer  life,  not  so  much  in  their  toil,  or  party,  or  creed  (for  these 
all  have  their  limitations),  but  in  themselves,  in  that  part  of  their  being 
which  can  rise  above  mere  circumstances  and  surroundings,  and  live  and 
enjoy,  then  will  they  become  more  happy  and  contented.  They  need  to 
taste  this  better,  broader  life;  and  has  not  this  life  come  to  thousands 
of  us,  and  to  thousands  of  others,  while  listening  to  music,  or  while  join- 
ing our  voices  in  some  thrilling  chorus,  that  seemed  to  make  the  very 
heavens  open  and  to  give  us  a  glimpse  of  the  divine?  We  simply  must 
look  to  music  to  help  us  in  this  good  work  of  providing  soul-expansion 
for  the  masses ;  it  is  an  appeal  to  which  we  are  all  open  ;  in  music  we  can 
forget  ourselves;  we  can  blend  into  good  fellowship  and  friendship  when 
we  listen  or  sing  together;  when  our  emotions  are  permitted  to  express 
themselves  in  their  own  language,  and  our  baser  natures  are  silenced. 


152  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [General 

We  believe  that  when  the  genius  of  song  crowns  the  gospel  of  work 
there  will  be  fewer  strikes,  the  grimy  faces  will  be  less  haggard,  the  tense 
muscles  will  lose  their  rigidity :  under  the  unconscious  influence  of 
beauty,  harmony,  and  rhythm,  labor  will  be  more  cheerfully,  more  faith- 
fully performed. 

The  influence  of  music  in  our  schools  at  this  time  supports  our  argu- 
ments and  presages  much  for  the  future.  Wherever  music  is  a  part  of  the 
regular  curriculum  the  culture  and  influence  of  that  school  are  being 
uplifted.  Coercive  discipline  is  superseded  by  happy  self-control.  The 
pupils  are  acquiring  elasticity  of  spirit,  joy  in  harmonious  co-operation, 
in  the  blending  of  life  with  life;  a  rhythmical  sense  of  order,  a  quickening 
of  the  ear  and  senses,  a  new  and  deeper  respect  for  the  rights  of  others, 
and  a  loftier  patriotism.  We  of  older  growth  may  not  be  as  amenable  to 
such  influences  as  the  children,  but  in  so  far  as  we  place  ourselves  within 
the  reach  of  this  mighty  agent  shall  we  be  benefited  and  helped. 

After  all,  freedom,  to  the  average  American,  is  not  a  reality,  but  a 
myth.  We  are  so  enterprising,  so  unceasing  in  our  pursuit  of  the  means 
of  living,  that  we  have  no  time  to  live.  We  are  veritable  slaves  to  business, 
and  to  a  barren  theory  of  discipline,  ^/j^////«^,  unrelenting  discipline. 
We  still  cling  to  the  old  Puritanic  idea  of  self-repression,  and  are  afraid 
to  give  ourselves  up  to  the  happy  instincts  of  our  natures.  The  paths  of 
business,  fashion,  intellectual  advancement,  and  even  religion  are  clearly 
;mapped  out  for  us,  and  woe  unto  him  who  dares  to  leave  the  beaten 
Irack ! 

We  lack  the  knowledge  of  the  art  of  living ;  we  lack  geniality  ;  we  do 
not  even  know  the  true  meaning  of  the  words.  Living,  to  many,  is  a 
synonym  for  existence,  while  geniality  is  a  part  of  some  forgotten  language. 
This  last  word  comes  from  the  same  root  as  the  word  "genius,"  and  we  all 
know  that  genius  is  a  spontaneous  thing,  which 

"  Soars  —  it  does  not  need  to  climb  — 
Upon  God-given  wings  to  heights  sublime  ; " 

that  it  contributes  to  and  sympathizes  with  enjoyment,  excites  pleasure, 
and  reconciles  it  with  loyalty  to  conscience,  and  with  universal,  holy,  and 
disint^ested  purposes.  If  our  civilization  endures  or  progresses,  this  ele- 
ment must  enter  more  largely  into  our  national  character.  We  must  live 
more,  think  more, /<?<?/  more.  The  garb  of  business,  the  stamp  of  party 
or  profession,  must  be  laid  aside,  and  our  lives  must  become  more  genial, 
more  responsive  to  the  demands  of  our  higher  natures. 

"  So  far  as  it  is  a  matter  of  culture,  it  is  through  art  that  this  genial  era  must  be  ushered 
in,  and  music  offers  itself  as  the  most  available,  the  most  popular,  the  most  influential,  of 
all  the  fine  arts.  It  possesses  the  nature  and  ability  to  unite  and  blend  and  harmonize 
all  who  may  come  within  its  sphere. 

"  It  nourishes  and  feeds  the  hidden  springs  of  hope,  love,  and  faith  ;  renews  the  old 
convictions  of  life's  springtime  :  that  the  world  is  ruled  by  love,  that  God  is  good,  and 
that  beauty  is  a  divine  end  of  life. 


Sessions]  INFLUENCE  OF  POETRY  IN  EDUCATION  153 

"  It  floods  out  of  sight  the  unsightly,  muddy  grounds  of  life's  petty,  anxious,  doubting 
moments,  and  makes  immortality  a  present  fact,  lived  in  and  realized.  It  locks  the  door 
against  the  outer  world  of  discords,  contradictions,  importunities,  beneath  the  notice  of  a 
soul  so  richly  occupied  ;  lets  'Fate  knock  at  the  door' — Fate  and  the  pursuing  Furies  — 
and  even  welcomes  them,  and  turns  them  into  gracious  goddesses,  Eumenides  !  When 
man  has  tasted  of  that  higher  life,  and  has  given  himself  up  to  it,  at  least  for  a  time,  until 
he  has  become  acclimated  to  it,  then  man,  no  matter  what  may  be  his  party  or  creed,  will 
belong  to  the  harmonic  and  anointed  bodyguard  of  peace,  fraternity,  and  good- will. 
His  instincts  have  all  caught  the  rhythm  of  that  holy  march,  and  the  good  genius  leads. 
Somehow  the  smallest  fiber,  the  most  infinitesimal  atoms  of  his  being,  are  magnetized  and 
attracted  to  the  pole  star  of  unity ;  he  has  grown  attuned  to  the  believing  mood,  just  as 
the  body  of  a  violin  or  the  walls  of  a  concert-room  become  gradually  seasoned  into 
smooth  vibration." 

When  the  individual  men  and  women  who  make  up  this  nation  have 
finally  grown  attuned  to  this  believing,  loving  mood  which  leads  to  the 
realization  of  the  brotherhood  of  man  in  its  highest  phases,  I  am  certain 
that  thoughtful  and  studious  men,  observing  and  understanding  the 
cause  and  effect,  will  say  that  much  of  this  result  is  due  to  the  influence 
of  music  upon  our  lives,  and  consequently  upon  the  life  of  the  nation. 


THE  INFLUENCE  OF  POETRY  IN  EDUCATION 

PRESIDENT    WILLIAM     M.     BEARDSHEAR,    STATE     COLLEGE    OF    AGRICULTURE 
AND    MECHANIC    ARTS,    AMES,    lA. 

In  its  widest  range  poetry  treats  of  nature,  man,  and  God.  There 
are  no  distinct  boundary  lines  separating  these.  Poetry  has  two 
essential  elements  —  one  is  thought  intensely  felt;  the  other  is  thought 
artfully  expressed.  It  has  its  fullest  fruition  when  these  are  happily 
blended.  "A  vein  of  poetry,"  says  Carlyle,  "  exists  in  the  hearts  of  all 
men.  No  man  is  made  altogether  of  poetry.  We  are  all  poets  when  we 
read  a  poem  well."  The  phenomena  of  human  experience  and  the  ideals 
of  poetry  and  nature  are  complementary  parts  of  an  arch  wanting  a  key- 
stone. Poetry  is  the  putting  in  of  the  keystone,  and,  like  Cicero's  con- 
ception of  reason,  it  is  the  chain  that  links  God  and  man.  The  true  aim 
of  poetry  is  variously  interpreted.     Professor  J.  C.  Shairp  says  : 

To  appeal  to  the  higher  side  of  human  nature,  and  to  strengthen  it,  to  come  to  its 
rescue  when  it  is  overcome  by  worldliness  and  material  interests,  to  support  it  by  great 
truths  set  forth  in  their  most  attractive  form  —  this  is  the  one  worthy  aim,  the  adequate 
end  of  all  poetic  endeavor,  and  this  it  does  by  expressing  in  beautiful  forms  and  melodious 
language  the  best  thoughts  and  the  noblest  feelings  which  the  spectacle  of  life  awakens 
in  the  finest  souls. 

Our  own  Steadman,  in  dedicating  the  first  chair  of  poetry  in  America, 
said:  "Poetry  is  rhythmical,  imaginative  language  expressing  the  inven- 
tion, taste,  thought,  passion,  and  insight  of  the  human  soul."  Poetry 
has  most  largely  to  do  with  the  realm  of  the  perfect,  altho  it  may  include 
jin    greater  or    less    degree    the   other   principles  of   rational    intuition. 


154  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [General 

Goethe  probably  had  this  relation  in  mind  when  he  said  :  "The  beautiful 
is  higher  than  the  good.  The  good  is  included  in  the  beautiful."  The 
worthiest  poetry  is  born  when  the  poet,  with  his  soul  high-wrought,  sees, 
as  in  a  new  vision,  the  harmonious  relation  that  nature  bears  to  the  human 
mind,  and  in  the  enrapture  of  the  inspired  scene  expresses  this  beauty  in 
melodious  and  truthful  language.  Every  thinker  remembers  what  new 
relations  of  truth  and  beauty  at  times  dawn  on  his  mind  with  the  dis- 
tinctiveness of  a  creation's  morn.  In  some  such  way  the  poet  grasps 
what  has  been  called  "the  open  secret"  of  the  universe.  "  Open  to  all," 
says  Carlyle,  "seen  by  almost  none."  The  untutored  savage  strolls  with 
stolid  indifference  amid  sublime  mountain  scenery,  along  wonderfully 
terraced  cafions,  and  down  beautiful,  musicful  woodland  streams ;  while 
he  who  approaches  these  scenes  with  the  life  of  an  artist  is  impassioned 
with  their  voiceful  thought  and  ravished  with  their  evolving  graces.  He 
who  sits  inattentive  in  a  great  auditorium  with  unnurtured  ear  may  not 
be  fit  for  treason,  stratagems,  and  spoils,  yet  his  smile  of  incredulity  is 
in  painful  contrast  with  the  inspirited  soul,  sunlit  by  the  truth  and 
exalted  with  the  sweet  harmony  of  a  grand  chorus  from  one  of  the 
masters.  St.  Augustine  once  said  :  "Being  thus  admonished  to  return  to 
myself,  I  entered  into  my  inner  self.  Thou  being  my  pride,  and  I  was 
able  to  do  so  because  Thou  wast  my  helper,  and  I  entered  and  beheld  the 
eye  of  my  soul  (such  as  it  was)  even  above  my  soul,  above  my  mind,  a 
light  unchangeable."  So  the  largest-minded  poet  approaches  nature, 
man,  and  God,  and  in  the  "light  unchangeable"  reveals  the  beauty  of 
higher,  exquisite  thought  and  skill. 

Such  an  environment  poetry  brings  to  education.  The  greatest 
force  of  the  schoolroom  and  of  the  world  is  personality.  An  inspirer 
must  be  inspired  in  turn.  Spirits  feed  on  spirits.  Poetry  furnishes  to 
the  educator  and  the  youth  ambrosial  food  essenced  from  earth,  air,  sky, 
man,  and  God.  Prince  Metternich  said  :  "  Revolutions  begin  in  the  best 
heads  and  run  steadily  down  to  the  populace."  The  most  epochal  and 
marvelous  revolutions  of  history  occur  in  the  schoolroom.  The  evolu- 
tions of  civilization  come  thru  the  revolutions  of  the  brain  of  some 
masterful  teacher  or  character.  "  Alexander  [the  Great]  left  his  school- 
master, living  Aristotle,  behind  him,  but  took  dead  Homer  with  him," 
sleeping  with  a  copy  under  his  pillow  every  night  because  in  the  charac- 
ters of  Achilles,  Ulysses,  Nestor,  Ajax,  and  Hector  he  found  fortitude, 
heroism,  and  virtue  more  forcefully  taught  than  was  possible  in  the  acute, 
cold  abstractions, of  Aristotle.  Some  books  are  the  livest  things  in  the 
world,  and  of  such  poetry  furnishes  the  largest  proportion,  for  "  poets  are 
the  rulers  of  men's  spirits  more  than  the  philosophers,  whether  mental  or 
physical." 

Poetry  brings  to  education  a  universal  language.  Some  months  ago, 
standing  by  trees  on  the  banks  of  a  South  American  river,  environed  by 


I 


k 


Sessions]  WFLUENCE  OF  POETRY  TN  EDUCATION  15S 

flowers  of  most  exquisite  loveliness  and  fragrance,  were  several  Spaniards 
and  an  American.  We  didn't  know  each  other's  language,  but  there  was 
a  language  in  the  beauty  of  the  coloring  and  the  inspiration  of  the  per- 
fume that  kindled  our  emotions  with  a  mutual  spirit  of  a  universal  lan- 
guage. Those  flowers  were  both  English  and  Spanish,  and  beside  us  we 
might  have  selected  representatives  of  all  the  tongues  of  the  earth,  and 
they  in  turn  would  have  understood  this  mother-tongue  in  the  flowers  of 
God.  So  with  the  kingdom  of  men  :  in  the  profoundest  depths  of  charac- 
ter are  written  by  the  Almighty  the  elemental  principles  of  universality. 
As  the  poet  in  the  meanest  flower  that  blows  could  find  thoughts  even 
too  deep  for  tears,  so  in  the  humblest  creature  among  the  children  of 
men  there  are  thoughts  superlative  and  profoundly  too  deep  for  tears. 
The  poet  is  to  this  universal  language  in  inspirational  verbiage  much  like 
the  epistles  of  the  saints  —  known  and  read  of  all  men.  Tennyson,  in 
his  "In  Memoriam,"  reaches  the  deepest  depths  of  the  soul's  experience 
in  severance  from  its  friend.  Heights  and  depths  of  human  experience, 
like  Victor  Hugo's  intellectual  primacies,  have  no  secondaries,  but  all  are 
equals.  In  the  sublimities  and  profundities  of  "  In  Memoriam"  is  a  lan- 
guage common  to  all  tongues  of  men.  Wordsworth,  "the  whole  world's 
darling,"  with  his  triune  theme,  nature,  man,  and  God,  has  disclosed  the 
universal  mind  teeming  thru  all  matter,  and  translated  earth,  sky,  wood- 
lands, lakes,  animal,  man,  and  Deity  with  characters  universal  as  love  of 
truth  and  beauty,  and  hallowed  as  a  scripture  from  heaven.  Milton 
fathoms  the  human  soul  to  its  ocean  beds  with  a  plummet  line  of  poetic 
thought,  revealing  the  war  of  the  spirits  in  heaven  and  the  wars  of  the 
spirits  of  earth  so  fully  that  the  human  tragedy,  as  perpetual  as  the  life 
of  the  race  of  man,  of  paradise  lost  and  paradise  regained,  longs  for  no 
other  master-portrayal  in  the  annals  of  time,  and  has  contributed  beyond 
compare  to  the  securement  of  his  own  definition  of  education,  as  fitting  a 
man  to  "perform  justly,  skillfully,  and  magnanimously  all  the  offices  of 
life,  both  public  and  private,  in  peace  and  in  war." 

Poetry  reveals  the  uncommonness  in  the  common  things  of  everyday 
environment.  The  Millers,  the  Locks,  and  the  Mannings,  not  only  in 
the  landscapes  of  Emerson's  description,  but  in  all  portions  of  the  earth, 
have  an  eye  and  a  desire  largely  for  the  harvest's  grain,  while  a  revealer 
of  nature  will  find  a  property  in  the  horizon,  an  integration  of  field  and 
woodland,  to  which  warranty  deeds  give  no  title.  One  man  looks  on  the 
modest  humblebee  of  the  meadow  merely  as  fit  for  a  dog  to  snap  or  a 
foot  to  crush  into  the  earth,  while  the  man  who  sees  and  understands 
with  the  poet  this  "  yellow-breeched  philosopher  "  will  have  to  tell  him 
"Of  Syrian  peace,  immortal  leisure, 
Firmest  cheer,  and  bird-like  pleasure." 

A  humble  birch  tree  seems  of  little  worth,  especially  to  the  ax  of  the 
woodman,  but  a  seer  of  nature  can  stand  in  its  presence  and  find  the 
thought-keys  of  many  sylvan  revelations  as  he  addresses  it : 


156  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [General 

"Thou  art  to  me  like  my  beloved  maiden, 
So  frankly  coy,  so  full  of  trembly  confidences : 
Thy  shadow  scarce  seems  shade,  thy  pattering  leaflets 
Sprinkle  their  gathered  sunshine  o'er  my  senses, 
And  Nature  gives  me  all  her  summer  confidences." 

The  water-fowl  is  an  object  of  smallest  attention  upon  the  part  of 
most  people.  A  few  gather  around  it  the  pleasure  of  the  hunt,  but  to 
him  who  in  the  love  of  nature  holds  communion  with  her  visible  forms 
this  humble  water-fowl  becomes  a  thoughtful  messenger  of  the  highest 
destiny,  and  the  poet  sees  that 

"  He  who,  from  zone  to  zone. 
Guides  through  the  boundless  sky  thy  certain  flight. 

In  the  long  way  that  I  must  tread  alone, 
Will  lead  my  steps  aright." 

The  chambered  nautilus  to  the  general  observer  is  but  a  small  object 
of  idle  curiosity  ;  to  the  scientist  a  mere  specimen  of  a  once  abundant  race 
of  mollusks ;  but  to  the  poet  —  and  we  are  all  poets,  only,  like  the  stars  in 
glory,  differing  in  magnitude — this  mollusk  becomes  a  child  of  thewander- 
ing  sea,  to  call  forth  thanks  for  a  heavenly  message,  as  thru  the  deep  cave 
of  thought  he  hears  a  voice  that  sings  : 

"Build  thee  more  stately  mansions,  my  soul. 
As  the  swift  seasons  roll ! 
Leave  thy  low-vaulted  past ! " 

The  mind  as  emotion  is  a  kind  of  understanding  that  often  penetrates 
farther  into  truth  than  the  emotions  will  furnish  adequate  words  to  unfold 
and  express.  The  poet  is  a  philosopher  by  seership.  Some  minds  can 
tell  more  than  they  know,  and  others  know  more  than  they  can  tell. 
Poetry  leads  men  to  see,  but  does  not  deal  with  conduct ;  yet  to  succeed  it 
must  deal  with  life  morally.  Like  the  Holy  Scriptures,  it  does  not  give 
-ologies,  but  furnishes  the  philosophies  of  all  life.  The  poet  is  able  to 
give  these  emotions  interwebbed  of  the  soul  a  language  fit  to  their 
intrinsic  worth.  This  is  why  the  songs  of  a  nation  outweigh  its  laws. 
The  churches  have  sung  more  truth  into  the  people  than  they  have 
preached.  Keble's  "  Christian  Year "  in  the  devotions  of  the  church 
ranks  equal  with  the  "  Imitations  of  Christ."  Patriotism  thru  the  poets 
has  sung  itself  into  the  lives  and  hearts  of  this  American  people  credit- 
ably with  polemics  and  wars  made  in  defense  of  our  institutions.  It 
ministers  to  child  and  man  alike.  The  poet  takes  many  of  our  emotions 
that  are  languageless  and  gives  them  a  vocabulary  of  their  own.  Authors 
and  publishers  who  are  producing  and  collecting  poetry  for  the  youth, 
relating  to  love  of  country,  love  of  nature,  man,  and  heaven,  are  world- 
formers  into  a  higher  life.  * 

Poetry  brings  the  priesthood  of  nature  into  education.  Poetry  edu- 
cates by  revelation  and  illumination.  From  a  single  bird's  nest  is  inter- 
preted a  poetic  beauty  for  all  bird  nests  as  the  poet  enhancingly  sings  : 


Sessions]  INFLUENCE  OF  POETRY  IN  EDUCATION  I57 

An  oft  unintruding  guest, 

I  watched  her  secret  toils  from  day  to  day ; 
How  true  she  warped  the  moss  to  form  the  nest, 

And  modeled  it  within  with  wood  and  clay. 
And  by  and  by,  like  heath-bells  gilt  with  dew. 

There  lay  her  shining  eggs  as  bright  as  flowers. 
Ink-spotted  over,  shells  of  green  and  blue  : 

And  there  I  witnessed  in  the  summer  hours 
A  brood  of  Nature's  minstrels  chirp  and  fly. 
Glad  as  the  sunshine  and  the  laughing  sky. 

A  spring  morning  is  a  wide-flung  portal  to  heaven's  palace-gate,  and 
Wordsworth  gives  form  to  the  language  of  your  heart : 

But  now  the  sun  is  rising  calm  and  bright : 
The  jay  makes  answer  as  the  magpie  chatters, 
And  all  the  air  is  filled  with  pleasant  sound  of  waters ; 
All  things  that  love  the  sun  are  out  of  doors. 

And  likewise  Celia  Thaxter  : 

For  who  the  pleasure  of  spring  shall  tell, 
When  on  the  leafless  stalk  the  brown  buds  swell, 
When  the  grass  brightens  and  the  days  grow  long, 
And  little  birds  break  out  in  rippling  song  ? 

Who  that  from  childhood  has  been  in  love  with  the  honest  counte- 
nance, cheerful  manner,  brave  spirit,  and  soulfully  sweet  notes  of  the 
bluebird,  calling  to  mind  how  the  old  home  garden  looked,  and  feeling 
anew  the  summer  air  of  the  days  of  his  singing, 

"  When  earth  seemed  heaven  with  buds  and  bloom. 
South  wind  and  sunshine  and  perfume," 

—  who  that  has  thus  experienced  feels  not  helped  by  heavenly  ministry 
thru  the  poet  as  he  verses : 

Never  was  sweeter  music  — 

Sunshine  turned  into  song. 
To  set  us  dreaming  of  summer. 

When  the  days  and  the  dreams  are  long. 
Winged  lute  that  we  call  a  bluebird. 

You  blend  in  a  silver  strain 
The  sound  of  the  laughing  waters,  , 

The  patter  of  spring's  sweet  rain. 
The  voice  of  the  wind,  the  sunshine. 

And  fragrance  of  blossoming  things. 
Ah !  you  are  a  poem  of  April, 

That  God  endowed  with  wings. 

Then  take  the  experience  of  outdoor  life  when  a  child  first  draws  off 
his  shoes  in  spring,  and  coatless  and  hatless  skips  over  the  greensward : 

"  No  fountain  from  its  rocky  cave 
E'er  tripped  with  foot  so  free  ; 
She  seemed  as  happy  as  a  wave. 
That  dances  on  the  sea." 


158  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [General 

Poetry  greatly  influences  education  because  it  not  only  gives  us  a 
language  for  our  holiest  emotions,  but  it  also  awakens  our  senses  to  new 
truths  and  beauties.  This  awakening  sense  we  enjoy  in  the  writer  or  the 
orator  who  tells  us  not  all  that  we  know,  or  only  what  we  know,  but  drops 
a  seed-corn  of  truth  into  the  mind.  Suggestion  is  first  child  to  creation. 
Matthew  Arnold  has  said  :  "  The  great  power  of  poetry  is  this  interpreta- 
tive power  by  which  ....  we  feel  ourselves  to  be  in  contact  with  the 
essential  nature  of  these  objects,  to  be  no  longer  bewildered  and 
oppressed  by  them,  but  to  have  their  secret,  to  be  in  harmony  with  them." 
The  poet  possessing 

"  Heaven's  gift  and  sense  with  thoughts  made  to  perceive 
Objects  unseen  before  " 

may  do  this  by  putting  old  truths  in  new  lights,  and  in  this  light  disclos- 
ing still  newer  things.  Hebrew  poetry  is  a  "speaking  picture"  that  every- 
where awakens  new  energies  of  the  soul;  "  truly  as,"  says  Philip  Sidney, 
"the  holy  David's  Psalms  are  a  divine  poem."  Homer  painted  true  to 
nature  characters  that  led  the  heroic  in  fields  of  renown  for  centuries, 
and  they  are  still  appreciable  to  man.  Dante  in  his  Divina  Cointnedia 
took  the  Christian  mediations  of  over  ten  centuries  as  to  the  destiny 
and  worth  of  life  here  and  hereafter,  and  thru  making  himself  lean  he 
made  others  rich  in  all  goodly  virtue  by  his  mystic,  unfathomable  song. 
The  exclamation  of  the  Veronese,  "  See  there  is  the  man  that  was  in 
hell,"  attests  the  soulful,  earnest,  and  fathomless  sincerity  and  truthful- 
ness of  things  that  will  teach  and  inspire,  not  only  one  century,  but 
centuries.  Shakespeare  took  the  fossil  history  of  his  age,  and  from  scat- 
tered remnants,  like  Cuvier  who  reformed  an  animal  from  a  single  bone, 
he  fills  with  wondrous  completeness  the  separate  histories  of  the  past, 
according  them  closely  with  sense  and  philosophy.  He  does  more ;  like 
the  dry  bones  in  Ezekiel's  vision  that  gained  anew  sinew,  flesh,  and  breath, 
he  has  given  with  the  inspiration  of  the  spirits  the  breath  of  life  to  these 
comparatively  insignificant  fossils  of  history,  so  that  they  stand  upon  their 
feet  an  exceedingly  great  army,  a  lordly  spectacle  of  character,  which 
towers  in  the  intellectual  heavens  like  Horeb,  the  mount  of  God,  and 
around  which  have  gathered  the  tests  of  literary  criticism,  and  upon  which 
the  focalization  of  the  world's  best  thought  has  centered,  only  to  hush, 
to  cease,  and  to  give  way  in  admiration  to  the  myriad-minded  genius  of 
the  author  that  as, 

"  The  soul  of  Adonias  like  the  star, 
Beackons  from  the  abode  where  the  eternal  are." 

Milton  in  his  youth,  with  every  word  that  is  a  discovery,  gave  much 
of  the  bloom  and  fragrance  of  the  fields  whose  beauty  was  escaping  the 
people,  and  in  his  maturer  years  laid  tribute  on  the  entire  literary  world 
for  simile  and  illustration,  and  with  limitless  imagery  revealed  to  man 


Sessions]  INFL  UENCE  OF  POE  TR  V  IN  ED  UCA  TION  1 5  9 

things  on  earth,  in  hell,  and  from  heaven,  and  painted  characters  ranging 
from  Eve  in  whom 

Grace  was  in  every  step,  heauty  in  her  eye, 

In  every  motion  dignity  and  love, 

down  to  Satan  as  a  Leviathan  "slumbering  on  the  Norway  foam."  Walter 
Scott,  the  Homer  of  Scotland,  wove  the  folklore  of  his  native  highlands 
into  rhythm  and  song  that  made  hitherto  silent  places  speak  with  meaning, 
and  preserved  for  generations  with  his  choicest  minstrelsy  the  feudal  and 
heroic  deeds  of  the  then  rapidly  receding  past. 

And  the  time  would  fail  me  to  speak  of  the  influences  in  education 
of  Bryant,  the  druid  of  our  forests,  disclosing  choicest  beauties  of  our 
natural  life  and  scenery ;  of  Whittier,  pleading  for  a  free  people  and  our 
own  type  of  national  life;  of  Emerson,  in  his  independence  of  thought 
and  magnanimous  range  of  vision  and  depth  of  insight ;  of  Holmes,  in 
his  sparkling  melody  of  rostrum  and  drawing-room  ;  of  Taylor,  in  his 
spirit  of  cosmopolitanism  and  freedom  of  mountain  heights ;  of  Long- 
fellow, in  his  joys  and  duties  of  home  and  finer  instincts  of  everyday 
life ;  of  Lowell,  in  his  classical  humor,  heavenborn  passion,  and  generous 
optimism  of  verse ;  of  Whitman,  the  magnanimous  commoner,  the  com- 
rade supreme,  the  frankest  poet  of  all,  in  his  exaltation  of  the  body  and  the 
glorification  of  the  humblest  man  of  the  streets ;  of  Poe,  in  his  seership 
of  melancholy  and  despondency ;  of  Hart  and  Miller,  in  their  setting  of 
scenery  refreshing  as  the  air  of  the  Sierras  ;  and  of  the  many  humble  poets 
who  have  written  out  of  their  hearts  to  soothe  a  Longfellow  when  the  day 
is  done,  and  whose  thought, 

Blazoned  as  on  heaven's  immortal  dome. 
Leads  generations  on. 

Poetry  makes  a  vast  contribution  to  education  in  the  fostering  and 
development  of  sentiment.  A  wholesome  sentiment  is  the  offspring  of 
universal  truth  that  brought  our  fathers  and  mothers  to  honorable 
marriage,  makes  hallowed  our  boyhood  and  girlhood,  and  holds  us  in 
bonds  of  a  love  kindred  to  that  of  the  spirit  of  the  Father  in  the  skies. 
"  Human-heartedness  is  the  soil  from  which  oldest  thoughts  originally 
grew  and  are  continually  fed."  It  exalts  this  great  system  of  public 
education,  and  unites  the  youth  and  the  teachers  of  this  land  into  mighty 
forces  of  seventeen  millions  of  our  youth  in  the  schools  officered  by  four 
hundred  and  fifty  thousand  teachers.  Sentiment  expressed  in  poetry 
joins  country  and  town,  county  and  state,  state  and  nation,  into  one  great 
national  unity,  devoted  to  institutions  as  broad  as  the  rights  of  man,  as 
high  as  his  inspiration,  and  as  true  as  his  love  of  liberty.  Sentiment  is 
the  divine  power  that  has  made  poems  which  fired  mighty  warriors  and 
ennobled  more  powerfully  the  sensibilities  of  the  civilized  world  with  a 
truth  whose  fragrance  is  "as  pleasant  as  the  flowers  of  the  May."  It  is  a 
kindred  spirit  with  music,  "the  sphere-descended  maid  and  wisdom's  aid," 


l6o  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [General 

to  speed  thru  the  air  of  thousands  and  win  the  soul  of  a  higher  life. 
Poetry  is  eternal  truth  and  eternal  beauty,  with  Raphael's  Godlike  art 
that  pencils  figures  which  are  almost  the  natural  man,  and  empictures 
moods  of  earth  and  sky  in  creations  beautiful  and  inspirations  immortal. 
Poetry  cultivates  sentiment  that  drives  out  the  prejudices  and  bickerings 
and  sectionalisms,  the  faultings,  the  stabbings  of  words,  the  hatred  of 
black  hearts,  the  jealousies  of  small  minds,  the  wars  of  flesh  and  spirit, 
the  Hadean  abodes  of  the  black  angels  of  error  and  vice,  and  introduces 
a  magnanimousness  in  love  with  truth  in  all  creeds,  enamored  and 
enarmored  with  right  in  all  nations,  thrilled  with  the  beautiful  and  the 
good  of  all  classes,  and  proclaiming  not  only  the  state,  not  only  the 
nation,  as  the  supreme  idea  of  civilization,  but  demanding  that  the  race 
of  man  shall  issue  in  the  universal  brotherhood  of  mankind  at  peace  with 
each  other  and  at  war  with  vice  eternally. 


THE   VALUE  OE  ENGLISH  LITERATURE  IN  ETHICAL 

TRAINING 

REUBEN  POST  HALLECK,  PRINCIPAL  OF  BOYS'  HIGH  SCHOOL,  LOUISVILLE,  KV. 

What  is  it  to  follow  an  ethical  line  of  conduct  ?  English  literature, 
perhaps,  answers  this  question  better  than  ethics.  I  know  of  no  better 
answer  for  the  inquiring  young  mind  than  this  precept  from  Carlyle  : 
"Do  the  duty  which  lies  nearest  thee,  which  thou  knowest  to  be  a  duty; 
thy  second  duty  will  already  have  become  clearer."  Such  action  in  the 
direction  of  the  nearest  duty  has  marked  the  lives  of  those  whom  earth 
could  least  have  spared  —  men  like  Martin  Luther,  Oliver  Cromwell,  and 
George  Washington.  One  reason  why  the  words  of  Carlyle  had  such 
stimulating  power  was  because  they  awoke  drowsy  human  beings  to  the 
consciousness  that  there  is  a  duty  lying  next  to  everyone  —  next  to  the 
schoolboy,  next  to  the  teacher,  next  to  you  and  to  me. 

It  was  a  moral  achievement  for  Carlyle,  instead  of  sicklying  ethics 
over  with  the  pale  cast  of  thought,  to  impress  on  youth  the  duty  of  doing 
the  thing  that  lies  next,  of  settling  doubt  by  action.  We  can  still  hear 
his  clarion  voice  commanding  a  hesitating  age  : 

Produce !  produce  !  Were  it  but  the  pitifulest  infinitesimal  fraction  of  a  product, 
produce  it  in  God's  name  !     'Tis  the  utmost  thou  hast  in  thee,  out  with  it,  then ! 

We  hear  it  said  that  human  beings  are  sadly  irresponsive  to  moral 
stimuli.  The  truth  is  exactly  the  reverse.  There  is  not  another  class  of 
stimuli  to  which  humanity  is  as  sensitive.  An  intellectual  truth  often 
falls  on  dull  ears.  The  world  is  leaning  forward  to  listen  to  moral  truths. 
The  ages  have  consigned  to  oblivion  the  most  of  the  literature  of  the 
intellect.  Such  literature  has  paled,  like  the  lost  Pleiad  who  was  wedded 
to   mortality,   but  those    productions  that  are  ennobled   with    enduring 


Sessions]  VALUE  OF  LITERATURE  IN  ETHICAL  TRAINING  l6i 

moral  truths  still  shed  their  sweet  influence,  like  the  group  of  sister- 
Pleiads  who  were  wedded  to  the  immortals.  It  may  be  that  a  smaller 
number  can  communicate  to  the  world  a  moral  stimulus.  It  may  be  more 
difficult  to  mine  diamonds  than  iron,  but  it  will  not  do  to  say  that  moral 
diamonds  go  unappreciated.  The  world  never  has  neglected  luminous 
moral  teaching  any  more  than  the  flowers  have  neglected  the  sun.  Is 
there  a  person  in  this  audience  who  would  not  uncover  his  head  quicker 
at  the  grave  of  George  Washington  than  of  Sir  Isaac  Newton  ?  Is  there  one 
who  would  not  feel  a  deeper  throb  at  the  grave  of  Abraham  Lincoln  than 
at  the  grave  of  Charles  Darwin  ?  Even  the  erring  queen  in  the  Idylls  of 
the  King  finds  that  our  human  nature  is  so  fashioned  that  "we  needs  must 
love  the  highest  when  we  see  it." 

The  teacher  and  the  pupil  should  remember  that  there  is  ethical  train- 
ing in  every  mastered  subject  that  presents  difficulties  to  be  overcome. 
Some  teachers  and  some  parents  insist  that  all  chance  for  moral  develop- 
ment be  eliminated  from  the  curriculum  ;  that  everything  be  made  plain, 
easy  sailing  for  the  child  ;  that  every  difficulty,  every  subject  of  dislike, 
be  removed  ;  that  we  have  no  more  of  the  hardships  and  rigors  that  devel- 
oped those  wonderful  characteristics  in  our  forefathers  who  settled  New 
England  and  the  Carolinas.  Do  the  teachers  and  parents  forget  that  we 
enjoy  this  republic  today  only  because  the  moral  power  of  those  who 
founded  it  was  so  great  that  even  we  can  faintly  realize  it  ?  Shall  we 
forget  the  difficulties  that  rocked  the  cradle  of  this  moral  power  ?  Shall 
we  forget  the  cold,  the  hunger,  the  savages,  the  absence  of  every  con- 
venience that  pampers  the  child  of  today  ?  Shall  we  forget  that  the 
soldiers  who  won  their  independence  were  often  without  clothing  or  food 
or  shelter  in  the  wintry  storm  ?  Shall  we  forget  that  these  men  could  have 
been  tracked  by  the  blood  from  their  bare  feet  upon  the  frozen  ground  ? 
Can  it  be  that  the  teachers  of  the  children  of  such  ancestry  will  today 
remove  every  difficulty  from  their  path?  Can  it  be  that  parents  will 
allow  children  to  drop  studies  the  moment  the  path  becomes  thickset 
with  difficulties,  the  moment  that  the  development  of  character  begins  ? 
Suppose  that  Washington  and  his  men  had  dropped  the  campaign  when 
they  encountered  that  awful  winter  at  Valley  Forge  !  What  is  the  use  of 
having  such  ancestral  ideas  as  these,  if  you  and  I  are  not  enthusiastic 
enough  to  see  that  they  become  a  cloud  by  day  and  a  pillar  of  fire  by  night 
in  the  horizon  of  every  youth  intrusted  to  our  charge  ? 

Not  every  study  is  equally  fitted  to  develop  moral  fiber.  None  of  the 
easy  studies,  so  palatable  to  children  who  whine  the  moment  they  have  to 
swim  for  their  moral  and  intellectual  lives,  will  develop  true  manhood 
and  womanhood.  Parents  may  declare  that  their  children  shall  have  a 
cloudless,  pleasant  youth,  but  a  greater  Parent  has  passed  the  immutable 
law  that  no  child  shall  reach  even  his  full  earthly  heritage  of  power  until 
he  has  been  trained  in  the  school  of  difficulty  and  hardship,  until  he  has 


1 62  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [General 

known  the  glory  of  rising  from  defeat.  And  that  Parent  made  that  law 
operative  on  his  own  Son.  The  thorny  path  and  the  thorny  crown  and. 
the  great  defeat  came  before  the  Easter  morning. 

I  would  introduce  children  in  their  middle  teens  to  some  of  the 
selected  poetry  of  Robert  Browning.  I  should  see  if  I  could  not  thereby 
develop  in  them  a  love  for  difificulties.  Much  of  his.  poetry  is  tonic  with 
that  love,  and  with  the  optimistic  belief  that  the  fighter  will  develop 
enough  muscle  to  win.  In  "Rabbi  Ben  Ezra"  Browning  introduces  the 
nineteenth-century  idea  of  growth  thru  effort  and  trial.  These  lines  are 
not  merely  cold  philosophy ;  they  incite  us  to  gird  on  our  armor  : 

Then,  welcome  each  rebuff 

That  turns  earth's  smoothness  rough, 
Each  sting  that  bids  nor  sit  nor  stand  but  go  ! 

Be  our  joy  three  parts  pain  ! 

Strive,  and  hold  cheap  the  strain  ; 
Learn  nor  account  the  pang ; 
Dare,  never  grudge  the  throe. 
****** 

He  fixed  thee  mid  this  dance 

Of  plastic  circumstance, 
This  Present,  thou,  forsooth,  would'st  fain  arrest : 

Machinery  just  meant 

To  give  thy  soul  its  bent, 
Try  thee  and  turn  thee  forth,  sufficiently  impressed. 

Even  to  the  last,  Browning's  ideal  is  one  of  conflict.  He  shrinks  not 
from  encountering  the  last  difficulty : 

Fear  death  ?  to  feel  the  fog  in  my  throat, 

The  mist  in  my  face. 
When  the  snows  begin,  and  the  blasts  denote 

I  am  nearing  the  place 
****** 
I  was  ever  a  fighter,  so  —  one  fight  more. 

The  best  and  the  last ! 

We  shall  take  leave  of  Browning  with  the  feeling  that  we  have  gained 
fresh  inspiration  to  effort.     He  had  for  his  ideal 

One  who  never  turned  his  back,  but  marched  breast  forward, 

Never  doubted  clouds  would  break  ; 
Never  dreamed,  tho'  right  were  worsted,  wrong  would  triumph. 
Held  we  fall  to  rise,  are  baffled  to  fight  better. 

Sleep  to  wake. 

The  greatest  aid  in  moral  development  is  the  formation  of  an  ideal. 

Browning  says : 

Al>,  but  a  man's  reach  should  exceed  his  grasp, 
Or  what's  a  heaven  for  ? 

Now,  in  order  to  reach  effectively  one  must  have  something  to  reach  for. 
That  something  is  the  ideal.  Desires  lie  in  the  direction  of  ideals.  Tell 
me  what  the  pupils  like,  and  I  can  tell  you  the  ideals  of  their  teachers  and 


Sessions]  VALUE  OF  LITERATURE  IN  ETHICAL  TRAINING  1 63 

homes.  Every  teacher  is  responsible  for  developing  in  his  pupils  a  well- 
ordered  system  of  desires  —  desires  for  things  that  are  lasting,  that  aid  in 
the  development  of  the  higher  nature.  I  sometimes  enjoy  asking  students 
of  various  schools  what  they  like.  Not  infrequently  the  replies  indicate  a 
teacher  or  a  home  with  high  ideals.  Neither  you  nor  I  can  give  to  the 
young  what  we  do  not  possess.  If  we  have  no  glorious  ideals  ourselves, 
we  shall  communicate  no  magnetic  influence  to  those  around  us.  Our 
pupils  will  aspire  no  higher  than  to  become  hewers  of  wood  and  drawers 
of  water,  and  alas,  they  will  spoil  the  wood  in  the  hewing  and  spill  the 
water  in  the  drawing. 

There  are  two  sources  for  ideals.  The  world  around  us  furnishes  one 
and  literature  the  other.  The  teacher  cannot  escape  being  an  ideal  for 
the  pupil.  It  may  bore  the  teacher  to  be  compelled  to  play  that  r61e,  but 
the  teacher  who  is  unwilling  should  leave  the  profession.  Some  of  you 
may  worry  because  your  pupils  think  that  you  are  wiser  and  more  per- 
fect than  you  are.  I  hope  that  they  do  think  so,  and  I  thank  God  for 
that.  Let  us  be  honest  with  our  pupils ;  but  if  they  will  build  vast  ideal 
structures  on  our  very  slight  suggestions,  let  us  be  thankful  for  the  mighty 
power  of  suggestion.  We  teachers  can  no  more  escape  serving  as  ideals 
for  the  youth  of  this  country  than  we  can  avoid  the  influence  of  gravity. 
An  excellent  old  teacher  said  to  me :  "  I  never  knew  that  I  had  so  many 
faults  until  I  went  into  those  schools  where  my  former  pupils  were  teach- 
ing." He  saw  that  his  own  faults  had  become  imbedded  in  the  person- 
ality of  the  teachers,  but  he  might  also  have  seen  that  it  was  due  to  him 
that  these  faults  were  offset  by  so  many  excellences.  Neither  you  nor  I 
entirely  like  the  responsibility  of  furnishing  the  ideals  for  the  future 
guidance  of  this  republic,  but  let  us  recognize  that  responsibility  like 
men  and  women.     Such  recognition  should  prove  our  strongest  ideal 

"  To  serve  as  model  for  the  mighty  world, 
And  be  the  fair  beginning  of  a  time." 

I  think  that  all  of  us  recognize  the  need  of  having  the  models  that  we 
furnish  supplemented  by  the  great  ideals  that  are  enshrined  in  literature. 
Magicians  as  we  are  before  our  audience  of  youth,  we  shall  often  find  it 
necessary,  like  the  famous  Houdin,  to  draw  off  their  attention  from  us  to 
something  else,  to  other  actors,  when  we  wish  to  present  remarkable 
deeds.  We  may  call  to  the  stage  a  long  line  of  ideal  characters,  from 
Chaucer's  Parish  Priest  to  Tennyson's  King  Arthur. 

Literature,  whether  historical  or  imaginative,  focuses  the  ideals  of  all 
the  ages.  We  are  no  longer  swayed  merely  by  such  ideals  as  our  imme- 
diate neighborhood  or  few  acquaintances  suggest.  We  all  may  sit  down 
at  the  round  table  of  the  ages,  in  company  with  all  the  knightly  figures  of 
the  world.  It  is  well  that  we  can  pass  from  our  own  narrow  circle  to  the 
great  historic  figures,  and  that  we  can  supplement  the  ideals  of  history  with 
those  of  imaginative  literature.     Too  often  do  the  heroes  of  history,  like 


1 64  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [General 

Julius  Csesar,  Marlborough,  and  Napoleon,  embody  objectionable  qualities. 
It  is  the  business  of  the  imagination  to  alter  the  ideals  as  they  are  actually 
incorporated  in  human  beings.  The  imagination  can  subtract,  add,  com- 
bine, re-create.  It  can  subtract  the  selfishness  from  Napoleon  and  leave 
his  divine  energy.  It  can  add  to  Julius  Csesar  the  moral  patriotism  of 
Alfred  the  Great.  Tennyson  could  combine  the  bravery,  perseverance, 
purity,  and  forgiveness  of  a  dozen  of  nature's  noblemen  and  fashion  for 
us  the  knightly  ideal  of  King  Arthur,  who  set  the  example  to  that  fair 
"Order  of  the  Table  Round," 

To  ride  abroad  redressing  human  wrongs, 
To  speak  no  slander,  no,  nor  listen  to  it, 
To  honor  his  own  word  as  if  his  God's. 

And  Shakespeare  could  re-create  the  types  of  womanhood  that  he  had  seen 
in  Warwickshire  and  fashion  them  into  his  Portias,  Imogens,  Perditas, 
and  Cordelias. 

When  we  say  that  we  ought  to  pursue  a  certain  course,  what  do  we 
mean  ?  The  term  "ought"  signifies  a  rule  of  action  which  my  ideal  self 
has  prescribed  to  guide  my  real  self.  If  we  have  no  ideal  self  to  serve  as 
a  guide  toward  those  higher  regions  for  which  every  soul  should  strive, 
then  we  ourselves  demonstrate  that  reversion  to  a  lower  type  is  an  accom- 
plished fact.  The  man  who  has  no  ideal  cannot  progress ;  he  will 
gravitate  toward  the  animals.  Browning  tells  us  that  the  ascending  man 
"creeps  ever  on  from  fancies  to  the  fact."  This  is  psychologically  cor- 
rect. The  fancy,  the  image,  the  ideal  must  precede  the  fact  that  is  sug- 
gested. The  Brooklyn  bridge,  the  Atlantic  cable,  existed  in  the  mind  of 
the  projector  before  they  became  realities.     Browning  continues  : 

And  in  this  striving,  this  converting  air 

Into  a  solid  he  may  grasp  and  use, 

Finds  progress,  man's  distinctive  mark  alone, 

Not  God's,  and  not  the  beasts',  God  is,  they  are, 

Man  partly  is  and  wholly  hopes  to  be. 

In  the  light  of  this,  Wordsworth's  "  moving  about  in  worlds  not 
realized"  is  perfectly  intelligible.  Everyone  of  us  is  moving  about  in  a 
world  not  yet  realized,  but  in  one  that  we  hope  some  day  to  realize. 

It  would  be  difficult  to  estimate  the  power  of  the  great  poets  in  refin- 
ing, broadening,  and  ennobling  the  ideals  of  those  who  have  been  brought 
under  their  influence.  Goethe  asks  :  "  Who  but  the  poet  was  it  that  first 
formed  gods  for  us ;  that  exalted  us  to  them,  and  brought  them  down  to 
us?"     And  Tennyson  says  : 

I  held  it  truth,  with  him  who  sings 

To  one  clear  harp  in  diverse  tones. 
That  men  may  rise  on  stepping-stones 

Of  their  dead  selves  to  higher  things. 

That  is  the  highest  mission  of  the  poet,  to  enable  men  to  rise  on  stepping- 
stones  of  their  dead  selves  to  higher  things. 


Sessions]  vAlUE  OF  LITERATURE  IN  ETHICAL  TRAINING  165 

The  closing  years  of  the  nineteenth  century  have  emphasized  the 
social  side  of  man's  nature.  To  emphasize  the  social  without  the  ethical 
is  to  leave  Hamlet  out  of  the  play.  As  population  increases,  men  are 
jostled  more  closely  together,  and  their  moral  relations  with  each  other 
become  more  important.  In  the  nomadic  state  men  see  but  little  of  each 
other,  but  they  can  be  fully  developed  only  by  means  of  each  other,  only 
by  the  interplay  of  social  forces.  Adherents  of  all  schools  are  agreed  that 
obedience  to  moral  law  will  become  more  and  more  necessary  as  the 
pressure  of  population  increases. 

Ruskin  saw  whither  the  social  world  would  drift  if  the  sun  of  moral 
law  did  not  hold  it  in  its  orbit.  He  heard  the  voice  of  distressed  human- 
ity calling,  and  he  left  all  and  followed  the  example  of  his  Master. 
Ruskin  is  the  great  nineteenth-century  exponent  of  noble  social  ideals. 
From  the  way  they  were  at  first  received  he  feared  that  they  were  doomed 
to  failure,  when  he  wrote  : 

Because  I  have  passed  my  life  in  almsgiving,  not  in  fortune-hunting ;  because  I  have 
labored  always  for  the  honor  of  others,  not  of  my  own  .  .  .  . ;  because  I  have  lowered 
my  rents,  and  assured  the  comfortable  lives  of  my  poor  tenants,  instead  of  taking  from 
them  all  I  could  force  for  the  roofs  they  needed ;  because  I  love  a  wood-walk  better  than 
a  London  street ;  and  would  rather  watch  a  sea-gull  fly  than  shoot  it,  and  rather  hear  a 

thrush  sing  than  eat  it therefore  the  hacks  of  English  art  and  literature  wag  their 

heads  at  me. 

Such  ideals  leave  their  traces  on  humanity.  Today  the  world  is  placing 
laurel  wreaths  on  Ruskin's  grave. 

The  clergy  of  the  eighteenth  century  often  qualified  the  advice,  "  Be 
moral,"  with,  "But  don't  be  too  moral."  George  Eliot  and  John  Ruskin, 
on  the  other  hand,  strove  to  impress  the  truth  that  one  sin,  one  wrong, 
subtracted  just  so  much  from  what  should  have  been  life's  perfect  whole. 
Said  Ruskin  :  "The  lost  hour  can  never  be  redeemed,  and  the  accom- 
plished wrong  never  atoned  for.  The  best  that  can  be  done  afterward,  but 
for  that,  had  been  better." 

In  a  social  world  sympathy  is  the  cornerstone  of  morality.  How  can 
the  world  be  made  more  sympathetic  ?  What  are  the  conditions,  the 
antecedents,  of  the  mental  state  called  sympathy  ?  We  may  apply  one 
test  of  the  practical  worth  of  psychology  by  seeing  if  it  can  answer  this 
question.  Psychology  replies :  There  must  be  careful  observation  of 
human  beings.  The  penetrating  eye  must  look  thru  the  mask  and 
read  the  soul.  There  must  be  knowledge.  The  stupid  person,  the  one 
ignorant  of  another's  condition,  cannot  be  sympathetic.  That  poet  voiced 
a  great  truth  who  said  that  "  utter  knowledge  is  but  utter  love."  In  addi- 
tion to  other  forms  of  intellectual  activity,  there  must  be  imagination,  the 
power  of  putting  yourself  in  another's  place.  The  raw  materials  of 
imagination  are  taken  from  your  own  world  of  self,  supplemented  by  your 
observation  of  the  world  of  others.     Then,  there  must  be  a  developed. 


1 66  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [General 

emotional  nature,  and,  for  action  along  sympathetic  lines,  there  must  be 
a  cultivated  will. 

I  know  of  no  better  way  to  cultivate  sympathy  than  to  set  pupils  to 
interpreting  Shakespeare  in  terms  of  life.  One  of  the  great  teachers  of 
English  said  recently:  "No  masterpiece  is  fitted  for  first  work  with  a 
pupil  unless  it  engage  his  sympathies,  his  imagination."  I  cheerfully 
subscribe  to  this  statement,  but  I  would  add  that  the  masterpieces  best 
fitted  for  students  of  any  age  are  those  which  develop  their  sympathies  and 
stimulate  their  imagination. 

Shakespeare's  plays  stand  among  the  great  ethical  forces  of  the  world, 
not  only  because  they  show  the  workings  of  the  great  eternal  moral  powers 
that  make  for  righteousness,  but  also  because  they  teach  a  needed  lesson 
of  the  necessity  of  a  sympathetic  interpretation  of  human  life.  From  sym- 
pathy to  effective  morality  is  but  a  step. 

I  think  the  first  thing  to  be  impressed  on  the  student  of  Shakespeare 
is  that  he  does  not  despise  his  characters,  that  for  the  time  being  he 
identifies  himself  with  them  and  looks  at  life  thru  their  eyes.'  Merely 
to  despise  and  nothing  more  is  a  sign  of  a  narrow  soul.  A  tendency  to 
mere  satire  is  always  a  mark  of  deterioration  in  an  age  or  in  an  individual. 
Even  Carlyle,  late  in  life,  acknowledged  that  sarcasm  was  a  child  of  the 
devil.  Shakespeare's  disapproval  of  evil  in  human  action  is  what  we 
might  call  sympathetic  disapproval.  He  disapproves,  but  he  sees  what 
grim  forces  are  battling  with  the  erring  man,  forces  that  might  deflect  us 
from  the  moral  path. 

Shakespeare's  sympathies  are  as  wide  as  the  world.  To  him  the  servant 
is  as  human  as  the  king.  Trouble  is  as  much  trouble  to  the  nurse  as 
to  the  queen.  The  peddler,  the  smith,  the  alewife,  the  shepherd,  sit  down 
with  him  at  nature's  table.  With  him  all  the  children  of  nature  are 
aristocrats.  If  this  republic  is  to  survive  without  bloodshed,  it  will  be 
because  the  different  classes  understand  each  other.  That  understanding 
will  enable  them  to  feel  the  touch  of  a  common  nature  and  will  cause  them 
to  glow  with  a  sense  of  kinship  to  all.  How  is  this  to  be  accomplished  ? 
Will  it  be  by  having  our  children  brought  up  in  a  narrow  circle,  by  having 
them  feel  contempt  for  the  blacksmith,  the  carpenter,  the  factory  hand  ? 
Did  you  ever  know  a  member  of  an  exclusive  set  to  be  broad-minded,  to 
do  anything  to  advance  the  interests  of  the  world  ?  Breadth  of  view, 
toleration,  and  charity  were  cradled  in  a  manger.  They  followed  the  plow 
of  Robert  Burns  to  listen  to  his  song,  "A  man's  a  man  for  a'  that." 
The  world  was  Skakespeare's  set,  his  select  coterie.  From  boyhood  I  can 
remember  how  these  lines  of  Shakespeare  caused  me  first  to  observe  the 
blacksmith  and  the  tailor,  and  how  that  observation  soon  developed  sym- 
pathetic interest,  which  has  lasted  to  this  minute  : 

»  For  a  fuller  elaboration  of  this  point  see  the  author's  History  of  English  Literature,  pp.  151,  152, 
161-6. 


Sessions]  VALUE  OF  LITERATURE  IN  ETHICAL  TRAINING  167 

I  saw  a  smith  stand  with  his  hammer,  thus, 
The  whilst  his  iron  did  on  the  anvil  cool, 
With  open  mouth  swallowing  a  tailor's  news ; 
Who,  with  his  shears  and  measure  in  his  hand, 
Standing  on  slippers  which  his  nimble  haste 
Had  falsely  thrust  upon  contrary  feet. 

The  modern  principle  of  the  division  of  labor  has  its  good  side 
in  the  industrial  world,  but  it  has  dwarfed  the  broad  sympathies  which 
the  Elizabethans  felt  for  life.  Today  a  factory  hand  may  spend  years 
making  one  particular  kind  of  rivet  for  a  watch.  He  may  have  no  con- 
ception of  what  his  fellow-workman  is  doing  in  the  next  room.  How 
can  such  a  man  have  broad  sympathies  ?  Today  the  teacher  often 
begins  to  specialize  early.  He  may  study  mathematics,  or  some  form 
of  science,  or  the  roots  of  some  language,  living  or  dead.  He  cuts 
himself  off  from  the  varied  interests  of  life,  and  becomes  a  man  of  one 
idea,  a  man  in  a  rut.  His  pupils  have  a  right  to  expect  to  feel  from  him 
the  stimulus  of  the  living  world.  They  find  in  him  a  mummy,  less 
interesting  than  one  that  has  survived  from  Pharaoh's  time.  I  know  of 
no  one  who  is  more  in  need  of  Shakespearean  study  than  the  teacher  who 
is  a  mere  specialist. 

The  time  of  Shakespeare  was  without  these  over-specialized  factory 
hands  and  over-specialized  teachers.  The  various  pursuits  of  life  were 
then  more  of  a  common  heritage.  Men  of  different  callings  associated 
with  each  other  more  intimately.' 

Of  course,  Shakespeare  may  be  so  taught  as  to  obscure  his  sympathy 
and  his  ethical  qualities.  I  recently  summoned  up  courage  enough  to  keep 
from  asking  classes  a  single  grammatical  question  while  they  were  study- 
ing one  of  his  plays.  I  noticed  how  much  more  interest  the  students 
displayed  when  they  were  asked  questions  of  human  interest,  such  as : 
"  What  character  in  this  play  would  you  rather  have  for  a  constant  com- 
panion ?  Why  ?  Which  seems  to  you  the  most  and  which  the  least 
sympathetic  character?"  And  then,  for  silent  consideration,  I  would 
sometimes  ask:  "What  character  do  you  think  would  appreciate  you  the 
most  ?  What  qualities  in  you  would  that  person  find  most  objectionable  ? 
Do  you  think  they  ought  to  be  changed?"  Such  questions  bring  not 
only  the  intellectual  faculties  in  play,  they  have  also  a  pronounced 
ethical  bearing. 

The  young  are  apt  to  be  satirically  inclined  and  to  think  that  all  the 
world,  with  the  exception  of  themselves,  ought  to  be  far  more  perfect. 
Shakespeare  may  lead  the  more  open-minded  students  to  make  this  rare 
discovery : 

There  is  some  soul  of  goodness  in  things  evil. 
Would  men  observingly  distill  it  out. 

■  See  the  author's  chapter,  "  How  Shakespeare's  Senses  Were  Trsiped,"  in  Education  of  the  Central 
Nervous  System,  pp.  171-208, 


1 68  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [General 

Anything  that  adds  to  the  sura  total  of  human  happiness  of  the  right 
kind  must  have  positive  ethical  tendencies.  No  study  develops  the  self 
on  as  many  sides  as  the  study  of  the  great  masters  in  literature.  They 
not  only  fashion  our  ideals,  but  they  also  help  us  to  pull  aside  the 
curtains  of  our  souls  and  to  look  face  to  face  upon  the  beauty  of  this 
world.  The  Grecian  boldly  wrote  down  the  equation  :  The  beautiful 
equals  the  moral.  After  we  have  looked  at  nature  thru  the  eyes  of  a 
great  poet  we  can  see  more  beauty.  I  shall  never  forget  the  first  time  that 
the  daffodil  appeared  transfigured.  I  had  often  seen  it  before  thru  a 
glass  darkly,  but  when  I  read  Shakespeare's  lines, 

....  daffodils 
That  come  before  the  swallow  dares,  and  take 
The  winds  of  March  with  beauty, 

the  flower  was  invested  with  new  glory. 

We  shall  find  that  nature  will  whisper  "  rememberable  things"  in  our 
moral  ear,  if  we  rise  to  the  height  of  Wordsworth's  conception  of  her. 
To  him  she  seemed  to  possess  a  conscious  soul,  which  expressed  itself  in 
the  primrose,  the  rippling  lake,  or  the  cuckoo's  song,  with  as  much  intel- 
ligence as  human  lips  ever  displayed  in  whispering  a  secret  to  the  ear 
of  love.  With  rare  genius  he  has  taught  us  to  look  beyond  the  color  of 
the  flower,  the  outline  of  the  hills,  the  beauty  of  the  clouds,  to  the 
spirit  which  breathes  thru  them,  and  to  commune  with  "nature's  self, 
which  is  the  breath  of  God."  Communing  thus,  he  has  led  us  to  dis- 
cover 

....  truths  that  wake 

To  perish  never. 

By  force  of  arms  our  warriors  may  conquer  lands  beyond  the  orient 
wave  and  annex  them  to  our  own.  Wordsworth  has  given  to  the 
English-speaking  race  a  new  heritage  in  nature's  beauty.  He  is  one  of 
the  long  line  of  English  poets  who  have  given  noble  moral  ideals  to  the 
race,  more  valuable  than  eastern  lands  with  all  their  promise  of  gold.  It 
still  uplifts  us  to  hear  Wordsworth  calling  : 

In  our  halls  is  hung 

Armory  of  the  invincible  knights  of  old ; 
We  must  be  free  or  die,  who  speak  the  tongue 

That  Shakespeare  spake  ;  the  faith  and  morals  hold 
Which  Milton  held.     In  everything  we  are  sprung 

Of  earth's  first  blood,  have  titles  manifold. 

Our  closing  benediction  on  the  great  poets  of  our  race  shall  also  be 
taken  from  Wordsworth  : 

Blessing  be  with  them,  and  eternal  praise, 

Who  gave  us  nobler  loves,  and  nobler  cares ; 

The  poets,  who  on  earth  have  made  us  heirs 
Of  truth  and  pure  delights  by  heavenly  lays. 


Sessions]  PRINCIPLES  IN  THE  TEACHING  OF  LITERATURE  169 

EDUCATIONAL  PRINCIPLES  APPLIED  TO  THE  TEACHING 

OF  LITERATURE 

MARTIN    G.   BRUMBAUGH,  PROFESSOR   IN  THE   UNIVERSITY    OF  PENNSYLVANIA, 
AND    COMMISSIONER    OF    EDUCATION    FOR    PORTO    RICO 

In  the  closing  years  of  the  last  century  Rev.  Manasseh  Cutler 
journeyed  from  his  home  in  Boston  to  the  great  city  of  Philadelphia, 
then  as  now  the  city  of  magnificent  history. 

In  his  diary  the  distinguished  divine  records  that  he  desired  most  of 
all  to  see,  when  in  the  city,  its  two  objects  of  greatest  interest  —  the  Liberty 
Bell  and  Benjamin  Franklin's  "long  arm."  This  long  arm  was  Frank- 
lin's invention.  The  savant  of  the  Revolution  had  a  large  library, 
whose  volumes  filled  the  shelves  to  the  ceiling.  To  reach  the  volumes 
near  the  ceiling  Franklin  devised  a  long  wooden  arm  with  flexible 
fingers,  by  means  of  which  he  was  able  readily  to  reach  any  book  he 
wished  to  consult.  What  this  long  arm  was  to  Franklin  the  ability  to 
use  language  is  to  the  human  race.     Language  is  the  long  arm  of  the  racer 

The  child  lives  in  his  senses,  and  they  report  to  him  an  immediately 
present  and  narrow  environment.  The  child  is  enslaved  by  its  sense- 
life  until  it  possesses  the  magical  mystery  of  symbols.  These  make  the 
mind  free.  Of  these  language  is  the  most  valuable.  To  use  the  lan- 
guage symbol  is  to  be  emancipated.  The  far  is  made  near.  The  past 
is  made  present.  All  the  glory,  inspiration,  majesty,  and  might  of  the 
race  in  all  times  and  at  all  places  open,  like  a  bursting  bloom,  to  his 
inquiring  mind.  His  mental  horizon  is  lifted,  and  his  mental  sky  is 
illumined  with  steadily  sparkling  systems  of  truth  undreamed  of  in  the 
day  of  his  sense-limitations.  Thus,  by  symbols,  the  soul  achieves  uni- 
versal freedom.  To  teach  the  language  symbol  in  all  its  flexibility,  possi- 
bility, potency,  and  beauty  is  the  first  and  noblest  work  of  the  school.  It 
is  not  all  of  an  education  to  master  language,  but  all  education  is  con- 
ditioned by  this  mastery. 

We  have  introduced  so  many  informational  studies  into  our  elemen- 
tary curriculum  that  the  child  has  not  time  to  acquire  the  symbols  with 
which  to  entertain  and  use  these  bits  of  crude  information.  The  result 
is  that  the  child  gazes,  gazes,  and  then  gazes,  and  then  forgets  —  no,  not 
forgets,  for  he  never  really  gets  the  message  of  the  thing.  He  needs  the 
symbols  before  he  can  rightly  use  the  data  of  the  senses. 

"Things  before  symbols"  must  be  understood  only  as  a  tentative 
statement  of  a  most  elementary  need  of  the  mind.  Things  of  sense  are 
of  value,  of  virtue,  of  necessity  to  an  understanding  of  the  symbol,  but  it 
is  vastly  more  true  that  symbols  are  the  necessary  antecedents  of  ^.n  ade- 
quate interpretation  of  things.  Knowledge  of  a  formal  and  systematical 
sort,  knowledge  that  is  usable,  results  only  to  the  mind  that  approaches 
things  with  a  previously  acquired  symbol- mastery.  . 


170  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [General 

But  language  is  not  mastered  until  it  is  comprehended  as  a  language 
—  as  the  mighty  instrument  by  which  a  great  people  reports  itself.  This 
comprehension  dignifies  and  defines  linguistic  ends.  We  have  never 
truly  taught  language  to  a  child  until  we  have  taught  this  language  thru 
the  literature  of  the  language. 

The  end  of  language  lessons,  elementary  grammar,  composition  work, 
parsing,  analysis,  conjugation,  declension,  etymology,  definition,  reading, 
spelling,  writing,  and  all  these  under  newer  mercantile  titles,  is  a  re-survey 
of  the  whole  constructive  process  from  the  literary  heights  of  the  language. 

We  shall  scarcely  lessen  the  effort  of  the  child,  nor  the  folly  of  the 
process,  by  coining  new  names  for  old  ways  of  doing  the  same  thing. 
We  all  denounce  vehemently  the  old  object-lessons  —  a  scheme  for  foist- 
ing tedious  and  useless  categories  of  words  upon  a  child  in  the  name  of 
object-teaching.  We  seem  oblivious  to  the  fact  that  much  of  the  same 
pernicious  practice  still  flourishes  like  a  green  bay  tree  under  the  sooth- 
ing appellation  "nature  study."  The  fault,  dear  teachers,  is  not  with  our 
terms,  but  with  our  processes,  that  we  are  censured  for  our  lack  of  liter- 
ary results. 

We  live  in  processes.  There  must  be  a  change  of  view,  a  conversion 
to  the  gospel  of  results.  Our  children  do  not  need  endless  categories  of 
analytic  processes  in  language  to  reach  literary  results.  Analytic  pro- 
cesses have  their  value  as  mental  discipline,  and  as  a  basis  for  a  sort  of  a 
rhetoric  and  grammar  long  since  relegated  to  the  shelves  of  antiquarians. 
The  pupil  needs  early  to  feel  the  beauty  of  his  language.  This  feeling  is 
the  best  result  of  his  early  training. 

We  have  over-intellectualized  all  our  processes.  School  today 
ignores  the  aesthetic,  the  emotional  phase  of  mind-growth.  Biologic 
research  at  every  advance  confirms  the  principle  that  high  thought  is 
based  upon  keen  emotion  ^ — especially  thought  that  moves  the  will  and 
controls  the  conduct  of  life.  One's  mind  may  be  so  thoroly  intel- 
lectualized  that  fidelity  to  thought  becomes  the  only  aim  of  life.  Thus 
action,  conduct,  ethical  ends  in  life,  are  wholly  ignored,  and  the  life  is  a 
parody  on  its  possibilities.  This  thought-craze  has  taken  on  the  form  of 
immediate  expression  after  enforced  impression.  Does  anyone  seriously 
entertain  the  thought  that  these  lightning  reproductions  are  anything 
more  than  an  unholy  scheme  to  secure  a  show  of  industry  and  to  lessen 
the  possible  disorder  of  the  school  ?  We  have  forgotten  that  the  child 
in  reflection  is  struggling  and  strengthening,  and  will  finally  —  not 
instantly  —  break  into  expression  indicative  of  sanity,  and  of  value  not 
only  in  measuring  the  growth  of  the  child  in  language,  but  also  his 
growth  to  self-mastery  and  to  self-respect. 

This  quick  response,  so  widely  demanded  and  usually  called  "busy 
work,"  is  the  fertile  friend  of  superficiality  and  the  deadly  enemy  of 
genuinely  valuable  mental  culture.     It  requires  time  to  grow  any  product 


Sessions]  PRINCIPLES  IN  THE  TEACHING  OF  LITERATURE  171 

of  value.  To  create  a  literary  taste,  to  give  lofty  literary  ideals,  to  secure 
stately  concern  in  literary  models,  is  impossible  under  the  rush  and 
crush^of  present-day  "  busy  work  "  processes. 

Will  not  the  day  speedily  dawn  when  we  shall  all  be  taught,  and 
when  we  shall  all  recognize,  the  vital  distinction  between  idleness  and 
reflection  ?  In  that  day  we  shall  trust  a  child  more,  and  we  shall  know 
that  the  twin-evil  of  idleness  is  the  hasty,  scratchy,  chaotic  stuff  now  pro- 
duced in  our  schools  under  the  name  of  "busy  work." 

The  main  purpose  of  the  early  work  in  literary  training  is  to  arouse 
in  the  pupil  a  sincere  love  for  the  best  in  our  literature  —  not  the  best 
judged  by  standards  of  mature  criticism,  but  the  best  measured  in  ele- 
ments that  arouse  in  the  pupil  that  rich  and  deep  emotional  response  so 
essential  to  a  keen  enjoyment  of  all  that  is  highest  in  our  literary  ideals. 
This  love  may,  in  the  higher  grades,  be  organized  into  all  forms  of  truth 
and  into  all  orders  of  science.  The  habit  of  enjoyment  is  the  funda- 
mental enrichment  of  the  mind  for  all  subsequent  effort.  We  do  our 
best  work  in  literature,  not  when  we  compass  a  given  course  of  prescribed 
reading  in  a  given  time,  but  when  we  so  direct  the  pupil's  taste  in  school 
that  his  whole  after-school  career  is  attended  by  constant  reading  of  the 
best  literature.  The  literary  habit  is  to  be  acquired  in  school  that  the 
life  may  demand  daily  concourse  with  the  choicest  spirits  in  the  nation's 
literary  life.  And  this  will  not  come  to  us  so  long  as  we  teach  by  the 
term,  measure  progress  by  the  term,  and  promote  by  the  term.  Our 
graded  courses  of  study  need  to  demand  more  and  more  a  minimum  of 
required  work,  a  maximum  of  free  activity  under  the  guidance  of  a  sym- 
pathetic teacher.  If  we  trusted  more  to  the  good  sense  and  skill  of 
teachers,  and  less  to  our  rigid  requirements,  we  should  mark  a  great 
advance  in  all  our  teaching. 

What  avails  an  enriched  curriculum  if  we  have  impoverished  and 
enslaved  teachers?  If  we  really  seek  enrichment  of  the  pupil,  it  will  be 
achieved  only  by  a  fuller  enrichment  of  the  teacher. 

That  system  in  teaching  is  wise  no  sane  mind  will  deny,  but  this 
system  may  and  should  be  established  not  in  advance  and  hypothetically, 
but  definitely  and  adjustably  by  the  teacher.  If  we  trusted  teachers  with 
larger  discretion  we  might  shock  the  devotees  of  grade  equality,  but  we 
should  make  possible,  and  doubtless  actual,  a  mighty  revival  of  free 
activity  and  pleasurable  progress  in  our  pupils. 

It  may  not  be  inappropriate  to  note  also  that  the  spirit  of  a  noble 
teacher  infinitely  transcends  any  prescribed  method.  We  shall  never 
reach  results  by  quarreling  over  this  or  that  specific  method  of  teaching  ; 
most  so-called  methods  are  mere  devices,  born  of  an  enthusiasm  that  is 
not  of  knowledge,  and  foisted  upon  teachers  to  their  great  distress,  and 
to  the  utter  neglect  of  the  vitally  significant  fact  that  devices  are  born 
for  an  emergency,  that  they  perish  with  the  occasion  which  called  them 


172  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [General 

forth,  and   that  their  use  thereafter  is   but  the  dangling   of  a  skeleton 
before  the  eyes  of  living  spirits  craving  life  to  enrich  life. 

Every  normally  constituted  child  enjoys  much  that  it  has  not  yet  the 
power  adequately  to  define.  The  child  may  know  that  it  enjoys,  without 
knowing  why  it  enjoys,  or  knowing  how  to  describe  its  enjoyment. 
Indeed,  it  is  a  test  of  good  teaching  to  arouse  in  the  child  those  loftier 
emotions  which  baffle  all  adequate  expression.*  Who  wants  a  miserable 
paraphrase  of  a  great  work  of  art  ?  Is  it  not  enough  that  the  child  shall 
feel  what  it  "can  ne'er  express,  yet  cannot  all  conceal"  ? 
I  Literature  ought  to  make  the  child  uneasy  under  all  inartistic  influ- 
ences. This  can  be  done.  The  mind  must  be  trained  to  distinguish 
between  doing  a  thing  and  doing  it  well ;  between  saying  a  thing  and 
saying  it  well ;  between  the  touch  that  satisfies  and  the  touch  that  creates 
endless  longing  for  a  better  way,  a  longing  that  stirs  the  soul  to  supreme 
effort  and  endless  endeavor ;  between  passive  acquiescence  and  active, 
conscious,  volitional  reform,  both  in  thought  and  in  act.  For  we  have 
taught  well  only  when  our  pupils,  as  a  result,  think  clearly,  feel  keenly, 
and  act  nobly.  It  is  the  keen  feeling  that  makes  noble  action.  Our 
literature  must,  then,  touch  at  every  turn  the  springs  of  feeling,  that  there 
may  flow  forth  a  steady  stream  of  worthy  acts.  We  do  not  want  to  think 
our  literature — we  want  to  feel  it  and  live  its  ideals. 

The  paucity  of  literary  interests  is  a  great  menace  to  our  civic  and 
social  stability.  Is  it  not  at  least  possible  that  this  lack  of  literary  taste 
is  due  to  the  erroneous  view  of  our  schools  — namely,  that  teaching  a  child 
to  read  by  some  fanciful  device  is  the  surest  and  speediest  way  to  create  a 
literary  spirit  in  the  pupil  ?  Reading,  at  the  outset,  is  a  process  ©f  lan- 
guage mastery.  Its  first  years  are  clearly  mechanical  and  contribute  only 
indirectly  to  a  taste  for  literature.  We  do  not  rise  from  a  method  in  ele- 
mentary reading  to  an  abiding  love  for  literature.  A  child  may  read 
until  he  becomes  a  member  of  the  class  of  readers ;  but  this  by  no  means 
insures  the  child  against  dissipation  in  reading.  In  some  other  way  must 
the  appetite  be  set  for  the  right  things  in  literature.  I  take  it  that  this 
will  be  done  first  by  reading  to  the  pupil,  with  few  comments,  such  classic 
poetry  and  prose  as  will  arouse  a  keen  emotional  concern.  This  should 
not  be  followed  by  any  sort  of  didactic  process  whatever.  The  purpose 
of  such  exercise  is  not  to  teach  reading,  but  to  stimulate  a  taste  for  the 
real  works  of  art  in  the  language.  This  is  often  best  done  by  having 
the  pupils  sit  with  closed  eyes  and  image  the  scenes  as  they  unfold. 
The  closing  of  the  eyes  aids  in  the  introspective  and  reflective  phases  of 
interpretation.  A  poem  so  interpreted  will  never  be  forgotten.  The 
words  may  later  be  memorized,  and  this  will  be  all  the  more  readily 
and  permanently  accomplished  when  the  spirit  of  the  selection  is 
emotionally  entertained.  The  child  memorizes  best  the  things  he  enjoys 
most. 


Sessions]  PRINCIPLES  IN  THE  TEACHING  OF  LITERATURE  173 

There  has  been  a  growing  tendency  to  crowd  children's  minds  with 
data  about  literature,  in  the  evident  belief  that  these  data  are  in  some  mys- 
terious way  a  training  in  literature.  These  take  the  form  of  extended 
biographic  sketches  of  literary  characters,  detailed  descriptions  of  the 
homes  and  haunts  of  famous  writers,  memorized  lists  of  authors'  leading 
works,  and  learned  criticisms  of  literary  productions  which  the  pupils  have 
not  yet  read.  All  these  are  interesting,  and,  for  some  mental  function, 
perhaps  valuable,  but  they  no  more  enlarge  the  literary  taste  of  the  pupil 
than  a  lecture  on  foods  satisfies  the  normal  needs  of  the  body  for  nourish- 
ment. Better  than  all  biographic  facts,  than  all  lists  of  titles,  than  all 
formal  criticisms,  than  all  literary  rambles,  is  one  sincere  effort  to  unfold 
to  a  child  the  beauty  and  the  virtue  of  a  great  poem.  Our  teachers  have 
too  confidingly  taken  the  current  works  on  literature  and  taught  them  in 
much  the  same  way  as  history  of  any  other  sort  is  taught,  and  have  come 
to  believe  that  this  historic  survey  of  a  field  they  have  never  entered  is 
really  teaching  literature. 

There  was  a  day  in  my  own  life  when  I  could  name  Shakespeare's 
plays,  recite  the  uncertain  facts  of  his  life,  quote  brief  selections  from  his 
works,  and  name  the  chronologic  order  of  his  productions — yet  I  had 
never  read  one  single  work  of  the  author.  My  knowledge  was  arbitrary, 
and,  later  on,  positively  detrimental  to  a  just  appreciation  of  this  king  in 
a  princely  group.  The  real  awakening  to  an  understanding  of  what  litera- 
ture is,  and  how  it  is  to  be  studied,  came  to  me  under  that  great  teacher 
—  the  late  Dr.  Child,  of  Harvard  University. 

/it  is  true  that  the  reading  of  good  literature  by  the  pupils  in  our 
schools  is  rapidly  increasing.  This  is  an  omen  both  of  good  and  of  evil. 
I  do  not  hesitate  to  assert  that  some  pupils  are  reading  too  much  litera- 
ture—  measured  in  terms  of  pages  conned.  It  is  more  th9,n  probable  that 
such  reading  is  little  more  than  a  pleasurable  reaction  from  serious  effort. 
Before  the  child  reads  extensively  he  should  be  taught  how  to  interpret 
his  readings.  Following  the  reading  of  standard  selections  to  the  pupils 
by  the  teacher,  there  should  be  a  judicious  selection  of  a  few  standard 
works  of  worth,  and  the  careful,  deliberate  study  of  these  by  the  pupils, 
under  the  direction  of  the  teacher.  This  directive  reading  is  all-important. 
It  enables  the  teacher,  by  judicious  questioning,  to  help  the  child  to  a 
right  interpretation  of  the  motif  oi  the  selection. 

It  may  be  said  in  objection  to  this  plan  that  it  is  inadequate,  that  the 
field  is  large,  and  that  the  results  so  achieved  are  meager.  To  this  it  may 
be  answered  that  no  process  is  inadequate  if  it  be  the  right  process,  and, 
further,  that  the  pupil  will  have  type  standards  of  literary  interpretation. 
Education  at  no  point  aims  to  cover  the  entire  scope  of  possible  effort. 
All  it  can  do  is  to  determine  definite  types  of  processes,  fix  the  order  of 
mental  effort,  and  reveal  in  outline  the  large  fields  of  inquiry  and  research, 
the  mastery  of  which  is  the  serious  activity  of  mature  years.     This  plan 


174  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [General 

also  gives  to  the  pupil  a  clear  grasp  of  that  part  of  the  literary  world  he  is 
permitted  to  know.  What  is  done  is  well  done,  and  the  best  teacher  does 
not  scruple  to  do  less,  that  she  may  do  best. 

The  free  use  of  libraries,  undirected,  is  a  pernicious  practice.  It  is 
better  far  to  have  the  teacher  select  and  restrict  the  reading  of  the  pupils. 
Many  a  complaint  of  poor  work  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  mental  energy 
of  the  pupil  is  appropriated  to  reading  books  of  no  value  in  his  educa- 
tional progress,  leaving  him  dull  and  listless  for  the  specific  work  of  the 
school. 

The  final  work  of  the  schools  in  giving  the  pupil  a  proper  basis  for 
literary  appreciation  is  the  process  of  analysis,  by  which  the  mind  clearly 
distinguishes  between  the  thought-plot  of  the  author  and  the  literary 
adornment  of  this  plot. 

It  is  a  great  gain  to  reveal  to  the  inquiring  mind  why  each  character 
is  introduced ;  the  influence  of  each  new  character  upon  the  subsequent 
unfolding  of  the  theme ;  the  marvelous  effect  of  the  physical  environ- 
ment ;  the  function  of  the  supernatural  and  the  distinctly  theistic  ele- 
ments ;  and  the  final  weaving  of  all  this  moving  morrice  of  characters, 
incidents,  and  objects  into  a  harmonious  and  satisfying  unity.  This  is 
the  psychic  interpretation  of  a  literary  masterpiece. 

When  this  thought-plot  is  seen  in  its  unity  and  in  its  totality  the  pupil  is 
for  the  first  time  able  to  interpret  the  exquisite  linguistic  dress  of  this  plot 
—  the  literary  adornment  of  thought.  Here  all  the  matchless  symmetry 
and  grace  of  the  language  is  revealed.  The  mind  interprets  the  aesthetic 
spirit  —  the  touch  of  genius  —  that,  sleeping,  awaits  the  touch  of  a  kin- 
dred spirit  to  call  it  into  joyous  life  and  to  make  it  glow  with  light  and 
beauty.     This  is  the  artistic  interpretation  of  a  literary  masterpiece. 

It  is  this  alone  that  compensates  for  all  the  earlier  work,  and  that  gives 
the  child  nutrition  of  feeling  and  enrichment  of  soul.  It  remains  only 
to  point  out  once  more  and  emphatically  the  fact  that  a  true  patriot  is  a 
lover  of  literature  as  well  as  a  lover  of  liberty,  that  lofty  civic  virtue  is 
found  only  in  the  soul  that  loves  with  equal  and  undying  fervor  the 
fatherland  and  the  mother-tongue,  cherishing  for  each  a  supreme  and 
inseparable  passion,  striving  to  honor  both  by  understanding  their  mis- 
sion and  their  power,  and  living,  under  the  flag,  in  uncompromising  and 
abiding  loyalty  to  the  literature  of  the  nation  and  of  the  race. 

/ 


"  WHA  T  MANNER  OF  CHILD  SHALL  THIS  BE  ?  " 

HON.  G.  R.  GLENN,    STATE    SUPERINTENDENT    OF    PUBLIC    INSTRUCTION, 

ATLANTA,  GA. 

Two  thousand  years  ago,  in  the  humble  home  of  an  aged  priest  in  the 
hill  country  of  Judea,  a  child  was  born.     The  priest  was  burning  incense 


Sessions]  "  WHAT  MANNER  OF  CHILD  SHALL  THIS  BE r'  175 

in  the  temple  at  an  early  morning  hour,  when  an  angel  appeared  and 
announced  to  him  that  his  prayer  had  been  answered,  and  that  a  child  of 
promise  should  come  in  his  old  age.  The  child  was  to  "  bring  joy  and 
gladness  ;  he  was  to  be  great  in  the  sight  of  the  Lord ;  he  was  to  be  filled 
with  the  Spirit ;  he  was  to  turn  the  hearts  of  the  fathers  to  the  children, 
and  the  disobedient  to  the  wisdom  of  the  just,  and  to  make  ready  a  people 
prepared  for  the  Lord."  More  than  all  this,  this  child  was  to  be  the 
herald  of  a  mightier  Child,  "the  latchet  of  whose  shoes  he  was  not  worthy 
to  unloose."  Marvelous  things  happened  in  connection  with  the  birth  of 
this  Judean  child.  One  sent  from  God  announced  his  birth ;  the  dumb 
spake  and  glorified  God  when  he  was  born  and  brought  into  the  tem- 
ple ;  angelic  visitors  appeared  upon  the  scene ;  fear  came  upon  all  that 
dwelt  in  the  region  round  about,  and  the  common  people,  amazed  at 
what  they  could  not  comprehend,  said :  "  What  manner  of  child  shall 
this  be?" 

After'John  came  Jesus.  After  the  voice  of  one  crying  in  the  wilder- 
ness came  the  voice  of  Him  who  spake  as  one  having  authority.  The 
first  century  of  the  world's  Christian  era  began  with  the  life  of  the  greatest 
teacher  that  this  world  ever  saw ;  himself  the  infinite  Logos,  the  author 
of  all  laws  human  and  divine.  He  came  to  teach  men  how  to  have 
dominion,  how  to  win  conquests  over  mind  and  matter.  If  men  mar- 
veled at  the  voice  in  the  wilderness,  they  marveled  much  more  at  the 
voice  of  Him  who  spake  as  never  man  spake.  He  not  only  commanded 
men  and  they,  without  question,  did  his  bidding,  but  he  commanded  the 
wind  and  the  waves  and  they  obeyed  him.  He  confounded  the  doctors 
of  his  time  by  talking  of  the  coming  of  the  kingdom,  whose  subjects 
were  to  be  as  loyal  and  as  loving  as  little  children.  The  miracles  that  he 
worked  were  wrought,  not  in  violation  of  the  law,  but  according  to  law. 
Those  who  heard  him  could  not  comprehend  the  laws  by  which  he  worked. 
He  himself  declared  that  he  came,  not  to  destroy  the  law,  bat  to  fulfill 
the  law.  Man  did  not  grasp  his  saying  when  he  declared  himself  to  be 
the  Way,  the  Truth,  and  the  Life.  He  was  a  light  shining  in  Cimmerian 
darkness,  and  the  darkness  comprehended  it  not;  but  he  stood  in  the 
gateway  of  the  world's  first  century,  and  his  wonderful  sayings  and  his 
matchless  miracles  were  but  the  foreshadowing  of  what  is  taking  place  at 
the  present  moment  in  the  closing  year  of  the  nineteenth  century  of  civili- 
zation. His  wonder-working  was  the  prophecy  of  conquest  which  the 
human  mind  is  today  winning  thru  discovery  of  law  over  material 
things.  His  teaching  is  leading  men  to  a  knowledge  of  law  that  will 
yet  make  them  to  have  dominion  over  all  things  on  land,  in  air,  or  in 
sea ;  for  man  is  yet  to  have  dominion  over  all  this  earth,  the  footstool  of 
God. 

The  child  that  is  born  today  is  born  amid  miracles  as  astounding  as 
those  that  accompanied  the  birth  of  the  chil^  two  thousand  years  a^o.    Thg 


176  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [General 

world  today  is  in  an  attitude  of  excitement  and  expectancy.  The  mar- 
velous is  taking  place  every  hour.  The  sway  of  the  mind  that  conceived 
and  uttered  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount  has  gone  out  in  direct  line  and  in 
concentric  circles,  until  the  influence  of  the  Great  Teacher  has  touched 
every  land  upon  which  the  sunlight  shines.  The  great  conquests  of  mind 
over  matter  that  have  made  this  age  the  most  wonderful  of  all  ages  can 
be  traced  directly  to  the  light  that  came  into  this  world  two  thousand 
years  ago  when  a  little  child  was  born  in  a  manger  in  Bethlehem.  The 
intelligence  of  a  Christian  civilization  has  forged  the  power  that  builds  and 
propels  the  palace  steamship  that  crosses  the  sea.  It  is  this  same  power 
that  has  laid  the  cables  on  every  ocean  bed.  It  is  this  same  power 
that  drives  a  vestibule  train  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific.  It  is  the 
power  of  this  same  civilization  that  has  founded  every  asylum  for  the 
poor  and  the  lame  and  the  halt,  every  sanitarium  for  the  feeble-minded, 
that  has  directed  the  spire  of  every  church  and  laid  the  foundation  of 
every  schoolhouse.  It  is  the  same  power  that  has  lifted  the  hand  of  man 
into  the  air  above  him  and  brought  the  lightning  from  the  clouds  to  do 
his  will.  It  is  this  same  power  that  touches  the  wire  now  going  to  every 
part  of  the  habitable  globe  and  brings  messages  to  our  breakfast  table  each 
morning  from  every  part  of  the  world.  The  very  air  that  we  breathe  is 
now  condensed  into  a  liquid  energy  whose  potential  force  no  man  can 
measure.  The  spectroscope  and  telescope  have  made  us  acquainted  with 
the  stars  that  float  over  our  heads,  and  the  electric  light  and  the  chemist's 
crucible  have  gone  to  the  very  heart  of  the  hills  and  the  mountains  reveal 
ing  a  wealth  that  far  outshines  "the  wealth  of  Ormus  or  of  Ind."  Is  it 
any  wonder  that  men  gather  today  about  the  presence  of  a  little  child 
that  is  born  amid  the  miracles  of  splendid  and  matchless  conquests  of  the 
Christian  mind  over  these  material  things,  and  ask,  "  What  manner  of 
child  shall  this  be?"  ^ 

If  the  central  figure  of  the  first  century  was  the  Great  Teacher  with 
his  hand  placed  in  benediction  upon  the  head  of  a  little  child,  the  cen- 
tral figure  of  the  twentieth  century  will  continue  to  be  a  great  teacher, 
holding  the  hand  of  a  child  and  leading  him  to  the  fruits  of  his  inherit- 
ance. "The  heir  of  all  the  ages  "  must  still  be  taught  the  pathway  to  his 
own  by  one  who  has  not  only  the  supreme  and  commanding  voice,  but 
the  patient  and  all-loving  spirit  of  the  Master.  If  the  world's  first  cen- 
tury began  by  sending  a  star  to  light  the  wise  men  to  a  child,  the  world's 
twentieth  century  will  begin  by  focalizing  the  light  of  all  the  stars  that 
burn  in  the  firmament  above  us  upon  the  cradle,  not  of  one  child,  but  of 
every  child  born  under  our  beneficent  skies. 

If  I  were  asked  what  is  to  be  accounted  the  great  discovery  of  this 
century,  I  would  pass  by  all  the  splendid  achievements  that  men  have 
wrought  in  wood  and  stone  and  iron  and  brass.  I  would  not  go  to  the 
volume  that  catalogs  the  printing-press,,  the  loQm^  the  steanj-eij^in^,,  th^ 


Sessions]  "  WHAT  MANNER  OF  CHILD  SHALL  THIS  BE?"  I  77 

steamship,  the  ocean  cable,  the  telegraph,  the  wireless  telegraphy,  the 
telephone,  the  phonograph.  I  would  not  go  among  the  stars  and  point 
to  either  one  of  the  planets  that  have  been  added  to  our  solar  system.  I 
would  not  call  for  the  Roentgen  ray  that  promises  to  revolutionize  the 
study  of  the  human  brain  as  well  as  the  human  body.  I  would  pass  over 
all  the  labor-saving  machines  and  devices  by  which  the  work  of  the 
world  has  been  marvelously  multiplied.  Above  and  beyond  all  these  the 
index  finger  of  the  world's  progress,  in  the  march  of  time,  would  point 
unerringly  to  the  little  ch^ld  as  the  one  great  discovery  of  the  century 
now  speeding  to  its^  close. 

If  we  pause  for  a  moment  to  contrast  the  condition  of  the  child  even 
one  hundred  years  ago  with  the  condition  of  the  child  that  is  born  today, 
we  marvel  at  what  God  has  wrought  within  a  hundred  years.  At  the 
beginning  of  this  century  learning  belonged  to  a  limited  oligarchy.  Edu- 
cation was  the  privilege  of  the  few,  and  ignorance  the  sodden  heritage  of 
the  benighted  masses.  With  the  beginning  of  the  century  few  only  of 
the  world's  teeming  millions  could  read,  and  fewer  still  did  the  thinking 
for  the  "great  unwashed."  With  the  beginning  of  the  twentieth  century 
the  public  school  is  going  into  every  hamlet  among  the  civilized  races  of 
the  globe,  and  its  beneficent  light  is  illuminating  the  darkest  recesses  of 
the  humblest  home.  Education  is  no  longer  the  exclusive  privilege  of  an 
autocratic  minority.  It  is  today  the  divine  right  of  an  all-powerful  demo- 
cratic majority.  If  at  the  beginning  of  the  century  we  had  alienation  and 
separation,  a  great  impassable  gulf  between  the  rich  and  the  poor,  today 
we  have  union,  strength,  and  life,  and  millions  of  happy  children  of  rich 
and  poor  alike  marching  under  a  banner  on  which  is  inscribed  "Freedom 
of  opportunity  for  all."  What  this  freedom  of  opportunity  means  to  every 
American  child  no  man  can  estimate.  What  the  American  child  of  the 
future  is  to  be  no  man  can  prophesy.  The  wide  distribution  of  human 
knowledge  has  brought  him  in  touch  with  all  mankind.  He  is  neighbor 
to  every  possible  achievement,  and  his  splendid  environment  makes  him 
a  potential  factor  for  accomplishing  every  human  good.  Already  we 
Americans  have  discovered  that  the  old  system  of  education  will  not  fit 
his  case.  We  have  begun  to  shift  and  readjust  the  paths  that  lead  to  and 
from  the  schoolhouse.  We  have  quit  trying  to  fit  the  boy  to  a  system. 
We  are  now  trying  to  adjust  a  system  to  the  boy.  The  American  boy  is 
praying  the  prayer  of  the  psalmist  as  he  never  prayed  that  prayer  before  : 
"Set  thou  my  feet  in  a  large  room."  We  American  teachers  are  trying 
to  obey  the  command  of  the  Great  Teacher  when  he  said  at  the  grave  of 
Lazarus,  who  came  up  bound  hand  and  foot  in  his  grave-clothes:  "Loose 
him  and  let  him  go."  If  we  might  reverently  change  this  command  to  fit 
our  day  and  time,  the  change  would  be  :  "  Loose  him  and  let  him  growy 
The  demand  of  the  hour  is  that  we  shall  take  away,  not  only  the  grave- 
qlothes,  but  all  deadly  ceremeats  from. the  mj»jds  and  bodies  of  ojir  chiljdren^ 


n^  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [General 

Even  teaching-power  in  the  future  must  be  defined  in  new  terms. 
Here  again  we  must  approach  more  nearly  to  the  mind  and  spirit  of  the 
Great  Master-Teacher  of  the  world.  Time  was  when  the  power  of  the 
teacher  was  measured  by  what  he  could  do  with  a  bright  boy  or  a  bright 
girl.  From  the  beginning  of  this  new  century  the  power  of  the  teacher 
will  be  measured  by  what  he  will  be  able  to  do  with  the  dull  boy,  the  defec- 
tive child.  More  than  ever  before  in  the  history  of  this  world  the  real  test 
of  teaching-power  will  be  measured,  not  by  what  can  be  done  with  the  best, 
but  by  what  can  be  done  with  the  worst  boy  in  the  school.  The  Great 
Teacher  who  began  our  civilization  came  into  this  world  to  seek  out  and 
to  save  that  which  was  lost. 

The  new  century  will  demand  that  the  stress  of  all  energy  and  the 
culmination  of  all  intelligence  shall  be  applied  to  redeeming  what  has 
been  going  to  waste.  We  shall  have  a  new  psychology  as  well  as  a  new 
education,  and  the  new  psychology  will  be  the  psychology  of  the  prodigal 
son  and  the  lost  sheep.  The  great  rejoicings  in  American  life  will  be 
when  we  have  so  mastered  our  problems  of  child  study  and  so  perfected 
our  lines  of  school-growth  that  our  American  systems  of  education  will 
touch  and  develop  and  control  every  American  boy.  We  shall  come  to 
our  place  of  rejoicing  when  we  have  saved  every  one  of  these  American 
children  and  made  every  one  of  them  a  contributor  to  the  wealth,  to  the 
intelligence,  and  to  the  power  of  this  great  democratic  government  of  ours. 

Men  now  demand  that  those  who  build  their  machines  shall  build  a 
machine  that  will  do  twice  the  work  with  an  expenditure  of  half  the  fuel 
that  a  machine  did  even  ten  years  ago.  A  few  afternoons  since  I  was 
waiting  for  my  train  to  leave  the  station  from  the  capital  city  of  the  state. 
I  saw  a  great  company  of  people  gathered  about  an  object  at  the  end  of  the 
station.  In  answer  to  an  inquiry  as  to- the  cause  of  the  gathering  of  this 
great  crowd,  I  found  that  the  attraction  was  a  Great  Mogul  passenger 
engine  that  had  been  brought  to  pull  a  vestibule  train  that  was  to  speed 
its  way  from  New  York  to  New  Orleans.  When  I  asked  the  engineer  to 
explain  the  difference  between  the  new  engine  and  the  old  one  that  had 
been  laid  aside,  he  said  to  me,  while  the  great  machine  stood  there  throb- 
bing with  power  like  a  thing  of  life  :  "  The  engine  that  I  laid  aside  yester- 
day, when  doing  its  best,  could  pull  my  train  from  Atlanta  to  Montgomery 
at  a  speed  of  thirty-five  miles  per  hour.  This  machine  can  pull  the  train 
with  the  consumption  of  less  coal,  and  make  an  average  speed,  if  need  be, 
of  sixty  miles  an  hour."  Twenty-five  years  ago  it  was  regarded  a  marvel- 
ous achievement  for  one  woman  to  manage  two  looms  in  a  cotton  factory. 
Today  one  woman  will  manage  a  dozen  looms,  and  each  one  of  the  dozen 
looms  will  weave  twice  the  number  of  yards  of  cloth  that  were  woven  on  the 
loom  twenty-five  years  ago.  If  a  new  environment  has  come  to  the  machine, 
you  may  be  sure  of  it,  a  new  environment  has  come  to  the  boy.  If  the 
\Yorld  demands  of  machine-shops  more  powerful  machines,  apd  machines 


Sessions]  "  WHAT  MANNER  OF  CHILD  SHALL  THIS  BE?''  I79 

that  will  economize  time  and  labor,  we  may  be  sure  the  world  is  going  to 
demand  of  those  who  build  the  boys  and  girls  of  this  country  that  they 
shall  build  them  to  become  men  and  women  who  may  have  twice  and 
thrice  and  quadruple  the  power  that  men  and  women  ever  had  before. 

One  other  thought  in  this  connection.  Those  who  build  these  mag- 
nificent machines  make  no  mistakes.  Every  piece  of  steel  is  tested,  and 
every  piece  of  brass  is  weighed  and  sounded,  and  every  bolt  has  its  place, 
and  every  bar  its  peculiar  function.  No  machine-shop  in  this  country 
could  live  a  year  that  employed  anybody  but  experts  to  fashion  and  shape 
every  part  of  the  machine.  An  expert  is  one  who  knows,  and  he  must 
know  that  he  knows.  The  twentieth  century  will  demand  of  those  who 
train  the  children  not  only  that  they  know,  but  they  too  must  know  that 
they  know.  The  material  in  the  mind  of  a  child  is  infinitely  more  delicate 
than  the  finest  steel-bar  ever  made  by  any  Bessemer  process.  The  new 
century  will  say  to  the  teacher :  "  Take  thou  this  child  and  know  him. 
Know  thou  his  soul,  his  mind,  and  his  body,  as  the  expert  machinist  knows 
every  part  of  his  machine  and  the  quality  of  all  its  materials,  and  the 
peculiar  fitness  for  use  of  all  tools  required  for  the  completion  of  the 
machine.     Make  thou  no  mistakes !  " 

To  change  the  figure  and  find  an  illustration  from  the  laws  of  life :  A 
few  hundred  miles  from  the  spot  where  this  meeting  is  held  millions  of 
little  beings  are  constructing  a  reef  on  a  Florida  coast.  Men  travel  for 
thousand^  of  miles  to  find  inspiration  and  courage  from  these  countless 
toilers  of  the  briny  deep  who  fringe  our  coasts  with  a  structure  that  has 
excited  the  wonder  of  the  ages.  The  study  of  the  coral  polyp  reveals  the 
truth  that  those  who  do  the  building  are  on  the  front  side  of  the  reef. 
The  food  supply  even  for  this  little  being  comes  from  the  billow  that 
lashes  the  frontal  line  of  the  structure.  The  tiny  being  feeds  on  the  min- 
istry of  the  storm.  The  very  billows,  while  they  lash  and  rage  in  their  fury, 
bring  the  food  supply  to  the  tiny  being  that  builds  the  coral  reef,  and 
each  little  builder  gathers  himself  into  the  stony  structure  and  welds  his 
being  into  all  that  is  below  him,  and  dies. 

No  one  of  these  countless  beings,  however  many  times  its  life  may 
touch  the  life  of  other  beings,  interferes  with  his  fellow.  He  feeds  upon 
his  environment,  grows  to  his  full  estate,  is  gathered  unto  his  fathers,  and 
becomes  a  part  of  a  permanent,  beautiful  wall  that  barricades  the  coasts 
from  the  storms  of  the  equatorial  belt.  But  some  of  these  tiny  toilers  are 
swept  by  the  billows  into  the  quiet,  stagnant  waters  of  the  inland  basin, 
and  in  these  eddy-waters,  that  furnish  no  food  supply,  they  stagnate  ana 
die  and  sink  into  the  bottom  to  form  a  part  of  the  ooze  and  the  slime  of 
the  silent  shore. 

The  coral  polyp  has  no  power  to  rescue  his  fellow  when  the  wave 
pushes  him  back  and  away  from  the  line  of  life,  and  the  line  of  food  sup- 
ply, and  the  line  where  the  building  is  going  on.     It  is  not  so  with  us 


t8o  National  eDVcatioMAl  association/  [Generai 

who  are  building  a  structure  of  American  life,  a  structure  far  more  tran- 
scendent in  the  beauty  and  magnificence  of  its  proportions  than  the  coral 
structure  which  the  polyp  is  building.  We  are  building  here  the  founda- 
tions of  a  national  barrier  against  which  the  storm  and  the  billow  of  the  ages 
to  come  are  to  bring  their  food  supplies  and  spend  their  fury.  We  need 
the  life  of  every  American  being  to  go  into  this  structure.  The  new 
century  will  demand  of  us  that  we  shall  go  into  every  submerged  dis- 
trict and  bring  to  the  top  and  to  the  front  every  child  who  has  within  him 
the  unmeasured  possibilities  of  an  American  destiny.  We  shall  not  reach 
the  limits  of  our  empire,  and  we  shall  not  expand  to  our  farthest  bounds, 
until  we  have  brought  back  to  the  structure  we  are  building  the  withering 
hands  and  the  atrophying  soul  of  every  American  child  that  may  add 
glory  to  our  people.  'What  responsibilities  the  new  century  will  bring 
us  no  man  can  tell,  but  the  American  school  system  will  not  reach 
the  climax  of  its  power  until  its  beneficent  light  has  gone  into  every 
American  home,  and  until  the  expert  American  teacher,  who  knows  that  he 
knows,  has  led  every  one  of  our  children  out  and  up  from  the  ooze  and 
slime  of  every  submerged  district,  and  placed  their  feet  in  a  large  room 
where  every  boy  can  grow  to  the  full  measure  of  a  man. 


CLOSING  ADDRESS 


PRESIDENT    A.    P.    MONTAGUE,  FURMAN    UNIVERSITY,   GREENVILLE,  S.  C. 

[stenographic  report] 

Mr.  President,  and  Fellow- Members  of  the  National  Educational  Association  : 

The  Athenians  of  old  were  wont  to  invite  strangers  of  far-off  lands 
to  visit  their  great  city,  in  order  that  in  the  groves  of  the  lyceum  and  in 
the  shadows  of  the  academy  they  might  behold  the  unfolding  of  doctrines 
of  high  philosophy,  and  might  realize  that  thought,  dominating  the 
world,  had  its  home  in  Athens.  The  ancient  Romans,  in  the  pride  of 
their  power,  in  the  glory  of  their  imperial  dominion,  welcomed  to  their 
city  by  the  Tiber  ambassadors  and  legates  from  far-distant  countries,  in 
order  that  these  strangers,  awed  by  the  manifestation  of  power  and 
material  splendor,  beholding  the  eagles  of  Rome  that  had  winged  their 
flight  for  a  century  and  more  from  the  shores  of  the  German  ocean  to 
the  Lybian  desert — beholding  this  greatness  and  this  matchless  power, 
might  realize  the  hopelessness  of  contending  for  empire  with  the  imperial 
city  of  Rome,  and  that  they  might  bend  the  knee  to  Caesar  and  own 
allegiance  to  his  sovereignty. 

With  far  different  feelings  from  these,  Charleston,  one  year  ago,  sent 
her  ambassadors  across  the  continent,  from  the  Atlantic  ocean  to  the  far 


Sessions]  CLOSING  ADDRESS  i8i 

Pacific,  to  fair  California,  to  plead  with  you  to  come  to  this  City  by  the 
Sea  —  this  old  city,  rich  in  legend  and  tradition,  and  glorious  in  achieve- 
ment. The  spirit  of  a  high  and  broad  fraternity  prompted  the  sending  of 
this  message  to  come;  the  spirit  of  a  high  and  broad  fraternity,  Mr.  Presi- 
dent, gave  the  response,  "  We  will  come."  And,  brothers  and  sisters  of  the 
National  Educational  Association,  you  came  from  grand  old  New  Eng- 
land, rock-bound  and  splendid ;  from  the  state  where  flows  the  Mohawk 
river  on  its  course  to  the  sea ;  from  the  rolling  plains  of  the  mighty  Middle 
West ;  from  the  land  where  the  shadows  of  the  Rockies  are — those  Rockies 
whose  peaks  seem  to  pierce  the  sky,  appearing  to  whisper  and  ask  of  the 
stars  and  constellations  the  mysteries  of  the  heavens.  You  came  from 
homes  where  light  and  love  and  liberty  gladden  your  hearts ;  and,  thank 
God,  you  come  to  homes  where  light  and  love  aftd  liberty  gladden  our 
hearts,  too. 

You  have  come,  my  friends,  as  representatives  of  education— education 
as  old  as  Egypt  and  Mesopotamia,  yet  strong  and  young  and  robust  with 
the  blood  of  perennial  youth  ;  education  that  long  centuries  ago  was  but 
a  tiny  brook,  that,  receiving  tributaries  from,  every  land,  has  become  a 
mighty  ocean,  in  which  the  spirit  of  mankind  may  bathe,  and,  bathing, 
resplendent  grow ;  education  that  revives  the  sleeping  aeons  of  antiquity  ; 
that  gives  the  mastery  over  " the  thoughts  that  shake  mankind;"  that 
reads  in  strata  and  substrata  the  secrets  of  Mother  Earth  ;  that  equips  for 
the  coming  of  that  century  whose  beacon  lights  are  all  aglow  now  on  the 
horizon  of  time  ;  education  that,  true  to  the  source  whence  come  mind 
and  powers  of  reasoning,  should  lift  the  heart  and  the  mind  and  the  soul 
of  man  into  communion  with  the  Spirit  of  the  living  God. 

You  have  come  to  the  South,  and  the  hour  is  almost  here  when  you 
must  say  "good-by."  In  the  words  of  the  ancient  poet  I  would  say  :  "  As 
long  as  the  heavens  shall  feed  the  stars ;  as  long  as  th^  shadows  shall 
traverse  the  convex  sides  of  the  mountains ;  so  long,  with  us  and  our 
children's  children,  will  be  the  memory  of  your  coming"  to  the  old 
Palmetto  State. 

When  you  shall  have  returned  to  your  far-distant  homes,  we  shall,  as 
long  as  life  shall  last,  recall  the  gracious  women  and  knightly  men  who 
came  to  us  unknown  and  depart  our  beloved  friends. 

We  have  looked,  my  brothers  and  sisters,  into  your  eyes,  and  there 
we  have  read  a  common  purpose,  a  purpose  shared  with  us,  your  brothers 
and  sisters  of  the  South  —  the  exaltation  of  truth  and  the  glory  of  learn- 
ing. We  have  looked  into  your  hearts,  and  there  we  have  seen  enshrined, 
as  there  are  enshrined  in  our  hearts  too,  the  very  spirit  and  essence  of 
love  for  and  loyalty  to  our  mighty  country,  which,  once  sundered  when 
swords  flashed  and  cannon  roared,  and  eyes  were  dimmed  with  tears  for 
the  noble  dead,  is  again  and  forever  one,  indissoluble  and  indestruct- 
ible. 


1 82  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [General 

Oh,  my  friends,  the  glory  of  the  legacy  that  is  ours  in  the  common 
past ;  a  legacy  rich  with  triumphs  of  armed  hosts,  with  triumphs  of  mind, 
with  triumphs  of  soul ! 

In  our  temple  of  fame  —  a  temple  new,  perhaps,  but  stately,  grand, 
and  imposing — ^ stands  Washington,  with  eyes  aglow  with  love  of  country 
and  "freedom's  holy  light,"  and  around  him  a  group  of  figures  of  the 
stalwart  men  who  stood  with  him  in  his  day  and  time  for  constitutional 
liberty.  Walk  with  me  down  the  corridors  of  this  temple  of  fame  of 
ours,  of  these  United  States,  and  behold  the  great  trio,  Webster,  Clay, 
and  Calhoun,  whose  voices  awoke  the  echoes  of  the  world.  Their  talents 
and  patriotism  undying  ennoble  this  country  just  as  much  as  in  the  older 
times  the  glorious  talents  of  Pericles  and  Demosthenes  and  Cicero  enno- 
bled the  lands  whose  Children  they  were. 

We  now  stand  before  a  figure  in  this  temple,  whose  face  is  graven  with 
lines  of  care,  rugged  with  thought,  and  drawn  by  pain  for  the  sufferings 
of  his  land,  longing  to  hear  no  more  the  drumbeat  of  a  war  too  cruel,  but 
listening  for  the  melody  of  peace ;  and  on  a  brow  where  once  rested  the 
shadow  of  impending  doom  is  now  the  wreath  of  hero  and  of  statesman, 
while  in  the  hearts  of  the  North  and  of  the  South  alike  lives  the  memory 
of  the  mighty  dead,  Abraham  Lincoln. 

Near,  in  that  temple,  two  other  figures  stand,  captains  of  mighty 
hosts,  leaders  of  great  armies,  heroic  and  colossal,  nobler  far  in  purpose 
than  was  Alexander  of  old,  grander  far  in  aim  and  achievement  too  than 
the  conquering  Napoleon.  "  They  sleep  their  last  sleep,  they  have  fought 
their  last  battle,"  but  Lee  and  Grant  can  never  die. 

Did  time  permit,  I  might  hallow  this  hour  by  calling  the  names  of  the 
glorious  Jackson,  the  heroic  Hancock,  and  other  names  that  would  stir 
your  hearts  and  cause  your  pulses  to  beat  responsive  to  the  words  —  the 
mere  calling  of  their  names — the  leaders  both  in  war  and  in  peace,  in 
literature  and  in  the  arts  and  in  the  sciences,  and,  thank  God,  the  leaders 
too  in  the  commonwealth  of  our  Master,  the  Christ. 

On  behalf  of  the  South,  as  a  humble  representative,  I  thank  you  with 
all  my  heart  for  coming  to  Dixie  land. 

You  go  from  this  sunny  land,  the  land  of  the  Palmetto  and  the  sea, 
back  to  your  homes,  respected,  honored,  and  beloved.  Let  us  all  carry 
with  us  the  purpose  to  teach,  not  only  arts  and  sciences,  but  love  of  free- 
dom, a  broad,  a  high,  and  a  comprehensive  patriotism,  and  reverence  for 
the  flag  under  whose  folds  sit  truth  and  wisdom,  and  justice  and  mercy 
have  their  habitation.  Let  us  all  go  forth  from  this  great  educational 
meeting,  this  great  national  gathering  —  in  one  respect  the  greatest  this 
noble  body  has  ever  held  —  let  us  go  forth,  I  say,  resolved  more  than 
ever  to  cherish  our  hallowed  past,  to  be  true  to  the  living  present,  and  to 
stand,  in  the  years  before  us,  for  freedom,  for  fatherland,  and  for  that 
banner,  star-spangled  and  stainless  as  the  blue  heavens  above  us. 


DEPARTMENT  OF  SUPERINTENDENCE 

CHICAGO    MEETING 


SECRETARY'S   MINUTES 


FIRST    DAY 


MORNING  SESSION.— Tuesday,  February  27,  1900 

The  Department  of  Superintendence  was  called  to  ord,er  in  University  Hall,  Fine 
Arts  Building,  Chicago,  111.,  at  10  A.  M.,  President  Augustus  S.  Downing  in  the  chair. 

After  music  by  the  Glee  Club  of  the  Hyde  Park  High  School  of  Chicago,  an  invoca- 
tion was  offered  by  Right  Rev.  Bishop  Fallows.  Another  selection  by  the  Glee  Club  fol- 
lowed, after  which  Hon.  Howard  S.  Taylor,  representing  his  honor.  Mayor  Carter  H, 
Harrison,  delivered  an  address  of  welcome  on  behalf  of  the  city  of  Chicago.  Dr.  E. 
Benjamin  Andrews,  superintendent  of  city  schools,  welcomed  the  department  on  behalf 
of  the  board  of  education  and  the  teachers  of  Chicago.  President  Downing  responded 
on  behalf  of  the  department. 

An  address  was  then  delivered  by  Dr.  Nicholas  Murray  Butler,  of  Columbia  Univer- 
sity, New  York  city,  on  the  subject,  "  The  Status  of  Education  at  the  Close  of  the  Cen- 
tury." The  paper  was  discussed  by  President  Charles  W.  Eliot  of  Harvard  University 
and  Dr.  W.  T.  Harris,  United  States  Commissioner  of  Education. 

The  department  then  adjourned. 

AFTERNOON   SESSION 

The  afternoon  session  was  called  to  order  at  2  :  15,  President  Downing  in  the  chair. 
The  president  appointed  the  following 

COMMITTEE  ON   RESOLUTIONS 

Superintendent  F.  Louis  Soldan,  St.  Louis,  Mo.  Superintendent  L.  C.Greenlee,  Denver,  Colo. 

Superintendent  E,  H.  Mark,  Louisville,  Ky. 

Hon.  L.  D.  Harvey,  state  superintendent  of  public  instruction  of  Wisconsin,  presented 
a  paper  on  "  Two  Opportunities  for  Improvement  in  the  Administration  of  Graded  School 
Systems."  The  paper  was  discussed  by  State  Superintendent  Alfred  Bayliss  of  Illinois. 
The  report  of  the  committee  appointed  at  Columbus  to  make  a  recommendation  with 
reference  to  the  location  of  the  meeting  for  the  years  1901  and  1902  was  then  presented, 
as  follows : 
Members  of  the  Department  of  Superintendence  of  the  National  Educational  Association: 

Your  committee  appointed  by  virtue  of  the  following  resolution  passed  at  the  annual  meeting  of  the 
department  at  Columbus,  O.,  February,  1899,  viz. : 

"That  a  committee  of  three  be  appointed  with  instructions  to  report  on  the  first  day  of  the  meeting  in 
1900,  recommending  a  place  for  the  meeting  of  the  department  for  the  two  succeeding  years,  1901  and  1903," 
submits  the  following  report : 

That  the  meeting  of  the  Department  of  Superintendence  of  the  National  Educational  Association  be 

held  in  Chicago  in  the  years  1901  and  1902. 

Aaron  Govs, 
O.  T.  Corson, 
George  H.  Martin, 

Committee. 
183 


184  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Chicago 

A  motion  to  adopt  the  report  was  made  by  William  J.  Cox,  of  Moline,  111.  Superin- 
tendent C.  M.  Bardwell,  of  Aurora,  111.,  moved  as  a  substitute  that  the  report  be  laid  on 
the  table  until  Wednesday  morning,  and  taken  up  immediately  after  the  close  of  the 
regular  program.  The  substitute  was  lost.  A  vigorous  discussion  of  the  motion  then 
followed,  which  was  participated  in  by  Messrs.  Glenn,  of  Georgia ;  Gove,  of  Colorado ; 
Prettyman,  of  Maryland ;  White,  of  Ohio ;  Treudley,  of  Ohio ;  Brown,  of  Illinois ;  and 
Bouton,  of  Massachusetts.  Superintendent  Bouton  then  moved  to  amend  the  report  so 
that  it  would  apply  only  to  the  year  1901.  The  motion  was  carried  by  a  vote  of  89  to  59, 
and  the  president  declared  that  Chicago  was  the  choice  of  the  department  as  the  place 
for  meeting  in  1901. 

The  following  Committee  on  Nominations  was  appointed  and  instructed  to  report  at 
12  M.  on  Wednesday,  February  28 : 

COMMITTEE  ON  NOMINATIONS 
Superintendent  George  B.  Cook,  of  Arkansas.  Superintendent  D.  L.  Bardwell,  of  New  York. 

Superintendent  W.  C.  Bates,  of  Massachusetts.  President  R.  H.  Halsey,  of  Wisconsin. 

Superintendent  G,  R.  Glenn,  of  Georgia. 

The  department  then  adjourned. 

EVENING   SESSION 

The  evening  session  was  held  in  Central  Music  Hall,  beginning  at  8:15,  Presi- 
dent Downing  presiding.  Music  was  furnished  by  the  Joseph  Medill  High  School 
chorus.  After  prayer  by  Rev.  Jacob  Stolz,  Walter  H.  Page,  of  New  York  city,  delivered 
an  address  upon  "  Right  Use  of  Speech  in  a  Democracy." 

Adjourned. 

SECOND    DAY 

MORNING  SESSION.— Wednesday,  February  28 

The  session  opened  at  9 :  30,  with  the  president  in  the  chair.  An  invocation  was 
offered  by  Rev.  Dr.  A.  C.  Hurst,  of  Chicago.  Music  was  furnished  by  Miss  Joy,  of  Cali- 
fornia. 

Superintendent  Aaron  Gove,  of  Denver,  Colo.,  read  a  paper  entitled  "The  Trail  of 
the  City  Superintendent."  The  discussion  of  this  paper  was  opened  by  Superintendent 
Charles  M.  Jordan,  of  Minneapolis,  Minn. 

Superintendent  Charles  E.  Gorton,  of  Yonkers,  N.  Y.,  then  read  a  paper  entitled 
"  The  School  Superintendent  in  Small  Cities." 

Assistant  Superintendent  A.  P.  Marble,  of  New  York  city,  concluded  the  discussion 
of  Superintendent  Gove's  paper. 

E.  O.  Vaile,  editor  of  Intelligence,  Oak  Park,  111.,  introduced  the  following  resolution, 
and  moved  its  adoption  : 

Resolved,  That  the  Department  of  Superintendence  does  hereby  memorialize  the  Board  of  Directors  of 
the  National  Educational  Association  at  its  next  meeting  in  Charleston,  S.  C,  to  appropriate  the  sum  of 
$1,000  for  each  of  the  next  five  years,  to  be  expended  in  promoting  the  cause  of  simplifying  our  English  spell- 
ing, under  the  direction  of  a  commission  composed  of  the  following  members : 

Dr.  W.  T.  Harris,  United  States  Commissioner  of  Education,  Washington,  D.  C,  president. 

Dr.  Nicholas  Murray  Butler,  Columbia  University,  New  York,  first  vice-president. 

Dr.  F.  Louis  Soldan,  superintendent  of  schools,  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  second  vice-president. 

Dr.  William  R.  Harper,  president  of  the  University  of  Chicago,  Chicago,  111. 

Dr.  W.  H.  Ward,  editor  of  the  Independent,  New  York. 

Francis  J.  Child,  professor  of  English,  Harvard  University. 

Thomas  R.  Lounsbury,  professor  of  English,  Yale  University. 

William  Dean  Howells,  New  York  city. 

Benjamin  E.  Smith,  managing  editor  of  the  Century  Dictionary. 

Dr.  E.  Benjamin  Andrews,  superintendent  of  schools,  Chicago. 

It  being  provided  that  any  vacancies  arising  in  the  above  board  shall  be  filled  by  a  vote  of  the  members. 


Superintendence]  SECRETARY'S   MINUTES  185 

Resalved,  That  the  retiring  secretary  of  the  department  is  hereby  instructed  to  see  that  the  above 
memorial  is  duly  communicated  to  the  Board  of  Directors  of  the  National  Educational  Association. 

After  discussion  by  Dr.  E.  E.  White,  of  Ohio ;  President  A.  S.  Draper,  of  Illinois ; 
Colonel  Francis  W.  Parker  and  Superintendent  O.  T.  Bright,  of  Chicago,  it  was  moved 
that  the  matter  be  referred  to  the  Board  of  Directors  of  the  National  Educational  Associa- 
tion, with  an  expression  of  opinion  from  the  department.  This  motion  was  lost.  It  was 
then  moved  and  carried  that  the  resolution  be  laid  on  the  table  for  one  year  ;  yeas,  93  ; 
nays,  71.  After  further  discussion  it  was  moved  and  carried  that  the  substance  of  this 
resolution  shall  be  assigned  a  place  for  discussion  on  next  year's  program  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  Superintendence. 

Dr.  W.  T.  Harris  introduced  the  following  resolution  : 

Resolved,  That  the  president  of  this  department  be,  and  he  is  hereby,  authorizad  and  instructed  to 
appoint  a  committee  on  the  National  Bureau  of  Education,  the  same  to  consist  of  six  members,  whose  duty  it 
shall  be  to  aid  that  bureau,  in  whatever  way  they  find  it  practicable,  to  accomplish  its  work. 

The  resolution  was  adopted. 
The  department  adjourned. 

AFTERNOON   SESSION 

The  afternoon  session  opened  in  University  Hall  at  2  o'clock  with  a  paper  by  Pro- 
fessor W.  O.  Atwater,  of  Wesleyan  University,  Connecticut,  upon  "Alcohol  Physiology 
and  Superintendence."  A  formal  discussion  of  this  paper  was  introduced  by  Superin- 
tendent S.  T.  Dutton,  of  Brookline,  Mass.,  and  closed  by  Superintendent  R.  G.  Boone,  of 
Cincinnati,  O.  It  was  then  moved  that  the  discussion  close  at  4 :  30,  and  the  president 
ruled  that  no  speaker  should  exceed  five  minutes.  The  following  took  part  in  the  dis- 
cussion:  Superintendent  C.  P.  Carroll,  of  Massachusetts;  Colonel  F.  W.  Parker,  of  Illi- 
nois ;  Dr.  D.  L.  Kiehle,  of  Minnesota ;  Professor  George  W.  Webster,  of  Chicago ;  Hon. 
Henry  Sabin,  of  Iowa  ;  Superintendent  Joseph  Carter,  of  Illinois ;  Professor  Winfield  S. 
Hall,  of  Chicago ;  Superintendent  C.  G.  Pearse,  of  Nebraska. 

It  was  moved  by  Superintendent  Boone,  of  Cincinnati,  that  thirty  minutes  of  the 
Thursday  morning  meeting  be  given  to  the  further  discussion  of  this  topic. 

The  committee  provided  for  by  the  resolution  of  Dr.  Harris  was  announced,  as 
follows : 

COMMITTEE  ON   BUREAU  OF  EDUCATION 

Dr.  Nicholas  Murray  Butler,  of  New  York.  Superintendent  N.  C.  Dougherty,  of  Illinois. 

President  A.  S.  Draper,  of  Illinois.  Dr.  E.  Oram  Lyte,  of  Pennsylvania. 

Superintendent  G.  R.  Glenn,  of  Georgia.  Superintendent  Aaron  Gove,  of  Colorado. 

Department  adjourned. 

EVENING   SESSION 

The  evening  session  was  held  in  Central  Music  Hall,  Vice-President  G.  R.  Glenn  in 
the  chair.  An  address  was  delivered  by  President  Edwin  A.  Alderman  of  the  University 
of  North  Carolina,  upon  the  subject,  "  The  Obligations  of  Scholarship." 

Department  adjourned. 

THIRD    DAY 

MORNING  SESSION.— Thursday,  March  i 

The  department  was  called  to  order  in  University  Hall  at  9  :  30  A.  M.,  President 
Downing  in  the  chair.  Music  was  furnished  by  the  eighth-grade  class  of  the  Brainerd 
School,  Chicago.  After  an  invocation  by  Dr.  William  Lawrence,  of  Chicago,  the  discus- 
sion of  Professor  Atwater's  paper  was  continued.  On  motion,  Mrs.  Mary  H.  Hunt,  of 
Boston,  was  allowed  fifteen  minutes  to  discuss  the  paper.  She  was  followed  by  Mrs. 
Jessie  Willard  Bolte,  of  Winnetka,  III.     Superintendent  Dutton,  of  Massachusetts,  moved 


1 86  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Chicago 

that  Professor  Atwater  be  allowed  what  he  may  regard  as  sufficient  time  in  which  to  close 
the  discussion.  An  amendment  allowing  him  ten  minutes  was  lost  and  the  original 
motion  carried.  At  the  close  of  the  discussion  the  following  resolution  was  offered  by 
Superintendent  Joseph  Carter,  of  Champaign,  111.: 

Resolved,  That  it  is  the  judgment  of  this  department  of  the  National  Educational  Association  that  the 
teaching  of  temperance,  errors  being  corrected  if  there  be  any  in  our  boolcs,  shall  be  continued  by  law  in  our 
schools. 

Superintendent  C.  M.  Jordan,  of  Minneapolis,  Minn.,  introduced  the  following  : 

Resolved,  That  the  Department  of  Superintendence  expresses  its  deep  interest  in  every  legitimate  effort 
to  further  the  cause  of  temperance,  and  its  hearty  approval  of  temperance  instruction,  based  upon  sound  peda- 
gogical principles,  in  the  public  schools  of  the  country. 

Both  resolutions  were  referred  to  the  Committee  on  Resolutions. 

At  this  point  President  Downing  surrendered  the  gavel  to  President  Corson  of  the 
National  Educational  Association,  who  introduced  a  delegation  from  South  Carolina, 
consisting  of  Superintendent  H.  P.  Archer,  Charleston  ;  Hon.  J.  J.  McMahan,  state  super- 
intendent of  public  instruction ;  and  Dr.  A.  P.  Montague,  president  of  Furnam  Univer- 
sity, who  constituted  a  committee,  appointed  by  the  city  of  Charleston,  to  present  to  the 
department  the  greetings  of  the  citizens  of  that  city.  These  gentlemen,  in  eloquent  and 
impressive  addresses,  extended  to  the  department  an  invitation  to  attend  the  annual  con- 
vention of  the  National  Educational  Association,  to  be  held  in  Charleston  in  July,  1900. 

Superintendent  Bright,  of  Illinois,  then  moved  that  the  department  proceed  to  com- 
plete the  business  which  was  to  come  before  it.  Carried.  The  report  of  the  Committee 
on  Nominations  was  as  follows  : 

To  the  Members  of  the  Department  of  Superintendence  of  the  National  Educational  Association: 

Your  committee  begs  leave  to  submit  the  following  nominations  for  officers  of  the  department  for  the 
ensuing  year: 

For  President — L.  D.  Harvey,  Madison,  Wis. 
For  First  Vice-President — A.  K.  Whitcomb,  Lowell,  Mass. 
For  Second  Vice-President — W.  F.  Slaton,  Atlanta,  Ga. 
For  Secretary  — Y.  B.  Cooper,  Salt  Lake  City,  Utah. 

George  B.  Cook,  Chairman, 
W,  C.  Bates, 
R.  H.  Halsey, 
G.  R.  Glenn, 
D.  L.  Bardwell, 

Committee  on  Nominations, 

It  was  moved  that  the  secretary  cast  the  ballot  of  the  department  for  the  names  pre- 
sented by  the  committee.  The  motion  was  carried  and  the  ballot  so  cast,  and  the  officers 
named  were  declared  elected. 

Adjourned. 

AFTERNOON   SESSION 

The  afternoon  session  was  called  to  order  at  2  o'clock. 

President  John  W.  Cook  presented  a  paper  on  the  subject,  "  How  a  Superintendent 
may  Improve  the  Efficiency  of  His  Teachers."  A  formal  discussion  of  this  paper  was 
opened  by  Professor  A.  S.  Whitney,  of  the  University  of  Michigan. 

Superintendent  R.  E.  Denfeld,  of  Duluth,  Minn.,  then  presented  a  paper  on  "  The 
Superintendent  as  an  Organizer  and  Executive."  This  paper  was  discussed  by  Superin- 
tendent E.  H.  Mark,  of  Louisville,  Ky. 

The  Committee  on  Resolutions  presented  the   following,  which  were  unanimously 
adopted  : 
To  the  Department  of  Superintendence  of  the  National  Educational  Association: 

The  Committee  on  Resolutions  respectfully  submits  the  following  report : 

Resolved,  That  the  thanks  of  this  department  are  hereby  tendered  to  the  retiring  officers  for  the  wisdom 
and  energy  they  have  displayed  in  the  preparations  for  this  meeting,  which  by  their  efforts  has  been  one  of  th$ 
niost  successful  department  sessions  in  the  history  of  the  association, 


Superintendence]  SECRETARY'S  MINUTES  1 87 

Resolved,  That  the  thanks  of  the  department  be  tendered  to  those  who  have  presented  the  papers  and 
the  addresses  which  have  formed  the  program  of  this  meeting. 

The  department  expresses  its  appreciation  and  gratitude  to  the  Local  Committee  of  Arrangements, 
whose  work  has  contributed  so  much  toward  the  success  of  the  meeting ;  to  the  board  of  education,  and  to  the 
city  and  the  citizens,  of  Chicago,  for  their  generous  hospitality;  to  the  press  for  its  extended  and  satisfactory 
reports  of  the  sessions;  to  the  Woman's  Club  of  Chicago  for  its  generous  reception;  to  the  railroads  for  the 
facilities  which  they  have  offered  for  this  meeting  and  for  the  reduction  in  the  rates  of  transportation. 

Resolved^  That  the  request  which  this  department  made  to  the  directors  of  the  National  Educational 
Association  one  year  ago,  and  which  met  with  generous  compliance,  be  renewed  for  the  next  session,  viz. : 
that  an  adequate  appropriation  for  the  meetings  of  this  department  be  provided ;  and  that  the  officers  be 
directed  to  present  this  request  at  the  next  session  of  the  Board  of  Directors. 

In  consideration  of  the  deep  interest  which  this  department  takes  in  every  legitimate  effort  to  advance 
the  cause  of  temperance,  and  of  its  desire  to  promote  in  the  schools  of  the  country  the  teaching  of  temperance 
based  on  sound  pedagogical  and  scientific  principles,  be  it 

Resolved y  That  the  chair  appoint  a  committee  of  seven,  whose  duty  it  shall  be  to  report  upon  the  teach- 
ing of  physiology  in  the  schools,  especially  with  regard  to  the  condition  and  progress  of  scientific  inquiry  as 
to  the  action  of  alcohol  upon  the  human  system,  and  to  recommend  what  action,  if  any,  by  this  department  is 
justified  by  the  results  of  these  inquiries, 

F.  Louis  Soldan,  chairman, 
L.  C.  Greenlee, 
E.  H.  Mark, 

Committee. 

EVENING   SESSION 

The  evening  session  was  held  in  Central  Music  Hall.  The  meeting  was  opened  at 
8:15  with  prayer  by  Superintendent  N.  C.  Schaeffer,  of  Pennsylvania.  An  address  was 
delivered  by  President  Benjamin  Ide  Wheeler  of  the  University  of  California,  upon 
"  The  Place  of  Secondary  Schools."  At  the  conclusion  of  the  address  the  following  com- 
mittee upon  temperance  instruction  in  the  schools  was  announced  by  the  president : 

COMMITTEE  ON  TEMPERANCE  INSTRUCTION  IN  SCHOOLS 

District  Superintendent  A.  G.  Lane,  of  Chicago,  chairman, 

Hon.  O.  T.  Corson,  of  Ohio. 

Superintendent  J.  H.  Van  Sickle,  of  Colorado. 

Dr.  E.  Oram  Lyte,  of  Pennsylvania. 

President  E.  A.  Alderman,  of  North  Carolina. 

Superintendent  F.  Louis  Soldan,  of  Missouri. 

Superintendent  E.  P.  Seaver,  of  Massachusetts. 

The  incoming  president,  Superintendent  L.  D.  Harvey,  of  Wisconsin,  was  then  pre- 
sented and  made  a  few  remarks. 

The  department  adjourned  sine  die. 

Charles  M.  Jordan, 

Secretary. 


NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Ckicagb 


PAPERS  AND  DISCUSSIONS 


STA  TUS  OF  EDUCA  TION  A  T  THE  CL OSE  OF  THE  CENTUR  Y 

NICHOLAS    MURRAY    BUTLER,   PROFESSOR    OF    PHILOSOPHY    AND 
EDUCATION,    COLUMBIA    UNIVERSITY 

Imagination  and  feeling  increasingly  bear  the  brunt  of  shaping  human 
opinion  and  human  conduct.  Intelligence  does  its  organizing  work  and 
then  disappears  below  the  surface.  Much  of  life  goes  on  without  its 
active  co-operation,  just  as  many  of  our  mental  reactions,  first  organized 
in  the  brain,  come  to  be  carried  on  thru  the  spinal  cord  alone.  When 
we  stop  to  think,  we  realize  that  a  century  is  of  human  making,  a  purely 
arbitrary  division  of  tinje.  Century  might  have  been  the  name  given  to 
a  longer  or  a  shorter  period,  twenty  years  or  two  hundred,  without  doing 
violence  to  anything  save  present  associations.  The  limits  of  a  century 
are  wholly  imaginary.  The  skies  do  not  change  when  a  century  is  ushered 
in,  or  the  thunders  roll  when  it  passes  out.  A  century  begins  and  ends 
as  noiselessly  and  as  unperceived  as  any  moment  which  glides  from  the 
future  into  the  past.  Imagination,  however,  gives  to  the  century  an 
objective  reality,  and  feeling  welds  our  thoughts  to  it.  The  arbitrary 
period  of  time  which  it  covers,  and  the  events  which  happen  in  that  period, 
come  to  have  for  us  a  relation  of  cause  and  effect  or  of  reciprocal  depend- 
ence. We  cannot  rid  ourselves  of  that  feeling.  Fancy,  if  you  can,  Attila 
charging  upon  the  Western  Empire  in  a  century  called  the  fifteenth 
instead  of  the  fifth,  or  Louis  XVI.  losing  his  head  in  the  eighth  century 
instead  of  the  eighteenth,  or  Columbus  discovering  America  in  the 
twentieth! 

We  do  well  to  resign  ourselves  to  the  spell  of  these  mental  creations, 
and  to  learn,  as  Macaulay  somewhere  said,  to  know  our  centuries.  But 
who  can  know  the  nineteenth  century  ?  Development  so  rapid,  changes 
so  startling,  inventions  so  undreamed  of,  crowd  each  other  in  a  whirl  of 
confusing  images  when  we  try  to  picture  this  century  and  to  note  its 
salient  facts.  It  is  the  century  of  Napoleon  and  of  Lincoln,  of  Hegel 
and  of  Darwin,  of  Goethe  and  of  Kipling,  of  Bessemer  and  of  Rocke- 
feller. More  leaders  of  enterprise  and  more  captains  of  industry  have 
appeared  during  this  one  hundred  years  than  in  all  previous  recorded 
history.  The  average  of  human  intelligence  and  of  human  efficiency 
has  been  raised  to  a  point,  in  the  United  States  certainly,  which  a  few 
hundred  years  ago  would  have  entailed  notoriety,  and  perhaps  distinction. 
Prosperity  and  querulousness,  desire  and  happiness,  have  all  multiplied 
together.     How  can  all  this  be  interpreted  ? 


Superintendence]  EDUCATION  AT  CLOSE  OF  CENTURY  189 

The  wisest  answer  seems  to  me  to  be  this :  The  nineteenth  century  is 
pre-eminently  the  period  of  individual  liberty  —  political,  religious,  intel- 
lectual, industrial ;  and  its  manifold  triumphs  and  achievements  are  due 
to  the  large  opportunities  which  have  been  granted  to  individual  initiative 
and  to  individual  expression.  The  greatness,  the  shortcomings,  and  the 
contradictions  of  the  nineteenth  century  are  alike  due  to  this. 

It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  mankind  discovered  the  significance  of 
the  individual  rather  late,  and  that,  when  discovered,  this  significance  was 
variously  interpreted.  Man's  early  institutions  and  his  law,  based  as  they 
were  on  kinship,  took  the  family,  bound  together  by  tie  of  blood,  as  the 
unit.  The  individual  was  of  very  secondary  importance.  The  horde, 
the  tribe,  the  state  were  successive  aggregations  of  families,  or,  perhaps 
better,  a  larger  family.  The  interest,  the  ambition,  the  vengeance  of 
the  group  or  community  controlled  each  individual's  acts  and,  in  large 
measure,  his  opinions  and  his  thoughts.  Under  such  circumstances  edu- 
cation could  only  be  tribal  or  ethnic  in  its  aims  and  in  its  forms.  It 
sought  to  reproduce  a  type,  not  to  develop  a  capacity. 

The  journey  during  the  history  of  civilization  from  this  point  of  view 
to  one  from  which  the  individual  is  himself  of  importance  is  a  long  and 
arduous  one.  Of  representative  ancient  thinkers  the  Sophists,  the  Cynics, 
and  the  Stoics  alone  championed  the  cause  of  the  individual  as  such,  and 
their  appreciation  of  the  real  meaning  of  individualism  was  most  imper- 
fect. The  Sophist  hope  that  a  man  could  spin  a  web  of  successful  and 
useful  existence  out  of  the  shadowy  contents  of  his  own  perceptions  was 
dashed  once  and  for  all  by  Socrates.  The  Cynic  revolt  against  social 
order  and  convention  is  typified  by  Diogenes  with  lantern  and  with  tub. 
The  Stoic  outlook  was  a  broader  one,  but  it  in  turn  was  shut  in  by  the 
massive  height  of  an  omnipresent,  overruling  law,  before  which  man  could 
only  seek  virtue  thru  stern  resignation.  The  clue  suggested  by  the  master- 
mind of  Aristotle,  by  which  the  essential  nature  and  the  limitations  of 
individualism  might  be  made  known,  was  not  fully  followed  up  for  cen- 
turies. Yet  from  the  fifth  century  before  Christ  onward  philosophy  was 
increasingly  becoming,  not  only  the  science  of  human  conduct,  but  the 
art  of  human  living ;  and  individualism  was  necessarily  the  gainer.  How 
shall  a  man  live  to  attain  wisdom  and  virtue  ?  was  the  question  which  the 
Greek  and  Roman  moralists  pressed  home  upon  each  individual  listener 
with  tremendous  force.  Then  Christianity  came,  with  its  teaching  of  the 
equality  of  every  human  soul  before  the  judgment-seat  of  God.  Here, 
at  last,  individualism  seemed  to  have  found  a  secure  foundation.  The 
Sermon  on  the  Mount  was  its  charter  and  its  moral  guide.  A  man's  sal- 
vation depended  upon  himself  alone.  Speedily,  however,  a  reaction  set 
in,  and  the  old  habit  of  setting  hard  and  fast  limits  for  the  individual 
asserted  itself.  Christianity  grew  rapidly  into  an  elaborate  system  of 
doctrine  to  be  held  in  its  entirety  semper,  ubique,  ab  omnibus.     On  the 


19°  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Chicago 

Other  hand,  the  Roman  jurists  were  elaborating  a  system  of  personal 
rights,  which  was  destined  to  afford  individualism  a  new  foothold  and  to 
exercise  a  profound  influence  upon  European  society.  Superficially,  then, 
individualism  was  checked  by  a  body  of  doctrine,  uniformly  prescribed, 
which  guided  faith  and  practice  ;  under  the  surface,  rights  and  oppor- 
tunities for  the  individual  continued  to  develop  slowly.  Education  took 
on  the  form  of  the  superficial  appearance  of  uniformity,  and  for  centuries 
the  western  world  continued  steadily  to  uncoil  itself  in  constantly  widen- 
ing circles,  but  still  in  circles.  At  length  the  inner  contradiction  between 
the  two  great  elements  of  mediaeval  civilization  asserted  itself,  and  the 
crash  came.  With  the  mocking  jests  of  Rabelais,  the  caustic  wit  of  Mon- 
taigne, the  masculine  fervor  of  Luther,  pent-up  individualism  hurled 
itself  against  the  bars  which  confined  it.  It  broke  thru,  now  here  and 
now  there,  and  rushed  headlessly  hither  and  yon,  searching  for  escape. 
It  tried  mysticism  in  religion  as  a  relief  from  the  clanking  chains  of 
dogma,  and  absolutism  in  politics  as  a  protection  from  its  nearest  foes. 
Meanwhile,  the  crushing  force  of  ancient  tradition  asserted  itself  with 
dogged  determination.  But  it  was  too  late ;  the  long-checked  desire  for 
a  freedom  which  was  too  often  interpreted  as  anarchy,  and  for  a  liberty 
which  in  its  newness  appeared  to  mean  license,  could  not  be  controlled. 
In  its  name  the  persistent  Anglo-Saxon  challenged  the  house  of  Stuart, 
and  after  two  centuries  worked  himself  substantially  free  from  the  old 
forms  of  bondage.  The  more  passionate  and  quick-moving  Celt  had  to 
wait  longer,  but  he  acted  more  quickly.  In  the  dramatic  horrors  and 
sublimities  of  the  French  Revolution  he  gained  his  immediate  end  at  the 
risk  of  losing  every  precious  possession  of  the  race. 

The  smoke  of  the  French  Revolution  hung  over  Europe  when  the 
nineteenth  century  opened.  As  it  gradually  cleared  away  it  became 
obvioiis  that  the  successful  struggle  of  individualism  for  recognition  was 
almost  over,  but  that  the  results  were  to  be  worked  out  by  argument,  not 
by  anarchy.     The  century  soon  to  close  records  what  happened. 

Education,  as  a  matter  of  course,  has  always  borne  the  impress  of  the 
civilization  whose  product  it  was.  From  the  fourteenth  century  to  the 
nineteenth,  the  demand  of  individualism  for  representation  in  the  schools 
has  been  heard,  now  earnest  and  reasonable,  now  passionate  and  incohe- 
rent. Politics  and  religion  so  far  overshadowed  education  in  importance 
that  it  was  a  long  time  before  there  was  any  widespread  recognition  of 
the  close  relation  in  which  education  stood  to  them.  On  this  matter  the 
seventeenth  and  the  eighteenth  centuries  brought  great  light,  and  there 
was  new  hope  for  the  schools.  False  and  partial  as  we  must  hold  much  of 
the  French  and  English  philosophy  of  the  eighteenth  century  to  be,  it  is 
nevertheless  to  be  credited  with  having  convinced  the  world  that  a 
fundamental  principle  bound  together  rational  progress  in  politics,  in 
religion,  and  in  education.     To  this  conviction  the  nineteenth  century 


Superintendence]  EDUCA  TION  A  T  CLOSE  OF  CENTUR  Y  191 

has  clung  most  tenaciously.  The  result  has  been  an  unexampled  and 
dazzling  expansion  of  educational  endeavor  and  accomplishment. 

When  the  century  opened  Rousseau  had  been  dead  nearly  twenty- 
three  years.  Pestalozzi  had  just  left  Stanz  for  Burgdorf,  and  at  the  age 
of  fifty- five  was  crying  ecstatically:  "The  child  is  right;  he  will  not 
have  anything  come  between  nature  and  himself."  Froebel,  an  intro- 
spective youth  of  nineteen,  was  at  Jena,  at  that  moment  the  very  center 
of  the  productive  activity  of  German  thought.  Reinhold  had  been 
expounding  the  new  gospel  according  to  Kant  there,  and  Fichte  had  only 
recently  been  expelled  while  trying  to  interpret  it.  Then  and  there 
Froebel,  as  he  himself  said,  began  to  know  the  names  of  Goethe  and 
Schiller  and  Wieland.  Hegel,  too,  was  at  Jena.  His  Lehrjahre  were 
behind  him,  and  at  thirty  years  of  age  he  was  nearly  ready  to  measure 
his  strength  with  the  masters.  The  lecture  programs  of  the  University  of 
Jena,  as  has  been  said, at  that  time  fairly  "dripped"  philosophy.  Herbart, 
who  had  been  one  of  Fichte's  pupils  at  Jena  a  few  years  earlier,  was  still, 
at  twenty-four,  studying  and  giving  private  instruction.  These  five  men  — 
Rousseau,  Pestalozzi,  Froebel,  Hegel,  and  Herbart  —  were  to  give  to 
nineteenth-century  education  most  of  its  philosophical  foundation  and 
not  a  few  of  its  methods.  From  them  have  come  the  main  influences 
which  have  shaped  education  for  a  hundred  years. 

Each  one  of  the  five  pleaded  in  his  way  for  the  value  of  the  individual. 
Rousseau,  with  no  institutional  sense  and  no  insight  into  the  meaning  of 
history,  exclaimed :  "O  man,  concentrate  thine  existence  within  thyself, 
and  thou  wilt  no  longer  be  miserable !  Thy  liberty,  thy  power,  extend 
only  as  far  as  thy  natural  forces,  and  no  farther.  All  the  rest  is  but 
slavery,  illusion,  prestige."  Pestalozzi,  whose  intellect  never  quite  caught 
up  with  his  emotions,  was  really  neglecting  the  individual  by  his  method 
of  trying  to  care  for  him.  Froebel  and  Hegel  saw  far  deeper.  They 
knew  the  meaning  of  institutions,  of  thought-relations,  of  development, 
both  inner  and  outer.  They  taught  the  individual  as  a  Gliedganzes,  a 
whole  and  yet  a  part  of  a  larger  whole,  and  so  gave  us  our  truest  view  of 
individualism  in  education.  Herbart's  individualism  was  hard  and 
mechanical,  tho  his  doctrine  of  apperception  gave  promise  of  something 
better  and  more  vital. 

These  men,  then,  projected  individualism  into  cpntemporary  educa- 
tional theory.  They  had  hosts  of  disciples  in  many  lands,  and  the 
movement  grew  apace.  It  needed,  however,  the  touch  of  practice  to 
make  it  genuinely  real.  This  came  after  1848,  the  line  which  divides  the 
century  into  two  parts  —  the  earlier  part  dominated  by  thought,  with 
spirits  like  Goethe,  Wordsworth,  Coleridge,  and  Emerson  as  its  expo- 
nents ;  the  latter  dominated  by  action,  with  Lincoln,  Gladstone,  and 
Bismarck  as  exemplars.  In  1848  the  individual  gained. the  foothold 
which  he  had  struggled  for,  but  lost,  in  the  haste  of  1789. 


192  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  rChicago 

The  pressure  from  practical  life  followed.  The  old  educational 
material  and  the  traditional  educational  methods  were  attacked  with 
greater  frequency  and  with  greater  vigor,  as  not  adapted  to  modern 
needs.  The  ancient  languages  and  the  civilizations  they  embalmed  were 
denounced  as  fetiches.  The  world's  philosophy  was  nonsense;  its  art  was 
archaic ;  its  literature  pedantic  and  overlaid  with  form.  Straightway 
altars  were  erected  to  new  and  unfamiliar  gods  ;  before  all  to  that  product 
of  the  human  understanding  called  science,  which  Mr.  Herbert  Spencer, 
with  a  humor  quite  unconscious,  defined  as  partially  unified  knowledge. 
The  new  spirit  exulted  in  its  freedom.  It  accomplished  much  ;  it  ignored 
much.  In  a  thousand  ways  it  impressed  itself  on  life,  on  literature,  and 
on  art.  Education  was  shaken  to  its  foundations.  Nothing  was  sacred. 
No  subject  of  study,  no  method  of  teaching  was  immune.  Old  institutions 
of  learning  were  too  slow  to  move  and  to  adapt  themselves  to  these  con- 
ditions. New  ones  were  invented,  created,  set  in  motion.  Wealth, 
public  and  private,  poured  out  like  water  to  make  possible  and  to  sustain 
these  new  types  of  school.  The  seven  liberal  arts  faded  into  insignifi- 
cance beside  the  endless  list  of  subjects  now  found  to  be  worthy  of 
study. 

This  great,  world-wide  movement  justified  itself  for  the  time  by  its 
results.  Commerce,  industry,  and  invention  multiplied  apace.  The 
forces  of  nature  were  commanded  thru  being  obeyed.  Education  had 
become  democratic,  and  was  ready  to  offer  training  in  preparation  for 
any  calling.  The  traditional  list  of  learned  professions  was  increased  by 
architecture,  engineering,  and  a  dozen  more.  Early  and  complete  adap- 
tation of  the  individual  to  his  appropriate  career  was  hailed  as  the  new 
educational  ideal  before  which  all  else  must  give  way.  In  consequence, 
the  hasty  conclusion  was  drawn  that  not  only  methods  of  procedure  in 
education,  but  the  sole  principles  upon  which  to  proceed,  could  be 
learned  by  the  study  of  the  infant  mind  and  the  infant  body.  Upon  this 
as  a  basis  a  superstructure  of  educational  theory  and  practice  was  erected, 
which  would  have  delighted  the  heart  of  that  arch-Philistine,  Rousseau. 
All  that  had  been  was  wasteful,  misleading,  wrong,  not  on  its  merits,  but 
simply  because  it  had  been.  The  progress  of  the  race  in  civilization  was 
explained  as  having  taken  place  in  spite  of  men's  ideals,  not  because  of 
them;  and  it  was  therefore  rejected  as  a  source  of  inspiration  and  of 
information.  Individualism  had  not  only  won  a  great  victory,  but  appar- 
ently its  opponents  were  annihilated. 

This  new  philosophy,  however,  had  not  established  itself  without  a 
protest,  and  as  this  type  of  individualism  became  more  and  more  extreme 
in  its  claims,  the  protest  grew  louder  and  more  earnest.  Could  the 
crowded  centuries  of  the  human  past  teach  us  nothing  ?  Were  the  art 
of  Phidias  and  of  Raphael,  the  verse  of  Homer  and  of  Dante,  the  phi- 
losophy of  Plato-  and  of  Kant,  the  institutions  of  the  Roman  law  and  of 


Superintendence]  EDUCATION  AT  CLOSE  OF  CENTURY  193 

constitutional  government,  all  to  depend  for  their  educational  meaning 
and  value  upon  the  carefully  noted  actions  and  preferences  of  the 
unformed  infant  in  its  cradle  ?  The  humor  of  the  situation  revealed 
itself,  and  the  reaction  set  in. 

Individualism  had  gone  too  far.  In  the  effort  of  forming  its  fullest 
flower  it  had  torn  itself  up  by  the  roots.  History  did  mean  something 
after  all ;  and  environment  was  discovered  to  be  a  thing  of  three  dimen- 
sions, not  of  two  only.  Reflection  succeeded  to  controversy.  Meanwhile 
the  new  sciences  of  nature  had  themselves  been  studying  embryology  and 
heredity.  These  words  took  on  new  meanings.  The  individual  was  seen 
to  be  a  product  as  well  as  a  producer.  Product  of  what  ?  Of  all  that 
man  had  thought  and  done,  and  of  his  own  infinitesimal  self.  But  if 
this  were  true,  then  what  of  education  ?  Obviously,  the  defenders  of  the 
new  must  shift  their  ground  and  retreat  from  the  untenable  position  of 
Rousseau  to  the  impregnable  fortress,  Gliedganzes,  of  Froebel,  of  Hegel, 
and  of  all  philosophical  teachers  of  evolution.  This  change  has  been 
made,  and  as  the  century  closes  the  soundest  educational  philosophy  the 
world  over  teaches  that  the  individual  alone  is  nothing,  but  that  the 
individual  as  a  member  of  a  society  and  of  a  race  is  everything.  Self- 
hood, which  can  only  be  attained  by  entering  into  the  life-history  and 
the  experience  of  the  race,  is  now  put  in  the  high  place  which  was  about 
to  be  rashly  filled  by  Selfishness.  True  individualism,  which  would 
enrich  the  life  of  each  with  the  possessions  of  all,  is  well-nigh  supreme, 
and  sham  individualism,  which  would  set  every  man's  hand  against  his 
fellow,  is  disposed  of,  let  us  hope  forever.  Education  rests  securely 
upon  the  continuous  history  of  man's  civilization,  and  looks  to  the 
nature  of  each  individual  for  guidance  in  the  best  methods  of  con- 
ducting him  to  his  inheritance,  but  not  for  knowledge  of  what  that 
inheritance  is. 

Every  conception  of  this  nineteenth  century,  educational  as  well  as 
other,  has  been  cross-fertilized  by  the  doctrine  of  evolution.  In  whichever 
direction  we  turn  we  meet  that  doctrine  or  some  one  of  its  manifold 
implications.  We  have  incorporated  it  into  educational  theory  and  have 
thereby  shed  a  flood  of  light  upon  problems  hitherto  dark.  Evolu- 
tion has  assisted  mightily  in  that  interpretation  of  individualism  which  I 
have  just  defended.  It  has  bound  the  universe  together  by  homogeneous 
law,  and  the  relations  of  each  to  all,  both  physical  and  social,  have 
become  far  clearer  and  more  definite.  But  much  remains  to  be  done  in 
applying  the  teachings  of  evolution  in  actual  plans  and  methods  of 
instruction.  The  application  is  going  on,  however,  all  around  us  and 
without  cessation,  and  is  the  cause  of  not  a  little  of  the  existing  educa- 
tional inquiry  and  unrest.  Our  schools  have  shed  one  shell,  and  the  other 
is  not  yet  grown.  Illustrations  of  this  will  be  found  in  the  teaching  of 
mathematics,  of  language,  if  history,  and  of  the  natural  sciences.     We 


194  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Chicago 

halt  often  between  the  logical  and  the  psychological  order,  failing  to 
appreciate  that  evolution  gives  a  place  to  each.  The  logical  order  is 
the  order  of  proof,  of  demonstration  ;  the  psychological  order  is  the 
order  of  discovery,  of  learning.  Children  do  not  learn  logically;  they 
come  later  to  see  logical  relations  in  what  they  have  learned.  The  well- 
equipped  teacher  knows  both  logic  and  psychology.  He  is  prepared  to 
guide  the  pupil  in  his  natural  course  of  learning,  and  also  to  point  out 
to  him  the  structure  of  relationship  of  what  he  has  learned.  Text-book 
writers  the  world  over  have  been  slow  to  see  this  distinction;  but,  with  only 
few  exceptions,  the  best  American  text-books,  which  control  so  powerfully 
all  school  processes,  are  in  advance  of  those  most  in  use  in  Europe.  The 
logical  order  is  so  simple,  so  coherent,  and  so  attractive  that  it  seems  a 
pity  to  surrender  it  for  the  less  trim  and  less  precise  order  of  develop- 
ment ;  but  this  will  have  to  be  done  if  teaching  efificiency  according  to 
evolution  is  to  be  had. 

The  course  of  evolution  in  the  race  and  in  the  individual  furnishes  us 
also  with  the  clue  to  the  natural  order  and  the  real  relationships  of 
studies.  It  warns  us  against  the  artificial,  the  bizarre,  and  points  us  to 
the  fundamental  and  the  real.  Only  educational  scholarship  can  protect 
the  schools  against  educational  dilettantism. 

Two  lines  are  needed  to  determine  the  position  of  a  point.  The  two 
principles  of  evolution  and  of  an  individualism,  viewed  in  the  light  of  the 
history  of  civilization,  seem  to  me  to  determine  the  status  of  education 
at  the  close  of  the  century.  The  working  of  these  principles  is  exempli- 
fied in  practice  in  a  thousand  ways.  They  lie  behind  and  determine 
every  effort  for  improvement  and  for  progress.  The  diverse  types  of 
school,  higher  and  lower,  with  their  widely  different  special  ends  and  yet 
with  a  common  fund  of  basic  knowledge  which  they  all  impart,  reveal  a 
purpose  to  cultivate  and  to  adapt  the  special  powers  and  talents  of  the 
individual,  while  holding  him  in  touch  with  the  life  and  the  interests  of 
his  kind.  The  existence  of  the  wonder-working  elective  system  in  sec- 
ondary schools  and  colleges,  together  with  the  limitations  put  upon  it, 
is  due  to  a  real  as  opposed  to  a  sham  individualism.  The  marked 
emphasis  now  laid  upon  the  social  aspect  of  education,  in  Europe  as  well 
as  in  the  United  States,  and  also  upon  the  school  as  a  social  institution 
and  a  social  center,  is  additional  evidence  of  the  dominance  of  the  indi- 
vidualism of  Froebel  rather  than  that  of  Rousseau.  The  demands  for 
the  establishment  of  a  proper  system  of  secondary  education  in  England, 
for  the  making  over  of  the  secondary-school  systems  of  France  and  of 
Germany,  for  the  closer  articulation  of  lower  schools  and  higher  schools, 
of  schools  and  colleges,  in  the  United  States,  for  making  elementary- 
school  instruction  as  little  wasteful  and  as  full  of  content  as  possible,  for 
bringing  forward  studies  which  give  adequate  scope  for  expression  in 
various  forms,  and  the  demand  that  the  community  shall  relate  itself  to 


Superintendence]  EDUCATION  AT  CLOSE  OF  CENTURY  195 

its  educational  system  simply  and  effectively- — all  these  are  based,  con- 
sciously or  unconsciously,  upon  the  desire  to  apply  the  teachings  of  evo- 
lution and  to  progress  toward  the  ideal  of  a  perfected  individualism. 

Education,  so  conceived  and  so  shaped,  has  made  an  irresistible  appeal 
to  every  civilized  nation.  During  the  century  education  has  definitely 
become  a  state  function,  not  as  a  dole,  but  as  a  duty.  Consequently,  the 
public  expenditure  for  education  has  become  enormous.  In  the  United 
States  it  amounts  annually  to  $200,000,000  for  the  common  schools  alone, 
or  $2.67  per  capita  of  population.  This  sum  is  about  one-tenth  of  the 
total  wealth  of  Indiana  or  of  Michigan  as  determined  by  the  census  of 
1890.  In  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  the  total  public  expenditure  on 
account  of  education  is  over  $88,000,000,  or  $2.20  per  capita.  In  France 
it  is  about  $58,000,000,  or  $1.60  per  capita.  In  the  German  empire  it 
is  over  $108,000,000,  or  more  than  $2  per  capita.  These  four  great 
nations,  therefore,  the  leaders  of  the  world's  civilization  at  this  time,  with 
a  total  population  of  nearly  210,000,000,  are  spending  annually  for  edu- 
cation a  sum  considerably  greater  than  $450,000,000. 

The  annual  expenditure  of  the  United  States  for  common  schools  is 
quite  equal  to  the  sum  total  of  the  expenditures  of  Great  Britain,  France, 
and  Germany  combined  upon  their  powerful  navies.  It  is  nearly  four- 
fifths  of  the  total  annual  expenditure  of  the  armed  camps  of  France  and 
Germany  upon  their  huge  armies.  It  is  a  sum  greater  by  many  millions 
than  the  net  ordinary  expenditures  of  the  United  States  government  in 
1880.  This  expenditure  for  common  schools  has  nearly  trebled  since 
1870,  and  during  that  period  has  grown  from  $1.75  to  $2.67  per  capita 
of  population  and  from  $15.20  to  $18.86  for  each  pupil  enrolled. 

These  imposing  and  suggestive  statistics  mark,  in  the  most  objective 
fashion  possible,  the  distance  we  have  traveled  from  the  beginning  of  the 
century,  when  there  was  literally  no  such  thing  in  existence  anywhere  in 
the  civilized  world  as  a  state  system  of  education.  But  pride  of  achieve- 
ment should  yield  to  a  feeling  of  responsibility  for  the  future.  In  the 
light  of  the  nineteenth  century  no  man  dare  prophesy  what  the  twentieth 
century  will  bring  forth.  We  only  know  that  a  democracy  shielded  by 
insight  into  the  past  and  armed  with  trained  minds,  disciplined  wills, 
and  a  scientific  method  is  as  ready  as  man's  imperfect  wisdom  can  make 
it  for  whatever  may  come  in  the  future.  ^ 

Daniel  Webster,  in  his  oration  at  the  laying  of  the  cornerstone  of  the 
Bunker  Hill  monument,  exulted  honestly  in  the  conviction  that  the 
example  of  our  country  was  full  of  benefit  to  human  freedom  and  to 
human  happiness  everywhere.  "  We  can  win  no  laureis  in  a  war  for  inde- 
pendence," he  said.  "Earlier  and  worthier  hands  have  gathered  them 
all.  Nor  are  there  places  for  us  by  the  side  of  Solon,  and  Alfred,  and 
other  founders  of  states.  Our  fathers  have  filled  them.  But  there  remains 
to  us  a  great  duty  of  defense  and  preservation ;  and  there  is  opened  to 


196  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  fChicago 

us,  also,  a  noble  pursuit,  to  which  the  spirit  of  the  times  strongly  invites 
us.  Our  proper  business  is  improvement."  This  injunction,  laid  upon 
Americans  by  their  great  orator  three-quarters  of  a  century  ago,  has  lost 
none  of  its  force.  It  applies  with  peculiar  directness  to  teachers  and  to 
teaching.  The  glory  of  founding  educational  systems  cannot  be  ours ; 
but  the  effort  for  improvement,  by  building  wise  practice  upon  sound 
theory,  is  within  the  reach  of  each  one  of  us. 


DISCUSSION 


President  Charles  W.  Eliot,  Harvard  University. — Mr.  President,  Ladies  and 
Gentlemen:  The  scholarly  address  to  which  we  have  just  listened  has  described  so  clearly 
and  comprehensively  the  educational  progress  of  this  century  that  I  need  say  nothing  about 
the  philosophical  and  biographical  aspects  of  the  subject.  It  only  remains  for  me,  in  the 
few  minutes  during  which  I  can  occupy  your  attention,  to  supplement  in  some  particulars, 
as  best  one  may  in  extemporaneous  speech.  Dr.  Butler's  admirable  paper.  I  will  touch 
on  three  or  four  of  the  leading  features  of  educational  progress  during  the  last  half  of  this 
century.  As  Dr.  Butler  has  already  said,  it  is  during  the  last  half  of  the  century  —  since 
1848  —  that  the  chief  progress  in  education  has  taken  place. 

The  first  great  movement  of  reform  was  the  introduction  of  freedom  in  choice  of 
studies  —  first  in  universities,  or  colleges,  and  later  in  schools.  Like  most  other  large 
educational  movements,  this  change  proceeded  from  new  conditions  entirely  outside  of 
the  proper  realm  of  education.  It  proceeded  from  the  wonderful  development  of  new 
knowledges  which  took  place  during  the  first  half  of  the  century,  accompanied  by  the  dis- 
covery of  new  principles  and  methods  of  scientific  investigation.  These  new  knowledges 
and  new  methods  of  inquiry  commanded  public  attention,  and  created  an  imperative 
demand  that  youth  should  be  instructed  in  them.  The  managers  of  education  positively 
have  had  no  option  with  regard  to  the  introduction  of  some  sort  of  elective  system.  They 
have  been  compelled  to  introduce  it.  A  limited  elective  system  was  first  introduced  into 
Harvard  College  in  1826  during  the  administration  of  President  Josiah  Quincy,  a  layman 
who  came  late  to  an  educational  post,  having  previously  been  a  member  of  Congress  and 
mayor  of  Boston.  His  two  successors  in  the  presidency  did  not  agree  with  him  as  to  the 
importance  of  an  election  of  studies ;  so  they  tried  to  extinguish  the  system  in  Harvard 
College.  The  second  of  these  two  presidents  put  on  record  in  his  own  reports  his  failure 
completely  to  extinguish  the  system,  and  gave  the  true  reason  for  the  failure  —  namely, 
the  incoming  of  such  a  number  of  new  sciences  and  of  new  philosophical  and  practical 
intellectual  interests  that  it  was  impossible  to  restrict  the  program  of  studies  in  the  col- 
lege to  the  old  seven  or  eight  so-called  liberal  arts.  Thus  then  the  great  change  wrought 
in  the  second  half  of  our  century  in  public  education  was  forced  on  college  administra- 
tions from  without.  They  had  no  choice ;  they  must  give  to  the  student  freedom  in 
choice  of  study;  and  they  must  so  speciafize  the  teaching  that  the  professor  should  have 
freedom  to  develop  thruout  all  his  career  the  teaching  of  a  single  topic. 

Let  me  attempt  to  give  you  an  idea  of  what  has  been  going  on  since  1870  in  this  one 
institution  in  regard  to  the  teaching  of  a  single  subject  —  political  economy.  A  few  days 
ago  there  died  in  Cambridge  in  his  seventieth  year  Professor  Charles  Franklin  Dunbar, 
who,  having  previously  been  a  man  of  business  and  the  editor  of  an  influential  paper 
in  Boston,  was  made  in  187 1  professor  of  political  economy — an  immensely  important 
subject,  which  at  that  time  had  no  teacher  exclusively  devoted  to  it  in  Harvard  University. 
It  merely  received  a  scanty  portion  of  the  attention  of  a  professor  of  "  natural  religion, 
moral  philosophy,  and  civil  polity."     In  his  first  year  of  service  Professor  Dunbar  gave 


Superintendence]  ED UCA TION  AT  CL OSE  OF  CENTUR Y  197 

instruction  in  one  course  prescribed  for  juniors,  and  in  that  same  year  he  offered  one 
elective  course  to  seniors.  Such  was  the  modest  beginning  of  the  university's  department 
of  political  economy.  When  he  died  there  were  in  Harvard  University  three  full  pro- 
fessors of  political  economy,  one  assistant  professor,  and  six  instructors.  There  was  no 
prescribed  course,  but  a  large  number  of  optional  courses ;  and  any  youth  who  wanted 
to  study  political  economy  with  thoroness  could  begin  that  study  as  a  freshman,  and 
continue  it  for  four  years,  that  is,  thru  his  whole  college  course ;  and  then  he  might 
devote  two  or  three  years'  time  to  it  in  the  graduate  school.  One  thoughtful,  resolute, 
clear-headed,  just  man  developed  this  important  department  of  instruction  in  one  Ameri- 
can college,  in  a  little  less  than  thirty  years,  thru  freedom  for  student  and  teacher  alike. 

Many  persons  have  a  very  inadequate  conception  of  the  meaning  of  election  of  studies. 
They  think  of  it  chiefly  as  a  questionable  liberty  for  a  thoughtless  student.  It  is  really 
the  sole  means  of  developing  thoro,  far-reaching  university  instruction  in  any  subject, 
or  in  all  subjects,  and,  therefore,  is  an  indispensable  means  of  promoting  and  stimulating 
American  scholarship.  It  is  as  essential  to  the  production  of  great  teachers  and  great 
authors  as  it  is  to  the  training  of  well-equipped  students. 

I  pass  on  to  the  next  fundamental  change  in  American  education  —  a  change  which 
is  pure,  far-reaching  gain,  and  which  has  been  wrought  out  better  in  America  than  in 
any  other  country.  I  refer  to  the  change  in  school  discipline.  Again,  this  is  a  change 
brought  about,  not  exclusively  by  professional  teachers,  but  by  social  forces  working 
thru  all  the  community,  but  especially  developed  in  schools. and  colleges.  Nowadays 
we  realize  that  the  fundamental  object  in  all  education  is  to  develop  self-control  and  the 
power  to  give  an  intense  mental  attention ;  and  we  realize  that  self-control  is  not  to  be 
cultivated  in  children  under  the  arbitrary  pressure  of  another's  will.  As  a  boy  I  went  to 
what  was  considered  the  best  public  school  in  Boston  —  one  famous  thruout  the  country  — 
the  Boston  Latin  School ;  but  I  have  to  testify  that  the  chief  disciplinary  motive  to  which  I 
felt  myself  subjected  during  my  boyhood  in  that  school  was  fear  —  fear  of  the  rough 
tongue  of  the  teacher,  fear  of  the  harsh  construction  put  on  the  childish  motive  and  the 
childish  conduct,  and  fear  of  physical  pain  as  an  inducement  to  an  unnatural  quietness 
and  to  mental  application.  That  is  a  true  picture  of  school  discipline  before  the  middle 
of  this  century  all  over  the  world,  the  school  world,  for  thousands  of  years  ;  but  here  in 
about  the  middle  of  this  very  century  came  a  great  change.  It  came  partly  thru  the 
church.  Fear  began  to  cease  to  be  the  prime  religious  motive.  Men  began  to  find  out 
that  systematic  theology  is  an  exclusively  human  science.  They  began  to  see  that  it  was 
a  marvelously  presumptuous  thing  in  one  man,  tho  he  were  a  St.  Augustine,  a  Calvin, 
or  a  Dr.  Hodge,  to  undertake  to  state  in  the  forms  of  human  logic  God's  scheme  for  the 
salvation  of  men,  and  to  describe  the  nature  and  the  results  of  God's  justice.  Men  began 
to  emancipate  themselves  from  the  terrors  of  systematic  theology.  Then,  too,  we  began 
to  learn  all  over  this  country  that  government  should  not  really  be  what  for  thousands  of 
years  government  had  been  —  the  work  of  one  arbitrary  will,  or  of  a  few  arbitrary  wills ; 
but  rather  that  it  should  be  government  by  the  people  for  the  people.  We  all  began  to 
think  that  the  right  conception  of  government  for  the  citizen  might  teach  us  something 
concerning  the  government  of  a  child.  It  occurred  to  us  that,  if  self-government  was  the 
whole  object  of  political  freedom,  then  self-control  might  be  the  legitimate  primary  object 
of  a  child's  development.  Again,  home  discipline  began  to  change  for  the  better. 
Family  government  became  gentler ;  and  all  these  changes  in  society  helped  wonderfully 
to  the  beneficent  change  in  the  school.  There  has  not  been  a  more  blessed  change  in  the 
world  than  this  change  in  home  and  school  discipline  from  fear  to  love,  from  driving  to 
leading.  Wonderful  has  been  the  fruit  of  this  change  on  the  temper  of  our  people  and 
the  happiness  of  our  homes. 

I  pass  on  to  another  immense  change,  brought  about  quite  outside  the  schools  and 
colleges,  which  has  nevertheless  affected  profoundly  the  public  provision  ot  systematic 
instruction.     During  the  last  fifty  years,  on  account  of  industrial  changes,  the  population 


1 98  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  LChicago 

in  our  own  country,  and  in  most  of  the  civilized  countries  of  the  world,  has  been  rushing 
into  cities  and  large  towns.  This  rush  into  urban  life  has  had  a  very  ill  effect  on  schools. 
It  has  tended  to  make  schools  large  machines  ;  and  of  course  it  has  deprived  the  children 
of  the  natural  out-of-door  sports  of  country  life.  The  grading  of  classes  in  a  large  school 
had  to  be  inflexible,  and  the  product  had  to  be  uniform  like  that  of  a  flour-mill.  That 
meant  that  the  quick  children  were  held  back  and  the  slow  were  driven  forward,  to  the 
great  disadvantage  of  both  sorts.  It  meant  marking  time.  It  meant  also  bad  air,  bad 
light,  and  crowded  rooms,  with  fifty  or  seventy  pupils  to  a  teacher.  These  are  impossible 
conditions  for  good  teaching.  The  condensation  of  population  introduced  new  risks  of 
health;  so  that  what  was  the  normal  rural  death-rate  rose  in  all  large  cities  and  towns  to 
an  unnatural  height.  The  children  suffered  most  from  these  increasing  risks.  Gradually, 
but  chiefly  within  the  last  twenty  years,  we  began  to  escape  from  some  of  these  evils.  We 
gave  greater  attention  to  good  air,  proper  heat,  and  proper  light ;  we  gave  greater  flexi- 
bility to  programs,  and  options  among  studies ;  in  short,  we  attended  to  the  conditions 
under  which  the  children  and  the  teachers  worked,  and  tried  to  make  them  wholesome. 
But  more  than  that  it  has  been  absolutely  necessary  to  do.  When  a  child  grows  up  in 
the  country  it  gets  a  natural  training  in  accurate  observation.  It  wants  to  find  a  four- 
leaf  clover ;  it  runs  to  see  where  the  green  snake  went  to ;  it  tracks  the  woodchuck  to  its 
hole  and  gets  it  out ;  it  learns  the  songs  of  the  birds  ;  and  knows  when  the  smelts  run  up 
the  brooks,  and  when  the  twilight  is  just  right  for  finding  the  partridges.  In  short,  the 
country  child  gets  naturally  a  broad  training  in  observation.  It  also  has  on  the  farm  an 
admirable  training  in  manual  labor.  From  an  early  age  it  can  actually  contribute  to 
the  care  of  animals,  the  successful  conduct  of  the  household,  and  the  general  welfare  of 
the  family.  In  the  city  all  this  natural  training  is  lacking,  and  substitutes  for  it  have  to 
be  artificially  provided.  This  necessity  has  brought  into  our  schools  nature  study  and 
manual  training,  to  teach  the  child  to  use  its  eyes  and  its  hands,  and  to  develop  its  senses 
and  its  muscular  powers ;  and  these  new  beneficent  agencies  in  education,  already  well 
in  play,  are  in  the  near  future  to  go  far  beyond  any  stage  at  present  reached.  We  do  not 
yet  see  how  to  replace  in  urban  education  the  training  which  the  farmer's  boy  or  the  sea- 
coast  boy  gets  from  his  habitual  contest  with  the  adverse  forces  of  nature.  The  Gott's 
Island  boy,  on  the  coast  of  Maine,  goes  out  with  his  father  in  the  early  winter  morning  in 
a  half-open  sailboat  to  visit  their  lobster  traps  and  bring  home  the  entrapped  lobsters. 
They  start  with  a  gentle  breeze  and  a  quiet  sea,  tho  the  temperature  is  low.  The  boy 
knows  just  how  to  steer  the  boat  five  or  six  miles  to  sea,  where  the  traps  are  sunk  on  some 
rocky  spot  which  the  lobsters  love.  The  father  is  busy  pulling  the  traps  ;  the  boy  watches 
the  weather,  and  suddenly  he  says  :  "  Father,  there  is  a  northwester  coming.  See  the 
clouds  driving  this  way  over  the  hills  !  "  The  boy  knows  just  as  well  as  the  father  what 
that  means.  It  means  a  fearful  beat  to  windward  to  get  home,  facing  a  savage  wind  and 
a  falling  temperature,  the  spray  dashing  over  the  vessel,  and  freezing  to  the  sails  and 
ropes,  and  loading  down  the  bow  with  ice.  It  means  a  life-and-death  struggle  for  hours 
—  the  question  being  :  Shall  we  get  into  harbor  or  not  before  we  sink  ?  Now,  that  is  a 
magnificent  training  for  a  boy,  and  the  sheltered  city  offers  nothing  like  it.  The  adverse 
forces  of  nature,  if  not  so  formidable  that  men  cannot  cope  with  them,  are  strenuous  teach- 
ers ;  but  in  modern  cities  we  hardly  know  that  the  wind  blows,  or  that  the  flood  is  coming, 
or  that  bitter  cold  is  imperiling  all  animal  life. 

Lastly — for  my  time  has  almost  expired  —  a  new  motive  is  presented  in  our  day  to 
the  teacher,  the  parent,  and  the  children  — the  motive  of  joy  thru  achievement.  The 
great  joy  in  life  for  us  all,  after  the  donfestic  affections,  is  doing  something  and  doing  it 
well,  getting  where  we  want  to  get,  and  bringing  others  where  they  would  like  to  be.  Give 
every  child,  we  say,  the  joy  of  achievement.  Do  not  set  it  to  do  what  you  know  it  cannot 
do  well.  Set  it  to  do  what  you  think  it  can  do  well,  and  show  it  how.  That  is  just  what 
goes  on  in  a  happy  kindergarten,  or  in  a  successful  university  conference  or  seminary. 
This  is  the  new  and  happy  aim  in  modern  education — joy  and  gladness  in  achievement. 


Superintendence]  EDUCATION  AT  CLOSE  OF  CENTURY  199 

.1  need  not  say  that  freedom. is  necessary  to  this  joy.  Schools  used  to  set  children 
doing  things  they  could  not  do  well.  That,  fellow-teachers,  is  the  unpardonable  sin  in 
educational  administration.  It  is  not  for  the  happiness  of  the  children  only  that  this  new 
motive  —  to  increase  joy — has  come  to  bless  us.  It  brings  new  happiness  to  the  teacher 
also.  It  is  means  of  happiness  for  everybody  thruout  life.  As  a  result  of  the  advent  of 
this  new  policy  we  are  learning  not  to  use  with  children  a  motive  that  will  not  work  when 
the  children  are  grown  up.  To  be  sure,  we  must  admit  that  this  doctrine  condemns 
almost  all  the  school  discipline  of  the  past,  and  much  of  the  family  discipline ;  but  the 
future  will  not  mind  that,  if  it  finds  the  new  doctrine  beneficent. 

Ladies  and  gentlemen,  I  do  not  know  a  more  sacred  occupation  than  the  function  of 
a  superintendent  of  schools  in  the  United  States.  The  more  I  see  of  the  kind  of  work  a 
good  superintendent  does,  the  more  I  am  impressed  with  its  beneficent  character.  Let  me 
urge  you  to  mix  freedom  with  all  your  policies  and  efforts.  It  seems  to  me  that  nobody's 
name  lives  in  this  world  —  to  be  blessed  —  that  has  not  associated  his  life-work  with  some 
kind  of  human  emancipation,  physical,  mental,  or  moral.  Dr.  Butler  very  justly  named 
Rousseau  as  a  great  contributor  to  educational  progress.  The  main  work  of  that  man's 
life  tended  and  still  tends  toward  human  liberty,  and  that  one  fact  has  almost  sanctified 
an  execrable  wretch.  Do  you  remember  what  Rousseau  did  with  five  of  his  wife's  babies, 
one  after  the  other,  in  spite  of  her  prayers  and  tears  ?  He  put  every  one  of  them  in  suc- 
cession into  the  public  creche,  knowing  that  in  the  then  condition  of  foundling  hospitals 
that  destination  meant  all  but  certain  death.  Yet  we  sit  here  and  listen  to  the  praise  of 
that  mean  and  cruel  creature.  How  shall  we  account  for  these  two  judgments  of  one 
man,  both  just  ?  We  can  only  say  that  he  tied  the  main  work  of  his  intellectual  life  to 
the  great  doctrine  of  human  liberty.  Verily,  to  have  served  liberty  will  cover  a  multitude 
of  sins.  May  you  serve  freedom  and  humanity  in  all  your  labors,  and  then  have  no  sins 
to  cover ! 

Dr.  W.  T.  Harris,  United  States  Commissioner  of  Education. — After  the  address  of 
Dr.  Butler  to  which  you  have  listened  this  morning,  giving  a  survey  of  the  movements  of 
this  century  in  the  light  of  former  centuries,  and  after  the  discussion  of  President  Eliot, 
who  holds  with  an  iron  grasp  the  facts  of  his  time  and  compares  them  with  the  highest 
ethical  standard  of  our  civilization,  I  am  sure  that  every  schoolmaster  here  feels  at  least  a 
head  taller  than  before.  Dr.  Butler  has  made  a  magnificent  review  of  the  century,  show 
ing  the  growth  of  its  spiritual  interests.  What  he  says  concerns  the  work  of  every  person 
present,  and  I  presume  that  there  are  one  thousand  "  one-man  powers  "  here  this  morning 
(includmg  several  one-woman  powers,  too,  who  are  superintendents  of  cities,  and  even  of 
states).  The  great  movement  has  been  toward  individualism,  and  what  has  been  shown 
is  that  this  movement  is  possible  only  with  a  reverse  movement  at  the  same  time  from  the 
individual  toward  the  universal  by  means  of  an  all-around  culture ;  for  the  highest  indi- 
vidualism is  that  achieved  by  a  self-activity  by  which  the  solitary  human  unit  adds  to 
himself  the  insights  and  achievements  of  his  entire  race,  and  makes  them  his  own  posses- 
sion so  completely  that  he  can  use  them  to  conquer  nature  and  to  draw  closer  his  union 
with  his  fellow-men.  For  this  century  of  individualism  has  been  made  possible  by  the  efforts 
of  scholars  to  make  a  scientific  inventory  of  nature  and  to  use  the  discoveries  of  science 
in  labor-saving  inventions. 

1  wish  to  recall  to  your  minds  some  facts  and  figures  that  form  one  of  the  best  indexes 
of  the  rate  and  character  of  progress  that  is  going  on  in  this  country,  namely,  the  statistics 
of  the  increase  of  higher  education.  In  twenty-five  years  the  number  of  students  in  insti- 
tutions of  higher  education,  such  as  colleges  and  universities,  has  increased  from  598  in  a 
million  to  1,215  '"  ^  million  inhabitants,  or  more  than  double.  Secondary  education  shows 
the  same  increase.  While  in  1876  there  were  only  2,150  in  a  million  working  on  studies 
preparatory  for  college  and  branches  of  study  of  an  equivalent  degree  of  advancement, 
in    1897-98  there  were   7,630  students  (in   each  million   inhabitants)  engaged  on  such 


200  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Chicagc 

branches.  The  increase  of  secondary  students  studying  Latin  and  advanced  mathematics, 
and  in  general  taking  up  the  branches  which  are  supposed  to  be  more  of  the  nature  of  a 
solid  foundation  than  the  other  branches,  is  also  very  encouraging.  In  eight  years  the 
number  studying  Latin  has  increased  from  33  per  cent,  of  the  entire  number  of  secondary 
students  to  49  per  cent. 

The  increase  of  the  quota  of  the  population  that  acquires  secondary  and  higher  edu- 
cation shows  conclusively  that,  in  proportion  as  wealth  increases  and  the  productive  power 
of  the  people  gains  in  strength,  the  people  at  large  give  their  children  better  educational 
opportunities.  What  these  better  opportunities  mean  in  general  I  will  attempt  to  show 
by  discriminating  the  cultivation  of  eye-mindedness  from  the  cultivation  of  ear-minded- 
ness.  It  will  be  admitted  that  the  illiterate  person  knows  language  or  speech  only  by  the 
ear.  As  all  people  do  their  thinking  mostly  in  words,  the  illiterate  person  may  be  said  to 
be  ear-minded.  When  a  person  comes  to  know  language  by  the  ear,  he  gains  in  ability 
in  learning  the  experience  of  other  fellow-beings,  such  an  experience  as  the  highest  brute 
animal  is  debarred  from.  For  by  the  use  of  speech  each  person  may  live  vicariously  over 
again  the  lives  of  other  people.  He  may,  by  hearing  them  tell  their  experiences,  their 
observations,  reflections,  and  deeds,  get  the  net  results  of  their  living,  so  that  man  even 
if  illiterate  may  be  properly  described  as  an  animal  who  possesses  the  power  of  living 
several  lives  in  one. 

Man  is  an  animal  who  as  individual  can  become  a  species  by  acquiring  the  knowl- 
edge and  power,  the  experience  and  wisdom,  of  his  race.  But  how  limited  is  this  power 
with  the  illiterate  person !  By  means  of  letters  one  comes  to  be  able  to  put  down  his 
life -experience  in  written  and  printed  words,  and  all  persons  who  can  read  get  the  power 
of  living  over  his  experience,  interpreting  the  signs  which  are  addressed  to  the  eye  and 
not  to  the  ear.  Thru  letters  the  person  becomes  eye-minded,  and  when  a  person  can  read 
without  effort  he  finds  himself  in  possession  of  a  much  more  accurate  mind  than  is  possible 
in  the  case  of  the  illiterate.  Ear-mindedness,  having  to  keep  up  as  it  does  with  the 
spoken  word,  and  having  to  depend  on  the  memory  of  what  is  spoken,  cannot  critically 
examine  the  statements  and  descriptions,  the  definitions  and  deductions,  as  it  can  do 
when  it  has  before  it  the  printed  page.  In  fact,  accurate  thinking  for  the  most  part 
becomes  possible  thru  eye-mindedness  and  not  thru  ear-mindedness.  Then  just  think  of 
the  scope  which  eye-mindedness  attains !  It  does  not  depend  at  all  upon  the  living 
voice,  but  it  can  become  participant  in  the  experience  of  persons  at  a  distance,  of  all 
nationalities  dwelling  in  all  parts  of  the  world.  It  is  not  limited  by  time.  It  can  make 
available  for  its  use  the  writings  of  all  peoples  that  belong  to  the  historical  era,  and,  in 
fact,  it  can  use  the  experience  even  of  the  peoples  whose  only  records  are  monuments  and 
written  tablets  of  the  prehistoric  era. 

Think  of  the  meaning  of  this  for  the  development  of  individuality,  the  development 
which  has  been  described  so  eloquently  this  morning  as  the  peculiar  index-mark  of  the 
nineteenth  century!  For  individuality  grows  thru  the  appropriation  or  assimilation 
of  other  individuality,  and  while  the  ear-minded  person  can  command  by  means  of 
wealth  the  services  of  oral  teachers  and  gains  his  instruction  thru  absorbing  the  lives  of 
his  oral  teachers,  the  eye-minded,  on  the  other  hand,  can  command  the  services  of  the 
book,  and  the  book  awaits  his  leisure.  All  parts  of  the  earth  become  to  him  substantially 
present  like  his  own  village.  Not  merely  ordinary  teachers  come  to  his  service,  but  the 
wise  men  of  his  race  await  his  leisure  in  the  books  which  he  possesses.  These  facts 
about  ear-mindedness  and  eye-mindedness  seem  trite  like  a  twice-told  tale,  but  few  per- 
sons are  in  the  habit  of  thinking  what  a  difference  it  makes  with  an  entire  people  to  pass 
from  ear-mindedness  to  eye-mindedness  thru  the  beneficent  influences  of  the  common 
schools.  In  our  minds  there  remains  the  impression  of  what  we  read  in  the  papers  this 
morning  regarding  the  victory  of  yesterday  in  south  Africa.  Some  of  us  read  this  with 
grief  in  our  souls,  and  some  of  us  read  it  with  great  rejoicing.  As  an  eye^minded  people, 
with  us  world  gossip  has  taken  the  place  of  village  gossip  in  its  hol4  on  our  lives, 


Superintendence]  ED  UCA  TION  A  T  CLOSE  OF  CENTUR  y  201 

An  educational  philosopher  in  Germany  gare  us  a  very  profitable  point  of  view  from 
which  to  study  the  general  meaning  of  education.  He  called  the  chief  function  of  edu- 
cation self-alienation.  It  was  the  greatest  philosopher  in  Europe  who  first  used  the 
German  word  Selbstentfremdung  in  this  sense.  The  human  being  who  takes  up  the  expe- 
rience of  his  fellow-men  orally  or  in  print  has  to  make  in  a  certain  sense  a  journey  out  of 
himself  and  to  entertain  hospitable  ideas  —  tolerant  ideas  —  of  the  others  in  order  to 
understand  them,  and  when  he  comes  to  see  their  motives  and  to  find  their  logical  con- 
nection with  his  own  experience,  he  has  returned  in  a  certain  sense  to  himself.  He  has 
completed  his  cycle  of  self-alienation  and  has  learned  to  find  himself  at  home  in  a  social 
whole  much  larger  than  himself  as  a  mere  individual.  But  it  is  more  correct  to  say  that 
he  has  enlarged  his  individuality.  What  is  strange  and  alien  to  him  at  first  becomes 
familiar  and  rational,  and  he  is  prepared  to  understand  far-off  peoples,  not  merely  the 
English,  nor  merely  the  Boers,  but  also  the  Hottentots  and  Kaffirs,  even  the  Feejee 
Islanders  and  the  Patagonians.  Substitute  eye-mindedness  for  ear-mindedness,  and  how 
easy  and  how  extensive  becomes  this  matter  of  self-alienation  !  One  extends  the  sphere  of 
sense-perception  to  all  the  world,  using  vicariously  the  senses  of  all  the  peoples  of  the 
world. 

We  must  not  fail  to  remember  that  in  the  place  of  immediate  sense-perception 
which  fills  almost  the  entire  life  of  the  savage  or  illiterate  civilized  person  there 
comes  to  be  a  vicarious  sense-perception  wherein  the  human  being  verifies  the  sense- 
perception  of  all  the  world  thru  the  little  sphere  of  sense-perception  in  which  he 
lives  himself.  This  is  the  scientific  power  of  a  Humboldt,  an  Asa  Gray,  an  Agassiz, 
a  Huxley,  or  a  Herbert  Spencer,  who  all  performed  prodigies  of  observation,  mostly 
of  this  vicarious  kind,  for  they  have  learned  best  how  to  perceive  the  world  thru  the 
senses  of  all  observers. 

With  this  era  of  eye-mindedness  we  are  entered  on  an  era  of  discoveries.  We  may 
define  our  modern  civilization  since  the  discovery  of  America  as  a  borderland  civiliza- 
tion, and  Shakespeare  is  the  poet  of  the  borderland.  There  is  scarcely  one  of  his  plays 
that  does  not  in  one  or  more  acts  take  its  leading  characters  out  of  the  civilization  into 
the  wild  Uitland  (or  outer  land).  In  As  You  Like  //the  forest  of  Arden  becomes  the  chief 
resort;  in  The  Winter's  Tale,  the  wilds  of  Bohemia;  in  The  Tempest,  the  far-off  island 
in  the  still  vexed  Bermoothes ;  in  A  Midsummer  Nighfs  Dream,  a  wood  oatside  of  Athens  ; 
in  Cymbeline,  the  rocky  hills  of  South  Wales.  When  Shakespeare  was  beginning  to  write, 
Sir  Walter  Raleigh,  Sir  Francis  Drake,  and  the  great  mariners  of  England  had  begun 
their  exploration  of  the  borderland  and  their  struggle  with  the  Spanish  for  the  mastery  of 
the  new  world. 

This  age  of  discovery  is  in  a  certain  sense,  too,  a  repetition  of  earlier  ages  in  the 
unfolding  of  modern  Europe.  There  was  before  it  the  era  of  the  crusades  in  which  all 
Europe  gathered  itself  together  for  a  mighty  struggle  with  western  Asia  on  its  eastern 
frontier.  This  was  an  external  crusade.  After  it  came  the  internal  crusade  in  which 
the  European  universities  arose,  and  a  great  struggle  began  to  master  the  thoughts  of  Asia 
and  of  the  classic  periods  of  Greece  and  Rome.  Here  was  self-alienation,  which  ended 
in  an  enlargement  of  the  mind  of  western  Europe  until  it  was  at  home  not  only  in  its 
immediate  environment  and  local  history,  but  also  at  home  in  the  great  world-movements 
of  the  preceding  sixteen  centuries.  In  the  internal  crusade,  which  ended  in  the  build- 
ing up  of  the  great  systems  of  theology  within  the  Christian  church  thru  the  mighty 
thought  of  such  men  as  Thomas  Aquinas,  Albertus  Magnus,  Bonaventura,  and  their  com- 
peers, the  thought  of  Christendom  overcame  the  attacks  made  upon  its  western  or 
European  idea  by  the  oriental  thought  which  moved  at  the  bottom  of  Asiatic  civiliza- 
tion. 

The  Anglo-Saxon  race  has  continued  to  become  more  and  more  a  cluster  of  nations 
that  is  active  on  the  borderland  of  the  world.  With  the  industrial  results  of  science  and 
the  application  of  the  powers  of  nature  to  the  subjugation  of  the  elemental  forces,  it  has  been 


202  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Chicago 

joined  gradually  by  the  other  races  one  after  the  other,  until  at  present  the  home- 
staying  Germans  have  learned  the  lesson  and  have  taken  an  advanced  position  among 
the  people  who  are  to  take  possession  of  the  earth  in  the  interest  of  the  highest  civ- 
ilization. Not  a  savage  people  but  shall  be  put  to  school  to  learn  the  two  lessons  of 
civilization  —  first,  how  to  conquer  nature  by  means  of  machinery;  second,  how  to  unite 
one's  own  locality  with  all  the  rest  of  humanity,  not  only  by  commercial  exchange  of 
goods  and  by  productive  industry,  but  especially  by  intercommunication  of  experience 
and  ideas. 

A  Massachusetts  poet  has  stated  this  remarkable  ideal,  interpreting  the  words  of  the 
great  Neoplatonist  Proclus,  who  saw  in  the  Osiris  myth  of  the  Egyptians  a  poetic  image 
of  the  race  of  man  on  the  earth.  Osiris,  the  god,  was  killed  and  his  body  cut  into  pieces 
and  spread  abroad  over  the  land,  and  the  life  in  the  plants  and  animals  of  Egypt 
seemed  to  him  to  be  the  body  of  Osiris  cut  up  into  separate  individualities.  Bronson 
Alcott,  the  poet,  expressed  the  idea  in  this  versicle  : 

Man  omnipresent  is, 
All  round  himself  he  lies 
Osiris  spread  abroad 
Upstaring  in  all  eyes  ; 
Nature  his  globed  thought. 
Without  him  she  were  naught  ; 
Cosmos  from  chaos  were  not  spoken 
And  God  bereft  of  visible  token. 

Thus  to  the  race  which  has  become  eye-minded  the  world  becomes  more  and  more 
a  revelation  of  reason  to  man,  and  in  general  all  knowledge  becomes  more  and  more 
self-knowledge,  because  thru  self-alienation  one  comes  to  find  his  wider  and  wider  self. 
Many  people  indulge  their  fancy  as  to  the  lines  future  progress  in  science  and  inventions 
will  take.  I  have  been  greatly  impressed  with  the  discovery  of  Professor  Langley,  the 
head  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution.  To  Joseph  Henry  (his  predecessor)  we  owe  the 
telegraph  and  the  telephone,  so  far  as  the  scientific  nucleus  of  the  discovery  is  concerned. 
To  Professor  Langley  I  think  the  future  will  trace  back  the  practical  solution  of  the  ques- 
tion of  navigating  the  air.  I  mention  this  to  show  how  the  lines  of  future  discovery 
must  go  toward  bringing  civilized  people  into  closer  communion,  not  merely  by  railroads 
and  steamships,  but  by  airships  —  toward  the  conquest  of  the  borderland  as  we  have 
discussed  it  this  morning. 

Self-alienation  involves  not  only  the  journey  outward  from  the  self  toward  what  is 
strange  and  foreign  to  him,  but  it  involves  the  conquest  of  what  is  strange  and  foreign  and 
the  conversion  of  it  into  what  is  familiar.  One  must  learn  to  make  himself  at  home  in 
what  is  abroad,  and  individualism  must  be  carried  over  into  socialism,  using  that  word  in 
its  best  sense. 

This,  too,  is  the  line  of  development  of  freedom.  We  cannot  conquer  our  border- 
lands and  assimilate  them  except  by  elevating  them  into  the  civilization  which  we  possess. 
We  must  make  them  to  be. as  free  as  we  are,  and  we  must  make  their  people  as  able  to 
think  and  as  able  to  observe  nature ;  and  we  must  make  them  as  hungry  for  intercom- 
munication with  all  the  earth  as  we  are. 

It  goes  without  saying  that  the  borderlands  of  the  world  do  not  now  possess  this 
freedom,  but  it  is  the  duty  of  the  nations  that  possess  the  highest  civilization  to  labor  for 
the  elevation  of  those  people  into  productive  industry  —  into  learning  with  regard  to 
nature  and  learning  with  regard  to  man.  Hence,  as  I  have  said,  while  individualism 
develops  thru  education,  it  at  the  same  time  thru  education  makes  the  individual  uni- 
versal, so  that  the  more  free  the  race  is.  the  more  it  participates  in  the  life  of  all  the  races 
on  the  face  of  the  earth.  The  people  of  every  race  and  tongue  must  go  to  school  to  this 
highest  ideal  of  education.  Learn  to  command  nature  by  means  of  science  and  learn  to 
convert  it  to  human  uses.  Each  race  must  learn  to  know  the  most  internal  motives  of  all 
other  peoples  and  to  appreciate  them  at  their  true  value.     The  grand  vision  of  universal 


Superintendence!         ADMINISTRATION  OF  GRADED  SCHOOLS  203 

tolerance,  which  has  taken  possession  of  our  minds  thru  the  words  of  President  Eliot,  is 
to  become  the  reality  of  the  new  century.  For  this  movement,  which  goes  out  to  the 
borderlands  and  makes  us  cosmopolitan,  has  to  develop  perforce  the  principle  of 
toleration.  We  can  get  no  good  from  our  fellow-men  unless  we  approach  them  in  the 
spirit  of  this  principle.  We  must  learn  to  find  the  good  in  our  fellow-men.  We  must 
hold  back  our  tendency  to  discover  only  what  is  bad.  The  change  in  our  point  of  view 
will  make  us  continually  more  helpful  to  others. 

I  close  with  my  thesis,  assumed  at  the  beginning,  namely,  that  our  movement  toward 
individualism  is  possible  only  in  connection  with  a  reverse  movement  from  the  individual 
toward  what  is  universal,  and  the  attainment  of  this  by  means  of  culture  —  by  means  of  the 
increase  of  education  of  all  kinds,  especially  of  higher  education. 


TWO     OPPORTUNITIES     FOR    IMPROVEMENT    IN     THE 
ADMINISTRATION  OF  GRADED  SCHOOL  SYSTEMS 

LORENZO  D.  HARVEY,  STATE    SUPERINTENDENT    OF    PUBLIC    INSTRUCTION  OF 

WISCONSIN 

The  necessity  for  improvement  in  the  administration  of  graded  school 
systems  seems  apparent,  in  view  of  the  very  general  complaint  that  these 
schools  are  failing  to  secure  adequate  results,  either  in  the  acquisition  of 
the  most  useful  knowledge  or  in  training  for  the  development  of  power. 
No  one  knows  better  than  those  engaged  in  educational  work  that  much 
of  the  criticism  directed  against  the  administration  of  our  school  systems 
is  based  on  ignorance  of  the  real  conditions,  and  is  therefore  unjust.  But 
it  is  true  that  those  who  have  studied  the  school  systems  in  this  country 
most  thoroly  believe  that  in  many  cases  they  are  failing  to  secure  the 
highest  results  attainable.  I  shall  not  attempt  to  give  detailed  specifica- 
tions as  to  the  shortcomings  of  the  schools,  but  shall  indicate  what  seems 
to  me  to  be  an  opportunity  for  improvement  in  existing  conditions,  even 
in  the  best  of  these  systems  of  schools.  It  is  claimed  that  the  courses  of 
many  of  our  city  schools  are  overcrowded,  and  that  pupils  are  compelled 
to  do  more  work  than  the  results  of  such  work  seem  to  warrant.  I  do 
not  believe  that  this  overcrowding  is  so  much  the  result  of  the  incorpora- 
tion of  too  many  subjects  in  the  course  as  it  is  the  result  of  wasted  time 
and  energy  on  nonessentials  in  the  course.  An  opportunity  for  reform, 
then,  which  seems  to  me  to  exist,  is  in  the  elimination  of  nonessentials, 
and  the  better  co-ordination  of  essentials  in  order  of  time  and  in  relation 
to  the  capacity  of  the  pupils. 

When  the  proposition  for  elimination  of  nonessentials  is  presented, 
the  question  arises  :  What  are  the  essentials,  and  what  are  the  nonessen- 
tials ?  This  is  a  problem  too  large  to  be  solved  in  detail  in  this  paper, 
and  probably  too  large  for  any  one  man  to  solve,  but  it  is  a  problem 
urgently    demanding    solution.     It    is    not    my    purpose  to  attempt    its 


2  04  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Chicago 

solution  here,  but  to  indicate  the  proper  order  of  procedure  in  case  its 
solution  is  attempted.  The  first  step  is  to  determine  the  ends  for  which 
instruction  and  training  are  given  in  the  graded  schools  ;  the  second, 
what  subjects,  all  things  considered,  are  best  to  constitute  the  course  of 
study  adapted  to  these  ends  ;  and  the  third,  what  are  the  true  purposes 
for  which  instruction  and  training  are  to  be  given  in  any  single  branch. 
With  these  purposes  definitely  and  thoroly  worked  out,  the  next  step  is  to 
make  them  clear,  not  only  in  the  minds  of  the  city  superintendents  and 
supervising  principals,  but  in  the  mind  of  every  grade  teacher  as  well. 
These  purposes  must  be  formulated,  not  as  glittering  generalities,  but  in 
form  and  substance  which  can  be  justified  on  rational  grounds.  When 
such  a  formulation  of  the  purposes  of  instruction  in  any  given  branch  of 
the  course  of  study  has  been  made,  there  yet  remains  to  be  made  such 
analysis  of  these  general  purposes  as  the  teacher  needs  to  put  the  instruc- 
tion during  any  given  recitation  and  the  requirements  for  the  next  recita- 
tion on  such  a  basis  as  to  purpose  as  shall  make  that  work  a  co-ordinated 
part  of  the  entire  work  in  such  subject  necessary  to  the  complete  realization 
of  the  general  purpose.  In  other  words,  there  must  be  a  purpose  on  the 
part  of  every  teacher,  in  every  day's  work,  in  every  subject.  This  purpose 
must  be  so  clear  in  the  mind  of  the  teacher  that  she  can  state  it  with 
definiteness  and  exactness,  and  show  that  it  has  a  necessary  place,  and 
where  that  place  is,  in  the  working  out  of  the  general  purpose.  The  suc- 
cess of  the  individual  teacher's  work  depends  primarily  upon  this  definite 
idea  and  definite  end  for  each  day's  work  in  the  subject.  It  may  very 
well  happen  that  the  teacher  may  have  in  mind  a  definite  purpose  in 
today's  lesson,  and  may  work  skillfully  and  secure  good  work  on  the  part 
of  pupils  for  the  accomplishment  of  that  purpose,  and  yet  the  work  be  an 
utter  waste  of  time,  because  the  aim  of  the  recitation  has  no  place  in  the 
general  purpose  for  which  the  subject  is  being  taught.  Instead  of  going 
in  a  straight  line  from  the  starting-point  to  the  terminal  point,  the  line 
of  progress  is  a  broken  one,  touching  the  straight  line  only  at  intervals  — 
zigzaging  across  it  and  lugging  in  nonessentials,  leaving  out  essentials, 
and  making  the  entire  work  in  the  subject  a  thing  of  shreds  and  patches, 
with  a  resulting  failure  to  realize  the  true  purpose  for  which  instruction 
in  the  subjects  should  be  given. 

If  there  be  any  reason  for  giving  instruction  in  any  subject  in  the 
course  of  study,  it  must  be  because  that  instruction  is  a  necessary  or  desir- 
able element  in  the  education  of  the  child.  It  cannot  be  justified,  how- 
ever, on  the  ground  that  it  is  desirable,  if  not  necessary,  until  the  other 
question  is  answered — whether  or  not  some  other  instruction  more 
desirable  could  not  be  substituted  for  it.  To  say  that  any  work  in  the 
school  has  a  place  there  because  it  is  valuable  is  not  sufficient.  It  must 
be  more  valuable  than  any  other  instruction  which  could  properly  be 
given  at  the  same  time,  under  existing  conditions.     This  will  indicate  the 


Superintendence]  AbMlNI^TRATlOk  bP^kAtEp  SttiOOtS  _  &03 

care  that  is  necessary  in  formulating  the  purposes,  and  the  necessity  for 
detail  in  working  out  the  specific  aim,  within  these  general  purposes,  for 
each  day's  work. 

Am  I  wrong  in  assuming  that  there  is  not  clearness  of  thought,  and 
power  to  formulate  definitely  that  thought,  as  to  general  and  specific  pur- 
poses in  the  teaching  of  any  given  subject  in  the  graded  schools  ?  Assuming 
that  every  superintendent  present  is  able  to  formulate  to  his  own  satisfac- 
tion, and  on  grounds  which  he  can  justify,  the  purposes  to  be  realized  in  the 
teaching  of  any  of  the  subjects  in  the  course  of  study,  does  he  find  that 
his  subordinate  teachers  are  equally  clear,  not  only  as  to  these  general  pur- 
poses, but  also  as  to  the  specific  purpose  or  aim  in -each  day's  work?  If 
so,  it  will  be  interesting  at  the  first  opportunity  to  test,  first,  himself  and, 
second,  the  subordinate  teacher.  Let  him  undertake  the  task  of  formulat- 
ing the  general  purposes  which  he  can  justify,  on  the  ground  that  they 
are  of  more  value  in  the  teaching  of  that  subject  than  any  others  which  might 
be  stated.  When  he  has  done  this,  then  let  him  try  the  experiment  of 
observing  the  grade  teacher's  work  on  that  subject,  and  from  his  observa- 
tion determine  the  specific  aim  which  the  teacher  had  in  mind  in  the  day's 
recitation,  as  appeared  from  the  character  of  the  work,  and  see  whether  he 
can  find  a  place  for  that  as  a  necessary  part  of  what  must  be  done  in  the 
working  out  of  the  general  purpose.  Let  him  see  further  if  the  aim  of 
the  day's  work  is  properly  related  to  what  has  gone  before  and  what  is  to 
come  after.  When  he  has  settled  this  in  his  own  mind,  from  his  observa- 
tion of  the  teacher's  work,  and  without  questioning  the  teacher,  then  let 
him  ask  the  teacher  to  state  definitely  what  the  aim  in  the  recitation  was, 
and  ask  her  to  justify  it  as  having  a  necessary  place  at  the  time  in  the 
working  out  of  the  general  purpose.  When  he  has  completed  this  experi- 
ment, let  him  try  it  with  another,  and  another,  in  this  subject,  until  he 
has  passed  thru  all  the  grades  in  that  subject.  Let  him  then  go  over  the 
results  of  his  observation,  to  determine  whether  or  not  the  work  in  each 
grade  is  the  necessary  work  for  those  pupils  at  that  time,  in  view  of  the 
pupils'  present  mental  condition,  for  the  proper  working  out  of  the  gen- 
eral purpose  before  determined.  If  I  mistake  not,  he  will  find  much  work 
which  it  will  be  difficult  to  justify  as  a  necessary  part  of  the  general 
scheme.  Let  him  then  enter  upon  another  line  of  investigation,  more 
limited  in  its  scope,  but  not  less  important.  Let  him  ask  his  teachers  to 
formulate  for  him,  day  after  day,  in  the  same  subject,  the  specific  aim  in 
each  recitation.  He  must  not  be  satisfied  with  general  statements,  but 
must  insist  that  the  details  as  to  what  is  to  be  taught,  and  what  drill  work 
is  to  be  conducted,  shall  be  given,  and  that  these  details  shall  appear  in 
the  work  of  the  recitation.  When  this  work  has  been  continued  suffi- 
ciently long  for  the  teacher  to  be  able  to  formulate  easily  and  definitely 
her  aims  in  each  day's  recitation,  then  ask  her  to  show  what  part  and  place 
these   daily  aims   have    in    the   general  purpose  of   the  work.      If   the 


266  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Chicago 

superintendent  begins  these  investigations  with  a  thoro  knowledge  himself 
of  what  is  required  here,  he  will  discover  that  a  large  number  of  his  teachers 
have  been  working  from  day  to  day  without  any  thought  as  to  the  part- 
each  day's  work  is  to  play  in  the  final  result,  without  considering  whether 
it  is  necessary,  or  more  valuable  than  any  other  work  which  might  take 
its  place,  but  simply  going  on,  either  from  force  of  habit,  by  inertia,  or 
following  the  text-book.  The  result  of  the  investigation  will  be  that, 
under  close  analysis,  much  of  the  work  which  the  teacher  is  doing  must 
be  eliminated  as  not  necessary  for  the  true  purpose  for  which  the  work  is 
undertaken.  This  will  not  only  eliminate  much  work  which  the  teacher 
does  outside  the  text-book,  but  it  will  eliminate  much  of  the  material  from 
the  text-book  itself.  Too  many  text-books  have  been  made,  not  that  they 
may  serve  wise  ends  in  realizing  the  true  purpose  for  which  instruction  in 
the  subject  is  to  be  given,  but  rather  to  make  a  complete  and  logical  pres- 
entation of  the  subject.  The  text-book  has  not  been  written  for  the 
pupil,  but  for  the  subject ;  and  a  text-book  of  this  kind,  followed  closely 
by  the  teacher,  results  in  a  kind  of  teaching  not  best  for  the  interests  of 
the  pupil. 

The  line  of  work  thus  far  indicated  will  demand  the  most  careful 
study  and  thought  on  the  part  of  both  superintendent  and  teacher,  and 
in  many  cases  it  will  prove  a  new  line  of  study.  Let  it  be  granted  that 
this  work  has  been  carried  on  in  such  a  manner  and  for  such  a  time  as  to 
secure  ready  and  accurate  formulation  of  general  purposes  in  the  study  of 
any  subject  in  the  course,  and  also  of  the  specific  aims  in  each  day's  reci- 
tation. The  net  result  will  be  to  eliminate  those  portions  of  the  work 
which  have  formerly  been  done,  and  which  the  formulation  of  purposes 
now  shows  to  be  unnecessary.  A  new  line  of  investigation  should  now 
be  taken  up  by  the  superintendent  or  supervising  principal,  viz.,  that  of 
determining  whether  the  work  done  day  by  day  by  the  grade  teacher  is 
the  work  essential  for  the  realization  of  the  purposes  determined  upon, 
or  whether  some  portion  of  the  necessary  work  is  being  omitted,  or  work 
unnecessary  is  being  done. 

In  order  to  solve  these  questions  two  things  must  be  determined : 
First,  what  must  be  known  or  done  in  order  that  the  purpose  of  the 
day's  recitation  may  be  realized  ?  This  must  be  determined  independ- 
ently of  the  pupil,  and  solely  by  a  consideration  of  the  nature  and  scope 
of  the  purpose.  What  knowledge  does  it  demand  ?  What  training  or 
drill  is  required  ?  When  this  has  been  determined  accurately,  it  is  evident 
that  everything  which  is  unnecessary  for  the  accomplishment  of  the  definite 
purpose  in  mind  has  been  eliminated  as  a  nonessential,  and  as  a  matter 
of  observation  it  will  be  developed  that  much  has  been  eliminated  from 
the  work  of  the  teacher  which,  without  such  an  examination,  would  be 
done  as  a  matter  of  course.  In  the  formulation  to  be  made  here  that 
necessary  knowledge  or  activity  which   is   most  closely  and    intimately 


Superintendence!         ADMINISTRATION  OF  GRADED  SCHOOLS  207 

related  to  the  immediate  end  in  view  should  be  stated  in  detail,  while 
that  knowledge  or  activity  more  remotely  related  may  be  stated  in  more 
general  terms.  A  little  experience  will  convince  the  superintendent  that 
the  teacher  needs  to  do  considerable  work  along  this  line  before  clear- 
ness of  thought  and  accuracy  in  determination,  combined  with  facility 
in  expression,  can  be  attained  by  her.  Persistent  work,  however,  will 
show  valuable  results,  which  will  encourage  to  still  further  effort.  When 
skill  has  been  developed  here,  the  second  line  of  observation  on  the  part 
of  the  superintendent  is  to  determine  whether  in  each  recitation  the 
teacher,  having  her  aim  for  the  next  recitation  definitely  formulated,  and 
the  knowledge  and  activity  necessary  for  the  realization  of  that  aim  also 
stated,  proceeds,  before  the  assignment  of  work  for  preparation  by  the 
pupils,  to  determine  what  of  the  knowledge  already  decided  to  be  neces- 
sary the  pupils  now  have,  and  what  of  the  activities  determined  as 
essential  they  have  sufficiently  mastered ;  thus  bringing  out  clearly  what 
necessary  knowledge  and  activity  the  pupil  is  to  master  for  the  next  day's 
recitation. 

Careful  scrutiny  by  the  superintendent  will  disclose  that  in  the  majority 
of  cases  this  work  is  not  adequately  done  by  the  teacher ;  that  the  teacher 
does  not  take  a  sufficient  portion  of  the  recitation  period  for  this  purpose, 
assigning  the  lesson  hurriedly  at  the  close,  but  with  a  vagueness  which 
is  only  equaled  by  the  vagueness  in  the  pupil's  mind  as  to  what  he  is 
required  to  do,  and  as  to  what  he  already  does  know,  or  does  not  know. 
Too  often  the  pupil  assumes  a  knowledge  of  the  work  which  he  is 
expected  to  prepare,  and  so  makes  inadequate  preparation. 

If  the  work  above  indicated  were  thoughtfully  done  by  the  teacher, 
it  would  clarify  her  ideas  and  statements  as  to  what  the  pupil  is  to  master 
for  the  next  recitation,  and  would  also  give  the  pupil  definite  knowledge 
as  to  what  he  did  not  know,  or  could  not  do,  and  what  he  would  be 
expected  to  know  and  do  on  the  morrow.  The  investigation  will  also 
disclose  the  further  fact  that  an  immense  amount  of  time  is  wasted  by 
the  necessity  of  teaching  over  again  what  has  been  half  taught,  or  learned, 
and  by  failure  on  the  pupil's  part  to  master  required  work  because  of 
lack  of  the  related  knowledge  necessary  to  its  mastery.  He  will  find 
that  the  most  serious  objection  on  the  part  of  the  teacher  to  this  prepa- 
ration for  the  proper  assignment  of  the  lesson  is  that  it  takes  too  much 
time,  and  that  not  enough  time  can  be  given  to  the  recitation  proper. 
Further  observation  will  disclose  the  fact  that,  were  the  lessons  thoroly 
mastered,  one-half  of  the  time  spent  in  the  recitation  could  be  saved 
for  this  work,  were  so  much  necessary,  and  that  the  recitation  during 
the  remaining  half  of  the  period  would  be  far  better  and  more  com- 
plete than  under  the  ordinary  plan  is  secured  thru  the  use  of  the  entire 
period  for  that  purpose.  A  few  weeks'  experimenting  on  this  line  of 
work,  taking  so  much  of  a  recitation  period  as  may  be  necessary  for  the 


2o8  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Chicago 

purpose,  or  even  taking  all  of  it  in  order  to  prepare  for  the  next  day's 
recitation,  will  satisfy  the  progressive  teacher  and  superintendent  both 
as  to  quality  of  results  and  as  to  the  amount  of  work  mastered.  The  net 
result  here  will  be  the  elimination  of  unnecessary  work,  greater  clearness 
and  definiteness  of  thought  and  statement  on  the  part  of  the  pupil,  and 
such  mental  activity  as  will  compel  the  bringing  together  in  the  pupil's 
mind  of  the  new  and  the  related  old — an  essential  condition  for  the 
acquisition  of  knowledge. 

These  three  lines  of  work  put  into  operation  will  awaken  the  average 
teacher  to  a  consideration  of  questions  vital  in  any  good  teaching,  but 
too  often  almost  wholly  ignored,  and  will  result  in  the  elimination  of  a 
large  amount  of  work  now  being  done,  and  which  is  entirely  unnecessary, 
serving  only  to  confuse  the  pupil,  and  render  the  little  knowledge  he 
does  acquire  fragmentary  and  unrelated.  It  will  save  time  for  work  not 
now  attempted,  both  as  to  scope  and  thoroness.  These  conclusions  are 
based,  not  simply  on  theory,  but  on  experiment  and  observation. 

The  second  opportunity  for  reform  which  I  have  to  suggest  is  a  very 
simple  one,  and  yet  one  that  is  more  far-reaching  in  its  results  than 
would  at  first  thought  appear.  It  is  in  relation  to  the  mode  of  using  the 
examination  as  a  means  of  determining  the  pupil's  fitness  for  promotion 
or  graduation.  I  shall  not  consider  the  questions  here,  so  often  dis- 
cussed, as  to  whether  promotion  should  be  made  upon  class  standing,  the 
teacher's  judgment,  the  records  of  examinations,  or  a  combination  of  all 
three.  The  particular  point  which  I  wish  to  consider  arises  whenever  the 
examination  is  made  an  element  in  determining  the  pupil's  fitness  for  pro- 
motion. Ordinarily  some  definite  standing  is  fixed  which  the  student  is 
required  to  reach  in  his  examination  in  order  that  his  work  may  not  be 
ranked  as  a  failure.  I  think  it  is  the  experience  of  every  superintendent 
that  in  many  cases  —  in  fact,  most  cases  —  when  the  teacher  of  a  class 
makes  the  examination  questions,  she  does  it  with  the  required  standing 
vividly  before  her,  and  that,  if  her  mental  processes  could  be  shown 
during  the  process  of  making  the  examination  questions,  it  would  appear 
that  each  question  is  determined  by  the  probability  of  the  members  of 
the  class  being  able  to  answer  it  so  as  to  reach  the  required  standing.  It 
is  also  doubtless  the  experience  of  most  superintendents,  if  they  have 
carefully  considered  the  matter,  that,  even  when  they  make  the  questions 
themselves,  the  necessity  of  making  them  to  fit  the  standing  is  kept  before 
their  consciousness.  It  is  doubtless  also  the  experience  of  superintend- 
ents that  both  they  and  teachers  sometimes  make  sets  of  questions  more 
difficult  for  pupils  than  they  had  imagined  them  to  be,  and  with  disastrous 
results,  frequently  leading  to  a  supplementary  examination  after  a  little 
coaching,  in  order  to  make  the  records  straight.  It  has  probably  fallen 
to  the  lot  of  some  superintendents  to  observe  that  frequently,  under  the 
pressure  of  necessity  for  the  promotion  of  a  grade,  the  grading  of  the 


Superintendence]        ADMINISTRATION  OF  GRADED  SCHOOLS  209 

papers  is  so  toned  up  as  to  enable  the  teacher  to  give  the  requisite  stand- 
ings. In  other  words,  to  sum  it  all  up,  the  teacher  or  superintendent  is 
not  free,  by  reason  of  existing  conditions,  to  make  a  set  of  questions 
which  shall  not  only  test  memory,  but  power  and  skill  as  well,  thus 
having  a  value,  not  only  for  the  purpose  of  testing,  but,  what  is  even 
more  important,  a  high  value  in  training.  Many  a  teacher  would  like  to 
ask  a  question  in  examination  which  would  test  the  power  of  the  pupil, 
putting  him  upon  his  mettle,  and  would  do  it  but  for  the  fact  that  she 
knows  a  rigid  marking  of  the  answer  would  likely  place  the  standing 
below  what  is  required. 

The  reform  lies  in  the  elimination  of  what  seems  to  be  this  necessity 
for  shaping  the  examination  so  that  pupils  may  pass,  rather  than  so  it 
may  be  a  valuable  educational  factor,  and  at  the  same  time  serve  all  the 
purposes  of  the  test. 

A  very  simple  modification  of  the  existing  plan  will  accomplish  this 
purpose.  Instead  of  fixing  a  standing  of  75,  80,  or  85,  which  the  student 
must  reach  in  order  to  entitle  him  to  promotion,  make  the  class  average 
in  each  examination  the  basic  standing,  and  count  as  failure  the  work  of 
any  student  whose  standing  in  that  examination  falls,  say,  20  per  cent, 
below  the  class  average.  Where  examinations  are  given  as  often  as  once 
a  month,  failure  for  two  consecutive  months  should  operate  to  place  the 
pupil  in  a  lower  grade  or  section,  for  work  in  that  subject.  Even  where 
the  examinations  are  given  with  less  frequency,  but  sufficiently  often  to 
prevent  pupils  being  retained  in  classes  when  they  are  unable  to  do  the 
work,  the  same  plan  may  be  adopted.  Where  the  records  of  class  work 
are  kept,  and  are  combined  with  the  examinations  in  determining  the 
pupil's  readiness  for  promotion,  they  may  be  kept  upon  the  same  basis,  and 
the  pupil's  relative  standing  in  his  class  may  be  determined  at  the  end  of 
every  month.  The  fact  that  a  student  has  failed  during  a  month's  work, 
and  that  he  sees  before  him  the  probability  of  being  placed  in  a  lower 
grade  or  section  at  the  end  of  the  next  month,  unless  his  work  is  improved 
in  that  subject,  is  a  most  powerful  stimulus  for  better  work;  especially  if 
parents  are  notified  of  the  first  failure  and  the  consequences  of  a  second 
failure  in  the  same  subject. 

In  connection  with  this  plan,  facility  should  also  be  offered  for  pro- 
motion of  a  student  at  any  time  from  his  present  position  to  the  next 
higher  grade  or  section,  in  a  single  subject,  if  the  quality  of  his  work  and 
his  physical  capabilities  and  mental  capacity  seem  to  warrant  making  the 
trial.  In  this  way  no  apparent  necessity  rests  upon  the  teacher  for  fram- 
ing her  questions  solely  with  the  purpose  of  enabling  pupils  to  pass  and 
making  a  record  for  herself.  No  necessity  exists  for  improper  marking 
of  the  papers  in  order  to  secure  the  same  end.  A  powerful  stimulus  is 
presented  to  the  pupil  whose  work  is  below  the  average  for  improvement, 
as  well  as  opportunity  for  the  stronger  students  to  pass  freely  from  one 


210  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Chicago 

section  to  another  in  any  subject  where  the  character  of  the  work  will 
warrant  it.  This  keeps  the  school  graded  thruout  the  year,  and  at  the 
end  of  the  year  no  tremendous  strain  is  necessary  in  order  to  determine 
the  readiness  of  the  class  for  promotion.  Practically  every  pupil  in  the 
school  will  then  be  promoted,  his  work  during  the  year  having  been  so 
carefully  graded  that  at  the  end  of  the  year  he  is  ready  to  go  on  with  the 
class  in  which  he  then  finds  himself.  The  difificulties  arising  from  chang- 
ing from  one  class  to  another  in  a  single  subject  are  not  so  serious  as 
might  at  first  be  supposed,  as  the  first  failure  warns  the  student  of  the 
necessity  for  renewed  effort  to  avoid  the  results  of  a  second  failure.  The 
plan  exalts  the  examination  into  the  very  highest  order  of  mental  effort, 
instead  of  making  it  a  mere  grind,  a  promotion  machine.  It  encourages 
the  teacher  to  present,  thru  the  examination,  opportunities  for  exercise  of 
power  and  skill  as  well  as  memory,  without  making  it  necessary  to  add 
another  examination,  purely  as  a  matter  of  form.  The  work  of  the  super- 
intendent will  prevent  any  falling  below  the  general  standard  of  the  work 
in  any  given  grade.  The  fixed  standing  is  artificial ;  the  average  stand- 
ing is  the  natural  one. 


DISCUSSION 


Alfred  Bayliss,  state  superintendent  of  public  instruction  of  Illinois. —  The  former 
"  czar "  of  the  House  of  Representatives,  discussing  an  economical  question  the  other 
day,  closed  by  suggesting  that  "  one  of  the  best  ways  to  meet  any  evil,  and  especially  the 
wild  discussion  of  it,  is  to  sit  down  and  reduce  to  details  what  we  propose  to  remedy, 
and  how  in  detail  we  propose  to  enact  the  remedy.  This,"  he  said,  "  will  reduce  the  evil 
to  its  just  terms,  and  reduce  also  the  proposed  remedy  to  actual  practical  life." 

The  paper  just  read  is  an  illustration  of  the  application  of  that  very  excellent  rule  to 
the  discussion  of  a  widespread  and  quite  too  real  educational  grievance. 

Comparatively  little  of  the  adverse  criticism  of  public  education  is  based  upon  knowl- 
edge of  evils  known  to  exist,  and  reduced  to  detail,  a^d  accompanied  by  a  proposed 
remedy,  and  "how  in  detail  it  is  proposed  to  apply  it."  The  paper,  however,  deals  with 
two  faults  of  the  graded  school  system  in  precisely  that  way.     The  complaints  are  : 

1.  The  courses  of  study  are  overcrowded,  making  the  amount  of  work  required  of  the 
children  excessive,  and  out  of  proportion  to  the  results  attained. 

2.  The  required  standing  (the  pass  mark)  in  school  examinations  is  so  artificial 
that  the  examinations  do  not  examine.  The  examiner  is  not  free  to  set  questions  that 
are  calculated  to  test  power  and  skill  as  well  as  verbal  memory,  or,  in  fact,  to  test  any- 
thing. 

To  consider  the  second  complaint  first :  The  specifications  are : 

1.  When  a  teacher  frames  a  set  of  questions,  she  ordinarily  does  it  with  the  required 
standing  so  definitely  in  her  mind  that  the  probability  of  her  pupils  being  able  to  answer 
a  given  question  determines  the  availability  of  that  question  for  use  at  that  time. 

2.  Honest  introspection  compels  most  superintendents  to  admit  that  they  themselves 
are  governed  by  the  same  limitations. 

3.  That  this  process  of  converting  what  ought  to  be  an  investigation  of  the  contents 
of  a  child's  mind  into  a  preconceived  estimate  of,  or  even  a  guess  at,  them  often  results 
in  a  disaster  which  takes  the  form  of  a  general  "  flunk." 


Snpferintendencc]         ADMINISTRATION  OF  GRADED  SCHOOLS  21 1 

4.  The  disaster  is  then  repaired  in  one  of  two  ways :  (a)  a  supplemental  examina- 
tion, based  upon  a  modified  standard,  or  (^)  a  "  toning  "  up  of  the  ratings. 

There  we  have  a  statement  of  an  evil  known  to  exist,  and  reduced  to  detail.  It  is  a 
mistake  based  upon  the  erroneous  point  of  view  that  mere  power  of  reproduction  is,  in 
itself,  a  test  of  actual  knowledge  ;  and  leaves  out  of  the  consideration  the  fact  that  one 
does  not  know  a  thing  until  he  can  reproduce  it  in  the  form  of  an  application  to  some 
new  use.  It  reduces  the  examination  to  a  test  of  what  the  teacher  has  taught,  or,  rather, 
an  inquiry  as  to  how  exactly  a  child  remembers  the  mere  form  of  what  he  has  been 
taught,  which  is  at  most  but  part  of  the  real  question,  which  includes  how,  as  well  as 
what,  has  the  child  learned. 

"  Not  what  the  master  teaches,  but  how  the  pupil  learns,"  is  the  true  test  of  teaching. 

The  remedy  proposed  is  a  variable,  in  lieu  of  a  fixed,  arbitrary  standard. 

Considered  merely  with  reference  to  the  use  of  the  examination  as  a  means  of  ascer- 
taining fitness  for  promotion  (the  limitation  proposed  by  the  paper),  the  standard  sug- 
gested, viz.,  the  average  of  the  group,  or  class,  easily  appears  more  natural  than  the 
conventional  standard,  and  we  are  led  at  once  to  coincide  with  the  conclusion  of  the 
paper.  It  has  the  distinct  advantage  of  liberating  the  teacher  and  leaving  her  free  to  take 
a  "  proof "  of  the  whole  work  actually  done.  And,  inasmuch  as  a  regular  promotion 
means  remaining  with  the  group  or  grade,  this  is  the  rational  test ;  for  the  theory  of  the 
graded  school  is  that  children  of  approximately  the  same  degree  of  mental  power  and 
skill  should  be  taught  and  trained  together. 

The  incidental  advantage  referred  to  —  that  this  plan  would  facilitate  the  promotion 
of  strong  pupils  in  single  subjects,  and  the- reverse — seems  of  quite  equal  importance. 
No  two  minds  are  ever,  at  any  stage  of  growth,  quite  alike.  The  rate  of  growth  is  not, 
and  cannot  be  made,  uniform.  Our  method  of  administration  must  necessarily  recognize 
this  obvious  and  obtrusive  fact.  The  economy  of  class  instruction  depends  upon  finding 
as  many  of  the  common  points  of  contact  as  possible,  but  the  variations  cannbt  be  lost 
sight  of  or  neglected.  It  is  not  enough  —  admitting  the  possibility — to  "grade  "  a  school 
once  a  year,  nor  even  every  half-year,  or  every  "  term."  It  should  be  kept  graded  by  a 
continuous  process,  as  gentle  and  as  natural  in  its  operations  as  growth  itself ;  a  process 
which  shall  keep  in  mind,  not  only  the  "  average  "  boy,  but  the  bright  boy  and  the  "  dull " 
boy  as  well;  a  process  which  includes  equal  rights  for  all.  To  this  end  the  examination, 
rationally  used,  may  certainly  be  made  to  contribute. 

If  Superintendent  Harvey  can  bring  the  principals  and  superintendents  of  Wisconsin 
to  his  point  of  view,  the  question  whether  promotions  shall  depend  upon  the  record  of 
class  work,  or  the  teacher's  judgment,  or  the  final  examination,  need  be  no  longer  mooted 
in  that  state.  For  the  examination  will  be  remanded  to  its  true  place,  as  an  inquiry  — 
useful  as  a  guide  to  the  teacher  when  occasion  requires  —  as  a  test  of  the  accuracy  of 
acquired  knowledge,  as  a  means  of  training  in  correct  form,  and  as  an  antidote  to  the 
slipshod  carelessness  which  makes  so  many  of  the  graduates  of  our  high  schools  thorns 
in  the  flesh  of  the  longsuffering  college  professors,  and  discounts  their  immediate  value 
for  practical  purposes  when  they  fall  into  the  hands  of  the  business-man. 

But  as  an  agency  of  educational  life  and  interest  and  growth  the  examination  must 
yield  to  the  oral  recitation. 

And  the  charge  brought  against  the  method  of  the  recitation  is  the  more  serious  of 
the  allegations  contained  in  the  paper  under  discussion. 

Charge :  The  course  of  study  is  overcrowded.  The  results  are  not  commensurate 
with  the  work  and  worry  involved  and  required. 

•    Specification :     This  overcrowding  is  caused   by  the  incorporation  of  nonessential 
things,  and  the  process  seems  to  be  cumulative. 

There  is  a  well-known  attorney-at-law  in  southern  Illinois,  who  once  described 
himself  as  the  ablest  lawyer  in  his  section  of  the  state.  "  How  do  you  prove  that  ?"  said 
a  bystander.     "Don't  have  to  prove  it,"  he  answered;  "I  confess  it." 


iii  NATIONAL  EDULATIONAL  ASSOCtAtlO^  [Chicago 

I  take  it  that,  in  this  company,  the  charge  and  specification  need  only  to  be  stated 
to  be  admitted.  Indeed,  this  body  has  been  pleading  guilty  to  both  for  several  years. 
What  are  we  going  to  do  about  it  ?  has  been  the  question  recurring  over  and  over  again. 

The  remedy  proposed  by  the  paper  is  : 

1.  Eliminate  the  nonessentials. 

2.  Correlate  the  essentials  (a)  in  order  of  time,  and  {b)  in  relation  to  the  capacity  of 
the  pupils. 

We  are  concerned  only  with  this  proposed  remedy.  In  the  elimination  of  nonessen- 
tials a  certain  blind  movement  was  discernible  prior  to  the  advent  of  the  Committee  of 
Fifteen.  An  up-to-date  high-school  girl  who  should  chance  to  meet  a  simple,  a  com- 
pound, a  perfect,  and  a  complementary  repetend,  coming  four  abreast  down  the  road  on 
a  1900  wheel,  wouldn't  know  one  from  the  other,  and,  if  told  the  family  name,  would 
probably  say  that  they  were  people  she  had  never  heard  of  before.  The  art  of  decom- 
posing fractions  is  as  dead  as  the  Connecticut  rule  for  partial  payments.  Single  and 
double  position  are  on  the  same  dusty  shelf  as  barleycorns  and  ells  Flemish.  Alligation, 
continued  fractions,  and  duodecimals  are  all  defunct,  and  there  is  talk  of  transferring 
longitude  and  time  to  the  geographies.  The  maker  of  a  most  excellent  modern  arithmetic 
stood  before  a  body  of  teachers  the  other  day,  in  the  capitol  building  of  Illinois,  and 
persuaded  them  that  the  old-fashioned  complex  fraction  is  a  relic  of  barbarism,  by  simply 

asking  whether  they  ever  had  occasion  to  ascertain  the  cost  of  a  ton  of  coal  @  —  of  a 

53 
dollar  per  cwt.  The  distinguished  county  superintendent  of  this  cosmopolitan  county 
is  said  to  have  canvassed  the  business-men  of  Chicago  in  vain  to  find  one  who  had  any 
demand  whatever  for  greatest  common  divisors  in  his  business,  and  so  he  is  more  than 
half  inclined  to  put  them,  too,  in  the  left-hand  column,  among  the  nonessentials  to  be 
canceled  pretty  soon. 

Hesse  Homburg,  Hesse  Darmstadt,  Hesse  Cassel.  and  all  the  other  Hesses  and 
Hessians  are  as  completely  eliminated  from  the  geographies ;  and  the  time  which  used  to 
be  spent  in  learning  them,  and  the  names  of  hundreds  of  black  spots  on  the  maps,  and 
the  like,  is  now  given  to  real  or  imaginary  excursions  into  distant  localities. 

So  with  other  subjects.  In  reading,  time  has  somehow  been  found,  so  that  publishers 
seem  to  think  it  profitable  to  offer  whole  pieces  of  literature  —  many  as  good  as  The  Lady 
of  the  Lake,  Ivanhoe,  The  House  of  the  Seven  Gables,  or  even  The  Essay  on  Burns,  in  lieu 
of  the  scraps  of  the  conventional  "reader."  The  language  teacher  has  replaced 
"Spring,"  "Happiness,"  "Perseverance,"  "Friendship,"  and  the  other  old  familiar 
themes  by  the  more  natural  topics  suggested  by  the  geography,  the  history,  and  the 
nature  study. 

While  this  is  both  true  and  commendable,  it  can  hardly  be  said  that  the  essentials  of 
a  school  course  of  study,  and  the  order  of  procedure,  have  been  found  and  authoritatively 
stated — what  subjects  are  best,  and  the  true  purpose  of  each.  Moreover,  education  is  a 
progressive  science,  and  the  true  statement  today  might  be  incomplete  tomorrow.  The 
Committee  of  Fifteen  should  have  been  a  continuous  body. 

But  with  such  a  statement  authoritatively  worked  out  and  accepted,  with  the  non- 
essentials ruthlessly  eliminated,  we  have  still  before  us  the  main  problem  of  the  paper. 

The  nonessentials  being  eliminated,  and  the  essentials  formulated,  and  the  true 
purpose  of  each,  it  is  demanded  that  they  shall  be  known,  not  only  by  supervisors  of  all 
grades,  but  by  the  working  teachers  as  well.  The  teacher  must  not  only  know  her  pur- 
pose in  each  day's  work,  but  she  must  know  it  in  its  relation  to  the  whole  course  of  study, 
and  know  it  so  well  that  the  purpose  of  each  lesson  shall  be  clearly  in  her  consciousness 
as  she  does  it  —  so  well  that,  if  occasion  required,  she  could  state  it  in  terms,  and  justify 
it  as  the  right  thing  for  her  to  be  doing  at  that  particular  time,  to  the  exclusion  of  all  other 
things.    And  the  supervisor  must  not  only  know  it  as  well  as  this,  but  he  must  be  able,  by 


Superintendence]        ADMINISTRATION  OF  GRADED  SCHOOLS  213 

mere  inspection,  to  recognize  a  given  piece  of  work  while  it  is  in  progress,  as  a  necessary 
and  co-ordinated  part  of  the  general  purpose. 

That  "every  superintendent  is  able  to  formulate  to  his  own  satisfaction,  and  on 
grounds  that  he  can  justify,  the  purposes  to  be  realized  in  the  teaching  of  any  of  the 
subjects  in  the  course  of  study,"  is,  when  confined  (as  it  is  by  the  paper)  to  those  here 
present,  a  very  genial  assumption,  but,  if  made  too  general,  it  would  become  a  violent 
one.  As  an  ideal,  however,  it  may  not  be  too  much  to  require  of  the  supervisor  that  he, 
at  least,  should  be  a  skilled  workman. 

But  how  about  the  grade  teacher  ?  Under  all  the  circumstances  as  they  are,  and  are 
quite  likely  to  remain  far  into  the  future,  is  not  the  demand  so  high  as  to  be  out  of  pro- 
portion ? 

Aristotle  and  Lincoln  —  the  wisest  of  the  ancients  and  the  most  "  practical "  of  the 
moderns- — both  estimated  education  as  the  most  difficult  of  all  problems.  Lord  Bacon 
admitted  that  "the  art  of  well  delivering  the  knowledge  we  possess  is  among  the  secrets 
left  to  be  discovered  by  future  generations."  We  have  not  yet  found  it.  Such  progress 
as  has  been  made  we  owe  to  the  continuous  efforts  of  a  long  line  of  philosophical  thinkers. 
The  problem  is  not  yet  so  far  solved  that  we  can  even  agree  upon  a  statement  of  the 
things  to  be  taught,  and  the  general  method.  The  paper  itself  opens  with  a  confession 
that  the  separation  of  essentials  from  nonessentials,  urgently  demanded,  is  a  problem  too 
large  for  any  one  man. 

Does  it  not,  then,  ask  too  much  of  the  working  teacher  ?  Can  we  hope,  very  long 
before  the  distant  pre-millennial  days  at  least,  to  realize  on  such  a  demand  ? 

The  average  life  of  a  teacher  is  probably  about  five  years.  Twenty  to  25  per  cent, 
are  recruits  every  year.  Probably  less  than  10  per  cent,  begin  their  service  with  such 
training  as  the  normal  schools  —  themselves,  the  best  of  them,  confessedly  in  a  nascent 
condition,  while  some  are  but  little  better  than  the  average  high  school  —  can  supply. 
That  the  average  term  of  service  will  be  greatly  lengthened  is  not  a  reasonable  expecta- 
tion, as  long  as  nearly  all  of  the  working  teachers  in  the  graded  schools  are  women.  It 
ought  not  to  be.  Even  supposing  the  ratio  of  normal-school-trained  teachers  to  increase, 
until,  in  time,  none  shall  be  allowed  to  begin  service  without  such  training  —  some  study 
of  the  things  to  be  taught  from  the  point  of  view  of  the  teaching  process,  and  some  prac- 
tice under  skilled  direction  and  oversight  —  even  then  the  degree  of  insight  into  the 
problem  of  education  demanded  by  the  paper  seems  more  than  a  reasonable  expecta- 
tion. 

Let  any  superintendent,  over  forty-five  years  of  age,  who  thinks  he  has  it  in  this 
degree,  test  himself  in  the  matter  of  time.  How  long  did  it  take  ?  How  much  sooner 
could  it  have  been  acquired,  had  the  problem  of  the  paper  been  distinctly  stated  to  him 
that  Friday  night,  at  the  end  of  his  first  week,  when  he  went  home,  limp  and  discouraged, 
half  tempted  to  turn  back,  even  after  he  had  put  his  hand  to  the  plow  ? 

Is  not  the  degree  and  breadth  of  insight  demanded  by  the  paper  more  than  a  reason- 
able expectation  of  the  average  teacher  ?  If,  continuing  in  the  service,  after  many  years 
of  experience,  she  attain  it,  and,  at  the  same  time,  retain  a  modicum  of  the  hopeful 
enthusiasm  which  she  brought  from  the  high  school,  or  the  training  school,  is  not  that  a 
great  deal  ?  During  these  growing  years  she  is  at  least  living,  in  obedience  to  the  Froe- 
belian  injunction,  wjVyi  the  children — growing  with  them,  as  she  finds,  under  the  guidance 
of  the  broader  vision  of  her  supervisor,  their  powers  and  interests,  and  ministers  day  by 
day  to  the  need  of  the  hour. 

From  the  teachers'  point  of  view,  then,  the  difficulty  is  a  doudle-headed  one.  One 
head  is  a  condition,  inherent  in  the  fact  that  the  great  majority  of  the  working  teachers 
must  be  at  all  times,  under  our  system,  immature,  and  that  they  will  not  remain  in  the 
work  long  enough  to  reach  the  point  of  efficiency  demanded  by  the  paper.  The  other 
head  is  a  theory  — the  theory  of  pedagogical  freedom.  We  must  eliminate  the  nonessen- 
tials, and  we  must  agree  upon  the  essentials,  says  the  paper  —  after  declaring  that  the 


214  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Chicago 

problem  is  too  large  for  any  one  man,  and  not  forgetting,  doubtless,  that  fifteen  good 
men  and  true  tried  it  once  with  but  measurable  success. 

Chicago,  it  has  been  alleged,  is  considering  the  advisability  of  putting  analysis  and 
parsing  in  the  limbo  of  the  nonessentials  of  grammar,  but  permitting  those  teachers  who 
demur  to  the  classification,  and  consider  those  exercises  to  be,  not  only  good,  but  "  more 
valuable  than  any  other  instruction  which  could  properly  be  given  at  the  same  time, 
under  existing  conditions,"  to  continue  to  use  them.  But  Chicago  is  sui  generis.  Most 
superintendents,  it  is  to  be  feared,  would  say :  "  Let  us  conform  to  the  course  of  study 
agreed  upon." 

A  superintendent  says  to  a  primary  teacher  :  "  These  children  seem  to  like  noise, 
bright  colors,  and  striking  costumes.  The  military  instinct  seems  to  be  exerting  itself. 
Let  us  drop  Hiawatha  now,  and  utilize  the  story  of  Darius.  Let  them  study  Persian 
civilization.  Temper  their  self-assertion  thru  and  by  the  lesson  that  the  power  to  obey 
precedes  fitness  to  command.  Teach  them  that  truthfulness  is  the  soldier's  virtue,  and 
that  the  soldierly  quality  of  courage  can  be  brought  to  bear  upon  their  daily  tasks  —  and 
all  that  sort  of  thing."  But  the  teacher  says  :  "  I  think  the  next  step  should  be  Kablu, 
or  Cleon,  or  Horatius ; "  and  gives  — not  being  "  on  compulsion  "  — some  of  the  reasons 
which  are  as  plenty  as  blackberries  in  August.  Who  shall  decide  around  which  center 
best  to  group  the  instruction  which  must  be  "  more  valuable  than  any  other  instruction 
which  could  properly  be  given  at  that  time,  under  existing  conditions" — the  teacher  who 
is  "  next  to  "  the  children,  or  the  supervisor  of  primary  grades ;  the  one  who  knows  the 
whole  plan  and  purpose  better,  or  the  other  who  knows  better  the  existing  conditions  ? 

In  brief,  the  difficulty  of  this  phase  of  the  problem  is  but  an  aspect  of  the  old  clergy- 
man's difficulty  —  it  lies  entirely  in  "  the  application  of  it." 

The  paper,  then,  as  I  read  it,  presents  an  ideal  none  too  high  for  the  supervisor ;  but 
which,  as  a  working  hypothesis  for  the  grade  teacher,  is  subject  to  some  limitations. 

I  submit,  as  a  corollary  :  No  man  (or  woman)  should  be  permitted  to  undertake  the 
supervision  of  education  who  has  not  had  considerable  practice  in  the  art,  been  liberally 
instructed  in  its  theory,  and  obtained  some  insight  into  its  philosophy. 


THE  TRAIL  OF  THE  CITY  SUPERINTENDENT 

AARON    GOVE,    SUPERINTENDENT    OF    SCHOOLS,   DISTRICT    NO.  ONE,  DENVER, 

COLO. 

To  follow  the  trail  of  the  city  superintendent  of  schools  tramping 
backward  is  not  difficult,  but  the  traces  are  faint  when  one  reaches  the 
beginning,  sixty  years  ago.  A  little  path  had  its  origin  about  1839  ^^ 
Providence,  R.  I.,  upon  which  traveled  Nathan  Bishop.  Another  path 
that  helped  to  mark  the  road  more  plainly  started  with  Professor  S.  S. 
Greene,  at  Springfield,  Mass.,  in  1840.  Later,  in  1847,  the  main  trail  was 
joined  by  one  from  Columbus,  O.,  where  Dr.  A.  D.  Lord  was  made  the 
first  city  superintendent  of  schools  in  that  state.  The  same  year  Rickoff, 
at  Portsmouth,  and  Leggett,  at  Akron,  joined  the  party. 

As  the  school  committee  —  the  name  of  the  body  elected  to  take  the 
direct  oversight  of  common  schools  in  New  England  —  was  changed  in 
character,  because  the  people  seemed  to  demand  business-men  as  well  as 


Superintendence]  TRAIL    OF  THE   CITY  SUPERINTENDENT  2 1 5 

ministers  for  counsel  and  direction,  the  duties  of  the  committee  became 
quite  too  heavy  for  active  business-men  to  perform ;  besides,  the  fact 
that  amateurs,  chronic  reformers,  and  men  of  leisure  lacked  efficiency 
was  apparent  then  as  now.  Out  of  this  came  the  demand  for  expert 
supervisors. 

The  duties  of  the  office  were  evidently  dimly  defined  in  the  minds  of 
the  people  of  the  time,  but  the  main  thought  obtained,  viz.,  that  able 
men,  willing  to  give  counsel  and  exercise  veto  power  upon  proposed 
measures,  would  accept  such  responsibility  and  serve  on  directory  boards 
only  when  the  execution  could  be  placed  in  an  office  created  for  that 
purpose.  Once  established,  the  office  of  the  city  superintendent  became 
helpful,  and  very  soon  necessary. 

The  trail  of  the  superintendent,  formed  by  the  little  paths  in  New 
England  and  Ohio  flowing  into  one,  as  the  brooks  join  to  make  the  main 
stream,  has  become  broad  and  solid,  but  not  straight.  Windings,  curves, 
crooked  places,  right-angles,  and  numerous  turnings  back  upon  itself 
are  seen  in  looking  over  the  road  traveled.  The  embryo  germ  thought 
planted  in  the  heads  and  hearts  of  Greene,  Philbrick,  Wells,  Mann,  Rickoff, 
Stephenson,  Jones,  Hagar,  and  Newell  has  led  these  men  thru  devious 
ways,  against  tremendous  obstacles,  and  over  the  trail,  by  the  sacrifice  of 
almost  infinite  trial  with  vigorous  opposition,  in  contest  and  in  conflict  to 
the  end.  One  and  another  languished,  fell,  died,  and  are  buried  by  the 
side  of  the  road.  Each  traveled  his  own  gait,  with  rations  and  blanket 
only,  never  knowing,  altho  caring  much,  where  each  year's  tramping 
would  end. 

The  deaths  of  great  men  in  national  and  political  history  are  com- 
memorated by  song,  story,  and  memorial  days.  Only  in  secluded  family 
circles,  and  midst  the  personal  friends,  are  the  works  and  lives  of  heroic 
schoolmasters  recorded  and  remembered. 

The  trail  of  the  city  superintendent  has  been  followed  persistently 
during  the  sixty  years  by  very  few  pilgrims ;  of  the  hundreds  that  have 
struck  it  most  have  left  it  for  another  prospect.  The  roll  of  names  is 
short.  Various  callings  have  contributed  to  the  gang  on  the  trail  ;  com- 
mercial, mercantile,  professional,  and  industrial  vocations  each  has  sent 
representatives  to  join  the  tramping  throng. 

The  causes  for  striking  the  trail  and  the  reasons  for  leaving  it  are  well 
in  sight.  Inadequate  preparation  has  been  potent  in  forcing  desertion. 
Neither  scholarship  nor  executive  ability  alone  has  been  found  ample  for 
permanent  occupation.  The  requisite  power  and  wisdom  of  the  city 
superintendent  is  identical  with  that  of  the  competent  man  in  industrial, 
commercial,  or  diplomatic  life,  with  that  common  necessary  attribute  in 
each  and  all  —  adequate  special  preparation.  A  college  senior  is  poor 
material  for  an  executive  of  schools  as  well  as  for  industrial  or  mercantile 
establishments. 


2l6  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Chicago 

Men  in  middle  age,  of  ability  to  measure  themselves,  enter  with 
hesitation  and  lack  of  confidence  upon  an  undertaking  with  which  they 
have  not  in  early  manhood  been  familiar.  Superintendents  of  schools 
are  not  born,  but  made — made  exactly  as  are  men  in  other  lines  of  life, 
by  training,  discipline,  and  experience. 

Schools  of  philosophy  and  pedagogy  cannot  be  seen  along  the  earlier 
trail.  Their  establishment  and  conduct  is  one  of  the  later  improvements 
upon  which  we  congratulate  ourselves.  The  chairs  of  pedagogy  which 
the  colleges  have  hastened  to  endow  are  occupied  by  such  talent  as  has 
never  before  entered  the  work  of  training  teachers.  The  value  of  the  prod- 
uct can  scarcely  be  overrated,  and  yet  we  are  compelled  to  recognize  that 
some  material  is  sent  to  that  factory  out  of  which  supervisors  can  never  be 
made.  More  than  experimentation  in  a  pedagogical  college  is  required. 
One  of  our  eminent  philosophers.  Professor  James,  has  written:  "A 
knowledge  of  such  psychology  as  this  can  no  more  make  a  good  teacher 
than  a  knowledge  of  the  laws  of  perspective  can  make  a  landscape  painter 
of  effective  skill."  It  is  an  added  truth  to  that  other  one  so  hesitatingly 
learned,  that  graduation  from  a  normal  school  is  no  earnest  of  a  teacher. 

Among  the  625  city  superintendents  today  on  the  trail,  from  cities  of 
eight  thousand  or  more  people,  are  men  and  women  of  all  ages*  and 
colors,  and  of  such  varied  antecedents  as  to  preclude  a  reference  to  them 
as  a  profession.  The  practices,  expenditures,  customs,  and  environments 
of  the  respective  cities  that  they  represent  compel  as  varied  and  various 
administrations. 

But  the  trail  has  become  broad,  even  if  crooked.  Its  sidelines  are 
becoming  more  and  more  evident.  The  bureau  of  education,  embarrassed 
by  its  limited  appropriation  and  its  humble  official  position  as  an  adjunct 
of  the  Department  of  the  Interior,  has  been,  thru  its  reports,  one  great 
factor  in  unifying  the  differences  in  the  work  of  city  superintendents.  The 
hindrances  imposed  upon  the  bureau  have  been  overcome  to  almost  a 
superhuman  extent  by  the  one  and,  as  I  believe,  the  only  man  competent 
for  this  great  work.  When  the  work  of  Commissioner  Harris  shall  be 
comprehended  in  all  its  fullness,  we  shall  wonder  that  we  lived  during  his 
time  without  a  complete  realization  of  the  power  of  this  great  man. 

A  second  factor,  great  in  another  way,  has  been  and  is  the  Depart- 
ment of  Superintendence  of  the  National  Educational  Association.  The 
annual  three-days'  meeting,  if,  according  to  its  traditions,  it  can  be  held 
to  business,  not  picnicking,  will  accomplish  the  unifying  of  the  methods 
and  procedure  of  city  superintendents.  The  trail  is  to  become  less  and 
less  crooked,  the  pilgrims  are  to  tramp  more  regularly,  and  the  forward 
movement  is  to  be  more  even.  Looking  backward,  the  halts  and  wind- 
ings have  been  many,  and  while  the  intense,  over-ardent  reformers  have 
for  a  day  threatened  an  upset,  this  department  has  contributed  largely  to 
prevent  serious  overthrows. 


Superintendence]  TRAIL   OF  THE   CITY  SUPERINTENDENT  2  1 7 

From  the  writing  school  in  the  forenoon  and  the  reading  school  of 
the  afternoon  in  old  Boston,  with  its  imported  Lancastrian  system,  has 
come  what  we  have  in  this  the  sixtieth  year. 

We  have  fought,  bled,  and  died  with  the  no-recess  plan  ;  the  formal 
teaching  of  moral  science  in  all  grades ;  grammatical  diagramming ;  the 
monitorial  system ;  departmental  instruction  (which  has  lately  been  lifted 
from  the  grave  and  its  ghost  rehabilitated);  teaching  patriotism  perfunc- 
torily ;  self-government  (also  recently  resurrected) ;  concert  recitation, 
and  teaching  geography  by  singing  (how  the  latter  raged  like  a  roaring 
whirlwind,  while  from  hundreds  of  schoolrooms  came  the  doggerel  song  !); 
counting  in  penmanship;  individual  instruction  (which  has  ever  been 
the  chief  work  of  the  competent  teacher);  counting  one  for  a  comma,  two 
for  a  semicolon,  three  for  a  colon,  four  for  a  period,  etc. 

In  teaching  reading,  the  battle  has  been  on  with  the  Pollard  system, 
the  phonetic  system,  and  large  editions  of  books  printed  for  a  great  city 
with  Leigh's  phonetic  type ;  script  before  print ;  the  word,  sentence, 
leaflet,  and  analytic  method  (the  latter  taking  about  six  weeks  for  each 
page  of  the  reading  book). 

In  arithmetic  we  have  passed  thru  the  Griibe  method ;  the  ratio 
method  by  charts  (introduced  and  discarded  by  Pestalozzi  in  the  last 
century);  the  ratio  method  by  scales  of  weight  and  yard-sticks  ;  a  later 
ratio  method  by  blocks  ;  the  lightning  method  by  Webb,  and  others. 

In  music  we  have  had  the  tonic-sol-fa  method,  involving  a  changed 
system  of  writing  music;  and  we  have  lately  introduced  the  "primary 
trot,"  being  a  mechanical  running  by  primary  pupils  about  the  school- 
room ;  and  also  object-teaching. 

May  I  indulge  in  a  digression  here  to  call  attention  to  that  incomparable 
report  to  the  National  Educational  Association  read  at  Harrisburg  in  1865  ? 
We  are  fond  of  our  modern  committees  of  five,  of  ten,  of  fifteen,  because 
the  character  of  the  membership  makes  their  reports  so  valuable.  Let 
me  read  the  names  of  that  committee  of  seven,  whose  report,  drawn  up 
by  S.  S.  Greene,  together  with  the  remarks  of  Principal  E.  A.  Sheldon  (he 
who  was  the  apostle  of  object-teaching),  puts  into  the  shadow  much  of 
the  nature-study  and  field-work  instruction  of  today.  They  were  :  Barnas 
Sears,  S.  S.  Greene,  Josiah  L.  Pickard,  J.  D.  Philbrick,  David  N.  Camp, 
Richard  Edwards,  Calvin  S.  Pennell. 

We  have  had  Mr.  Charles  F.  Adams  with  his  Quincy  discovery.  Some 
of  us  were  active  in  those  days.  And  when  that  old  hero,  Daniel  B.  Hagar, 
wrote  to  me  that  he  would  go  from  Salem  to  Quincy  and  write  me  all 
about  it,  I  waited  for  the  report  of  his  visit.  Like  all  of  our  correspond- 
ence, this  was  helpful  and  comforting  to  an  ambitious  superintendent. 
He  said:  "I  found  nothing  new,  but  I  found  new  combinations,  and  a 
genius  for  work  and  enthusiasm  in  the  superintendent  that  was  helpful 
gnd  inspiring."     He  urged  me  to  go  and  see,  even  if  I  was  two  thousand 


21 8  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Chicago 

miles  away.  This  conclusion,  given  at  that  time  by  Mr.  Hagar,  has  been 
verified  in  the  years  that  have  followed. 

From  these  innovations  and  out  of  these  proposals  we  have  to  some 
extent  accepted  the  amendments ;  in  some  cases  we  have  taken  nearly  the 
whole,  finding  it  good;  in  others,  but  a  little,  ever  trying  and  sifting, 
holding  to  that  which  has  been  practically  demonstrated  as  of  value.  A 
large  part,  as  you  and  I  know,  has  been  discarded  as  the  vagaries  of  over- 
zealous  but  misguided  and  imprudent  but  persistent  innovators.  These 
people  are  good  to  have  about  us,  and  may  be  encouraged  to  spend  their 
energies  like  the  inventor  in  material  things  who  seeks  for  perpetual 
motion.  Another  class,  however,  outside  of  school  circles  is  to  be  con- 
demned and  cast  out — the  iconoclasts,  who  never  plan  a  proposal  for 
aught  new,  or  for  a  substitute,  but  who  thru  the  press,  platform,  and  pul- 
pit are  everlastingly  tearing  down  and  demolishing  and  condemning. 

The  activity  of  the  present  is  unprecedented.  Experiments  are  pro- 
posed, and  that  superintendent  who  hesitates  in  entering  upon  them 
is  temporarily  lost.  One  of  the  most  pronounced  of  these  experi- 
mental movements  is  the  attempt  to  construct  laws  that  relieve  people  and 
boards  of  education  of  not  only  execution  of  school  laws,  but  of  framing 
them.  In  haste  to  eliminate  evils  attending  school  supervision  con- 
sequent upon  interference  from  incompetent  councils,  measures  are  urged 
placing  much  power  in  the  office  of  the  superintendent,  with  few  limita- 
tions. 

In  reaching  for  the  desirable,  as  is  the  custom  of  Americans,  we  are 
overreaching.  It  is  not  likely  that  any  American  community  will  for  a 
long  time  submit  to  the  administration  of  any  public  office  with  limita- 
tions such  as  are  repugnant  to  their  antecedents  and  training.  The  per- 
sonal-liberty idea  and  the  government-by-the-people  idea  are  a  part  of  the 
unwritten  as  well  as  the  written  constitution  of  Americans.  Even  tho 
government  by  the  whole  people  has  never  been  found  expedient  and  has 
never  been  the  practice,  fortunately  for  our  country  the  minority  of  the 
people  have  ever,  and  for  safety  must  ever,  govern.  A  minority  of  the 
75,000,000  make  and  enforce  the  laws  for  the  majority. 

It  is  unnecessary  to  decide  whether  or  not  the  schools  of  a  city  can  be 
most  successfully  conducted  by  one  man  or  by  a  group  of  men  ;  the 
former  method  is  impossible,  and  must  continue  to  be  until  the  senti- 
ments of  the  people  become  less  democratic.  Were  an  elected  board  of 
experts  within  reach,  the  outcome  would  have  good  promise.  But  aboard 
of  educational  experts  in  America  at  present,  if  called  together,  would  sit 
in  discussion  seventy-seven  years  and  then  adjourn  disagreeing. 

There  is  no  authority  for  us.  Each  man  is  bound  to  trek  upon  his 
own  domain.  The  reports  of  the  bureau  do  not  assume  to  be  authorita- 
tive, but  to  give  information  only.  Hall,  Parker,  Butler,  Soldan,  Max- 
well, Sabin,  and  the  rest,  however  much   they  may  deserve  it,  wear  no 


Superintendence]  TtiAlL   OF  THE   CITY  SUPERINTENDENT  2 1 9 

judicial  ermine.  We  listen  to  the  theories  of  the  doctors,  and  are  com- 
pelled to  discard  very  many  of  them  as  impracticable  or  extravagant. 
The  superintendent  who  accepts  too  soon  the  results  of  an  experiment 
trifles  with  the  children's  greatest  interests  and  wrongs  the  people  whom 
he  serves. 

The  appearance  and  active  participation  of  scores  of  young  men  — 
some  of  them  brilliant,  some  scholars,  some  callow,  but  all  honest  — 
add  to  the  educational  ranks  such  vigor  and  forcefulness  as  were  never 
before  known.  The  list  of  names  now  in  the  pedagogical  field  comprises 
a  kind  of  men  of  power  and  thought  that  never  before  looked  toward  the 
school  and  the  training  of  children.  This  promises  an  outcome  for  the 
product  of  the  elementary  schools  far  better  than  the  country  has  hitherto 
known.  Because  professors  of  pedagogy  are  made  in  a  year,  out  of  all 
sorts  of  material,  by  some  institutions,  and  turned  loose  to  prey  upon  us 
and  preach  inchoate  doctrines,  is  no  cause  for  anxiety.  If  some  of  them 
do  become  earnest  over  adolescence,  and  the  bacteria  found  under  pupils' 
finger-nails,  and  the  curves  of  the  lines  of  fatigue,  and  danger  from  com- 
mon drinking-cups,  and  common  property  in  pencils  and  books,  they  are 
sure  either  to  learn  as  they  follow  the  trail,  or,  what  sometimes  is  better, 
fall  out.     Such  conditions  are  a  part  of  all  advance  movements. 

Without  question  the  greatest  problem  today  is  how  best  to  administer 
the  public-school  interests  of  a  city.  The  same  problem  in  a  field  but 
little  different  confronts  the  student  of  municipal  government.  The 
method  of  the  constitution  and  the  selection  of  a  school-governing  author- 
ity appear  as  the  initial  proposition.  Shall  the  people  elect,  and  how ; 
at  large  or  by  wards  ?  Shall  the  directory,  as  in  municipal  governmfents, 
be  changed  all  at  one  time  ?  Shall  the  board  be  appointed  by  the  execu- 
tive of  the  city  as  in  New  York  and  Chicago,  or  by  the  courts  as  in  Phila- 
delphia, or  elected  by  the  people  as  in  Boston  and  St.  Louis  ?  Shall  the 
board  be  subservient  in  financial  conduct  to  the  municipal  government  as 
in  Boston,  or  independent  of  the  city  officials  as  in  St.  Louis  and  many 
smaller  western  cities  ? 

The  history  of  the  last  two  years  or  more  leaves  no  doubt  of  the 
interest  and  even  anxiety  of  the  American  community  as  to  the  direction 
of  public  schools.  From  our  great  metropolis  down  thru  the  secondary 
cities  is  found  an  agitation,  an  unrest,  as  to  the  conduct  of  this  quasi- 
public  corporation.  Chicago,  Detroit,  and  Indianapolis  had  their 
"innings"  before  their  respective  legislatures  last  year,  with  different 
results.  New  York  had  set  the  pace  the  preceding  winter,  with  a  result 
that  is  believed  to  be  an  advance  in  efficiency.  The  legislatures  at  Lan- 
sing and  at  Springfield  looked  with  disfavor  upon  carefully  prepared  bills 
for  the  schools  of  their  chief  cities.  The  press  tells  us  that  divided 
counsel  among  the  promoters  was  the  chief  cause  of  defeat ;  and  yet  we 


220  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Chicago 

can  scarcely  say  that  defeat  was  not  for  the  ultimate  good.  A  prominent 
and,  as  before  mentioned,  objectionable  feature  of  this  proposed  legisla- 
tion was  the  increased  and  quite  unlimited  power  for  the  superintendent. 
This  latter  was  too  radical  a  measure  to  be  readily  accepted. 

The  Indianapolis  law  deserves  more  than  passing  notice;  first,  because 
it  was  conceived  and  prepared  by  eminent  and  experienced  schoolmen  ; 
second,  because,  led  in  a  way  not  to  arouse  opposition  by  a  united  body 
of  schoolmaster  and  superintendent  promoters,  the  legislature  passed  and 
the  governor  signed  the  most  remarkable  school  bill  yet  recorded.  So 
quietly  has  this  been  done,  and  so  promptly  and  quietly  has  the  new 
regime  been  initiated,  that  little  public  notice  outside  Indiana  seems  to 
have  been  given  to  it.  At  present  it  promises  far  better  school  adminis- 
tration than  has  yet  obtained  in  the  country,  and  yet,  as  "the  proof  of  the 
pudding  is  in  the  eating,"  we  must  wait  and  see.  It  is  certain  that 
Indianapolis  has  improved  on  Cleveland,  the  pioneer  in  special  school 
laws  for  cities.  After  some  study  and  review  of  the  three  bills  for  Detroit, 
for  Chicago,  and  for  Indianapolis,  one  is  compelled  to  believe  that  the 
bill  for  Indianapolis  is  the  best,  and  the  outcome,  so  far,  is  a  verification 
of  that  belief. 

The  whole  matter  is  an  evidence  of  great  activity  thruout  the  country 
in  the  determination  of  the  people  to  place  the  control  and  government 
of  schools  as  far  as  possible  beyond  the  reach  of  the  baneful  practices  of 
the  municipal  governments  of  America.  Earnest  men,  enthusiastic  to 
right  a  wrong,  usually  go  too  far  and  ask  too  much.  One  feature  usually 
presented  —  absolute  government  by  one  man  —  must  be  a  mistake  when 
carried  to  its  ultimate  extent.  It  is  unlikely  that  any  one  man  is  compe- 
tent to  direct,  control,  and  be  the  complete  manager  of  a  city  school  system. 
However  great  his  ability,  accurate  his  judgment,  quick  his  apprehension, 
long  his  experience,  and  extensive  his  general  scholarship,  he  is  still  one, 
and  only  one ;  the  wisdom  of  the  one  needs  to  be  supplemented  by  the 
counsel  of  others. 

On  the  other  hand,  it  must  be  conceded  that  a  material  difference  lies 
between  the  practical  administration  of  the  affairs  of  a  public  and  of  a 
private  corporation.  In  the  case  of  the  latter,  often  immense  financial 
considerations,  the  rnanipulation  of  vast  machinery,  the  necessity  of 
effective  and  prompt  action  —  sometimes  approaching  the  heroic,  as  in 
great  labor  strikes — demand  eminent  organizing  and  executive  power; 
while  the  accountability  of  the  superintendent,  as  well  as  his  responsi- 
bility, is  always  to  a  small,  intelligent,  and  interested  directory;  one 
constituted  only  for  the  single  object  of  financial  gain,  totally  free  from 
political  or  social  issues.  Interference  by  individual .  stockholders  is 
not  tolerated.  The  efficiency  of  the  administration  depends  upon  the 
superintendent  himself,  under  such  limitations  as  his  board  prescribes. 
Prompt  action  is  always,  not  only  possible,  but  obligatory.     His  forces  are 


Superintendence]  TRAIL  OF  THE  CITY  SUPERINTENDENT  22  1 

all  concentrated  upon  the  matter  in  hand  ;  episodes,  side  issues,  the  press, 
the  public,  and  the  owners  are  impotent  to  dissipate  his  powers  or  hamper 
his  plans. 

But  the  school  superintendent  who,  with  competent  counsel  added  to 
his  own  expert  ability,  constructs  a  course  of  study,  condemns  the  work 
of  a  poor  teacher,  objects  to  the  engagement  of  inferior  talent,  frowns 
upon  the  purchase  of  unnecessary  apparatus,  or,  what  is  even  more  threat- 
ening, recommends  the  substitution  of  a  better  text-book  for  a  poor  one, 
understands  full  well  that,  however  unanimous  may  be  the  support  of  his 
board,  many  taxpayers,  as  well  as  mercantile  and  commercial  interests, 
are  sure  to  take  a  hand  either  to  forward  or  prevent  the  execution  of 
whatever  plans  he  may  devise.  The  inevitable  letter  to  the  press,  over  the 
anonymous  signature  of  "Taxpayer,"  is  a  reminder  that  the  people  pro- 
pose to  allow  their  representatives  on  the  school  board  to  act  their  will 
only  when  it  coincides  with  that  of  the  individual  opinion  —  a  condition, 
of  course,  over  which  the  superintendent  of  private  corporations  has  never 
to  worry. 

And  so  one  has  a  right  to  assume  that,  in  addition  to  the  power  and 
skill  of  the  superintendent  of  great  industries,  the  superintendent  of 
schools  needs  another  qualification  —  that  of  mollifying  and  educating  a 
great  and  not  always  prudent  or  well-informed  constituency. 

The  title  of  the  office,  "  superintendent  of  schools,"  is  no  misnomer, 
but  it  is  submitted  that  the  term  "assistant  superintendent  of  schools" 
does  not  sufficiently  indicate  the  duties  of  that  office,  and  is  an  unfor- 
tunate designation.  Our  Canadian  neighbors  have  a  better  name, 
"inspector."  An  assistant  superintendent  of  schools  is  not  needed  in 
any  administration ;  one  superintendent  is  enough,  and  all  that  can 
perform  the  proper  duties  of  the  place.  The  office  needs  assistants 
who  inspect ;  in  fact,  that  is  what  assistant  superintendents  now  do,  or 
ought  to  do. 

I  know  there  is  not  much  in  a  name,  but  I  would  establish  a  superin- 
tendent with  a  corps  of  inspectors  whose  reports  would  be  the  basis  for 
changes,  appointments,  and  conduct  of  the  entire  system  —  men  appointed 
for  expert  ability  along  different  lines,  who  would  do  their  work  along 
that  line,  whose  office  would  be  in  dignity  second  to  none,  and  whose 
counsel  would  be  the  controlling  counsel,  while  the  superintendent  would 
do  the  directing  and  executing. 

The  trail  of  the  city  superintendent  of  schools  has  been  narrow  and 
crooked.  Today  it  is  wide,  and  is  to  be  fairly  straight,  so  that  the 
recruits  need  have  little  doubt  by  day  or  by  night  as  to  where  the  trail 
lies. 

The  throng  on  the  trail  will  stay  there,  and  wild-eyed  reformers  with 
their,  to  them  original,  discoveries,  altho  resurrected  from  the  last  century, 
will  fail  to  decoy  the  prudent   superintendent.      Sticking  to  what  one 


222  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Chicago 

knows,  avoiding  experiment  and  the  chasing  of  brightly  colored  will- 
o'wisps,  will  make  those  who  stick  to  the  trail  carry  themselves  well 
to  the  end,  and  the  monument  shall  be  erected  in  sight  of  all  who  pass 
thereafter. 


THE  SUPERINTENDENT  IN  SMALL  CITIES 

CHARLES    E.   GORTON,   SUPERINTENDENT    OF    CITY    SCHOOLS,  YONKERS,    N.  Y. 

This  topic  has  been  discussed  frequently  in  the  meetings  of  the 
department  and  in  other  educational  gatherings.  It  has  been  the  subject 
of  many  articles  in  magazines  and  educational  reviews.  So  much  has 
been  said  and  written  on  it  that  I  dare  not  hope  to  present  anything 
original  in  this  paper.  Perhaps,  however,  the  importance  of  the  subject 
may  pardon  the  reiteratian  of  permanently  valuable  principles,  and  a 
review  of  the  requirements,  powers,  and  duties  of  an  office  whose  dignity 
and  responsibility  are  growing  daily. 

The  superintendent  of  schools  was  practically  unknown  fifty  years  ago, 
and  sixty  years  ago  was  non-existent.  His  office  has  been  logically 
evolved  with  the  quite  original  system  of  American  public-school  educa- 
tion. Now  almost  every  city  and  a  large  proportion  of  the  villages  have 
such  an  officer.  The  earlier  superintendents  were  often  chosen  without 
reference  to  educational  qualification  or  fitness,  being  selected  for  personal 
or  political  reasons,  and  being  agents  or  executive  officers  of  their 
respective  boards  or  committees.  Many  of  those  who  eventually  became 
efficient  officers  succeeded  at  the  expense  of  the  pupils  who  formed  sub- 
jects of  experiment.  The  term  of  office  was  usually  short,  and  the 
records  of  many  cities  show  a  list  of  early  superintendents  of  schools  who 
held  office  one  or  two  years  each. 

The  mode  of  election  has  become  settled,  so  that  a  superintendent  is 
now  chosen  by  a  board  of  education  and  very  rarely  by  general  election. 
The  term  of  office  has  been  lengthened.  Many  of  the  city  and  village 
superintendents  now.  in  office  have  occupied  their  positions  a  long  term 
of  years.  The  duties  of  the  office  were  very  indefinite,  but  have  become 
fairly  established  by  practice,  and  fixed  by  formulated  rules  or  by  legisla- 
tion. It  appears,  furthermore,  that  most  of  the  present  incumbents  were 
professional  teachers  of  large  experience  before  they  were  elected  to  the 
higher  position. 

This  certainly  indicates  a  movement  in  the  right  direction,  for  a  super- 
intendent of  schools  ought  to  be  a  teacher  primarily,  and  to  have  had  the 
experience  and  knowledge  which  can  only  come  from  actual  work  in  the 
class-room.  I  do  not  know  that  the  statutes  of  any  state  prescribe  the 
qualifications  which  a  superintendent  of  schools  must  possess.     But  such 


Superintendence]  SUPERINTENDENT  IN  SMALL  CITIES  223 

legislation  has  been  proposed  and  not  unlikely  will  prevail  eventually  in 
many  states. 

If  the  state  demands  a  minimum  of  qualifications  for  its  teachers,  how 
can  it  ask  less  of  those  who  rank  above  the  teachers,  directing  and  super- 
vising their  efforts  ?  The  superintendent  of  any  system  of  schools  ought 
to  be  broadly  educated  and  to  know  something  of  the  many  branches  of 
instruction.  He  will  have  special  teachers  teaching  and  supervising,  who 
will  know  the  details  of  their  topics  better  than  it  is  possible  for  him  to 
know  them  ;  but  he  should  have  such  a  comprehensive  view  of  the  whole 
field  that  he  may  give  valuable  suggestions  even  to  them. 

He  should  know  psychology,  which  in  recent  years  has  played  an 
important  part  with  all  students  of  education,  and  should  be  conversant 
with  the  various  methods  of  instruction  in  all  subjects.  He  should  be 
conversant,  not  only  with  the  history  of  education,  but  with  general  his- 
tory as  well.  Only  the  students  of  history  can  appreciate  the  accumu- 
lated riches  which  have  become  the  heritage  of  the  race,  and  thru 
what  struggles  the  evolution  and  freedom  of  mankind  have  been 
accomplished. 

The  history  of  education  enables  us  to  understand  the  intellectual 
growth  of  ages,  and  how,  often  spasmodically,  but  nevertheless  "with  a 
certain  degree  of  continuity,  the  youth  has  been  fitted  for  an  ever-widen- 
ing field  of  intellectual  and  physical  activity.  He  who  knows  the  condi- 
tions under  which  they  wrought  comprehends  the  results  attained  by  the 
great  teachers  and  educational  reformers,  who  from  the  time  of  Socrates 
have  contributed  to  the  uplifting  of  humanity,  and  can  properly  estimate 
the  bearing  of  their  work  on  the  subsequent  ages,  and  that  ultimate  prod- 
uct which  we  call  our  present  civilization. 

He  should  know  the  history  of  school  organization,  how  it  has 
developed  to  its  present  form,  and  the  changes  which  are  still  proceeding. 
He  should  have  an  insight  into  school  administration  as  relating  to  the 
relation  of  the  board  of  education  to  the  teachers,  of  the  teachers  to  the 
pupils,  and  of  the  whole  system  to  the  community.  A  knowledge  of  the 
principles  of  school  law  is  a  necessary  part  of  his  equipment. 

All  this  means  that  a  broad,  general  education  is  not  enough,  and 
that  the  superintendent  ought  to  have  special  preparation  for  his  work. 
All  of  us  want  the  occupation  of  the  teacher  classed  with  the  learned 
professions,  and  recognized  as  one  of  them  in  dignity  and  respect.  All 
the  other  professions  demand  elaborate  special  preparation  for  whoever 
is  to  become  a  member  of  their  ranks. 

The  state  of  New  York  prescribes  a  minimum  of  requirements  for 
students  of  law  or  medicine,  and  subsequently  four  years  of  special  train- 
ing before  entering  practice.  It  seems  to  me  that  no  less  should  be  asked 
of  the  chief  officer  of  a  school  system  ;  that  his  theoretical  education 
should  be  obtained  prior  to  his   taking  office,  and   not  as  the   result  of 


22  4  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Chicago 

years  of  experiment  with  teachers  and  pupils.  The  latter  course  may  be 
cheap  for  him,  but  it  is  sadly  expensive  and  unjust  to  many  innocent 
people. 

I  believe  we  shall  have  the  highest  quality  of  supervision  and  school 
administration  only  when  the  superintendent  shall  have  been  educated  as 
a  professional  expert  and  is  recognized  as  such.  In  the  largest  cities 
the  duties  of  administration,  organization,  and  supervision  have  been 
differentiated  so  far  that  all  the  attainments  necessary  for  a  smaller  town 
need  not  be  united  in  one  person.  This  specialization  undoubtedly  gives 
the  highest  type  of  service.  But,  as  has  been  pointed  out  by  Superin- 
tendent Gove  in  the  Educational  Review,  the  number  of  large  cities  with 
elaborate,  classified  organization  is  small  compared  with  those  where  all 
departments  of  the  educational  system  are  united  under  the  control  of  one 
man,  whose  duties  are  necessarily  exceedingly  diverse. 

A  somewhat  exhaustive  inquiry  from  the  cities  of  many  states,  made  a 
few  years  ago,  seems  to  prove  conclusively  that  boards  of  education  are 
composed,  as  a  rule,  of  the  best  men  in  their  respective  communities, 
devoted  to  the  interests  of  the  schools  under  their  control,  and  free  from 
mercenary  motives.  If  this  be  accepted  as  a  statement  of  fact,  the  con- 
clusion readily  follows  that  a  fit  and  worthy  superintendent,  elected  at 
the  pleasure  of  the  board,  will  hold  his  office  for  a  long  term. 

I  do  not  care  to  discuss  the  question  of  tenure  of  office  here  much 
beyond  expressing  the  purely  personal  opinion  that  the  superintendent 
should  be  elected  to  serve  during  the  pleasure  of  the  board.  I  am 
convinced  that  teachers  who  have  served  a  term  of  trial,  and  whose 
services  have  been  approved,  should  hold  office  for  life,  or  until  removed 
for  physical  or  mental  disability.  They  ought  not  to  be  subject  to  the 
worry  and  distress  incident  to  a  periodical  election.  But  the  superin- 
tendent is  the  executive  officer  of  the  board,  and  if  the  board  shall  be 
dissatisfied  with  his  administration,  it  appears  reasonable  that  it  shall  be 
within  its  power  to  effect  an  immediate  change.  This  view  of  continuous 
employment  in  one  case  and  not  in  the  other  is  entirely  consistent  with 
the  most  advanced  ideas  and  practice  of  civil  service  in  the  nation,  state, 
or -city. 

It  is  somewhat' difficult  to  define  exactly  the  powers  and  duties  of  the 
superintendent  in  a  small  city.  Many  questions  will  come  to  him  for 
decision,  and  many  things  must  be  done  outside  of  what  anybody  would 
conceive  to  be  stated  obligations.  In  many  places  he  will  be  called  upon 
to  perform  duties  that  should  not  be  incumbent  on  him  and  which  might 
be  done  better  by  somebody  else.  He  should  not  be  expected  to  serve 
as  the  secretary  or  bookkeeper  of  the  board,  nor  serve  as  a  distributing 
agent  for  books  and  supplies.  His  work  should  take  a  higher  range  than 
that  of  clerk  or  accountant  for  a  small  corporation.  He  should  not  be 
the  financial  agent  of  the  board,  because  he  would  bear  a  responsibility 


Superintendence]  SUPERINTENDENT  IN  SMALL  CITIES  225 

that  should  be  borne  by  the  board  itself,  whose  judgment  on  questions  of 
finance  is  as  a  rule  better  than  his  own. 

The  public  schools  receive  more  popular  criticism  on  the  score  of 
expense  than  for  all  other  reasons.  Many  people  think  of  the  schools 
only  as  the  cause  of  endless  taxation,  and  attack  the  school  appropriations 
first,  tho  there  may  be  boundless  waste  in  other  departments.  Whether 
their  criticisms  be  right  or  wrong,  let  the  board,  and  not  the  superintend- 
ent, bear  this  burden.  He  should  not  be  required  to  examine  and  license 
teachers,  for  reasons  which  I  shall  presently  endeavor  to  state. 

In  the  ultimate  analysis  there  remains  only  one  object  for  which  the 
schools  exist ;  that  is  the  pupil.  Everything  else  has  disappeared. 
Buildings,  equipment,  boards  of  education,  teachers,  are  all  means 
directed  to  raising  the  pupil  to  his  proper  position  as  a  factor  of  our 
complex  civilization.  The  teacher  is  not  only  the  most  important  of 
these  means,  but  easily  outweighs  all  the  rest.  Garfield's  oft- quoted 
aphorism  in  which  he  defined  the  American  university  gives  homely 
expression  to  the  comparative  value  of  instruction,  and  the  subordination 
of  everything  else  to  the  teacher's  influence.  Fine  buildings,  elaborate 
equipment,  refined  courses  of  study,  are  all  subsidiary  to  the  teacher. 
Then  what  discriminating  care  should  be  exercised  in  determining  who 
the  teacher  shall  be !  Who  shall  decide  ?  Who  should  possess  the  judg- 
ment, fidelity,  and  independence  to  discharge  this  high  trust  ?  The 
superintendent.  He  should  either  have  the  absolute  power  of  appoint- 
ment of  teachers  or  should  nominate  them  subject  to  confirmation  by  the 
board.  In  any  event  the  board  should  not  have  the  power  to  appoint 
without  his  approval.  If  he  has  been  selected  for  his  professional  attain- 
ments and  experience,  he  knows  the  quality  and  kind  of  people  he  wants, 
and  should  be  the  judge  of  their  special  fitness. 

A  board  composed  of  men  engaged  in  other  professions  or  general 
business  has  not  the  slightest  competency  to  select  teachers,  and  ought 
not  to  claim  such  a  prerogative,  but  should  delegate  the  matter  wholly  to 
the  superintendent.-  It  is  not  consistent  with  any  theory  of  exalted  civil 
service  to  combine  the  examining  and  appointing  power  in  the  same  indi- 
vidual. This  is  clearly  recognized,  and  a  separation  has  been  marked  in 
the  appointment  of  civil-service  examining  boards  removed  as  far  as  pos- 
sible from  all  exterior  influences  and  having  no  power  except  to  pass  on 
qualifications.  A  few  of  the  larger  cities  have  special  examining  boards 
that  perhaps  meet  the  case.  In  most  places  it  would  be  better  if  exami- 
nations for  teachers'  certificates  were  held  only  by  a  department  of  educa- 
tion, and  normal-school  diplomas  and  state  licenses  only  were  accepted. 
This  should  be  a  minimum  which  any  locality  might  supplement  by 
special  examinations.  I  take  this  opportunity  to  say  that  it  seems  to  me 
unfortunate  that  the  certificates  and  normal-school  diplomas  of  one  state 
are  not  valid  in  another  state.     The  state  license  of  Pennsylvania  may  be 


2  26  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Chicago 

worthless  in  New  York  or  Ohio,  and  vice  versa.  The  states  do  not  thus 
discriminate  against  each  other  in  the  other  learned  professions. 

An  attorney-at-law  practicing  in  Ohio  moves  to  New  York,  and  is 
admitted  to  practice  in  the  courts  of  the  latter  state  on  motion,  as  a 
matter  of  course.  The  same  rule  generally  prevails  in  both  law  and 
medicine.  Why  should  not  the  same  professional  courtesy  prevail  with 
teachers  ?  Their  studies  have  often  been  as  arduous  and  protracted  as 
those  of  the  lawyer  and  the  doctor,  and  they  usually  continue  to  be  quite 
as  diligent  students  thru  life. 

By  common  consent  the  superintendent  prepares  the  course  of  study, 
and  too  often,  I  fear,  he  tries  to  make  it  original  and  to  incorporate  in  it 
some  of  his  own  personality.  Or  he  pursues  the  plan  of  modern  authors 
in  Irving's  Art  of  Book- Making,  selecting  a  little  here  and  a  little  there 
from  various  courses  of  study,  and  has  a  whole  as  incongruous  as  Horace 
pictures  in  Ars  Poetica.  The  courses  of  study  of  different  cities  show 
amusing  variety  and  frequently  contradictions.  Here  again,  I  believe, 
the  state  authority  might  properly  be  exercised  and  a  uniform  course  of 
study  prepared,  subject  to  such  additions  as  localities  might  demand.  I 
believe  that  many  of  the  courses  of  study  in  cities  are  too  detailed  and 
insist  too  strenuously  on  special  methods  and  on  what  a  class  must 
accomplish  in  a  given  time.  Any  teacher  works  better  when  allowed 
reasonable  freedom,  and  secures  better  results  by  a  method  with  which  he 
is  in  full  accord  and  which  he  is  carrying  out  somewhat  in  his  own  way. 
Too  much  insistence  in  a  course  of  study  sacrifices  the  spirit  to  the 
letter. 

The  choice  of  text-books  should  be  wholly  with  the  superintendent 
and  his  teachers.  A  great  number  of  schoolbooks  on  almost  every  sub- 
ject have  been  published  in  recent  years.  Many  of  them  are  excellent, 
and  many  of  them  have  no  excuse  for  being  except  that  the  publishing 
house  feels  that  it  must  come  into  the  market  with  something  novel  to 
compete  with  some  other  house.  But  the  number  of  good  books  is  so 
large  that  the  difficulty  is  to  determine  the  best.  There  is  perhaps  no 
other  subject  with  which  boards  of  education  are  so  likely  to  meddle  as 
this,  and  there  is  none  in  which  their  interference  is  more  likely  to  be 
mischievous.  Tho  the  board  be  free  from  mercenary  motives,  and  not 
too  severely  pressed  by  our  genial  friends,  the  agents,  it  has  not  the 
slightest  competency  to  determine  the  best  schoolbooks.  Even  the 
superintendent  cannot  wisely  select  the  best  books  for  his  schools  without 
calling  to  his  aid  the  teachers  of  special  subjects,  and  especially  the 
teachers  of  primary  grades  who  probably  comprehend  the  powers,  limita- 
tions, and  tastes  of  the  little  child  much  better  than  he  is  able  to  do. 

In  order  of  his  highest  duties,  next  to  the  selection  of  teachers,  comes 
his  influence  over  them.  Many  of  them  will  be  inexperienced,  fresh  from 
the  training  school.     Their  knowledge  is  theoretical.     They  find  in  the 


Superintendence]  SUPERINTENDENT  IN  SMALL  CITIES  227 

class-rooms  problems  of  discipline  and  instruction  of  which  they  had  never 
dreamed.  Many  of  their  preconceived  ideas  must  be  wholly  readjusted 
when  confronted  by  a  class  of  forty  or  fifty  children.  They  will  need 
his  help  and  instruction  in  many  ways.  The  smaller  the  city,  the  greater 
and  more  direct  this  assistance  may  be.  He  may  not  only  reach  his 
principals,  but  his  teachers,  and  know  pretty  accurately  the  strength  and 
weakness  of  every  one.  In  meetings  of  principals  he  may  cover  all 
general  administrative  features,  such  as  organization,  supervision,  grading, 
and  promotions.  In  meetings  of  the  whole  corps,  principals  and  teachers 
together,  he  may  give  instruction  and  suggestions  as  to  methods  of  dis- 
cipline and  teaching;  but  this  work  in  general  meetings  must  be  of  a 
broad  character,  and  cannot  go  into  the  details  of  different  grades 
without  incurring  danger  of  becoming  wearisome  and  irksome  to  many 
of  his  auditors. 

I  conceive  that  in  a  meeting  where  only  teachers  of  a  single  grade 
are  present  his  best  work  is  done,  and  this  meeting  ought  to  take  the 
character  of  a  conference,  where  the  utmost  freedom  of  discussion  pre- 
vails. The  superintendent  will  there  bear  the  character  of  one  who 
unites  with  all  in  the  endeavor  to  arrive  at  the  truth  by  comparison  of 
views  and  suggestions  from  one  another.  He  will  seek  to  secure  sub; 
stantial,  not  absolute,  uniformity,  by  bringing  out  the  best  from  each  indi- 
vidual, and  molding  all  diverse  opinions  into  a  harmonious  whole.  In 
these  meetings  he  will  come  to  know  his  teachers  intimately,  will  secure 
their  confidence,  and'<will  impress  himself  upon  them,  not  as  a  dictator, 
but  as  a  counselor  and  guide.  They  ought  to  learn  from  his  intercourse 
with  them  that  he  is  their  sincere  friend  and  working  in  full  accord  with 
them  for  a  common  end.  He  may  promote  habits  of  study  and  research, 
and  induce  them  to  carry  on  a  regular  course  of  reading  and  investiga- 
tion, either  in  the  line  of  general  scholarship  or  bearing  on  subjects  and 
methods  for  their  particular  work.  In  meetings,  of  whatever  character, 
he  will  make  clear  his  ideals,  views,  and  aspirations,  and  impart  his  own 
enthusiasm  to  his  teachers.  Any  system  of  schools  cannot  rise  much 
above  the  level  of  the  superintendent,  and  its  progress  may  be  fairly 
measured  by  his  character,  attainments,  energy,  and  skill,  and  the  zeal 
with  which  his  teachers  co-operate  with  his  efforts. 

He  will  devote  a  large  proportion  of  his  time  to  active  inspection  and 
supervision  of  classes.  There  he  will  learn  directly  what  strength  and 
weakness  each  teacher  possesses.  His  visits  will  relieve  the  monotony  of 
the  teacher's  work,  and,  if  he  come  in  the  proper  spirit,  he  will  always  be 
welcomed  by  teachers  and  pupils  alike.  His  suggestions  will  almost 
invariably  be  well  received  and  helpful.  His  criticisms  ought  not  to  be 
constantly  destructive.  They  should  be  constructive  and  creative  as  well. 
He  has  no  right  to  complain  of  a  method  of  instruction  or  of  anything 
else  in  a  class-room  without  having  something  better  to  offer.     He  ought 


2  28  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Chicago 

not  simply  to  condemn  and  suggest,  but  frequently,  very  frequently,  to 
commend.  His  teachers  care  more  for  his  praise  than  for  that  of  every- 
body else,  and  his  hearty  approval  of  what  he  has  seen  and  heard  in  the 
class  arouses  all  the  cordiality  and  gratitude  of  a  teacher  to  whom  such 
words  may  seldom  come  except  from  him,  and  who  is  always  liable  to  be 
under  the  fire  of  adverse  criticism  from  patrons  of  the  school.  Intellectual 
effort  is  dwarfed  by  the  shadow  of  disfavor,  and  flourishes  in  the  warm 
sunshine  of  genial  approval.  I  venture  to  hope  that  the  superintendent 
in  a  small  city  will  know  what  is  going  on  in  the  classes  from  observation 
rather  than  from  reports;  that  he  will,  therefore,  have  no  occasion  to 
burden  his  teachers  with  a  marking  system,  or  to  occupy  their  time 
making  out  reports  when  they  ought  to  be  teaching  or  resting,  and  that 
he  will  know  the  progress  of  his  classes  from  personal  inspection  rather 
than  by  the  results  of  stated  examinations. 

He  will  know  many  of  the  children  more  or  less  intimately,  and  may 
guide  the  career  of  many  pupils  of  the  high  school  who  will  come  to  him 
for  advice.  His  suggestions  may  induce  many  girls  and  boys  to  con- 
tinue study  and  to  pursue  a  college  course  who  would  otherwise  never 
do  so.  In  the  same  connection  he  may  influence  the  conduct  of  parents, 
and  lead  them  to  make  exertions  to  give  their  children  the  benefits  of 
higher  education.  The  smaller  the  place,  the  more  intimate  may  be  his 
relations  to  parents  and  children,  and  the  more  powerful  the  direct  influ- 
ences which  he  may  exert.  He  must  necessarily  be  the  arbiter  of  mis- 
understandings and  disputes.  Controversies  between  principals  and 
teachers,  teachers  and  children,  the  school  and  the  home,  will  all  come 
to  him  for  settlement.  They  will  often  demand  all  his  diplomatic  skill, 
partly  because  he  is  not  called  in  until  all  the  premises  have  been  laid, 
and  a  very  pretty  quarrel  prepared  before  he  hears  anything  about  it,  and 
therefore  he  must  correct  the  mistakes  of  others  before  he  can  restore 
peace  and  harmonious  relations.  He  can  never  go  far  wrong  in  these 
cases  if  he  bases  his  final  decisions  on  his  ideas  of  absolute  justice.  There 
is  no  reversal  of  a  judgment  rendered  because  it  is  right,  and  which  makes 
no  concession  to  a  temporizing  policy. 

In  a  small  system  of  schools  the  superintendent  must  of  necessity  be, 
to  some  extent,  a  man  of  affairs.  He  must  know  intimately  all  the  ques- 
tions coming  before  the  committee,  or  board  of  education,  and  be  pre- 
pared to  advise  concerning  them.  The  theory  that  he  should  engage 
only  in  duties  pertaining  to  the  selection  of  teachers,  instruction,  and 
supervision  of  schools  is  very  fine  as  an  academic  proposition,  but  it  fails 
in  practice.  However  well-meaning  the  board  may  be,  it  is  composed 
of  men  whose  thoughts  are  given  to  other  subjects,  and  who  occasionally 
turn  from  their  regular  vocations  to  discharge  their  duties  as  trustees.  It 
is  impossible,  under  the  circumstances,  for  them  to  carry  the  school  work 
continuously,   without    guidance    in    almost   every   particular,   and    the 


Superintendence]  ALCOHOL  PHYSIOLOGY  AND  SUPERINTENDENCE  229 

superintendent  is  the  only  man  in  a  position  and  with  the  knowledge  to 
direct  their  councils. 

One  of  his  most  weighty  duties  in  connection  with  the  board  will  be 
properly  to  direct  the  construction  of  new  buildings  or  the  repair  of  old 
ones.  The  great  advance  in  schoolhouse  architecture  and  construction 
in  recent  years  has  been  due  largely  to  the  efforts  of  the  superintendent. 
The  local  architect  usually  knows  nothing  of  the  special  features  of 
schoolhouse  construction.  The  questions  of  floor  space,  air  supply,  venti- 
lation, lighting,  seating,  are  either  not  known  at  all,  or  are  illy  understood 
by  him.  Hygienic  questions  of  schoolhouse  architecture  are  vital,  and 
the  superintendent  ought  to  know  them.  It  is  precisely  the  same  with 
many  other  subjects.  The  board  is  willing  and  anxious  to  do  these  things 
right  when  they  are  plainly  indicated.  It  should  be  cordially  confident 
of  the  competency  of  the  superintendent,  if  it  is  to  rely  on  his  advice 
and  sustain  his  leadership. 

If  the  superintendent  is  not  known  outside  of  the  schoolhouse,  much 
of  the  influence  he  should  exert  in  the  community  is  lost.  He  ought  to 
be  a  leader,  or  at  least  one  of  the  leaders,  of  thought  in  his  community 
and  a  maker  of  public  opinion.  His  character  and  attainments  should 
dignify  his  office  and  justify  confidence  in  himself.  His  integrity  should 
be  unquestionable.  Judicious  in  his  relations  with  others,  he  should  be 
fearlessly  independent  of  political,  social,  and  religious  influence  in  all 
things  demanding  his  decision.  His  career  should  entitle  him  to  the 
respect  of  all  men,  and  every  movement  directed  toward  better  conditions 
for  mankind,  whether  physical,  moral,  or  intellectual,  should  enlist  his 
sympathy  and  receive  his  ardent  support. 

Humani  nihil  a  me  alienum  puto. 


ALCOHOL  PHYSIOLOGY  AND  SUPERINTENDENCE 

PROFESSOR    W.    O.    ATWATER,    WESLEVAN    UNIVERSITY,    MIDDLETOWN,   CONN. 

In  discussing  the  topic  assigned  me  on  your  program,  I  understand 
it  to  be  your  wish  that  I  consider  especially  what  should  be  taught  in  our 
schools  about  alcohol  in  its  physiological  relations.  Allow  me  a  word  at 
the  outset  regarding  the  more  general  scope  of  instruction  in  physiology. 
In  planning  a  course  of  study  in  this  as  in  any  other  subject  careful  con- 
sideration must  be  given  to  the  several  parts  in  order  that  the  whole 
may  be  well  considered  and  well  balanced. 

One  thing  I  wish  to  urge  is  that  we  should  tell  our  pupils  more 
about  the  economy  of  food  and  nutrition,  and  since  physiology  already 
takes  all  the  space  there  is  for  it  in  the  curriculum,  I  would  suggest  that 


230  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Chicago 

some  things  now  found  in  a  good  many  of  the  text-books  be  omitted  to 
make  room  for  what  might  be  taught  :about  the  demands  of  our  bodies 
for  nourishment,  and  how  to  supply  them  to  the  best  advantage  of  health 
and  purse.  This  would  make  a  more  substantial  foundation  for  the 
special  instruction  about  alcohol  in  itself.  To  make  room  for  this  in  the 
already  crowded  curriculum  I  would  suggest  that  some  minor  and  more 
technical  parts  now  taught  might  be  omitted. 

In  illustration  of  what  might  be  taught  about  the  laws  of  nutrition 
let  me  call  your  attention  to  the  leaflets  which  you  will  find  on  the  seats 
you  are  occupying.  These  have  been  furnished  by  the  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture,  thru  the  kindness  of  Hon.  James  Wilson, 
secretary  of  agriculture,  and  Dr.  A.  C.  True,  director  of  the  Office  of 
Experiment  Stations.  They  will  give  you  a  hint  of  the  purpose,  plans, 
and  some  of  the  actual  results  of  a  series  of  investigations  which  are 
being  carried  on  in  different  parts  of  the  United  States  under  the 
authority  of  Congress  for  the  purpose  of  learning  more  about  the 
economy  of  food.  Let  me  also  call  your  attention  to  these  specimens, 
which  are  duplicates  of  those  in  the  food  collection  of  the  United  States 
National  Museum.  They  illustrate  the  chemical  composition  of  the 
human  body  and  of  the  foods  which  nourish  it.  From  the  leaflets  you 
may  infer  that  already  a  large  amount  of  information  has  been  obtained 
regarding  the  chemical  composition,  digestibility,  and  nutritive  values  of 
our  food  materials,  the  ways  in  which  they  nourish  the  body,  the  dietary 
habits  of  people  of  liifferent  classes  and  regions,  the  more  common  errors 
in  our  food  economy,  and  the  ways  in  which  we  may  select,  prepare,  and 
use  our  foods  so  as  to  make  our  diet  less  costly,  more  palatable,  and  more 
healthful.  The  museum  specimens  suggest  one  of  the  ways  in  which 
some  of  these  facts  may  be  explained  and  thus  made  most  useful.  The 
leaflets  and  specimens  indicate  some  of  the  many  ways  in  which  our 
government,  in  response  to  a  public  demand,  a  demand  which  comes 
especially  from  teachers,  economists,  and  philanthropists,  is  gathering  and 
disseminating  knowledge  of  those  things  which  require  the  most  exact 
research  for  their  discovery,  and  which,  clearly  discerned  and  rightly 
taught,  take  hold  on  life,  form  the  most  useful  part  of  education,  and  can 
become  sources  of  the  truest  inspiration. 

When  we  consider  that  "half  the  struggle  for  life  is  a  struggle  for 
food;"  that  "half  or  more  than  half  the  earnings  of  the  wage-earner  is 
spent  for  the  nourishment  of  himself  and  family  ;"  that  not  only  a  man's 
power  to  work,  but  also  his  health,  are  largely  affected  by  his  food  ;  that 
some  of  our  most  skilled  hygienists  are  telling  us  that  a  large  part  of  the 
disease  which  embitters  life  and  hastens  death  is  due  to  avoidable  errors 
in  diet;  that  more  harm  comes  to  the  health  of  the  community  from 
erroneous  habits  of  eating  than  from  the  habitual  use  of  alcoholic  drink  ; 
that  economists,  philanthropists,  and  divines  are  urging  more  and  more 


Superintendence]  ALCOHOL  PHYSIOLOGY  AND  SUPERINTENDENCE  231 

earnestly  the  need  of  attention  to  such  subjects  —  are  we  not  justified  in 
asking  if  a  little  more  room  cannot  be  found  for  it  in  the  school  curri- 
culum ? 

THE    PHYSIOLOGICAL    ACTION    OF    ALCOHOL 

I  now  come  to  the  main  division  of  my  subject  —  the  physiological 
action  of  alcohol,  and  what  is  and  should  be  taught  regarding  it. 

The  laws  of  nearly  all  our  states,  I  believe,  require  that  the  curricula 
of  our  public  schools  shall  include  physiology,  with  special  reference  to 
the  action  of  alcoholic  beverages.  Such  legislation  would  be  impossible 
without  a  public  sentiment  back  of  it.  Whether  or  not  this  legislation 
has  assumed  the  most  rational  form,  or  whether  the  people  at  large 
understand  exactly  its  purpose  and  to  what  degree  the  hopes  of  its  pro- 
moters are  being  fulfilled,  it  is  not  my  desire  to  discuss.  The  facts  I 
desire  to  urge  are  two :  First,  it  is  the  law,  and,  as  such,  our  duty  as 
teachers  is  to  obey  it  as  long  as  it  stays  on  the  statute  books  ;  second,  there 
is  a  wide  difference  between  the  teaching  of  this  subject  in  many  schools 
and  in  many  text-books  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  teaching  in  the  col- 
leges, universities,  and  medical  schools,  and  by  the  leading  physiologists 
of  the  world,  on  the  other.  It  is  this  most  unfortunate  disparity  which  I 
ask  especially  to  consider.  If  the  on€  body  of  doctrine  is  correct,  and  the 
other  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  incorrect,  as  I  personally  believe  it  is, 
you,  as  teachers,  as  school  superintendents,  as  the  leaders  in  our  educa- 
tion, are  interested  to  know  it.  Here,  as  I  understand  it,  is  the  reason 
for  the  title  which  your  secretary  has  given  to  my  subject,  "Alcohol 
Physiology  and  Superintendence." 

If  the  alcohol  physiology  now  being  taught  in  our  public  schools  as  a 
branch  of  science  is  scientifically  correct,  then  it  cannot  be  pedagogically 
or  ethically  wrong,  and  there  is  little  reason  for  my  discussing  the  subject 
today.  But  if  it  does  not  tally  with  the  most  reliable  conclusions  from 
scientific  observation  and  experiment;  if  what  is  taught  as  truth  is  half- 
truth  or  partial  untruth ;  if  doubtful  theories  are  set  forth  as  settled  facts; 
if  a  rule  of  conduct  is  based  upon  an  unsound  theory ;  if  the  attempt  is 
made  to  improve  the  morals  of  the  men  of  the  future  by  a  wrong  teaching 
of  the  boys  of  today  —  that  educational  policy  is  pedagogically  and  ethi- 
cally wrong  and  ought  to  be  altered. 

OPINIONS    OF    LEADING   AUTHORITIES 

The  physiological  action  of  alcohol  is  very  complex,  and  the  views  of 
physiologists  generally  regarding  the  different  details  are  naturally 
divergent.  '  Let  us  take,  for  instance,  the  much  discussed  question  as  to 
whether  alcohol  is  food  or  poison. 

First  of  all  we  must  have  a  clear  understanding  of  what  we  are  talking 
about.  A  given  substance  taken  into  the  body  may  act  in  a  variety  of 
ways.     Meat,  beefsteak   for  instance,  which  is  universally  called  a  food. 


2  32  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Chicago 

supplies  the  body  with  material  to  build  up  its  tissues,  repair  its  wastes, 
and  furnish  it  with  energy  in  the  form  of  heat  to  keep  it  warm,  and 
muscular  power  for  work.  It  also  has  an  action  upon  the  nervous  system 
which  is  not  yet  fully  explained,  but  may  perhaps  be  called  stimulative. 
Taken  in  excess  it  may  be  injurious ;  its  action  is  then  pathological. 
Being  thus  injurious,  it  might  under  these  circumstances  be  called  poi- 
sonous. Arsenic  is  sometimes  taken  as  a  medicine,  and  as  such  is 
believed  to  be  useful,  tho  we  do  not  know  exactly  how  or  why  it  is  so. 
But  arsenic  has  no  value  whatever  as  nutriment,  and  therefore  cannot  be 
called  in  any  sense  a  food.  In  more  than  minute  doses  it  is  deleterious 
or  fatal.  It  is  a  true  poison.  There  are  certain  vegetable  products  which, 
fed  to  animals,  supply  nourishment,  but  at  the  same  time  are  injurious, 
so  that  they  cannot  be  used  for  food.  Chemists  have  analyzed  some  such 
substances,  and  found  ingredients  which  are  nutritious  and  others  which 
are  injurious.  That  is  to  say,  some  substances  are  clearly  foods,  some  are 
clearly  poisons,  some  act  in  both  ways.  How,  then,  shall  we  class  alcohol  ? 
What  I  shall  attempt  to  show  you  is  that  the  results  of  the  most  valuable 
scientific  research  and  the  opinions  of  the  leading  physiologists  of  the 
world  unite  in  saying  that  it  may  be  either  food  or  poison,  or  both, 
according  to  circumstances. 

Alcohol  is  not  like  the  meat  or  the  seed,  a  complex  material  made 
up  of  different  ingredients.  It  is  a  simple  chemical  substance.  Never- 
theless it  has  very  different  actions.  A  chemist  can  analyze  the  seed 
and  separate  the  parts  which  are  nutritious  from  those  which  are  poi- 
sonous. But  he  cannot  do  this  with  alcohol.  When  the  physiologist 
experiments  upon  its  action  he  has  to  take  it  as  a  whole.  This  com- 
plicates the  experimenting  and  makes  the  interpretation  of  the  results 
difficult. 

When  we  come  to  consider  the  dietetic  use  of  alcohol,  however,  we 
must  take  into  account,  not  only  its  direct  value  for  nutriment,  but  also 
its  indirect  action,  as,  for  instance,  its  effect  upon  digestion.  So  likewise, 
when  we  consider  its  pathological  effect,  we  must  take  into  account  its 
indirect  action  upon  the  nervous  system.  Indeed,  if  we  are  going  to  study 
the  subject  at  all.thoroly,  we  must  recognize  many  subdivisions.  Since 
we  cannot  go  into  the  details  here,  let  me  briefly  summarize  what  appear 
to  be  the  views  of  leading  physiologists  of  the  world. 

What  do  the  authorities  say  in  answer  to  the  question  :  Is  alcohol 
food  ?  Of  course,  the  answer  depends  first  of  all  upon  the  definition  of 
"food."  But  people  may  properly  differ  as  to  the  definition,  and  it  is 
not  worth  while  to  quibble  about  what  may  be  left  to  the  dictionaries. 
Let  us  then  go  back  of  this  and  ask :  What  do  the  specialists  say  as  to  its 
nutritive  effect  ? 

If  we  study  the  views  held  by  the  physiologists  and  pharmacologists 
in  this  country  and  in  Europe  who  are  regarded  by  their  fellow-specialists 


Superintendence]  ALCOHOL  PHYSIO  LOG  Y  AND  SUPERINTENDENCE  233 

as  best  qualified  to  speak  with  authority,  we  may  perhaps  divide  them  in 
three  groups.  At  one  extreme  would  be  a  small  group  who  take  grounds, 
more  or  less  strongly,  against  any  dietetic  use  or  value  of  alcohol ;  but 
even  this  group  would  generally  admit,  I  think,  the  absence  of  proof  that 
alcohol  does  not  supply  the  body  with  nutriment.  There  is  a  second 
group  who  are  inclined  to  favor  the  moderate  dietetic  use  of  alcohol,  tend- 
ing to  class  it  with  non-proteid  food  materials,  like  sugar,  starch,  and  fat, 
but  still  maintaining  that  its  classification  as  a  food  is  not  clearly  estab- 
lished. And  where  they  are  inclined  to  question  its  value  for  directly 
supplying  the  body  with  nourishment,  they  maintain  that  it  may  be  valu- 
able as  an  aid  to  digestion  and  otherwise,  and  find  in  this  another  reason 
for  using  it  as  part  of  the  diet.  A  third  group,  whether  they  advocate  or 
oppose  its  use,  regard  the  evidence  as  sufficient  to  pronounce  alcohol,  in 
moderate  quantities,  a  food  in  the  sense  that  it  may  serve  for  nutriment, 
and  many  urge  that  there  are  circumstances  in  which  its  nutritive  value  is 
very  important.  Whether  alcohol  is  or  is  not  a  poison  is  likewise  a  ques- 
tion of  definition.  Here  again  wise  men  may  disagree ;  but  back  of  this 
lies  the  important  question  :  Is  it  injurious  ?  That  alcohol  may  be 
injurious,  that  in  large  enough  doses  it  is  unquestionably  a  poison,  and 
that  in  smaller  quantities,  taken  habitually,  it  may  be  extremely  harmful, 
there  is  no  shadow  of  doubt.  On  this  point  there  is  no  disagreement  of 
authorities.  But  whether,  or  under  what  circumstances,  it  is  injurious 
when  taken  in  moderate  quantities  is  a  very  different  matter ;  and  here 
opinions  disagree. 

The  opinion  of  Professor  Fick,  that  alcohol  in  small  amounts  should 
be  called  poison,  has  been  often  quoted,  and  is,  I  believe,  made  the  prin- 
cipal basis  of  the  statement  in  many  of  our  school  text-books  that  alcohol 
is  called  a  poison  by  the  highest  scientific  authorities.  But  Professor 
Fick  defines  "  poison  "  in  a  way  which,  be  it  right  or  wrong,  gives  to 
the  word  a  meaning  quite  different  from  that  in  which  it  is  popularly 
used.  He  is  one  of  the  group  of  physiologists  who  practically  deny  any 
food  value  to  alcohol.  So  far  as  I  am  aware,  however,  their  number  is 
small. 

I  have  looked  into  many  of  the  standard  treatises  upon  the  subject, 
and  have  conversed  with  many  eminent  physiologists,  pharmacologists, 
and  chemists  about  it.  In  so  doing  I  have  constantly  seen  and  heard 
alcohol  referred  to  in  small  quantities  as  food  and  in  very  large  quantities 
as  poison.  But  I  have  rarely  seen  or  heard  alcohol  in  small  quantities 
called  a  poison,  in  the  ordinary  sense  of  the  word,  by  any  specialist  who 
is  generally  regarded  as  an  authority.  Indeed,  as  I  write  this,  I  do  not 
recall  a  single  instance,  but  I  should  not  feel  warranted  in  saying  that 
there  are  no  such  instances,  because  there  are  things  which  one  might 
forget,  and,  furthermore,  there  may  be  many  which  I  have  not  happened 
to  see.     I  have  no  doubt  but  that,  if  I  had  been  looking  especially  for 


234  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Chicago 

evidence  on  this  side  of  the  question,  I  might  have  found  a  good  deal 
more  than  what  I  have  just  said  implies. 

If,  then,  we  leave  out  of  account  the  question  of  scientific  definition 
of  the  terms  "food"  and  "poison,"  and  take  the  words  in  the  meanings 
in  which  they  are  commonly  used,  I  think  we  may  properly  say  that 
alcohol  is  both  food  and  poison.  Only,  if  we  speak  of  it  as  food,  we 
must  be  careful  to  bear  in  mind  that  it  is  not  and  cannot  be  a  food  in 
the  same  sense  in  which  bread  and  meat  are  foods.  Food  performs  two 
great  functions.  One  is  to  build  body  tissue  and  keep  it  in  repair ;  the 
other  is  to  yield  energy  in  the  form  of  heat  to  keep  the  body  warm  and 
muscular,  or  other  energy  for  its  work. 

To  bring  this  out  more  clearly,  let  me  remind  you  that  our  foods  con- 
tain different  classes  of  nutritive  materials  or  nutrients.  One  of  these 
classes  includes  the  nitrogenous  substances,  protein  compounds  or  pro- 
teids,  as  chemists  call  them.  The  myosin  which  is  the  basis  of  lean  meat* 
the  albumen  or  white  of  tgg,  the  casein  which  makes  the  curd  of  milk, 
the  gluten  of  wheat,  a,re  familiar  examples  of  proteid  compounds.  They 
are  transformed  into  blood,  muscle,  bone,  and  brain.  They  are  the  true 
tissue- formers  of  the  body,  the  materials  which  serve  for  building  the 
bodily  machine  and  keeping  it  in  repair.  They  also  serve  the  body  for 
fuel,  but  their  use  in  this  respect  is  limited.  The  fats,  like  fat  of  meat,  the 
butter  fat  of  milk,  and  the  oil  of  cotton  or  of  olive,  make  a  second,  and 
the  carbohydrates,  which  include  the  starches  and  the  sugars,  a  third  class 
of  nutrients  of  food.  The  fats  and  carbohydrates  lack  the  chemical  ele- 
ment nitrogen  which  is  characteristic  of  the  protein  compounds,  but  they 
contain  large  proportions  of  carbon  and  are  sometimes  called  the  carbon- 
aceous nutrients.  By  their  oxidation,  i.  e.,  burning,  in  the  body  they 
yield  its  principal  supply  of  energy. 

Bread,  meat,  milk,  and  the  like  contain  both  the  nitrogenous  and  the 
carbonaceous  materials.  Meat  lacks  the  carbohydrates  ;  to  make  a  well- 
rounded  diet  we  use  bread,  potatoes,  and  other  vegetable  materials  with 
the  meat.  Bread  and  milk  may  be  called  complete  foods,  as  they  contain 
all  three  of  these  classes,  and  with  them  the  other  ingredients  necessary 
for  nutrition.  Such  complete  foods  not  only  build  the  bodily  machine 
and  keep  it  in  repair,  but  also  supply  it  with  fuel.- 

While  proteids  serve  for  building  tissue  and  have  a  limited  value  for 
fuel,  we  could  not  well  live  on  proteids  alone.  They  are  not  complete 
foods.  Fats,  starches,  and  sugars  are  not  complete  foods.  They  cannot 
build  tissue  ;  nevertheless,  they  make  the  larger  part  of  our  food,  for 
the  reason  that  our  bodies  need  more  material  for  fuel  than  they  do  for 
building  and  repair. 

Alcohol  cannot  build  tissue  ;  it  has  no  nitrogen.  It  cannot  be  stored 
in  the  body  for  future  use,  as  is  the  case  with  fats,  nor  can  it  be  trans- 
formed into  fat  and  thus  stored  in  the  body,  as  is  the  case  with  the  sugars 


I 


Superintendence]  ALCOHOL  PHYSIOLOGY  AND  SUPERINTENDENCE  235 

and  starches.  But  it  is  oxidized  in  the  body  and  does  yield  energy.  In 
this  respect  it  is  analogous  to  the  fats,  sugars,  and  starches.  Just  how  it 
compares  in  fuel  value  with  the  fats,  sugars,  and  starches,  or  just  how 
these  latter  compare  with  one  another  in  fuel  value,  are  questions  as  yet 
unanswered. 

Alcohol  is,  then,  at  best  a  partial  food.  To  call  it  food,  in  the  popu- 
'  lar  sense  of  the  word,  and  without  qualification,  may  produce  a  wrong 
impression.  Furthermore,  its  action  upon  the  nerves  and  otherwise  in 
the  body  is  such  that  only  very  small  quantities  can  be  taken  without  seri- 
ous derangement.  When  taken  habitually  in  excess,  it  is  not  only  injuri- 
ous to  health,  but  ruinous  to  character.  And  while  its  nutritive  action 
may  be  very  important  in  some  cases,  especially  with  aged  people  or  in 
certain  forms  of  disease,  people  generally  do  not  take  it  for  the  sake  of  its 
nutritive  value  at  all. 

Taking  the  word  "  poison  "  in  the  sense  in  which  it  is  commonly 
understood,  namely,  as  applying  to  substances  which  are  deadly  in  their 
effect,  alcohol  in  small  quantities  cannot  in  my  judgment  properly  be 
called  a  poison.  It  may  be  injurious  in  one  case  and  not  in  another. 
Just  where  to  draw  the  line  between  the  quantity  which  may  serve  only  as 
food  and  that  which  acts  as  poison  is  impossible.  The  amount  that  can 
be  taken  without  injurious  effect  differs  with  different  people.  And  even 
tho  there  are  conditions  in  which  it  is  not  injurious  and  is  even  useful,  yet 
there  is  the  danger  that  it  may  lead  to  excess,  a  danger  which,  as  teachers 
of  youth,  we  must  not,  we  dare  not,  forget.  This  fact,  coupled  with  the 
demoralization  that  comes  with  its  habitual  and  excessive  use,  constitutes, 
in  my  judgment,  the  chief  argument  against  its  use. 

But  I  have  started  to  give  you  the  opinions  of  leading  physiologists, 
and  have  indiscreetly  gone  out  of  the  way  to  give  you  my  own,  and  that, 
too,  when  I  am  only  a  physiological  chemist.  Let  us  go  back  to  the 
authorities. 

At  the  meeting  of  the  International  Physiological  Congress,  held  in 
Cambridge,  England,  in  September,  1898,  an  effort  was  made  to  obtain 
an  expression  of  opinion  which  might  be  taken  as  a  consensus  of  leading 
physiologists  regarding  this  especial  subject.  The  occasion  had  brought 
together  some  of  the  best-known  authorities  from  the  different  countries 
of  Europe,  America,  and  even  Africa  and  Asia.  The  congress  did  not 
include  a  great  many  men,  but  it  did  include  a  number  of  great  men. 
The  following  statement  was  drawn  up  by  Professor  Michael  Foster,  of 
the  University  of  Cambridge,  who  was  the  president  of  the  congress,  and 
was  printed  and  offered  for  signature  : 

The  physiological  effects  of  alcohol,  taken  in  a  diluted  form,  in  small  doses,  as  indi- 
cated by  the  popular  phrase  "  moderate  use  of  alcohol,"  in  spite  of  the  continued  study  of 
past  years,  have  not  as  yet  been  clearly  and  completely  made  out.  Very  much  remains  to 
be  done,  but,  thus  far,  the  results  of  careful  experiments  show  that  alcohol,  so  taken,  is 


236  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Chicago 

oxidized  within  the  body,  and  so  supplies  energy  like  common  articles  of  food,  and  that 
it  is  physiologically  incorrect  to  designate  it  as  a  poison,  that  is,  a  substance  which  can 
only  do  harm  and  never  good  to  the  body.  Briefly,  none  of  the  exact  results  hitherto 
gained  can  be  appealed  to  as  contradicting,  from  a  purely  physiological  point  of  view, 
the  conclusions  which  some  persons  have  drawn  from  their  daily  common  experience  that 
alcohol  so  used  may  be  beneficial  to  their  health. 

I  was  present  at  the  meeting  and  conversed  with  a  number  of  the 
gentlemen  present  regarding  the  statement.  Only  a  very  few,  so  far  as  I 
heard,  had  any  hesitation  with  regard  to  it.  I  learned  of  two  or  three 
who  were  unwilling  to  sign  it  without  slight  change  in  the  phraseology. 
I  was  told  of  one  who  said  he  believed  it,  but  did  not  like  to  sign  it, 
because  it  might  be  employed  by  liquor  sellers  as  an  encouragement  to 
their  trade.  There  may  have  been  a  considerable  number  who  disagreed 
with  the  statement  in  one  way  or  another,  but  if  the  number  had  been  at 
all  large,  I  think  I  should  have  known  it.  Certain  it  is  that  a  very  con- 
siderable number  of  the  most  celebrated  men  present  expressed  their 
decided  approval  in  personal  conversation.  I  have  here  a  list  of  sixty- 
two  men  who  expressed  their  approval  by  their  signatures.  Nearly  all  are 
well-known  investigators.  Among  them  are  professors,  teachers,  and 
heads  of  laboratories  of  a  large  number  of  the  most  noted  universities  and 
medical  schools  of  the  world.  The  list  includes  many  of  the  most  cele- 
brated physiologists  of  our  time. 

The  following,  also  by  Professor  Foster,  is  interesting,  not  only  as  a 
concise  summary  of  what  is  definitely  known  about  the  physiological 
action  of  alcohol,  but  also  as  showing  how  much  space  should,  in  the 
judgment  of  one  of  the  most  reputable  of  modern  physiologists,  be 
devoted  to  the  subject  in  an  elementary  text-book.  It  fills  two  of  the  247 
pages  of  the  Elementary  Physiology  of  Foster  and  Shore. 

Alcoholic  beverages. —  Ordinary  alcohol  is  an  organic  compound  of  the  composition 
CjHgO.     It  occurs  in  the  following  proportions  in  the  following  beverages  : 

Beer  ---...         about  5  per  cent. 

Light  wines  (claret,  hock)       ...    about  10  to  15  per  cent. 

Strong  wines  (sherry,  port)  -         -         about  20  per  cent. 

Spirits about  30  to  70  per  cent. 

When  alcohol  is  taken  into  the  body,  most  of  it  is  oxidized  and  gives  rise  to  energy. 
The  amount  of  energy  thus  supplied,  compared  with  that  of  the  other  parts  of  the  food,  is 
insignificant,  and  the  effect  of  alcohol  depends,  not  on  the  energy  which  it  supplies,  but 
on  the  influence  it  exerts  on  the  changes  going  on  in  the  several  tissues.  The  value  of 
the  various  articles  of  diet  does  not  depend  by  any  means  solely  on  their  ability  to  supply 
energy ;  we  have  seen,  for  instance,  that  salts  which  supply  no  energy  are  nevertheless  of 
use  in  directing  the  changes  going  on  in  the  body.  In  a  somewhat  similar  way  alcohol 
and  other  substances  may  influence  and  direct  these  changes.  Whether  that  influence  is 
beneficial  or  no  will  depend  upon  many  circumstances,  and  certainly  upon  the  quantity 
taken.  We  have  many  illustrations  that  a  substance  taken  into  the  body  in  a  certain 
quantity  will  produce  one  effect,  and  in  another  quantity  it  may  be  quite  an  opposite 
effect.  There  is  no  doubt  that  a  certain  quantity  of  alcohol  is  injurious  and  interferes 
with  all  the  functions,  and  ultimately  brings  about  various  diseases,  but  it  does  not  follow 
from  this  that  in  a  smaller  quantity  it  may  not  be  harmless  or  even  beneficial. 


Superintendence]  ALCOHOL  PHYSIOLOGY  AND  SUPERINTENDENCE  2  3? 

Alcohol  produces  its  most  marked  effects  on  the  vascular  and  nervous  systems.  It 
leads  to  a  dilatation  of  the  small  blood  vessels  of  the  skin,  and  so  to  a  larger  flow  of  blood 
to  the  surface  of  the  body ;  this,  while  it  produces  a  sensation  of  warmth,  leads  to  an 
increased  loss  of  heat  by  radiation  and  perspiration.  If  the  amount  of  alcohol  taken  is 
excessive,  the  loss  of  heat  will  lead  to  a  definite  fall  of  temperature.  Alcohol  is  then  of 
no  service  as  a  preventive  against  cold. 

Alcohol  makes  the  heart  beat  more  quickly  and  makes  it  do  more  work  in  a  given 
time.  In  some  cases  this  may  be  beneficial,  but  generally  it  is  a  wasteful  and  useless 
expenditure  of  energy.  Alcohol  diminishes  the  power  of  doing  prolonged  muscular  work, 
and  large  quantities  lead  to  a  great  diminution  in  the  force  of  muscular  contractions. 

The  effect  of  alcohol  on  digestion  is  very  complex.  When  taken  with  food  it  leads 
to  a  diminution  in  the  rate  and  completeness  of  digestion,  if  it  is  present  in  any  but  very 
small  quantities.  If  some  proteid  (white  of  egg  or  fibrin)  is  put  in  a  flask  with  some 
gastric  juice,  it  is  found  that,  if  a  very  little  alcohol  (i  part  to  500  of  the  mixture)  be 
added,  the  digestion  will  go  on  a  trifle  more  rapidly,  but  if  the  alcohol  added  much 
exceeds  this  amount,  a  well-marked  retardation  is  produced.  It  does  not  follow  that 
such  a  small  amount  of  alcohol  is  useful  in  ordinary  digestion,  because  when  it  is  taken 
into  the  stomach  we  have  to  consider  the  influence  it  has  on  the  secretion  of  gastric  juice, 
on  the  movements  of  the  stomach,  and  on  absorption,  A  small  quantity  of  alcohol 
appears,  however,  to  encourage  the  secretion  of  gastric  juice,  but  large  quantities  act 
injuriously  on  all  the  processes  of  digestion. 

A  small  amount  of  alcohol  may  promote  the  action  of  the  central  nervous  system, 
and  often  appears  to  quicken  the  rapidity  of  thought  and  to  excite  the  imagination,  but 
more  usually,  and  always  when  taken  in  any  but  small  quantities,  it  diminishes  the  power 
of  connected  thought  and  judgment.  It  also  diminishes  the  power  of  receiving  sensory 
impressions,  and,  at  the  same  time,  blunts  all  the  special  senses.  Since  it  reduces  the 
sensibility  to  cold  and  fatigue,  and  allays  mental  pain  and  worry,  it  is  often  resorted  to, 
and  then  with  great  danger. 

The  limit  up  to  which  any  beneficial  effects  are  produced  by  alcohol  is  soon  reached, 
and  beyond  that  it  only  does  harm.  This  limit  is  not  the  same  for  all  individuals ;  a 
quantity  good  for  one  may  be  injurious  for  another,  and  a  large  number  of  people  find 
that  strictly  moderate  quantities  of  alcoholic  beverages  do  them  no  harm,  while  others 
find  that  similar  amounts  impede  them  in  their  daily  work. 

The  effect  of  alcoholic  beverages  does  not  depend  solely  on  the  ordinary  alcohol  in 
them,  for  other  substances  which  they  contain  often  have  powerful  actions  in  the  body. 
The  habitual  use  of  such  beverages  to  excess  greatly  shortens  life  by  inducing  diseases  of 
many  organs.  In  some  cases  of  disease  alcohol  may  be  of  great  service,  but  in  health  it 
cannot  be  considered  a  necessity,  and  is  far  more  potent  for  evil  than  for  good. 

From  the  evidence  at  hand  regarding  the  use  of  alcohol,  the  follow- 
ing, by  Dr.  E.  A.  Parkes,  the  eminent  English  hygienist,  seems  to  me  a 
fair  and  judicious  statement  of  the  facts,  altho  I  should  be  inclined  to 
lay  a  little  more  stress  upon  the  principle  that,  in  health  at  any  rate,  it  is 
superfluous  or  worse,  and  to  insist  more  strongly  upon  the  importance,  in 
this  country  especially,  of  general  abstinence  from  its  use : 

The  facts  now  stated  make  it  difficult  to  avoid  the  conclusion  that  the  dietetic  value 
of  alcohol  has  been  much  overrated.  It  does  not  appear  to  me  possible  at  present  to 
condemn  alcohol  altogether  as  an  article  of  diet  in  health ;  or  to  prove  that  it  is  invariably 
hurtful,  as  some  have  attempted  to  do.  It  produces  effects  which  are  often  useful  in 
disease,  and  sometimes  desirable  in  health ;  but  in  health  it  is  certainly  not  a  necessity, 
and  many  persons  are  much  better  without  it.  As  now  used  by  mankind,  it  is  infinitely 
more  powerful  for  evil  than  for  good  ;  and  though  it  can  hardly  be  imagined  that  its  dietetic 


2^8  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Chicago 

use  will  cease  in  our  time,  yet  a  clearer  view  of  its  effects  must  surely  lead  to  a  lessening 
of  the  excessive  use  which  now  prevails. 

Reference  has  lately  been  made  in  the  public  prints  to  some  experi- 
ments at  Wesleyan  University  which  have  had  for  their  object  the  study 
of  the  nutritive  action  of  alcohol.  One  does  not  like  to  say  a  great  deal 
about  his  own  work,  and  I  should  rather  stop  with  the  references  to  what 
other  investigators  have  done  and  said ;  but,  in  view  of  the  misstatements 
and  misunderstandings  which  have  received  currency  regarding  these 
inquiries  and  the  conclusions  we  have  derived  from  them,  it  is  perhaps 
fitting  that  I  should  refer  to  them  now,  as  I  have  been  especially  requested 
to  do. 

The  experiments  in  question  have  been  undertaken  on  behalf  of  the 
Committee  of  Fifty  for  the  Investigation  of  the  Liquor  Problem.  They 
are,  however,  carried  out  in  connection  with  researches  upon  nutrition 
which  are  made  under  the  auspices  of  the  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture,  and  constitute  part  of  the  larger  inquiry  into  the  economy 
of  food,  of  which  I  have  already  spoken. 

The  experiments  are  made  by  the  use  of  the  respiration  calorimeter, 
by  means  of  which  it  is  possible  to  measure  the  income  and  outgo  of  the 
body  of  a  man,  as  expressed  in  terms  of  both  matter  and  energy.  The 
apparatus  includes  a  chamber  about  seven  feet  long,  four  feet  wide,  and 
six  and  a  half  feet  high,  in  which  the  man  stays  for  a  number  of  days 
and  nights.  It  is  furnished  with  folding-bed,  table,  and  chair.  For 
some  of  the  experiments — those  in  which  muscular  work  is  to  be  done  — 
there  is  provided  a  stationary  bicycle,  on  which  the  man  may  ride  the 
equivalent  of  a  desired  number  of  miles  per  day.  Arrangements  are 
provided  for  ventilation  by  a  current  of  carefully  purified  air.  The  tem- 
perature is  kept  constantly  at  a  degree  which  is  agreeable  to  the  occupant. 
In  this  chamber  he  reads,  writes,  works,  eats,  drinks,  and  sleeps.  So  far 
from  being  uncomfortable,  each  of  the  four  gentlemen  who  have  been 
subjects  of  the  experiments  thus  far  has  found  himself  very  little  discom- 
moded in  any  way  save  for  the  monotony  of  confinement  in  so  small  a 
space.  The  period  of  each  experiment  generally  varies  from  four  to  nine 
days,  tho  in  one  case  it  reached  twelve  days.  Even  after  this  experi- 
ence not  one  of  the  gentlemen  has  been  in  the  least  unwilling  to  repeat 
the  trial.  So  far  from  finding  difficulty  in  securing  subjects,  we  have 
numerous  volunteers,  and  are  able  to  select  men  of  special  fitness  for  the 
purpose,  as  regards  both  bodily  characteristics  and,  when  desired,  scientific 
training. 

The  general  plan  of  the  experiments  consists  in  giving  the  man  a  diet 
adapted  to  the  purposes  of  the  experiment,  and  measuring,  weighing,  and 
analyzing,  not  only  the  food  and  drink,  but  also  the  products,  solid, 
liquid,  and  gaseous,  given  off  from  the  body.  This  involves,  with  the 
rest,  the  measurement  of  the  air  the  man  breathes  and  its  analysis,  both 


Superintendence]  ALCOHOL  PHYSIOLOGY  AND  SUPERINTENDENCE  239 

before  it  enters  and  after  it  leaves  the  chamber,  in  order  to  determine  the 
products  of  respiration.  Not  only  the  chemical  elements  and  compounds, 
but  also  the  energy  of  the  income  and  outgo,  are  measured.  The  body 
receives  energy  in  the  food,  in  which  it  is  latent,  or  so-called  potential 
energy.  A  small  part  of  the  energy  leaves  the  body  in  the  unoxidized 
excretions,  in  which  it  is  still  latent,  but  the  larger  quantity  is  given  off 
in  the  heat  emitted  from  the  body,  and  in  the  external  muscular  work 
performed.  Especial  arrangements  are  provided  for  measuring  this 
energy,  and  since  that  given  off  from  the  body  is  mostly  in  the  form  of 
heat,  the  apparatus  is  practically  a  calorimeter.  It  is  because  the  appara- 
tus enables  us  to  determine  both  the  respiration  products  and  the  heat 
that  we  call  it  a  respiration  calorimeter. 

One  of  the  most  interesting  results  of  the  experiments  of  this  kind  con- 
ducted at  Wesleyan  University  is  the  close  agreement  of  the  income  and 
outgo  of  energy.  They  thus  indicate,  what  in  fact  has  been  generally 
believed,  tho  the  belief  has  lacked  definite  experimental  proof,  that  the 
human  body,  like  any  other  machine  —  a  steam-engine  or  an  electrical 
dynamo,  for  instance  —  obeys  the  law  of  the  conservation  of  energy. 

By  giving  men  under  experiment  different  kinds  and  amounts  of 
food,  and  varying  their  activity  from  actual  rest  to  light  or  severe  mus- 
cular or  mental  work,  it  is  possible  to  learn  how  the  body  uses  its  food, 
what  materials  are  needed  for  its  support,  and  how  different  food 
materials  compare  in  nutritive  value. 

The  special  object  of  the  experiments  with  alcohol  was  to  study  its 
nutritive  effect  as  compared  with  that  of  the  fuel  ingredients,  fat,  sugar, 
and  starch — carbonaceous  compounds,  let  us  call  them  —  of  ordinary 
food.  In  most  of  the  experiments  pure  (ethyl)  alcohol  was  used,  tho 
in  some  the  alcohol  was  given  in  the  form  of  whisky  or  brandy.  It  was 
administered  with  water  or  coffee,  and  taken  with  an  ordinary  diet  of 
meat,  bread,  butter,  milk,  sugar,  and  the  like.  The  amount  of  alcohol 
per  day  has  been  equal  to  about  two  and  one-half  ounces  of  absolute 
alcohol  —  about  as  much  as  would  be  contained  in  three  average  glasses 
of  whisky,  or  in  a  bottle  of  claret  or  Rhine  wine.  This  is  generally 
divided  in  six  doses,  three  with  meals  and  three  between  meals,  the  object 
being  to  avoid  any  marked  influence  of  the  alcohol  upon  the  nerves,  and 
thus  to  test  its  action  as  food  under  normal  bodily  conditions.  Compara- 
tive tests  were  made  by  use  of  rations  with  and  without  alcohol.  The 
ration  without  alcohol  consisted  in  each  case  of  ordinary  food  materials 
supplying  the  nutritive  ingredients  in  amounts  more  or  less  nearly  suffi- 
cient to  meet  the  wants  of  the  body.  In  the  corresponding  ration  with 
alcohol,  part  of  the  sugar,  starch,  and  fat  of  the  food,  the  carbonaceous 
ingredients  which  supply  the  body  with  fuel  for  warmth  and  work,  was 
taken  out,  enough  to  be  equivalent  in  potential  energy  to  the  two  and 
one-half  puncgs  of  alpohol,  apd  the  latter  was  used  in  their  place.     In  the 


240  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Chicago 

experiments  in  which  the  man  did  not  work  this  alcohol  made  about  one- 
fifth  of  the  total  fuel  material  in  the  diet.  In  the  experiments  with  hard 
muscular  work,  in  which  more  food  was  used,  the  alcohol  furnished  about 
one-seventh  of  the  fuel  supply.  Ten  experiments  in  which  alcohol  was 
used  are  now  completed  and  ready  for  publication.  These  are  compared 
with  a  somewhat  larger  number  of  experiments  similar  in  the  main,  except 
that  they  were  without  alcohol.  The  results  may  be  briefly  stated  as  follows  : 

First,  extremely  little  of  the  alcohol  was  given  off  from  the  body 
unconsumed  ;  indeed,  it  was  oxidized,  i.  e.,  burned  as  completely  as 
bread,  meat,  or  any  other  food.  Second,  in  the  oxidation  all  of  the 
potential  energy  of  the  alcohol  was  transformed  into  heat  or  muscular 
power.  In  other  words,  the  body  transformed  the  energy  of  the  alcohol 
as  it  did  that  of  sugar,  starch,  and  other  ordinary  food  materials.  Third, 
taking  the  experiments  together,  the  body  held  its  own  just  as  well  with 
the  rations  consisting  partly  of  alcohol  as  it  did  with  the  others.  This 
was  the  case  whether  the  men  were  at  rest  or  at  work,  and  whether  the 
rations  were  or  were  not  adequate  to  the  needs  of  their  bodies  for  nour- 
ishment. In  other  words,  so  far  as  the  figures  for  income  and  outgo  of 
chemical  elements  and  compounds  in  these  experiments  show,  the  alcohol 
protected  the  nitrogen  and  carbon,  the  proteids  and  fats,  of  the  body 
from  consumption  as  effectively  as  the  carbonaceous  nutrients  which  it 
replaced.  There  were,  indeed,  variations  in  the  figures  from  day  to  day 
and  from  experiment  to  experiment,  as  must  be  expected  in  this  kind  of 
physiological  inquiry.  In  some  cases,  judging  by  the  figures  as  they 
stand,  the  alcohol  appeared  to  be  less,  in  others  it  appeared  to  be  more, 
efficient  than  the  sugar,  starch,  and  fat,  in  protecting  either  the  nitrogen 
or  the  carbon  of  the  body  from  consumption.  In  certain  ingredients 
there  were  large  losses,  in  others  there  were  gains  of  either  nitrogen  or 
carbon,  or  both.  But  these  gains  were  in  general  about  as  large  and  fre- 
quent with  the  rations  without  alcohol  as  with  the  corresponding  rations 
with  alcohol.  Taking  the  experiments  altogether  we  should  not,  in  my 
judgment,  be  warranted  in  saying  that  the  results  establish  any  difference 
between  the  two  kinds  of  rations  in  this  respect. 

I  am  very  far,  however,  from  regarding  the  results  of  these  experi- 
ments as  final.  Take,  for  instance,  the  question  of  the  relative  fuel  values 
of  the  carbonaceous  nutrients,  fat,  sugar,  and  starch,  on  the  one  hand, 
and  alcohol  on  the  other.  These  experiments,  which  are  more  detailed 
than  any  others  of  the  sort  of  which  I  have  been  able  to  find  descrip- 
tions, imply,  as  far  as  they  go,  that  corresponding,  or,  to  use  a  chemical 
term,  isodynamic,  amounts  have  equal  values  as  fuel.  To  put  it  in 
another  way,  one  ounce  of  alcohol,  when  burned  with  oxygen  in  an  appa- 
ratus for  the  purpose,  such  as  we  use  in  the  chemical  laboratory,  will 
yield  about  the  same  amount  of  heat  as,  say,  three-fourths  of  an  ounce  of. 
fat  or  an  ounce  and  three-quarters  of  either  sugar  or  starch.    But  whether 


Superintendence]  ALCOHOL  PHYSLOLOGY  AND  SUPERINTENDENCE  241 

the  body  gets  the  same  benefit  from  the  ounce  of  alcohol  as  from  the 
three-quarters  of  an  ounce  of  fat,  or  the  ounce  and  three-quarters  of 
starch  or  sugar,  is  another  matter.  The  body  uses  the  sugar,  starch,  and 
fat  for  a  variety  of  purposes.  It  may  be  that  the  isodynamic  amounts  of 
these  carbonaceous  nutrients  have  equal  values  for  some  of  these  pur- 
poses and  unequal  values  for  others,  the  value  depending  upon  the  kind 
of  service.  So,  likewise,  it  may  be  that  the  value  of  alcohol  as  fuel 
depends  upon  the  kind  of  work  it  is  to  do.  For  aught  we  know  today 
there  may  be  forms  of  service  as  fuel  which  it  cannot  render,  or  can  ren- 
der only  under  special  conditions.  Exact  answers  to  these  questions  will 
require  a  large  amount  of  patient  and  costly  research. 

As  may  be  seen,  these  experiments  had  to  do  simply  with  the  nutri- 
tive action  of  alcohol.  They  have  very  little  bearing  upon  its  indirect 
action,  nor  do  they  indicate  what  are  its  effects  when  taken  habitually  for 
months  or  years. 

In  certain  deliberative  bodies — in  Congress,  for  instance  —  personal 
explanations  are  sometimes  in  order.  I  hope  it  may  not  seem  unfitting 
if  I  venture  to  say  here  that  some  of  the  statements  which  purport  to 
have  gone  out  from  Middletown  regarding  these  experiments  are  entirely 
wrong.  Thus  it  has  been  said  that  we  are  studying  the  effects  of  alcohol 
as  brain-food,  and  for  that  purpose  have  been  feeding  men  upon  a  diet 
consisting  chiefly  of  alcohol.  These  reports  are  entirely  without  founda- 
tion. No  such  experiments  have  ever  been  made  or  even  planned  in  our 
laboratory  or  under  my  direction.  For  that  matter,  I  cannot  see  how 
any  physiological  chemist  could  think  of  alcohol  as  a  material  especially 
fitted  to  supply  nourishment  for  brain  work.  I  can  see  how  it  might  some- 
times stimulate  the  action  of  the  brain  in  certain  ways.  Indeed,  workers 
in  that  field,  I  believe,  have  tried  to  explain  its  action  in  this  as  in  the 
opposite  direction,  but  that  is  a  subject  for  the  physiological  psycholo- 
gist, and  not  the  chemist,  to  investigate  and  pronounce  upon. 

An  account  of  these  experiments  was  given  at  the  International  Physio- 
logical Congress  in  the  summer  of  1898  referred  to,  and  also  at  the  meet- 
ing of  the  American  Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Science  in 
Boston  the  same  year.  Last  June  a  similar  account  was  given  at  the 
meeting  of  a  scientific  club  in  Middletown,  Conn.,  where  the  experi- 
ments were  made.  Some  days  in  advance  of  the  meeting  newspapers  in 
different  parts  of  the  country  contained  announcements  purporting  to 
represent  what  I  was  going  to  say.  Neither  my  associates  nor  myself 
authorized  them  or  have  any  knowledge  as  to  how  they  originated.  They 
contained  statements  to  the  effect  that  the  experiments  showed  that  alco- 
hol is  a  useful  food,  and  that  two  ounces  per  day  made  a  desirable  part  of 
the  diet.  Some  of  these  totally  unauthorized  and  unwarranted  state- 
ments, I  regret  to  say,  have  been  utilized  by  venders  of  alcoholic  bever- 
ages as  recommendations  of  their  products, 


242  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Chicago 

How  far  the  views  of  leading  physiologists  and  the  results  of  scientific 
research,  as  I  have  thus  tried  to  epitomize  them,  differ  from  the  teaching 
of  the  so-called  "authorized"  text-books  used  in  our  schools  you,  who  are 
so  familiar  with  the  books  and  schools,  are  well  able  to  judge.  I  will, 
however,  later  on  give  you  some  illustrations  of  the  teaching  to  which  I 
object. 

WHAT     SHOULD    AND     SHOULD     NOT     BE    TAUGHT    ABOUT    THIS     SUBJECT    IN 

THE    SCHOOLS 

Meanwhile,  permit  me  to  state  some  of  the  things  which,  as  it  seems 
to  me,  ought  and  ought  not  to  be  taught  in  the  public  schools.  In  so 
doing  I  do  not  attempt  to  cover  the  whole  ground  or  enter  into  the 
physiological  details,  but  simply  indicate  what,  in  my  personal  view, 
should  be  said  or  not  said  about  some  of  the  more  important  phases  of 
the  subject. 

WHAT    WE    SHOULD    NOT    TEACH    ABOUT    ALCOHOL 

1.  We  should  not  teach  that  it  is  a  food,  in  the  sense  in  which  that 
word  is  ordinarily  used.  If  we  are  going  to  discuss  its  physiological 
action  at  all,  we  cannot  well  ignore  its  nutritive  value,  but  we  should  at 
the  same  time  emphasize  its  limitations.  When  we  speak  of  it  as  food  or 
nutriment,  we  should  explain  to  what  extent  and  in  what  ways  it  can  and 
cannot  nourish  the  body.  So,  likewise,  if  we  speak  of  its  effect  upon 
digestion,  we  should  not  say  simply  that  it  is  an  aid  or  that  it  is  a  hin- 
drance, but  that  it  may  be  one  or  the  other,  or  both,  according  to  circum- 
stances. 

2.  We  should  not  teach  that  it  is  a  poison,  in  the  sense  in  which  that 
word  is  ordinarily  used.  We  may  say,  and  with  truth,  that  alcohol  in 
large  quantities  is  poisonous,  that  inv  large  enough  doses  it  is  fatal,  and 
that  smaller  quantities  taken  day  after  day  will  ruin  body  and  mind.  But 
it  is  wrong  to  teach  our  boys  that  alcohol  in  small  quantities,  or  in  dilute 
forms  in  which  it  occurs  in  such  beverages  as  wine  and  beer,  is  a  poison 
in  the  ordinary  sense  of  the  word.  In  all  that  we  say  on  this  point  we 
must  bear  in  mind  that  the  intelligent  boy  knows  well,  and  as  a  man  he 
will  know  better,  that  people  have  always  been  accustomed  to  moderate 
drinking,  as  it  is  commonly  called,  and  yet  live  in  excellent  health  to 
good  old  age.  If  we  tell  him  that  alcohol  in  small  quantities  is  poison- 
ous in  the  sense  in  which  he  understands  the  word,  he  will  see  that  we 
are  exaggerating,  that  we  are  teaching  for  effect,  and  he  will  instinctively 
rebel  against  the  teaching. 

We  may  say,  and  say  truthfully,  that  the  moderate  use  of  alcohol  is 
fraught  with  danger.  But  the  cases  where  the  occasional  glass  leads  to 
marked  excess  are  the  exceptions.  If  we  present  them  to  the  thoughtful 
boy  as  the  rule,  he  will  detect  the  fallacy  and  distrust  the  whole  dpc- 
trine. 


Superintendence]  ALCOHOL  PHYSIOLOGY  AND  SUPERINTENDENCE  243 

We  may  be  right  in  saying  that  alcohol  often  does  harm  to  health 
when  people  do  not  realize  it,  that  it  prepares  the  system  for  inroads  of 
disease,  that  there  is  a  gradation  of  injury  from  forms  scarcely  percept- 
ible to  the  utter  ruin  of  body  and  soul.  But  to  present  the  "horrible 
examples"  as  a  common  result  of  drinking  is  illogical  in  itself,  contrary 
to  right  temperance  doctrine,  and  hence  injurious  to  the  children  whom 
we  teach.  For  that  matter  I  believe  that  the  picturing  of  the  frightful 
results  of  vice  to  young  and  innocent  children  is  more  harmful  than 
useful. 

3.  We  ought  not  to  teach  that  alcohol  in  small  quantities  is  harmless. 
Still  more  should  we  avoid  saying  that  it  is  commonly  beneficial.  Some 
of  us  as  individuals  may  believe  that  its  use  in  small  quantities  is  gen- 
erally desirable,  but  there  is  nothing  in  either  the  facts  of  common  expe- 
rience or  in  the  results  of  scientific  inquiry  to  justify  the  inference  as  a 
general  principle.  Doubtless  many  people,  especially  those  in  advanced 
age,  or  suffering  under  certain  forms  of  disease,  are  benefited  by  alcoholic 
beverages  in  moderate  amounts.  Here  it  may  have  a  decided  medicinal 
value,  and  my  own  belief  coincides  with  that  of  a  great  body  of  physi- 
ologists in  ascribing  to  it  under  some  such  circumstances  an  extremely 
important  food  value,  altho  the  exact  ways  in  which  it  is  useful  are  not 
yet  demonstrated.  But  I  can  see  no  justification  for  the  claim  that 
moderate  drinking  is  generally  useful,  and  there  is  no  denying  the  terrible 
fact  that  it  is  often  harmful,  not  only  in  itself,  but  because  of  the  excess 
to  which  it  so  often  leads. 

4.  We  ought  not  to  teach  that  alcohol  in  small  quantities  is  always  or 
necessarily  harmful.  Some  of  us  as  individuals  may  believe  this.  Hon- 
nestly  believing  that  theory  we  may  be  justified  in  arguing  for  it.  But  we 
are  not  justified  in  teaching  it  dogmatically,  and  in  my  judgment  it  is  posi- 
tively wrong  to  make  such  a  dogma  a  part  of  the  instruction  which  is 
presented  to  our  youth  as  authoritative,  be  it  in  the  school,  the  Sunday 
school,  or  the  pulpit.  It  is  wrong  for  two  reasons ;  first,  because  it  pre- 
sents an  unproven  theory  as  an  attested  fact ;  and  second,  because  it 
leads  the  trusting  child  to  believe  what  the  thoughtful,  and  at  times 
skeptical,  boy  or  girl,  and  the  intelligent  man  or  woman,  may  afterward 
learn  to  be  wrong. 

5.  Still  worse  is  it  to  take  the  theory  that  the  use  of  alcohol  in  small 
quantities  is  always  or  necessarily  injurious,  and  set  it  up  as  demonstrated 
by  scientific  observation  and  experiment.  This  is  positive  untruth.  If 
we  tell  it  to  children,  they  will  believe  it  until  they  learn  better.  They 
may  possibly  remain  in  ignorance  of  the  error  until  they  are  grown,  or 
indeed  all  their  lives.  But  sooner  or  later  many  of  them  will  find  that 
they  were  deceived  ;  it  may  be  in  the  high  school,  it  may  be  in  the  college 
or  medical  school,  it  may  be  from  general  reading  or  conversation  ;  but 
when  the  deception  is  found  out  a  reaction  comes.     The  good  we  tried  to 


244  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Chicago 

do  is  undone.  The  certain  injury  is  far  greater  than  the  hoped-for 
good. 

6.  To  take  the  theory  that  alcohol  is  in  no  sense  a  food,  but  always  a 
poison,  that  it  is  never  useful,  but  always  harmful,  and  allege  that  it  is  sup- 
ported by  the  great  bulk  of  scientific  authority,  is  falsehood.  We  may 
look  over  the  literature  of  the  subject  and  cull  out  statements  which  can 
be  used  to  support  it.  We  may  even  find  writers  of  more  or  less  repute 
who  attempt  to  defend  it  in  the  light  of  scientific  experiment.  In  this 
way  we  may  accumulate  statements  which  the  unsuspecting  reader  may  be 
led  to  regard  as  proving  that  the  scientific  authority  is  on  this  side  of  the 
discussion.  We  may  unconsciously  go  farther  and  persuade  ourselves 
that  there  is  scientific  ground  for  adopting  such  theories ;  so  often  and 
so  truly  is  "the  wish  the. father  to  the  thought."  In  our  great  anxiety  to 
find  every  means  to  work  against  the  evil  wrought  by  alcohol  we  may 
gradually  come  to  feel  ourselves  justified  in  presenting  all  the  arguments 
we  can  against  it  and  in  ignoring  all  we  can  on  the  other  side.  But  this 
does  not  turn  theory  into  fact  or  falsehood  or  misrepresentation  into 
truth. 

The  following  quotations  are  from  so-called  "approved"  text-books 
of  physiology  commonly  used  in  our  schools : 

Nature  apparently  makes  no  effort  to  appropriate  it  [alcohol].  It  courses  everywhere 
through  the  circulation,  and  into  the  great  organs,  with  all  its  properties  unmodified. 
Alcohol,  then,  is  not,  like  bread  or  beef,  taken  hold  of,  broken  up  by  the  mysterious 
process  of  digestion,  and  used  by  the  body.  "It  cannot,  therefore,  be  regarded  as  an 
aliment." ' 

Alcohol  is  universally  ranked  among  poisons  by  physiologists,  chemists,  physicians, 
toxicologists,  and  all  who  have  experimented,  studied,  and  written  upon  the  subject,  and 
who,  therefore,  best  understand  it.' 

Alcohol  is  not  a  food  or  drink.  Medical  writers,  without  exception,  class  alcohol  as 
a  poison.3 

It  must  be  remembered  that  in  whatever  quantity,  or  wherever  alcohol  is  found,  its 
nature  is  the  same.     It  is  not  only  a  poison,  but  a  narcotic  poison.* 

These  statements  are  misrepresentations.  They  belong  to  a  kind  of 
doctrine  which  pervades  many  of  the  "approved"  text-books  and  much 
of  the  common  temperance  instruction.  They  are  none  the  less  false  or 
wrong,  either  scientifically  or  morally,  because  the  object  is  to  educate  our 
youth  away  from  evil ;  the  misstatements  are  none  the  less  reprehensible 
because  they  occur  in  schoolbooks  which  have  the  official  indorsement  of 
a  great  temperance  organization,  whose  membership  includes  thousands 
and  other  thousands  of  the  noblest,  the  most  conscientious,  the  worthiest 
of  the  women  of  the  world.  Nor  does  it  help  the  matter  that  such  state- 
ments are  repeated  and  such  theories  are  promulgated  with  the  sanction, 
and  are  enforced  by  the  authority,  of  the  church,  in  the  teachings  of  the 
Sunday  school,  and  from  the  sacred  desk. 

1  Steele,  Hygienic  PhysioUgy,  pp.  178,  179.  3  Eclectic,  No.  3,  p.  57. 

2  Quoted  from  Youmans  in  BlaisdelPs,  No.  2,  p.  232.  4  Authorized  Series,  No.  3,  p.  58. 


Superintendence]   ALCOHOL  PHYSIOLOGY  AND  SUPERINTENDENCE  245 

Do  not  misunderstand  me.  I  am  not  imputing  wrong  motives,  I  bring 
no  railing  accusation,  I  charge  no  one  with  intended  wrong.  I  only  ask 
that  the  men  and  women  who  do  these  things  —  many  of  them  are  my 
acquaintances,  some  are  my  warm  personal  friends,  their  standing  in  the 
community  is  so  high  that  no  arrow  of  aspersion  can  reach  them,  their 
characters  are  so  pure  that  no  stain  can  tarnish  them,  their  names  are  in 
my  memory  and  their  faces  in  my  vision,  as  I  write  this  —  I  ask  that  they 
consider  the  facts  as  I  am  sure  they  have  not  considered  them,  that  they 
look  into  the  evidence  as  I  am  sure  they  have  not  looked  into  it,  and  that 
they  remember  in  their  attitude  toward  these  questions  the  principle  I 
have  read  in  their  own  writings  and  heard  from  their  own  lips  —  the 
foundation  of  morality  is  the  truth. 

WHAT  WE  SHOULD  TEACH  ABOUT  ALCOHOL 

1.  It  is,  under  some  circumstances,  a  valuable  nutriment  in  the  sense 
that  it  can  yield  energy  to  the  body,  but  not  in  the  sense  that  it  can  build 
tissue.  It  is,  under  other  circumstances,  a  poison  in  the  sense  that  it  is 
injurious  to  health.  When  taken  in  large  enough  quantities  and  for  long 
enough  time  it  is  destructive  to  life.  It  is  sometimes  very  useful  and 
sometimes  very  harmful,  but  the  harm  that  comes  from  drinking,  in  many 
communities,  vastly  exceeds  the  good. 

While  we  cannot  deny  to  alcohol  a  nutritive  value,  that  value  is  very 
limited.  In  yielding  energy  to  the  body  it  resembles  sugar,  starch,  and 
fat,  tho  just  how  and  to  what  extent  it  resembles  them  experimental 
inquiry  has  not  yet  told  us.  It  differs  from  them  in  that  it  does  not 
require  digestion,  and  is  hence  believed  to  be  more  easily  and  immedi- 
ately available  to  the  body.  It  is  not  stored  in  the  body  for  future  use 
like  the  nutrients  of  ordinary  food  materials.  The  quantity  that  may  be 
advantageously  used  is  small.  If  large  amounts  are  taken,  its  influence 
upon  the  nerves  and  brain  are  such  as  to  counteract  its  nutritive  effect, 
and  it  becomes  injurious  in  various  ways.  And,  finally,  there  are  many 
people  who  begin  by  moderate  use  and  are  led  to  disastrous  excess. 

Alcohol  may  be  useful  to  one  man  and  harmful  to  another.  One  may 
take  considerable  without  apparent  harm,  while  another  may  be  injured 
by  very  little.  One  may  use  it  habitually  without  injury,  while  another 
may  not.  In  sickness  it  may  be  a  priceless  boon.  But  it  may  likewise 
be  the  cause  of  physical,  mental,  and  moral  ruin. 

2.  The  boy  or  the  man,  as  long  as  he  is  in  good  health  and  does  not 
need  alcohol  for  medicine,  is  in  general  better  off  without  it. 

3.  While  some  can  drink  a  little  without  danger  of  drinking  to  great 
excess,  others  cannot.     The  safest  way  is  to  keep  out  of  danger. 

4.  There  are  business  considerations  also  as  well  as  those  of  health 
that  strongly  favor  temperance.  The  boy  who  wants  to  make  his  way  on 
a  railroad  or  in  a  large  business  establishment  has  a  better  chance  to  get 


246  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Chicago 

employment  and  to  work  up  into  a  profitable  position  if  he  is  an  abstainer 
than  if  he  is  a  drinker.  Already  many  such  establishments  refuse  to 
employ  men  who  drink,  and  there  is  reason  to  expect  that  more  will 
do  so. 

5.  Temperance  is  always  advisable.  This  we  may  emphasize  most 
strongly.  But  whether  or  not  we  shall  teach  the  necessity  or  even  the 
advisability  of  abstinence  is  another  matter.  About  this  the  best  men  differ. 
Two  who  disagree  may  be  equally  honest.  Each  has  the  right  to  express  his 
own  convictions  and  may  often  feel  it  his  duty  to  do  so.  But  it  is  neither 
just  nor  wise  to  teach  our  youth  that  the  doctrine  of  total  abstinence 
rests  upon  undisputed  principles  of  either  physiology  or  morals.  It 
seems  to  me  that  the  question  whether  a  man  should  be  a  total  abstainer 
depends  on  two  considerations.  The  first  is  one  of  policy.  Will  drink- 
ing injure  him  ?  If  so,  he  had  better  abstain  ;  if  not,  he  may  drink. 
But  he  must  be  sure  of  his  ground  before  he  begins,  and  he  had  better 
wait  until  he  reaches  maturity  and  understands  himself  and  the  subject 
well,  before  he  takes  the  risk.  The  other  consideration  is  an  ethical  one. 
Remembering  that  he  does  not  live  for  himself  alone,  what  will  be  the 
effect  of  his  example  and  what  is  his  duty  ?  The  rule  of  conduct  in  this 
respect  is  a  matter  for  him  to  decide.  You  and  I  may  have  the  right  to 
advise  him,  but  the  decision  is  between  himself  and  his  own  conscience. 

6.  An  ambitious  and  right-minded  boy  wants  to  be  an  influential  and 
useful  man.  I  think  he  should  be  taught  that  it  would  be  better  for  the 
community  at  large  if  there  were  less  drinking  ;  that  the  community  is 
influenced  by  the  examples  of  strong  and  good  men ;  and  that  his  own 
personal  influence  will  be  better  if  it  is  on  the  side  of  temperance. 

7.  Great  as  is  the  danger  of  alcohol  to  purse  and  health,  the  moral 
injury  is  incomparably  worse.  Its  most  terrible  effect  is  its  demoraliza- 
tion of  character.  However  much  good  men  may  do  in  helping  others 
to  save  their  money  and  promote  their  health,  a  still  greater  service  to 
their  fellow-men  is  that  which  helps  them  to  a  higher  plane  of  moral 
living.  And  here  is  the  strongest  argument  of  all  in  favor  of  that  self- 
abnegation  which  leads  us  to  do  those  things,  and  those  things  only, 
which  will  best  enable  us  to  render  that  service  to  our  day  and  genera- 
tion. In  that  way  we  do  our  noblest  duty  to  our  fellow-men  and  to  our 
God.     All  this  we  may,  and  I  believe  we  should,  teach  in  the  schools. 

ERRORS    IN    THE    CURRENT    TEMPERANCE    TEACHING.       ETHICAL 
CONSIDERATIONS 

The  misstatements  in  the  text-books  of  the  type  referred  to  above  are 
•of  various  kinds.  Sometimes  the  error  consists  in  stating  doubtful  the- 
ories as  attested  facts ;  in  other  cases,  the  principles  laid  down  are  partly 
true  and  partly  false ;  in  still  others,  the  statements  are  squarely  opposed 
to  all  of  the  results  of  the   latest  and  most  accurate  scientific  research. 


i 


Superintendence]   ALCOHOL  PHYSIOLOGY  AND  SUPERINTENDENCE  247 

_ 

The  statements  are  enforced  by  quotations,  of  which  some  are  by  real 
authorities,  but  are  too  often  put  in  such  ways  as  to  misrepresent  their 
actual  teachings ;  while  others  are  from  men  who  do  not  stand  for  the 
best  research  and  the  highest  scholarship,  but  are  quoted  as  the  most 
reliable  authorities. 

I  do  not  mean  that  the  approved  text-books  are  all  wrong.  A  great 
deal  of  what  they  say  is  entirely  true.  In  the  parts  not  bearing  upon  the 
action  of  alcohol  there  is  often  little  to  criticise  and  much  to  commend. 
The  trouble  is  this  admixture  of  error. 

In  one  respect  they  are  all  alike.  The  impression  which  they  give 
the  pupil  is  that  science  teaches  that  alcohol,  even  in  moderate  quanti- 
ties, is  always  harmful  and  never  useful.     This  is  untrue. 

The  object  is  to  oppose  an  enormous  evil,  to  teach  our  youth  to  resist 
that  evil.  The  purpose  is  most  worthy  ;  the  trouble  is  in  the  method. 
The  evil  being  clearly  defined,  a  doctrine  is  formed  to  meet  it,  and  evi- 
dence is  sought  to  sustain  the  doctrine.  Whatever  can  be  found  in  its 
favor  is  exaggerated.  Whatever  opposes  it  is  ignored  or  denied.  It 
gradually  ceases  to  be  the  propagandism  of  the  few  and  becomes  the 
creed  of  the  many.  It  is  the  old  story  of  human  dogma,  repeated  over 
and  over  again  in  politics,  in  theology,  and  in  morals.  And  here,  as  in 
many  other  cases,  the  worthiness  of  the  cause  and  the  earnestness  of  the 
advocates  are  such  as  often  to  "  deceive  the  very  elect."  Indeed,  the  very 
best  people  often  become  the  most  sincere  and  devoted  advocates  of  the 
doctrine.  In  this  case  the  scientific  expert  is  not  deceived.  But  the 
statements  are  put  in  such  persuasive  ways  and  sustained  by  such  seeming 
force  of  scientific  authority  that  the  unsuspecting  pupil,  and,  indeed,  the 
teacher  who  implicitly  trusts  the  text-books,  is  led  to  believe  that  they 
represent  the  real  teaching  of  the  best  physiological  science. 

I  was  once  talking  about  this  subject  with  a  teacher,  and  reminded  her 
of  Lincoln's  saying  :  "  You  can  fool  all  the  people  some  of  the  time,  and 
some  of  the  people  all  the  time,  but  you  can't  fool  all  the  people  all  the 
time."  She  replied :  "  But  can't  we  fool  the  boys  until  their  characters 
are  formed  ? "  Now,  I  think  that  lady  was  perfectly  sincere ;  I  am 
equally  sure  that  she  was  wrong.  You  cannot  build  character  on  false- 
hood. 

A  well-known  philanthropist  in  New  York  city  tells  this  story:  "I 
happened  to  be  in  a  school  down  on  the  east  side  when  a  class  of  boys 
from  tenement  families  were  reciting  in  physiology.  The  teacher  asked  : 
'  What  is  beer  ? '  The  answer  came  in  chorus:  'Beer  is  poison.'  Now, 
those  little  chaps  knew  that  that  was  a  lie.  Their  fathers  and  mothers  drank 
beer  every  day."     Such  children  were  not  fooled  by  any  such  teaching. 

But  even  if  they  are  deceived  for  a  time,  it  will  not  last,  nor  can  you 
get  around  the  difficulty  by  falling  back  on  definitions.  Tell  a  boy  a 
thing  is  poison,  and  he  will  suppose  that  you  mean  by  poison  what  he 


248  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Chicago 

means  by  it,  and  what  people  generally  mean  by  it.  He  has  not  access  to 
the  particular  dictionary  or  scientific  treatise  which  has  a  definition  that 
may  be  stretched  to  fit  your  meaning.  You  may  persuade  him  for  a  time 
that  it  is  a  poison  in  the  popular  sense  of  the  word,  but  when  he  grows 
up  he  will  learn  that  he  was  mistaught ;  indeed,  he  may  do  so  before  he 
is  grown  up.  The  scholar  in  the  higher  classes  shares  the  present  tendency 
to  skepticism ;  when  he  finds  that  he  was  deceived,  he  does  not  mince 
matters;  he  reasons  with  himself:  "That  teacher  and  the  text-book  lied. 
If  they  would  lie  in  one  case,  they  would  in  another,  and  I  am  not  going 
to  believe  anything  they  told  me."  Even  if  he  does  not  go  so  far  as  this, 
even  if  his  faith  is  not  lost,  but  is  only  shaken,  the  harm  is  done  ;  the 
effect  is  to  undo  much  of  the  good  that  the  teaching  is  intended  to  do. 
Furthermore,  and  what  is  still  worse,  the  result  must  be  to  impress  upon 
the  pupil,  and  by  the  most  effective  agency,  that  of  example  —  the  example 
of  the  school,  the  Sunday  school,  and  even  the  pulpit  —  the  idea  that 
deception  is  allowable  in  a  good  cause,  that  the  end  justifies  the  means. 
This  is  undermining  the  very  foundations  of  morality. 

One  of  the  most  honored  members  of  your  association  remarked  to 
me  yesterday  in  speaking  of  this  subject:  "Teach  a  boy  of  ten  that  a  lie 
is  the  truth,  and  at  twenty  he  is  in  danger  of  believing  the  truth  is  a  lie." 

This  evil,  so  intrenched  behind  the  earnest  aspirations  of  our  commu- 
nity, and  so  fortified  by  legislation,  is  the  one  against  which  I  protest  and 
which  I  urge  you,  as  leaders  in  education,  to  unite  in  your  endeavors  to 
oppose. 

Perhaps  I  ought  to  speak  more  considerately  of  things  so  dear  to 
thousands  of  the  best,  the  most  earnest,  the  most  devoted  people,  those 
to  whom  temperance  means  so  much,  who  would  shrink  with  horror  from 
intentional  deceit,  and  in  the  fiber  of  whose  noblest  thought  this  doctrine 
is  so  interwoven. 

We  meet  here  a  very  peculiar  difificulty.  The  object  of  this  teaching  is  a 
noble  one.  When  we  criticise  the  method  we  are  in  danger  of  seeming 
to  oppose  the  purpose,  and  yet  the  improvement  in  method  is  necessary 
for  the  attainment  of  that  purpose.  It  seems  to  me  that  one  of  the  great 
obstacles  in  the  way  of  the  true  temperance  reform  is  found  in  this  very 
exaggeration  which  makes  so  large  a  part  of  the  means  used  to  promote 
that  reform.  It  is  building  on  the  sand.  The  place  to  build  is  on  the 
rock  of  attested  truth. 

You  see,  then,  that  I  am  not  trying  to  set  up  a  dogma  in  opposition 
to  "  scientific  temperance  instruction."  I  earnestly  approve  of  the  purpose, 
but  object  to  part  of  the  method.  I  protest  against  the  dogmatic  teach- 
ing of  scientific  theories  which  still  lack  demonstrative  proof.  More  than 
that,  I  protest  against  the  teaching  of  what  science  shows  to  be  positively 
erroneous.  And  I  also  ask  that  the  teaching  of  science  in  our  schools 
shall  keep  pace  with  the  progress  of  research. 


Superintendence]  ALCOHOL  PHYSIOLOGY  AND  SUPERINTENDENCE  249 

But  what  are  we  to  do  about  it  ?  I  hesitate  to  make  positive  sugges- 
tions to  those  who  have  much  more  experience  than  I,  and  on  whom  rests 
so  much  of  grave  responsibility  for  deciding  what  instruction  our  youth 
shall  receive.     I  venture,  however,  these  considerations: 

The  success  of  such  instruction  depei^ds  very  largely  upon  its  spirit. 
If  it  is  based  upon  the  real  desire  for  truth,  if  disputed  principles  are 
referred  to  as  questions  rather  than  demonstrated  facts,  if  no  more  is 
claimed  than  is  proven,  and  if  under  these  restrictions  the  evils  of  alco- 
hol are  clearly  set  forth,  and  especially  if  the  teacher  speaks  with  the 
power  of  accurate  knowledge  and  profound  conviction,  the  instruction 
cannot  fail  to  be  incalculably  useful. 

Still  more  effective  will  it  be,  in  my  judgment,  if  less  stress  it  laid 
upon  the  material,  i.  e.,  the  physiological  and  economic  side  of  the  ques- 
tion, and  more  upon  its  moral  aspects.  Our  people  are  keenly  alive  to 
ethical  ideas.  And  youth  is  a  time  when  thought  is  fresh,  the  aspira- 
tion is  for  the  ideal,  and  mind  and  heart  are  open  to  the  truest  ethical 
impulses. 

Let  me  emphasize  most  strongly  the  moral  aspects  of  this  question. 
Temperance  reform  is  moral  reform.  I  cannot  see  how  a  thoughtful 
man,  earnestly  desirous  of  rendering  his  best  service  to  the  community, 
can  fail  to  be  interested  in  that  reform. 

The  harm  which  alcohol  does  to  health,  the  economic  injury  it  brings 
to  the  individual  and  to  the  community,  are  terrible  enough,  but  it  seems 
to  me  that  the  supreme  evil  which  comes  from  its  misuse  is  its  effect 
upon  character,  its  power  of  demoralization,  the  moral  ruin  which  it 
brings.  No  exaggeration  is  needed  to  paint  this  picture  in  the  most  ter- 
rible colors. 

As  one  who  has  been  interested  in  temperance  reform  from  child- 
hood, I  have  come  to  believe  that  we  have  been  depending  too  much 
upon  the  economic  and  physiological  argument.  Statistics  of  the  nation's 
liquor  bill  do  not  appeal  very  strongly  to  the  ordinary  man;  still  less  does 
the  average  boy  care  for  them.  The  men  who  know  most  about  the 
physiological  effects  of  alcohol  are  specialists  in  physiology  and  hygiene. 
I  know  scores  of  these  men.  Total  abstainers  among  theiji  are  excep- 
tions ;  I  was  about  to  say,  rare  exceptions.  If  they  are  not  persuaded  by 
the  facts  they  know  so  well  in  theory  and  in  practice,  what  can  we  expect 
from  teaching  the  average  boy  or  girl  a  little  of  the  theory  ? 

The  supreme  object  of  education  is  the  formation  of  character.  Char- 
acter is  shaped  by  education,  but  its  basis  is  morality.  Again  I  say,  tem- 
perance reform  is  moral  reform.  The  mind  and  heart  of  youth  are  most 
strongly  influenced  by  moral  thoughts,  by  ethical  ideals.  There  you  can 
keep  within  the  truth  and  there  make  the  strongest  appeals. 

One  essential  for  the  success  of  true  temperance  reform  is  that  what 
is   taught  as  science  shall  be    placed    upon  the  basis  of  demonstrated 


2  50  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Chicago 

fact.  This  means  a  change  of  base  on  the  part  of  a  great  body  of 
our  most  earnest  temperance  reformers;  but  that  change  is  neces- 
sary. 

We  wish  to  help  the  drunkard  to  reform ;  but  is  it  necessary  to  tell 
him  that  no  man  can  touch  alcohol  without  danger  ?  To  build  up  the 
public  sentiment  upon  which  the  reform  of  the  future  must  depend,  we 
wish  our  children  to  understand  about  alcohol  and  its  terrible  effects ; 
but  when  we  teach  them  in  the  name  of  science,  shall  we  not  teach  them 
the  simple  facts  which  science  attests,  and  which  they  can  hereafter  believe, 
rather  than  exaggerated  theories,  whose  errors,  when  they  learn  them,  will 
tend  to  undo  the  good  we  strive  to  do  ?  In  short,  is  not  temperance 
advisable  even  in  the  teaching  of  temperance  doctrine  ? 

In  the  great  effort  to  make  men  better,  there  is  one  thing  that  we  must 
always  seek,  one  thing  we  need  never  fear — the  truth. 


DISCUSSION 


Samuel  T.  Dutton,  superintendent  of  schools,  Brookline,  Mass. — You  have  listened 
this  afternoon  to  a  gentleman  who,  in  the  interest  of  science  and  truthfulness,  and  at  very 
large  expense  of  time  and  labor,  has  conducted  certain  experiments.  You  have  observed 
how  guardedly  he  has  spoken  in  regard  to  results  of  those  experiments,  and  you  are  able 
to  form  your  own  conclusions  as  to  his  honesty,  his  ability,  his  candor,  and  the  position 
which  he  holds  as  a  temperance  man.  Should  you  read  shortly  in  some  journal  published 
by  the  ardent  champions  of  the  so-called  "  scientific  temperance  instruction  "  that  Profes- 
sor Atwater  has  declared  that  alcohol  is  a  food  in  the  sense  that  bread  and  potatoes  are 
food,  or  that  he  is  working  on  the  side  of  the  rum  interest,  you  will  be  able  to  judge  of 
the  fairness  of  the  statement. 

What  he  has  said  about  foods  and  the  relation  which  diet  sustains  to  health,  good 
morals,  and  successful  living  will,  1  am  sure,  commend  itself  to  all.  The  careful,  pains- 
taking work  that  he  has  done  in  this  department  entitles  him  to  the  everlasting  gratitude 
of  the  American  people.  Let  us  not  be  too  hasty  in  questioning  his  statement  that  "more 
harm  comes  to  health  from  erroneous  habits  of  eating  than  from  the  habitual  use  of  alcohol." 
He  is  supported  by  the  opinion  of  many  unbiased  people.  If  any  of  his  statements  are 
opposed  to  the  teaching  of  certain  text-books  touching  the  nature  and  effects  of  alcohol, 
it  must  be  apparent  that,  while,  as  a  scientific  man,  he  is  seeking  truth  for  its  own  sake, 
he  is  prompted  by  high  ethical  motives  and  has  at  heart  the  welfare  of  the  children  of 
the  country. 

Without  discussing  further  his  address,  I  wish  to  call  attention  to  recent  attempts  to 
secure  more  rigid  laws  touching  temperance  instruction.  What  occurred  in  Massachusetts 
last  year  is  significant  in  many  ways.  It  shows  what  people  who  have  had  their  way  for 
a  long  time  will  venture  to  undertake,  and  it  points  in  a  suggestive,  not  to  say  prophetic, 
manner  at  a  possible  change  of  sentiment  on  the  part  of  temperance  people  toward 
so-called  temperance  instruction.  The  great  victory  which  the  "central  committee"  won 
in  New  York  in  1895  gave  them  confidence  to  believe  that  the  same  kind  of  law  might 
be  passed  in  Massachusetts,  The  present  statute,  passed  in  1885,  which  requires  tem- 
perance teaching  to  all  children  in  all  schools,  had  been,  according  to  the  testimony  of 
school  committees  and  superintendents,  well  observed,  but  the  proposed  law  was  to  be 
very  much  more  stringent.     It  provided  that  all  pupils  below  the  second  year  of  the  high 


SuperintendenceJ  ALCOHOL  PHYSIOLOGY  AND  SUPERINTENDENCE  25  r 

school  and  above  the  third  year  of  primary  school  should  study  this  subject  from  graded 
text-books  in  the  hands  of  each  pupil,  not  less  than  three  lessons  per  week  for  fourteen 
or  more  weeks  each  year.  The  amount  of  space  to  be  devoted  to  the  subject  in  the 
text-books  was  specified ;  school  committees  were  required  to  see  that  the  subject  was 
provided  for  in  the  course  of  study ;  heavy  penalties  were  to  be  inflicted  in  case  of  non- 
compliance ;  the  state  board  was  required  to  enter  into  an  elaborate  investigation  each 
year,  to  see  if  all  the  provisions  of  the  law  were  carried  out,  and  to  make  an  annual 
report  to  the  legislature  concerning  the  same.  This  proposed  law  was  so  contrary  to  all 
the  traditions  and  practice  of  Massachusetts  that,  at  once,  there  was  developed  an  amount 
of  opposition  which  surprised  the  promoters  of  the  bill. 

They  claimed  to  have  petitions  bearing  the  names  of  forty  thousand  persons,  but  it 
was  soon  shown  that  this  claim  was  spurious.  Churches,  prayer-meetings,  Sunday  schools, 
and  Christian  Endeavor  Societies  had  been  asked  to  vote  in  favor  of  a  more  stringent 
temperance  law,  and,  as  all  good  people  are  quite  ready  to  do  anything  that  promotes 
that  object,  there  was  no  difficulty  in  getting  the  names;  but  even  at  the  conference  of 
ministers,  where  the  subject  was  first  broached,  and  where  several  persons  succeeded  in 
getting  themselves  appointed  as  a  committee  to  urge  this  legislation,  the  proposed  bill 
was  not  read,  very  few  knew  anything  about  what  its  provisions  were  to  be,  and  very 
many  of  the  clergymen  present  came  out  afterward  as  opponents  of  the  measure.  The 
Massachusetts  Medical  Society,  under  the  leadership  of  Dr.  H.  P.  Bowditch,  of  Harvard 
University,  and  the  State  Board  of  Education,  were  prominent  in  opposition.  The  Massa- 
chusetts Association  of  School  Superintendents  fortunately  had  a  meeting  just  before  the 
hearings  began,  and  voted  unanimously  to  oppose  the  measure.  Matters  were  brought 
before  two  or  three  of  the  ministerial  associations  of  Boston,  and,  while  no  action  was 
taken,  it  was  apparent  that  a  large  majority  of  the  clergymen  of  those  associations  were 
not  in  favor  of  the  bill.  The  legislative  committee  on  education,  fortunately,  was  a  most 
intelligent  one. 

It  is  not  necessary  for  me  to  review  at  length  the  pernicious  features  of  that  bill.  It 
was  a  reflection  upon  the  honesty  and  capability  of  school  committees,  a  blow  at  the 
freedom  of  the  teacher,  and  was  directly  contrary  to  sound  pedagogy,  especially  in  respect 
to  the  use  of  text-books.  It  not  only  tended  to  force  upon  the  minds  of  little  children 
subjects  for  which  they  were  unprepared,  but  was  a  travesty  on  modem  education  by 
assuming  that  text-book  instruction  on  physiology  as  to  the  effects  of  alcohol  can  be 
scientific.  Perhaps  the  coercive  features  of  the  bill  were  more  obnoxious  to  the  educa- 
tional people  of  Massachusetts  than  would  have  been  the  case  in  some  other  states. 
Whatever  success  has  been  attained  in  the  commonwealth,  educationally,  has  been  by 
co-operation  and  moral  suasion,  and  while  it  has  long  seemed  that  the  state  board  should 
have  more  authority  in  certain  directions,  no  one  would  wish  to  crush  the  spirit  of  inde- 
pendence and  local  option  which  was  manifested  in  this  particular  issue.  The  teachers 
of  Massachusetts  felt  keenly  that  their  intelligence  and  sincerity  had  been  questioned. 
They  were  unwilling  to  have  a  law  passed  compelling  them  to  do  what  their  temperance 
principles  and  their  regard  for  the  best  interests  of  children  would  lead  them  to  do  cheer- 
fully without  compulsion.  They  believed  that  wise,  discreet,  discriminating  instruction 
upon  the  subject  of  temperance,  given  to  children  at  an  age  when  they  can  understand 
and  appreciate  its  importance,  was  better  than  such  devitalized  and  machine  methods  as 
the  proposed  law  contemplated. 

It  was  most  gratifying  to  see  the  nearly  unanimous  opposition  of  the  press.  Religious 
papers,  which  have  always  stood  for  temperance,  were  ready  to  oppose  this  extreme 
measure.  Only  one  clergyman  besides  the  authors  of  the  bill  appeared  in  its  favor. 
The  arguments  against  it  were  overwhelming  both  on  the  side  of  temperance,  sound 
pedagogy,  and  good  citizenship.  The  committee  on  education,  in  a  report  of  remarkably 
good  sense  and  clearness,  recognized  all  the  objections  which  were  brought  forward  and 
gave  the  petitioners  leave  to  withdraw. 


252  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Chicago 

The  inference  given  during  the  early  part  of  the  case  was  that  in  many  states  equally 
rigid  laws  have  been  passed,  but  it  turned  out  that  in  only  a  few  had  there  been  legisla- 
tion similar  to  that  demanded  in  Massachusetts.  One  of  these  states,  as  many  of  you 
know,  is  New  York,  where  four  years  ago,  in  spite  of  the  opposition  of  teachers,  state 
officers  of  education,  college  officials,  and  prominent  clergymen,  the  legislature  passed  a 
law  which  was  denounced  at  the  time  in  the  most  unsparing  terms  by  Bishop  Potter, 
President  Low  of  Columbia,  the  president  of  Vassar  College,  and  many  other  men  of  high 
standing. 

Taking  New  York  as  a  typical  instance,  it  is  apparent  to  us  all  that  one  of  two 
things  must  happen.  If  the  law  is  obeyed,  there  is  given  an  amount  of  unscientific  and 
unsound  instruction  which  can  only  work  harm  to  the  rising  generation.  On  the  other 
hand,  wherever  the  law  is  ignored  there  is  before  the  children  and  youth  an  example  of 
law-breaking  which  can  only  be  injurious.  Equally  unwholesome  is  the  spectacle  of  con- 
scientious teachers  attempting  to  do  under  coercion  and  by  a  false  method  what  they 
could  accomplish  in  a  much  better  way  working  spontaneously  and  using  rational  means. 
The  fact  that  the  legislature  of  New  York  showed  such  a  cheerful  disposition  in  passing 
the  law  suggests  that  many  of  its  members  thought  it  would  do  no  harm  to  the  liquor 
traffic.  One  senator,  being  pressed  to  tell  why  it  was  that  they  yielded  to  the  seductive 
influence  of  the  "central  committee,"  replied,  smilingly  :  "We  did  it  to  please  the  ladies." 
I  cannot  believe  that  New  York  will  long  rest  under  the  incubus  of  this  unrighteous  law, 
and  I  am  sure  that  those  present  here  today  are  ready  to  extend  a  helping  hand  to  her  or 
to  any  other  state  that  is  suffering  under  this  kind  of  legislation. 

I  infer  that  in  most  states  it  has  been  found  possible,  as  in  Massachusetts,  to  inter- 
pret the  existing  laws  in  such  a  way  that  the  instruction  can  be  given  to  such  grades  and 
in  such  a  manner  as  school  committees  and  superintendents  approve.  I  believe  the  time 
has  come  when  an  attempt  to  enact  more  stringent  laws  will  meet  with  prompt  and  signal 
defeat. 

As  touching  the  main  question  of  the  validity  of  so-called  scientific  temperance 
instruction,  we  have  to  consider  the  character  of  the  text-books,  the  nature  of  the  subject- 
matter  which  they  contain,  the  manner  in  which  they  have  been  revised  and  corrected, 
sometimes  to  the  discomfort  of  the  authors  themselves,  the  methods  employed  in  securing  ' 
their  adoption,  and  the  general  influence  upon  the  schools  and  upon  good  morals  of  such 
teaching. 

Time  will  not  permit  me  to  enlarge  upon  this  matter,  but  we  can  well  appreciate  the 
remark  which  one  of  these  authors  made  to  Dr.  Bowditch.  When  asked  how  he  could 
justify  such  unscientific  statements,  he  responded  with  warmth  :  "  I  have  studied  physiol- 
ogy, and  I  do  not  wish  you  to  suppose  that  I  have  fallen  so  low  as  to  believe  all  the  things 
I  have  to  put  into  those  books." 

From  the  point  of  view  of  temperance,  sound  education,  and  good  morals,  I  am  sure 
that  this  condition  of  affairs  calls  for  our  strong  disapproval.  We  do  not  teach  hygiene 
by  the  study  of  disease,  cleanliness  by  the  observation  of  filth,  purity  by  the  contemplation 
of  vice;  and  to  force  upon  every  child  one  hundred  lessons  or  five  hundred  lessons  on  the 
effects  of  alcohol  is  likely  to  take  away  his  sensitiveness  and  to  make  him  morbid  or 
indifferent,  if  it  does  not  bring  about  a  reaction  which  leads  him  to  say :  "I  am  going  to 
try  it."  Children  who  are  taught  that  wine  and  tobacco  are  absolute  poisons,  and  who  see 
their  fathers,  brothers,  and  friends  constantly  indulging  in  these  stimulants,  can  only  look 
with  ridicule  and  contempt  upon  this  effort  to  deceive  and  frighten  them.  It  is  certain 
that  the  teachers  who  have  tried  conscientiously  to  give  this  instruction  have  often 
seriously  questioned  whether  they  are  not  justified  in  evading  the  requirements  of  the  law 
in  order  to  avoid  the  greater  evils  which  were  likely  to  follow  the  teaching. 

Now,  it  goes  without  saying  that  a  great  many  good  people  thruout  the  country  have 
been  committed  to  scientific  temperance  instruction.  The  "central  committee,"  in  the 
exercise  of  a  superior  generalship  in  which  it  is  proficient,  has  not  found  it  difficult  to 


Superintendence!  AL  COHOL  PH  YSIOL  OGY  AND  SUPERINTENDENCE  253 

keep  its  forces  thoroly  organized  in  nearly  every  state  in  the  union.  A  few  postal  cards 
and  a  few  hours  of  time  at  any  juncture  have  been  sufficient  to  set  the  machinery  in 
motion.     I  have  no  desire  to  impugn  the  motives  of  any  of  these  people. 

Who,  on  the  other  hand,  are  those  who  are  opposed  to  these  stringent  laws  and  who 
seriously  question  the  wisdom  of  treating  this  subject  by  statute  differently  from  other  sub- 
jects of  instruction  ?  I  can  only  say,  as  far  as  Massachusetts  is  concerned,  that  those  who 
were  in  opposition  last  year  are  avowedly  temperance  people.  Some  of  them  are  mem- 
bers of  the  Woman's  Christian  Temperance  Union  and  other  temperance  organizations. 
They  believe  in  bringing  a  strong  temperance  influence  to  bear,  not  only  in  the  school,  but 
thru  the  pulpit,  the  press,  in  the  home,  and  in  the  community.  They  are  willing  to  unite 
and  work  for  any  wholesome  measure  that  will  facilitate  the  temperance  movement. 
They  are  unwilling  to  be  numbered  in  the  rum  party.  Without  doubt  the  same  thing  can 
be  said  of  the  educational  people  in  New  York  who  opposed  the  obnoxious  law.  It  is 
true  everywhere. 

As  I  have  before  intimated,  is  it  not  possible  that  the  time  has  come  for  the  crystalliza- 
tion of  a  sentiment  thruout  the  country  which  will  at  least  hold  in  check  those  who  have 
so  constantly  defied  the  professional  judgment  of  the  educational  world  ?  Should  there 
not  go  out  from  this  meeting,  so  representative  in  its  character,  a  sentiment  and  a  purpose 
which  shall  give  direction  and  guidance  to  all  those  who,  disapproving  of  present  methods, 
are  still  ready  to  support  the  highest  ethical  standards  in  our  schools,  and  who  are  among 
the  sincerest  and,  as  I  believe,  the  truest  friends  of  temperance  ? 

Richard  G.  Boone,  superintendent  of  schools,  Cincinnati,  O. —  I  take  it  that  we  are 
all  under  great  obligation  to  Professor  Atwater  for  his  courageous  words  upon  an  impor- 
tant question,  most  courteously  spoken.  Schoolmen  and  -women  generally  are  interested 
in  and  are  in  sympathy  with  the  purposes  of  all  serious  temperance  instruction  and  the 
great  temperance  organizations,  and  not  least  with  the  Woman's  Christian  Temperance 
Union.  The  ^ils  of  intemperance  are  many  and  difficult  to  escape.  It  behooves  every 
one  of  philanthropic  mind  and  unselfish  interest  to  make  his  influence  touching  this 
question  felt  in  the  direction  of  sound  teaching  of  temperance,  moderation,  and  self- 
control. 

But  my  acquaintance  with  schoolmen  and  -women,  both  in  and  out  of  schools,  during 
the  last  twenty  years,  has  convinced  me  that  the  thoughtful  ones  among  them  have,  in 
increasing  numbers  and  with  growing  conviction,  come  to  feel  that  the  prevailing  attempt 
to  teach  the  nature  and  conditions  and  dangers  of  intemperance  is  pedagogically  wrong 
and  vicious.  The  method  which  has  taken  form  in  legislation,  and  has  been  put  into  the 
schoolrooms  of  almost  a  score  of  states,  and  is  embodied  in  books  that  are  both  authorized 
and  pushed,  fixes  the  attention  of  children  upon  the  thing  that  all  agree  should  be 
avoided.  When  youths  are  made  good  users  of  English  thru  attention  to  inaccurate 
and  distorted  speech,  when  they  are  taught  to  spell  correctly  by  insisting  upon  the  correc- 
tion of  misspellings,  when  men  are  made  polite  and  refined  by  living  in  the  presence  of 
boorishness,  then,  possibly,  the  youths  may  be  taught  temperance  by  a  study  of  intemper- 
ance, disease,  and  the  filth  of  drunkenness. 

Thoughtful  teachers  do  not  object  to  the  purposes  of  the  temperance  movement,  but 
they  should  see,  as  many  of  them  do,  the  evils  of  the  methods  of  instruction  and  indoc- 
trination. In  no  other  subject  of  the  school  course  does  the  law  attempt  to  prescribe  just 
what  shall  be  taught.  Specific  interpretations  of  history  are  not  insisted  upon,  nor  any 
particular  school  of  literary  criticism,  nor  any  exclusive  hypothesis  in  science,  nor  any 
special  doctrine  of  morals.  But  it  has  too  often  happened  that  text-books  and  advocates 
of  scientific  temperance  instruction  insist  upon  the  indoctrination  of  children  with  an 
adopted  temperance  creed,  and  resent  any  critical  inquiry  into  the  scientific  soundness  of 
that  creed.  The  validity  of  the  knowledge-assumptions  underlying  this  creed  Professor 
Atwater  has  sought  to  test.     Whatever  the   truth  is,  we  who  love  our  children  and  are 


2  54  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Chicago 

•< 
solicitous  for  their  welfare  can  rest  assured  that,  when  found,  this  same  truth  will  be 
our  ally. 

C.  F.  Carroll,  superintendent  of  schools,  Worcester,  Mass. —  It  has  been  intimated 
by  a  former  speaker  that  by  this  date  we  ought  to  have  some  common  views  with  refer- 
ence to  the  subject  of  temperance.  What  we  have  seen  today  suggests  that,  for  the  most 
part,  the  members  of  this  body  stand  upon  common  ground.  I  believe  that  we  may  say 
the  same  with  reference  to  the  great  majority  of  the  best  people  in  the  land.  Certainly 
the  people  of  Massachusetts  have  generally  reached  an  agreement  with  regard  to 
the  fundamental  principles  involved  in  temperance  education.  This  has  been  made 
apparent  in  the  unprecedented  interest  shown  in  this  subject  in  the  legislative  hearings 
at  Boston  last  winter. 

Mr.  Button  has  touched  lightly,  and,  let  me  say,  very  considerately,  upon  this  fact. 
Many  of  the  men  of  Massachusetts  who  are  present  here  could  give  testimony  upon  this 
point.  They  know,  as  Mr.  Button  knows,  and  as  1  know,  that  we  have  been  saved  from 
humiliation  and  loss  of  self-respect  by  the  stand  taken  by  the  superintendents  and  teach- 
ers of  Massachusetts.  This  proposed  legislation  was  offensive  and  awakened  the  most 
dignified  and  positive  protest  heard  in  our  legislature  for  years. 

I  believe  that  it  would  be  in  order  for  me  to  speak  a  little  more  positively  than  Mr. 
Button  has  done,  tho  I  hope  that  I  shall  say  nothing  that  is  uncharitable  or  unkind.  We 
honor  and  respect  the  members  of  the  Woman's  Christian  Temperance  Union.  Members  of 
my  family  have  worked  faithfully  for  many  years  in  the  interests  of  the  cause  of  temperance. 
I  wish  to  put  myself  right  at  this  point  and  to  claim  that,  with  other  members  of  my  pro- 
fession, I  am  in  favor  of  such  temperance  instruction  as  the  best  teachers  can  recommend. 
This  little  company  of  leaders  has  covered  the  land  with  a  network  of  legislation.  They 
have  done  this  without  consulting  the  teachers,  and  practically  stated  at  the  hearing  at 
Boston  that  it  did  not  seem  to  them  advisable  to  seek  the  counsel  and  the  co-operation  of 
the  teachers  in  framing  such  legislation.  We  protest  earnestly  against  ^his  theory  and 
insist  that  the  intelligent  body  of  men  and  women  engaged  in  the  profession  of  teaching 
are  the  only  persons  competent  to  decide  either  what  this  legislation  should  be  or  how  it 
should  be  carried  into  effect. 

These  reformers  have  insisted,  first,  that  books  should  be  used  in  temperance  instruc- 
tion, and,  second,  that  these  books  should  be  only  such  as  they  themselves  have  approved. 
In  the  first  place,  we  object  that  there  is  no  reason  why  they  should  approve  such  text- 
books, and,  second,  we  claim  that  to  force  text-books  upon  children  in  connection  with 
this  subject  is  equivalent  to  taking  us  back  in  the  history  of  education  fifty  years.  Such 
text-book  instruction  as  they  provide  and  recommend  is  strictly  against  the  judgment  and 
practice  of  every  normal  school  in  the  country.  I  have  for  eleven  years  been  connected 
with  normal-school  work,  and  know  whereof  I  speak  when  I  say  that  it  is  the  aim  and 
pride  of  normal  schools  to  do  away  with  instruction  from  the  text-book.  Much  more  is  it 
contrary  to  all  experience  and  to  the  settled  principles  of  pedagogy  that  anyone  should 
prescribe  arbitrarily  how  much  instruction  should  be  given  in  any  subject.  Except  in 
this  connection,  no  state  statute  has  ever  attempted  to  interfere  with  such  details.  There 
is  not  a  superintendent  present  who  would  willingly  employ  a  teacher  who,  of  her  own 
accord,  would  follow  the  text-book  or  such  principles  prescribed  from  without. 

If  it  is  proper,  I  should  like  to  say  something  about  the  book-makers.  There  are 
many  of  them  present  here  today.  They  are  our  friends  and  the  friends  of  education,  and 
intend  to  furnish  us  books  that  are  up  to  date  and  that  would  be  approved  from  a  scien- 
tific standpoint.  It  is  a  little  singular  that  they  send  us  samples  of  all  other  kinds  of 
books,  but  seldom  send  us  any  book  on  temperance.  I  have  not  received  such  a  book  for 
years.  I  am  convinced  that  they  are  ashamed  of  these  so-called  temperance  books.  If  I 
am  not  mistaken,  let  them  speak  or  be  forever  silent.  What  one  of  them  would  dare  to 
urge   such   temperance    books    because   they   bear  on   the   title-page    the   inscription, 


Superintendence]  ALCOHOL  PHYSIOLOGY  AND  SUPERINTENDENCE  255 

"Approved  by  the  president  of  the  Woman's  Christian  Temperance  Union"?  If  they  are 
invited  to  engage  in  conversation  upon  this  subject,  they  smile,  look  above  or  below,  and 
as  soon  as  possible  pass  to  some  other  subject  and  leave  you  to  draw  your  own  conclusions. 

The  next  clause  of  the  proposed  legislation  required  that  all  children  in  our  schools 
should  study  these  text-books.  All  of  our  primary  teachers  would  be  compelled  to  violate 
their  consciences  under  a  statute  thus  imposed.  They  would  be  called  upon  to  teach 
temperance  in  such  amounts  and  for  such  a  time.  If  they  failed,  they  were,  according  to 
the  proposed  statute,  to  pay  a  fine  for  their  failure  to  comply  with  the  law.  Members  of 
boards  of  education  were  liable  to  be  fined  if  teachers  failed  to  comply  with  the  law. 
These  men  are  elected  to  serve  without  pay.  What  a  spectacle  !  In  Massachusetts  we 
have  escaped  from  the  extreme  proposed  in  this  law. 

I  wish  to  add,  Mr.  Chairman,  that,  so  far  as  I  am  informed,  the  state  board  of  Massa- 
chusetts stands  in  solid  opposition  to  such  unseemly  legislation.  The  clergy  are  practi- 
cally unanimous  in  their  denunciation  of  these  measures,  not  only  in  Massachusetts,  but 
elsewhere.  The  Outlook,  of  New  York,  and  the  Congregationalist,  of  Boston,  are  illustra- 
tions of  papers  that  speak  in  no  doubtful  tone.  The  legislative  committee  and  the 
legislature  are  practically  unanimous.  Nothing  has  so  stirred  many  of  the  people  of  Massa- 
chusetts since  the  days  of  the  Rebellion  as  this  movement,  and  I  believe  I  shall  be  sup- 
ported in  my  view  by  those  present  from  Massachusetts  when  I  say  that  these  people  who 
are  apparently  well-meaning  are  absolutely  isolated  and  alone  in  the  extreme  position 
which  they  have  assumed.  This  is  strong  language,  but  the  situation  appears  to  me  to 
demand  such  a  statement,  and  I  am  perfectly  wilhng  to  take  the  consequences. 

The  only  object  in  bringing  this  question  into  this  convention  is,  first,  that  the  truth 
which  has  been  disguised  and  concealed  should  be  known  abroad,  and,  second,  that,  as  a 
consequence,  any  such  measures  as  were  proposed  in  Massachusetts  may  be  met  in  advance 
and  defeated  whenever  they  may  be  attempted  in  other  states.  The  influence  of  this 
body  certainly  ought  to  be  exerted  to  regulate  this  question. 

I  wish  to  repeat  what  I  stated  above,  namely,  that  the  superintendents  of  New  Eng- 
land are  a  body  of  earnest  men,  faithful  in  the  discharge  of  their  duty,  anxious  to  improve 
the  schools  morally  and  otherwise,  and  that  they  stand  for  temperance  and  are  ready  to 
work  together  for  the  enforcement  of  any  law  which,  in  their  judgment,  will  meet  the  con- 
ditions and  not  do  violence  to  their  judgment  and  conscience. 

Francis  W.  Parker,  president  of  Chicago  Institute. —  I  wish  to  say  a  word  for  the 
great-hearted  and  good-hearted  women  who  have  brought  about  this  state  of  things. 
They  have  done  and  are  doing  an  immense  deal  of  good,  devoting  themselves  as  they  do 
to  the  elevation  of  mankind.  Whatever  the  defects  of  the  text-book  plan  of  teaching 
physiology  may  be,  they  are  by  no  means  to  blame  for  them.  This  plan  is  bred  in  our 
blood  and  bones,  it  has  been  taught  us  by  the  schoolmasters  thruout  the  centuries,  it  has 
been  handed  down  to  us  from  the  universities,  it  has  penetrated  and  holds  the  vast 
majority  to  reverence  the  words  of  the  text-book.  Learn  the  page  by  heart,  and  there  will 
enter  your  soul  knowledge  and  goodness.  Learn  the  catechism,  and  you  are  religious. 
Learn  the  pages  of  the  book,  and  you  are  a  scholar.  The  good  women  of  the  Woman's 
Christian  Temperance  Union  are  not  to  blame,  I  say,  for  carrying  into  action  that  which 
they  have  learned  from  all  of  us,  namely,  that  knowledge  is  the  end  and  aim  of  education. 
The  supposition  is  that  the  words  will  in  some  m)'sterious  way  benefit  the  learner.  We 
have  everywhere  examinations  for  quantity  of  knowledge.  I  remember  that  when  I  was 
in  the  army  our  good  friends  in  the  North  sent  us  desiccated  potatoes  to  prevent  scurvy. 
The  boys  used  to  call  that  kind  of  potato  the  "  desecrated  "  potato.  Just  so  the  text-book  is 
often  "  desecrated  "  knowledge.  It  is  dried  and  condensed  so  that  it  may  be  learned  by 
heart.  Now  our  good  friends  and  the  friends  of  all  humanity,  the  leading  women  of 
America,  have  adopted  the  same  plan  in  the  teaching  of  physiology  to  prevent  intemper- 
ance.    And   why   should  they   not  believe   it   is   right   when   it   has   such    a    powerful 


256  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Chicago 

indorsement  ?  These  good  women,  under  the  teaching  of  the  past,  naturally  conclude 
that,  if  children  learn  page  by  page  of  the  evil  effects  of  alcohol,  they  will  be  temperate  ;  if 
they  learn  the  catechism  and  chapters  in  the  Bible,  they  will  be  religious.  This  is  the 
awful  delusion.  Some  day  we  shall  come  to  the  belief  that  the  school  is  the  place  for 
character-building,  for  the  development  of  citizenship  ;  a  place  where  temperance  is  lived, 
and  not  merely  taught  in  words.  The  school  is  the  place  where  all  habits  of  righteousness 
should  be  inculcated.  If  we  bear  this  in  mind,  we  can  decide  what  books  to  use,  what 
mind-nutrition  to  present.  We  have  not  yet  learned  in  a  full  measure  the  words  of  Christ : 
"  He  that  doeth  the  will  shall  know  of  the  doctrine."  We  have  repeated  them  over  and 
over  again,  but  they  have  not  sunk  into  our  souls,  they  have  not  been  carried  into  our  lives. 
Let  us  bear  our  burdens  as  best  we  may.  We  schoolmasters  taught  these  noble  women, 
and  they  are  now  teaching  us  by  the  same  method. 

Dr.  D.  L.  Kiehle,  professor  of  pedagogy,  University  of  Minnesota. —  It  is  with  a 
peculiar  satisfaction  that  I  listen  to  the  discussion  of  this  hour.  It  seems  that  judgment 
is  getting  back  to  Boston. 

It  is  but  twelve  years  ago  that,  in  the  state  of  Minnesota,  we  heard  our  chains  clank- 
ing from  Boston,  and  we  had  the  most  terrific  battle  on  this  temperance  question  that  has 
ever  been  witnessed  in  this  country.  Many  of  our  own  friends  took  to  cover,  and  we  hardly 
heard  a  lisp  thruout  the  nation  in  sympathy  or  support.  The  temperance  law  adopted  in 
Minnesota  required  temperance  instruction  in  every  grade  in  school.  The  committee,  of 
which  I  was  a  member  as  superintendent  of  public  instruction,  with  the  presidents  of  the 
normal  schools,  was  required  to  select  appropriate  textbooks  to  carry  out  the  provisions 
of  the  law. 

As  supporters  of  the  temperance  movement  and  of  temperance  instruction,  we  thought 
we  ought  to  give  first  consideration  to  the  recommendations  of  the  representative  temper- 
ance and  Christian  body  of  America.  The  only  condition  we  insisted  upon  was  that  the 
book  for  scientific  matter  should  be  indorsed  by  responsible  scientific  authority.  We  soon 
learned  that  that  qualification  would  not  answer;  that  there  was  but  one  book  "  approved  " 
and  to  be  considered.  It  was  demanded  that  we  adopt  a  book  that  was  "  indorsed  and 
approved  "  without  reference  to  scientific  authority,  and  we  were  informed  that  the  state 
officer  who  did  not  obey  the  will  of  these  representatives  of  the  Temperance  Union  could 
not  retain  his  position.  Let  me  say,  then,  that  we  fought  the  fight  out,  and  we  put  in 
books  that  were  both  good  and  scientifically  correct,  where  we  put  in  any.  We  issued  a 
circular  requiring  temperance  instruction  all  the  way  up,  in  every  grade,  after  a  plan 
reasonably  regardful  of  the  elementary  principles  of  pedagogy.  We  stood  for  a  principle, 
and  that  was  that,  while  it  is  within  the  province  of  the  public  to  require  results,  prescribe 
subjects  to  be  taught,  and  see  to  it  that  the  work  is  done,  it  is  an  unwarrantable  intrusion 
upon  the  province  of  the  teacher  for  the  Woman's  Christian  Temperance  Union  or  its 
national  superintendent  to  dictate  details  of  methods,  times,  books,  and  pages.  We 
fought  the  fight  victoriously,  making  public  exposure  of  the  crooked  methods  practiced  in 
the  effort  to  secure  the  adoption  of  the  "approved  series."  We  were  threatened  with  a 
libel  suit  which  has  not  been  brought  to  date.  You  can  understand  why  I  am  glad  to  see 
you  sharing  the  responsibility  of  settling  a  principle  that  is  of  as  great  importance  to  the 
profession  as  that  of  temperance. 

Dr.  George  W.  Webster,  Northwestern  University  Medical  School,  Chicago. —  I 
do  not  wish  to  discuss  this  except  from  the  side  of  the  physician.  The  question  is  one  of 
definition  and  of  classification  as  well  as  one  of  truth.  In  the  classification  of  alcohol, 
or  morphine,  or  arsenic,  or  strychnine,  or  anything  else,  what  is  the  basis  of  classification  ? 
It  is  its  dominating  characteristics.  We  have  had  a  poison  defined  here,  but  a  food 
has  not  been  defined.  We  have  been  told  that  a  poison  is  anything  that  always 
does  harm.  Now,  that  definition  of  a  poison,  as  understood  by  those  of  us  who  know 
something   abou!  poison,  is   perfectly  absurd.     The  poisons  that  are  the  strongest  are 


Superintendence]  ALCOHOL  PHYSIOLOGY  AND  SUPERINTENDENCE  257 

oftentimes  those  that  in  therapeutics  are  the  most  valuable,  and  they  are  not  always 
poisonous.  When  classifying  alcohol  as  a  food  or  as  a  poison,  we  must  consider  its  domi- 
nating characteristics.  It  has  been  demonstrated  that  10  per  cent,  of  the  mortality  in 
large  cities  is  caused  by  alcoholism.  This  should  be  sufficient  to  classify  alcohol  as  a 
poison.  These  men  who  claim  that  it  has  some  food  value  claim  nothing  new.  That 
has  been  known  a  long  time.  But  we  also  know  that  the  heat  liberated  by  the  dilatation 
of  the  blood  vessels  by  alcohol  is  greater  than  that  which  the  alcohol  supplies.  The  sum 
total  is  minus  instead  of  plus ;  therefore  its  food  value  is  negative. 

Hon.  Henry  Sabin,  of  Iowa. — There  is  not  very  much  that  I  want  to  say,  but  I  am 
deeply  moved.  I  am  astonished  that  in  all  this  great  audience  there  is  not  a  man  of 
strength  and  power  who  dares  stand  up  here  and  face  you  in  spite  of  your  applause,  and 
defend  that  great  organization  —  the  Woman's  Christian  Temperance  Union.  I  have 
known  these  women  for  more  than  a  score  of  years ;  I  have  been  in  their  confidence ;  I 
have  counseled  with  them  ;  and  for  sincerity  of  purpose,  for  purity  of  heart,  for  keen  appre- 
ciation of  moral  questions,  they  are  peerless.  I  tell  you  that  the  young  men  coming  onto 
the  stage  of  action  today  owe  these  dauntless  workers  in  a  great  cause  a  debt  of  gratitude 
which  they  cannot  pay  in  the  next  century.  Now  I  want  to  ask  you  a  question.  Here  is 
one  young  man  who  comes  to  the  age  of  twenty-one  years.  He  has  been  brought  up  in  the 
idea  that  alcohol  is  a  poison,  and  he  finds  that  he  has  been  mistaken.  You  say  that  a 
terrible  thing  has  happened,  and  that  he  is  going  to  distrust  the  truth  ever  after.  He  has 
lost  his  faith  in  everything.  Here  is  another  young  man  who  has  been  brought  up  in  the 
idea  that  alcohol  is  a  food  ;  that  he  may  use  it  occasionally ;  that  it  is  not  so  very  danger- 
ous after  all ;  and  when  he  comes  to  the  age  of  twenty-five  he  finds  that  a  most  terrible  appe- 
tite has  fastened  its  fangs  upon  him,  and  what  is  ;4<f  going  to  say  about  the  instruction  of  his 
youth  ?  Which  of  the  two  young  men  has  the  more  cause  to  complain  of  the  instruction 
of  his  teacher  ?     I  leave  the  question  with  you  to  decide. 

"Character,"  the  speaker  says,  "is  everything  "  I  say  amen  to  that.  Let  the  truth  be 
told.  We  do  not  fear  the  truth,  only  let  it  be  established  as  such  beyond  all  controversy. 
Teach  the  child  temperance  in  the  light  of  experience  as  well  as  in  the  light  of  science. 
Teach  the  children  in  school  that  alcohol  has  filled  our  poorhouses  with  paupers ;  that  it 
has  filled  our  insane  asylums  with  the  insane  ;  that  it  has  filled  our  graveyards  with  the 
dead.  Teach  them  another  thing:  that  there  are  fathers  and  mothers  in  this  land  today, 
gray-haired  men,  going  down  to  their  graves  in  sorrow  for  their  boys,  because  of  this  alco- 
holic food.  There  are  more  parents  who  are  moaning  and  weeping  over  their  living 
children  than  there  are  who  weep  and  mourn  for  their  dead.  Teach  the  children  in  the 
light  of  experience  what  alcohol  is  doing  for  the  race.  I  know  many  of  you  to  be  good 
temperance  men  and  women.  I  beg  of  you  to  stand  by  your  guns ;  do  not  waver,  no 
matter  from  whence  the  attack  comes  —  whether  from  one  man  or  from  a  thousand.  We 
will  win  a  victory  yet — a  victory  greater  by  far  than  Grant  won  at  Richmond,  greater 
than  Sherman  won  at  Atlanta,  greater  than  Dewey  won  at  Manila. 

Superintendent  Joseph  Carter,  Champaign,  111. —  I  want  to  indorse,  as  I  believe 
this  audience  does,  the  presentation  at  this  meeting  of  these  wonderfully  careful  experi- 
ments by  Dr.  Atwater.  No  one  doubts  the  correctness  of  his  statements,  nor  does  anyone 
question,  at  this  time,  his  conclusions.  We  all  believe  in  truth  and  are  not  afraid  of  it, 
wherever  it  may  come  from.  But  all  the  truth  has  not  been  told  in  this  discussion.  No 
one  has  told  of  the  woeful  ravages  of  alcohol ;  and  that  to  check  these  ravages  the  tem- 
perance books,  which  Dr.  Atwater  pronounces  incorrect,  are  used  in  our  schools.  It  may 
be  that  there  are  statements  in  these  books  which  are  not  true  in  the  light  of  recent 
experiments.  If  that  is  the  case,  let  the  books  be  corrected.  Some  of  you  who  are  so 
swift  to  find  fault  with  these  books  should  make  a  correct  one  ;  and  when  you  have  made  it 
you  will  find  publishers  ready  to  print  it,  and  we  who  direct  schools  will  be  ready  to  adopt 
and  use  it ;  for,  gentlemen,  I  do  know  that  if  your  book  tells  the  whole  truth  about  alcohol, 
it  must  still  be  a  temperance  manual. 


258  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Chicago 

But  now,  regarding  this  temperance  teaching  —  I  live  in  a  town  where  we  follow  the 
law.  Our  Illinois  law  is  somewhat  in  our  way.  For  instance,  the  ten  weeks  of  physiology 
teaching  the  first  year  of  the  high  school,  just  after  eight  years  in  the  grades,  and  before 
the  pupils  have  studied  chemistry  and  biology,  is  a  bad  arrangement.  But  in  spite  of 
this,  and  in  spite  of  these  books  which  yon  pronounce  defective,  I  do  believe,  and  I  believe 
it  is  the  judgment  of  many  superintendents  of  schools  in  Illinois,  that  under  this  law  we 
are  doing  a  good  work,  that  we  are  lessening  the  evils  of  intemperance,  that  we  are 
lessening  the  number  of  saloons  in  this  state,  and  that  we  are  teaching  the  boys  of  Illinois 
that  alcohol  is  dangerous  —  even  if  it  is  not  a  poison  —  and  training  them  to  shun  its 
abiding  place,  the  saloon.  It  may  be  that  these  temperance  laws,  as  they  have  been 
written  by  the  Woman's  Christian  Temperance  Union,  are  not  quite  in  accord  with 
some  of  your  ideas  of  pedagogy,  but  they  certainly  are  an  effort  in  the  right  direction, 
and  their  effects  are  beneficial. 

I  do  not  know  how  it  is  in  Massachusetts,  but  out  here  in  the  Mississippi  valley  we 
have  no  fear  of  the  Woman's  Christian  Temperance  Union.  They  are  not  oppressors, 
nor  opponents  of  the  best  interests  of  our  schools,  but,  on  the  contrary,  they  are  first  and 
foremost  in  every  good  word  and  work  that  will  help  our  schools  in  training  citizens  for 
this  free  republic. 

Dr.  Winfif.ld  S.  Hall,  professor  of  physiology  in  Northwestern  University  Medi- 
cal School,  Chicago. —  I  believe  I  voice  the  sentiment  of  an  overwhelming  majority  of  this 
convention  when  I  say  that  as  teachers  —  I  have  been  a  teacher  for  about  twenty  years  — 
we  are  strongly  against  intemperance,  and  that  without  an  exception  we  are  strongly  in 
favor  of  teaching  children  temperance  principles,  founded  upon  all  the  truth  that  we  can 
get.  Now,  I  believe  I  am  on  uncontrovertible  ground  when  I  say  that  it  is  certainly  the 
purpose  of  all  friends  of  temperance  instruction  in  schools  to  get''at  the  truth  as  soon  as 
possible,  and  to  have  nothing  in  the  books  that  does  not  represent  the  consensus  of  the 
best  scientific  opinion.  It  has  been  made  very  clear  this  afternoon,  in  the  splendid 
address  that  has  appealed  to  everyone,  that  these  questions  regarding  food  are  contro- 
versial questions ;  they  are  questions  upon  which  there  is  a  great  difference  of  opinion. 
Now,  those  who  have  written  these  books  have  tried  to  mirror  in  them  the  consensus  of 
the  best  scientific  opinion.  I  could  quote  page  after  page  from  men  of  international 
reputation  on  this  question  of  alcohol  as  a  food,  showing  that  many  of  them  say  that 
under  particular  conditions  alcohol  may  have,  or  seem  to  have,  food  value.  Still,  in  the 
enumeration  of  foods  not  one  of  these  men  includes  alcohol.  I  have  looked  over  many 
of  these  common-school  text-books,  and  I  can  say,  in  the  light  of  many  years'  experience 
teaching  in  all  the  grades,  that  there  are  many  changes  which  ought  to  be  made  on  peda- 
gogical grounds;  the  changes  which  ought  to  be  made  on  scientific  grounds  are  only 
technicalities.  I  testify,  as  a  specialist  in  physiology,  that  the  physiological  teachings  of 
these  books  are  correct  in  the  main. 

C.  G.  Pearse,  superintendent  of  schools,  Omaha,  Neb. —  Perhaps  I  ought  to  put  off 
what  little  I  have  to  say  until  tomorrow  morning,  when  this  discussion  is  to  be  resumed, 
but  I  would  rather  say  it  tonight,  if  the  chairman  will  permit  me,  because  in  the  morning 
we  may  not  be  in  the  spirit,  and  something  of  the  connection  may  be  lost. 

As  I  have  listened  to  this  discussion  and  have  seen  the  earnestness  put  into  it  by 
those  who  have  spoken  upon  the  one  side  or  the  other,  it  has  seemed  to  me  that  the  impor- 
tant thing,  as  we  go  away  from  this  meeting,  is  the  question  of  our  attitude,  and  it  seems 
to  me  most  important  that  we  should  not  misunderstand  each  other.  All  of  us  here  who 
are  schoolmasters  and  have  this  afternoon  discussed  this  question  have  the  greatest 
respect  for  the  Woman's  Christian  Temperance  Union  as  a  body.  We  respect  the 
motives  which  actuate  its  members.  We  feel  profound  admiration  for  the  great  work 
which  this  organization  has  done.  We  admire,  not  only  the  organization,  but  its  mem- 
bers, many  of  whom  thru  ties  of  blood  and  marriage  we   have  a  right  to  love  and  do 


Superintendence]  ALCOHOL  PHYSIOLOGY  AND  SUPERINTENDENCE  259 

love.  Therefore,  when  we  schoolmasters  discuss  some  phases  of  this  great  movement 
with  which  they  have  been  identified,  even  if  some  criticisms  of  method  are  made,  it  is 
not  to  be  taken  that  we  do  not  reverence  and  respect  them  and  their  work.  If,  in  the 
campaigns  that  have  been  carried  on,  some  things  have  been  done  that  do  not  square 
with  our  ideas  of  fairness  or  good  public  policy ;  if  in  some  cases  unworthy  means  have 
been  resorted  to  in  the  effort  to  accomplish  what  seemed  to  be  good  ends ;  if,  in  man- 
ipulations looking  toward  the  preparation  or  adoption  or  approval  of  certain  text-books, 
things  have  been  done  which  will  not  well  bear  investigation,  neither  this  organization 
nor  the  noble  women  forming  the  great  mass  of  its  membership  should  be  held  respon- 
sible, for  none  of  us  for  a  moment  believes  that  the  great,  earnest  army  of  women  enlisted 
in  this  organization  sanctions  or  would  countenance  any  questionable  measures  or 
tactics. 

On  the  other  hand,  neither  should  our  good  friends  of  the  union  feel,  because  we 
sometimes  have  criticised  methods  employed  by  certain  persons,  or  statements  made,  or 
personal  attacks  which  have  been  directed  toward  some  of  us  who  did  not  agree  with  all 
the  methods  attempted  or  followed,  that  we  are  unfriendly  to  them,  or  that  we  do  not 
indorse  that  which  is  good  and  beautiful,  or  that  we  do  not  sympathize  with  them  in  their 
high  aims. 

We  schoolmasters  who  here  today  have  discussed  this  problem  are  sincere.  We  are 
temperate  men.  Few,  if  any,  of  us  are  wine  bibbers.  We  believe  in  temperance,  both 
theoretically  and  practically — temperance  in  all  things,  even  in  teaching  about  temper- 
ance. We  believe  in  the  teaching  of  scientific  temperance.  We  believe  in  the  teaching 
of  truth.  We  will  hold  up  your  hands  in  all  ways  that  we  can  to  bring  about  a  knowl- 
edge of  right  living,  and  to  promote  temperance  in  eating  and  in  drinking  and  in 
indulgence  of  all  kinds.  And  because  some  of  us,  in  some  cases,  have  objected  to  some 
methods  pursued ;  because  in  some  cases  some  of  us  have  refused  to  indorse  methods 
which  certain  organized  agencies  just  then  believed  were  the  only  correct  methods ; 
because  we  have  retained  the  right  of  independent  judgment,  we  do  not  feel  that  we 
should  be  personally  assailed  or  crucified  upon  the  cross  of  public  scorn. 

Mrs.  Mary  H.  Hunt,  national  superintendent  of  scientific  temperance  instruc- 
tion of  the  Woman's  Christian  Temperance  Union. — The  study  of  hygiene,  with  physi- 
ology enough  to  make  the  hygiene  intelligible,  has  been  introduced  into  the  public  schools 
of  this  country.  It  is  difficult  to  understand  why  anyone  should  oppose  it.  True,  this 
study  has  been  made  compulsory  for  all  pupils  in  all  schools,  and  it  includes  the  nature  of 
alcoholic  drinks  and  other  narcotics,  but  our  boys  and  girls  must  live  in  their  bodies  as 
long  as  they  stay  in  this  world,  and  they  need  to  be  taught  how  to  take  such  care  of 
them  that  these  bodies  will  be  strong,  beautiful  servants  of  the  mind,  instead  of  the  mind 
becoming  the  servant  of  weak  bodies  and  debasing  appetites.  There  are  no  dangers  in 
the  ambushed  paths  of  life  which  the  children  of  this  land  need  more  to  be  warned  against 
than  those  attending  the  use  of  alcoholic  drinks  and  other  narcotics.  The  representatives 
of  seventy-three  millions  of  the  American  people,  in  Congress  and  state  legislatures 
assembled,  realizing  this,  have  enacted  these  temperance  physiology  laws  because  they 
believe  that  individual  and  public  good  demand  it,  and  we  should  be  able  to  count  upon 
the  co-operation  of  all  good  men  and  women  as  executors  of  these  laws. 

We  are  asked  to  discuss  this  morning  the  paper  of  Professor  Atwater.  He  would 
have  us  teach  that  alcohol  has  a  food  value  and  is  not  a  poison.  If  that  be  true,  then 
we  should  so  teach.  At  this  point  let  me  say  that  there  is  no  aspersion  cast  upon  those 
who  have  been  instrumental  in  securing  the  study  in  our  schools  that  is  more  absolutely 
unjust  than  the  accusation  that  for  effect  we  want  untruth  about  alcohol  taught.  We  are 
not  so  idiotic.  The  man  who  makes  this  accusation,  if  he  is  candid,  thereby  shows  that 
he  does  not  understand  his  times.  The  educated  women  of  today  are  keeping  step  with 
their  brothers  in  knowledge.     They  have  been  to  college.     As  students  and  investigators 


26o  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Chicago 

they  know  almost  as  much  as  you  gentlemen.  Almost,  I  say,  lest  you  should  deem  it  dis- 
respectful if  full  equality  in  attainment  should  be  claimed.  Professor  Atwater  quoted  a 
woman  as  asking :  "  Wouldn't  it  be  right  in  teaching  a  boy  against  alcohol  to  deceive 
him  until  his  character  is  formed  ?  " 

That  woman  and  her  question  must  have  emanated  from  the  brain  fog  of  some 
opposer  to  scientific  temperance  education  who  was  trying  to  find  out  for  himself  whether 
three  glasses  of  whisky  or  a  bottle  of  Rhine  wine  is  isodynamic  with  certain  amounts  of 
sugar,  fat,  and  starch.     She  does  not  belong  in  our  ranks. 

The  advocates  of  scientific  temperance  education  in  our  public  schools  know  that 
their  cause  has  nothing  to  fear  from  the  truth.     They  also  know  that 

"  Truth  alone  is  strong 
And,  albeit  she  wander  outcast  now,  I  see  around  her  throng 
Troops  of  beautiful,  tall  angels,  to  enshield  her  from  all  wrong." 

"  The  truth  shall  make  you  free,"  is  no  vain  promise.  If  teaching  the  children  of 
this  country  that  alcohol  has  a  food  value  is  teaching  them  truth,  then  it  will  eventuate 
in  good  to  the  individual,  the  home,  society,  and  citizenship.  If  the  crime,  misery, 
poverty,  and  madness  that  have  heretofore  resulted  from  the  use  of  alcohol  as  a  beverage 
are  only  myths,  then  let  them  give  place  to  this  old  new  story  of  alcohol  a  food.  But, 
Mr.  Chairman,  we  can  accept  nothing  but  positive  proof  at  this  point;  the  issue  is  too 
great.  Assumption  and  assertion  amount  to  nothing,  juggling  with  definitions  to  worse 
than  nothing. 

"Anything  that  nourishes  the  body  without  injuring  it "  is  what  the  people  under- 
stand by  a  food.  It  is  a  good,  honest  definition,  accepted  by  sincere  men,  both  in  and 
out  of  scientific  ranks.  Is  alcohol  a  food  and  shall  we  so  teach  the  children  ?  is  the 
question  before  us. 

Professor  Atwater,  as  I  understand  it,  bases  his  claim  of  food  value  in  alcohol  on  his 
experiments  made  at  Middletown,  Conn.  The  story  of  these  experiments  was  first  given 
to  the  public  on  the  thirteenth  of  last  June.  The  thoughtful  people  of  this  country  were 
startled  to  receive  newspaper  reports  of  his  claim  that  he  had  proved  that  alcohol,  when 
taken  in  the  amount  usually  found  in  three  glasses  of  whisky  or  one  bottle  of  Rhine  wine 
per  day,  is  as  much  food  as  sugar,  fat,  and  starch,  and  that  therefore  the  pulpit,  platform, 
Sunday  school,  and  public  school  are  in  error  in  teaching  that  alcohol  is  a  poison  and  not 
a  food.  These  and  similar  declarations,  always  accompanied  with  attacks  on  scientific 
temperance  teaching,  appeared  and  reappeared  with  variations  in  the  newspapers  of  the 
land  of  well-nigh  five  months,  before  a  scrap  of  other  evidence  was  given  the  public  in 
proof  of  these  remarkable  statements  which  are  at  variance  with  some  of  the  best  and 
latest  utterances  of  modern  science. 

Not  until  the  sixth  of  last  November  was  Professor  Atwater's  Bulletin  No.  69,  con- 
taining his  first  official  report  of  these  much-vaunted  experiments,  given  to  the  public. 
Accompanying  this  bulletin  his  Circular  No.  357  was  sent  to  the  press  of  the  country  for 
publication.  The  last  sentence  of  this  circular  says  :  "  The  bulletin  is  very  technical  and 
not  for  general  distribution."  With  all  due  respect  to  the  culture  of  Middletown,  happily 
there  are  in  the  United  States,  outside  of  that  city,  some  other  people  able  to  understand 
technicalities  and  therefore  to  study  this  bulletin  with  its  tables.  Its  accompanying 
Circular  No.  357  contains  the  deductions  drawn  from  the  experiments  described  in  the 
bulletin.  These  deductions  are  exactly  what  I  understood  Professor  Atwater  to  state 
from  this  platform  yesterday,  viz.: 

■  I.  In  the  case  of  the  man  experimented  upon  the  alcohol  was  almost  completely  oxidized  in  the  body. 

2.  The  potential  energy  of  the  alcohol  burned  was  transformed  into  heat  or  muscular  energy. 

3.  The  alcohol  protected  the  material  of  the  body  from  consumption  just  as  effectively  as  corresponding 
amounts  of  sugar,  starch,  and  fats. 

In  the  first  place,  it  is  a  fact  that  other  well-known  and  violent  poisons,  as  muscarine, 
morphia,  etc.,  are   also  oxidized  in  the  body,  liberating  heat  and  energy,  but  their  bad 


Superintendence]  ALCOHOL  PHYSIOLOGY  AND  SUPERINTENDENCE  261 

effects  show  that  such  oxidation  proves  nothing  in  their  favor;  neither  does  it  in  the  case 
of  alcohol.  It  would  be  ridiculous  to  call  morphia  or  muscarine  foods  because  when 
taken  they  are  oxidized  in  the  body.  It  is  equally  so  to  make  a  like  claim  for  alcohol. 
It  is  the  sum  total  of  the  effects  of  a  substance  that  must  be  considered  in  deciding 
whether  it  is  a  food  or  a  poison. 

To  state  the  fact  that  alcohol  liberates  in  the  body  heat  and  energy,  and  to  say  in 
that  connection  no  more  of  its  heat-  and  energy-producing  power,  is  to  state  half-truths. 
An  increased  number  of  heat  units  are  evolved  by  alcohol,  but  at  the  same  time  it  so 
paralyzes  the  nerves  in  the  walls  of  the  blood  vessels  that  an  unnatural  amount  of  blood 
rushing  to  the  surface  is  cooled,  and  more  heat  is  radiated  from  the  body  of  the  drinker 
than  the  alcohol  liberates.  These  easily  demonstrated  facts  leave  alcohol  no  place  what- 
ever as  a  fuel  food.  The  energy  that  the  oxidation  of  alcohol  in  the  body  liberates  is  of 
brief  duration,  and  is  under  such  poor  nerve  control  that  working  ability  as  a  whole  is  so 
much  impaired  by  alcohol  that  business  today  demands  total  abstinence  of  its  employes. 
Therefore  both  science  and  experience  deny  to  alcohol  any  food  value  as  a  supporter  of 
energy. 

On  p.  73  of  the  bulletin  is  table  No.  7,  where  are  recorded  the  effects  day  by  day 
as  the  man  in  the  calorimeter  took  alcohol  for  six  successive  days.  If  the  material  of 
the  body  had  been  protected  during  that  time,  as  Professor  Atwater  states  in  his  third 
deduction,  there  should  have  been  a  plus  sign  before  the  column  of  nitrogen,  showing 
that  the  man  did  not  lose  protein,  but  we  find  the  contrary,  showing  that  the  man  lost  the 
most  valuable  of  all  body  material  each  day  he  took  the  alcohol.  Turn  to  the  other 
table,  No.  10,  and  we  find  there  was  a  slight  gain  in  protein  for  one  day  only,  but  a  decline 
the  other  days.  These  tables  were  submitted'  to  experts  in  four  of  our  great  medical 
colleges,  quite  as  well  qualified  to  do  original  work  as  our  friends  at  Middletown.  I  read 
here  from  the  report  of  Professor  C.  A.  Herter,  who  is  not  simply  a  chemist,  but  a  physician 
and  professor  of  pathological  chemistry  in  Bellevue  Hospital  Medical  School,  New 
York  city : 

One  fails  to  find  any  supix>rt  for  the  view  that  alcohol  protected  the  material  of  the  body  like  sugar,  fats, 
or  starch,  in  the  report  of  Professor  Atwater,  according  to  his  own  figures.  Those  in  experiment  No.  7,  where 
417  grams  of  protein  were  given  in  four  days,  show  that  there  was  a  loss  of  nitrogen  equivalent  to  48.2  grams 
of  protein.  In  the  other  alcoholic  experiment.  No.  lo,  there  is  a  similar,  though  somewhat  smaller,  loss  of 
nitrogen.  One  is,  therefore,  compelled  to  admit  that  these  experiments  do  not  support  this  third  conclusion  of 
Professor  Atwater. 

Please  remember  that  it  is  on  that  third  conclusion  that  Professor  Atwater's  argument 
mainly  rests  that  alcohol  acts  as  a  food. 

This  view  of  Professor  Herter  is  supported  by  Professor  Seneca  Egbert,  M.D., 
professor  of  physiology  in  one  of  the  great  medical  colleges  in  Philadelphia,  and  also  by 
Professor  Frank  Woodbury,  M.D.,  a  well-known  writer  on  therapeutics,  who  is  connected 
with  another  medical  college  of  Philadelphia.  This  pamphlet  which  I  hold  in  my  hand, 
entitled  "An  Appeal  to  Truth,"  contains  like  testimony  from  Winfield  S.  Hall,  M.D.,  a 
professor  of  physiology  in  one  of  the  medical  colleges  in  this  city,  Chicago. 

You  will  recall  that  the  ten  experiments  described  in  Bulletin  69  are  Professor 
Atwater's  only  published  data  upon  which  rests  his  claim  of  a  food  value  for  alcohol. 
In  only  two  of  these  experiments  was  the  man  given  alcohol,  and  in  both  of  these  he  lost 
most  valuable  body  material ;  therefore,  Mr.  Chairman  and  friends,  inasmuch  as  this  tes- 
timony is  not  contradicted  by  the  experience  of  centuries,  we  cannot  conscientiously  recom- 
mend that  the  children  of  this  country  be  taught  that  alcohol  is  a  food. 

Honest  opposition  to  temperance  teaching  is  based  on  misapprehension.  Critics  have 
widely  published  the  false  charge  that  our  requirements  are  ridiculous  or  unpedagogical. 
These  absurdities  are  what  you  are  opposed  to  and  not  our  true  position.  For  instance, 
it  was  said  on  this  platform  yesterday  that  we  claim  that  "  alcohol  in  the  smallest  quan- 
tity always  does  harm."     I  challenge  anyone  to  find  such  a  statement  in  any  of  the 


262  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Chicago 

indorsed  physiologies.  What  we  do  say  is  that  because  alcohol  is  a  narcotic  a  little  has 
the  power  to  create  an  uncontrollable  and  destructive  appetite  for  more,  and,  therefore,  a 
little  is  always  dangerous.  No  one  can  deny  that  statement.  It  is  as  undeniable  as  the 
law  of  gravitation,  and  nobody  has  ever  brought  a  scrap  of  proof  that  controverts  it. 
Two  facts  —  first,  that  alcohol  is  a  narcotic,  and,  second,  that  it  has,  like  other  narcotics,  a 
cumulative  attraction  for  itself  —  are  the  fundamental  scientific  reasons  for  total  abstinence. 
I  thank  God  and  take  courage  for  the  republic  as  I  remember  the  millions  of  children  in 
our  land  who  are  being  taught  these  reasons. 

And  now  with  regard  to  that  English  assertion  about  alcohol  not  being  a  poison, 
quoted  here  yesterday,  and  said  to  have  been  signed  by  certain  physiologists.  To  the  best 
of  my  recollection  it  was  that  "when  taken  in  quantities  and  ways  that  cause  no  injurious 
effect  alcohol  cannot  be  called  a  poison." 

There  is  probably  not  a  brain-worker  in  this  presence  who  has  not  had  strychnine 
prescribed  for  him  by  the  doctor.  If  it  acted  upon  you  as  it  does  upon  me,  you  took  it 
"in  quantities  and  ways  that  cause  no  injurious  effects."  But  you  would  not,  therefore, 
say  that  strychnine  is  not  a  poison.  It  is  special  pleading  to  attempt  such  a  claim  in  the 
case  of  alcohol. 

Out  of  the  thirty  indorsed  text-books  on  temperance  physiology  in  our  list  there  are 
three,  written  some  sixteen  years  ago,  that  make  statements  which  can  be  distorted. 
Please  note  I  say  can  be  distorted  into  meaning  that  alcohol  is  not  oxidized  in  the  system. 
Two  of  those  books  are  being  revised,  the  third  is  practically  out  of  use.  Of  the  other 
indorsed  books  which  Professor  Atwater  attacked  it  can  in  all  truthfulness  be  said  that 
they  are  as  accurate  in  statement  and  pedagogical  in  construction  as  are  any  olher  school 
text-books  now  in  use.  They  have  been  again  and  again  submitted  to  the  best  scientific 
authorities  with  the  request  that  any  inaccuracies  be  pointed  out,  and  every  suggestion 
that  truth  warrants  has  been  and  ever  will  be  incorporated  in  them. 

In  closing,  please  allow  me  to  say  you  have  criticised  our  metljiods  in  securing  the 
legislation  that  makes  this  study  compulsory.  They  have  been  to  carry  the  case  to  the 
final  tribunal,  the  source  of  power  under  our  government,  the  people.  The  people  have 
instructed  their  lawmakers  to  pass  these  laws.  You  think  we  should  have  withdrawn  our 
endeavors  when  we  saw  that  any  schoolmen  objected.  We  would  gladly  have  done  so  if 
you  could  have  assured  us  that  the  temptations  our  children  will  meet  in  life  will  be  so 
withdrawn  as  to  leave  no  call  for  this  warning  education.  You  complain  of  our  per- 
sistence. There  is  nothing  more  persistent  than  mother-love  when  the  child  is  in  peril. 
As  to  the  personal  allusions,  I  will  only  say  that  I  have  long  since  ceased  trying  to  defend 
my  co-workers  and  myself  in  this  cause.  Whoever  attempts  to  advocate  an  unwelcome 
truth  that  rebukes  a  popular  evil  will  find  he  is  treading  the  paths  martyrs  have  trod. 
Such  a  one  will  be  battle-scarred.  I  make  no  apology  in  this  presence  for  having  been 
somewhat  instrumental  in  placing  sixteen  million  of  our  school  children  under  temper- 
ance education  laws.  No  one  could  do  that  without  meeting  opposition  of  the  kind 
that  will  turn  and  strike. back.  To  this  I  make  no  reply,  but  a  nation  saved  from 
the  thralldom  of  strong  drink  thru  its  schools  and  school  children  will  be  abundant 
reward. 

Mrs.  Jessie  Willard  Bolte,  Winnetka,  111. —  Professionally  I  have  no  claim  to 
address  this  body.  I  stand  here  simply  as  a  mother,  but  motherhood  is  a  pretty  good 
profession.  As  a  kinswoman  of  Frances  Willard  it  would  ill  become  me  to  depreciate 
the  admirable  work  of  the  Woman's  Christian  Temperance  Union.  What  I  say  now  is 
said  from  the  standpoint  of  a  mother  and  of  a  member  of  the  school  board.  The 
village  where  I  live  has  a  population  of  about  two  thousand,  between  five  and  six 
hundred  of  whom  are  children  of  school  age  and  younger.  This  clearly  indicates  the 
object  of  our  dwelling  in  the  suburbs.  We  live  there  to  keep  our  children  away  from 
city  sights  and  sounds.     To  my  knowledge  my  small  daughter  of  ten  has  only  once  or 


Superintendence]  ALCOHOL  PHYSIOLOGY  AND  SUPERINTENDENCE  263 

twice  seen  a  drunken  man,  and  I  object  to  having  this  repulsive  and  unnecessary  knowl- 
edge thrust  upon  her. 

We  want  our  children  to  grow  up  in  communion  with  the  lake  and  the  woods,  the 
flowers  and  the  trees ;  we  want  them  to  live  with  nature.  Educators  in  crowded  districts 
are  so  alive  to  the  value  of  nature  study  that  they  take  .small  scraps  of  the  country  to  the 
less  favored  children  of  the  city.  We  are  striving  to  fulfill  Froebel's  injunction,  so  to  fill 
the  child's  mind  with  the  beautiful  that  there  shall  be  no  room  for  the  unbeautiful.  But 
how  shall  we  find  time  for  nature  work  when  outsiders  force  studies  into  our  school 
curriculum  under  iron-clad  rules? 

As  a  mother  I  object  to  the  time  devoted  to  this  study  of  alcohol-physiology,  and 
also  to  its  object-lessons.  As  an  ex-member  of  the  school  board  of  Winnetka  I  object  to 
the  text-books  as  inartistic  and  unscientific.  At  the  times  these  books  were  introduced 
I  was  on  the  committee  on  teachers  and  text-books,  and  I  conscientiously  read  every  book 
from  cover  to  cover.     I  would  never  do  it  again.     I  know  better  now. 

As  mother  and  school  trustee  both,  I  insist  that  no  one  except  an  expert  shall  inter- 
fere with  our  school  curriculum.  Not  one  of  us  but  would  indignantly  resent  the  interfer- 
ence of  any  body  of  persons  who  should  dictate  to  our  physicians  what  they  should 
prescribe  in  all  cases  or  any  cases. 

I  do  not  object  to  the  action  of  the  Woman's  Christian  Temperance  Uniorf  any  more 
than  1  would  object  to  a  similar  action  on  the  part  of  a  body  of  ministers,  doctors,  lawyers, 
or  taxpayers.  The  investigations  into  the  psychology  of  the  child-mind  which  are  now 
being  prosecuted  by  Dr.  G.  Stanley  Hall  and  our  own  Dr.  Colin  Scott,  besides  many 
others,  have  already  indicated  that  the  child  can  best  assimilate  certain  classes  of  facts  at 
certain  periods  of  mental  development.  What  right  has  any  person,  or  body  of  persons, 
to  dictate  how,  when,  and  where  the  child  shall  study  any  subject  without  a  scientific 
knowledge  of  the  child's  mental  status  ?  So  I  say  to  all  except  the  school  expert :  "  The 
school  curriculum  is  not  your  business ;  hands  off  !  " 

I  want  temperance  taught  in  our  schools  from  our  kindergarten  thru  our  universities. 
Not  only  temperance  in  drink,  but  temperance  in  food  and  temperance  in  conduct.  I 
want  my  child  taught  to  stop  and  enjoy  a  flower  by  the  wayside  and  then  leave  it  for  the 
next  passer-by  to  enjoy,  rather  than  to  pluck  it  and  throw  it  aside.  I  want  my  child 
taught  to  pass  by  the  penny  slot  machine  with  his  penny  tight  clasped  in  his  small  fist 
and  then  drop  it  into  the  penny  savings  bank. 

Self-control,  the  building  of  character,  these  are  what  our  schools  stand  for,  and 
temperance — true  temperance  —  means  self-control  in  all  ways.  Let  us  teach  temper- 
ance, then,  not  forgetting  that  where  the  whisky  bottle  has  slain  its  thousands  the  frying- 
pan  has  slain  its  tens  of  thousands. 

Professor  Atwater  (answers  questions  and  closes  the  discussion) : 

Question:  Is  the  statement  that  alcohol  is  a  food  in  a  limited  sense  a  new  one,  or  has  it  been  more  or 
less  controverted  for  many  years? 

Answer:  Not  a  new  one,  but  an  old  one.  The  father  of  physiological  chemistry, 
Liebig,  in  classifying  food  materials  distinguished  between  what  he  called  respiratory 
foods  on  the  one  hand  and  the  plastic  on  the  other,  and  he  put  alcohol  among  the  list  of 
respiratory  foods.  He  also  assigned  to  it  a  definite  food  value  —  about  the  value  that 
the  latest  research  gives  it. 

Question:  Why  is  it  that  the  statement  that  alcohol  is  a  partial  food,  that  it  has  some  nutritive  value, 
should  be  announced  as  a  new  discovery,  when  it  is  as  old  as  physiological  chemistry? 

Answer:  Because  the  public  have  been  miseducated  on  this  subject  and  have  not 
understood  the  facts. 

Let  me  call  your  attention  once  more  to  what  I  said  yesterday  about  alcohol  as  food. 
If  anyone  understood  me  to  urge  that  alcohol  is  a  food  in  the  sense  that  bread  and  meat 
are  foods,  or  that  it  is  in  general  a  desirable  food,  I  certainly  failed  to  make  my  meaning 


264  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Chicago 

clear  to  him.  What  I  tried  to  say  is  that  it  is  wrong  to  tell  a  child  that  alcohol  is  a 
poison  and  stop  there.  It  is  not  a  question  of  definition  in  scientific  treatises  or  in 
dictionaries.  It  is  a  question  of  the  impression  that  you  produce  on  that  child's  mind, 
and  whether  that  impression  is  one  that  accords  with  the  principles  of  science  and  the 
principles  of  morality. 

This  suggests  a  question  which  was  asked  by  one  of  your  honored  members.  I 
understood  it  to  be  something  like  this  :  "  Shall  we  teach  the  boy  that  alcohol  is  a  poison, 
so  that  he  will  grow  up  with  an  aversion  to  it,  even  if  he  does  find  that  he  was  somewhat 
mistaken  ;  or  shall  we  teach  him  that  under  certain  circumstances  it  is  useful,  and  thus 
let  him  come  up  a  drunkard  ?  "  Will  the  gentleman  kindly  tell  me  if  I  understood  him 
rightly  ? 

Mr.  Sabin,  of  Iowa. —  I  asked  simply  which  of  the  two  boys  is  the  victim  of  the 
greater  mistake,  the  one  who  has  been  taught  that  alcohol  is  always  poisonous,  and  finds 
he  has  been  wrongly  taught,  but  grows  up  with  good,  sound,  temperance  principles,  or 
the  other  who  has  been  taught  that  it  is  a  food,  and  comes  to  the  age  of  twenty-five  with 
an  appetite  for  drink.     Which  of  these  two  has  the  right  to  make  the  greater  complaint  ? 

Professor  Atwater. —  Both  have  the  right  to  complain.  We  have  no  right  to 
make  either  mistake.     That  is  exactly  what  I  have  been  trying  to  say  to  you  all  the  while. 

Question:  Should  not  text-books  in  physiology,  as  well  as  in  geography  and  grammar,  contain  what 
seems  to  be  the  consensus  of  specialists? 

Answer:  Most  emphatically.  The  point  is  this,  that  many  of  the  so  called  "approved" 
text-books  give  opinions  of  some  specialists,  but  extremely  few  ;  the  great  body  of  authori- 
ties—  those  who  are  the  most  followed  —  are  on  the  other  side. 

Question:  What  is  the  influence  of  sugar  and  the  influence  of  alcohol  on  bodily  temperature? 

Answer:  Will  you  excuse  me  from  going  into  that  in  detail  ?  I  do  not  know.  I 
tried  to  tell  you  so  yesterday.  We  are  really  at  the  beginning  of  our  experimental  knowl- 
edge of  this  subject.  Alcohol  sometimes  reduces  bodily  temperature,  and  sometimes  it 
does  not. 

Here  is  a  question  which  is  in  substance :  "  How  does  that  theory  (that  alcohol  is  a 
body-warmer)  agree  with  Nansen's,  who  did  not  take  alcohol  at  all  ? "  It  is  not  a 
question  of  theory,  it  is  experience  that  tells.  Experience  tells  us  whether  we  want 
cotton  or  woolen  clothes.  Woolen  are  a  great  deal  better  for  us  in  cold  weather,  but  that 
does  not  show  that  cotton  does  not  make  clothes. 

Question:  Has  temperance  instruction  in  the  public  schools  advanced  the  cause  of  temperance  in  this 
cpuntry?     What  can  be  done  to  make  it  more  effective? 

Answer:  You  are  the  men  to  answer  these  questions.  You  are  the  ones  to  know 
whether  temperance  instruction  advances  the  cause  of  temperance  or  not.  What  is  your 
opinion  about  it,  what  is  your  experience  ?     What  do  you  find  to  be  the  result  ? 

Question:  Is  alcohol  a  narcotic? 

Answer:  Yes,  under  some  circumstances. 

Question:  Is  alcohol  a  poison? 

Answer:  Yes ;  under  certain  circumstances  alcohol  is  unquestionably  a  poison,  a 
narcotic  poison.  But  the  difficulty  with  this  teaching  is  the  failure  to  distinguish  between 
conditions,  and  in  saying  that  it  is  always  a  poison,  when  it  is  only  occasionally  and  not 
generally  so. 

Mrs.  Hunt  has  told  you  that  what  I  have  said  regarding  the  food  value  of  alcohol  is 
based  upon  experiments  made  under  my  direction.  I  regret  that  anyone  should  have 
received  such  an  impression.  I  tried  to  make  it  clear  in  the  address  of  yesterday  that 
the  belief  is  one  that  has  long  obtained  among  physiologists.  All  that  our  experiments 
at  Wesleyan  University  have  done  has  been  to  help,  and  perhaps  in  only  slight  degree, 
to  explain  how  it  is  that  this  food  value  is  exerted, 


Superintendence!  ALCOHOL  PHYSIOLOGY  AND  SUPERINTENDENCE  265 

You  would  hardly  excuse  me,  I  fear,  if  I  were  to  neglect  to  reply  to  Mrs.  Hunt's 
statements,  and  those  of  the  experts  whom  she  has  cited,  to  the  effect  that  the  figures  of 
my  experiments  do  not  sustain  the  conclusions.  The  point  is  this  :  In  one  of  the  experi- 
ments, No.  7,  described  in  the  bulletin  from  which  the  quotations  were  made,  the  amount 
of  nitrogen  given  off  from  the  body  in  its  excretions  was  greater  than  the  amount  received 
in  the  food.  In  this  experiment,  therefore,  in  which  alcohol  made  part  of  the  diet, 
there  was  a  loss  of  protein.  Mrs.  Hunt  quoted  the  figures  correctly  from  the  table  on  the 
page  of  the  bulletin  to  which  she  referred.  If,  however,  the  critics  had  taken  the  pains 
to  examine  the  other  figures  of  the  experiment,  they  would  have  seen  that  in  this  case  the 
quantity  of  nitrogen  in  the  food  was  smaller  than  usual.  In  similar  experiments  to  this, 
which  were  not  published  in  this  bulletin,  but  which  were  made  with  corresponding 
quantities  of  nitrogen  in  ordinary  diet  without  alcohol,  there  is  a  coresponding  loss  of 
protein  from  the  body.  It  would  therefore  be  wrong  to  assume  that  the  loss  of  nitrogen  in 
experiment  No.  7  was  due  to  the  alcohol.  The  conclusions  derived  from  our  experiments 
were  based  upon  a  comparison  of  the  results  of  ten  experiments  in  which  alcohol  was 
used  with  those  of  eleven  corresponding  experiments  with  ordinary  diet.  Only  two  of 
these  alcohol  experiments  are  given  in  the  bulletin.  That  publication  does  not  discuss 
the  experiments  from  the  standpoint  of  the  action  of  alcohol  at  all.  Its  purpose  was 
foreign  to  that  question.  It  does  not  give  the  whole  of  the  results  of  even  these  two 
alcohol  experiments.  It  omits  entirely  the  figures  for  preliminary  periods  which  preceded 
those  for  which  the  results  are  given.  When  we  take  all  of  the  experiments  together  and 
compare  the  experiments  in  which  the  men  had  an  ordinary  diet  with  those  in  which  the 
fats,  sugar,  and  starch  were  replaced  by  alcohol,  we  find  more  or  less  of  variation  in  indi- 
vidual days  and  in  individual  experiments,  as  would  be  expected.  But  taking  the  results 
altogether,  they  do  not  show  any  difference  in  the  balance  of  income  and  outgo  of  either 
nitrogen  or  carbon  which  could  be  taken  as  showing  any  difference  in  the  effects  of  the 
two  kinds  of  rations.  The  conclusions  are  simply  a  summary  of  the  statistical  results. 
If  you  take  the  figures  of  experiment  No.  7  and  select  from  them  the  particular  ones 
which  the  critics  have  quoted,  you  find  in  them  apparent  indication  of  a  loss  of  protein 
due  to  the  replacement  of  the  carbonaceous  nutrients  by  alcohol.  But  if  you  take  all  of 
the  figures  of  that  experiment  into  account,  and  especially  if  you  take  all  of  the  results  of 
all  of  the  experiments,  then  you  will  see  that  there  is  nothing  in  them  which  either  favors 
or  is  opposed  to  alcohol  as  a  protector  of  protein. 

There  is  another  thing  to  be  borne  in  mind  in  this  connection.  The  protection  of 
protein  is  only  one  of  the  forms  of  action  of  the  fuel  ingredients  of  the  food.  Even  if 
either  alcohol  or  sugar  or  starch  should  fail  to  protect  protein  in  a  given  experiment,  or 
series  of  experiments,  this  would  by  no  means  show  that  it  has  no  food  value. 

I  have  taken  special  pains  to  say  that  I  do  not  regard  these  experiments  as  con- 
clusive. But  I  do  object  most  seriously  to  the  statement  that  my  figures  do  not  support, 
my  conclusions  because  a  part  of  the  figures  do  not  support  them.  I  think  it  is  fair  to 
ask  that  those  who  make  such  statements  shall  tell,  not  a  part  of  the  truth,  but  the  whole 
truth,  just  as  I  ask  that  the  temperance  text-books  shall  tell,  not  a  part  of  the  truth,  but^ 
the  whole  truth.  -  ' 

One  word  more  and  I  have  done.  I  have  been  profoundly  impressed  by  the  kind 
words  which  so  many  of  you  have  spoken  to  me  since  the  address  of  yesterday.  I  have 
reason  to  thank  you  most  sincerely.  One  of  these  pleasant  things  was  something  like 
this :  "  I  have  been  a  total  abstainer  all  my  life.  I  can  indorse  all  you  say.  You  have 
really  given  us  a  temperance  lecture."  That  is  the  spirit  in  which  I  hope  you  will 
understand  me. 

It  is  perhaps  not  fitting  that  a  man  of  science  should  leave  his  laboratory  and  his 
books  and  come  to  talk  to  you  as  a  citizen  and  as  a  father  whose  children  are  under  your 
care.  It  is  perhaps  not  fitting  that  I,  a  teacher,  should  come  and  urge  upon  you,  as 
teachers,  the  importance  of  temperance  teaching.    And  yet  I  have  ventured  to  do  both^' 


266  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Chicago 

I  respect  —  I  revere  —  the  workers  in  the  temperance  cause  more  than  it  would  be  proper 
for  me  to  say.  So  far  from  arguing  against  the  temperance  teaching  in  the  schools,  I  hope 
it  may  continue ;  only  let  us  be  careful  as  to  what  we  teach.  I  hope  that  you  who  teach 
my  children,  you  who  guide  the  instruction  of  youth  in  this  our  republic,  will  feel  the 
responsibility  that  rests  upon  you  for  the  building  up  of  character,  for  the  inculcating  of 
morality.  Not  a  few  of  you  have  expressed  to  me  your  deep  interest  in  temperance 
reform.  Let  me  once  more  express  to  you  all,  as  I  have  to  them,  my  deep  conviction  of 
the  importance  of  right  teaching  of  these  subjects  in  our  public  schools. 


OBLIGATIONS    AND    OPPORTUNITIES    OF   SCHOLARSHIP 

PRESIDENT    EDWIN    A.   ALDERMAN,  UNIVERSITY    OF    NORTH    CAROLINA, 
CHAPEL    HILL,  N.  C. 

I  believe  I  am  speaking  to  you,  ladies  and  gentlemen,  at  the  moment 
of  the  broadest  national  feeling  in  the  life  of  the  later  republic,  and  hence 
I  have  hesitated  in  the  choice  of  my  theme,  "The  Obligations  and  Oppor- 
tunities of  Scholarship  in  the  Southern  States,"  lest  I  seem  to  modify  the 
operation  of  so  beautiful  and  universal  a  force  as  scholarship  by  any  sort  of 
restricted  geographical  label.  The  land  where  his  fathers  lived,  idealized 
by  woe  and  fortitude,  and  stern  adherence  to  a  theory  and  an  idea,  is 
forever  dear  to  the  man  of  the  South,  and  no  less  to  the  boy  of  the  South 
reaching  up  into  manhood  ;  but  the  great  republic,  whose  firm  founda- 
tions his  forefathers  helped  to  lay  so  deep  and  strong,  is  very  dear  to  him 
too.  Its  flag,  wherever  it  may  be  carried,  is  the  symbol  to  him  of  the 
best  that  he  can  hope  or  dream,  and  prophecies  of  his  undivided  country's 
destiny  stir  his  blood  and  sing  in  his  brain.  The  very  tragedy  of  the 
career  of  the  southern  portion  of  our  union  justifies  my  theme  and  gives 
to  that  section  a  certain  distinctiveness,  which  it  cannot  quickly  change 
if  it  would,  in  its  tendencies  and  in  its  duties  and  needs.  That  tragedy 
is  bound  up  in  the  one  stupendous  error  of  slavery  for  which  all  sections 
of  the  republic  are  equally  to  blame.  I  shall  not  retail  in  any  detail  this 
story  so  often  told  in  assemblies  of  this  nature,  but  it  seems  worth  while 
to  say  this  much  :  By  slavery  the  South  was  foreordained  to  spend  sixty 
wonderful  years  in  a  period  of  hurtful  stillness  and  isolation,  wherein  was 
developed  a  rural,  patriarchal  society  with  all  its  virtues  and  all  its  defects. 
It  doomed  us  to  a  shameful  period  of  chaos  and  submersion,  wherein 
every  atom  of  our  boasted  racial  strain  was  put  to  the  test.  It  hung  in 
the  balance  the  mighty  issue  whether  a  section  of  the  English  branch  of 
the  white  race  should  preserve  its  standards,  its  homes,  its  governmental 
consciousness,  what  was  good  and  lovely  in  its  past ;  or  whether,  like  the 
less  virile  races,  it  should  descend  to  an  inferior  type.  The  men  of 
the  South  born  between  1835  and  1850,  as  they  entered  upon  maturity 
and  manhood,  inherited  a  fearsome  legacy  of  defeat  in  war,  of  political 
and  social  and  industrial  anarchy,  of  poverty,  and  of  the  prejudice  of  the 


Superintendence] 


OBLIGATIONS  OF  SCHOLARSHIP  267 


world.  The  older  men  of  that  group  retained,  perforce,  the  habit  of 
mind  and  the  hindering  traditions  of  the  patriarchal  order.  The  younger 
ones  lacked  education  and  mental  training,  save  such  as  could  be  obtained 
in  the  trenches  and  upon  the  battlefields,  and  they  lacked,  too,  the 
buoyancy  of  unbeaten  youth  ;  and  yet  there  rested  upon  them  the  task  of 
maintaining  their  racial  integrity,  of  establishing  new  institutions,  and  of 
finding  such  a  clue  to  changed  economic  systems  as  would  enable  them 
to  create  wealth  enough  to  educate  their  own  children  and  the  children 
of  their  slaves.  These  men  were  not  fit,  nor  were  the  times  fit,  for  calm, 
philosophic  thought,  or  academic  viewpoints.  The  times  were  rude  and 
unquiet,  and  afforded  small  opportunity  for  any  self-development  except 
development  of  fitness  to  survive,  to  endure,  and  to  perfect.  It  may  be 
said  with  truth,  therefore,  that  the  last  thirty  years  have  been  a  period  of 
crudity,  of  sternness,  and  some  violence,  in  southern  life,  and  of  much 
misunderstanding  of  southern  men  by  their  fellow-countrymen.  At  the 
sacrifice  of  their  own  highest  ideals  of  growth,  southern  white  men  have 
given  themselves  up  to  the  doing  of  two  vital  things  —  the  assertion  of 
their  right,  as  proud  men  acquainted  with  suffering,  to  control  and  direct 
the  course  of  affairs  in  the  life  of  their  localities,  and  the  creation  of 
wealth  and  material  resources.  They  have  done  these  two  things  so  well 
that  those  of  us  born  since  1861  find  ourselves  living  with  some  peace  of 
mind  in  a  new  world  of  friendly  feeling,  of  waning  intolerance,  of  increas- 
ing wealth  in  urban  life,  of  industrial  power  and  educational  desire.  It 
may  be  doubted  whether  any  generation  of  Americans,  save  the  men  who 
made  the  constitution  and  the  pioneers  who  built  the  great  West,  deserve 
so  well  of  their  posterity  as  these  bearers  of  war's  burdens.  It  is  a  poor 
American  who  is  not  proud  of  them,  and  it  is  a  pale,  spiritless  southern 
man  who  does  not  render  to  them  the  tribute  of  his  gratitude  and  his  love. 
It  is  settled,  I  believe,  that  this  white  man,  who  has  shown  himself  so  full 
of  courage  and  force,  shall  rule  in  the  South,  because  he  is  fittest  to  rule. 
There  is  a  race  problem,  but  it  is  largely  a  problem  of  how  the  white  race 
shall  use  its  power,  in  justice,  in  kindness,  and  constructive  good-will  to 
the  white  man  and  to  the  black  man  alike.  It  is  tolerably  certain,  too,  that 
the  South  will  grow  in  wealth.  The  very  frenzy  of  work  and  accumula- 
tion has  gotten  into  its  blood.  Its  citizens  have  relearned  the  hang  of 
industrial  success  which  slavery  and  its  consequences  robbed  their  fathers 
of  when  the  century  was  young.  They  have  taken  to  heart  the  lesson 
that  civilization  can  express  itself  in  terms  of  dollars  and  cents  as  well  as 
in  terms  of  theories  and  enthusiasms.  When  the  idea  became  clear  to 
them  that  cotton  from  the  looms  was  worth  three  times  the  value  of  cotton 
in  the  fields,  they  began  the  establishment  of  technical  schools,  and  the 
building  all  along  their  limits,  from  the  banks  of  Roanoke  to  southern 
Alabama,  five  hundred  cotton  mills  with  five  million  spindles  and  one 
million  looms.     And  they  have  just  begun.     Sleepy  little  southern  towns 


268  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Chicago 

that  once  dosed  under  the  sun  and  boiled  over  in  hot  talk  of  states'  rights 
and  strict  construction  of  the  constitution  are  now  black  and  busy  and 
happy,  sending  to  the  ends  of  the  earth  salable  things  made  of  iron  and 
steel  and  cotton  and  wood.  There  is  some  loss  of  picturesqueness,  per- 
haps, but  certain  gain  of  power.  It  is  as  if  a  man  had  swapped  a  hobby 
horse  for  a  steam  engine. 

But  some  fundamental  things  have  not  been  settled.  It  has  not  been 
settled  what  sort  of  intellectual  and  moral  civilization  shall  be  the  final 
outcome  of  all  this  revolution  and  new  birth.  It  has  not  been  settled 
how  just  our  modes  of  government  are  to  be,  whether  our  highest  selves 
are  to  be  realized  in  our  institutions,  or  our  life  properly  adjusted  to 
the  larger  life  of  the  world.  It  has  not  been  fully  settled  whether  we 
shall  start  right  or  wrong  in  the  modern  world.  That  supreme  result  is 
for  the  men  and  women  who  have  been  born  since  the  Civil  War,  and  for 
their  children,  to  achieve.  After  isolation,  war,  submersion,  awakening, 
the  South  is  really  beginning  its  probation  as  a  member  of  the  modern 
world  in  the  twentieth  century.  Its  chief  problem  is  the  chief  problem  of 
every  society  passing  from  simpler  social  forms  into  the  third  and  high- 
est stage  of  society,  namely,  the  realization  of  its  highest  self  in  life  and 
law,  not  by  personal  courage  or  raw  individualism,  not  by  patient  endur- 
ance of  disaster,  but  by  intelligent  activity,  by  civic  unity,  by  public 
spirit  and  community  effort.  Noble  and  impressive  beginnings  have  been 
made  in  the  direction  of  this  self-realization.  A  system  of  public  schools 
for  black  and  white  has  been  established  in  all  the  states,  and  is  being 
improved  under  stupendous  difficulties,  not  the  least  of  which  is  a  peri- 
odic demand  by  overborne,  exasperated  men  that  each  race  shall  sup- 
port its  own  schools  by  its  own  taxation.  But  this  will  never  be  done. 
Justice  is  against  it.  Self-interest  is  against  it.  The  black,  ugly  fact 
that  ignorance  is  a  remedy  for  nothing  and  a  peril  to  everything  quickly 
crushes  out  whatever  life  there  is  in  the  idea;  for  its  triumph  would  mean 
the  existence  of  a  permanent  body  of  death,  and  improvement  is  slow 
and  pitiful  enough  at  the  best.  The  principle  of  local  taxation  for 
other  purposes  than  jails  and  bridges  has  been  written  in  the  statute 
books.  An  attempt' is  being  made  to  co-ordinate  justly  the  secondary, 
technical,  and  higher  education.  A  movement  for  public  roads  and 
public  libraries  is  going  forward.  The  revision  of  constitutions,  the 
creation  of  wise  systems  of  public  taxation,  and  the  improvement  and 
uplifting  of  rural  life  are  engaging  the  attention  of  the  thoughtful.  These 
movements  as  yet  are  chaotic  or  atomistic,  characterized  by  lack  of 
harmony  and  symmetry  and  oneness  of  purpose,  and  needing  to  be  cor- 
related and  fused  and  welded  into  one  effective  agent  of  social  ameliora- 
tion. The  traditions  and  powers  of  the  old  life  will  not  bring  these  things 
to  pass.  There  is  needed  a  new  social  spirit,  a  new  type  of  man,  with  a  new 
equipment  of  power  to  inform  and  influence  and  guide  this  spirit. 


Siiperihiendencel  OBLIGAflOkS  dP  SC/TOLAkS^ilP  269 

Here,  then,  is  a  new  intellectual  and  moral  world  about  to  be  born. 
There  surrounds  it  the  dignity  of  a  sad  and  historic  past,  and  there 
stretches  before  it  an  unimagined  future,  thrilling  with  impulses  of 
growth.  Tho  hard  pressed  by  new  ideas  aloose  in  the  world  flowing 
out  of  its  urban  growth,  this  land  is  still  a  land  of  conservatism  in 
religion,  in  culture,  and  in  politics.  If  one  wants  to  find  out  what  the 
old  stock  thought  and  what  they  liked,  one  must  still  journey  southward. 
Even  Senator  Hoar  found  it  necessary  to  flee  from  Boston  to  Charleston 
of  all  places  to  get  some  comfort  in  his  desire  to  quench  our  new, 
fierce  thirst  for  islands.  Yet  conservatism  cannot  hush  its  cry  for  men  to 
guide  it  wisely,  out  of  sensitive  social  self-consciousness,  into  the  broad 
current  of  the  world's  thought,  to  build  its  institutions,  to  remodel  its 
constitutions,  to  shape  its  policies,  to  settle  nobly  grave  questions  of  suf- 
frage and  of  race.  I  do  not  believe  there  has  been  so  inspiring  a  call  to 
youth  and  strength  since  Stein  and  Fichte  lifted  Germany  from  under  the 
hoof-prints  of  Napoleon's  army  and  led  her  happy  and  prosperous  into 
the  family  of  nations.  The  nation  has  cause  to  be  thankful  for  one  thing. 
The  raw  material  of  citizenship  for  this  upbuilding  exists  in  the  South, 
whether  it  shall  be  sought  for  in  the  old  family  stocks,  sobered  and 
broadened  by  poverty  and  fortitude,  or  whether  it  shall  issue  from  the 
ranks  of  the  plain  people,  who  fought  our  battles  for  us,  who  inherit 
the  English  temperament,  who  may  not  be  able  to  read,  but  who  are 
able  to  remember  that  their  fathers  earned  liberty  as  a  reward  of  sacri- 
fice, behind  the  cotton  bales  at  New  Orleans,  on  the  fiery  crest  of 
King's  Mountain,  or  in  the  swift  and  fateful  marches  along  the  valleys 
of  the  Dan. 

It  has  been  my  trade  in  life,  and  it  still  is,  to  work  with  the  southern 
boy.  I  have  some  right,  therefore,  to  judge  him  and  to  weigh  him.  He 
would  perhaps  have  slight  patience  with  any  effort  of  mine  to  set  him  up 
as  a  wholly  different  type  from  the  vigorous  American  boy  elsewhere,  and 
to  hedge  him  around  with  any  barrier  of  sectionalism ;  and  I  do  not  wish 
to  do  that.  He  is  an  American  boy.  Yet  great  historic  social  forces 
have  been  at  play  upon  the  southern  boy,  as  they  were  at  play  upon  his 
fathers,  and  we  are  to  examine  the  result.  He  is  frank,  sunny,  and  cour- 
ageous still,  tho  hardships  and  struggles  have  added  to  him  a  certain 
toughness  of  temper  and  fineness  of  spirit.  Life  has  generally  widened 
out  to  him  thru  sacrifice.  He  has  had  from  his  youth  the  tutelage  of  self- 
denial  and  renunciation.  He  may  be  at  college,  tasting  the  sweet  waters 
and  breathing  the  clearer  air,  but  he  knows  that  far  away  in  the  humble 
home  the  father  and  mother  are  taking  counsel  in  the  still  hours  of  the 
night  how  they  may  scrimp  here  and  save  there  and  work  a  little  harder 
and  rest  a  little  less,  and  so  pay  out  gladly  their  life  and  their  strength 
for  his  sake  ;  and  life  looks  grander  to  him  by  reason  of  it,  and  duty  seems 
easier  to  him,  and  opportunity  sweeter  and  kindlier. 


870  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Chicago 

The  ethical  and  the  ideal  appeal  very  strongly  to  the  boy  of  the  South. 
Not  because  he  is  any  better  than  his  neighbors,  but  because  economic 
conditions  have  developed  that  side  of  him.  He  has  left  off  certain  vices 
of  his  grandfathers,  and  he  is  clearly  their  superior  in  intellectual  curiosity 
and  thoughtfulness  about  the  common  good  and  the  needs  of  the  aver- 
age citizen.  Enthusiasms  are  very  likely  to  possess  him,  and  ideas  and 
principles  attract  him  more  potently  than  machinery  or  organization. 
There  is  a  tribal  primitive  individualism  in  his  blood  which  is  to  him  both 
a  blessing  and  a  curse.  It  has  been  a  blessing  at  times,  causing  him  to 
take  things  in  his  own  hands  to  preserve  his  own  liberty  and  the  dignity 
of  his  person  at  any  cost.  Sometimes  it  has  been  a  curse,  shading  off  into 
lawlessness,  tending  to  paralyze  concerted  effort  and  to  leave  communities 
disunited  and  torn  by  religious  and  party  differences,  and  thus  unable  to 
achieve  high  public  ends.  At  the  bottom  the  southern  young  man  is  a 
political  animal,  in  Aristotle's  good  sense  of  the  word^ — impulsive,  upright, 
and  patriotic.  No  weary  cynicism  or  passion  for  wealth  and  sports  as 
yet  bounds  his  horizon.  His  highest  idea  of  great  service  and  great 
achievement  is  service  to  the  state,  and  molding  society  in  social  and 
political  forms. 

This  fine  impulse  for  public  service  goes  to  seed  sometimes,  and  we 
have  the  frantic,  callow  voice  shouting  panaceas  and  nostrums,  and  here  and 
there  the  malign  figure  of  the  demagog  creeping  about  causing  simple 
men  to  lend  an  ear  to  political  and  economic  sophisms.  But  the  average 
southern  boy,  like  the  average  American  boy,  has  brains,  and  honesty  and 
faith  and  enthusiasm.  His  trouble  is  a  sort  of  dazed  timidity.  He  seems 
to  lack  what  his  fathers  had  excess  of,  singleness  of  purpose  and  grim 
earnestness.  I  believe  this  will  come,  for  it  is  in  his  blood,  when  his 
ideals  harden  into  certainty,  when  he  feels  more  at  home  in  American  life, 
when  he  learns  the  trick  of  concerted  action,  and  when  the  society  imme- 
diately about  him  becomes  more  critical  of  itself,  and  tolerant  of  all 
shades  of  thought  and  opinion. 

In  the  past  the  South  has  been  charged  with  setting  too  much  store 
by  wise  leaders  and  neglecting  to  provide  for  wise  followers.  A  militant 
order,  with  its  base  resting  on  slaves,  and  its  summit  bright  with  master- 
ful, lovable  men,  like  the  Athenian  city-state,  had  very  little  trouble 
about  its  leadership.  Men  heard  the  organ  voice  of  Calhoun  and  heeded 
it  as  the  men  of  the  tribe  heed  the  strong  man,  as  the  Florentines  followed 
the  Medici,  or  as  the  Irish  rallied  about  O'Connell  or  Parnell.  Jefferson 
Davis,  Judah  P.  Benjamin,  Alexander  Stephens,  Robert  Toombs,  Henry 
A.  Wise,  and  W.  A.  Graham  spoke,  and  their  states  or  parties  recognized 
their  primacy  and  massed  behind  them  like  men  at  arms  on  a  field  of 
battle. 

But  the  old  type  of  leader  has  gone  by  forever,  like  a  lost  type  in 
nature,  and  the  leader-ridden  South  of  the  past  is  leaderless  now.     I  hear 


Superintendence]  OBLIGATIONS   OF  SCHOLARSHIP  27 1 

no  commanding  voice  in  the  political  life  of  the  southern  states.  In 
the  field  in  which  for  seventy-five  years  she  was  pre-eminent  the  South 
is  now  defective.  Her  public  men  are  rarely  scholars.  There  are  no 
Madisons  and  Clays  and  Calhouns  and  Lamars.  There  are  some  notable 
names  in  business,  and  Lanier  and  Page  and  Harris  and  James  Lane 
Allen  and  Woodrow  Wilson  are  worthy  names  in  any  literature.  There 
are  clever  men  everywhere,  but  no  commanding  men.  There  are  reasons 
for  this,  and  perhaps  it  is  not  to  be  deplored.  The  coming  leader  has  a 
harder  task-  than  the  leader  of  the  olden  time,  and  there  must  needs  be  time 
for  him  to  grow.  He  can  no  longer  incarnate  the  dumb,  dull  aspirations 
of  the  people  and  be  a  glorified  figure  to  them,  as  Clay  and  Jackson  were. 
The  age  of  personal  loyalty  has  been  succeeded  by  an  age  of  personal 
distrust.  The  mass  has  been  broken  up  into  common,  hard-headed,  acute, 
power-loving  men  armed  with  the  weapons  of  democracy.  These  men 
are  going  to  rule  whether  they  are  fit  for  it  or  not,  and  the  problem  is  to 
make  them  fit — or  better,  perhaps,  their  children  fit,  for  the  grown-up  folks 
are  past  saving — by  putting  them  into  a  school  of  ideals,  where  they  shall 
get  uplift  of  thought,  and  where  the  tastelessness  and  mediocrity  and 
unthinking  activity  that  beset  democracies  shall  be  rooted  out.  The 
most  pervasive  school  of  ideals  to  which  most  of  the  young  men  in  my 
land  have  been  going  for  generations  is  the  school  of  politics,  and  it  has 
been  a  dull  and  sordid  school,  having  for  its  curriculum  a  weary  trivium 
of  negro,  tariff,  and  currency,  and  not  the  highest  phase  of  any  one  of 
them.  It  is  just  here  that  the  presence  of  the  negro  has  worked  the 
saddest  harm  to  us.  There  is  a  deep  feeling  that  intelligence,  charac- 
ter, and  wealth  must  be  the  real  majority,  whatever  the  sum  of  votes  may 
add  up.  Political  self-preservation,  as  they  see  it,  has  forced  ardent,  high- 
spirited  young  men,  able  and  eager  to  understand  great  questions,  to 
stand  at  the  ballot  box  and  beat  back  a  black  tide  of  ignorance,  and  thus 
behold  without  a  blush  the  sacred  conception  of  suffrage  violated,  public 
service  cheapened,  and,  too  often,  the  mere  manipulator  rewarded.  Any 
force  that  can  change  this  is  a  good  force.  I  believe  that  this  school  has 
suspended,  and  another  and  better  one  has  been  founded  in  which  there 
is  a  new  motive  concerning  itself  about  things  near  at  home,  and  yet  con- 
scious of  the  unity  and  majesty  of  American  life,  a  fresher  and  more 
inspiring  motive  which  will  make  for  the  end  of  this  reign  of  dullness 
and  danger  to  character. 

It  is  a  common,  pat  thing  to  say  to  southern  young  men  :  "Quit  talk- 
ing about  the  South ;  keep  out  of  politics,  and  go  to  work."  Two-thirds 
of  this  advice  is  very  healthy,  but  the  other  third  is  fretful  and  superficial. 
To  keep  out  of  politics  in  a  republic  is  to  keep  out  of  life,  and  to  keep 
out  of  politics  in  the  South  is  to  miss  opportunities  that  come  only  in 
splendid  creative  epochs  of  national  history.  For  educated  men  such 
a  course  is   to    demonstrate   afresh  that  mincing,  dainty  cowardice  of 


272  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Chicago 

scholarship,  in  the  presence  of  great,  rude,  human  forces,  which  makes 
Erasmus  seem  small  to  us  beside  Luther  and  sets  the  towering  genius  of 
Goethe  below  the  radiant  young  poet  Korner,  singing  his  defiant  songs  to 
the  bright  face  of  freedom.  Politics  exists  in  my  thoughts  as  a  form  of 
applied  patriotism,  seeking,  by  pleading  with  the  public  conscience  and 
by  education  of  the  public  mind,  to  bring  about  good  government,  to 
establish  schools,  to  build  roads,  to  spread  culture  abroad  and  to  make  it 
dynamic,  and  to  win  liberty  such  as  free  men  are  fit  to  have.  And  let  us 
define  patriotism,  for  in  my  thought  it  needs  some  redefinition,  having 
become  a  somewhat  slippery  and  elusive  term,  high  and  holy  thing  the 
it  be.  There  is  the  unthinking,  alcoholic  patriotism  that  shouts  :  "  My 
country,  may  she  always  be  right!  But  right  or  wrong,  my  country!" 
There  is  the  ancestral  patriotism  that  worships  the  genius  loci  and  the 
fathers.  Its  devotees  cannot  forget  their  grandfathers.  They  have  the 
disease  of  atavism,  and  enwrapped  in  the  grave-clothes  of  their  forebears 
they  sit  deathly  still  in  the  busy  world  and  fancy  that  virtue  issues  from 
their  garments  to  the  afflicted  passers-by.  There  is  the  thrifty  patriotism 
that  shouts  for  party  and  party  leaders  and  votes  the  ticket.  There  is  the 
noble  rage  that  inspired  southern  boys  to  climb  the  slopes  of  Gettysburg, 
and  that  inspired  northern  boys  to  turn  their  breasts  into  a  stonewall  to 
meet  the  onset,  and  that  inspired  the  sons  of  both,  with  reunited  love 
and  common  purpose,  to  charge  together  thru  the  hot  grass  and  under  the 
brazen  sun  about  Santiago.  And  finally  there  is  the  patriotism  of  com- 
mon-sense, which  is  the  very  religion  of  citizenship.  This  patriotism  is  a 
compound  of  scholarship,  of  social  sympathy,  of  right  reason,  trying  to 
teach  democracy,  "that  glorious  optimism,"  how  to  use  its  rude  devices  so 
that  it  may  justify  its  right  to  exist  as  the  ultimate  form  of  government. 
There  are  many  very  unlovely  manifestations  of  this  patriotism  in  the  shape 
of  heated,  willful  men  in  primaries  and  at  the  ballot  box,  but  the  thing 
itself  is  an  academy,  a  battleground  of  ideas  which  should  strive  to  eman- 
cipate tens  of  thousands  of  white  men  in  the  South  and  in  the  North  and 
West  from  petty  local  views,  from  selfishness,  from  the  tyranny  of  hard 
creeds,  from  the  philosophy  of  carelessness  and  wasteful  laissez-faire, 
from  false  individuali-sm,  and  teach  them  largeness  of  view  and  the  neces- 
sity of  community  effort  for  community  good.  Much  has  been  said 
from  a  thousand  platforms  in  this  country  about  the  scholar  in  politics, 
and  he  has  for  some  decades  been  the  stock  figure  for  academic  elo- 
quence. And  perhaps  not  enough  has  been  said  about  the  power  of 
culture  and  the  passion  for  knowing,  to  regenerate  the  individual  man  by 
lighting  up  his  mind  and  disciplining  his  willfulness,  by  giving  him  the 
fine  true  sense  for  beauty  and  manners  and  order  and  reason,  and  by 
endowing  him,  to  use  Mr.  Lowell's  noble  phrase,  "with  that  good  taste 
which  is  the  conscience  of  the  mind  and  that  conscience  which  is  the 
good  taste  of  the  soul."     But  the  impulse  to  cry  out  for  scholars  and 


Superintendence]  OBLIGATIONS  OF  SCHOLARSHIP  273 

\ 

seers  to  enter  into  the  hurly-burly  of  life  is  a  just  one.  The  individual 
is  so  microscopic  and  self-government  so  begirt  with  the  perils  of  unin- 
telligent strength  and  vulgar  force  that  there  must  needs  be  great  move- 
ments flowing  about  guided  by  the  scholar's  purpose  to  be  of  service  to 
great  masses.  The  theme  may  be  trite  enough,  but  instinct  and  reason 
call  for  the  reality.  And  the  reality  is  the  man  who  sees  things  as  they 
are,  and  hates  violence;  who  has  no  fear  of  oppression  because  he  is 
strong;  who  cannot  be  deceived  because  he  has  been  trained  and  knows 
truth  from  mania,  and  the  fates  of  nations  and  the  experiences  of  cities 
and  men;  who  cannot  be  terrorized  because  he  is  not  afraid;  who  cannot 
be  starved  because  his  hands  have  skill  and  his  brains  have  cunning. 
This  real  sort  of  scholar  is  needed  to  aid  in  the  transformation  of 
unthinking,  careless  white  men,  without  tastes  or  wants  or  desires,  into 
men  with  ideals ;  men  who  can  see  the  relation  of  law  to  society,  and  what 
it  means  to  defy  law  even  to  protect  innocence ;  men  who  can  see  the 
beauty  and  interest  of  life ;  men  who  have  some  civic  sympathy,  love 
their  towns,  villages,  front  yards,  highways,  parks,  schools,  and  libraries, 
and,  thus  proceeding  upward,  grow  into  a  grander  conception  of  the 
perils  and  privileges  of  the  heritage  left  them  by  the  Lord  God,  now 
grown  so  swiftly  into  an  empire,  vaster  than  the  empire  of  Trajan  or  Jus- 
tinian. Men  of  philanthropic  impulses  are  easily  moved  to  helpfulness  by 
the  spectacle  of  the  black  race  striving  to  fit  itself  for  republican  citizenship 
unwisely  thrust  upon  it.  They  are  not  so  easily  moved  by  the  spectacle 
of  the  white  race  striving  to  fit  itself  for  the  noble  discharge  of  an 
unparalleled  sociological  duty.  And  yet  that  is  the  pivot  of  the  whole 
question.  The  education  of  one  untaught  white  man  to  the  point 
where  it  is  clear  to  him  that  knowledge  and  not  prejudice  must  guide 
his  conduct,  and  that  for  the  honor  of  his  name  and  country,  and  his 
posterity,  he  must  deal  with  these  people  in  justice  and  kindness  and 
Christian  forethought,  is  worth  more  to  the  black  man  himself  than  the 
education  of  ten  of  his  own  race.  I  believe  that  any  southern  university 
is  doing  more  to  lift  up  the  colored  race  thru  the  broad-minded  men 
it  is  training  and  sending  into  life  than  nine-tenths  of  the  schools  for 
higher  education  of  the  negro,  and  if  these  universities  had  the  means  to 
set  in  operation  academic  forces  to  study  and  investigate  and  digest  the 
great  problem,  instead  of  threshing  out  old  straw,  their  power  would  be 
increased  tenfold.  It  is  wise  and  just  to  help  the  black  man,  but  it 
would  be  equally  wise  and  just  to  recognize  that  the  white  man  is  the 
dominant  force,  and  that  he  will  act  in  the  light  of  his  knowledge  and 
training.  The  white  man  has  shown  himself  to  possess  courage  and 
fidelity  and  self-respect  and  pride.  He  needs  help  in  the  right  way,  tho 
he  is  too  proud  generally  to  say  so.  Save  among  the  most  ignorant 
there  is  no  truculence,  no  passion,  but  a  high  desire  to  do  right.  Impo- 
tency,  the  frightful  difficulties  of  the  situation,  and  the  sheeplike  solidarity 


2  74  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Chicago 

of  the  negro  himself  sometimes  beget  exasperation.  It  is  substantial, 
brotherly  help  that  we  need,  my  brethren;  not  the  altruism  of  the  remote, 
nor  the  scorn  of  the  doctrinaire,  nor  the  cock-sure  criticism  of  the  unaf- 
fected. I  believe  that  it  should  be  a  high  and  precious  privilege  for  all 
Americans  to  help  their  southern  countryman  work  out  his  problem  of 
orderly,  law-abiding  social  life,  and  to  help  him  as  brothers  in  loyal 
affection. 

In  speaking  thus  strongly  I  do  not  forget  that  a  black  man,  Booker 
Washington,  has  seized  the  essentials  of  the  negro  question  more  per- 
fectly perhaps  than  any  southern  man  of  either  race,  and  has  pressed  his 
views  before  the  country  with  a  mingling  of  diplomacy,  sympathy,  and 
patriotic  scholarship  altogether  admirable.  What  I  mean  is  that  even 
Booker  Washington,  with  his  undoubted  gifts  and  with  the  wealth  that  is 
coming  to  him,  will  become  simply  a  racial  phenomenon,  without  lasting 
effect  upon  the  great  question,  if  he  have  not  the  intelligent  sympathy  and 
co-operation  of  the  white  men  about  him. 

It  is  a  singular  and  startling  thing  that  no  southern  college  attempts 
the  study  of  social  phenomena  in  any  adequate  or  organized  way. 
Departments  of  social  science  in  the  modern  sense  of  the  word  do  not 
exist  among  them.  They  have  widened  out  from  the  traditional  circle  of 
the  liberal  arts  into  the  study  of  agriculture,  mechanics,  textiles,  but  they 
have  not  approached  the  confused,  unrelated  human  forces  about  them  in 
a  scientific  fashion.  Their  students  approach  these  subjects  in  the  spirit 
of  the  empiric,  the  dilettante,  or  the  politician.  They  do  not  bring  to  the 
consideration  of  such  questions  the  trained  habit  of  mind,  the  trained 
orderliness  of  thought,  that  is  needed  for  their  mastery.  This  is  largely 
due  to  poverty  of  equipment. 

I  have  sometimes  thought  that  the  national  government  which  once 
thought  it  wise  to  help  its  citizens  to  a  better  understanding  of  their 
industrial  life  thru  the  land-grant  colleges  might  find  it  equally  wise  to 
help  them  in  the  same  way  to  an  understanding  of  social  problems,  whose 
righteous  adjustment  means  so  much  to  the  peace,  honor,  and  prosperity 
of  our  whole  people. 

What  is  to  be  the  general  type  of  man,  may  I  ask,  who  is  to  come  out 
of  southern  life  able  to  lead  the  new  forces  resolutely  and  to  find  the  key 
to  the  broader  life  ?  First  of  all  he  should  be  an  educated  man.  We  have 
done  with  the  sneer  at  book-learning  and  the  apotheosis  of  the  self-made 
man.  The  old  Jeaders  were  learned  men  and  masterful  men,  persuasive 
in  speech  and  swift  in  action.  Their  distinguishing  traits  were  strength 
of  will  and  serenity  and  confidence  of  mind  and  spirit,  and  perfect  equip- 
ment for  their  peculiar  work.  Their  times  demanded  fire  and  strength. 
They  supplied  the  demand  and  to  spare.  The  special  demand  for  this  era 
is  knowledge  and  sound  basis  of  action.  We  as  yet  have  it  not.  We 
need  to  know  about  things  before  we  settle  them,  instead  of  settling  them 


k 


Superintendence]  OBUGATIOHS  OF  SCHOLARSHIP  275 

first  and  learning  about  them  afterward.  There  must  come  into  the 
thought  of  the  humblest  man  among  us  that  instinctive  Scottish  feeling 
of  loyalty  and  reverence  for  knowledge  as  the  power  alone  fit  to  deal  with 
questions  of  public  welfare  that  marks  off  so  sharply  the  man  whose  mind 
is  set  upon  the  building  up  of  his  institutions  in  righteousness  and  wis- 
dom, whose  strength  is  upon  the  power  of  conduct,  from  the  man  who  is 
desirous  of  working  his  own  will  and  obtaining  the  reward  of  his  own 
smartness.  Evidences  that  this  attitude  is  coming  about  come  often  to 
my  knowledge.  Mature  men  come  up  to  college  spending  all  their  little 
store  to  sit  with  boys  to  get  some  little  learning.  Three- fourths  of  a 
whole  body  of  five  hundred  students  are  in  college  as  a  result  of  money 
earned  or  borrowed.  One-fourth  are  earning  their  way  thru  college 
by  every  form  of  daily  labor  from  cutting  wood  to  cutting  hair ;  sensitive- 
ness, sentiment,  pride,  gentle  breeding,  everything  swallowed  up  in  the 
overmastering  desire  for  the  blessed  light!  The  universities  and  colleges 
in  the  South  which  hear  this  cry  of  need  and  must  minister  to  it  are  not 
strong  in  equipment  or  endowment.  It  is  a  struggle  for  them  to  exist. 
The  sum  of  all  their  endowments  does  not  equal  the  endowment  of  any 
one  of  a  half-dozen  northern  and  eastern  institutions,  and  too  often  as  a 
stunting  inheritance  from  the  grinding  days  of  want  the  people  have 
gotten  used  to  their  poverty  in  matters  relating  to  higher  education. 
What  strength  they  have  is  internal,  the  strength  of  disinterestedness,  of 
moral  energy,  of  faith  in  the  belief  that  they  are  the  symbols  of  the  benign 
force  that  shall  work  out  the  good  life  of  their  land.  What  strength  they 
need  to  accomplish  this  end  is  the  strength  of  endowment,  of  apparatus, 
of  ample  and  even  magnificent  surroundings,  that  they  may  arise  so 
sharply  and  clearly  out  of  low  levels  that  they  may  set  new  standardsand 
establish  ^ew  conceptions  of  college  life. 

I  once  stood  upon  the  deck  of  a  great  ship  whose  prow  was  slipping 
gently  thru  the  waters  of  the  Bosporus  to  the  Black  Sea.  As  we  passed 
the  spot  where  Robert  College  stands  upon  its  rocky  hill,  the  boys  waved 
flags  and  sheets  and  handkerchiefs  in  salute  to  the  starry  flag  floating  at 
the  mast-head.  The  brave  pioneer  college  moved  the  imagination 
strongly,  standing  there  stout  and  strong  upon  its  hill,  while  all  around  it 
soared  the  minarets  and  towers  of  a  stubborn  and  unyielding  faith,  and  all 
about  it  heaved  the  tides  of  the  yellow  people  of  the  unchanging  East. 
The  place  seemed  to  my  fancy  at  once  a  fortress  and  a  dynamo,  holding 
tight  and  fast  to  the  things  that  are  good,  but  sending  out  to  the  dim, 
toiling  thousands  in  the  shadows  at  its  base  the  vital  currents  of  light  and 
life.  The  curving  shores  of  Constantinople  faded  from  my  view,  and  I  saw 
my  home  land,  teeming,  too,  with  tumultuous,  untrained  youth,  but  of  a 
different  breed  and  duty,  and  every  college  a  Robert  College  charged 
with  power  and  desire  to  fit  them  to  guide  their  people  into  the  larger 
circle  of  American  life  and  American  hope  and  American  destiny. 


ij^  MAtlONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Chicago 

The  mere  industrial  man,  masterful  and  creative  as  he  is,  cannot  do 
this  supreme  service  for  us.  He  dazzles  us  now  because  he  represents  the 
great  thought  that  civilization  cannot  reach  its  true  development  in 
poverty,  but  he  is  too  much  in  the  grasp  of  the  theory  that  it  is  a  higher 
and  holier  duty  for  the  prosperous  man  to  grow  ever  more  prosperous 
than  it  is  for  him  to  pester  himself  about  broader  and  purer  social  condi- 
tions. The  mere  orator  will  not  do  with  his  silver  tongue.  There  was 
a  time  when  every  little  village  had  its  silver-tongued  orator  who  wielded 
his  scepter  from  the  hustings,  or  the  courthouse,  but  his  voice  will  not  carry 
far  into  the  metallic  clink  and  roar  of  the  times.  The  breezy,  aggressive, 
accumulative  imitator  will  not  stand  the  test.  There  may  be  something 
parochial,  but  there  is  also  something  fine  and  impressive  in  the  almost 
Hebraic  feeling  of  the  people  of  the  southern  states  that  their  section  has 
something  high  and  precious  and  distinctive  in  manhood  and  leadership 
to  contribute  to  American  civilization.  It  cannot  be  mere  boasting,  so 
runs  their  dream,  that  it  is  the  logical  right  of  their  land  to  bring  forth 
out  of  her  travail  and  agony  something  fair  and  good  of  her  own  likeness 
and  pattern,  the  old  refined  gold  which  disaster  and  defeat  could  not 
tarnish,  beaten  by  fiercer,  freer,  civic  forces  into  finer  and  subtler  form. 
The  spirit  of  his  fathers,  brave  and  steadfast  men  who  held  firm  and  did 
not  compromise,  ought  to  be  in  him,  and  shall  be  in  him.  Sordidness 
and  commercialism  will  not  wholly  submerge  him,  and  wear  away  his 
fineness.  He  will  love  honor  more  than  life  and  loyalty  more  than  gold. 
A  worldly,  modern,  clear-eyed  man  breathing  the  breath  of  freedom,  he 
will  reach  men's  hearts  and  he  will  control  men's  wills,  not  by  machinery, 
but  by  the  strength  of  integrity  and  sincerity  and  thru  faith  in  his  words. 
And  so  when  the  age  of  moral  warfare  shall  succeed  to  the  age  of  passion- 
ate gain -getting ;  when  blind  social  forces  have  wrought  some  tangle  of 
inequality  and  injustice,  of  hatred  and  suspicion  ;  when  calculation  and 
combination  can  only  weave  the  web  more  fiercely;  when  the  whole 
people  in  some  hour  of  national  peril  shall  seek  for  the  man  of  heart  and 
faith,  who  will  not  palter  nor  fail,  in  the  sweet  justice  of  God,  they  shall 
turn  hither  for  succor  as  they  once  turned  to  a  simple  Virginia  planter  to 
free  them  from  a  stupid  king  and  a  stubborn  Parliament  across  the  seas. 


HOW  CAN  THE  SUPERINTENDENT  IMPROVE  THE  EFFI- 
CIENCY OF  THE  TEACHERS  UNDER  HIS  CHARGE? 

JOHN  W.  COOK,  PRESIDENT  OF  THE  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL  AT  DE  KALB,  ILL. 

I.  It  may  seem  somewhat  presumptuous  for  one  who  is  not  a  super- 
intendent to  appear  in  the  role  of  an  adviser  of  the  members  of  this 
honorable  body.     I  therefore  hasten  to  assure  you  that  the  responsibility 


Superintendence]  IMPROVING  EFFICIENCY  OF  TEACHERS  211 

must  attach  to  the  gentleman  who  by  virtue  of  your  free  suffrages  was 
chosen  to  preside  over  your  deliberations.  There  may  be  some  small 
advantage  in  being  untrammeled  by  the  sobering  lessons  of  experience. 
It  is  possible  that  the  views  of  a  teacher  of  teachers  may  have  some 
pertinency,  but  it  is  not  probable  that  I  shall  offer  any  suggestions  that 
have  not  already  claimed  your  attention. 

Altho  somewhat  aside  from  the  main  topic  of  discussion,  I  may  be 
indulged  in  the  remark  that  the  best  place  to  improve  the  teaching  force 
of  a  community  is  the  gateway  thru  which  those  are  to  pass  who  are  to  be 
the  instructors  of  its  young.  At  that  critical  point  the  superintendent 
should  always  be  found,  engaged  in  the  exacting  and  discriminating 
duties  of  a  sentinel.  This  is  a  poor  position  for  a  civilian.  -He  may 
meet  all  of  the  requirements  of  a  paymaster  or  even  of  a  sutler,  but  is  in 
danger  of  forgetting  the  proper  password.  And  the  superintendent 
should  have  equal  authority  in  mustering  out  those  recruits  whose  proper 
place  is  with  the  awkward  squad,  and  whose  presence  in  the  ranks  renders 
a  successful  campaign  impossible.  To  drop  the  figure,  it  is  my  sincere 
conviction  that  if  the  superintendent  is  to  have  no  voice  in  the  selection 
of  his  teachers,  the  chances  are  greatly  against  his  accomplishing  much  in 
the  way  of  their  improvement.  Their  first  allegiance  otherwise  is  due  to 
another.  Since  their  appointment  may  be  based  upon  other  considera- 
tions than  that  of  fitness,  there  is  at  least  a  possibility  that  their  retention 
maybe  similarly  conditioned.  Why,  indeed,  should  a  board  of  education 
care  to  burden  itself  with  such  a  troublesome  duty?  Because  of  a  con- 
sciousness of  its  superior  fitness  ?  Upon  what  basis,  then,  was  the  super- 
intendent selected  ?  The  logic  of  the  situation  suggests  some  ugly 
implications  which  urge  me  to  drop  the  analysis  at  this  point.  I  lay  it 
down  as  a  fundamental  proposition  that  the  superintendent  should  have 
the  determining  voice  in  the  selection  of  his  assistants  and  that  their  ten- 
ure should  rest  upon  his  judgment.  I  expect  all  fair-minded  and  prop- 
erly disinterested  persons  to  agree  with  these  propositions.  The  spoils 
politician  is  a  bad  lot.  If  such  an  ill  fortune  should  happen  as  to  find 
him  in  command  of  the  West  Point  of  an  educational  situation,  a  well- 
known  historical  incident  will  probably  be  repeated.  I  ought  perhaps  to 
apologize  to  the  shade  of  the  bogy  man  of  the  American  Revolution,  for 
he  was  never  even  charged  with  a  diversion  of  supplies  from  the  soldier 
to  the  camp-follower.  The  whole  matter  is  so  obvious  that  there  is  no 
room  for  argument  on  grounds  of  common  honesty.  Everybody  who 
knows  anything  about  the  matter — and  everybody  may  know  who  will  give 
it  two  or  three  minutes  of  candid  thought — understands  perfectly  that  to 
select  teachers  upon  any  other  principle  than  that  of  fitness  is  to  use 
public  funds  for  private  purposes  and  to  betray  the  interests  of  those  who 
are  too  young  to  realize  the  wrong  they  are  suffering,  and  too  weak  to 
defend  themselves  if  they  knew. 


278  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Chicago 

II.  Since  the  course  of  study  is  the  educative  material  which  the 
assistant  teachers  are  to  employ  in  the  educative  process,  it  seems  to  me 
of  prime  importance  that  it  should  be  so  clearly  outlined  and  so  fully 
elaborated  as  to  be  quite  easily  understood  by  those  who  are  to  use  it. 
To  its  mastery  they  must  devote  a  good  part  of  their  effort.  May  we  not 
hope  that  the  old  contention  which  held,  that  it  is  not  of  so  much  conse- 
quence what  a  child  studies  as  how  he  studies  it,  is  at  last  silenced?  The 
doctrine  of  formal  discipline  received  a  mortal  wound  some  years  since 
from  the  sharp  lance  of  the  relentless  Dr.  Hinsdale,  and  has  been  in  a 
dying  condition  ever  since,  if,  indeed,  it  has  not  entirely  succumbed.  I 
am  not  saying  that  we  have  solved  the  vexed  question  of  the  course  of 
study.  It  certainly  is  true  that  the  schoolroom  door  has  been  opened  to 
the  modern  world,  and  that  new  subjects  have  come  trooping  in  in  a  mul- 
titudinous fashion.  The  pansophic  scheme  of  the  good  Moravian  bishop 
seems,  in  a  way,  to  be  on  trial.  He  would  be  a  brave  man  who  should 
ask  for  more,  and  I  am  not  prepared  to  say  that  there  should  be  less. 
But  I  am  of  the  opinion  that  there  are  few  instances  in  which  it  is  not  in 
sorry  need  of  improvement. 

Have  we  really  abandoned  the  correlation  problem  of  which  we  heard 
so  much  a  few  short  years  ago,  or  have  we  solved  it  ?  With  the  zeal  of 
early  converts  we  then  tried  to  correlate  everything.  History  was  sus- 
pected of  at  least  an  occasional  opportunity  to  exercise  the  number  fac- 
ulty, if  in  nothing  more  than  counting  the  slain.  Object-lessons  were 
subordinated  to  elementary  language  study,  and  many  another  subject 
was  bent  out  of  line  to  induce  it  to  manifest  an  affinity  for  some  remote 
topic  with  which  no  especial  kinship  had  ever  before  been  discovered. 
But  the  intrinsic  individuality  of  many  of  the  courses  obstinately  refused 
to  surrender  itself,  and  no  end  of  embarrassment  resulted  as  an  inevitable 
consequence. 

Now  that  time  has  been  given  for  reflection,  is  it  not  wise  to  return 
to  the  old  problem  with  renewed  vigor  and  calmer  temper  ?  There 
is  real  danger  that  our  work  will  lose  much  of  that  intensive  quality 
which  had  a  chance  to  manifest  itself  under  the  narrower  curriculum. 
We  must  not,  of  course,  go  back  to  the  arid  places  made  waste  by  jug- 
gling with  symbols.  Neither  can  a  wholesale  correlation  be  effected  in 
the  present  stage  of  pedagogical  development.  Our  problem,  as  it 
appears  to  me,  is  rather  to  find  the  smallest  number  of  really  germinal 
ideas,  and  to  organize  the  course  of  study  about  them.  Several  of  the 
apparently  independent  lines  of  work  may  thus  be  made  to  sink  into 
incidental  and  enriching  relations  to  the  main  movements.  Such  an 
organization  of  the  educative  material  would  reduce  the  number  of  sub- 
jects that  seem  to  require  distinct  and  isolated  recognition,  and  would 
make  instruction  in  them  substantially  incidental,  until  they  were  so  far 
developed  as  to  have  reached  a  plane  where  separate  organization  is  the 


Superintendence]         IMPROVING  EFFICIENCY  OF  TEACHERS  279 

truest  correlation.  The  "  incidentalist "  has  a  ground  for  his  contention, 
and  it  should  be  recognized  and  allowed. 

Now,  it  is  my  idea"  that  this  organization  of  the  courses  should  not  be 
left  to  the  haphazard  treatment  of  the  teachers,  but  that  it  should  be  done 
in  as  thoro  a  fashion  as  possible  in  the  manual  that  is  to  be  placed  in 
their  hands.  I  am  trying  to  make  a  plea  for  the  expansion  and  elabora- 
tion of  the  teachers'  guides.  They  should  be  monographs  upon  the 
courses,  or,  rather,  bundles  of  monographs,  and  should  be  worked  out 
with  a  considerable  degree  of  fullness.  They  should  be  available  to  appli- 
cants, and  examinations  to  determine  fitness  should  be  based  in  large 
part  upon  what  they  offer.  They  would  disclose  a  pedagogy  that  would 
be  practical  in  the  highest  sense  of  the  term,  and  would  furnish  to  the 
teachers  a  course  of  study  bearing  directly  upon  the  work  of  the  school- 
room. 

I  realize  the  difficulty  of  their  preparation.  It  would  test  the  profes- 
sional strength  of  the  superintendent  in  a  very  critical  fashion.  I  am  not 
unaware  of  the  fact  that  there  is  a  strong  tendency  to  run  into  formalism, 
but  if  we  wait  until  there  is  no  lion  in  the  way  we  shall  fall  short  of  the 
highest  success. 

III.  Assuming  that  the  preparatory  stages  are  successfully  passed,  the 
superintendent  is  at  last  face  to  face  with  those  who  are  to  attempt  to 
carry  out  his  plans.  And  now  I  believe  that  it  is  of  great  impor- 
tance to  all  concerned  that  he  should  get  into  the  right  attitude  toward 
his  teachers  at  the  earliest  possible  moment.  And  that  attitude,  I  need 
not  say  in  this  presence,  is  one  of  thoroly  sympathetic  helpfulness.  Here 
is  no  place  for  the  task-master.  Co-operation  is  the  key  to  success.  No 
good  teacher  is  the  "servant"  of  the  superintendent  or  of  the  board  of 
education.  All  of  the  parties  involved  in  the  administration  of  a  school 
system  are  but  the  different  forces  which  are  to  unite  in  a  common  pur- 
pose, the  education  of  the  children.  Everyone  gets  whatever  of  signifi- 
cance he  may  possess  when  estimated  from  this  standpoint  and  from  this 
alone.  And  no  self-respecting  teacher  or  superintendent  will  permit  any 
body  of  men  which  happens,  for  the  time,  by  the  grace  of  an  admiring 
constituency,  to  be  his  or  her  immediate  employer,  to  establish  such  a 
servile  relation.  The  true  attitude  is  unique,  and  is  not  to  be  compared 
with  that  of  a  mill  operative  or  "the  hired  hand."  Boards  of  education, 
superintendents,  and  teachers  are  co-ordinate  and  indispensable  factors 
in  the  solution  of  a  problem  which  society,  as  an  organized  unity,  is 
attempting  to  solve.  This  doctrine  may  be  unpalatable  to  some  people 
not  a  thousand  miles  distant,  but  I  do  not  see  that  it  is  thereby  falsified. 
Obligations  are  mutual.  Those  of  boards  of  education  to  their  so-called 
subordinates  are  as  urgent  as  their  converse,  altho  different  in  character, 
and  no  one  who  is  really  fit  to  fill  that  difficult  and  often  thankless  posi- 
tion will  take  any  other  view.      And  I  wish,   at  this  point,  to  digress 


2  8o  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Chicago 

sufficiently  to  express  my  earnest  and  sincere  thanks  to  many  men  who  are 
bearing  the  distracting  burdens  of  business  life,  and  who  have  self-sacri- 
fice enough  to  add  the  worry  of  public  cares  to  an  already  wearing  load. 
It  should  never  be  forgotten  that  self-respect  is  an  indispensable  pre- 
requisite for  a  good  teacher,  and  she  should  never  submit  to  a  system  of 
terrorizing  even  from  the  children.  Where  a  high-minded  and  whole- 
some personality  is  of  such  vast  importance,  everything  within  proper 
limits  should  be  done  to  promote  it.  The  superintendent  stands  between 
the  board  of  education  and  the  teachers,  and  whatever  he  may  demand 
for  himself  in  the  way  of  respectful  consideration  from  the  former  he 
should  extend  to  the  latter.  That  the  teacher  is  usually  inferior  to  the 
superintendent  in  breadth  of  experience  and  intellectual  power  goes  with- 
out saying,  if  things  are  as  they  should  be.  If  these  conditions  should 
happen  to  be  reversed,  it  indicates  a  maladministration  of  forces  for 
which  somebody  is  lo  be  blamed.  That  the  teacher  is  often  the  superior 
of  the  superintendent  in  the  immediate  management  of  the  children  is  a 
remark  that  is  equally  pertinent.  Each  should  be  better  in  his  own  place, 
and  because  the  latter  is  properly  the  teacher  of  the  former  it  by  no  means 
follows  that  there  should  be  a  relation  in  which  servility  should  ever 
enter.  Indeed,  such  a  relation  is  unfortunate  from  any  point  of  viev/. 
The  situation  is  what  it  ought  to  be  if  to  the  proper  professional  respect 
each  should  show  the  other  there  may  be  added  mutual  regard  and  genu- 
ine friendship. 

And  I  believe,  further,  that  there  should  be  a  strenuous  effort  on  the 
part  of  the  superintendent  to  reduce  to  the  absolute  minimum  the 
amount  of  mechanical  work  which  assistants  are  often  called  upon  to  do 
out  of  school  hours.  I  am  more  and  more  impressed  with  the  drain 
which  the  ordinary  duties  of  the  schoolroom  make  upon  the  vitality  of 
the  teacher.  It  is  to  me  little  less  than  a  marvel  how  they  endure  it  as 
well  as  they  do.  There  should  be  large  space  for  recuperation  if  the 
atmosphere  of  the  school  is  to  be  bracing  and  inspiring.  I  fear  that  the 
fevered  lips  and  irritable  manner  so  often  seen  may  be  accounted  for,  at 
least  in  part,  by  an  added  hour  over  absurd  statistics.  Other  things 
being  anything  like-  equal,  the  happiest  teacher  is  the  best  teacher,  and 
good  health  and  abundant  vitality  contribute  immensely  to  such  a  result. 

IV.  The  superintendent  can  improve  the  teachers  under  his  charge  by 
according  to  them  the  largest  possible  degree  of  freedom.  Genuine  per- 
sonalities have  their  own  methods  of  expressing  themselves  and  cannot 
work  in  the  strait-jackets  cut  from  a  standard  pattern  and  furnished 
ready-made  by  the  superintendent.  I  am  aware  that  I  am  walking  on 
holy  ground  with  my  unhallowed  sandals  on  when  I  enter  the  realm  of 
discipline.  To  formulate  iron-clad  rules  which  are  to  obtain  without 
limitation  in  all  matters  relating  to  the  correction  of  children's  faults  is 
to  place  the  harassed  teacher  between  the  deep  sea  of  the  superintendent's 


Superintendence!         IMPROVING  EFFICIENCY  OF  TEACHERS  281 

displeasure  and  the  "other  fellow"  as  represented  by  the  board  of  educa- 
tion. I  must,  of  course,  make  exception  in  the  interests  of  communities 
where  teachers  are  chosen  upon  some  other  basis  than  that  of  fitness.  If 
the  bars  are  taken  down  in  one  place,  they  must  be  put  up  in  another,  or 
we  shall  be  done  for.  In  this  discussion  I  am  assuming  that  the  teachers 
are  of  the  superintendent's  own  selection.  What  he  wants  is  persons,  not 
automatons.  Wherever  his  mind  stimulates  theirs  it  is  to  secure  a  richer 
and  more  effective  personality.  They  are  not  to  be  his  good  right  hand. 
Th€y  are  to  be  their  own  brain  and  heart  and  hand,  working  out  his 
larger  purpose  under  the  impulsion  of  his  wider  thought. 

But  I  would  not  be  misunderstood.  Very  much  is  said  about  regard- 
ing the  individuality  of  the  teacher  with  which  X  cannot  agree.  Whether 
an  individuality  should  be  respected  depends  upon  its  quality.  What 
many  people  need  to  do  is  to  effect  a  radical  change  in  their  individuali- 
ties, if  by  the  term  we  refer  to  the  fundamental  ideas  which  seem  to 
determine  them.  They  need  to  transfer  themselves  to  new  ground,  to  be 
inspired  by  new  ideals,  to  find  new  and  better  ways  of  touching  the 
world.  That  such  a  change  is  possible,  and  that  it  may  be  radical  in  its 
character,  everyone  who  has  taught  to  any  purpose  well  knows.  Indeed, 
one  of  the  main  duties  of  the  superintendent,  if  not  the  main  one,  is  to 
bring  about  changes  in  the  characters  of  his  teachers  that  are  often  quite 
fundamental. 

Happy,  indeed,  is  the  community  that  has  been  so  fortunate  as  to  have 
placed  at  thie  head  of  its  school  system  a  person  possessing  the  rare  gift 
of  stimulating  others  so  that  they  shall  achieve  large  and  gracious  person- 
alities. The  young  are  so  imitative  that  to  live  under  the  influence  of  a 
fine  example  is  in  itself  a  blessing.  The  life  of  the  school  is  ordinarily 
so  conventional  that  a  wholesome  individuality  is  peculiarly  invigorating. 
The  diversity  of  temperaments  is  so  great  among  forty  children  gathered 
from  the  homeS  of  even  a  single  community  that  a  teacher  who  is  above 
all  methods  prescribed  for  the  many,  and  who  is  capable  of  furnishing, 
out  of  the  depths  of  her  own  originality,  unfettered  by  burdensome  and 
limiting  restrictions,  the  method  for  the  particular  child,  is  a  treasure  that 
is  above  price. 

V.  But  it  is  not  enough  to  be  a  charming  personality,  desirable  as 
such  a  consummation  is.  It  is  our  insistent  claim  that  there  is  at  least  a 
rudimentary  science  of  education  under  the  guidance  of  which  educa- 
tional practice  may  be  greatly  improved  beyond  what  is  possible  without 
it.  It  is  our  misfortune  that  the  large  majority  of  those  who  are  at  pres- 
ent employed  in  the  management  of  public  schools  are  informed  neither 
by  its  fundamental  doctrine  nor  its  applications  to  the  teaching  art. 
Practice,  at  the  present  stage  of  educational  development,  is  substantially 
empirical.  Comparatively  few  of  the  rank  and  file  are  able  to  give  a 
scientific  defense  of  their  method  of  procedure.     In  this  particular  the 


282  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Chicago 

teaching  art  shows  to  a  marked  disadvantage  when  compared  with  the 
practice  of  the  law  or  of  medicine.  In  these  cases  there  is  at  least  a  body 
of  respectable  precedent  to  which  the  practitioner  may  appeal  in  defense 
of  his  method,  even  tho  he  may  be  obliged  to  confess  his  ignorance  when 
asked  to  show  a  scientific  ground  upon  which  to  stand.  Most  teachers 
are  ignorant  of  the  characteristic  features  of  the  methods  of  those  of  their 
own  guild  who  have  won  distinction.  The  literature  of  teaching,  in  both 
its  philosophic  and  practical  aspects,  seems  to  be  quite  equally  unknown. 
In  other  words,  the  education  of  the  average  teacher  along  professional 
lines  must  take  place  after  rather  than  before  her  employment,  and  while 
she  is  engaged  in  the  actual  work  of  the  school.  That  this  is  a  matter  of 
grave  criticism  does  not  change  the  fact.  We  must  do  the  best  we  can 
under  the  circumstances.  Until  public  sentiment  shall  experience  a 
material  change  respecting  the  professional  preparation  of  teachers,  and 
shall  see  to  it  that  the  number  of  training  schools  shall  be  greatly  multi- 
plied, the  conditions  here  referred  to  will  continue. 

It  thus  becomes  a  pressing  necessity  for  the  average  superintendent 
to  add  to  the  general  duties  of  supervision  the  further  duty  of  profes- 
sional instruction.  This  function  will  be  discharged  in  the  main  in  the 
teachers'  meeting,  which,  in  consequence,  gives  to  that  instrumentality  a 
dignity  to  which  it  does  not  always  attain.  This  consideration  carries  us 
back  to  the  superintendent,  the  center  of  the  situation. 

To  make  an  application  of  the  oft-quoted  remark  of  the  genial  Auto- 
crat of  the  Breakfast  Table,  in  a  somewhat  different  field,  it  may  be  said 
that  the  reformation  of  the  assistant  must  begin  with  the  head  of  the  sys- 
tem of  which  she  is  a  part.  He  should  be  an  educational  expert.  I  do 
not  mean  that  he  should  be  a  skillful  manager  merely,  important  as  such 
ability  is.  He  should  be  strong  enough  and  wise  enough  to  resist  the 
enticements  that  come  to  every  general  manager  to  spend  his  time  and 
energy  in  the  manipulation  of  mechanical  details.  He  should  have  a 
genuine  fondness  for  the  central  problems,  and  should  have  time  to  deal 
with  them  leisurely  and  reflectively.  He  should  be  that  rarest  of  combi- 
nations, a  philosopher  and  a  man  of  affairs.  Thought  should  be  forever 
will  as  well.  When  there  is  so  much  to  do  that  is  little  and  easy,  it  takes 
a  man  of  large  mold  resolutely  to  put  it  aside  for  that  which  is  large  and 
difficult.  The  fundamental  doctrine  and  its  manifold  applications  must 
engross  the  lion's  share  of  his  time,  if  he  is  to  reach  his  teachers  in  any 
transforming  way.  Neither  will  do  without  the  other.  The  pedagogical 
prophets  are  often  poor  teachers,  and  great  mechanical  dexterity  will  fre- 
quently go  far  afield.  Psychology  and  educational  philosophy  often 
go  thru  the  world  unwed  to  practice.  If  either  of  two  indispensable 
things  is  more  important  than  the  other,  I  should  say  that  the  greater 
need  at  present  is  the  doctrine.  If  I  were  obliged  to  choose  between  a 
Simon-pure  philosopher  of  the  kind  that  asserts  that  philosophy  bakes  no 


Superintendence]         IMPRO  VI NG  EFFICIENC  Y  OF  TEA  CHERS  283 

bread  and  the  Simon-pure  mechanician  that  sneers  at  philosophy,  I  should 
take  the  former.  For  only  ideas  are  germinal,  and  if  your  experience  is 
like  mine,  you  have  had  a  hard  time  finding  seed-corn  that  will  grow.  It 
is  far  more  economical  to  furnish  a  general  principle  that  will  dispose  of 
a  class  of  instances  than  to  deal  with  them  one  at  a  time  in  an  isolated 
way. 

Now,  is  it  not  the  better  way  to  have  the  doctrine  and  its  concrete 
application  as  close  together  as  possible  ?  We  find  this  to  be  true  to  our 
experience  in  the  normal  school,  and  every  superintendent  is  foredoomed 
to  maintain  a  sort  of  a  normal  school.  The  most  efficient  instrumen- 
tality that  I  have  thus  far  observed  for  accomplishing  this  desired  end  is 
thru  a  combination  of  carefully  prepared  lesson  outlines  which  state  the 
general  principle,  the  aim,  and  the  movement,  and  illustrative  lessons 
with  children  by  an  expert  teacher.  Would  that  every  superintendent, 
who  knows  how  to  use  him,  had  a  printer  as  a  part  of  his  office  force. 
This  being  quite  out  of  the  question  in  the  large  majority  of  cases,  the 
modern  neostyle  is  a  cheap  and  handy  substitute.  With  this  valuable 
implement  he  can  have  a  press  bureau  of  his  own,  and  can  prepare  the 
elaborated  guides  of  which  I  have  already  spoken  in  the  earlier  part  of 
this  paper.  He  can  thus  supply  the  best  books  on  the  theory  and  art 
of  teaching. 

The  other  feature  of  the  plan  removes  one  of  the  greatest  limitations 
to  the  teacher's  growth  —  her  isolation.  Who  will  not  pity  the  preacher, 
or  his  congregation,  who  never  hears  a  brother  of  the  cloth?  The  soli- 
tary physician  is  foredoomed  to  narrowness.  We  must  see  others  doing 
what  we  attempt  to  do,  or  we  shall  fall  by  the  wayside.  But  the  illustra- 
tive lesson  should  have  a  thoro  overhauling.  Observers  must  learn  what  to 
look  for  and  how  to  test  it  by  the  canons  of  the  art.  A  thirty-minute  exer- 
cise may  merit  a  three-hour  discussion.  We  may  learn  something  of  what 
is  meant  by  skill  by  an  occasional  visit  to  a  baseball  game  when  a  crack 
team  is  occupying  "the  diamond."  Every  delivery  of  the  pitcher  is 
either  "a  ball"  or  "a  strike."  So  every  movement  of  a  thoroly 
admirable  teacher  should  meet  the  highest  requirement  of  the  recitation 
from  the  standpoint  of  the  theory  and  its  practical  embodiment.  It  is 
by  such  a  rigorous  discipline  as  this  that  genuine  masters  are  produced. 
And  I  remember  such  a  one.  I  often  went  to  her  room  to  "set  my 
watch  "  by  observatory  time.  The  memory  of  what  I  saw  there  has  ever 
since  been  at  once  an  inspiration  and  a  reproach.  I  have  long  had  an 
undying  grudge  against  the  man  who  induced  her  to  abandon  the 
normal  school  for  the  home,  for  she  was  an  ideal  embodiment  of  an 
intelligent  woman,  thoroly  grounded  in  a  profound  educational  phi- 
losophy, gifted  with  the  artist's  creative  power,  and  a  master  of  a  marvel- 
ous technic  acquired  by  the  severest  criticism  of  her  work  from  the 
standpoint  of  fundamental  pedagogical  ideas. 


284  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Chicago 

And  a  poor  recitation  is  often  as  fruitful  as  a  good  one.  Let  the 
superintendent  try  it  himself  once  in  a  while,  and  give  his  assistants  a 
chance  to  criticise  something  easy.  Lest  this  remark  may  be  misunder- 
stood, I  hasten  to  add  that  there  are  superintendents  who  are  able  to 
illustrate  the  highest  form  of  instruction  in  any  grade. 

I  am  not  unmindful  of  the  criticism  made  upon  attempts  to  teach 
after  a  formula.  I  have  simply  to  remark  in  passing  that  in  all  arts  there 
are  formal  stages  thru  which  one  must  go  to  achieve  the  highest  skill. 
That  they  are  looked  at  askance  by  many,  and  regarded  as  devices  for 
which  normal  schools  have  a  peculiar  fondness,  also  goes  without  saying. 
I  have  only  to  say  that  I  am  not  here  alluding  to  the  foolish  tricks  of  the 
method-worshipers.  Teaching  is  an  art.  As  such  it  consists  of  many 
details,  as  do  all  arts.  The  general  movement  in  the  knowledge  process 
is  capable  of  statement,  however,  if  there  be  a  science  of  mind,  and  its 
formulation  should  be  attempted  by  every  intelligent  teacher.  It  may  be 
a  master  for  a  while,  but  in  time  it  becomes  one  of  the  most  helpful  of 
servants.  I  doubt  the  possibility  of  any  fine  technic  without  its  aid.  It 
furnishes  a  canon  of  self-criticism,  and  until  one  is  equipped  with  a  dis- 
position to  self-examination  and  some  intelligent  basis  upon  which  to 
make  it,  he  will  either  work  by  the  "rule  of  thumb"  or  in  the  most  hap- 
hazard of  methods.  I  was  greatly  impressed  quite  recently  by  the  remark 
of  a  teacher  of  considerable  experience  as  a  university  instructor,  yet 
whose  conduct  of  the  recitation  was  in  many  respects  seriously  faulty. 
He  said,  in  substance  :  "This  is  the  first  time  in  my  life  that  my  manage- 
ment of  a  class  was  ever  thoroly  criticised  from  the  standpoint  of  educa- 
tional doctrine."  How  few  recitations  are  really  entitled  to  the 
designation  of  genuinely  artistic  presentations  !  Is  it  not  true  that  the 
large  majority  are  not  dominated  by  any  clearly  defined  aim  which  pushes 
with  resistless  energy  thru  the  exercise  from  start  to  finish  ?  So  much  of 
worthless  matter  is  allowed  to  consume  precious  time,  so  many  distract- 
ing and  trivial  excursions  are  permitted,  there  is  such  prodigal  waste,  the 
motive  is  so  obscure,  the  tension  is  so  slack,  that  you  may  go  almost  any- 
where rather  than  to  a  class-room  to  find  such  an  exhibition  of  high-class 
art  as  may  be  discovered  in  almost  any  good  shop.  The  pruning-knife 
of  kindly  criticism,  the  free  interchange  of  suggestion,  the  setting  of  the 
doctrine  over  against  the  act,  and  especially  the  superior  exercise, 
analyzed  to  the  core,  are,  as  it  seems  to  me,  indispensable  instrumentali- 
ties in  the  improvement  of  a  teaching  force.  There  should  be  no  hurry, 
no  insincere  glossing  of  defects,  but  a  genuine  estimate  of  value  from  the 
most  competent  and  kindly  of  critics. 

VI.  At  the  meeting  of  this  section  one  year  ago  the  wisdom  of  trans- 
ferring pupils  from  one  school  to  another,  where  especial  difficulties  are 
encountered  in  the  management  of  particular  children,  was  discussed  and 
approved    by   high    authority.      Several    instances   were   cited   in   which 


Superintendence]         IMPROVING  EFFICIENCY  OF  TEACHERS  285 

apparent  incorrigibles  were  found  to  need  only  a  change  of  teachers. 
Will  not  the  same  policy  be  found  to  be  equally  valuable  in  its  application 
to  those  in  charge  of  rooms  ?  The  misfits  are  familiar  thorns  in  the  path- 
way of  the  superintendent.  Applicants  for  positions  are  not  always  the  best 
judges  of  the  grades  for  which  nature  and  preparation  have  fitted  them. 
Local  conditions  sometimes  render  success  an  impossibility  when  a  change 
might  insure  a  superior  quality  of  work.  We  have  all  known  instances 
where  a  tranfer  to  another  grade  was  all  that  was  necessary  to  discover 
unusual  fitness  for  a  position  that  was  relatively  more  difficult.  Of  course, 
such  a  readjustment  of  forces  is  out  of  the  question  unless  the  superin- 
tendent is  unfettered.  I  am  making  no  plea  for  incompetents.  But 
every  right-minded  person  will  insist  upon  a  fair  chance  for  his  assist- 
ants. He  is,  indeed,  a  seer  who  can  cast  the  horoscope  of  a  teacher 
with  unerring  accuracy.  Of  course,  there  are  instances  where  incapacity 
demonstrates  its  presence  in  a  few  hours.  The  quicker  such  cases  are 
disposed  of  the  better,  whether  it  be  in  the  actual  work  of  the  school  or 
in  the  teachers'  academy.  When  reflecting  upon  this  matter,  however,  I  am 
reminded  of  a  young  woman  who  by  the  unanimous  vote  of  a  normal- 
school  faculty  was  convinced  that  her  "health"  demanded  a  prompt 
return  to  her  home,  because  she  seemed  to  lack  that  unpurchasable  com- 
modity known  as  capacity,  but  who  encountered  a  more  kindly  disposition 
in  her  local  superintendent.  The  same  institution  has  often  had  occasion 
to  "point  with  pride"  to  the  same  young  woman  because  of  the  notable 
success  which  she  won  in  one  of  the  largest  of  our  western  cities  that  shall 
be  nameless.  Evidently  she  needed  a  change.  And  a  similar  process  of 
reassortment  has  put  more  than  one  seeming  failure  on  safe  ground.  Of 
course,  to  move  one  is  to  move  two,  but  he  is  a  lucky  superintendent  who 
has  only  two  that  need  moving.  There  are  practical  difficulties  in  the  way 
of  any  remedy,  and  they  may  be  peculiar  to  this  suggestion,  but  with 
that  indispensable  condition,  a  free  hand  at  the  helm,  the  difficulties  are 
not  insurmountable. 

VII.  In  the  earlier  part  of  this  paper  I  have  spoken  of  the  sym- 
pathetic relations  that  should  subsist  between  the  head  and  the  subordi- 
nates of  a  school  system.  If  this  happy  condition  really  obtains,  the 
private  interview  will  be  found  to  be  one  of  the  most  efficacious  means  of 
correction  and  inspiration.  It  is  a  singular  phenomenon  that  those  who 
are  not  really  successful  seem  often  to  be  the  very  ones  who  have  not  dis- 
covered the  fact ;  at  least  such  is  frequently  the  case.  We  are  so  much 
in  danger  of  overlooking  our  darling  faults.  That  these  may  be  pointed 
out  to  us  in  such  a  manner  as  to  convince  us  of  our  error  some  good 
friend  has  probably  demonstrated  to  our  satisfaction.  But  to  reveal  our 
shortcomings,  is  one  thing,  and  to  show  us  how  to  surpass  them  is  quite 
another.  A  hint  may  be  sufficient,  but  radical  treatment  is  usually  better. 
Happily  there  are  many  good  books  that  one  may  take  into  the  solitude 


286  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Chicago 

of  his  retirement,  and  in  which  he  may  find  his  errors  reflected  as  in  a 
mirror.  Who  has  not  emerged  from  the  rebuking  interview  with  such  a 
delightfully  impersonal  mentor  to  find  a  new  world  awaiting  his  coming  ? 
Will  not  the  well-equipped  superintendent  be  richly  supplied  with  a 
goodly  stock  of  such  closet  advisers  from  which  he  may  select  the  par- 
ticular one  that  fits  the  occasion  ?  Often  in  our  experience  with  pupils 
who  are  trying  to  find  themselves  in  the  trying  duties  of  the  practice 
school  such  a  prescription  has  proven  of  inestimable  value.  Of  what 
avail  is  the  making  of  many  books  if  they  are  not  to  help  us  in  the  times 
of  storm  and  stress  ?  Nothing  is  truer  than  that  there  are  treasure- 
houses  for  our  assistants  of  whose  existence  they  have  no  knowledge.  We 
are  not  working  the  good  book  up  to  a  tithe  of  its  possibilities.  Indeed, 
there  appears  to  be  a  disposition  in  many  of  us  to  look  with  slight  favor 
upon  anything  that  has  not  emanated  from  our  own  inner  consciousness 
in  the  management  of  our  schools.  Is  this  one  of  the  results  of  the  per- 
haps too  prevalent  tendency  toward  oral  instruction,  or  is  it  due  to  the 
undeveloped  state  of  pedagogical  doctrine  and  practice?  And  there  is  an 
ascending  hierarchy  from  Page's  Theory  and  Practice  to  Psychologic 
Foundations.  If  I  mistake  not.  Colonel  Parker  ascribed  his  educational 
new-birth  to  Tate,  and  I  could  name  a  man,  whom  you  all  know  but  to 
honor,  the  editor  of  a  School  (and  Home)  Journal,  both  in  capitals,  whose 
effigy  adorns  the  altar  in  the  professional  holy  of  holies  of  a  host  of 
schoolmasters  whom  no  man  can  number,  and  before  which  they  burn 
their  highest-priced  incense.  And  I  would  include,  under  the  term 
"  book,"  current  magazine  literature  as  well.  What  a  boon  a  really  dis- 
criminating clerk  would  be  who  with  the  shears  and  paste-pot  could  rescue 
from  the  waste-basket  of  oblivion  the  wealth  of  valuable  material  that 
receives  but  a  passing  glance  from  overworked  superintendents,  and  do 
it  up  in  proper  packages  for  convenient  distribution  I  I  am  not  answered 
by  the  remark  that  only  good  teachers  should  be  employed.  As  our  com- 
mercial and  manufacturing  establishments  must  in  large  part  educate  their 
workers,  so  the  superintendent  must  in  no  small  degree  do  the  same 
thing,  and  for  the  best  of  reasons  too.  One  of  the  best  superintendents 
that  I  have  ever  known  said  to  me  in  a  recent  conversation  :  "  Long  experi- 
ence has  convinced  me  that  I  must  give  up  the  employment  of  teachers 
from  other  schools,  as  a  general  practice,  and  employ  graduates  of  pro- 
fessional schools,  for  they  can  be  changed  by  the  material  that  I  put  before 
them  to  study."     • 

VIII.  And,  finally,  what  many  teachers  need  is  a  "  hobby,"  something 
over  which  they  may  have  their  first  enthusiasm.  In  the  days  of  my  early 
childhood  I  was  the  proud  possessor  of  a  Sunday-school  banner  which 
bore  the  mystical  inscription:  "Thought  engenders  thought."  I  some- 
times wondered  what  it  meant.  But  there  is  another  tri-syllabic  motto 
that  I  should  be  glad  to  substitute  for  the   illuminated  "  God  bless  our 


Superintendence]      THE  SUPERINTENDENT  AS  AN  ORGANIZER  287 

home,"  that  with  its  variegated  worsted  hangs  over  the  washstand  of 
many  a  teacher's  narrow  quarters,  for  I  have  learned  something  of  its 
truth  :  "  Enthusiasm  engenders  enthusiasm."  If  one  has  felt  the  intel- 
lectual and  emotional  quickening  that  comes  from  falling  in  love  with 
any  worthy  pursuit,  the  spirit  will  spread  to  other  fields  and  will  suffuse, 
like  a  gladsome  tonic,  the  dull  routine  of  daily  life  with  an  exhilarating 
energy. 

He  who  for  many  years  once  guided  the  educational  destiny  of  this 
great  city  revealed  the  secret  of  much  of  his  notable  success,  perhaps, 
when  he  wrote :  "  When  all  else  fails,  and  'this  whole  round  world  seems 
flat,  stale,  and  unprofitable,'  as  a  sure  and  safe  resource  there  is  nothing 
for  health,  strength,  and  recreation  like  a  good,  reliable  hobby.  Though 
it  be  nothing  rarer  or  more  costly  than  moth-hunting,  the  jingle  or  jangle 
of  rhymes,  or  even  reformed  spelling,  they  are,  some  of  them,  as  I  well 
know,  of  boundless  possibilities." 

"  But  at  your  daily  mount  of  your  hobby-horse,  take  not  your  way 
down  the  crowded  street  and  through  the  thronging  mart,  nor  over  the 
choice  flower-beds  and  fragrant  exotics  of  your  friends,  but  rather  turn 
aside  into  the  quiet  lane,  or  the  unfrequented  country  road,  or,  still  better, 
off  for  a  free  stretch  over  the  wide,  open  prairie,  where,  with  open  arms 
and  expanding  chest,  you  can  shout  forth  your  happiness,  till  with  loud- 
answering  echo  the  solitary  places  shall  be  made  glad  with  your  pres- 
ence." 


THE    SUPERINTENDENT   AS    AN    ORGANIZER    AND    AN 

EXECUTIVE 

ROBERT  EDUARD  DENFELD,  SUPERINTENDENT  OF  SCHOOLS,  DULUTH,  MINN. 

We  assume  that  the  superintendency,  like  similar  positions,  grew  out 
of  a  desire  to  secure  results  economically  —  to*  systematize  work,  or 
centralize  effort,  thus  recognizing  the  need  of  the  services  of  one  who  had 
given  thought  and  study  to  this  particular  branch  of  human  activity, 
understanding  the  objects  sought  and  familiar  with  the  means  employed. 
The  growth  of  communities  into  larger  units  also  emphasized  this  need 
by  enlarging  the  responsibilities,  and  so  increasing  the  perplexities  gather- 
ing about  the  trust  that  men,  often  occupied  with  private  cares,  were 
compelled  to  transfer  to  other  hands  the  more  engrossing  tasks. 

The  pressure  for  expert  management  may  not  have  made  itself 
seriously  felt  under  the  district  system,  with  its  limited  number  of  schools, 
its  accentuation  of  the  famous  triplet,  and  its  scarcity  of  equipment. 
Nevertheless,  such  management  was  fully  as  much  needed  then  as  now. 
The  old-time  boards,  composed  of  members  with  sufficient  time  at  their 
disposal,  considered  themselves  competent  to  manage  the  educational  as 


288  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Chicago 

well  as  the  business  end.  The  state  prescribed  the  studies,  and  the  com- 
munity did  not  feel  moved  to  reach  beyond  these  requirements.  When 
inventions  multiplied  and  labor-saving  devices  came  into  collision  with 
manual  labor,  business  possibilities  made  specialization  a  necessity. 
People  turned  to  the  curricula  of  the  schools  for  assistance.  These  were 
expected  to  change  somewhat  the  character  of  their  instruction  and  so  to 
adjust  the  curricula  as  most  effectually  to  meet  the  new  order  of  things. 
Different  localities  presented  phases  of  change  expressed  by  the  differ- 
ences existing  in  the  community  life  of  the  several  centers. 

Apparently  the  system  shapes  itself  to  meet  public  demands  ;  therefore 
the  call  for  expert  knowledge  is  so  persistent  that  boards  of  education 
admit  that  relief  can  only  come  thru  the  employment  of  a  competent  per- 
son, hedged  about  by  reasonable  rules  and  regulations.  The  state,  even, 
has  enacted  laws  that  make  it  incumbent  upon  boards  to  secure  such 
expert  guidance.  In  some  independent  districts  this  functionary  is  made 
ex  officio  a  member  of  the  board,  and  given  membership  upon  commit- 
tees, and  thus  accorded  power  that  could  not  be  conferred  upon  a  mere 
appointee. 

Agitation  is  going  on  for  a  more  clear-cut  division  of  labor,  for  both 
the  legislative  and  the  executive. 

The  duties  of  the  superintendent  fall  into  a  threefold  classification  : 
those  belonging  to  the  organizer,  the  executive,  and  the  supervisor. 
Investigation  reveals  many  perplexities  that  render  a  satisfactory  and 
efficient  performance  difficult  at  times.  If  a  superintendent  were  privi- 
leged to  deal  only  with  the  educational,  and  could  feel  that  whatever  is 
proposed  in  good  faith  would  be  accepted  in  the  same  spirit,  the  annoy- 
ances would  be  minimized.  Today,  in  a  majority  of  the  cities,  he  must 
constantly  bear  in  mind  that  members  of  boards  are  human  beings,  with 
the  failings  that  attach  themselves  to  such  beings ;  consequently,  the 
superintendent  is  forced  to  devote  a  portion  of  time  to  making  his  views 
and  recommendations*  acceptable  to  the  governing  body.  He  must 
resort  to  diplomacy  that  will  insure  success,  and  is  subject  to  the  charge 
—  justly,  perhaps  —  of  being  a  politician,  or  one  versed  in  the  science  of 
governing  men  and  knowing  how  to  bring  about  the  adoption  of  the 
measures  that  he  proposes.  The  term  may  not  be  an  invidious  one  and 
ought  not,  per  se,  to  give  offense. 

Now,  what  do  we  understand  by  an  organizer  ?  The  term,  as  defined, 
refers  to  one  who  systematizes  the  parts  in  their  special  functions  or  rela- 
tions—  brings  about  a  harmonious  order.  This  definition  carries  with  it 
the  idea  that  the  superintendent  in  his  official  capacity  should  have  a 
voice — and  a  very  strong  one  —  in  those  matters  that  pertain  to  shaping  a 
school  system.  This  view  suggests  the  inquiry  :  How  far  shall  the  super- 
intendent be  permitted  to  go — how  much  shall  he  be  permitted  in  the 
way  of  organizing  the  work  ?     Shall  he  as  the  servant  of  the  board  adhere 


Superintendence]      THE  SUPERINTENDENT  AS  AN  ORGANIZER  289 

to  what  the  board  has  prescribed  so  far  as  the  course  of  study  is  con- 
cerned, and  when  in  doubt  refer  the  matter  back  to  the  board  ;  or  shall  he 
investigate  all  lines  of  study  that  materially  aid  in  the  mental,  moral,  and 
physical  development,  with  the  understanding  that  the  results  of  his 
investigation  shall  be  for  review  by  the  board,  and  then  incorporated  into 
the  course  of  study  ?  This  conception  of  his  power  would  practically 
give  him  the  initiative,  and  that  makes  that  body  a  board  of  review. 

Again,  as  localities  differ  in  their  demands,  it  seems  reasonable  to 
insist  upon  the  right  to  investigate  all  demands  made  upon  the  schools, 
and  no  superintendent  should  be  called  upon  to  make  a  hasty  decision 
for  the  purpose  of  modifying  the  curriculum.  Only  when  that  official  has 
marshaled  his  arguments  by  well-ordered  investigation  and  study  is  he  in 
position  to  show  the  wisdom  of  acceding  to  or  rejecting  the  claims 
advanced.  We  know  too  well  that  the  public  schools  cannot  accept  every- 
thing that  is  thrust  upon  them  from  all  sides.  Therefore,  someone 
must  stand  ready  to  weigh  the  claims,  with  courage,  insight,  and  firmness 
adequate  to  the  separation  of  the  wheat  from  the  chaff,  permitting  only 
such  to  gain  recognition  as  clear  scholarship,  sound  judgment,  and  good 
sense  warrant. 

Our  schools  today  are  suffering  from  an  overcrowding  of  the  course 
of  study.  Too  much  has  crept  in  and  lumbered  it  up  by  reason  of 
immature  deductions.  We  are  now  confronted  with  the  necessity  of  dis- 
carding what  enthusiasts  have  forced  upon  us,  because  they  would 
make  of  the  schools  a  vehicle  for  the  promulgation  of  their'  peculiar 
views. 

The  richness  of  a  course  of  study  consists  in  the  variety  and  increased 
number  of  associations,  in  the  number  of  relations  traceable  —  the 
multiplying  of  sense-impressions;  in  the  initiation  of  new  and  right 
responses,  and  in  accentuating  habituation,  compelling  the  child  to  real- 
ize that  he  is  only  a  unit  in  the  social  aggregation  —  but  not  in  the 
increased  number  of  separate  studies. 

There  are  those  who  would  eliminate  from  the  lower  grades  much  that 
has  been  and  is  considered  essential  on  the  ground  that  it  calls  into  play 
the  smaller  nerve  centers,  too  greatly  intensifying  nerve  action ;  but 
instead  would  provide  a  kind  of  work  that  will  give  greater  scope  to  eye, 
ear,  and  speech,  with  their  accompanying  larger  physical  movements. 

The  newer  sections  of  cities  generously  permit  the  practice  of  profit- 
ing by  the  experiences  and  mistakes  of  the  older.  This  gives  some 
authority  for  the  statement  made  here  that  the  West  is  pre-eminently  the 
place  of  progress ;  at  least,  in  sympathy  for  the  new  it  far  surpasses  the 
East;  therefore,  the  one-man  power  does  not  become  a  "  bone  of  conten- 
tion." The  superintendent  gets  all  the  authority  he  needs,  if  he  is  equal 
to  the  occasion  —  if  the  office  is  not  larger  than  the  man.  You  cannot 
separate  the    office    from    the  individual    holding    it.     Where  there  are 


29©  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Chicago 

"misfits"    no   amount   of   legislation    will    increase   a   superintendent's 
ability  satisfactorily  to  discharge  the  functions  of  his  office. 

If  the  duty  of  the  superintendent  as  an  organizer  lies  permanently  in 
the  direction  of  planning  a  satisfactory  course  of  study,  it  is  nevertheless 
incumbent  upon  him  to  prepare  outlines  that  are  definite,  clear,  and  con- 
cise, but  not  so  minute  as  to  destroy  the  individuality  and  circumscribe 
the  freedom  of  those  who  are  governed  by  them. 

Again,  he  is  especially  charged  with  the  subject  of  classification  and 
grading.  The  individualism  advocated  by  some  is  satisfactory  in  so  far 
as  it  is  under  the  control  of  sound  sense  and  a  competent  instructor. 
Experience  informs  us  that  some  provision  must  be  made  for  dealing  with 
class  instruction,  and  some  attention  accorded  the  recitation  and  study 
periods.  No  classification  is  entirely  satisfactory  that  totally  disregards 
these.  The  accepted  classification  into  several  grades  of  half-year  periods 
is  sufficiently  broad  and  elastic  to  take  care  of  individual  cases.  This  is 
not  a  criticism  upon  the  individualism  presented  to  this  body,  nor  do  I 
wish  to  imply  that  individual  cases  are  always  properly  treated  in  the 
accepted  classification. 

Reports  and  such  secondary  matters  as  enable  pupils,  parents,  and  the 
community  in  general  to  become  acquainted  with  the  progress  and  stand- 
ing of  individual  pupils,  and  thus  with  the  school,  need  little  treatment. 
Some  attention,  however,  must  be  given  to  the  smoothness  with  which  such 
parts  of  the  general  machinery  run.  Touching  this  phase  the  educational 
pendulum  has  swung  from  one  extreme  to  the  other.  All  that  we  can 
expect  is  to  approach  to  the  golden  mean. 

As  organizer  the  superintendent's  attention  is  again  directed  to  the 
question  of  text-books,  apparatus,  and  supplies.  Some  may  feel  that  this 
duty  properly  belongs  to  the  supervisor,  yet  my  interpretation  of  the  office 
leads  to  the  belief  that  it  is  also  part  of  the  business  of  the  organizer. 
All  schools  and  every  child  in  the  school  should  be  provided  with  the 
proper  working  tools,  and  should  have  them  in  as  great  abundance  as  the 
nature  of  the  work  and  the  child's  relation  thereto  require.  We  all  know 
that  the  market  is  flooded  with  all  manner  of  devices,  methods,  helps,  and 
short-cuts,  and  the  superintendent  must  see  that  useless  appliances  do  not 
creep  in.  If  the  selection  of  material  be  left  in  the  hands  of  that  official, 
less  money  would  ordinarily  be  expended  than  if  the  board  acted  without 
his  indorsement  or  recommendation.  A  board  having  confidence  in  the 
judgment  of  the  superintendent  will  generally  refrain  from  acting  until 
it  knows  his  wish  in  the  matter.  I  have,  however,  known  members  of 
boards  who  were  specially  sensitive  to  the  representations  made  to  them  as 
to  the  merit  of  certain  pieces  of  apparatus,  to  become  so  enthusiastic  upon 
the  subject  that  they  championed  vigorously  and  successfully  their  pur- 
chase at  a  time  when  the  superintendent  was  absent.  Several  dollars,  to  my 
knowledge,  have  been  expended  in  purchasing  "  helps"  that  in  themselves 


L 


Superintendence]      THE  SUPERINTENDENT  AS  AN  ORGANIZER  291 

were  not  worth  the  price  of  the  material  of  which  they  were  made.  An 
honest  and  clear-headed  superintendent  will  act  very  cautiously  in  select- 
ing material.  It  is  possible  to  provide  the  teacher  with  too  much  and  so 
circumscribe  the  teacher's  inventive  power. 

The  advantages  of  the  free  text-book  system  are  beyond  question. 
Where  a  state  has  not  granted  such  a  right,  it  is  manifestly  the  duty  of  the 
superintendent  thoroly  to  inform  himself  upon  its  advantages,  and  devise 
some  plan  looking  to  its  gradual  introduction.  He  has  not  performed 
his  whole  duty  unless  he  is  possessed  of  clear  and  accurate  information 
upon  the  matter,  and  has  secured  the  hearty  co-operation  of  the  board 
for  its  adoption.  The  law  creating  boards  and  defining  their  power  might 
be  construed  broadly  enough  for  the  exercise  of  this  right,  altho  not 
directly  referred  to,  if  the  board  could  be  made  to  so  consider  it.  I  would 
not,  however,  go  so  far  as  to  insist  that  the  superintendent  should  famil- 
iarize himself  with  the  advantages  of  the  publishing  business,  or  advocate 
the  board's  entering  into  competition  with  publishing  houses.  A  live, 
energetic,  broad-gauged  superintendent  can  do  much,  and  his  sugges- 
tions will  be  respected. 

The  law  requiring  the  adoption  of  text-books  for  a  definite  period  may 
work  against  the  best  possible  selection.  I  am  of  the  opinion  that  the 
so-called  "  open  list "  is  preferable.  It  makes  it  possible  to  go  into  the 
market  to  make  choice  of  the  kind  of  books  that  give  the  greatest  variety 
and  the  most  and  the  best  for  the  money.  Where  children  are  compelled 
to  purchase  books  it  may  be  out  of  the  question  to  get  many  texts  upon 
the  same  subject,  altho  the  practice,  now  quite  general,  termed  "  extend- 
ing the  supplementary  list,"  is  practically  a  confession  of  the  merits  of  the 
free  text-book  system.  I  see  no  reason  for  turning  over  the  selection  of 
text-books  to  a  committee  of  the  board,  or  to  the  board  as  a  whole,  since 
its  members  are  not  so  vitally  interested  in,  or  so  closely  in  touch  with,  the 
educational  needs.  A  tactful  superintendent  will  not  arrogate  to  himself 
exclusive  power,  but  will  consult  in  some  way  those  upon  whom  he 
depends  for  a  proper  discharge  of  the  work.  It  might  be  well  to  place 
this  matter  in  the  hands  of  a  committee  of  principals  and  teachers,  with 
the  superintendent  as  chairman,  and  then  have  their  recommendations 
passed  upon  by  the  board  of  education.  All  admit  that  no  one  text- 
book contains  all  the  good  or  can  claim  for  itself  exclusive  merit  in  the 
treatment  of  a  subject.  Someone's  judgment  must  be  brought  into  play, 
and  it  properly  belongs  to  the  person  held  responsible  for  the  results,  and 
such  person  should  decide  upon  the  method  that  will  bring  him  the 
greatest  information.  It  is  true  that  in  smaller  systems,  employing  from 
200  to  500  teachers,  very  excellent  results  have  been  secured  by  placing 
the  selection  in  the  hands  of  the  superintendent. 

If  there  is  any  duty  more  responsible,  more  exacting,  or  more  crucial 
than  any  other  which  the  superintendent  is  called  upon  to  perform,  it  is 


292  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Chicago 

the  one  connected  with  the  selection  of  teachers.  If  he  has  not  the 
right  to  say  what  kind  of  teachers  shall  serve  under  him,  or  what  sort 
of  a  corps  he  shall  bring  together  to  carry  out  his  system,  the  results  are 
doubtful.  It  would  therefore  seem  just  and  eminently  fitting  to  put 
into  his  hands  the  power  to  make  the  selection  of  teachers  satisfactory. 
I  cannot  see  how  any  motives  could  actuate  other  than  those  directly 
conducive  to  a  good  working  school  system  upon  the  basis  of  success  and 
hmrmony.  He  is  the  most  interested  person  and  should  be  the  most 
desirous  of  placing  a  premium  upon  scholarship,  character,  and  efficiency. 
If  the  matter  were  left  to  members  who  are  sometimes  closely  related  to  or 
intimately  acquainted  with  some  of  the  applicants,  there  might  uninten- 
tionally creep  in  a  degree  of  favoritism  that  would  in  the  end  be  ruinous. 
If  this  were  not  the  case,  it  might  at  least  work  against  loyalty  and  create 
such  a  state  of  affairs  as  would  jeopardize  the  harmony.  Very  satisfactory 
results  have  been  secured  where  the  superintendent  is  ex  officio  a  member 
of  the  committee  on  teachers,  and  practically  decides  the  selection. 

The  superintendent  should  also  be  familiar  with  matters  pertaining  to 
school  accommodation,  and  should  be  prepared  from  time  to  time  to 
recommend  such  plans  as  will  secure  the  greatest  convenience  for  both 
teachers  and  taught.  He  should  not,  however,  subject  himself  to  the 
charge  of  extravagance.  His  knowledge  need  not  be  that  of  an  expert 
draftsman  or  builder,  but  his  information  should  enable  him  to  recom- 
mend the  most  scientific  accommodations  that  the  limitations  of  the  com- 
munity afford.  His  views  upon  these  matters  should  be  clear  and  well 
defined.  The  district  may  not  be  able  to  provide  ideal  structures  with  all 
the  latest  improvements — these  are  not  absolutely  necessary — but  his 
knowledge  of  what  can  and  may  be  provided  should  lead  to  the  erection 
of  buildings  suited  to  the  community's  financial  limitations — serviceable, 
convenient,  and  reasonably  satisfactory.  One  such  building  erected  will 
give  tone  to  the  whole  and  will  make  it  impossible  afterward  to  erect  any- 
thing of  an  inferior  character. 

Having  thus  minutely  mentioned  some  of  the  duties  connected  with 
the  organizing  phase  of  the  office,  we  may  add  that  the  plan  should  provide 
for  some  way  of  reaching  the  teachers  for  help  and  instruction,  and  should 
not  be  so  exacting  or  rigid  in  its  regulations  as  to  smother  by  over-super- 
vision, but  give  ample  latitude  for  individual  effort. 

Having  defined  a  policy  and  inaugurated  a  system  acceptable  to  the 
board,  he  faces  the  responsibilities  that  attach  to  putting  it  into  practice. 
As  previously  stated,  it  is  difficult  to  differentiate  the  work  of  the  super- 
visor from  that  of  the  executive;  they  so  frequently  overlap.  His  may  be 
a  grand  model,  but  not  on  an  easy-working  basis.  He  may,  indeed,  be 
totally  incapable  of  directing  it,  either  thru  too  great  aggressiveness 
or  because  influenced  too  largely  by  theory  or  not  fully  aware  of  his  limita- 
tions.    In  this  direction  his  mistakes  are  many.     It  is  easy  for  one  to  feel 


\ 


\ 


iuperinteridence]      THE  SVPERINTENbENT  AS  AN  ORGANIZER  ^93 

that  the  deductions  and  conclusions  reached  are  the  only  ones  attainable, 
atid  the  danger  presses  upon  him  of  passing  the  yielding  point,  and  so 
becciming  arbitrary  and  losing  the  opportunity — ^he  maj^  fail  tb  "strike 
while  the  iron  is  hot." 

The  weaknesses  of  the  executive  are  along  the  line  of  diplomacy,  and 
in  the  method  of  approach.  It  is  not  always  what  is  required,  but  the  way 
in  which  it  is  acquired,  that  invites  defeat.  He  finds  it  necessary  to 
placate  all  the  elements — the  board,  the  teachers,  the  parents,  the  child, 
the  community  — in  an  attitude  of  co-operation,  and  must  carefully  weigh 
and  distinguish  between  the  rights  and  privileges  belonging  to  each  of 
these  elements.  Members  of  boards  feel  that  they  are  at  least  partially 
responsible  for  the  success  of  a  system,  and  it  is  easy  to  give  offense  by 
claiming  for  one's  self  all  the  responsibility,  while  concession  in  non- 
essentials would  avoid  friction. 

Boards  should  be  taken  into  a  superintendent's  confidence,  and  vice 
versa,  not  in  any  cringing  or  obsequious  manner.  He  is  no  servant  or 
slave  in  the  worst  sense  of  these  terms,  but  a  man  whose  bearing  and 
action,  as  well  as  his  intelligence,  should  make  him  respected,  and  they 
will  be  if  he  is  acquainted  with  his  own  limitations  and  has  a  good 
working  knowledge  of  human  nature.  The  public  admires  courage 
and  firmness,  and  will  grant  support  when  they  see  it  deserved.  No 
element  must  get  the  upper  hand  of  him,  for  he  is  the  guide  and 
director  and  must  be  obeyed.  Senseless  coercion  and  arbitrary  deci- 
sions are  uncalled  for.  All  may  claim,  and  reasonably,  a  listening  ear, 
no  matter  what  the  complaint,  and  he  must  be  discreet  enough  to 
reserve  judgment  until  he  fully  comprehends  the  situation.  He  need 
not  preach,  but  should  think  and  act  upon  mature  deliberation.  Parents 
and  children  can  be  met  in  a  way  that  will  make  distasteful  and  dis- 
agreeable things  less  so.  Whatever  the  superintendent  does,  he  must 
approach  it  with  his  eyes  open  to  the  consequences,  and  must  realize 
that  only  those  things  should  be  done  that  are  reasonable  and  consist- 
ent. Rumblings  and  discontent  will  be  heard  ;  indeed,  the  system  may 
be  out  of  harmony  so  far  as  individuals  are  concerned  ;  some  may  claim 
that  too  much,  others  that  too  little  is  being  done;  dissatisfaction  may 
arise  between  parents  and  teachers  —  in  fact,  does  arise — and  transfers 
are  asked  on  insufficient  ground.  To  bring  harmony  out  of  such  chaotic 
conditions  is  needful,  and  it  is  his  business  to  see  that  all  the  wheels 
in  this  vast  machinery  run  smoothly,  if  he  maintains  his  reputation  as  an 
executive. 

There  are  two  extremes  to  be  avoided  :  the  negative,  which  is  always 
of  the  Micawber  type,  and  the  sledge-hammer  tyro,  intent  only  upon 
gaining  the  point  seemingly  so  essential,  unwilling  to  consider  both 
sides.  If  he  come  close  to  the  community  in  his  capacity  as  a  private 
citizen,  he  may  readily  inform  himself  upon  the  thoughts  that  are  taking 


294  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Chicago 

root,  and  should  strive  to  be  an  important  factor  in  shaping  these 
thoughts  to  the  most  helpful  solution  of  existing  questions. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  enumerate  the  many  ways  in  which  a  superin- 
tendent may  feel  the  public  pulse.  The  man  who  is  intent  upon  discharging 
his  full  duty  will  find  a  sufficient  number  of  avenues  along  which  he  may 
act,  if  he  only  cares  to  search  for  them.  It  is  impossible  to  give  seriatim 
the  long  catalog  of  particulars  in  which,  as  executive,  he  may  be  called 
upon  to  act.  It  is  only  necessary  to  say  that  whatever  pertains  to  the 
execution  of  his  plans  ;  whatever  he  can  do  to  secure  co-operation  ;  what- 
ever will  bring  the  public  schools  nearer  to  the  public  ;  whatever  will 
enable  him  to  exercise  nice  discrimination  and  keen  judgment,  becomes 
part  of  his  duty  in  the  carrying  out  of  the  system. 

This  presentation  may  be  ideal  —  perhaps  overdrawn  and  imaginary; 
still,  the  best  results  educationally  cannot  be  obtained  until  the  greatest 
freedom  possible  within  reasonable  limitations,  a  more  permanent  tenure 
of  office,  power  commensurate  with  exactions  and  responsibilities,  and 
hearty  support  by  the  public  in  all  things  laudable  are  accorded  this 
functionary  by  public  consent.  Then  may  be  claimed  for  it  what  an  east- 
ern superintendent  has  said  : 

"Whatever  there  is  of  tone,  support,  progress,  or  efficiency,  it  all  con- 
centrates upon  and  radiates  from  the  system  and  character  of  the  superin- 
tendency." 

DISCUSSION 

E.  H.  Mark,  superintendent  of  city  schools,  Louisville,  Ky. — The  organization  and 
government  of  any  system,  commercial,  industrial,  or  social,  must  depend  upon  the  object 
to  be  attained  and  the  nature  of  the  work  to  be  done.  In  the  commercial  world,  when 
any  new  enterprise  is  to  be  launched,  one  or  more  persons  familiar  with  the  details  of  the 
enterprise  are  called  in  to  take  charge  of  its  organization  and  management,  and  business- 
men are  very  careful  not  to  invest  capital  in  the  undertaking  until  assured  that  it  will 
receive  such  expert  service  in  both  its  organization  and  management.  There  is  certainly 
no  enterprise  in  which  the  entire  community  is  so  much  interested,  and  which  bears  so 
directly  on  the  prosperity  of  everyone  in  that  community,  as  the  public-school  system.  I, 
therefore,  take  it  for  granted  that  as  much  care  will  be  exercised  in  the  control  and  man- 
agement of  this  system  as  in  that  of  a  commercial  enterprise. 

If  expert  service  is  required  and  demanded  in  the  ordinary  affairs  of  life,  how  much 
more  will  the  control  of  a  school  system,  which  deals  with  the  destiny  of  the  child,  demand 
intelligent  and  studious  sujjervision  ! 

There  can  be  no  difference  of  opinion  in  regard  to  the  place  the  child  occupies  in 
our  educational  system.  The  sole  purpose  of  the  public-school  system  is  the  greatest 
good  to  the  child,  and  all  legislation,  organization,  and  management  is  directed  to  this 
end. 

School  boards,  supervisors,  principals,  teachers,  courses  of  study,  school  buildings  are 
only  means  to  the  end  to  be  attained.  Who  shall  direct  the  affairs  toward  this  end  has 
been  fully  answered  in  saying  that  this  supervising  work  should  be  intelligently  done. 

With  the  organization  of  school  boards  the  superintendent  has  nothing  to  do.  These 
are  made  by  legislation.     They  are  the  bodies  in  which  all  organization  originates,  and 


Superintendence!     THE  SUPERINTENDENT  AS  AN  ORGANIZER  295 

they  are,  in  most  cases,  the  creators  of  the  office  of  superintendent,  and  as  creators  hold 
control  of  the  office  and  its  duties.  Therefore,  "the  superintendent  as  an  organizer  and 
an  executive  "  will  do  just  what  the  school  board  determines.  This  is  the  real,  not  the 
ideal  condition.  As  to  what  he  ought  to  do  there  can  scarcely  be  any  difference  of  opin- 
ion, but  what  he  will  do  depends  upon  the  character  of  the  board  and  his  own  per- 
sonality. If  the  board  happens  to  be  composed  of  good,  sensible  business-men,  and  not  of 
politicians,  the  superintendent  will  very  probably,  if  he  is  careful  and  thoughtful,  have 
almost  complete  control  of  the  appointment  of  supervisors,  principals,  and  teachers,  and 
he  will  determine  the  course  of  study  to  be  pursued.  His  judgment  and  experience  will 
be  sought  in  determining  the  character  of  all  school  buildings. 

This  is  as  it  should  be.  Expert  work  is  now  being  recognized  in  every  department 
of  the  commercial  world  as  essential  to  the  intelligent  management  of  business  enter- 
prises. So,  in  the  educational  world,  where  the  work  should  be  as  intelligently  managed 
as  in  the  commercial  world,  the  organization  and  management  should  be  placed  in  the 
hands  of  one  who  is  familiar  with  the  work  to  be  done  and  the  purpose  to  be  accomplished 
by  the  work.  To  take  a  child  and  by  means  of  a  course  of  study,  teachers,  school  build- 
ing, books,  and  apparatus  to  bring  him  into  right  relations  to  nature,  the  state,  and  society ; 
to  fit  him  to  be  a  factor  in  the  world  in  which  he  lives ;  to  prepare  him  for  the  com- 
munity life  in  which  he  must  take  a  part ;  to  give  him  a  proper  conception  of  his  rights 
and  the  rights  of  others,  is  not  the  work  of  a  tyro,  and  cannot  be  intrusted  to  unskilled 
hands.  Only  one  who  fully  understands  all  these  relations  and  the  means  of  adapting 
the  child  to  them  can  be  safely  intrusted  with  the  work  of  organizing  and  directing. 

The  mere  adaptation  of  the  child  to  any  particular  work  cannot  determine  a  course 
of  study,  for  no  school  has  the  right  to  determine  what  the  life-work  of  any  child  shall  be, 
and  any  course  of  study  for  a  public-school  system  which  panders  to  a  popular  clamor  for 
a  preparation  for  special  life-work  is  as  false  as  the  one  which  says  that  only  those  things 
shall  be  taught  from  the  text-books  which  a  child  will  have  use  for  in  life.  School  must 
prepare  a  child  for  any  position  in  life,  and  the  course  of  study  must  be  selected  for  the 
purposes  of  mental  discipline,  development,  and  power.  Having  the  accomplishment  of 
all  these  things  in  mind,  it  seems  that  there  can  be  little  doubt  as  to  the  duties  of  a  super- 
intendent as  an  organizer  and  an  executive.  There  are  great  doubts  as  to  the  fitness  of 
school  boards  for  determining  the  policy  of  a  school  system  and  for  answering  many  of 
the  questions  which  present  themselves  in  the  organization  and  management  of  it.  Not 
because  the  members  of  these  boards  are  not  thoroly  reliable  business-men,  fully  com- 
petent to  pass  judgment  upon  matters  connected  with  the  financial  affairs  of  the  system, 
but  because  the  majority  of  the  questions  to  be  decided  are  such  as  require  a  knowledge 
of  principles  not  found  in  the  world  in  which  the  members  of  the  board  are  actively 
engaged  and  to  which  they  have  not  the  time  to  give  the  necessary  study  and  investiga- 
tion. It  is  true  that  many  persons  seek  election  or  appointment  on  school  boards  in  order 
to  secure  the  adoption  into  the  course  of  study  of  a  particular  hobby  or  fad,  which  they 
believe  to  be  the  cure-all  for  all  educational  diseases  and  the  one  thing  necessary  to  the 
proper  education  of  the  children ;  or  it  may  be,  on  the  other  hand,  that  this  election  or 
appointment  is  sought  in  order  that  the  course  of  study  may  be  stripped  of  all  those  things 
which  are  not  "  practical."     In  either  case  great  harm  is  done  to  the  system. 

But  the  faults  just  enumerated  are  not  to  be  found  wholly  in  the  enthusiastic  reform- 
ers on  the  school  boards,  but  if  the  charges  recently  made  in  articles  in  some  of  the  maga- 
zines and  in  some  of  the  papers  read  before  this  body  be  true,  some  of  these  sins  lie  at 
our  own  doors. 

Then,  from  all  the  facts  in  the  case,  it  seems  that  in  the  organization  of  a  school  sys- 
tem there  should  be  two  factors  —  the  school  board  and  the  superintendent.  The  duties 
of  the  two  should  be  correlative  in  nearly  all  the  work.  The  superintendent  should,  as 
the  expert,  submit  plans,  and  the  board  should  legislate  so  as  to  make  these  plans  effect- 
ive.    In  financial  matters  the  board  should  have  entire  control.     In  the  appointment  of 


296  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Chicago 

principals,  teachers,  and  supervisors,  and  in  suggesting  everything  that  pertains  to  the 
educational  side  of  the  system,  the  superintendent  should  have  the  power  of  nomination 
at  least.  There  should  be  no  question  as  to  his  authority  in  directing  the  affairs  of  the 
system  as  to  transfer  of  teachers,  preparation  of  a  course  of  study,  and  the  carrying  out 
of  the  same. 

In  the  erection  of  school  buildings,  the  board  and  the  superintendent  should  consult 
in  regard  to  plans  and  specifications,  but  the  board  alone  should  have  to  do  with  con- 
tracting and  building.  The  duties  of  the  superintendent  should  be  so  clearly  defined  and 
understood,  by  law  if  possible,  that  it  would  be  impossible  for  any  member  of  the  board 
to  interfere  with  him  in  the  performance  of  his  duties.  Nor  should  any  superintendent 
attempt  to  perform  the  duties  clearly  incumbent  on  the  board. 


I 


NATIONAL  COUNCIL  OF  EDUCATION 


CONSTITUTION 


PREAMBLE 


The  National  Council  of  Education  shall  have  for  its  object  the  consideration  and 
discussion  of  educational  questions  of  general  interes-t  and  public  importance,  and  the 
presentation,  thru  printed  reports,  of  the  substance  of  the  discussions,  and  the  conclusions 
formulated.  It  shall*  be  its  object  to  reach  and  disseminate  correct  thinking  on  educa- 
tional questions;  and,  for  this  purpose,  it  shall  be  the  aim  of  the  Council,  in  conducting 
its  discussions,  to  define  and  state  with  accuracy  the  different  views  and  theories  on  the 
subject  under  consideration,  and,  secondly,  to  discover  and  represent  fairly  the  grounds 
and  reasons  for  each  theory  or  view,  so  far  as  to  show,  as  completely  as  possible,  the 
genesis  of  opinion  on  the  subject.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  Council,  in  pursuance  of 
this  object,  to  encourage  from  all  its  members  the  most  careful  statemeni  of  differences  in 
opinion,  together  with  the  completest  statement  of  grounds  for  the  same.  It  shall  further 
require  the  careful  preservation  and  presentation  of  the  individual  differences  of  opinion, 
whenever  grounds  have  been  furnished  for  the  same  by  member^  of  the  Council.  It  shall 
invite  the  freest  discussion  and  embody  the  new  suggestions  developed  by  such  discus- 
sions. Any  member  making  such  suggestion  or  objection  may  put  in  writing  his  view, 
and  the  grounds  therefor,  and  furnish  the  same  to  the  secretary  for  the  records  of  the 
Council.  It  shall  prepare,  thru  its  president,  an  annual  report  to  the  National  Educational 
Association,  setting  forth  the  questions  considered  by  the  Council  during  the  previous 
year,  and  placing  before  the  association,  in  succinct  form,  the  work  accomplished.  It 
shall  embody  in  this  report  a  survey  of  those  educational  topics  which  seem  to  call  for 
any  action  on  the  part  of  the  association.  The  Council  shall  appoint,  out  of  its  own 
number,  committees  representing  the  several  departments  of  education,  and  thereby 
facilitate  the  exchange  of  opinion  among  its  members  on  such  special  topics  as  demand 
the  attention  of  the  profession  or  of  the  public. 

ARTICLE  I  — MEMBERSHIP 

1.  The  National  Council  of  Education  shall  consist  of  sixty  members,  selected  from 
the  membership  of  the  National  Educational  Association.  Any  member  of  the  asso- 
ciation identified  with  educational  work  is  eligible  to  membership  in  the  Council,  and 
after  the  first  election  such  membership  shall  continue  for  six  years,  except  as  hereinafter 
provided. 

2.  fn  the  year  1885  the  Board  of  Directors  shall  elect  eight  members  —  four  members 
for  six  years,  two  for  four  years,  and  two  for  two  years ;  and  the  Council  shall  elect  eight 
members  —  five  members  for  six  years,  two  for  four  years,  and  one  for  two  years;  and 
annually  thereafter  the  Board  of  Directors  shall  elect  five  members  and  the  Council  five 
members,  each  member,  with  the  exception  hereinafter  provided  for  (section  5),  to  serve 
six  years,  or  until  his  successor  is  elected. 

3.  The  annual  election  of  members  of  the  Council  shall  be  held  in  connection  with 
the  annual  meetings  of  the  association.     If  the  Board  of  Directors  shall  fail,  for  any 

297 


298  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [National 

reason,  to  fill  its  quota  of  members  annually,  the  vacancy  or  vacancies  shall  be  filled  by 
the  Council. 

4.  The  term  of  service  of  the  several  members  of  the  Council  chosen  at  the  first 
election  shall  be  arranged  by  the  Executive  Committee  of  the  Council. 

5.  The  absence  of  a  member  from  two  consecutive  annual  meetings  of  the  Council 
shall  be  considered  equivalent  to  resignation  of  membership,  and  the  Council  shall  fill 
vacancies  caused  by  absence  from  the  Council  as  herein  defined,  as  well  as  vacancies 
caused  by  death  or  resignation,  for  the  unexpired  term.  All  persons  who  have  belonged 
to  the  Council  shall,  on  the  expiration  of  their  membership,  become  honorary  members, 
with  the  privilege  of  attending  its  regular  sessions,  and  participating  in  its  discussions. 
No  state  shall  be  represented  in  the  Council  by  more  than  eight  members. 

ARTICLE  II  — QUALIFICATION  FOR  MEMBERSHIP 

All  members  of  the  Council  shall  be  either  life  or  active  members  of  the  National 
Educational  Association. 

ARTICLE  III  — MEETINGS 

There  shall  be  a  regular  annual  meeting  of  the  Council  held  at  the  same  place  as  the 
meeting  of  the  National  Educational  Association,  and  at  least  two  days  previous  to 
this  meeting.  There  may  be  special  ineetings  of  the  Council,  subject  to  the  call  of  the 
Executive  Committee,  but  the  attendance  at  those  meetings  shall  be  entirely  voluntary. 
A  majority  of  the  Council  shall  constitute  a  quorum  for  the  transaction  of  business  at 
any  meeting,  whether  regular  or  called ;  but  any  less  number,  exceeding  eight  members, 
may  constitute  a  quorum  for  the  transaction  of  business  at  the  regular  annual  meeting,  as 
defined  in  this  article. 

ARTICLE  IV  — THE  WORK  OF  THE  COUNCIL 

The  Council  shall,  from  time  to  time,  undertake  to  initiate,  conduct,  and  guide  the 
thoro  investigation  of  important  educational  questions  originating  in  the  Council ;  also  to 
conduct  like  investigations  originating  in  the  National  Educational  Association,  or  any 
of  its  departments,  and  requiring  the  expenditure  of  funds. 

ARTICLE  V  — THE  APPOINTMENT  OF  SPECIAL  COMMITTEES  AND 

EXPERTS 

In  the  appointments  of  special  committees,  and  in  the  selection  of  writers  and 
speakers,  it  shall  be  the  privilege  of  the  Council  to  appoint  such  experts,  whether  mem- 
bers of  the  Council  or  not,  as  are  deemed  best  qualified  to  conduct  investigations. 

ARTICLE  VI  — THE  PROGRAM 

It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  president  of  the  Council  to  prepare,  with  the  assistance 
and  approval  of  the  Executive  Committee,  such  a  program  for  the  annual  meeting  as 
shall  realize  as  fully  as  practicable  the  purposes  for  which  the  Council  was  organized 
and  exists. 

ARTICLE  VII  — STANDING  COMMITTEES 

1.  There  shall  be  three  standing  committees:  an  Executive  Committee,  a  Committee 
on  Membership,  and  a  Committee  on  Educational  Progress. 

2.  The  Executive  Committee  shall  be  composed  of  the  president  of  the  Council  and 
of  three  other  members,  whose  terms  of  office  shall  be  so  arranged  that  one  new  member 
may  be  chosen  each  year,  beginning  with  the  year  1899. 

3.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  Executive  Committee  to  provide  an  annual  program 
by  selecting,  whenever  feasible,  subjects  for  investigation,  and  appointing  committees  to 


Council]  OFFICERS  299 

conduct  such  investigations.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  Executive  Committee  to  cany 
out  the  provisions  contained  in  this  constitution  referring  to  volunteer  and  invited  papers. 
It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  Executive  Committee  to  provide  a  place  on  the  program  for 
the  report  on  any  investigation  which  may  be  ordered  by  the  National  Educational  Asso- 
ciation or  its  departments. 

4.  The  Committee  on  Membership  shall  be  composed  of  the  president  of  the  Council 
and  six  other  members,  whose  terms  of  office  shall  be  so  arranged  that  two  vacancies  may 
be  filled  every  year,  beginning  with  1899. 

5.  There  shall  be  appointed  annually  a  committee  of  one  to  submit,  at  the  next 
meeting,  a  report  on  "Educational  Progress  during  the  Past  Year,"  in  which  a  survey  of 
the  important  movements  and  events  in  education  during  the  preceding  year  is  given. 
This  committee  need  not  be  selected  from  the  members  of  the  Council. 

ARTICLE  VIII  — THE   DUTIES  OF  THE  COUNCIL 

1.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  Council  to  further  the  objects  of  the  National  Educational 
Association,  and  to  use  its  best  efforts  to  promote  the  cause  of  education  in  general. 

2.  The  meetings  of  the  Council  shall  be,  for  the  most  part,  of  a  "  round  table " 
character. 

ARTICLE  IX  — AMENDMENTS 

This  constitution  may  be  altered  or  amended  at  a  regular  meeting  of  the  Council,  by 
a  two-thirds  vote  of  the  members  present,  and  any  provision  may  be  waived  at  any  regular 
meeting  by  unanimous  consent. 

By-laws  not  in  violation  of  this  constitution  may  be  adopted  by  a  two-thirds  vote  of 
the  Council. 


OFFICERS,  STANDING  COMMITTEES,  MEMBERS 


OFFICERS   FOR  1899-1900 

F.  LOUIS  SOLDAN St.  Louis,  Mo President 

ELMER  E.  BROWN Berkeley,  Cal Vice-President 

Miss  BETTIE  A.  BUTTON Cleveland,  O Secretary 

EXECUTIVE  COMMITTEE 

The  President,  ex  officio 

Nicholas  Murray  Butler,  New  York,  N.  Y Term  expires  in  1902 

Elmer  E.  Brown,  Berkeley,  Cal Term  expires  in  1901 

Miss  Lucia  Stickney,  Cincinnati,  O Term  expires  in  iqoo 


OFFICERS    FOR  1900-1901 

CHARLES  M.  JORDAN    Minneapolis,  Minn President 

Miss  BETTIE  A.  DUTTON Cleveland,  O Vice-President 

J.H.PHILLIPS  Birmingham,  Ala Secretary 

EXECUTIVE  COMMITTEE 

The  President,  ex  officio 

Elmer  E.  Brown,  Berkeley,  Cal Term  expires  in  1901 

Nicholas  Murray  Butler,  New  York,  N.  Y Term  expires  in  190a 

Joseph  Swain,  Bloomington,  Ind Term  expires  in  1903 


300 


NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION 


[National 


OFFICERS    FOR   ic)oo-i()Oi  —  continuea 

COMMITTEE  ON  MEMBERSHIP 

C.  H.  Keyes,  Hartford,  Conn Term  expires  in  1901 

E.  C.  Hewett,  Normal,  III Term  expires  in  1901 

J.  M.  Greenwood,  Kansas  City,  Mo Term  expires  in  1903 

J.  H.  Van  Sickle,  Baltimore,  Md Term  expires  in  1903 

W.  T.  Harris,  Washington,  D.  C Term  expires  in  1905 

E.  E.  White,  Columbus,  O Term  expires  in  1905 


1 


MEMBERS 


Note  :    The  letter  "  A  "  following  a  name  denotes  that  the  member  is  of  the  class  elected  by  the  asso- 
ciation; the  letter  "  C,"  by  the  Council. 


Term 

*James  M.  Green,  Trenton,  N.J 

•Augustus  S.  Downing,  New  York,  N.  Y.. 

A.  R.  Taylor,  Emporia,  Kan.    

♦Charles  D.  Mclver,  Greensboro,  N.  C. . . . 

R.  B.  Fulton,  University,  Miss 

George  P.  Brown,  Bloomington,  111.   .... 

*Bettie  A.  Button,  Cleveland,  O 

♦Charles  H.  Keyes,  Hartford,  Conn 

♦William  B    Powell,  Washington,  D.  C. . . 

William  F.  King,  Mt.  Vernon,  la 

♦Charles  F.  Thwing,  Cleveland,  O 

♦Albert  G.  Lane,  Chicago,  111 

♦Edwin  A.  Alderman,  New  Orleans,  La.  . . 
♦Charles  M.  Jordan,  Minneapolis,  Minn.  . . 

♦J.  F.  Millspaugh,  Winona,  Minn 

♦W.  M.  Davidson,  Topeka,  Kan 

♦E.  W.  Coy,  Cincinnati,  O 

♦O.  T.  Corson,  Columbus,  O  

♦James  E.  Russell,  New  York,  N.  Y 

♦Oliver  S.  Westcott,  Chicago,  111 

♦W.  T.  Harris,  Washington,  D.  C 

♦C.  B.  Gilbert,  Newark,  N.J 

♦William  R.  Harper,  Chicago,  111 

♦George  J.  Ramsey,  Richmond,  Va 

♦Charles  R.  Skinner,  Albany,  N.  Y 

Charles  C.  Rounds,  Me  

L.  H.  Jones,  Cleveland,  O 

Elmer  E.  Brown,  Berkeley,  Cal 

♦W.  H.  Black,  Marshall,  Mo 

♦Nicholas  Murray  Butler,  New  York,  N.  Y. 


ex^ 

tres 

A 

1 901 

A 

1901 

A 

1 901 

A 

1901 

A 

1901 

C 

1901 

C 

1 901 

C 

1901 

C 

1 901 

C 

1 901 

A 

1902 

A 

1902 

A 

1902 

A 

1902 

A 

1902 

C 

1902 

C 

1902 

c 

1902 

c 

1902 

c 

1902 

A 

1903 

A 

1903 

A 

1903 

A 

1903 

A 

1903 

C 

1903 

C 

1903 

C 

1903 

C 

1903 

C 

1903 

Tertn 
♦Richard  G.  Boone,  Cincinnati,  O 

F.  Louis  Soldan,  St.  Louis,  Mo 

♦L.  D.  Harvey,  Madison,  Wis 

Frank  Rigler,  Portland,  Ore 

♦Carroll  G.  Pearse,  Omaha,  Neb 

♦Francis  W.  Parker,  Chicago,  111 

♦Mrs.  Josephine  Heermans,  Kans.  City,  Mo. 

♦James  H.  Van  Sickle,  Denver,  Colo 

♦B.  A.  Hinsdale,  Ann  Arbor,  Mich 

N.  C.  Dougherty,  Peoria,  111 

♦W.  H.  Bartholomew,  Louisville,  Ky 

♦Frank  A.  Fitzpatrick,  Boston,  Mass 

♦I.  C.  McNeill,  West  Superior,  Wis 

♦E.  Oram  Lyte,  Millersville,  Pa 

*J.  M.  Greenwood,  Kansas  City,  Mo 

♦Reuben  S.  Bingham,  Tacoma,  Wash 

♦Joseph  Swain,  Bloomington,  Ind 

♦Nathan  C.  Schaeffer,  Harrisburg,  Pa.    ... 
♦Lewis  C.  Greenlee,  Denver,  Colo 

Edward  T.  Pierce,  Los  Angeles,  Cal 

♦James  A.  Foshay,  Los  Angeles,  Cal 

♦J.  H.  Phillips,  Birmingham,  Ala 

♦Emerson  E.  White.  Columbus,  O 

♦James  H.  Baker,  Boulder,  Colo 

♦Oscar  H.  Cooper,  Waco,  Tex 

Lucia  Stickney,  Cleveland,  O 

♦Irwin  Shepard,  Winona,  Minn 

♦Aaron  Gove,  Denver,  Colo 

♦J.  W.  Carr,  Anderson,  Ind 

♦Frank  A.  Hill,  Boston,  Mass 


•^/» 

tres 

A 

1904 

A 

1904 

A 

1904 

A 

1904 

A 

1904 

C 

1904 

C 

1904 

c 

1904 

c 

1904 

c 

1904 

A 

190S 

A 

1905 

A 

190S 

A 

1905 

A 

190S 

C 

1905 

C 

190S 

C 

1905 

C 

1905 

C 

1905 

A 

1906 

A 

1906 

A 

1906 

A 

1906 

A 

1906 

C 

1906 

C 

1906 

C 

1906 

C 

1906 

C 

1906 

HONORARY  MEMBERS 


Earl  Barnes,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 
William  N.  Barringer,  Newark,  N.  J. 
Newton  Bateman.  Galesburg,  111. 
D.  Bemiss,  Spokane  Wash. 
Thomas  W.  Bicknell,  Providence,  R.  I. 
Albert  G.  Boyden,  Bridge  water,  Mass. 
Anna  C.  Brackett,  New  York,  N.  Y. 
John  E.  Bradley,  Jacksonville,  111, 


Edward  Brooks,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 
William  L.  Bryan,  Bloomington,  Ind. 
John  T.  Buchanan,  New  York,  N.  Y. 
Matthew  H.  Buckham,  Burlington,  Vt, 
David  N.  Camp,  New  Britain,  Conn. 
James  H.  Canfield,  New  York,  N.  Y. 
Clara  Conway,  Memphis,  Tenn, 
John  W.  Cook,  De  Kalb,  111. 


♦Present  at  the  meeting  of  the  Council  in  Charleston,  1900. 


Council] 


MEMMJiS 


301 


HONORARY  U^UBE'Si.^  —  continued 


William  J.  Corthell,  Gorham,  Me. 
J.  L.  M.  Curry,  Washington,  D.  C. 
Charles  DeGarmo,  Ithaca,  N.  Y. 
John  Dewey,  Chicago,  111. 
V.  C.  Dibble,  Charleston,  S.  C. 
John  W.  Dickinson,  Newtonville,  Mass. 
Andrew  S.  Draper,  Champaign,  111. 
John  Eaton,  Washington,  D.  C. 
Charles  W.  Eliot,  Cambridge,  Mass. 
George  T.  Fairchild,  Berea,  Ky. 
William  W.  Folwell,  Minneapolis,  Minn. 
W.  R.  Garrett,  Nashville, Tenn. 
Daniel  C.  Gilman,  Baltimore,  Md. 
James  C.  Greenough,  Westfield,  Mass. 
W.  N.  Hailmann,  Dayton,  O. 
G.  Stanley  Hall,  Worcester,  Mass. 
Paul  H.  Hanus,  Cambridge,  Mass. 
Walter  L.  Hervey,  New  York,  N.  Y. 
Edwin  C,  Hewett,  Normal,  111. 
J.  George  Hodgins,  Toronto,  Canada. 
Ira  G.  Hoitt,  Sacramento.  Cal. 
James  H.  Hoose,  Pasadena,  Cal. 
George  W.  Howison,  San  Francisco,  Cal. 
James  L.  Hughes,  Toronto.  Canada. 
Thomas  Hunter,  New  York,  N.  Y. 
Ellen  Hyde,  Framingham,  Mass. 
John  S.  Irwin,  Lafayette,  Ind. 
E.  J.  James,  Chicago,  111. 
Henry  N.  James,  Portland,  Ore. 
E.  S.  Joynes,  Columbia,  S.  C. 
David  L.  Kiehle,  Minneapolis,  Minn. 
Thomas  Ktrkland,  Toronto,  Canada. 
Henry  M.  Leipziger,  New  York,  N.  Y. 
James  MacAlister,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 
Albert  P.  Marble,  New  York,  N.  Y. 
Francis  A.  March,  Easton,  Pa. 
Lillie  J.  Martin,  San  Francisco,  Cal. 
William  H.  Maxwell,  New  York,  N.  Y. 
Charles  A.  McMurry,  De  Kalb,  111, 


Thomas  J.  Morgan,  New  York,  N.  Y. 
Lemuel  Moss,  Minneapolis,  Minn. 
William  A.  Mowry,  Hyde  Park,  Mass. 
Mary  E.  Nicholson,  Indianapolis,  Ind. 
John  M.  Ordway,  New  Orleans,  La. 
Warren  D.  Parker,  Madison,  Wis. 
W.  H.  Payne,  Nashville,  Tenn. 
Selim  H.  Peabody,  Chicago,  111. 
John  B.  Peaslee,  Cincinnati,  O. 
William  F.  Phelps,  Duluth,  Minn. 
Josiah  L.  Pickard,  Iowa  City,  la. 
J.  R.Preston,  Jackson,  Miss. 
John  T.  Prince,  Bo.ston,  Mass. 
William  H.  Ruffner.  Lexington,  Va. 
Ellen  C.  Sabin,  Milwaukee,  Wis. 
Henry  Sabin,  Des  Moines,  la. 
J.  G.  Schurman.  Ithaca,  N   Y. 
H.  H.  Seerley,  Cedar  Falls,  la. 
Edward  R.  Shaw,  New  York,  N.  Y. 
H.  E.  Shepard,  New  York,  N.  Y. 
Edgar  A.  Singer,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 
Euler  B.  Smith,  Athens,  Ga. 
Homer  B.  Sprague,  New  Britain,  Conn. 
J.  W.  Stearns,  Madison,  Wis. 
Thomas  B.  Stockwell,  Providence,  R.  I. 
Grace  Bibb  Sudborough.  Omaha,  Neb. 
John  Swett,  Martinez,  Cal. 
H.  S.  Tarbell,  Providence,  R.  I. 
W.  R.  Thigpen,  Savannah,  Ga. 
H.  S.  Thompson,  Columbia,  Ga. 
L.  S.  Thompson,  Jersey  City,  N.  J. 
Arnold  Tompkins,  Chicago,  111. 
Julia  S.  Tutwiler.  Livingstone,  Ala. 
Delia  L.  Williams,  Delaware,  O. 
J.  Ormond  Wilson,  Washington,  D.  C. 
Lightner  Witmer,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 
H.  K.  Wolfe,  South  Omaha,  Neb. 
C.  M.  Woodward,  St.  Louis,  Mo. 


DECEASED  MEMBERS 


Robert  Allyn 1894 

I.srael  W.  Andrews 1888 

Joseph  Baldwin 1899 

Henry  Barnard 1900 

Norman  A.  Calkins 1895 

Aaron  L.  Chapin  .  1892 

N.  R.  H.  Dawson 1895 

Larkin  Dunton 1899 

Samuel  S.  Greene 1883 

John  M.  Gregory 1898 

Daniel  B.  Hagar 1896 

John  Hancock 1891 

William  D.  Hcnkle 1882 

Elnathan  E.  Higbee 1889 

George  Howland 1892 

H.S.Jones 1900 

Merrick  Lyon 1888 


James  McCosh 1894 

M.  A.  Newell 1893 

Birdseye  G.  Northrop 1898 

Edward  OIney 1886 

Gustavus  J.  Orr 1888 

S.  S.  Parr 1900 

John  D.  Philbrick 1885 

Matilda  S.  Cooper  Poucher 1900 

Zalmon  Richards 1899 

Andrew  J.  Rickofi 1899 

James  A.  Smart 1900 

R.  W.  Stevenson 1893 

EliT.  Tappan 1888 

Charles  O.  Thompson 1885 

James  P.  Wickersham 1891 

S.G.Williams 1900 


302  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [National 


SECRETARY'S   MINUTES 


FIRST  DAY 
FIRST  SESSION.— Monday,  July  9,  1900,  10  a.  m. 

In  the  absence  of  President  F.  Louis  Soldan,  the  Council  was  called  to  order  in  the 
council  chamber  of  the  city  hall  of  Charleston  by  Nicholas  Murray  Butler,  of  the  Executive 
Committee.     On  motion,  Charles  M.  Jordan,  of  Minnesota,  was  appointed  to  the  chair. 

The  absence  of  President  Soldan  was  explained  by  Mr.  Butler.  Letters  of  regret 
for  enforced  absence  from  the  Council  were  read  by  the  secretary  from  Elmer  E.  Brown, 
of  California ;  H.  H.  Seerley,  of  Iowa  ;  L.  H.  Jones,  of  Ohio ;  and  Miss  Lucia  Stickney,  of 
Ohio. 

Aaron  Gove,  of  Colorado,  presented  a  paper  entitled  "  Education  in  the  Colonies." 
Discussion  was  opened  by  W.  T.  Harris,  who  was  followed  by  Emerson  E.  White,  B.  A. 
Hinsdale,  Nicholas  Murray  Butler,  James  M.  Green,  I.  C.  McNeill,  Charles  B.  Gilbert, 
N.  C.  Schaeffer,  and  Francis  W.  Parker.     Mr.  Gove  closed  the  discussion. 

Council  adjourned. 

SECOND  SESSION.— Monday.  July  9,  2  130  p.m. 

The  Council  convened  in  the  council  chamber  of  the  city  hall,  and  adjourned  to  Hiber- 
nian Hall. 

Dr.  W.  T.  Harris  addressed  the  Council  on  "  Small  Intervais  in  Grading  and  Classi- 
fication in  Elementary  Schools." 

Francis  W.  Parker  was  called  upon  to  open  the  discussion,  after  which  the  subject  was 
further  discussed  by  Messrs.  Gove,  Keyes,  and  Bartholomew,  and  closed  by  Dr.  Harris. 

Charles  H.  Keyes,  of  Connecticut,  mentioned  the  recent  death  of  Dr.  Henry  Barnard, 
and  offered  the  following  resolution : 

Whereas,  Hon.  Henry  Barnard,  LL.D.,  long  a  member  of  this  body,  distinguished  thru  rich  service 
to  the  cause  of  education,  in  the  commonwealths  of  Rhode  Island,  Connecticut,  Wisconsin,  and  Maryland,  and 
in  the  honorable  office  of  United  States  Commissioner  of  Education,  died  at  his  home  in  Hartford,  Conn.,  July 
5.  1900; 

Resolved,  That  the  National  Council  of  Education  do,  and  hereby  does,  place  upon  record  its  apprecia- 
tion of  his  devoted  and  fruitful  service  thruout  a  career  without  aparallel  in  the  history  of  American  education, 
and  that  the  profound  sympathy  of  this  body  be  conveyed  to  the  daughters  who  have  cheered  the  declining 
years  of  him  whose  history  is  an  inspiration  to  teachers  thruout  the  land. 

Resolved,  That  copies  of  this  resolution  and  minutes  of  its  disposition  be  transmitted  to  his  daughters  at 
Hartford  and  to  the  public  press  of  that  city. 

Dr.  Harris  seconded-  the  resolution,  and  remarks  were  made  by  Messrs.  White, 
Hinsdale,  and  Keyes. 

The  resolution  was  unanimously  adopted. 

Mr.  Parker  moved  the  appointment  of  a  committee  to  present  a  suitable  memorial  to 
the  work  of  Dr.  Barnard  at  the  next  annual  meeting  of  the  Council.  This  was  seconded 
by  Mr.  Hinsdale,  and  the  subject  was  referred  to  the  Executive  Committee  for  such  action 
as  should  be,  in  its  judgment,  fitting. 

The  second  paper  of  the  afternoon  was  presented  by  James  M.  Greenwood,  of  Mis- 
souri ;  subject,  "  Report  on  High-School  Statistics."  The  paper  was  discussed  by 
Messrs.  Coy,  White,  Hinsdale,  Gilbert,  Schaeffer,  Gove,  Harvey,  and  Van  Sickle. 

The  Committee  on  Nominations  was  then  appointed  as  follows  : 

J.  M.  Greenwood,  Missouri.  Joseph  Swain,  Indiana. 

A.  S.  Downing,  New  York. 

Adjourned. 


i 


i 


i 


Council]  SECRETARY'S  MINUTES  303 

THIRD  SESSION.— Monday,  July  9,  8  :  30  p.  m. 

The  evening  program  consisted  of  an  address  by  Dr.  B.  A.  Hinsdale,  of  the  Univer- 
sity of  Michigan,  and  was  a  report  entitled  "  Progress  of  Education  within  the  Year." 
The  report  was  listened  to  with  marked  interest,  and  at  its  close,  on  motion  of  E.  E. 
White,  of  Ohio,  the  thanks  of  the  Council  were  extended  to  Dr.  Hinsdale  for  his  very 
valuable  paper. 

The  Council  adjourned  to  10  A.  m.  Tuesday. 

SECOND  DAY 
FOURTH  SESSION.— Tuesday,  July  10,  10  a.  m. 

The  Council  convened  in  Hibernian  Hall,  J.  H.  Van  Sickle  in  the  chair. 

President  W.  R.  Harper  of  the  University  of  Chicago  presented  a  personal  report  as 
chairman  of  the  Committee  on  a  National  University. 

Nicholas  Murray  Butler,  by  request  of  Mr.  Harper,  followed. 

Further  remarks  were  made  by  Messrs.  Baker,  Hinsdale,  Schaeffer,  and  by  President 
Swain  of  Indiana  State  University. 

Mr.  Swain  offered  the  following  resolution,  which  was  seconded  by  Mr.  Gilbert : 

Resolved,  That  the  personal  report  of  the  chairman  of  the  Committee  of  this  Council  on  the  Nationa 
University  be  received  and  the  committee  continued,  and  that  the  Council  defer  for  the  present  any  expression 
of  opinion  concerning  the  establishment  of  a  university  at  Washington. 

Richard  G.  Boone,  of  Ohio,  presented  a  paper  on  "  General  Culture  as  an  Element 
in  Professional  Training." 

On  motion  of  I.  C.  McNeill,  the  discussion  of  this  paper  was  deferred,  and  at  12  M. 
the  Council  went  into  executive  session. 

EXECUTIVE  SESSION 

Charles  R.  Skinner  moved  that  the  memorial  to  Dr.  W.  E.  Sheldon,  of  Massachusetts, 
prepared  by  Emerson  E.  White,  of  Ohio,  be  presented  in  printed  form  in  the  annual 
volume  of  proceedings.     Carried. 

Emerson  E.  White  offered  the  following  amendments  to  the  constitution : 

I.  Strike  out  in  Art.  IV  the  words  that  follow  the  word  "  Council "  in  line  2. 

3.  Omit  all  of  Art.  VI  and  substitute  therefor  the  following  provision,  to  wit :  "  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the 
president  of  the  Council  to  prepare,  with  the  assistance  and  approval  of  the  Executive  Committee,  such  a  pro- 
gram for  the  annual  meeting  as  shall  realize  as  fully  as  practicable  the  purposes  for  which  the  Council  was 
organized  and  exists." 

Mr.  Swain  moved  the  postponement  of  the  first  amendment  relating  to  Art.  IV  to  the 
next  annual  meeting.  This  was  carried,  and  Mr.  White's  second  amendment,  after  full 
discussion,  was  unanimously  adopted. 

Mr.  Skinner  moved  that  the  Council  request  the  Board  of  Directors  to  make  provi- 
sion for  furnishing  one  hundred  copies  of  each  paper  read  before  the  Council  to  the 
author  of  such  paper.     Carried. 

Mr.  Baker  moved  that  the  officers  of  the  Council  be  requested  to  invite  members  of 
the  executive  council  of  the  National  Committee  on  University  of  the  United  States  to 
contribute  to  the  discussion  on  a  national  university.  Referred  to  the  Executive  Com- 
mittee with  power  to  act. 

Mr.  Keyes  moved  that  a  committee  of  seven  be  appointed  by  the  chair,  to  be  called  a 
Committee  on  Investigations  and  Appropriations.     Carried. 

The  committee  appointed  at  the  meeting  of  the  Council  at  Los  Angeles,  Cal.,  to  con- 
fer with  the  committee  appointed  by  the  Department  of  Art  Education  of  the  association 
with  reference  to  its  request  for  an  appropriation  of  56oo,  to  assist  said  committee  in 
making  a  report  on  "  The  Basis  for  a  Course  of  Studj  in  Elementary  Art  Education," 
reported  as  follows ; 


304  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [National 

After  conferring  with  the  chairman  of  the  committee  appointed  by  the  Art  Department,  and  after  care- 
ful consideration  of  the  whole  matter,  we  report  adversely  to  the  request. 

(Signed)        Augustus  S.  Downing. 
John  H.  Phillips. 
E.  E.  White  dissenting. 
On  motion,  the  report  was  adopted. 
The  Committee  on  Nomination  of  Officers  submitted  the  following  report : 

For  President — Charles  M.  Jordan,  Minneapolis,  Minn. 
For  Vice-President — Bettie  A.  Dutton,  Cleveland,  O. 
For  Secretary  —  '^.  H.  Phillips,  Birmingham,  Ala. 

To  succeed   Miss  Lucia  Stickney,  member  of  the  Executive  Committee,  whose  term  expires   in  1900, 
Joseph  Swain,  Bloomington,  Ind. 

The  report  was  adopted,  and  the  persons  named  were  declared  unanimously  elected 
for  the  ensuing  year. 

The  Committee  on  Membership  reported  the  following  nominations  for  membership : 

William  B.  Powell,  Washington,  D.  C,  to  succeed  Lightner  Witmer,  Pennsylvania,  for  term  ending 
1901. 

J.  E.  Russell,  New  York  city,  to  succeed  Edward  R.  Shaw,  New  York,  for  term  ending  in  1902. 

O.  S.  Westcott,  Chicago,  111.,  to  succeed  John  W.  Cook,  Illinois,  for  term  ending  in  1902. 

C.  C.  Rounds,  Maine,  to  succeed  Charles  De  Garmo,  New  York,  for  term  ending  in  1903. 

Francis  W.  Parker,  Illinois,  to  succeed  A.  S.  Draper,  Illinois,  for  term  ending  in  1904. 

Mrs.  Josephine  Heermans,  Kansas  City,  Mo.,  to  succeed  William  H.    Maxwell,  New  York,  for  term 
ending  in  1904. 

R.  H.  Bingham,  Tacoma,  Wash.,  to  succeed  Paul  H.  Hanus,  Massachusetts,  for  term  ending  in  1905. 

Lewis  C.  Greenlee,  Denver,  Colo.,  to  succeed  David  L.  Kiehle,  Minnesota,  for  term  ending  in  1905. 

J.  W.  Carr,  Anderson,  Ind.,  to  succeed  H.  H.  Seerley,  Iowa,  for  term  ending  in  1906. 

Frank  A.  Hill,  Massachusetts,  to  succeed  William  E.  Sheldon,  Massachusetts,  for  term  ending  in  1906 

Miss  Lucia  Stickney,  Ohio,  to  succeed  herself,  for  term  ending  in  1906. 

Irwin  Shepard,  Minnesota,  to  succeed  himself,  for  term  ending  in  1906. 

Aaron  Gove,  Colorado,  to  succeed  himself,  for  term  ending  in  1906. 

Charles  H.  Kkves, 
J.  H,  Van  Sickle, 
E.  E.  White, 
J.  M.  Greenwood, 

Committee, 

The  report  was  approved,  and  the  persons  named   declared  members  of  the  Council 
for  the  respective  terms  indicated. 

The  Committee  on  Investigations  and  Appropriations  was  appointed  as  follows : 

B.  A.  Hinsdale,  of  Michigan,  chairman.  Edwin  A.  Alderman,  of  Louisiana. 

N.  C.  Dougherty,  of  Illinois.  A.  S.  Downing,  of  New  York. 

Nicholas  Murray  Butler,  of  New  York.  F.  A.  Fitzpatrick,  of  Massachusetts. 

L.  D.  Harvey,  of  Wisconsin. 

It  was  moved  by  Mr.  Hinsdale,  and  seconded  by  Mr.  Coy,  that  this  committee  be 
clothed  with  authority  to  report  to  the  Executive  Committee  of  the  Council  such  plans  as 
may  seem  desirable,  it  being  the  understanding  that  this  action  be  limited  to  the  present 
question  of  the  proposed  amendment  to  the  constitution. 
Carried. 
Council  adjourned. 

Bettie  A.  Dutton, 

Secretary. 


Council]  EDUCATION  IN  THE  COLONIES  305 


PAPERS  AND  DISCUSSIONS 


EDUCATION  IN  THE  COLONIES 

AARON  GOVE,  SUPERINTENDENT  OF  SCHOOLS,  DISTRICT  NO.  I,  DENVER,  COLO. 

The  successful  accomplishment  of  an  enterprise  depends,  first,  upon 
the  plan  ;  second,  upon  the  execution. 

Public  education  in  the  United  States  has  arrived  at  its  present  condi- 
tion in  the  face  of  a  diversity  of  plans,  and  with  a  still  greater  diversity 
in  execution.  In  truth,  we  have  no  system  of  education  in  the  United 
States.  The  constitutional  prescriptions  of  our  national  government, 
whereby  state  sovereignty  is  one  of  the  chief  limitations,  has  caused  to 
grow  up  during  our  national  life  as  many  units  of  public  educational 
administration  as  we  have  states  in  the  union.  While  in  the  minds  of 
statesmen  this  doctrine  of  state  sovereignty  is  a  necessary  plank  in  the 
foundation  of  our  national  government,  it  is  a  bar  to  the  greatest  prog- 
ress in  some  directions,  among  which  may  be  counted  that  of  the  education 
of  the  common  people.  So  jealous  is  each  state  of  its  rights  that  violence 
has  followed  attempts  to  wield  centralized  power  by  the  Congress  and  by 
the  executive.  In  extreme  cases,  where  human  life  has  been  endangered, 
like  a  scourge  of  yellow  fever,  the  lines  have  been  relaxed  and  the 
government  permitted  to  participate  in  helping  to  save  the  people  from 
disease  or  death,  notwithstanding  the  objection  to  national  interference. 

Educationally  this  interference  has  never  been  permitted ;  and  so 
Massachusetts,  New  York,  Texas,  and  California,  with  all  the  sister-states, 
have  each  from  the  beginning  insisted  upon  non-interference,  and  are 
now  trying  to  execute  educational  plans,  each  adjusted  according  to  the 
notions  of  the  respective  locality  and  the  people  who  have  settled  therein. 
Out  of  this  has  come  a  conglomeration  of  public  schools  so  far  inferior 
in  administration  to  what  has  been  accomplished  in  other  countries,  with 
a  more  direct  and  authoritative  government,  that  one  is  almost  led  to 
regret,  at  any  rate  in  educational  lines,  the  lack  of  power  of  the  nation. 
That  more  power  can  be  delegated  without  weakening  republican  gov- 
ernment is  demonstrated  by  the  educational  administration  in  the  republic 
of  France. 

State  after  state,  having  been  admitted  to  the  union,  has  proceeded 
to  erect,  under  what  appeared  to  them  wise  state  constitutional  limita- 
tions, a  public-school  system.  It  is  true  that  the  excellencies  and  effect- 
iveness of  one  state  have  often  been  imitated  and  appropriated  by 
another,  but  the  weaknesses  and  errors  arising  from  lack  of  comparative 
knowledge   have  also  been  injected  into  our  separate  school  systems  j 


3o6  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATIO'N  [National 

each  state  profiting  not  enough  by  the  experience  of  the  older  states, 
introducing  new,  untried,  unripe,  and  novel  measures  in  conduct  of 
schools ;  instance,  California  legislation  on  text-books. 

One  cannot  refrain  from  contemplating  how  different  would  have  been 
the  result  had  there  been  a  strong  and  authoritative  power  under  the 
direct  control  of  the  nation.  Often  the  errors 'and  mistakes  have  caused 
harm,  when,  if  a  powerful,  central  group  of  experts,  sitting  as  a  commission 
at  the  capital  of  the  country,  could  have  had  the  privilege  and  duty  of 
devising  such  methods  of  administration  as  would  have  been  obligatory 
thruout  the  country,  the  weak  places  would  have  been  strengthened. 

These  limitations  obtain  in  other  directions  as  well  as  in  education, 
but  with  the  exception  of  one  department,  that  of  agriculture,  not  to  so 
great  an  extent.  It  is  conceded  that  the  Post-Office  Department  of  the 
nation  has  arrived  at  a  stage  where  the  functions  and  acknowledged  power 
of  the  officials  and  employes  have  made  that  department  of  our  govern- 
ment admirable,  enjoying  the  confidence  of  the  people  and  the  approba- 
tion of  all.  Now  in  the  frontier  town,  no  matter  how  few  the  people,  the 
postal  authorities  are  supreme,  to  such  an  extent  that  the  authoritative 
uniform,  or  the  insignia  on  the  wagon  or  other  vehicle,  meets  with  a  will- 
ing and  immediate  respect  and  obedience  of  every  citizen. 

Had  the  Post-Office  Department  of  our  country  been  subject  to  the 
limitations  of  the  state-sovereignty  clause  of  our  constitution,  how  differ- 
ent today  would  have  been  that  service! 

The  same  is  true  of  the  administration  of  the  War  Department,  except 
where  embarrassments  and  conflicts  occur  on  account  of  the  same  state- 
rights  condition,  as  demonstrated  in  the  great  Chicago,  Montana,  and 
other  labor  strikes. 

The  Department  of  State,  whose  duties  are  chiefly  with  foreign  powers 
rather  than  with  internal  problems,  is  farther  removed  from  the  people, 
and  its  supreme  authority  is  exercised  usually  without  cavil. 

Since  the  erection  of  the  Bureau  of  Education  as  an  attachment  to 
the  Department  of  the  Interior  we  have  had  an  institution  which  in  any 
other  country  would  be  but  a  clerical  statistical  adjunct,  the  efficiency  of 
which  has  been  attained  and  maintained  solely  because  of  the  singular 
good  fortune  of  having  the  present  incumbent  for  the  Commissioner  of 
Education.  Without  him  who  dare  say  what  would  be  the  condition  of  the 
bureau  ?     In  any  other  country  it  would  scarcely  be  permitted  to  exist. 

The  Department  of  the  Interior,  from  the  nature  of  its  foundation  and 
powers,  has  ever  been  beset  with  quarrels  and  bickerings.  It  is  a  depart- 
ment that  offers  opportunities  for  intrigue  in  appointments,  for  illegiti- 
mate financial  gain  to  employes,  and  includes  within  its  scope  many 
delicate,  difficult,  and  annoying  problems. 

Perhaps  the  Bureau  of  Education  at  its  inception  could  have  been 
placed  within  the  lines  of  no  other  one  of  the  national  departments.     It 


Council]  EDUCATION  IN  THE  COLONIES  307 

has  its  place  in  the  Department  of  the  Interior,  and  we  point  to  it  as  an 
instrument  theoretically  for  the  assistance  of  the  public  education  of  the 
country;  it  has  no  lawful  authority;  it  is  permitted  to  advise,  and  has 
allotted  to  it  a  pittance  for  the  work. 

We  can  hope  for  no  positive  general  advance,  assisted  by  the  nation, 
along  public-school  lines,  unless  the  central  organizing  bureau  shall  be 
given  power  to  execute.  It  is  agreeable  and  helpful  to  go  to  a  friend  for 
advice,  and  so  the  country  is  permitted  to  ask  the  Bureau  of  Education 
for  advice,  but  only  advice  ;  and  there  must  ever  be  a  large  number  of 
people  who,  either  from  ignorance  or  intent,  refrain  from  asking  for 
advice.  And  so  the  bureau  stands  as  a  disseminator  of  such  educational 
knowledge  as  it  has  means  and  opportunity  to  give  ;  scattering  with  good 
effect  its  reports,  lectures,  and  counsel.  But  this  effect  is  far  from  what 
it  would  be,  were  that  authority  behind  it  which  compels  compliance. 

The  squandering  of  millions  of  dollars  of  money  in  unhealthful  and 
poorly  constructed  schoolhouses,  and  in  the  conduct  of  execrable  schools, 
because  the  community  in  which  they  are  neither  cares  nor  knows  what 
would  be  better,  would  be  prevented  could  national  law  reach  them. 

To  some  of  us  it  was  a  sad  commentary  on  the  intelligence  and  patri- 
otism of  our  nation  when  the  Congress,  after  resisting  repeated  attempts 
to  establish  a  national  department  of  education,  whereby  the  people  could 
be  elevated  more  effectively  to  the  plane  of  intelligent  citizenship,  did 
erect  a  Department  of  Agriculture,  because  money  and  the  greater 
increase  of  material  value,  appealing  to  the  commercial  side  of  the  legis- 
lators, persuaded  them  that  property  and  the  increased  product  of  our 
country  were  of  more  value  to  the  nation  than  increased  brain-power  and 
greater  directive  ability  of  the  people. 

Today  we  hear  whispers  of  the  erection  of  another  department,  for 
which  the  same  reasons  are  urged  —  increase  in  the  value  of  the  output  of 
the  people.  I  refer  to  the  Department  of  Mining.  Without  question  the 
erection  of  a  department  of  mining,  as  that  of  agriculture,  is  to  be  of 
advantage,  great  advantage,  to  the  nation ;  altho  it  cannot  be  hoped  that 
even  a  department  of  raining  can  overstep  the  constitutional  limitations 
in  regard  to  the  details  of  the  construction  of  a  mine,  since  only  the 
state  government  has  that  right. 

From  these  statements  I  conclude  that  education  in  our  colonies  offers, 
for  the  first  time  in  the  history  of  the  country,  an  opportunity  to  demon- 
strate to  ourselves  and  to  the  world  what  a  national  system  of  education 
may  be  under  national  control.  We  have  all  the  experience,  all  the  intel- 
ligence, and  all  the  expert  educational  brains  of  the  world  at  our  service. 
In  these  United  States  are  schoolmasters,  superintendents,  and  administra- 
tors of  educational  affairs  who  are  the  peers,  if  not  the  superiors,  of  any 
in  the  educational  world.  So  far  each  has  worked  independently,  culti- 
vating his  own  narrow  domain  within  his  respective  state. 


3o8  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [National 

And  now  the  time  is  upon  us  when  from  this  mass  of  disciplined, 
competent,  and  eflficient  material  can  be  selected  a  commission  in  which 
may  exist  a  powerful,  educational,  directive  force.  To  concentrate,  unify, 
and  co-ordinate  the  knowledge  and  experience  of  such  a  body  insures  a 
product  of  the  combined  technical  expert  ability  of  the  nation. 

I  am  of  the  opinion  that  the  Department  of  the  Interior  is  not  the 
best  source  of  power  for  the  execution  of  a  plan  for  education  in  the  colo- 
nies, because  of  its  lack  of  cohesiveness,  and  its  varied  and  large  field  of 
action. 

The  War  Department,  from  the  nature  of  its  duties,  from  the  fiber  of 
its  organization,  and  on  account  of  the  acknowledged  military  necessity 
of  prompt  obedience  to  orders,  and  on  account  of  its  clean  record — and 
I  say  this  notwithstanding  the  few  lapses  that  have  been  made  by  army 
officers  in  financial  conduct  —  would  seeril  to  be  the  most  appropriate 
department  under  which  to  place  the  execution  of  any  plan  for  education 
in  the  colonies. 

I  propose:  first, a  commission,  erected  by  competent  authority,  whose 
tenure  of  office  may  be  unlimited  ;  a  commission  selected  from  eminent 
men  who  have  distinguished  themselves  in  the  separate  lines  of  public 
education,  including  elementary  schools,  high  schools,  colleges,  schools 
both  on  public  and  private  foundations ;  not  a  commission  made  of 
theorists;  not  a  commission  made  of  men  who  can  write  and  speak  well 
only;  not  men  distinguished  as  jurists,  generals,  diplomats,  divines,  or 
financiers;  but  of  men  born,  bred,  and  trained  on  the  public  educational 
platform  ;  said  commission  to  be  organized  with  the  present  Commis- 
sioner of  Education,  Hon.  William  T.  Harris,  as  president. 

I  would  have  such  a  commission  so  constituted  as  to  include  all  edu- 
cational specialties  ;  I  would  have  the  commission  at  the  outset  make 
plans,  map  out,  as  definitely  as  does  the  general  before  the  battle,  all  pos- 
sible and  probable  movements  in  the  campaign  ;  because  upon  the  first 
five  years  of  this  work,  upon  these  plans  and  propositions,  depend  the 
educational  lives  of  the  colonists.  By  such  plans,  mistakes  and  blunders, 
and  the  dissipation  of  funds,  will  largely  be  avoided,  and  the  prosperity 
and  success  of  the  generation  which  shall  succeed  the  present  will  be 
assured. 

This  commission  should  have  for  its  executive  the  War  Department; 
a  department  made  up  of  men  born,  bred,  and  trained  to  act  without 
question  ;  men  who  never  hesitate  to  do  as  they  are  told  to  do,  never 
thinking  to  turn  and  ask  "  Why  ?  "  men  who  move  promptly  at  command, 
and  who  execute  according  to  written  orders;  men  disciplined  in  execu- 
tion ;  men  who  lose  no  time  in  bickering  when  something  is  to  be  done; 
who  proceed  immediately  to  the  work  in  hand ;  who  have  no  political 
debts ;  whose  official  lives  are  assured ;  who  have  little  temptation  to 
swerve  from  duty. 


Council]  EDUCATION  IN  THE  COLONIES  309 

To  come  down  to  the  common,  plain  statement  of  one  notion  with 
regard  to  education  in  the  colonies  upon  which  so  much  depends,  and 
about  which  the  action  of  the  United  States  for  five  years  will  deter- 
mine the  prosperity  of  a  century  of  these  people,  I  would  have  com- 
petent national  authority  erect  and  make  provision  for  maintaining  an 
educational  commission  with  ample  power  and  ample  means  for  the 
task. 

Secondly,  I  would  establish  such  relations  between  that  commission 
and  the  War  Department  as  shall  bring  the  latter  to  the  former  as  its 
official  executive. 

Thirdly,  all  details  with  regard  to  administration  and  appointments  in 
the  colonies  and  means  for  carrying  on  the  work,  providing  for  inde- 
pendent financial  expenses  there  after  the  first  few  years,  should  rest  within 
the  province  of  the  commission. 

Such  an  educational  commission  for  the  colonies,  unhampered  by 
office-seekers,  unembarrassed  by  financial  manipulators,  responsible  only 
to  the  power  that  appointed  them,  with  assurance  of  permanency  of  tenure, 
in  five  years  would  enable  the  United  States  to  erect  a  truly  national 
system  of  public  education,  which  would  stand  before  the  world  different 
from  any  other  —  a  combination  of  the  excellencies  of  all  the  states  of  the 
union,  and  an  enterprise  of  which  civilization  can  show  no  counterpart, 
because  the  conditions  of  our  country,  the  government  and  constitution 
of  our  country,  the  inter-citizenship  relations  of  our  country,  are  new, 
unprecedented,  and  peculiar. 

I  have  assumed  in  this  paper  —  as  I  have  a  right  to  —  that  but  one 
opinion  exists  thruout  the  United  States  with  regard  to  the  desirability  and 
necessity  of  educating  the  people  of  the  colonies.  I  assume  that  no  man 
lives  who  would  not  give  to  every  person  in  the  colonies  an  education 
equivalent  to  that  which  is  obtained  in  the  common  schools  of  our  states. 
I  was  asked  to  present  my  notion  ;  I  appreciate  that  it  is  the  notion  of  one 
who  has  had  no  opportunity  for  consultation  or  comparison  of  views,  and 
who,  so  far,  has  been  unable  to  read  in  the  public  print  anything  of 
special  value  along  the  line  of  an  organization  of  governmental  or 
directory  force  that  promises  a  unified  and  effective  plan. 

The  danger  appears  to  me  to  be  that  in  common  with  so  many  of  our 
national  enterprises,  namely,  the  danger  of  swapping  or  changing.  How 
much  misfortune,  and  even  disaster,  has  come  upon  the  most  important 
issues  in  our  country  on  account  of  a  disposition,  and,  unfortunately,  the 
power,  to  swap  horses  when  crossing  a  stream  !  Generals  about  to  be 
victorious  have  been  removed  on  the  very  morn  of  action.  In  the  great 
affairs  of  the  Department  of  the  Interior,  not  only  concerning  the  Indians 
and  Alaska,  but  in  other  directions,  a  successful  culmination  of  plans  has 
been  thwarted  because,  sometimes  thru  intrigue  and  sometimes  thru  hon- 
esty—  and   ignorant  honesty  is  quite  as  bad   in   results  as  intrigue — 


3IO  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [National 

executors  of  the  work  have  been  removed  and  others  put  in  their  place 
who  have  been  compelled  to  institute  proceedings  de  novo. 

The  law  temporarily  to  provide  a  civil  government  for  Porto  Rico, 
recently  enacted  by  Congress  and  now  in  force,  refers  to  a  commissioner 
of  education  to  be  appointed  by  the  president  of  the  United  States,  con- 
firmed by  the  Senate,  who  shall  superintend  public  instruction  thruout 
Porto  Rico.  A  provision  is  contained  whereby  reports  from  that  com- 
missioner, such  as  are  required  by  the  Commissioner  of  Education  of  the 
United  States,  shall  be  annually  transmitted  thru  the  Commissioner  of 
Education  of  the  United  States  to  Congress,  without  assigning  to  the 
commissioner  one  jot  of  authority  or  power. 

Furthermore,  in  sec.  40  it  is  provided  tha|  "a  commission  to  consist 
of  three  members,  one  of  whom  shall  be  a  native  citizen  of  Porto  Rico, 
is  established  by  the  president  of  the  United  States."  Among  the  duties 
of  said  commission,  which  includes  a  compilation  and  revision  of  the 
laws  of  Porto  Rico,  is  an  incidental  clause  to  the  effect  that  said  commis- 
sion is  to  inaugurate  a  general  system  of  education  and  public  instruc- 
tion, and  provide  buildings  and  funds  therefor.  It  would  seem  that  the 
educational  interests  of  the  colony  under  this  law  are  given  remote  and 
unpromising  attention.  A  commission  made  up,  as  is  this  commission,  of 
three,  to  make,  compile,  and  revise  laws  of  Porto  Rico,  by  the  nature  of 
its  constitution  can  scarcely  be  equal  to  the  inauguration  of  a  general 
system  of  education. 

The  history  of  the  last  Congress  and  a  notable  investigation  of  the 
schools  of  the  District  of  Columbia  by  a  special  committee  of  the  United 
States  Senate,  the  pamphlet  of  which,  making  up  350  pages,  has  been 
placed  before  us,  present  a  remarkable  instance  of  eminent  senators 
undertaking  to  deal  in  detail  with  special  school  interests  with  which  the 
examining  authority  is  not  familiar.  Emphasis  must  be  placed  upon  the 
ability  of  experts,  and  when  an  eminent  senator,  like  the  senator  from 
Nevada,  places  before  the  country  such  an  extraordinary  report  as  that  to 
which  reference  is  made,  the  reason  for  skilled  investigation  is  made  more 
evident. 

That  part  of  the  law  referring  to  the  educational  interests  of  Porto 
Rico,  while  perhaps  quite  as  satisfactory  as  has  been  "possible  to  devise  in 
the  short  time  that  the  problem  has  been  before  the  country,  is  the  begin- 
ning of  what,  it  is  trusted,  may  result  in  what  a  national  system  of  educa- 
tion unhampered  by  state  rights  can  be. 


DISCUSSION 


[reported   by  I,   C.   MCNEILL] 

Dr.  William  T.  Harris  was  not  in  full  accord  with  Superintendent  Gove  on  the 
matter  of  a  national  system  of  education.  He  placed  stress  upon  individual  initiative* 
but  acknowledged  the  benefit  of  smaller  units  of  centralized  power.     He  agreed  in  the 


Council]  EDUCATION  IN  THE  COLONIES  311 

main  with  the  essayist  on  the  advisability  of  placing  colonial  education  under  the  enfor- 
cing hand  of  the  War  Department,  yet  he  placed  a  high  value  on  independent  commis- 
sions to  manage  the  affairs  of  our  newly  acquired  possessions.  Education  in  letters 
should  precede  industrial  education.  Dr.  Harris  explained  his  acts  in  the  matter  of 
starting  public  education  in  Porto  Rico  and  Manila.  Local  self-activity  under  intelligent 
guidance  is  safe  in  our  colonies. 

Emerson  E.  White,  of  Ohio, -explained  that  the  Bureau  of  Education  as  first 
created  was  an  independent  department.  He  would  not  be  in  accord  with  any  notion 
which  would  bring  state  or  district  systems  under  the  authority  of  the  Bureau  of  Education. 
Ideals,  not  legislation,  measure  educational  progress  in  the  United  Statae.  The  Ameri- 
can idea  of  training  the  individual  for  his  own  good  was  contrasted  with  the  fundamental 
idea  in  France  and  in  Germany,  where  the  individual  is  trained  for  the  good  of  the  gov- 
ernment. The  cause  of  education  in  our  colonies  will  be  solved  by  elevating  the  masses 
to  a  comprehension  of  the  idea  of  independent  self-help.  The  English  language  should 
be  taught  wherever  our  flag  floats. 

B.  A.  Hinsdale,  of  the  University  of  Michigan,  said  that  the  paper  that  had  been 
read  and  the  remarks  that  had  been  made  upon  it  showed  very  clearly  that  the  subject 
was  a  large  one,  taking  hold  of  our  characteristic  national  ideas,  traditions,  and  institu- 
tions. All  questions  in  relation  to  educational  system  and  organization  must  be  con- 
sidered, if  considered  wisely,  in  connection  with  all  congruous  facts.  Above  all,  such 
questions  must  take  into  account  our  political  institutions  and  political  spirit.  This  is  a 
republican  country,  and  our  people  are  democratic  in  ideas  and  temper,  and  it  would  be 
idle  to  attempt  to  set  up  a  highly  centralized  educational  organization,  such  as  is  found 
in  the  German  states  and  in  France.  As  had  been  said,  we  emphasize  local  political  insti- 
tutions.  Still  it  must  be  remembered  that  general  ideas  and  general  control  are  neces- 
sary to  unity  and  to  high  efficiency.  There  are  two  extremes,  both  of  which  are  to  be 
avoided.  While  it  would  be  unwise  to  attempt  to  set  up  a  highly  centralized  educational 
system  and  administration  in  the  United  States,  it  may  well  be  that  more  power  than  at 
present  could  be  given  to  our  central  educational  authorities  with  much  advantage.  Mr. 
Gove  was  in  error  when  he  said  that  the  acquisition  of  our  recent  political  or  colonial 
dependencies  afforded  the  first  opportunity  for  setting  up  a  national  educational  system  and 
administration.  The  establishment  of  the  land-grant  educational  policy  by  Congress  at 
the  close  of  the  last  century  and  the  beginning  of  this  one  afforded  an  opportunity  for  that 
body  to  take  such  action.  The  question  was  raised  at  the  time,  but  not  very  fully  dis- 
cussed—  the  question,  viz.,  how  the  educational  lands  should  be  handled  and  the  avails  or 
proceeds  applied  to  their  destined  object.  Congress,  after  considering  the  subject,  deter- 
mined, when  it  enacted  the  law  authorizing  the  people  of  Ohio  to  frame  a  state  constitu- 
tion and  government,  to  vest  the  educational  lands  that  fell  to  that  state  in  the  state 
legislature,  and  the  precedent  has  been  followed  in  every  succeeding  instance.  At  that 
time  Congress  could  have  established  what  is  now  called  a  "  national  system,"  but  does 
anybody  dream  that  it  would  have  been  wiser  for  Congress  to  have  taken  such  action  than 
to  do  what  it  did  do  ?  Probably  nobody  is  ready  to  answer  that  question  in  the  affirma- 
tive. At  the  same  time,  it  may  well  be,  as  already  remarked,  that  the  time  has  come  for 
strengthening  our  central  educational  administrations. 

Mr.  Hinsdale  then  spoke  of  General  Garfield's  relation  to  the  National  Bureau  of 
Education.  It  was  well  known  that  the  enacting  of  the  law  creating  the  department  of 
1867,  now  the  bureau,  was  due  to  General  Garfield  far  more  than  to  any  other  man,  at 
least  in  Congress.  The  fact  was  he  carried  it  thru  the  House  of  Representatives  very 
largely  by  his  own  strength.  This  was  generally  understood.  It  was  not,  however,  as 
generally  understood  that  it  was  his  vigilant  defense  of  what  had  been  done  that  saved 
the  bureau  in  after-years.  Garfield  believed  in  the  bureau  thoroly,  and  he  was  the  bet- 
ter able  to  defend  it,  and  to  save  it  when  it  might  have  been  lost,  for  the  reason  that 


312  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [National 

he  was,  for  a  number  of  years,  chairman  of  the  committee  on  appropriations  of  the  House 
of  Representatives. 

Mr.  Green,  of  New  Jersey,  asked  Mr.  Gove  to  explain  his  position  relative  to  the 
commission  proposed  and  its  relations  to  the  War  Department,  suggesting  the  idea 
that  the  proper  function  of  the  War  Department  was  to  fight,  not  to  attempt  the  educa- 
tion of  the  people. 

Dr.  Harris  explained  the  legal  status  of  education  in  Cuba  in  pointing  out  the  fact 
that  the  military  governor  is  necessarily  the  power  over  the  schools  of  that  island. 

Mr.  Green  indicated,  in  answer  to  a  question  by  Mr.  Hinsdale,  that  emergencies, 
and  not  a  national  policy,  properly  put  the  direction  of  education  in  the  colonies  where 
it  now  rests. 

Mr.  Schaeffer,  of  Pennsylvania. — The  military  period  of  school  administration 
has  ended  in  Porto  Rico,  and  probably  in  some  of  the  other  colonial  possessions.  The 
president  of  the  United  States  has  appointed  as  commissioner  of  the  schools  of  Porto 
Rico  one  of  the  wisest  educators  of  this  age.  Dr.  Martin  G.  Brumbaugh,  of  the  University 
of  Pennsylvania,  who  will  shape  the  policy  of  the  schools  in  that  island  for  several  years 
to  come. 

EDUCATIONAL   PROGRESS  DURING    THE    YEAR  1 899-1900 

B.  A.  HINSDALE,  PROFESSOR  OF  THE  SCIENCE  AND  THE  ART  OF  TEACHING 
IN  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  MICHIGAN 

It  is  perhaps  hardly  necessary  to  observe  that  to  present  a  general  view 
of  the  educational  work  done  in  the  interval  between  two  annual  meetings 
of  this  body  —  a  view  that  shall  be  at  once  effective  and  true  —  is  no  slight 
task.  First  comes  the  selection  from  the  whole  mass  of  material  of  such 
facts  as  typify  or  represent  the  work  of  the  year  —  showing  at  least  the 
lines  along  which  things  have  moved  —  and  then  the  combination  of  these 
facts  into  a  conspectus  or  picture.  In  the  present  case  the  selection  of 
such  facts  has  not  been  found  easy,  while  the  discovery  of  centers  of  unity 
about  which  they  might  be  grouped  has  been  positively  difficult  or  even 
impossible.  Everything  considered,  it  has  seemed  best  to  give  over  the 
search  for  unifying  principles  and  simply  to  group  the  facts  that  have 
been  chosen  under  the  most  fitting  heads.  Moreover,  these  heads  may 
as  well  be  announced  in  the  beginning. 

1.  Remarks  on  three  or  four  phases  of  public-school  history  as  a  whole. 

2.  Secondary  schools,  especially  in  connection  with  colleges  and  uni- 
versities. 

3.  Higher  education. 

4.  Some  educational  developments  in  England  and  Germany. 

5.  Educational  literature. 

And,  finally,  a  glance  backward  from  the  close  of  the  century  to  its 
beginning. 

The  friends  of  educational  reform  in  Boston  renewed  the  last  winter 
their  former  unsuccessful  attempts  to  effect  changes  in  the  school  organi- 
j^ation  of  that  city.     They  urged  upon  the  general  court  the  passage  of 


Council]  EDUCATIONAL  PROGRESS  DURING  THE  YEAR  313 

two  bills,  one  to  reorganize  the  school  committee  and  the  other  to  consti- 
tute a  schoolhouse  department  for  the  city.  The  effort  appears  to  have 
been  unique  in  this,  that  the  conduct  of  the  schools  and  the  provision 
of  the  schoolhouses  were  tS  be  intrusted  to  authorities  wholly  distinct 
and  separate.  The  first  of  the  two  bills  recognized  the  ideas  upon  which 
so  much  insistence  has  been  placed  by  reformers  in  recent  years,  viz.,  the 
separation  of  the  legislative  and  executive  powers,  the  separation  of  the 
educational  and  business  functions,  the  centralization  of  power  and 
responsibility,  the  intrusting  of  executive  duties  to  men  having  expert 
knowledge  of  the  duties  to  be  performed,  and  the  strengthening  of  the 
hands  of  the  superintendent  of  schools.  The  most  original  feature  of  the 
plan  was  the  creation  of  a  school  faculty,  consisting  of  the  superin- 
tendent, the  assistant  superintendent,  and  thirty  masters  or  teachers,  or 
such  larger  number  as  the  school  committee  might  from  time  to  time 
provide,  elected  from  and  by  the  teachers  of  the  public  schools  of  the 
city,  care  being  taken  to  secure  the  representation  of  every  grade  of 
instruction  and  of  every  school  that  might  fall  outside  of  the  regular 
grades ;  such  faculty  to  serve  without  extra  compensation  and  to  consider 
educational  subjects,  including  such  as  are  disciplinary  and  sanitary,  and 
to  make  such  reports  and  recommendations  to  the  school  committee  as  it 
should  deem  proper.  The  superintendent,  in  addition  to  appointing  and 
removing  teachers  with  the  consent  of  the  committee,  should  have  the 
determination  of  the  course  of  study,  and,  by  and  with  the  advice  and 
consent  of  a  committee  of  five  appointed  by  him  annually  from  the  school 
faculty,  the  selection  of  text -books  and  the  apparatus  to  be  used  in 
teaching. 

These  bills  were  referred  by  the  committee  on  education  to  the  next 
general  court.  Chief  among  the  reasons  that  have  been  assigned  for 
their  failure  are  the  opposition  of  the  present  school  committee,  the  hos- 
tility of  the  Republican  and  Democratic  party  machines,  and  the  want  of 
suitable  organization  on  the  part  of  the  reformers.  It  is  evident,  also,  that 
the  people  of  the  city  have  not  yet  been  brought  up  to  the  point  of  call- 
ing for  the  enactment  of  such  measures.  The  reformers,  however,  pro- 
pose to  continue  the  agitation,  concentrating  their  efforts,  for  the  present, 
upon  the  schoolhouse  commission  bill ;  and  one  of  them,  in  a  personal 
letter,  avows  a  strong  belief  in  their  complete  ultimate  success.  However 
that  may  be,  the  proposition  to  assign  to  the  teaching  body,  thru  its 
representatives  in  a  school  faculty,  a  new  importance  in  carrying  on  the 
schools  of  a  city  is  deserving  of  more  consideration  than  it  has  yet 
received. 

At  the  same  session  the  general  court  did,  however,  pass  a  law 
requiring  the  supervision  of  schools  by  stated  superintendents  for  every 
town  and  city  in  the  state.  The  smaller  towns  are  authorized  to  form 
unions  or  districts  for  this  purpose,  each  union  or  district  to  employ  a 


k 


314  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [National 

superintendent  at  a  minimum  salary  at  $1,500,  of  which  the  state  is 
pledged  to  pay  one-half.  The  law  is  permissive  only  until  July  i,  1902, 
but  after  that  it  is  mandatory  for  three  years.  This  act  is  in  line  with 
other  forward  steps  that  have  been  recently  Aken  by  the  Bay  State.  Every 
town,  irrespective  of  population,  is  now  required  to  furnish  a  free  public 
high  school ;  the  normal  schools  have  all  been  placed  above  the  high 
schools,  the  requirement  for  admission  including  a  four-year  high-school 
course  or  its  equivalent,  and  an  examination  in  the  branches  included  ; 
while  the  consolidation  of  feeble  schools  into  stronger  schools  has  become 
the  policy  of  the  smaller  towns. 

The  new  charter  for  the  city  of  Baltimore,  which  took  effect  the  first 
day  of  last  March,  wholly  remodeled  the  school  system  of  the  city.  It 
abolished  ward  representation  and  set  up  a  board  of  education  consisting 
of  nine  members,  appointed  from  the  city  at  large  by  the  mayor  for  a 
term  of  six  years,  two  going  out  each  year.  The  city  council  appropriates 
money  for  the  schools,  basing  the  amount  appropriated  on  the  board's 
estimates,  but  the  board  spends.it  without  dictation.  The  superintendent 
of  instruction  nominates  teachers  from  graded  lists  based  on  examina- 
tions ;  he  also  names  the  members  of  the  examining  board  and  is  chair- 
man of  the  sam'e.  The  board  of  education  may  reject  any  nomination  so 
made,  in  which  case  the  superintendent  presents  another  name,  the 
board  being  denied  the  power  to  substitute  one  name  for  another.  Each 
school  shall  have  one  or  more  school  visitors,  selected  from  among  those 
living  or  doing  business  within  half  a  mile  of  the  school.  The  duties  of 
these  visitors  are  advisory  to  the  board  and  superintendent,  and  are  in  no 
sense  clothed  with  authority. 

The  new  school  organization  for  the  city  of  Indianapolis  provided  for 
by  the  act  of  March,  1899,  has  been  put  in  motion  and  seems  to  be  work- 
ing satisfactorily. 

The  medical  examination  of  pupils  in  public  schools  in  this  country 
was  first  heard  of  in  Boston  and  Brookline,  Mass.,  in  1894.  Such  exami- 
nations had  already  become  somewhat  common  in  European  cities,  and 
they  had  previously  been  introduced  into  the  workingmen's  schools  in 
the  city  of  New  York.  Newton,  Mass.,  fell  into  line  in  1895,  Chicago  in 
1897,  and  St.  Louis  in  1898.  Several  cities  have  come  to  expend  annually 
large  sums  of  money  to  protect  the  schools  from  the  ravages  of  the  con- 
tagious diseases  to  which  they  are  exposed,  especially  scarlet  fever  and 
diphtheria.  Continued  progress  along  this  line  of  development  may  be 
reported.  In  the  course  of  the  last  year  the  Chicago  board  of  education 
has  not  only  taken  measures  to  make  the  medical  examinations  of  the 
schools  and  pupils  more  thoro,  but  has  created  the  new  department 
described  in  the  following  resolution : 

That  there  be,  and  is  hereby,  established  in  the  school  system  of  Chicago  a  depart- 
ment of  child  study  and  pedagogical  investigation,  consisting  of  a  director  and  such 


Council]  EDUCATIONAL  PROGRESS  DVRING  TH^  VRaR  Ji? 

assistants  as  may  from  time  to  time  be  appointed  to  make  such  psycho-physical  and  allied 
investigations,  having  a  pedagogical  bearing,  as  may  be  suggested  by  the  director  arid 
approved  by  the  superintendent  of  schools  and  the  committee  in  charge  of  the  work,  and 
also  to  give  such  instruction  to  the  principals  and  teachers  in  the  schools  as  may  be 
directed  by  the  superintendent  of  the  schools  and  the  committee. 

This  resolution  was  adopted  in  September  last,  and  the  new  department 
was  duly  organized.  In  April  it  was  charged  with  the  duty  of  testing  the 
sight  and  hearing  of  the  pupils  in  all  the  public  schools,  and  preliminary 
measures  have  been  taken  for  making  these  tests.  The  extension  of  medi- 
cal inspection  to  the  public  schools  of  the  country  and  their  pupils,  where 
circumstances  admit  of  it,  seems  to  be  assured,  and  the  establishment  of 
child-study  departments  like  that  of  Chicago  is  not  at  all  improbable. 
Such  departments,  wherever  they  may  appear,  as  well  as  the  medical 
inspection  of  schools,  are  due  in  great  measure  to  the  general  child-study 
movement  in  the  country. 

The  educational  affairs  of  the  great  state  of  New  York  have  long  been 
administered  by  two  co-ordinate  authorities.  The  regents  of  the  univer- 
sity, dating  from  1787,  were  organized  to  supervise  higher  education,  while 
the  department  of  public  instruction,  created  at  a  much  later  day,  was 
established  to  carry  on  popular  education  thruout  the  state.  This  dual 
system  of  administration  tended  to  competition  and  internal  antagonism, 
since  the  two  spheres  of  action  necessarily  overlap  and  interpenetrate. 
The  regents  declared  in  1898  :  "At  present  there  is  more  or  less  dupli- 
cation of  work,  in  inspection,  examination,  supervision  of  teachers,  build- 
ings, reports,  and  appointments;"  while  the  superintendent  of  public 
instruction  said  a  little  later:  "The  department  of  public  instruction  and 
the  regents  of  the  university  are  each  doing  all  of  this  work  [that  is,  the 
duplicated  work]  in  utter  ignorance  of  what  the  other  is  doing." 

One  result  of  such  a  system  was  mutual  encroachments,  or  at  least 
charges  of  such  encroachments,  on  the  two  spheres  of  administration. 
Very  naturally,  therefore,  a  movement  looking  to  unification  declared 
itself,  and  continued  to  gain  strength  until  the  subject  came  before  the 
public  authorities.  To  quote  from  the  report  of  the  superintendent  of 
public  instruction  transmitted  to  the  legislature  in  March,  1899  • 

The  public-school  system  maintained  by  public  taxation,  no  matter  where  it  is  situ- 
ated, ought  to  be  under  the  supervision  and  control  of  a  single  department  of  the  state 
government.  To  maintain  two  departments  to  perform  the  work  which  could  better  be 
done  by  one  with  greater  economy  to  the  state  and  more  efficiency,  is  so  plainly  unwise 
and  against  all  principles  of  government  that  it  is  surprising,  not  only  that  the  state  ever 
entered  upon  the  present  system  in  1853,  but  that  it  has  continued  so  long,  and  that,  too, 
when  there  is  so  plainly  a  line  of  demarkation  between  the  work  to  be  done  by  these  two 
departments.  •»« 

Responding  to  an  invitation  extended  to  him  by  the  regents,  Governor 
Roosevelt  appointed  a  special  commission  to  prepare  a  plan  of  unification, 
and  on  the  first  day  of  January  last  this  commission  submitted  its  report. 


3i6  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  AsSdCIAfioN    [Natibhai 

Happily,  the  commission  agreed  upon  every  material  feature  of  the  j31aii 
that  it  recommended  save  one.  Unhappily,  the  feature  upon  which  they 
disagreed  was  the  one  that  carried  most  of  the  politics  and  personal 
motive  involved  in  the  measure.  Over  the  unified  system  a  chancellor 
should  preside  —  this  was  unanimously  agreed  to  ;  but  who  should  appoint 
the  chancellor  ?  The  majority  recommended  that  the  first  chancellor 
should  be  appointed  by  the  governor  of  the  state,  by  and  with  the  advice 
and  consent  of  the  senate,  and  his  successors  by  the  regents  of  the  uni- 
versity; the  minority  held,  on  the  other  hand,  that  all  the  chancellors, 
the  first  one  included,  should  be  appointed  by  the  regents.  The  state 
department  of  public  instruction  supported  the  view  of  the  majority,  the 
regents  the  view  of  the  minority  ;  and  the  result  was  that,  after  a  pro- 
tracted controversy — which  was  unfortunately  marked  by  much  bitterness — 
the  plan  failed  to  become  a  law.  And  so  it  will  be  necessary,  if  the 
present  cumbrous  and  absurd  system  is  ever  to  give  place  to  a  simple  and 
rational  system  of  administration,  for  the  friends  of  reform  to  begin  again 
at  the  beginning. 

In  no  great  city  in  the  country  has  public  education  been  carried  on 
under  greater  difficulties  than  in  New  York.  The  most  serious  of  these 
difficulties  have  been  the  lack  of  funds  with  which  to  do  the  necessary 
school  work,  and  the  constant  intrusion  of  politics  into  school  affairs.  It  is 
for  many  reasons  a  matter  of  more  than  local  congratulation  that  the  legis- 
lature, at  its  late  session,  took  action  on  this  subject,  which,  while  not  all 
that  the  ardent  friends  of  reform  desired,  still  promises  to  mark  the 
beginning  of  a  new  era  in  the  schools  of  that  city.  For  one  thing,  the 
legislature  provided  ample  school  funds,  present  and  prospective,  and,  for 
another  thing,  excluded  the  political  powers  from  interference  with  the 
appropriations,  thru  either  ignorance  or  malign  purpose.  The  four-mill 
tax  imposed  upon  the  property  of  Greater  New  York  will  produce  this 
year  $14,500,000  for  the  payment  of  the  salaries  of  teachers,  principals, 
and  syperintendents,  and  still  larger  sums  each  succeeding  year,  as  the 
wealth  of  the  city  increases.  It  seems  reasonable,  therefore,  to  expect 
that  the  school  teachers  in  the  boroughs  of  Queens  and  Richmond  will 
not  again  be  compelled  to  wait  for  months  for,  their  salaries,  and  then  to 
receive  them  only  thru  the  special  interposition  of  the  state  legislature. 
Such  are  the  few,  but  by  no  means  unimportant,  facts  to  be  reported 
from  this  field. 

In  the  field  of  secondary  education  very  unusual  progress  has  been 
made  during  the  year.  The  Committee  on  College-Entrance  Require- 
ments, appointed  in  pursuance  of  action  taken  in  Denver  in  1895,  finished 
its  labors  and  published  its  report  in  time  for  presentation  and  discussion 
at  the  Los  Angeles  meeting  one  year  ago.  The  main  object  of  this 
report,  it  will  be  remembered,  was,  not  to  fix  or  to  recommend  require- 
ments for  admission  to  the  colleges  and  universities,  but  rather  to  make 


Council]  EDUCATIONAL  PROGRESS  DURING  THE  YEAR  317 

up  a  list  of  studies  deemed  suitable  for  this  purpose,  and  to  establish  a 
series  of  units  or  measures,  and  to  urge  the  adoption  of  this  list  upon  the 
secondary  and  higher  schools.  To  repeat  a  figure  that  was  used  in  the 
discussions  at  Chicago,  the  aim  of  the  committee  was  to  create  a  tiniform 
educational  coinage  with  which  students  going  to  college  could  discharge 
their  entrance  indebtedness,  the  amount  of  which  the  various  institutions 
would  fix  for  themselves.  Four  periods  a  week  for  a  school  year  were 
made  the  unit  of  value  —  the  dollar  of  this  new  coin  of  the  realm;  and 
the  colleges  were  strongly  urged  not  to  break  up  these  dollars  into  change, 
save  perhaps  in  a  single  instance  that  is  more  apparent  than  real.  To 
carry  out  this  central  idea  much  more  college-entrance  work  was  approved 
or  "stamped"  than  any  institution  could  require,  or  than  most  secondary 
schools  could  furnish,  thus  preparing  the  way  for  a  liberal  list  of  electives 
in  the  secondary  schools  and  of  entrance  alternatives  at  the  colleges. 
Still,  the  committee  strove  to  hold  both  electives  and  alternatives  in 
check,  by  insisting  upon  certain  constant  studies,  viz.,  four  units  in  foreign 
languages,  two  units  in  mathematics,  two  in  English,  one  in  history,  and 
one  in  science.  Beyond  these  constants  it  was  assumed  that  the  schools 
would  do  the  work  that  they  were  best  fitted  to  do. 

Important  discussions  and  legislation  have  followed  this  report,  con- 
forming in  general  to  the  lines  that  the  committee  had  marked  out.  In 
fact,  no  one  of  the  numerous  reports  that  the  National  Educational  Asso- 
ciation has  published  in  the  last  few  years  has  been  followed  by  happier 
immediate  results. 

The  board  of  education  of  the  city  of  Chicago  has  adopted  a  program 
of  studies  that  is,  in  many  respects,  in  accord  with  the  recommendations 
of  the  committee;  while  a  committee  is  now  at  work  arranging  for  an 
approximate  uniformity  of  college-entrance  requirements  in  the  state  of 
Illinois. 

In  May  last  the  Association  of  Colleges  and  Preparatory  Schools  of 
the  Middle  States  and  Maryland  adopted  a  plan  of  organization  for  a 
college-entrance  examinations  board  that  should  do  the  work  of  examin- 
ing for  all  the  institutions  directly  interested.  This  movement  had  its 
immediate  rise  in  an  address  upon  the  subject  delivered  before  the  asso- 
ciation in  December,  1899,  by  Dr.  Nicholas  Murray  Butler.  The  new 
board,  which  is  the  central  feature  of  the  plan  of  organization,  consists 
of  the  president,  or  his  authorized  representative,  of  every  college  or 
university  in  the  middle  states  and  Maryland  that  has  a  freshman  class  of 
not  fewer  than  fifty  students,  counting  both  the  course  in  arts  and  in 
sciences ;  and  of  five  representatives  of  secondary  schools,  to  be  chosen 
annually  by  the  association  that  adopted  the  plan,  or  in  such  manner  as 
it  may  direct.  The  machinery  and  methods  of  this  board  are  topics  that 
lie  aside  from  our  present  path.  It  suffices  to  say  that  the  object  of  the 
board,  as  expressed  in  the  resolutions  adopted  at  Trenton  in  December, 


3i8  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [National 

is  "to  bring  about,  as  rapidly  as  possible,  agreement  upon  a  uniform 
statement  as  to  each  subject  required  by  two  or  more  colleges  for  admis- 
sion," and  to  "hold  or  cause  to  be  held,  at  convenient  points,  in  June  of 
each  year,  a  series  of  college-admission  examinations,  with  uniform  tests 
in  each  subject,  and  issue  certificates  based  upon  the  results  of  such 
examinations;"  the  several  colleges  in  the  middle  states  and  Maryland 
to  accept  the  certificates  so  issued,  "  so  far  as  they  go,  in  lieu  of  their  own 
separate  examinations."  This  scheme  will  go  into  operation  the  coming 
autumn,  and  the  first  examinations  will  be  held  in  June  of  next  year.  The 
subjects  that  have  been  chosen  are  English,  history,  Latin,  Greek,  French, 
German,  mathematics,  physics,  chemistry,  botany,  and  zoology.  The 
institutions  represented  are  Barnard,  Bryn  Mawr,  Rutgers,  Swarthmore, 
Union,  Vassar,  and  Woman's  Colleges,  and  Colgate,  Columbia,  Cornell, 
Princeton,  New  York,  and  Pennsylvania  Universities;  or  all  of  the  institu- 
tions within  the  geographical  limits  described  that  have  freshman  classes 
of  fifty  or  more  students.  These  names  are  at  once  a  pledge  that  the 
new  plan  will  be  thoroly  tried,  and  that,  if  successful,  it  will  exert  a 
fat-reaching  influence.  The  board  of  examinations  does  not  propose  to 
interfere  directly  with  college-entrance  requirements  in  respect  either  to 
the  studies  or  to  the  amount  of  work  and  study  that  shall  be  demanded 
for  admission ;  but  only  to  establish  and  carry  on  a  mint  for  the  coining 
of  money  that  shall  have  a  uniform  value,  with  which  students  can  pay 
their  college-entrance  charges.  However,  results  that  are  not  formally 
provided  for  are  quite  certain  to  follow.  The  plan  will  save  much  labor 
and  expense ;  cause  the  necessary  work  to  be  better  done ;  bring  about  a 
healthful  degree  of  uniformity  in  studies ;  save  students,  preparatory 
teachers,  and  professors,  deans  especially,  much  unnecessary  work  and  per- 
plexity ;  cultivate  good  relations  among  institutions,  and  between  institu- 
tions and  the  public;  and  tend  to  abolish  what  Dr.  Butler  has  called  "our 
educational  atomism."  Perhaps  it  is  too  much  to  expect  eastern  colleges 
and  universities  to  adopt  at  present  the  western  plan  of  receiving  freshmen 
on  the  leaving-certificates  of  approved  preparatory  schools ;  but  while  they 
are  moving  slowly  toward  that  goal,  the  middle  states  and  Maryland  may 
well  be  congratulated  on  the  long  step  that  they  have  taken  in  establishing 
this  board  of  examinations.  Henceforth  chaos  ought  not  to  sit  as  umpire 
over  the  colleges  and  universities  of  that  region,  and,  by  deciding,  more 
to  embroil  the  fray. 

Much  the  most  important  action  taken  by  any  single  college  or 
university  during  the  year  in  respect  to  entrance  is  the  new  requirements 
for  admission  to  Columbia  College.  Elementary  French  and  German 
have  long  been  college  studies,  and  within  the  last  few  years  some  insti- 
tutions have  put  elementary  Greek  on  the  same  list.  Columbia  has  now 
taken  the  unprecedented  step  of  adding  elementary  Latin.  The  immedi- 
ate result  will  be  that  a  student  who  has  taken  a  non-Latin  course  in  the 


Council]  EDUCATIONAL  PROGRESS  DURING  THE  YEAR  319 

secondary  school  may  enter  Columbia  College  and  proceed  to  the  degree 
of  A.B.  without  prejudice  arising  from  that  fact.  The  total  requirement 
for  admission  is  fixed  at  fifteen  points,  of  which  three  must  be  English 
and  three  elementary  mathematics,  while  the  remaining  nine  may  be 
selected,  in  measures  ranging  from  one  point  to  four  points,  from  a  total 
of  twenty-six  points  to  be  made  in  the  following  subjects,  viz.,  Latin, 
Greek,  history,  French,  German,  mathematics,  physics,  Spanish,  chem- 
istry, botany,  physiography,  and  zoology. 

At  the  University  of  Michigan,  also,  the  entrance  requirements  have 
been  revised  in  the  interest  of  simplicity  and  elasticity. 

At  the  Washington  meeting  of  the  National  Educational  Association 
two  years  ago  the  author  of  this  address  presented  a  paper  in  the  Depart- 
ment of  Higher  Education  on  the  possibility  and  desirability  of  forming 
a  federation  of  colleges  and  universities  in  the  United  States  similar  to 
the  Association  of  American  Medical  Colleges.  After  discussion,  a  com- 
mittee of  five  was  appointed  to  report  at  the  next  annual  meeting  of  the 
department  a  practical  plan  of  effecting  such  a  federation,  and  to  offer 
recommendations  with  reference  to  the  same ;  but  this  committee  was  not 
heard  from  at  Los  Angeles.  However,  another  movement,  somewhat 
similar  to  this  one,  but  wholly  separate  from  it  in  origin  and  original 
purpose,  has  eventuated  in  an  organization  known  as  the  Association  of 
American  Universities.  A  circular  letter,  signed  by  the  presidents  of  Har- 
vard, Columbia,  Johns  Hopkins,  Chicago,  and  California  Universities,  was 
sent  to  certain  selected  institutions  inviting  them  to  a  conference  to  be  held 
in  Chicago  at  the  time  of  the  meeting  of  the  Department  of  Superin- 
tendence in  February,  to  consider  primarily  the  relations  of  American 
schools  and  students  to  the  German  universities.  In  the  course  of  the 
discussions,  when  the  conference  was  held,  this  subject  was  quietly 
dropped,  and  an  association  bearing  the  name  already  given  was  organ- 
ized. The  object  of  this  organization  is  the  consideration  of  matters  of 
common  interest  relating  to  graduate  study,  and  its  membership  is  natu- 
rally limited  to  institutions  that  are  actually  engaged  in  giving  advanced 
or  graduate  instruction.  The  initial  membership  consists  of  California, 
Chicago,  Clark,  Columbia,  Cornell,  Harvard,  Johns  Hopkins,  Michigan, 
Pennsylvania,  Princeton,  Stanford,  Wisconsin,  and  Yale  Universities,  and 
the  Catholic  University  of  America,  and  provision  is  made  for  lengthen- 
ing the  list  by  the  admission  of  other  institutions  at  the  annual  confer- 
ence, on  the  invitation  of  the  executive  committee,  indorsed  by  a 
three-fourths  vote  of  the  members.  It  is  expected  by  the  founders  of 
this  association  that  it  will  do  something  of  value  for  fixing  the  standard 
for  the  Ph.D.  degree  and  for  its  proper  administration.  It  may  prove  to 
be,  what  one  writer  has  already  declared  that  it  is,  "  a  long  step  toward 
complete  university  co  operation." 

To  explain  in  full  the  present  status  of  the  proposition  to  found  a 


320  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [National 

national  institution  of  learning  in  the  national  capital  is  not  altogether 
an  easy  matter.     It  appears,  however,  to  present  three  distinct  forms. 

The  first  is  the  plan  that  has  Washington  for  its  author,  to  establish 
at  the  capital  of  the  nation  a  statutory  university.  This  plan  is  now 
pending  before  the  Senate  in  the  form  of  "A  Bill  to  Establish  the  Uni- 
versity of  the  United  States,"  introduced  by  Mr.  Depew.  The  second  is 
the  plan  to  organize  for  the  purposes  of  instruction  the  various  scientific 
facilities,  resources,  and  materials  belonging  to  the  government  at  Wash- 
ington, such  as  libraries  and  museums,  collections  and  laboratories, 
under  the  supervision  and  oversight  of  the  regents  of  the  Smithsonian 
Institution,  which  forms  the  center  of  the  new  scheme.  The  instruction 
to  be  furnished,  it  is  proposed,  shall  be  limited  to  students  who  are  gradu- 
ates of  properly  accredited  institutions,  or  those  who  are  otherwise  properly 
qualified.  It  is  understood  that  the  Smithsonian  Institution  shall  con- 
fer no  degrees  in  connection  with  such  instruction.  The  third  plan  is  to 
make  the  Bureau  of  Education,  rather  than  the  Smithsonian  Institution, 
the  administrative  center  of  the  Bureau  of  Research,  as  the  new  organiza- 
tion is  sometimes  called. 

Such,  in  brief,  are  the  three  plans  now  pending  before  the  public. 
The  first  one  is  pressed  more  or  less  vigorously  by  a  national  committee 
of  some  four  hundred  members,  having  Dr.  John  W.  Hoyt  as  its  chair- 
man. The  second  is  urged  with  much  persistence  by  the  American 
Association  of  Agricultural  Colleges  and  Experiment  Stations.  The  third 
does  not  appear  to  have  any  organized  support. 

The  Committee  of  Fifteen  appointed  by  the  president  of  the  National 
Council  of  Education  in  July,  1898,10  investigate  the  entire  subject  of 
the  establishment  of  a  national  university,  has  pronounced  decidedly 
against  the  plan  of  a  statutory  institution,  and  has  virtually,  if  not  for- 
mally, declared  in  favor  of  some  alternative  plan.  The  attitude  of  this 
committee  is  well  shown  by  two  of  the  propositions  that  it  has  adopted  : 

The  government  is  not  called  upon  to  maintain  at  the  capital  a  university  in  the 
ordinary  sense  of  that  term. 

That  a  subcommittee  be  requested  to  prepare  for  consideration  by  the  full  comiriittee 
a  detailed  plan  by  which  students  who  have  taken  a  baccalaureate  degree,  or  who  have 
had  an  equivalent  training,  may  have  full  and  systematic  advantage  of  the  opportunities 
for  advanced  instruction  and  research  which  may  now  or  may  hereafter  be  afforded  by 
the  government ;  such  a  plan  to  include  the  co-operation  with  the  Smithsonian  Institu- 
tion of  the  universities  willing  to  accept  a  share  of  the  responsibilities  incident  thereto. 

For  some  reason  the  full  committee  did  not  at  its  February  meeting 
adopt  the  report  of  the  subcommittee,  but,  after  discussion,  referred  it 
back  to  the  subcommittee  without  action.  It  is  expected  that  the  subject 
will  come  up  for  consideration  at  the  present  meeting  of  the  National 
Educational  Association. 

So  the  matter  stands  at  present.  Unless  Congress  shall  sooner  cut  the 
Gordian  knot,  which  is  hardly  to  be  expected,  the  next  step,  if  any,  will 


Council]  EDUCATIONAL  PROGRESS  DURING  THE  YEAR  321 

no  doubt  be  taken  by  the  regents  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution.  Con- 
jectures as  to  what  they  will  probably  do  would  be  premature.  It  is 
known,  however,  that  while  the  regents  are  in  sympathy  with  the  ultimate 
purpose  of  the  American  Association  of  Agricultural  Colleges  and  Experi- 
ment Stations,  they  find  themselves  seriously  embarrassed  when  they  take 
up  the  question  of  the  provision  of  funds  with  which  to  do  the  work  that 
would  be  required,  and  the  further  question  of  correlating  formal  instruc- 
tion or  teaching  with  their  own  original  and  primary  office  of  conducting 
investigations  and  publishing  the  results. 

Our  new  territorial  acquisitions  and  semi-acquisitions  are  bringing 
home  to  the  country  some  new  educational  problems  and  responsibilities. 
In  some  measure  these  problems  and  responsibilities  will  receive  merited 
attention  at  the  present  meeting  of  the  association.  I  wish  merely  to 
observe  that  the  bringing  together  of  many  hundreds  of  Cuban  teachers 
at  Cambridge,  Mass.,  thru  the  joint  efforts  of  the  national  government 
and  of  Harvard  University,  that  they  may  enjoy  the  advantages  of  an 
American  summer  school  of  high  grade,  is  an  experiment  that  must  evoke 
the  ardent  interest  of  every  educator  and  of  every  patriot.  To  be  over- 
confident of  the  result  would  be  foolish,  but  it  does  not  seem  unreason- 
able to  expect  that  this  enterprise  will  be  repeated  in  the  future  on  a  scale 
larger  or  smaller,  and  that  it  will  contribute  both  directly  and  indirectly 
to  the  solving  of  the  new  problems. 

One  of  the  new  problems  is  the  provision,  by  the  national  government, 
of  a  civil  service,  competent  and  honest,  for  the  new  dependencies.  In 
his  timely  volume,  entitled  Colonial  Civil  Service,  Mr.  A.  Lawrence  Lowell, 
while  admitting  that  "  at  home,  except  for  special  branches  of  adminis- 
tration requiring  a  high  degree  of  technical  knowledge,  such  as  the  army 
or  the  navy,  an  intelligent  man  can  easily  learn  in  a  comparatively  short 
time  to  do  the  government  work  fairly  well,"  goes  on  to  contend  : 

In  an  Asiatic  colony,  on  the  other  hand,  where  the  duty  of  the  official  consists,  for 
the  most  part,  in  ruling  over  districts  containing  many  thousands  of  natives,  an  untrained 
man,  suddenly  appointed,  would  be  perfectly  helpless,  however  great  his  natural  capacity. 
He  knows  neither  the  language  nor  the  customs  of  the  people,  nor  does  he  comprehend 
their  thoughts ;  and  the  consequences  of  his  ignorance  may  be  disastrous.  Well-meaning 
but  inexperienced  officials  could  easily  provoke  an  insurrection  like  the  Indian  mutiny 
without  being  in  the  least  conscious  that  they  were  drifting  into  danger.  Hence  the 
administration  of  the  colony  can  be  intrusted  only  to  men  who  have  mastered  the  lan- 
guage and  all  the  conditions  under  which  the  government  must  be  carried  on.  But 
oriental  and  western  civilization  are  so  different  that  years  must  pass  before  an  official 
becomes  thoroughly  efficient ;  and  no  man  of  parts  will  undertake  those  years  of  prepara- 
tion if  he  is  liable  to  be  thrown  back  on  the  world  to  start  life  all  over  again  after  he  has 
proved  himself  a  valuable  public  servant.  The  colonial  service  must  therefore  be  a  life- 
long career. 

No  competent  person  questions  for  a  moment  that  Mr.  Lowell  has 
here  stated  the  exact  truth.  Unfortunately,  however,  there  is  some  reason 
to  fear  that  the  political  branches  of  the  government  at  Washington  will 


32  2  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [National 

not  accept  this  truth  and  act  upon  it  as  promptly  as  the  exigency  demands. 
Let  not  this  association  finally  adjourn  until  it  has  adopted  and  sent  out 
to  the  country  a  resonant  resolution  calling  upon  Congress  and  the  presi- 
dent to  take  vigorous  action  in  the  premises.  If  we  are  to  become  a 
colonial  power,  as  there  is  so  much  reason  to  hope  or  to  fear,  we  must 
either  recognize  sound  principles  of  administration  in  dealing  with  our 
colonies,  or  we  must  follow  our  predecessors,  who  have  made  and  persisted 
in  the  same  mistake,  into  the  abyss. 

To  quote  one  of  the  abler  organs  of  public  opinion  : 

One  of  the  most  interesting  developments  of  specialization  now  going  on  in  higher 
education  in  this  country  is  that  which  looks  toward  a  better  training  for  business-men 
and  civil  servants.  Whatever  the  prevailing  view  of  the  primary  objects  of  a  college  or 
a  university,  and  however  narrowly  one  may  be  disposed  to  limit  its  essential  field,  there 
can  be  no  question  that  the  most  progressive  of  these  institutions  are  now  zealously  seek- 
ing to  put  themselves  in  touch  with  the  practical  business  needs  of  the  times,  and  to  fit 
their  students  for  participation  in  everyday  affairs. 

Proofs  of  this  tendency  have  become  too  pronounced  to  be  over- 
looked or  underrated.  The  Wharton  School  of  the  University  of  Penn- 
sylvania, the  School  of  Political  Science  of  Columbia  University,  and  the 
elaborate  courses  in  history  and  economics  at  several  of  the  stronger 
institutions  were  the  forerunners  of  the  new  movement.  Two  years  ago 
the  University  of  California  founded  a  school  of  commerce,  including  in 
its  curriculum  studies  in  history,  political  science,  commercial  and  inter- 
national law,  technological  subjects,  and  modern  languages,  and  laying 
emphasis  upon  our  commercial  relations  with  Asia.  A  little  more  than  a 
year  ago  the  New  York  chamber  of  commerce  determined  to  co-operate 
with  Columbia  University  in  establishing  a  collegiate  course  of  instruction 
in  commerce,  to  be  open  to  high-school  graduates  and  to  cover  four  years. 
Dartmouth  College  has  recently  announced  the  Tuck  School,  with  a  pro- 
gram of  studies  bearing  directly  upon  preparation  for  business  and  admin- 
istrative life.  Again,  the  University  of  Wisconsin  has  also  taken  steps  to 
organize  a  school  of  commerce,  while  the  University  of  Michigan  has  just 
sent  out  an  announcement  of  special  courses  in  higher  commercial  educa- 
tion and  in  public  administration.  These  courses  are  especially  intended 
for  students,  graduates  or  undergraduates,  who  desire  to  specialize  in  his- 
tory, economics,  and  related  subjects  ;  but  they  are  also  thrown  open  to 
those  who  wish  to  prepare  for  the  political  and  social  side  of  newspaper 
work,  for  teaching  history  and  political  science  in  colleges  and  high 
schools,  for  philanthropic  and  pastoral  work,  or  for  diplomatic  or  con- 
sular service. 

These  several  schools  and  courses  of  instruction  are  not  yet  fully 
organized,  but  that  consummation  will  not  be  long  deferred.  The  causes 
that  have  produced  them,  and  that  promise  to  produce  others  like  them, 
call  for  but  the  slightest  suggestion.  They  are  the  industrial  and  political, 
commercial  and  social,  activities  of  the  times.     Such  schools  and  courses 


Council]  EDUCATIONAL  PROGRESS  DURING  THE  YEAR  323 

would  no  doubt  have  come  in  time  had  the  nation  moved  on  in  its  old 
path,  but  they  have  been  materially  hastened  by  the  fuller  development 
of  the  national  self-consciousness  that  has  followed  events  in  our  recent 
history  which  are  too  well  known  to  call  for  formal  mention.  Those 
persons  who  adopt  Mr.  Lowell's  characterization  of  a  university  as  a  place 
where  nothing  useful  is  taught  are  not  likely  to  take  kindly  to  the  new 
development,  but  they  are  no  more  likely  to  oppose  to  it  a  successful 
resistance.  In  fact,  we  are  but  following  in  the  footsteps  of  Europe. 
Special  schools  for  teaching  business  and  administration  have  already 
been  successfully  established  in  France,  Germany,  Austria,  and  Italy 
—  the  best-known  of  all  perhaps  being  the  school  at  Leipzig.  The 
new  University  of  Birmingham,  England,  will  include  a  faculty  of  com- 
merce. 

The  records  of  the  year  show  that  in  the  United  States  the  stream  of 
educational  beneficence  is  not  only  still  flowing,  but  flowing  with  larger 
volume  than  ever  before.  A  careful  authority  shows  that  gifts  to  the  "big 
six"  among  the  universities,  six  institutes  and  unions  which  he  enumerates, 
various  schools  for  the  higher  education  of  women,  and  certain  foundations 
for  the  protection  and  industrial  training  of  the  poor,  amounted  for  the 
year  1899  to  something  more  than  $40,000,000.  Moreover,  he  asserts  that 
the  gifts  for  1900  will  almost  surely  surpass  those  of  the  previous  year. 
Before  half  of  the  year  had  gone  such  gifts  amounted  to  nearly  or  quite 
$20,000,000. 

Abroad  some  educational  history  has  been  made  that,  if  not  of  first- 
rate  importance,  still  calls  for  recognition  on  this  side  of  the  ocean.  Particu- 
larly is  this  true  of  England. 

The  Board  of  Education  Act  passed  last  year  swept  away  the  old  double- 
headed  system  of  school  administration,  the  lords  of  the  committee  of  the 
Privy  Council  of  Education  at  Whitehall,  and  the  Science  and  Art  Depart- 
ment at  Kensington,  and  set  up  a  unified  education  department  in  its 
room.  Some  progress,  but  not  rapid  progress,  has  been  made  in  organiz- 
ing the  new  department.  The  Duke  of  Devonshire  has  been  gazetted  as 
first  president  of  the  board  of  education,  and  the  names  of  some  of  his 
principal  subordinates  have  been  announced.  The  friends  of  educational 
progress  in  England  are  watching  the  successive  steps  taken  in  perfecting 
the  new  organization  with  interest,  curious  to  see  wherein  the  new  admin- 
istration will  differ  from  the  old  one. 

Much  the  same  may  be  said  of  another  subject  that  has  occupied 
considerable  attention  in  recent  years.  The  commissioners  appointed 
Under  the  University  of  London  Act  to  frame  statutes  and  regulations  for 
the  new  university  for  the  metropolis  some  time  ago  submitted  their 
report.  The  total  result  seems  to  be  but  a  tentative  measure.  An  English 
writer  concludes  his  discussion  of  the  statutes  and  regulations  reported  in 
this  fashion  : 


324  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [National 

To  sum  up,  a  teaching  university  for  London,  as  the  term  is  understood  at  Berlin  or 
Glasgow,  is  still  in  the  womb  of  the  future  ;  but  the  seed  has  been  planted,  and  a  first 
attempt  has  been  made  to  co-ordinate  and  concentrate  the  existing  institutions  for  higher 
education.  We  have  not  yet  a  university  which  teaches,  but  we  have  a  university  which 
recognizes  teaching  as  something  distinct  from  examination,  and  in  the  government  and 
direction  of  which  teachers  form  the  dominant  factor.  The  association  for  promoting  a 
teaching  university  for  London  has,  after  sixteen  years  of  what  at  times  seemed  a  hopeless 
struggle,  gained  a  first  victory  ;  though  it  still  remains  to  occupy  and  administrate  the  prov- 
ince won. 

Of  greater  popular  interest  than  the  measures  just  described  is  the 
new  code  for  the  regulation  of  public  elementary  schools  and  training 
colleges.  Attention  will  here  be  limited  to  a  single  feature  of  this 
document. 

In  the  year  1861  there  was  introduced  into  the  educational  administra- 
tion at  Whitehall  the  principle  or  rule  known  as  "payment  by  results." 
It  sprang  out  of  the  anomalous  system  of  elementary  instruction  which 
had  grown  up  in  the  country.  The  government  found  itself  dispensing 
to  schools,  or  rather  to  teachers,  over  whom  it  had  no  direct  control,  large 
sums  of  money,  much  of  which,  there  was  reason  to  believe,  was  little 
better  than  wasted.  This  fact  vexed  the  righteous  soul  of  Mr.  Robert 
Lowe,  then  the  working  head  of  the  committee  on  education,  who  declared, 
when  the  revised  code  of  that  year  was  brought  out,  that  "if  the  new 
system  was  costly,  it  shall  at  least  be  efficient ;  if  it  is  inefficient,  it  shall 
be  cheap."  The  meaning  of  this  was  that  the  revised  code  contained 
the  rule  that  the  school  children  must  pass  an  individual  examination  in 
reading,  writing,  and  arithmetic,  and,  according  to  results  in  each  individ- 
ual case,  a  grant  should  be  made  for  the  support  of  the  school.  An 
examination  or  inquiry  into  the  efficiency  of  the  school-  as  a  whole  would 
no  longer  answer,  as  it  had  previously  done.  This  was  only  the  begin- 
ning ;  the  principle  was  afterward  carried  much  farther.  More  definitely, 
the  government  now  paid  to  the  managers  of  schools  a  fixed  stipend  for 
every  pupil  who  passed  a  particular  examination,  so  that  the  pupil  was 
said  to  "  earn  money"  for  the  school.  The  method  was  a  device  invented 
to  protect  the  treasury  and  not  to  promote  good  education.  Matthew 
Arnold,  it  will  be  remembered  by  all  the  readers  of  his  Letters,  earned 
his  bread  for  twenty-five  years  by  serving  as  a  government  examiner  of 
elementary  schools — an  example  of  Pegasus  yoked  to  the  plow.  It  is 
probable  that  no  cramming  engine  of  greater  power  than  payment  by 
results  was  ever  incorporated  in  an  educational  system ;  and  the  best 
teachers  and  educators  in  England  naturally  fought  hard  to  secure  its 
removal. 

By  degrees  the  rigor  of  the  method  was  materially  mitigated,  and 
now,  in  the  last  year  of  the  century,  the  last  shreds  of  it  have  finally  been 
thrown  aside.  The  fact  is  that  payment  by  results,  in  the  technical  sense 
of   the   expression  —  that    is,   payment   which    depended    on    individual 


Council]  EDUCATIONAL  PROGRESS  DURING  THE  YEAR  325 

examinations  —  came  to  an  end  in  1897;  but  in  the  form  of  "piece" 
grants,  so  much  for  this  piece  of  work  and  so  much  for  that,  leaving  the 
total  to  be  paid  for  a  pupil  to  be  determined  by  an  addition  of  the  pieces, 
it  has  lingered  on  until  now.  A  leading  educational  journal  of  London 
accordingly  speaks  of  the  new  code  as  putting  "an  end  to  the  thoroughly 
vicious  principle  of  piece  work  which  was  part  and  parcel  of  Mr.  Lowe's 
payment  by  results."  What  is  called  a  "block"  grant  has  been  substi- 
tuted for  the  piece  grant;  that  is,  a  specified  sum  or  "grant"  is  paid  to  the 
school  for  every  pupil  who  comes  within  the  range  of  the  special  rules. 
At  first  there  were  fears  that  the  new  method  would  work  against  the 
high-grade  primary  schools  —  which  are  really  nascent  high  schools  — 
but  now  that  these  fears  have  been  removed  the  block  grant  commands 
general,  if  not  universal,  approval,  as  does  the  new  code  taken  as  a  whole. 
It  must  not  be  supposed,  however,  that  the  old  tension  growing  out  of 
the  ancient  religious  controversy  has  been  eased.  Perhaps  it  has  been 
increased.  At  least  a  well-informed  writer  in  London  declares  rather 
mournfully:  "This  code  will  bring  us  one  step  nearer  the  ideal  for 
which  churchmen  are  now  striving  —  a  system  of  state-supported  and 
church-managed  schools." 

Little  progress  is  being  made  in  the  meantime  in  organizing  second- 
ary instruction. 

On  the  continent  the  educational  opportunities  of  women  are  slowly 
widening,  Switzerland  still  leading  the  way.  To  the  universities  of  Basle, 
Berne,  Geneva,  Lausanne,  and  Zurich  they  are  admitted  on  a  perfect 
equality  with  men,  while  they  may  enter  Freiburg  only  as  "hearers." 
Nearly  one-fourth  of  the  students  in  the  Swiss  universities,  or  1,026  out 
of  4,611,  are  women.  At  Heidelberg  and  Freiburg  in  Baden  women 
are  now  allowed  to  matriculate  as  regular  students  on  "  certificates  of  matu- 
rity," and  at  Giessen  they  are  admitted  as  "hearers."  At  the  other 
German  universities  changes  are  not  reported,  and  the  former  status  con- 
tinues. The  juristic  faculty  of  the  University  of  Vienna  has  formally 
requested  the  ministry  of  education  to  admit  women  as  regular  students 
to  all  the  lectures  and  examinations  in  the  faculty,  and  also  asks  that 
women  who  have  passed  the  required  state  examinations  shall  enjoy  the 
right  of  practicing  as  advocates  and  as  notaries,  and  of  engaging  in  every 
branch  of  the  legal  profession  for  which  they  are  not  positively  dis- 
qualified. 

There  are  also  evidences  of  relaxation  in  university  regulations  in 
other  particulars.  The  Prussian  government  has  clothed  the  techni- 
cal high  school  of  Berlin  with  authority  to  confer  the  doctor's  degree, 
limited,  however,  by  the  phrase  "in  engineering."  The  same  gov- 
ernment is  also  considering  the  further  limitation  of  the  use  of  Latin 
in  various  academical  requirements,  as  in  certain  dissertations ;  while 
the  governments  generally    are  discussing '  the   question  of   no    longer 


326  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [National 

requiring  students  from  the  Realgymnasium  who  enter  the  faculty 
of  medicine  to  take  an  examination  in  Greek,  and  to  give  more 
liberal  conditions  for  the  examinations  in  Latin.  This  last,  how- 
ever, is  but  part  of  the  larger  question  of  granting  this  class  of 
students  at  the  universities  larger  liberty  in  respect  to  the  professional 
faculties.  Once  more,  there  is  also  a  disposition  in  some  quarters  to  open 
the  benefits  of  university  training  to  advanced  and  earnest  students  who 
have  not  received  the  traditional  gymnasium  preparation.  Mention  may 
also  be  made  of  the  growing  tendency  in  some  cities  to  make  class  dis- 
tinctions less  marked  in  early  school  life  than  they  have  hitherto  been,  or 
to  make  the  Volksschule  a  real  people's  school.  It  is  clear,  therefore, 
that  the  democratic  spirit  is  beginning  to  make  itself  more  felt  in  impe- 
rial Germany. 

Coming  to  literature,  we  find  the  usual  output  of  educational  works, 
but  not  as  many  of  high  character  as  in  some  former  years.  In  this 
country  much  the  most  valuable  book  that  has  appeared  in  the  year  is 
Education  in  the  United  States,  a  series  of  monographs  prepared  for  the 
national  exhibit  at  Paris  and  published  by  the  state  of  New  York.  Prepared 
by  specialists  under  the  editorial  supervision  of  Dr.  Butler,  who  con- 
tributes an  introduction,  and  the  business  oversight  of  Mr.  Howard  J. 
Rogers,  director  of  American  education  at  the  exposition,  the  work  pre- 
sents a  full  cross-section  of  American  education  at  the  close  of  the 
century  in  a  manner  that  leaves  little  or  nothing  to  be  desired.  Not 
only  is  there  nothing  in  American  literature  with  which  it  may  be  com- 
pared, but  it  may  well  be  doubted  whether  any  work  ever  published  has 
given  an  equally  good  view  of  education  in  any  great  country  at  any 
given  time.  We  have  now  shown  the  scholars  and  teachers  of  Europe 
just  what  we  are  doing  in  an  educational  way,  and  it  remains  to  be  seen 
how  they  will  be  impressed  by  the  showing. 

In  the  purely  pedagogical  field  one  of  the  noteworthy  books  of  the 
year  is  also  one  of  the  smallest.  Professor  John  Dewey's  The  School  and 
Society.  Probably  there  is  no  deep-thinking  student  of  education  who 
has  not  at  times  been' oppressed  by  the  feeling  that  the  training  in  our 
schools  is  too  remote  from  the  life  that  the  children  will  afterward  lead, 
or  who  has  not  asked  himself  the  question  how  the  interval  may  be  nar- 
rowed. Thinking  in  this  line  has  been  strongly  stimulated  by  the 
increasing  valuation  that  men  are  placing  upon  social  studies  and  social 
interests.  Professor  Dewey  has  not  only  given  the  subject  much  study, 
but  he  has  done  two  things  in  addition  —  first,  organized  a  school  for  the 
express  purpose  of  trying  what  may  be  done  in  this  direction ;  and, 
secondly,  stating  in  his  book  the  principles  on  which,  as  he  sees  it,  the 
problem  must  be  solved.  More  eyes  are  now  fixed  upon  the  University 
Elementary  School,  at  Chicago,  than  upon  any  other  elementary  school 
in  the  country,  or  probably  in    the   world  —  eyes  watching    to    see  the 


Council]  EDUCATIONAL  PROGRESS  DURING  THE  YEAR  327 

outcome  of  the  interesting  experiment.  No  man  of  sense  expects  to  see 
the  children  of  the  people  generally  taught  in  schools  like  the  one  that 
Professor  Dewey  has  set  up,  but  there  are  many  who  are  hoping  that 
this  school  may  contribute  something  of  value  to  the  progress  of  elemen- 
tary education. 

Mr.  Lowell's  Colonial  Civil  Service,  which  has  already  been  mentioned, 
is  a  book  addressed  to  teachers  and  educators  as  well  as  to  politicians  and 
^publicists,  and  should  be  earnestly  considered  by  them.  And,  finally,  it 
would  be  unpardonable  not  to  speak  of  Educational  Aims  and  Methods, 
by  Sir  Joshua  Fitch,  the  veteran  English  educator.  To  say  that  this  vol- 
ume is  in  a  sense  supplementary  to  the  author's  Lectures  on  Teaching,  and 
not  unworthy  to  follow  that  admirable  book,  is  all  the  commendation  that 
American  teachers  can  seek  or  desire. 

The  facts  that  have  been  presented,  as  intimated  in  the  beginning, 
seem  to  the  bystander  isolated  and  fragmentary.  To  the  historian,  fifty 
or  twenty  years  hence,  such  of  them  as  do  not  fall  out  of  view  altogether 
will  appear  as  parts  of  one  consistent,  organic  whole.  Even  now  we  can 
discover,  in  part,  their  relations  with  one  another,  with  other  facts,  and 
with  the  general  movement  of  the  times.  The  efforts  to  place  power  and 
responsibility,  in  respect  to  the  public  schools,  in  fewer  and  more  compe- 
tent hands;  to  unify  systems  and  administration;  to  bring  secondary 
schools  into  closer  connection  with  the  colleges  and  universities ;  to  get 
the  higher  institutions  to  act  together  for  common  purposes,  and  to  con- 
nect the  higher  training  with  business  and  administrative  life  —  these 
tendencies  spring  directly  out  of  that^^habit  of  mind,  now  so  marked, 
which  refuses  to  look  at  human  activities  under  an  atomistic,  separatist, 
or  particularistic  aspect,  and  insists  upon  seeing  in  them  unity,  coherence, 
and  organic  completeness. 

This  address,  devoted  to  a  review  of  educational  progress  during  the 
last  year  of  the  century,  may  fitly  conclude  with  a  glance  at  the  state  of 
education  at  the  opening  of  the  century  in  three  or  four  of  the  leading 
countries  of  the  world,  as  Germany,  France,  England,  and  the  United 
States. 

In  some  of  the  principal  states  of  Germany,  where  the  impulse  that 
the  Reformation  gave  to  education  had  never  been  wholly  lost,  the  large 
outlines  of  state  systems  of  instruction  could  be  distinctly  discerned  in 
1800.  In  these  states  elementary  schools  existed,  altho  they  were  far  too 
few  to  teach  the  children  of  all  the  people,  and  were  generally  of  an  inferior 
character.  Compulsory  attendance  upon  such  schools,  which  had  been 
recommended  by  Luther  and  been  early  adopted  in  some  of  the  smaller 
states,  had  now  been  definitely  enacted  by  Frederic  the  Great  for  his 
kingdom  of  Prussia.  Teachers'  seminaries,  which  dated  back  to  1704, 
had  also  been  taken  under  the  patronage  of  the  same  enlightened  mon- 
arch-     The  gymnasia  were  still  moving  on  the  traditionary  lines;  but 


32  8  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [National 

Francke,  the  Pietist,  and  his  disciples  had  successfully  introduced  Realien 
into  schools  before  the  middle  of  the  previous  century,  thus  paving  the 
way  for  the  development  of  the  type  of  instruction  and  mental  discipline 
that  is  furnished  in  Germany  by  the  real  school,  the  real  gymnasium,  and 
the  technical  high  school.  Moreover,  this  movement  also  led,  in  time,  to 
important  modifications  in  the  elementary  schools  and  in  the  gymnasia, 
and  to  the  admission  to  the  universities  of  students  with  a  preparation 
almost  purely  modern.  The  universities  themselves,  delivered  from  the 
bondage  of  the  church,  led  by  the  University  of  Halle,  had  finally  won  the 
libertas  philosophandi.  With  all  the  rest,  the  Prussian  government  had 
promulgated  the  Allgemeine  Landrecht,  which  declared : 

Schools  and  universities  are  state  institutions  charged  with  the  instruction  of  youth 
in  useful  information  and  scientific  knowledge.  Such  instruction  may  be  provided  only 
with  the  knowledge  and  consent  of  the  state.  All  public  schools  and  educational  institu- 
tions are  under  the  supervision  of  the  state,  and  are  at  all  times  subject  to  its  examina- 
tion and  inspection. 

For  the  time,  perhaps,  this  decree  was  little  more  than  a  paper  document, 
but  it  was  never  repealed,  and  finally  became  a  living  reality. 

Turning  to  the  moral  side  of  the  subject,  Kant  had  already  finished 
his  work,  altho  his  Lectures  on  Pedagogy  were  not  published  until  1803. 
Pestalozzi,  employed  at  the  time  in  the  institute  at  Burgdorf,  had 
brought  out  the  Leonard  and  Gertrude  in  1781-87,  thus  unfolding  to  his 
readers,  who  were,  unfortunately,  still  few  in  number,  the  pure,  sweet  vision 
of  Bonal.  Hegel,  born  in  1770,  was  just  coming  into  notice.  Froebel, 
then  eighteen  years  of  age,  had  yet  to  receive  his  "vocation"  for  teaching 
at  Frankfort,  and  to  go  to  school  to  Pestalozzi,  before  he  would  be  pre- 
pared to  write  The  Education  of  Man,  which  appeared  in  1826.  Herbart, 
who  was  six  years  older  than  Froebel,  was  just  settling  down  to  his  aca- 
demical and  pedagogical  career.  The  awakening  of  Prussia  from  her 
political  and  moral  torpor  by  Stein  and  his  co-workers  still  lay  in  the 
future,  beyond  the  defeat  of  Jena  and  the  peace  of  Tilsit.  Fichte's 
Addresses  to  the  German  Nation  were  still  seven  years,  and  the  founding 
of  the  University  of  Berlin  nine  years,  in  the  future. 

It  will  be  seen,  therefore,  that  while  much  had  been  done  in  Germany, 
much  yet  remained  to  be  done.  The  whole  system  of  public  instruction 
had  to  be  remodeled  and  expanded,  and  the  people  aroused  to  an  apprecia- 
tion of  its  value.  How  stoutly  conservatism  continued  to  hold  its  ground 
is  shown,  in  part,  by  the  fact  that  the  real  gymnasium  was  not  fully  organ- 
ized in  Prussia  until  1859,  or  its  students,  on  leaving,  admitted  to  the 
universities  until  1870. 

In  France  the  situation  was  wholly  different.  Rousseau  had  put  out 
the  Emile  in  1762,  and  the  Encyclopaedists  had  completed  their  work  in 
1765.  What  the  results  of  the  new  movement  toward  freedom  would 
have  been  —  educational  as  well  as  other — provided  the  issue  had  been  a 


Council]  EDUCATIONAL  PROGRESS  DURING  THE  YEAR    ■  329 

peaceful  one,  is  a  vain  tho  a  curious  speculation.  The  Revolution  swept 
the  old  educational  regime  away  with  all  the  rest,  and  set  up  nothing  in 
its  room.  That  regime,  brilliant  in  many  respects,  like  the  other  parts 
of  the  system  to  which  it  belonged,  had  done  nothing  for  the  education 
of  the  masses  of  the  people.  Still,  the  rapid  succession  of  rapports  and 
projets  of  laws  relating  to  education  that  followed,  while  all  abortive, 
bore  testimony  to  the  close  affiliation  of  democratic  ideas  and  national 
instruction.  The  traditions  of  the  old  culture  still  remained,  and,  rein- 
vigorated  by  the  new  spirit,  were  destined  to  be  organized  in  a  series  of 
national  educational  institutions.  The  Imperial  University  was  not 
founded  until  1806,  and  even  then  made  no  provision  for  the  instruction 
of  the  nation  ;  while  Guizot  did  not  secure  the  passage  of  the  law  that 
bears  his  name,  or  send  out  his  equally  famous  circular  on  instruction, 
until  1833.  Still,  little  was  accomplished  as  time  wore  on;  and  it  was 
not  until  the  third  republic  that  France,  stirred  to  the  depths  by  her 
defeat  at  the  hands  of  Germany,  took  vigorously  in  hand  the  instruction 
of  her  sons  and  daughters,  offering  to  the  world  one  of  the  most  striking 
examples  of  educational  progress  recorded  in  history.  Thus,  to  quote 
Compayre  : 

For  successfully  introducing  anew  into  the  laws  the  principles  of  gratuity,  obliga- 
tion, and  secularization,  as  proclaimed  by  the  French  Revolution,  not  less  than  a  century 
was  required. 

Still  different  had  been  the  course  of  history  in  England.  One  hun- 
dred years  ago  no  other  great  country  in  the  world  had  been  so  little 
stirred  by  the  genius  of  universal  education.  All  thru  the  eighteenth 
century  such  schools  as  those  described  by  Shenstone  in  The  School  Mis- 
tress, together  with  a  few  Sunday  schools  at  the  last,  furnished  most  of 
the  educational  facilities  that  the  children  of  the  poor  enjoyed.  Joseph 
Lancaster,  born  in  the  same  year  as  Froebel,  had  begun  to  teach  some 
poor  scholars  in  the  shed  back  of  his  father's  house  in  London,  in  1796, 
and  Dr.  Bell  had  introduced  the  Madras  system  of  instruction  into  Eng- 
land in  1798.  These  were  the  headsprings  of  a  movement  that  was  soon 
to  attract  universal  attention.  But  England  was  bound  fast  in  the  Tory 
and  high -church  shackles.  The  French  Revolution  sat  upon  her  breast 
like  a  nightmare.  It  is,  in  fact,  almost  impossible,  at  this  day,  to  con- 
ceive the  depths  of  indifference  or  hostility  that  the  ruling  classes  felt 
for  the  enlightenment  and  elevation  of  the  democracy.  When  the  first 
education  bill  ever  before  Parliament  was  voted  down  by  the  Lords,  in 
1807,  Sir  Samuel  Romilly,  who  supported  the  measure  in  the  Commons, 
wrote  in  his  diary  that  a  majority  of  his  fellow-members  thought  it 
desirable  that  the  people  should  be  kept  in  ignorance.  In  1795  one  of  the 
bishops  said  in  the  House  of  Lords  that  he  did  not  know  what  the  mass 
of  the  people  in  any  country  had  to  do  with  the  laws  but  to  obey  them, 
and  as  late  as  1832  a  lady  of  high  social  position  demanded  to   know 


33°  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [National 

what  difference  it  made  what  the  people  thought,  if  the  army  could  be 
depended  upon.  Blackwood^s  Magazine,  a  literary  organ  of  conservatism, 
opposed  the  education  of  the  people  on  the  ground  that  it  made  them 
uneasy  and  restless,  that  ignorance  was  the  parent  of  contentment,  and 
that  the  only  education  which  could  safely  be  given  them  was  a  religious 
education  that  would  "  render  them  patient,  amiable,  and  moral,  and 
relieve  the  hardship  of  their  present  lot  with  the  prospect  of  a  bright 
eternity."  With  these  facts  before  us  we  are  not  surprised  to  find  Sydney 
Smith  asserting  that  there  was  no  Protestant  country  in  the  world  where 
the  education  of  the  poor  had  been  so  generally  and  infamously  neglected 
as  in  England ;  or  Malthus  asserting  that  it  was  a  great  national  disgrace 
that  the  education  of  the  lower  classes  of  the  people  should  be  left  merely 
to  a  few  Sunday  schools;  or,  once  more  Dean  Alford,  writing  in  1839  : 

Prussia  is  before  us,  Switzerland  is  before  us,  France  is  before  us ;  there  is  no  record 
of  any  people  on  earth  so  highly  civilized,  so  abounding  in  arts  and  comforts,  and  so 
grossly  generally  ignorant  as  the  English. 

To  modify  Lord  Brougham's  famous  phrase,  the  schoolmaster  got 
abroad  but  slowly.  It  was  not  until  1832,  the  year  of  the  first  Reform 
Bill,  that  Parliament  made  its  first  appropriation  for  education,  the  meager 
sum  of  ;^2o,ooo,  and  not  until  1870  that  the  Elementary  School  Act 
authorizing  school  boards  and  board  schools  was  passed.  But  slowly, 
with  the  throwing  off  of  the  old  conservatism  and  the  penetration  of  the 
masses  of  society  by  the  democratic  spirit,  England  began  to  awaken  to 
the  shame  of  her  situation,  and  to  do  something  worthy  of  her  in  the 
field  in  which  she  had  been  so  backward.  Here,  as  in  France,  the  relation 
of  democratic  ideas  and  educational  progress  was  demonstrated.  It  was 
immediately  after  the  passage  of  the  Reform  Bill  of  1867,  which  greatly 
enlarged  the  suffrage,  that  Mr.  Robert  Lowe,  afterward  Lord  Sherbrooke, 
recognizing  the  coming  change  in  the  center  of  political  gravity,  uttered 
the  celebrated  words,  so  full  of  meaning:  "We  must  educate  our  mas- 
ters." Still,  with  all  that  has  been  done,  England,  at  the  close  of  the 
century,  is  confronted  by  more  serious  problems  than  any  other  great 
educational  country. 

In  the  United  States  the  contrast  between  the  beginning  and  the  end 
of  the  century,  all  things  considered,  is  more  remarkable  than  that  shown 
by  any  other  country  in  the  world.  So  far  as  quantity  is  concerned, 
education  has  certainly  more  than  kept  pace  with  the  growth  of  the 
country.  In  1801  a  number  of  the  states  had  assigned  to  schools  a  status 
in  their  constitutions.  Connecticut  had  founded  her  common-school 
fund,  and  other  states  were  preparing  to  emulate  her  example.  The 
national  government  had  taken  the  first  steps  in  that  line  of  policy  which 
has  resulted  in  endowing  education  with  a  capital  of  about  $300,000,000. 
New  York  had  chartered,  in  1787,  the  regents  of  the  state  university,  and 
begun  to   move  in   the  direction  of  popular  education.     In  1801  there 


Council] 


EDUCATIONAL  PROGRESS  DURING  THE  YEAR 


331 


were  twenty-three  colleges  in  the  country,  all  but  nine  of  them  founded 
since  1775,  whereas  we  now  have  more  than  four  hundred.  West  and 
south  of  the  Hudson  river  not  even  the  rudiments  of  a  state  system  of 
public  instruction  existed,  while  the  boasted  New  England  systems  were 
but  imperfectly  developed  and  comparatively  inefficient.  Save  alone  the 
few  New  England  grammar  schools,  there  were  no  public  high  schools  in 
the  country,  where  we  now  have  more  than  five  thousand.  But  few  of 
the  state  governments  were  doing  anything  whatever  for  elementary 
teaching.  The  first  state  board  of  education  and  the  first  state  secretary, 
as  well  as  the  first  local  superintendent,  were  thirty-six  years  distant, 
and  the  first  state  normal  schools  thirty-eight  years  distant.  Horace 
Mann,  four  years  of  age,  was  just  beginning  to  braid  straw  in  his  native 
town  of  Franklin,  Mass.,  while  Henry  Barnard  was  not  born  until  181 1. 
More  than  twenty  years  were  still  to  elapse  before  George  Ticknor  would 
urge  valuable  reforms  in  Harvard  College,  or  Thomas  Jefferson  found 
the  University  of  Virginia ;  while  Francis  Wayland  would  not  write  his 
book  on  college  education  until  1842,  or  prepare  his  more  famous 
"Report  to  the  Trustees  of  Brown  University"  until  1850.  The  state 
universities  of  the  West  were  potent  only  in  the  implied  promise  of  Con- 
gress to  endow  them  with  two  townships  of  wild  land  apiece. 

Our  hurried  glance  has  been  limited  to  education  as  a  whole.  If  we 
were  to  single  out  the  education  of  women,  who  are  one-half  of  the 
human  family,  the  showing  would  be  still  more  effective.  This  was 
shamefully  neglected,  even  in  the  best-educated  states  and  countries.  In 
the  United  States  not  only  were  co-education  colleges,  "  annexes,"  and 
women's  colleges  one  and  two  generations  in  the  future,  but  even  the 
day  of  ladies'  seminaries  had  not  dawned.  Still  more,  girls  were  some- 
times denied  the  privileges  of  the  common  school.  For  example,  it  was 
not  until  1789  that  they  were  admitted  to  the  schools  of  Boston,  and 
then  only  when  the  boys  did  not  need  the  schoolhouses. 

To  make  this  view  most  effective  it  would  perhaps  be  desirable  to 
present  a  similar  one  of  education  at  the  close  of  the  century.  But  that 
is  manifestly  impossible.  Probably,  also,  it  is  unnecessary.  It  may  well 
be  assumed  that  the  audience  is  fully  able  to  supply  the  counterpart  of 
the  picture  that  has  been  drawn.  Three  or  four  general  statements,  at 
least,  will  suffice. 

Education  has  everywhere  become  a  function  of  the  state ;  that  is,  it 
has  been  placed  in  the  only  hands  that  are  competent  to  furnish  it  to  the 
people.  Statesmen  are  called  upon  to  reckon  with  the  subject,  and 
monarchs  urge  it  in  speeches  from  the  throne.  The  educational  budgets 
of  the  great  educational  countries  rank  with  the  budgets  of  the  army  and 
navy,  or  rather  above  them.  The  united  expenditures  of  Germany, 
France,  Great  Britain,  and  the  United  States  for  public  education  this 
year  amount  to  nearl)*  $500,000,000.     The  United  States  will  cross  the 


332  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [National 

century  line  with  245,000  public-school  houses,  418,000  public-school 
teachers,  15,700,000  pupils  in  public  schools,  and  an  expenditure  for 
public  education  of  $203,000,000.  The  two  cross-sections  of  civilization 
marked  1800  and  1900  offer  to  our  minds  many  striking  contrasts  ;  but 
none  more  striking,  more  instructive,  more  inspiring,  more  conducive  to 
hopeful  views  of  the  world  and  of  the  race,  than  those  furnished  by  edu- 
cation.    With  such  a  century  behind  it,  what  can  the  twentieth  century 

be  but 

"  .  .  .  .  another  mom 

Risen  on  mid  noon  ...."? 


CLASS  INTERVALS  IN  GRADED  SCHOOLS 

WILLIAM    T.    HARRIS,  UNITED    STATES    COMMISSIONER    OF    EDUCATION 

The  germinal  school  organization  out  of  which  all  varieties  have 
grown  is  the  country  school  of  one  room  and  one  teacher,  with  from  ten 
to  sixty  or  more  pupils  of  all  ages  and  degrees  of  advancement,  from  the 
stripling  of  four  years,  who  begins  at  the  alphabet,  up  to  the  young  man 
of  twenty-one,  who  is  likely  to  study  algebra,  or  Latin,  or  natural 
philosophy.  The  difference  in  qualifications  ranges  thru  eight  or  ten 
years  of  study.  If  classes  are  to  be  made,  they  are  likely  to  be  made  on 
the  accidental  fact  that  some  of  the  pupils  bring  to  school  the  same  text- 
books—  the  same  arithmetic,  the  same  reader,  or  geography,  or  gram- 
mar ;  a  class  being  formed  with  very  little  regard  to  the  difference  in 
advancement  of  its  members.  Not  seldom  it  happens  that  those  of  like 
advancement  in  the  country  school  happen  to  have  different  text-books, 
and  for  th^-t  reason  alone  are  assigned  to  different  classes  and  mated  with 
other  pupils  of  very  inferior  attainments,  who  have  the  same  book. 

Thus  it  happens  that  the  function  of  the  teacher  in  the  country  school 
becomes  chiefly  one  of  keeping  order  and  hearing  lessons,  without  being 
able  to  find  time  to  teach  or  explain  anything,  or  to  become  acquainted 
with  the  obstacles  that  arise  in  the  minds  of  his  pupils.  His  number  of 
recitations  per  day  averages  from  twenty-five  to  fifty,  and  their  length 
varies  from  two  minutes  to  twenty  or  thirty,  but  averaging  only  five  min- 
utes apiece.  There  is  no  division  of  labor  in  this  rudimentary  type  of 
school,  and  it  is  obvious  that  the  continuance  under  the  same  teacher 
possesses  but  little  more  advantage  than  the  antiquated  process,  by  which 
a  gun  was  made  thruout — lock,  stock,  and  barrel  —  by  one  gunsmith,  has 
over  the  division-of-Iabor  system  in  the  Springfield  armory,  or  the  watch 
manufactories  at  Waltham  or  Elgin,  where  each  manipulation  has  a  differ- 
ent workman  to  perform  it.  With  small  schools  of  this  character,  which 
range  thru  so  wide  differences  in  age  and  acquirements  in  their  pupils, 
but  little  can  be  done  other  than  to  secure  discipline  and  lay  special  stress 
upon  individual  industry.  ^ 


> 


Council]  CLASS  INTERVALS  IN  GRADED  SCHOOLS  333 

Uniformity  of  text-books  (now  generally  established  by  state  laws) 
renders  possible  some  degree  of  classification  ;  but  at  best  such  classifica- 
tion is  very  imperfect,  for  the  reason  that  there  can  be  little  transferring 
from  one  class  to  another  in  case  of  differences  of  ability. 

When  the  country  school  grows  to  be  a  village  school,  and  the  number 
of  pupils  increases  to  sixty  or  one  hundred,  two  rooms  are  opened  and 
two  teachers  employed.  Division  of  labor  may  begin  here.  Primary  and 
grammar  departments  are  instituted,  and  the  range  of  acquirement  in  each 
room  may  be  four  years  by  the  course  of  study.  Fewer  classes  and  larger 
ones  allow  the  teacher  twice  the  length  of  time  for  each  recitation,  and 
he  can  begin  to  lay  some  stress  on  instruction.  The  advantages  of  class 
recitation  over  individual  instruction  begin  to  appear  at  this  point.  Indi- 
vidual instruction  is  good  where  the  teacher  can  devote  to  it  as  much 
time  as  to  an  ordinary  recitation,  but  it  is  inferior  to  class  recitation  even 
then.  The  class  should  consist  of  not  less  than  ten  nor  more  than 
thirty.  The  length  of  recitation  should  vary  from  fifteen  or  twenty 
minutes  in  the  primary  grades,  to  thirty  minutes  in  the  grammar  depart- 
ment. During  recitation  there  should  be  the  most  vivid  and  constant 
attention  on  the  part  of  all  the  pupils.  It  is  obvious  that  this  can  be 
obtained  in  the  primary  grade  only  for  a  short  time.  With  increasing 
discipline  and  the  strength  that  comes  of  years  of  practice,  the  recitation 
hour  can  be  lengthened. 

That  a  properly  conducted  class  recitation  is  of  far  greater  value  than 
individual  instruction  is  obvious  from  the  consideration  that  the  contents 
of  the  lesson  are  stated  over  and  over  by  different  pupils  of  the  class, 
criticised  and  discussed,  illustrated  from  the  experience  of  different 
pupils,  and  the  pupil  has  the  advantage  of  seeing  how  his  fellows 
encounter  and  surmount  such  difficulties  as  he  himself  meets.  What 
we  see  in  the  experience  of  others,  our  equals,  becomes  at  once  our 
experience  by  adoption,  and  it  saves  us  from  the  pain  and  consumption 
of  time  necessary  to  acquire  its  wisdom  thru  personal  adventure.  Hence 
education  is  essentially  to  be  carried  on  in  the  form  of  a  community. 
The  school  is  and  must  be  a  community;  no  private  tutoring  can  educate 
as  the  school  can.  But  it  is  evident  that  the  school  best  subserves  this 
purpose  when  it  classifies  so  that  each  one  meets  his  equals  in  the  recita- 
tion. Great  inferiority  or  great  superiority  in  his  fellows  mars  the  force 
of  the  lesson  which  he  learns  from  seeing  their  work. 

The  village  school  of  two  rooms,  as  contrasted  with  the  country  school 
of  one  room,  exhibits  to  us  the  beginnings  of  classification  and  proper 
methods  of  recitation.  It  does  hardly  more  than  this.  Its  separation  of 
the  four  years  of  primary  work  from  the  four  years  of  grammar-school 
work  is  a  great,  but  only  one,  step. 

When  a  village  comes  to  have  500  or  1,000  children,  living  within  a 
small  area  so  that  they  can  be  brought  into  a  central  school   of  eight  to 


334  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [National 

twenty  rooms,  new  developments  become  possible  in  grading  and  classi- 
fication. Usually  the  primary  work  is  kept  localized  in  small  schools, 
while  only  the  advanced  pupils  are  brought  together  in  the  central 
school.  This  is  just  and  proper.  The  ratio  of  younger  pupils  to  older 
ones  is  that  of  a  large  number  to  a  small  one. 

First  year  -         -         -         -     30         Fifth  year       -         .         .         .7 

Second  year  -         -         -  21         Sixth  year  -         .         .  4 

Third  year        -         -         -         -     20         Seventh  and  eighth  years        -     3 
Fourth  year  -         -         -  12         High  school       ■         -         -  3 

Provided  the  classes  in  the  higher  grades  are  to  be  of  normal  size,  it 
is  clear  that  the  chances  for  proper  grading  are  only  one-seventh  to  one- 
tenth  as  good  in  them  as  in  the  lowest  grade.  The  only  remedy  for  this 
is  to  bring  together  the  pupils  of  the  higher  grades  into  fewer  schools. 
There  may  be  very  many  schools  with  the  lower  four  grades.  There 
should  be  only  five  rooms  devoted  to  instruction  of  pupils  of  the  sixth 
year  in  the  course,  where  there  are  thirty  rooms  devoted  to  the  lowest 
grade,  or  ninety-one  rooms  devoted  to  the  five  lower  years'  work. 

Counting  the  lowest  three  years  of  the  course  as  primary  work,  we 
have  over  70  per  cent,  of  all  the  pupils  in  the  schools  in  the  primary 
department,  and  only  about  26  per  cent,  in  the  grammar  department.  In 
eastern  cities,  where  education  for  a  long  time  has  done  its  work,  the  ratio 
is  much  more  favorable  to  the  higher  departments  than  in  western  cities. 
From  these  facts  it  is  clear  that  in  order  to  secure  as  good  results  in  classi- 
fication of  grammar-school  pupils  as  with  primary  pupils,  the  former  must 
be  brought  together  into  about  one-fourth  as  many  schools  as  the  latter. 

Whenever  the  sizes  of  the  schools  have  been  such  as  to  admit  of  it,  a 
system  of  classification  has  been  introduced,  and  the  immediate  con- 
sequences have  been  :  (a)  great  increase  in  the  length  of  recitation ;  (f) 
far  more  thoroness  in  the  discussion  of  the  lesson,  sifting  the  different 
statements,  and  probing  the  meaning  of  the  same ;  (c)  great  stimulation 
of  the  mental  activity  of  the  pupil  thru  trial  and  competition  with  other 
members  of  his  class.  These  three  advantages  can  scarcely  be  over- 
estimated. They  multiply  the  teacher's  power  just  as  organization 
improves  the  strength  of  an  army.  In  the  unclassified  system  the  teacher 
is  only  a  private  tutor,  and  the  fewer  pupils  he  has  the  better  for  each  and 
all.  In  the  classified  system  the  proper  quota  of  pupils  is  a  potent 
instrument  in  the  hands  of  the  teacher,  and  he  uses  the  whole  class  to 
correct  and  stimulate  each  one  in  it.  The  lesson,  as  recited  and  dis- 
cussed by  and  before  the  class,  gets  all  its  phases  stated,  restated,  and 
criticised  as  never  could  be  done  in  the  case  of  a  single  pupil  with  a 
private  tutor.  The  presence  of  the  class  arouses  the  teacher  to  a  high 
pitch  of  energy,  and  each  individual  in  the  class  is  excited  by  the  presence 
of  the  teacher  and  the  rest  of  the  class.  These  circumstances  account 
for  the  high  estimation  in  which  the  graded  system  is  everywhere  held. 


Council]  CLASS  INTERVALS  IN  GRADED  SCHOOLS  335 

So  many  good  things  have  a  tendency  to  hide  some  very  serious  defects. 
One  of  these  defects  is  the  practice  of  annual  promotions. 

A  set  time  for  examination  and  promotion  is  injurious  Justin  the  ratio 
of  its  infrequency.  Annual  examinations  for  promotion  and  a  discon- 
tinuance of  promotions  at  other  times  is  an  extremely  pernicious  system 
and  occasions  serious  injury  to  the  higher  grades  of  our  schools.  It  is 
evident  that  the  farther  advanced  the  pupil,  the  more  unfavorably  will  it 
affect  him  ;  and  yet  in  our  schools  thruout  the  country  the  system  is  so 
arranged  that  this  Procrustean  device  applies  more  especially  to  the 
advanced  pupils.  In  how  many  of  our  cities  is  there  promotion  to  the 
high  school  oftener  than  once  per  year  ?  What  becomes  of  the  pupils 
who  lack  I  per  cent,  of  making  the  standard  required  ?  Are  they  not 
sent  over  the  work  of  the  highest  grade  of  the  grammar  schools  again, 
and  thus  made  to  occupy  a  year  in  doing  what  they  might  do  in  one- 
fourth  of  that  time  ?  And  do  they  not  leave  school  at  this  crisis  more 
than  at  any  other  time  in  the  whole  course  ? 

The  effect  of  sending  pupils  back  to  repeat  the  work  of  the  entire 
year  is  well  known  to  all  teachers  who  have  made  experiments  in  this 
direction.  Both  parent  and  pupil  feel  very  keenly  the  time  lost.  The 
pupil  must  have  been  over  much  of  the  work  of  the  year  —  perhaps  nine- 
tenths  or  three-quarters,  or  perhaps  only  one-half  of  it.  Yet,  what  he  has 
done  entitles  him  to  an  advanced  position  over  his  fellow-pupils  of  the 
next  class  below  him.  If  he  returns  to  school  after  being  thrust  back  a 
year  for  his  lack  of  less  than  half  a  year,  he  appears  in  the  ranks  of  a 
class  which  was  a  year's  work  behind  him.  He  has  lost  his  ambition ; 
weeks  pass  away  before  he  comes  to  work  that  is  difficult  enough  to  arouse 
him  to  the  exertion  of  his  full  energies.  Meanwhile  he  has  lost  his  ability 
for  hard  study,  and  he  is  very  likely  to  break  down  a  second  time  on  the 
work  of  the  year.  A  second  failure  in  the  trial  for  promotion  is  nearly 
sure  to  cause  withdrawal  from  school.  The  parent  has  lost  faith  in  the 
talent  of  his  child  and  puts  him  into  business  or  apprentices  him  to.  a 
trade.  The  youth  has  lost  his  own  confidence  in  himself,  and  is  stunted 
for  intellectual  growth  the  rest  of  his  life. 

A  system  which  classifies  the  weak  and  incompetent  with  the  strong 
and  genial-minded,  and  when  they  diverge  in  the  amount  of  work 
accomplished  under  its  instruction  —  as  they  certainly  will  diverge  under 
any  instruction  which  is  other  than  an  opiate,  a  paralyzer  of  the  will  —  still 
retains  them  in  the  same  class  and  relaxes  its  hold  so  as  to  release  the 
weak  from  a  normal  responsibility,  will  be  found  in  nearly  every  case  to 
be  productive  of  injury  to  the  growth  of  character  in  both  weak  and 
strong.  If  pupils  of  all  classes  are  to  be  held  to  a  strict  accountability  for 
their  work,  there  must  be  a  careful  system  of  reclassification. 

It  is  evident  that  provision  must  be  made  for  promotion  of  the  pupils 
who  make  rapid  progress,  and  that  this  promotion  will,  at  the  same  time, 


336  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [National 

restore  the  proper  quota  of  pupils  to  the  teachers  of  the  higher  grades. 
A  promotion  made  once  in  ten  weeks,  or  once  in  a  "quarter"  or  "  term," 
will  generally  suffice  to  keep  the  school  well  classified. 

It  is  clear  that  frequent  promotion  should  not  be  made  by  classes. 
The  few  best  ones  in  the  class  should  be  united  with  the  class  above— it 
will  seem  a  reward  or  a  recognition  of  their  excellence.  After  such  pro- 
motion has  been  made  thru  all,  or  nearly  all,  of  the  classes  from  the 
lowest,  each  class  will  find  itself  composed  of  its  fair,  average,  and 
poor  scholars,  together  with  a  few  of  the  best  from  the  next  lower  class 
in  place  of  the  few  that  it  has  lost  by  promotion.  For  a  while,  at  least, 
the  average  and  fair  scholars  in  the  class  will  have  the  stimulus  that  comes 
from  the  consciousness  of  being  the  best  in  the  class.  The  poor  ones 
will  rank  as  "middling,"  and  the  new  pupils  will  begin  as  the  poorest  and 
slowly  work  up  toward  the  top  of  the  class.  The  advantage  to  the  self- 
respect  of  the  slower  pupils  which  comes  from  standing  in  relation  to 
their  classmates  as  abler  and  better  informed  is  not  to  be  lost  sight  of. 

A  process  of  continual  readjustment  of  classification  in  our  schools 
will  render  the  whole  school  system  elastic  and  mobile.  Like  the  current 
of  a  river,  there  will  be  everywhere  forward  motion  —  in  the  middle  the 
current  is  more  rapid,  at  the  sides  the  current  flows  more  slowly.  The 
work  of  the  grade  laid  down  for  a  year's  study  will  be  accomplished  in 
three  or  three  and  one-half  quarters  by  the  brightest;  by  the  dullest  and 
slowest,  in  five  quarters.  There  will  be  no  temptation  to  push  on  a  slow 
pupil  or  drag  him  beyond  his  powers ;  no  temptation  to  promote  a  pupil 
to  a  new  grade's  work  before  thoroly  completing  what  is  below  him. 

By  this  plan  would  be  checked  a  pernicious  system  of  holding  back 
pupils  from  examination  for  the  high  school,  simply  for  the  purpose  of 
gaining  a  reputation  for  the  school  thru  the  high  per  cent,  of  its  pupils 
that  succeed  in  the  competitive  examination. 

Doubtless  there  is  a  certain  degree  of  thoroness  requisite  in  the  lower 
branches  before  the  pupil  can  profitably  take  up  the  studies  of  the  next 
higher  grade.  But  after  attaining  this  per  cent,  it  is  possible,  and  indeed 
often  the  practice,  to  keep  the  pupil  drilling  over  the  lower  work,  in 
order  to  secure  a  certain  mechanical  thoroness,  so  long  as  to  waste  much 
time  that  might  be  better  expended  for  the  pupil's  culture  and  growth 
on  the  higher  studies. 

It  might  be  urged  that  this  system  causes  so  rapid  a  change  from 
teacher  to  teacher  that  the  very  important  personal  influence  of  the  teacher 
is  materially  impaired.  But  under  this  system  in  the  higher  grades  the 
pupil  would  hardly  change  teachers  oftener  than  once  or  twice  per  year; 
and  a  change  as  often  as  this  is  desirable  for  the  healthy  individual 
culture  of  the  child.  The  school  should  not  be  a  family  influence  exclu- 
sively. It  is  the  transition  to  civil  society;  consequently  the  pupil  must 
change  teachers  often  enough  to  correct  any  one-sided   tendencies   of 


Council]  CLASS  INTERVALS  IN  GRADED  SCHOOLS  337 

social  culture  that  he  may  be  liable  to  acquire  from  the  individual  teacher. 
For  it  must  be  remembered  that  reclassification  of  a  whole  school  of  700 
pupils,  distributed  thru  twelve  rooms,  does  not  imply  a  change  of  teachers 
on  the  part  of  more  than  one-sixth  of  the  pupils,  even  when  one-third  of 
the  best  pupils  in  each  class  are  promoted  to  the  next  higher  class.  Each 
teacher  having  two  classes  (or,  in  the  lower  grades,  three  classes)  will 
have  one-third  of  the  pupils  from  her  advanced  class  promoted  to  the 
lower  class  in  the  next  room  above ;  she  will  likewise  receive  from  the 
next  room  below  one-third  of  the  pupils  from  the  advanced  class  there. 
In  her  own  room  one-third  of  the  pupils  will  be  promoted  from  her 
second  to  her  first  class,  but  will  still  remain  under  the  same  teacher.  In 
fact,  she  will  have  promoted  to  the  next  room  one-sixth  of  her  pupils, 
and  have  received  one-sixth  from  the  next  lower  room  —  that  is  to  say, 
in  case  one-third  is  promoted  from  each  class ;  but,  practically,  this  is  the 
maximum,  and  in  ordinary  cases  a  less  proportion  of  the  class  will  be 
transferred. 

The  system  of  frequent  transfer  does  not  affect  the  individual  pupil 
any  oftener,  on  an  average,  than  the  system  of  transfer  once  a  year.  The 
bright  pupils,  it  is  true,  have  frequent  opportunity  to  advance.  The 
system  is  elastic  for  them.  The  slow  pupils  advance  only  when  ready. 
The  system  discards  one  general  epoch  of  transfer  and  reclassification  at 
the  close  of  the  year,  and  adopts  instead  four  or  more  partial  transfers, 
so  arranged  as  to  accommodate  the  twofold  demand :  first,  that  the  ablest 
pupils  shall  not  be  kept  back ;  second,  that  the  ablest  and  highest-paid 
teachers  shall,  at  all  times,  have  their  full  quota  of  pupils.  In  the  lowest 
grade,  where  several  rooms  in  the  same  building  are  filled  with  pupils 
not  advanced  beyond  the  first  year  of  their  course,  the  bright  pupil  will 
change  teachers  perhaps  three  or  four  times  in  the  year.  In  the  higher 
grades  the  pupil  will  remain  a  year  or  more  under  each  teacher. 

Classification  in  a  school  is  never  absolute.  No  two  pupils  are  of  exactly 
the  same  degree  of  progress.  The  entire  number  in  the  school  may  be 
ranked  from  the  highest  to  the  lowest,  and  there  will  be  found  no  wide 
gaps  indicating  a  natural  separation  into  classes,  but  the  best  of  the  next 
class  below  would  stand  very  near  the  poorest  of  the  class  above,  no 
matter  where  a  division  were  to  be  made.  In  dividing  into  classes,  there- 
fore, the  proper  number  in  the  class  is  first  to  be  considered,  and  next 
the  qualifications.  But  it  will  not  do,  even  for  the  sake  of  having  a  class 
of  proper  size,  to  combine  pupils  of  widely  differing  attainments. 

In  enumerating  the  causes  which  tend  to  render  frequent  reclassifica- 
tion necessary,  I  would  mention  the  following  : 

Some  pupils  are  detained  from  school  by  sickness,  some  by  the 
necessity  of  working  for  a  living.  Three  months  of  a  year  is  all  that  can 
be  afforded  by  the  poorest  people  after  the  child  is  ableto  work.  New 
arrivals  in  the  city,  or  departures  from  the  city,  occasion  a  fragmentary 


338  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [National 

participation  in  the  privileges  of  the  school.  Moreover,  it  is  an  impor- 
tant fact  that  nearly  one-half  of  the  youngest  pupils  begin  their  school 
life  in  the  spring,  having  arrived  at  school  age  too  late  the  previous  fall 
to  enter  before  the  inclement  weather  sets  in.  The  number  of  pupils 
belonging  to  the  school  at  any  one  time  is  two-thirds  of  the  entire  num- 
ber enrolled  for  the  year.  Hence  the  accession  and  loss  of  pupils  during 
the  year  equal  50  per  cent.,  or  one-half,  of  the  average  number  belonging 
to  the  school.  It  should  be  stated  that  the  statistics  of  a  large  number  of 
cities  show  a  greater  fluctuation  than  this.  The  general  character  of  this 
accession  and  loss  may  be  stated  thus  :  In  the  lower  grades  there  is  con- 
tinual accession,  in  the  upper  grades  continual  withdrawal  of  pupils. 

There  is  great  difference  among  pupils  in  the  capacity  to  learn. 
Children  who  enter  school  at  eight  years  of  age  can,  on  an  average, 
make  nearly  double  the  progress  in  primary  work  that  pupils  of  five 
years  of  age  can  make.  Bright,  nervous  children  will  make  far  more  rapid 
progress  than  children  who  are  stolid  and  dull. 

The  school  must  provide  for  this  difiference  in  rates  of  progress  by 
frequent  reclassification  ;  otherwise  the  school  will  become  a  lifeless 
machine,  a  Procrustean  bed.  It  must  be  understood  that  when  bright 
scholars  are  kept  back  for  dull  ones,  they  acquire  loose,  careless  habits  of 
study ;  and  when  pupils  of  slower  temperaments  are  strained  to  keep  pace 
with  quick  and  bright  ones,  they  become  discouraged  and  demoralized. 

Then  there  is  the  difference  in  temperament  and  character — the  slow 
and  the  swift,  the  weak  and  the  strong,  the  careless  and  the  earnest,  the 
mature  and  the  immature,  the  industrious  and  the  indolent.  Start  all 
together,  and  these  causes  will  soon  make  a  great  difference  in  attain- 
ments. 

As  systems  of  schools  are  generally  organized,  the  higher-salaried  and 
most  experienced  teachers  have  charge  of  the  upper  grades  of  pupils. 
As  their  classes  suffer  depletion  thruout  the  year,  unless  there  is  some 
regular  mode  of  transferring  new  pupils  to  the  care  of  those  teachers, 
they  will  have  very  small  classes  the  latter  half  of  each  year.  Thus,  while 
the  poorer  class  of  teachers  are  overburdened,  the  ablest  and  best-paid 
teachers  have  less  than  their  quota  of  pupils.  It  is  clear  that  the  policy 
should  be  to  bring  as  many  pupils  as  possible  under  the  ablest  and  best- 
paid  teachers.  The  practice  of  frequent  transfer  of  pupils  is  better  for 
this  purpose  than  the  custom  of  transferring  in  bulk  once  per  year. 

In  addition  to  the  obvious  advantages  involved  in  providing  for  the 
advance  of  pupils  according  to  their  abilities,  there  is,  therefore,  the  addi- 
tional advantage  of  economy  in  filling  up  the  classes  of  the  ablest  and 
best-paid  teachers,  and  making  room  in  the  lower  grades  for  new  pupils 
constantly  applying. 

Instead  of  its  being  an  injury,  it  is  rather  an  advantage,  on  the  whole, 
to  change  teachers  oftener  than  once  a  year.     Is  it  desirable  to  keep  a 


Council]  CLASS  INTERVALS  IN  GRADED  SCHOOLS  339 

pupil  back  in  his  studies  simply  in  order  that  he  may  recite  for  a  long 
time  to  the  same  teacher?  Every  superintendent  knows  that  a  change 
of  teachers  brings  the  pupil  in  contact  with  a  new  individuality,  prevents 
the  danger  of  warping  the  development  of  character  in  the  pupil,  and  is 
desirable  oftener  than  once  a  year  in  the  lower  grades,  and  at  least  once 
a  year  in  the  higher  grades — where  the  teachers  are  maturer  and  more 
highly  cultured  —  until  the  pupil  reaches  the  high  school,  where  he 
recites  daily  to  three  or  more  teachers. 

In  conclusion,  I  will  quote  what  in  1875  I  wrote  of  the  working  of 
this  system  of  small  intervals  in  a  system  of  schools  in  a  western  city, 
thus  : 

"At  all  times  there  are  now  classes  just  beginning  the  work  of  a 
grade,  or  year's  work,  in  some  one  of  our  schools.  The  classes  are  not 
separated  by  intervals  of  one  year  in  their  work,  but  by  irregular  inter- 
vals varying  from  six  weeks  to  twenty.  It  is  considered  desirable  to  have 
these  intervals  small,  so  that  reclassification  may  be  more  easily  managed. 
Pupils  who  fall  behind  their  class  for  any  reason  (such  as  absence,  lack  of 
physical  strength,  or  of  mental  ability)  may  be  reclassified  with  the  next 
lower  class  without  falling  back  a  year  and  thereby  becoming  discour- 
aged. Pupils  who  are  unusually  bright  or  mature  may  be  promoted  to  the 
class  above,  or  form  new  classes  with  the  slower  pupils  of  the  class  above 
who  need  to  review  their  work.  Thus  it  happens  "that  in  a  district  school 
there  is  a  continued  process  going  oij,  the  elements  of  which  are  as  fol- 
lows :  (i)  The  older  and  more  advanced  pupils  are  leaving  school  for 
business  or  other  causes.  This  depletes  the  classes  of  the  most  skillful 
and  best-paid  teachers,  who  are  usually  placed  in  charge  of  the  most 
advanced  pupils.  Again,  there  is  at  all  times  of  the  year  an  influx,  into 
the  lower  grades,  of  pupils  who  have  just  completed  their  sixth  or  seventh 
year  and  are  now  anxious  to  begin  their  school  career.  Thus  the  pupils 
in  the  primary  rooms  of  our  schools  tend  continually  to  be  overcrowded. 

(2)  To  correct  this  continued  tendency  which  overcrowds  the  rooms  of 
the  least  skillful  and  poorest-paid  teachers,  and  gives  small  quotas  of 
pupils  to  the  most  skillful  and  best-paid  teachers,  from  time  to  time  (usu- 
ally once  in  ten  weeks,  but  oftener  in  some  schools)  each  class  is  sifted 
and  its  most  promising  pupils  united  with  what  remains  of  the  next 
higher  class  (i.  e.,  with  the  not-promising  portion  of  it  —  those  who,  for 
absence,  or  dull  intellect,  or  weak  wills,  fail  to  keep  up  with  the  best). 

(3)  To  make  room  for  this  transfer,  a  portion  of  the  highest  class  is  sent 
to  the  branch  high  schools.  (4)  The  number  changed  from  class  to  class 
is  usually  small.  The  disturbance  in  classes  is  very  slight,  compared  with 
the  advantages  gained  by  the  teacher  in  being  relieved  of  the  necessity  of 
driving  the  laggards  to  make  them  keep  up  with  the  average  of  the  class. 
The  teacher  was  once  obliged  to  spend  most  of  her  time  upon  the  dull 
ones   in  the  useless  endeavor  to  force  them  to  make  up  lost  time  or  to 


Uo  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [National 

equal  the  strides  of  the  more  mature,  more  regular,  or  more  brilliantly 
gifted  pupils;  and,  of  course,  these  latter  pupils  lost  proportionately;  and 
the  net  result  of  the  process  was  to  overwork  the  incompetent  and  to  hold 
back  the  competent  ones.  The  teacher,  in  the  vain  effort  to  hold  together 
the  extremes  of  her  class,  separating  more  widely  every  day  till  the  end 
of  the  year,  became  cross  and  petulant,  and  sank  continually  into  the 
abyss  of  drill-machine  pedagogy.  Under  the  present  system  we  can  make 
room,  when  needed,  in  the  lower  grades,  and  fill  up  the  classes  of  our 
skillful  and  high-priced  teachers." 


DISCUSSION 


[reported  by  I,  c.  McNeill] 

F.  W.  Parker,  of  Illinois. —  Age  and  attainment  are  properly  the  bases  for  promo- 
tion. Life  must  be  manifested  by  children  of  similar  age  and  experience  to  each  other. 
In  the  recitation  the  individual  pupil  brings  in  himself  for  the  benefit  of  others.  The 
child  should  go  into  the  next  grade  when  he  can  do  the  most  good  there. 

Mr.  Gove. —  In  the  practical  working  of  the  short  grading  of  the  school  most  pupils 
go  on  well  together.     There  is  less  difference  between  pupils  than  is  often  thought. 

Mr.  Keyes. — There  is  danger  of  securing  so  much  adjustability  as  to  defeat  the 
ends  of  class  work.  The  most  helpful  teacher  goes  on  with  her  class  regardless  of  the 
exact  amount  of  work  done  in  a  term  of  school.  Teachers  should  not  be  tied  down  to  a 
time-card  for  promotions. 

Mr.  Bartholomew. — Trouble  arises  from  too  much  pressure  on  teachers,  censure 
for  failure  to  put  classes  thru  on  schedule  time. 

Dr.  Harris. — There  is  a  disposition  for  teachers  to  nag  slow  pupils. 

Colonel  Parker. — Any  system  which  says  "  so  much  in  such  a  time  "  is  hopeless 


REPORT  ON  HIGH-SCHOOL  STATISTICS 

JAMES  M.  GREENWOOD,  SUPERINTENDENT    OF    SCHOOLS,  KANSAS  CITY,  MO. 

t 

The  object  in  submitting  this  report  to  the  National  Council  of  Edu- 
cation is  to  call  attention  to  the  imperfect  methods  now  employed  in 
collecting  and  tabulating  high-school  statistics,  and  to  perfect  a  uniform 
system  to  be  used  thruout  the  country.  Until  such  a  system  is  adopted, 
the  important  facts  connected  with  .this  department  of  public  education 
will  continue  to  be  imperfect  and  unreliable.  The  general  trend  of  the 
various  groups  of  children  in  their  studies,  the  studies  that  present  most 
difficulty,  persistence  of  attendance,  general  behavior,  and  other  items 
should  be  matters  not  only  of  record,  but  also  of  investigation.  Under 
present  existing  conditions  as  much  as  can  be  claimed  with  certainty  is 
"  guesses  at  the  truth." 


Council]  REPORT  ON  HIGH-SCHOOL  STATISTICS  34 1 

In  all  well-regulated  high  schools  it  is  possible  now  to  get  the  items 
of  class  standing,  attendance,  and  deportment  of  each  individual  pupil 
upon  application,  but  there  is  nothing  like  a  general  tabulated  result  of 
the  various  movements  in  the  school  by  masses  or  classes  in  specific 
branches,  or  in  departments  of  study,  out  of  which  much  reliable  infor- 
mation can  be  obtained;  and  even  if  such  records  are  kept  for  college  or 
university  classes,  they  are  so  far  beneath  the  plane  of  conscious  appre- 
hension that  outsiders  never  see  them. 

It  was  with  a  clear  perception  of  the  obscurity  of  this  subject  that, 
some  years  ago,  I  undertook  to  collect  statistics  that  would  show  why  a 
large  percentage  of  pupils  dropped  out  of  high  school  the  first  year,  and 
to  determine  the  causes  therefor.  After  diligent  Inquiry,  I  arrived  at  no 
satisfactory  explanation,  and  what  information  I  secured  appeared  contra- 
dictory. 

There  is  a  widespread  belief  now  that  the  reason  so  many  pupils  quit 
high  school  during  the  first  year  is  that  they  become  disgusted  with  some 
of  the  studies  they  are  obliged  to  take,  notably  Latin  and  algebra.  It 
has  been  contended  that,  if  these  were  made  optional,  the  boys  would 
remain  longer  in'  school.  This  opinion  has  caused,  in  some  quarters,  a 
veering  around  in  courses  of  study ;  but  I  am  not  aware  that,  with  the 
slightly  changing  conditions,  better  and  more  persistent  attendance  has 
been  secured.  Instead  of  one  or  two  factors  determining  this  question, 
there  are  many  causes  operating. 

I  began  my  observations  first  in  the  high  schools  of  Kansas  City, 
noting  the  failures  in  different  branches  of  study,  the  number  dropping 
out  of  school,  and  the  reasons  assigned.  To  bring  in  collateral  evidence 
bearing  on  these  points,  I  endeavored  to  collect  statistics  from  sixty  of 
the  representative  cities  of  this  country  during  the  months  of  April  and 
May,  1900,  and  to  embody  the  results  in  this  paper,  but  I  was  only  mod- 
erately successful.  A  circular  letter  covering  the  following  inquiries  was 
sent  out : 

BLANK  FOR  STATISTICS 

High  School City State. 

1.  Total  number  of  pupils  enrolled  belonging  to  the  :  first  year ,  second  year 

,  third  year ,  fourth  year Total 

2.  Total  number  of  first-year  pupils,  classified  by  age  : 

Ages II     12     13     14     15     16     17     18     19     20    Total 

Boys 

Girls 

3.  Total  number  of    first-year  pupils  that  failed   to  maintain  class  standing  in  one   or 
more  branches : 

Ages II     12     13     14     IS     16     17     18     19     20   Total 

Boys 

Girls ,'     


342  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [National 

4.  Total  number  and  ages  of  first-year  pupils  that  have  been  dropped  from  your  high 
school  since  September,  1899  : 

Why  dropped?  Ages  in  years 

II      12     13     14     15     16     17     18     19     20 


Failing  eyesight    \       ■ 


Boys 

Transferred  ....    \  I^oys 
/  Girls 

Illness j  Boys 

/  Girls 

Illness  in  family .    3  Boys 
\  Girls 

To  work S  Boys 


\  Bo; 
/  Girls 

Left  city \  Boys 

\  Girls 
Football ^  Boys 

Society Boys 

\  \  Girls 

Inability ^^^^^ 

^  \  Girls 


Unknown 


Boys 
Girls 


,  1900. 


Principal. 

Replies  to  this  circular  were  received  from  the  following  cities :  Port- 
land, Ore.;  Topeka,  Kan.;  Boys'  High  School,  New  York  city;  Provi- 
dence, R.  I.;  Cambridge,  Mass.;  Denver,  Colo.;  Springfield,  Mass.; 
Pittsburg,  Pa.;  Louisville,  Ky.;  West  Division  High  School,  Chicago; 
Newark,  N.  J.;  Milwaukee,  Wis.  (three  schools);  Patterson,  N.  J.;  Girls' 
High  School,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.;  Scranton,  Pa. 

The  total  enrollment  in  these  schools  was  12,542,  distributed  as  fol- 
fows :  6,804  belonged  to  the  first  year,  2,850  to  the  second,  1,799  ^o  the 
third,  and  1,089  to  the  fourth  year.  These  reports  show  that  54.3  per 
cent,  of  the  pupils  were  first-year,  22.7  per  cent,  second-year,  14.3  per 
cent,  third-year,  and  8.7  per  cent,  fourth-year.  This  result,  I  suppose, 
represents  an  average  distribution  of  the  pupils  by  years. 

Of  the  6,804  of  the  first-year  pupils  at  the  time  of  enrollment,  2  were 
II  years  old;  79,  12;  538,  13;  1,479,  M  ;  1,516,  15  ;  980,  16;  373,  17  ; 
95,  18;  and  16,  19  years  old;  leaving  1,801  unclassified  as  to  age. 

LEAVING  SCHOOL  — GENERAL  DRIFT 

From  the  same  schools  1,384  pupils  out  of  6,804  had  left  school  up 
to  the  time  these  reports  were  forwarded  in  April.  The  ages  of  those 
withdrawn  from  school  were:  8,  12  years  old;  43,  13  years  old;  185,  14 
years  old;  258,  15  years  old;  265,  16  years  old;    149,  17  years  old  ;   62, 


Council]  REPORT  ON  HIGH-SCHOOL  STATISTICS  343 

i8  years  old;  14,  19  years  old;  and  8,  20  years  old.  In  round  num- 
bers, 20  out  of  every  100  pupils  dropped  out  of  the  high  school  the 
first  year.  By  ages  8  out  of  79,  12  years  old,  left  school;  43  out  of 
538,  13  years  old  ;  185  out  of  1,478,  14  years  old  ;  258  out  of  1,516,  15 
years  old;  265  out  of  980,  16  years  old;  149  out  of  373,  17  years  old; 
62  out  of  95,  18  years  old  ;  and  14  out  of  16,  19  years  old.  Or,  if  these 
numbers  be  expressed  in  per  cents.,  we  have  the  amazing  results  of  10  per 
cent,  between  12  and  13  years  of  age,  8  per  cent,  between  13  and  14 
years,  125^  per  cent,  between  14  and  15  years,  16^  per  cent,  between  15 
and  16  years,  27  per  cent,  between  16  and  17  years,  40  percent,  between 
17  and  18  years,  65^  per  cent,  between  18  and  19  years,  and  87  J^  per 
cent,  between  19  and  20  years. 

Bringing  these  two  items  —  enrollment  and  dropping  out  —  together, 
the  relation  may  be  expressed  in  another  form,  namely:  11  per  cent.,  12 
years  of  age,  left  school;  12  per  cent.,  13  years  of  age;  11  per  cent.,  14 
years  of  age;  16  per  cent.,  15  years  of  age;  25  per  cent.,  16  years  of 
age  ;  30  per  cent.,  17  years  of  age;  60  per  cent.,  18  years  of  age;  50  per 
cent.,  19  years  of  age. 

WHY  THEY  1,EFT  SCHOOL  — MORE  SPECIFIC  REASONS 

The  data  collected  from  the  cities  reporting  were  tabulated  under  the 
several  subheads  embodied  in  the  circular.  The  results  herewith 
appended  include  5,252  first-year  pupils  enrolled  in  these  schools,  and 
the  information  is,  I  believe,  trustworthy. 

Of  this  number,  1,015  had  left  school,  the  following  reasons  being 

given  : 

"  Sickness  " 81  boys  and  1 16  girls 

"  Sickness  in  family " 9  boys  and  25  girls 

"  Inability  to  do  the  work  " 93  boys  and  35  girls 

"  To  go  to  work  " 135  boys  and  21  girls 

"  Transferred " 35  boys  and  40  girls 

"  Left  the  city " 29  boys  and  47  girls 

"  Failing  eyesight " 2  boys  and  6  girls 

"  Too  much  society  " 5  boys  and  5  girls 

"  Unknown  " 156  boys  and  174  girls 

Total 546  boys  and  469  girls     Total,  1,015 

Remark. —  Of  the  546  boys  in  this  table  255  belong  to  the  Boys'  High  School,  New 
York  city. 

FAILURE  IN  CLASS  WORK 

The  failures  reported  in  class  standing  during  the  first  year,  according 
to  ages,  are  as  follows :  6  pupils,  12  years  old  ;  100,  13 ;  377,  14;  518,  15; 
460,  16;  288,  17  ;  66,  18;  7,  19;  and  3,  20  years  old.  From  this  it  is 
seen  that  6  out  of  79  12 -year-old  children  failed  in  class  standing  in 
one  or  more  branches  ;  100  out  of  538,  13  years  old  ;  377  out  of  1,478, 
14  years  old  ;  518  out  of  1,516,  15  years  old;   460  out  of  980,  16  years 


344      .  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [National 

old;  208  out  of  373,  17  years  old;  66  out  of  95,  18  years  old;  7  out  of 
16,  19  years  old.  Nearly  8  per  cent,  failed  that  were  12  years  old;  20 
per  cent.,  13  years  old;  24  per  cent.,  14  years  old;  34  per  cent.,  15 
years  old;  nearly  47  per  cent.,  16  years  old  ;  55  per  cent.,  17  years  old; 
70  per  cent.,  18  years  old  ;  and  37  per  cent.,  19  years  old. 

This  table  simply  gives  the  totals  of  the  failures  from  those  cities  mak- 
ing the  fuller  reports,  but  not  the  subjects,  and  it  was  not  possible  from 
the  information  at  my  command  to  decide  along  what  lines  of  study  the 
greatest  number  of  failures  occurred. 

STATISTICS  FROM  CITY  SCHOOL  REPORTS 

To  show  the  extent  and  character  of  the  statistics  compiled  from  recent 
city  reports  now  in  my  office,  I  herewith  submit  some  condensed  state- 
ments which  represent  the  highest,  widest,  and  most  reliable  results : 

Cleveland.  —  The  city  of  Cleveland,  according  to  Superintendent 
Jones'  report  for  the  year  ending  August  31,  1899,  enrolled  3,560  pupils 
in  the  three  high  schools  and  normal  training  school :  Central  High, 
2,064;  South  High,  339;  West  High,  975;  Training  Normal,  182.  The 
ages  of  the  pupils  were  as  follows  :  i,  11  years  old ;  4,  12  years  old  ;  84, 
13  years  old;  489,  14  years  old;  809,  15  years  old;  839,  16  years  old; 
632,  17  years  old;  and  702,  18  years  old  and  over. 

Detroit. — The  Detroit  Central  High  School  for  the  year  ending  June 
30,  1899,  reports  the  ages  of  pupils  as  follows:  2,  r2  years  old;  44,  13 
years  old;  182,  14  years  old;  342, 15  years  old  ;  377, 16  years  old;  200, 
18  years  old  ;  139,  19  years  old;  55,  20  years  old  ;  and  47,  over  21  years 
old;  making  a  total  of  1,735.  There  is  no  distinction  in  regard  to  sex,  or 
year  in  school,  but  there  are  very  complete  tables  as  to  classes  and  subjects. 

St.  Louis. — In  St.  Louis  the  method  of  tabulating  high-school  statis- 
tics is  one  of  the  most  complete  of  its  kind  in  this  country,  and  the  tables 
extend  backward  over  a  series  of  years.  The  latest  report  I  have  is  for 
1897-98.  The  total  number  of  pupils  admitted  to  the  high  school  was 
740;  ages  as  follows:  14,  12  years  old;  52,  13  years  old;  190,  14  years 
old;   243,  15  years  old;   173,  16  years  old;  and  68,  17  years  old. 

The  total  number  of  pupils  in  the  high  school,  including  those  admit- 
ted and  tabulated  according  to  age,  is  represented  as  follows  :  15,  12  years 
old;  63,  13  years  old;  273,  14  years  old;  450,  15  years  old;  495,  16 
years  old;  352,  17  years  old;  228,  18  years  old;  83,  19  years  old;  and 
24,  20  years  and  over ;  total,  1,983. 

Per  cent,  of  total  number:  11  years  old,  0.7;  12  years  old,  3.3;  13 
years  old,  13.8;  14  years  old,  22.7;  15  years  old,  24.9;  16  years  old, 
17.8;  17  y^ars  old,  17.8;  18  years  old,  11.4;  19  years  old,  4.2;  20  years 
and  over,  1.2. 

Philadelphia.  —  Dr.  Edward  Brooks,  in  his  report  for  1898-99,  gives 
much  interesting  information  concerning  the  persistence  of  attendance  in 


Council]  REPORT  ON  HIGH-SCHOOL  STATISTICS  345 

the  Philadelphia  high  schools  compared  with  several  other  cities.  He 
states  the  size  of  the  class  admitted  at  the  beginning  of  each  year,  and  the 
number  who  completed  the  course  of  study. 

New  Bedford.  —  Superintendent  William  E.  Hatch,  in  his  annual 
report  of  the  New  Bedford  schools  for  the  year  1899,  published  some 
valuable  statistics  concerning  the  high  school  of  that  city.  The  total 
enrollment  was  493,  and  the  number  of  pupils  that  left  the  school  was  81, 
or  16.4  per  cent,  of  the  total  enrollment,  distributed  among  the  classes  as 
follows:  sub-seniors,  8  boys  and  9  girls;  juniors,  19  boys  and  18  girls; 
sub-juniors,  13  boys  and  14  girls. 

The  causes  for  leaving  school  are  classified  under  the  following  heads, 
designating  males  and  females:  illness,  4  boys  and  15  girls;  moved  away, 
6  boys  and  6  girls ;  to  work,  14  boys  and  10  girls ;  neglect  of  school  work, 
4  boys  and  4  girls  ;  not  promoted,  7  boys  and  4  girls;  went  to  private 
school,  5  boys  and  2  girls;  total,  40  boys  and  41  girls;  or  withdrawals, 
16.4  per  cent,  of  the  total  enrollment. 

Toledo  high  schools,  ages  of  pupils.  —  In  the  Toledo  high  schools 
the  total  enrollment  was  984.  Of  this  number  364  were  boys  and  620 
girls.  Their  ages  are  respectively:  i  pupil,  12  years  old;  10,  13  years 
old;  97,  14  years  old;  217,  15  years  old;  281,  16  years  old;  215,  17 
years  old;  102,  18  years  old  ;  47,  19  years  old;  11,  20  years  old;  and  3, 
21  years  old. 

Cambridge.  —  Principal  Ray  Greene  Huling  of  the  English  High 
School  gave  the  following  summary  from  September,  1899,  to  February, 
1900 :  * 

Total  enrollment  of  pupils,  570  —  238  first  year,  152  second,  97  third, 
and  83  fourth  year. 

Ages  of  the  first-year  pupils :  2  boys  and  5  girls,  12  years  old  ;  9  boys 
and  18  girls,  13  years  old;  22  boys  and  52  girls,  14  years  old;  23  boys 
and ^47  girls,  15  years  old;  15  boys  and  29  girls,  16  years  old;  3  boys 
and  12  girls,  17  years  old  ;  and  i  girl,  18  years  old.  The  class  was  com- 
posed of  74  boys  and  164  girls. 

The  total  number  of  failures  in  class  standing  during  the  period  was 
75 — 29  boys  and  46  girls.  The  failures  by  ages  were  4  boys  and  4  girls, 
13  years  old  ;  8  boys  and  16  girls,  14  years  old  ;  8  boys  and  14  girls,  15 
years  old  ;  7  boys  and  9  girls,  16  years  old  ;  and  2  boys  and  3  girls,  17 
years  old.  Twenty  pupils  were  dropped  from  school,  but  a  fifth-year 
class  was  formed  of  those  failing,  and  was  taught  by  pupils  in  the  Har- 
vard pedagogical  class.     The  withdrawals  numbered  only  27. 

STATE  REPORTS 

Massachusetts. — The  state  includes  a  much  wider  group  of  facts  than 
a  single  city,  and  Massachusetts  furnished  the  best  illustration.  Hon. 
Frank  A.  Hill,  secretary  of  the  state  board  of  education,  in  an  address 


346  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [National 

delivered  at  Springfield,  October  15,  1898,  gave  the  general  statistics  of 
244  high  schools  in  Massachusetts  from  which  reports  had  been  received. 
In  round  numbers,  he  estimates  the  total  high-school  enrollment  for  the 
previous  year  at  40,000  pupils,  and  Mr.  MacDonald  also  gave  the  total 
number  of  pupils  in  actual  attendance  that  year  at  a  given  time  at  33,396, 
of  whom  13,082  were  in  the  first-year  class,  9,151  in  the  second,  6,343  in 
the  third,  and  4,820  in  the  fourth  and  higher  classes,  the  corresponding 
percentages  being  38,  27,  19,  15.  These  reports  include  the  branches  of 
study,  the  number  of  pupils  pursuing  each  branch  of  study,  and  the  num- 
ber of  teachers. 

Minnesota.— Th\s  young  and  vigorous  state  has  an  inspector  of  high 
schools,  George  B.  Alton.  From  his  annual  report  for  the  year  ending 
July  31,  1899,  the  total  enrollment  of  high-school  pupils  was  11,742;  the 
number  of  graduates,  1,429;  high-school  teachers,  442  ;  and  number  of 
classes,  2,575.    A  table  showing  the  enrollment  by  subjects  is  also  published. 

Missouri. — The  last  Missouri  report  made  by  the  state  superintendent 
shows  that  17,734  pupils  were  enrolled  in  the  high  schools,  as  follows  : 
7,342  first  year,  4,819  second  year,  2,966  third  year,  and  884  irregular; 
or  41.4  per  cent,  in  the  first-year  class,  27.2  per  cent,  in  the  second-year, 
16.5  per  cent,  in  the  third-year,  9.7  per  cent,  in  the  fourth-year,  and  5 
per  cent,  irregular.  The  tables  present  the  number  of  pupils  pursuing 
each  subject,  teachers  employed,  and  some  other  matters. 

These  three  reports  illustrate  how  much  yet  remains  to  be  done  before 
much  definite  information  can  be  obtained  thru  the  state  departments  of 
public  instruction. 

KANSAS   CITY   HIGH   SCHOOLS 

From  these  schools  I  obtained  much  positive  information,  only  a  part 
of  which  is  embodied  in  this  report. 

The  total  enrollment  in  the  four  high  schools  for  the  year  just  closed 
was  3,464,  of  which  1,377  belonged  to  the  first-year  class,  972  to  the 
second,  632  to  the  third,  and  482  to  the  fourth-year  class.  By  percent- 
ages as  follows:  first  year,  40  per  cent.;  second  year,  28  per  cent.;  third 
year,  16  per  cent.;  and  fourth  year,  14  per  cent.  The  enrollment  by 
sexes  was  1,264  boys  and  2,200  girls.  The  pupils  that  left  school  for 
various  causes  were  318  belonging  to  the  first-year  class,  194  to  the 
second,  123  to  the  third,  and  61  to  the  fourth-year  class;  or,  expressed  in 
per  cents.:  23  per  cent,  of  the  first-year  pupils,  21  per  cent,  of  the  second, 
nearly  20  per  cent,  of  the  third,  and  nearly  13  per  cent,  of  the  fourth-year 
class.  The  withdrawals  number  696  —  291  boys  and  405  girls.  This  result 
shows  that  the  withdrawals  are  scattered  thru  the  four  years  quite  evenly. 

The  withdrawals  expressed  in  per  cents,  by  schools  are  as  follows : 
Central  High,  16  per  cent.;  Manual-Training  High,  25  per  cent.;  Lincoln 
High,  24  per  cent.;  and  Westport  High,  15  per  cent.  The  most  signifi- 
cant fact  in  connection  with  this  statement  is  that  nearly  28  per  cent,  of 


Council]  REPORT  ON  HIGH-SCHOOL  STATISTICS  347 

the  boys  dropped  out  of  the  Manual-Training  High  School  and  less  than 
21  per  cent,  out  of  the  Central  High  School,  which  is  essentially  a  classical 
high  school. 

The  total  number  of  cases  of  failures  in  mathematics  was  27  in  the 
Westport  High  School,  50  in  the  Lincoln  High,  296  in  the  Manual- 
Training  High,  377  in  the  Central  High.  This  includes  all  pupils  in  all 
the  classes.  Those  who  failed  on  account  of  inability  to  do  the  work  in 
algebra  and  geometry  were  138  boys  and  181  girls.  From  this  it  is  seen 
that  319  failures  are  owing  to  inability,  and  431  to  be  assigned  to  the 
other  causes  enumerated  in  the  circular.  Next  are  the  failures  in  English, 
the  total  being  528 — 232  boys  and  296  girls  ;  but  only  138  were  regarded 
as  unable  to  do  the  work. 

The  total  failures  in  ancient  and  modern  languages  were  461,  but  the 
failures  attributed  to  inability  to  do  the  work  were  only  163  —  82  boys  and 
81  girls,  distributed  as  in  the  mathematical  studies. 

The  total  number  that  failed  in  one  or  more  subjects  in  science  was 
388  — 190  boys  and  198  girls  —  by  schools  as  follows:  Westport  High, 
14;  Lincoln  High,  45;  Central  High,  136;  and  Manual-Training  High, 
193.  Under  the  head  of  inability  to  do  the  work,  105  pupils,  76  of  whom 
belonged  to  the  Manual-Training  High. 

In  history,  civics,  and  political  economy  the  total  number  of  failures 
was  185  —  82  boys  and  103  girls. 

CENTRAL    HIGH    SCHOOL    OF    KANSAS    CITY 

This  is  the  largest  mixed  high  school  in  the  United  States.  The  total 
enrollment  this  year  is  618  in  the  first  year,  477  in  the  second,  352  in  the 
third,  and  335  in  the  fourth  —  568  boys  and  1,214  girls.  Of  the  618 
pupils  enrolled  in  the  first  year,  512  entered  from  the  Kansas  City  ward 
schools  and  106  from  other  schools;  in  the  sec<5nd  year,  429  from 
Kansas  City  ward  schools  and  48  from  other  schools;  in  the  third  year, 
316  from  Kansas  City  ward  schools  and  36  from  other  schools;  in  the 
fourth  year,  326  from  Kansas  City  ward  schools  and  9  from  other 
schools;  in  brief,  1,585  from  the  Kansas  City  ward  schools  and  197 
from  other  schools,  making  a  total  of  1,782  pupils. 

Causes  of  failure. —  The  object  in  procuring  this  information  is  to 
present  in  brief  compass  the  number  of  pupils  that  failed  in  each  of  the 
five  departments  of  study,  the  causes  of  failure,  and  the  ages  of  those 
that  failed. 

The  total  number  of  different  pupils  who  failed  in  one  or  more 
branches,  or  dropped  out  of  this  school  during  the  year,  is  303.  The 
total  number  of  first-year  pupils  who  left  school  or  failed  in  one  or  more 
branches  of  study  was  112  —  42  boys  and  70  girls,  or  18  per  cent.  The 
reasons  assigned  for  these  failures  are  classified  as  follows :  sickness, 
4  boys  and  8  girls;  sickness  in  family,  i  boy  and  3  girls ;  failing  eyesight, 


34^  NATIO/^AL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [National 

I  boy  and  2  girls ;  inability  to  do  the  work,  5  boys  and  7  girls ;  to  go  to 
work,  16  boys  and  8  girls;  transferred,  i  boy  and  3  girls;  left  the  city,  6 
boys  and  10  girls  ;  unknown,  8  boys  and  26  girls. 

The  total  number  of  different  pupils  belonging  to  the  second  year 
who  failed,  or  dropped  out  of  school,  was  94 — 34  boys  and  60  girls,  or 
nearly  20  per  cent.  On  account  of  sickness,  3  boys  and  16  girls;  sick- 
ness in  family,  i  girl;  failing  eyesight,  i  boy  and  i  girl;  inability  to  do 
the  work,  2  boys  and  14  girls;  to  go  to  work,  16  boys  and  9  girls;  trans- 
ferred, I  girl ;  left  the  city,  4  boys  and  9  girls  ;  unknown,  8  boys  and  9  girls. 

The  total  number  of  different  pupils  belonging  to  the  third  year  who 
failed  or  were  dropped  was  70  —  21  boys  and  49  girls,  or  20  per  cent. 
Sickness,  6  boys  and  19  girls  ;  sickness  in  family,  2  girls  ;  too  much  atten- 
tion to  society,  i  girl ;  football,  i  boy  ;  inability  to  do  the  work,  5  girls ; 
to  go  to  work,  9  boys  and  3  girls ;  left  the  city,  i  boy  and  3  girls ; 
unknown,  4  boys  and  14  girls. 

The  total  number  of  different  pupils  belonging  to  the  fourth  year  who 
failed  in  their  studies  or  were  dropped  from  school  was  21 — 2  boys  and 
19  girls,  or  6  per  cent.  Sickness  or  sickness  in  the  family,  6  girls;  failing 
eyesight,  i  girl ;  too  much  attention  to  society,  i  girl ;  inability  to  do  the 
work,  5  girls;  to  go  to  work,  2  boys  and  i  girl;  left  the  city,  i  girl; 
unknown,  4  girls. 

Failure  in  subjects. —  This  topic  may  include  a  pupil  in  one  or  several 
subjects,  and  it  deals  exclusively  with  failures. 

The  total  number  of  failures  in  the  five  departments  —  languages, 
mathematics,  English,  science,  history,  etc. —  is  303,  classified  as  follows, 
without  respect  to  age  or  years  in  school :  in  languages,  34  boys  and  90 
girls;  mathematics,  117  boys  and  290  girls;  English,  104  boys  and  143 
girls;  history,  etc.,  ^i  boys  and  62  girls;  science,  46  boys  and  90  girls. 
One  pupil  may  have  failed  in  one,  two,  three,  or  even  four  different 
departments.  Under  the  head  of  inability  to  do  the  work  :  languages,  34 
boys  and  28  girls;  mathematics,  40  boys  and  119  girls;  English,  29 
boys  and  44  girls;  science,  7  boys  and  20  girls;  history,  9  boys  and  16 
girls. 

Concerning  other  causes  of  failure  and  of  being  dropped  from  the 
school  the  following  items  are  in  point:  145  failed  on  account  of  sick- 
ness; 23,  sickness  in  the  family;  18,  failing  eyesight;  4,  football;  112, 
to  go  to  work;   10,  transferred  ;  82,  left  the  city;  251,  unknown. 

The  failures  by  years  were  :  13  years  old,  8  boys  and  5  girls ;  14  years 
old,  8  boys  and  15  girls;  15  years  old,  17  boys  and  37  girls;  16  years 
old,  26  boys  and  55  girls;  17  years  old,  17  boys  and  55  girls;  18  years 
old,  12  boys  and  24  girls  ;  19  years  old,  7  boys  and  11  girls  ;  20  years 
old,  4  boys  and  2  girls  ;  total,  99  boys  and  204  girls.  In  per  cents,  the 
relations  are  as  follows  :  No  12-year-old  pupils  failed  or  dropped  out  of 
school ;   II  per  cent.,  13  years  old;  nearly  15  per  cent,  of  those  14  years 


Council]  REPORT  ON  HIGH-SCHOOL  STATISTICS  349 

old;   15   per  cent.,  15  years  old;   20  per  cent,  of  those  16  years  old;  23 

per  cent.,  17  years  old;   13  per  cent.,  18  years  old;  22  per  cent.,  19  years 

old;  and  17  per  cent.,  20  years  old. 

The  ages  of  the  pupils  of  this  school  when  they  were  enrolled  last 

September : 

I  boy   and       l  girl,    11  years  old.  115  boys  and  282  girls,  16  years  old. 

6  boys  and    11  girls,  12  years  old.  93  boys  and  217  girls,  17  years  old. 

48  boys  and    68  girls,  13  years  old.  61  boys  and  142  girls,  18  years  old. 

85  boys  and    72  girls,  14  years  old.  32  boys  and    51  girls,  19  years  old. 

115  boys  and  247  girls,  15  years  old.  12  boys  and    23  girls,  20  years  old. 

MANUAL-TRAINING    HIGH    SCHOOL 

The  total  enrollment  of  pupils  in  this  school  for  the  year  was    1,244 

—  546  boys  and  698  girls.  The  number  of  first-year  pupils  was  579  — 
273  boys  and  306  girls ;  second-year  pupils,  352  — 146  boys  and  206  girls ; 
third-year  pupils,  211 — 95  boys  and  116  girls;  fourth-year  pupils,   102 

—  32  boys  and  70  girls.  Of  the  pupils  enrolled,  1,100  were  educated  in 
the  ward  schools  of  Kansas  City,  115  were  admitted  from  other  schools, 
and  29  were  admitted  upon  examination. 

Dropped-out  pupils — first-year  class. —  There  were  enrolled  486  first- 
year  pupils  from  the  Kansas  City  ward  schools.  Out  of  this  number  no 
left  school  during  the  year — 53  boys  and  57  girls;  that  is,  53  boys  out 
of  231,  and  57  girls  out  of  255,  left  school,  the  percentage  of  with- 
drawals thus  being  22^.  The  dropping  out  of  those  admitted  from 
other  schools  was  nearly  32  per  cent.;  of  those  admitted  by  examination, 
40  per  cent. 

Ages  of  those  who  left  school. —  In  the  first-year  class  7  boys  and  i  girl 
were  enrolled  that  were  12  years  old;  none  of  these  left.  Thirty-four 
boys  and  29  girls  were  13  years  old;  out  of  this  number  5  boys  and  2 
girls  left  school,  or  11  per  cent.  Sixty-nine  boys  and  6i  girls  were  14 
years  old,  and  13  boys  and  7  girls  left  school,  or  16  per  cent.  Out  of 
160  boys  and  girls  15  years  old,  39  dropped  out  of  school,  or  more  than 
24  per  cent.  From  the  16-year-old  list  30  per  cent.  left  school ;  from  the 
17-year-old  list,  nearly  50  per  cent. 

Second-year  class. —  The  mean  average  of  pupils  that  dropped  out  of 
the  second-year  class  was  nearly  21  per  cent,  of  the  enrollment.  One  out 
of  6  left  school  13  years  old;  5  out  of  37,  14  years  old;  23  out  of  loi,  15 
years  old;  19  out  of  96,  19  years  old;  11  out  of  59,  17  years  old;  and  11 
out  of  25,  18  years  old. 

Third-  and  fourth-year  classes. —  There  were  211  pupils  enrolled  in  the 
third-year  class,  and  56  dropped  out,  or  26  per  cent.;  and  33  out  of  102 
of  the  fourth-year  class,  or  32  per  cent. 

WESTPORT    HIGH    SCHOOL 

This  is  a  small  high  school  in  which  210  pupils  were  enrolled  — 
69  boys  and   141  girls.     Eighty-four  pupils  belonged  to  the  first  year. 


35°  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [National 

79  to  the  second,  27  to  the  third,  and  19  to  the  fourth.  The  number  of 
pupils  that  left  school  belonging  to  the  first-year  class  was  21  ;  to  the 
second-year  class,  8;  and  to  the  third-year  class,  2;  and  one  was  a  post- 
graduate. Six  of  the  21  dropped  from  the  first-year  class  had  been 
admitted  from  outside  schools;  15  out  of  71  had  dropped  out  that  had 
entered  from  the  Kansas  City  ward  schools,  and  6  out  of  13  from  the 
outside.  There  were  9  pupils  out  of  210  that  failed  on  account  of 
inability  to  do  the  work — 4  belonging  to  the  first-year  class,  i  to  the 
second,  4  to  the  third;  while  15  from  the  entire  school  left  on  account  of 
sickness. 

The  failures  in  each  department  of  study  were  insignificant. 

LINCOLN    HIGH    SCHOOL 

This  is  a  high  school  for  the  colored  youth  of  Kansas  City,  in  which 
228  boys  and  girls  were  enrolled  during  the  year.  There  were  96  pupils 
in  the  first-year  class,  64  in  the  second-year,  42  in  the  third-year,  and  26 
in  the  fourth-year.  Thirty-six  pupils  failed  or  dropped  out  of  the  first 
year,  11  out  of  the  second  year,  7  out  of  the  third  year,  and  2  out  of  the 
fourth  year. 

Only  8  pupils  failed  on  account  of  inability  to  do  the  work  —  3  boys 
and  5  girls — and  they  ranged  in  age  from  15  to  18  years;  while  22  quit  to 
go  to  work. 

The  ages  of  these  pupils  are:  i  boy,  12  years  old;  2  girls,  13  years 
old;  3  boys  and  5  girls,  14  years  old;  12  boys  and  18  girls,  15  years  old; 
21  boys  and  32  girls,  16  years  old  ;  4  boys  and  46  girls,  17  years  old  ;  12 
boys  and  26  girls,  18  years  old;  13  boys  and  13  girls,  19  years  old;  and 
5  boys  and  5  girls,  20  years  old. 

SUMMARY 

J.  That  young  children  who  complete  the  work  in  the  grammar 
school  and  enter  high  school  show  the  least  per  cent,  of  failures  in  class 
standing  or  withdrawals  from  school. 

2.  That  the  older  pupils  who  enter  high  schools  are  most  likely  to  fail 
or  leave  during  the  first  year. 

3.  That  failures  in  class  standing  are  greatest  in  mathematics,  second 
in  English,  third  in  the  ancient  and  modern  languages,  fourth  in  the 
natural  sciences,  and  fifth  in  history.  The  work  of  the  pupils  can  be 
more  sharply  measured  in  two  of  these  departments,  mathematics  and 
languages,  while  the  others  afford  a  fine  opportunity  to  talk  about  the 
subjects  rather  than  to  talk  into  them. 

4.  That  in  a  seven-years'  course  of  study  from  one-third  to  one-half 
more  pupils  will  enter  high  schools  than  when  the  course  of  study  below 
the  high  school  is  eight  or  nine  years,  and  that  the  pupils  are  just  as  well 
prepared,  if  the  entrance  age  to  the  ward  school  is  not  under  six  years. 


Council]  GENERAL  CULTURE  IN  PROFESSIONAL  TRAINING  351 

5.  That  if  the  pupil  remains  in  the  high  school  thru  the  first  and 
second  years,  the  chances  are  slightly  in  favor  of  his  completing  the 
course. 

6.  That  a  committee  should  be  appointed  for  the  purpose  of  prepar- 
ing and  submitting  to  the  Council  at  its  next  meeting  a  uniform  system 
of  blanks  for  the  use  of  the  high  schools  of  the  United  States. 


DISCUSSION 

[reported  by  I.  c.  McNeill] 

E.  E.  White. —  I  was  slow  in  indorsing  manual  training.  The  items  concerning 
the  Kansas  City  Manual-Training  High  School  should  be  followed  up  in  other  places. 
Do  manual-training  high  schools  lose  a  greater  per  cent,  of  their  students  than  do  the 
classical  and  English  high  schools  ?  Does  a  smaller  per  cent,  of  graduates  from 
manual-training  high  schools  than  from  other  high  schools  enter  mechanic  arts  ?  We 
should  know  these  things. 

B.  A.  Hinsdale. —  "In  the  history  of  manual  training  we  find  that  the  reasons  for 
their  support  have  changed.  Manual  training  opens  out  a  new  sense."  He  then  asked 
Superintendent  Greenwood  whether  or  not  it  was  his  opinion  that  a  less  strenuous  class 
enters  majiual -training  high  schools  than  enters  the  other  high  schools. 

Superintendent  Greenwood  in  reply  gave  it  as  his  opinion  that  the  end  in 
view  largely  determines  the  selection  of  a  school.  Boys  who  seek  university  training 
more  frequently  enter  the  other  schools. 

Charles  B.  Gilbert  stated  that  many  who  enter  manual  training  schools  are 
looking  for  a  "  short-cut." 

L.  D.  Harvey  agreed  with  Mr.  Greenwood  on  the  necessity  of  fuller  information 
before  drawing  conclusions. 

J.  H.  Van  Sickle. —  The  tendency  during  the  past  two  years  has  been  to  make  it 
easier  to  get  into  high  schools. 

N.  C.  ScHAEFFER,  of  Pennsylvania. —  It  has  been  asserted  that  graduates  of  manual- 
training  high  schools  excel  the  graduates  of  other  high  schools  in  the  dental  colleges  of 
Philadelphia,  and  the  assertion  has  been  reiterated  by  the  representative  of  one  of  the 
manual-training  schools  of  Springfield,  Mass.  Can  we  not  have  investigations  and  sta- 
tistics to  determine  whether  this  statement  is  based  on  fact  and  corroborated  by  the  other 
dental  schools  of  America  ? 


GENERAL  CULTURE  AS  AN  ELEMENT  IN  PROFESSIONAL 

TRAINING 

RICHARD    G.    BOONE,    SUPERINTENDENT    OF    SCHOOLS,    CINCINNATI,  O. 

My  subject  is  scholarship  or  large  learning  as  a  factor  in  the  training 
and  qualifications  of  teachers.  I  do  not  mean  simply  or  necessarily 
more  academic  education,  larger  knowledge  or  versatility,  tho  this  is 
well  enough  in  its  way.  My  theme  is  the  needed  influence  of  a  larger 
individual  life  upon  the  teaching,  the  contribution  of  learning  to  the 
daily  work  of  the  class-room,  an  enrichment  of  skill  and  influence  and 
conduct  thru  a  more  abundant  culture. 


352  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [National 

There  are  three  factors  involved  in  ideal  teaching  : 

1.  The  habit  of  right  thinking  on  the  part  of  the  teacher.  Here,  as  in 
its  original  sense,  I  use  "right"  to  mean  straight,  direct,  regulated  think- 
ing which  has  purpose  and  seeks  an  end  and  employs  means  ;  that  which 
is  not  so  much  influenced  by  incident  and  collateral  considerations  as 
able  to  influence  and  control  other  purposes  or  motives.  Right  thinking 
is  centripetal. 

2.  Knowledge  of  the  processes  involved  in  growth  is  of  fundamental 
importance.  By  this  is  not  meant  simply  an  acquaintance  with  mind  or 
with  study,  altho  both  of  these  are  implied  ;  but  rather  an  acquaint- 
ance with  mental  development,  the  unfolding  of  individual  life,  the 
maturing  of  one's  personality,  the  steps  in  this  process,  and  the  condi- 
tions under  which  it  goes  on.  Knowledge  of  the  process  involved  in 
growth  means  an  acquaintance  with  both  the  individual  and  the  race;  an 
insight  into  the  spiritual  forces  which  make  for  civilization  ;  a  sympa- 
thetic interest  in  the  individual,  as  representing  in  the  small  the  larger 
personality  of  the  race;  an  intelligent  appreciation  of  the  race  as  com- 
prising the  more  sacred  individual.  Knowledge  of  the  processes 
involved  in  growth  implies  a  knowledge  of  both  the  individual  and  the 
mass;  their  interrelations,  their  mutual  reinforcements  and  limitations. 
Of  course,  in  the  schoolroom  and  to  the  average  teacher,  the  essential 
fact,  the  one  of  most  immediate  significance,  is  the  individual  ;  not  the 
nation,  certainly,  or  the  race  or  the  community  even,  or  any  particular 
class  in  the  community,  or  the  grade  or  class  as  a  whole  in  the  school ;  but 
the  single  individual. 

How  do  the  processes  go  on  here  ?  How  they  go  on  here,  it  must  be 
apparent,  depends  primarily  upon,  or  is  explained  by,  how  they  go  on 
there  ;  i.  e.,  in  the  race  or  in  the  mass.  But  the  average*  teacher's  con- 
cern is  with  the  particular  boy  and  the  particular  girl.  That  this  knowl- 
edge of  the  particular  boy  and  particular  girl  is  rightly  comprehended, 
both  as  to  fullness  and  validity,  only  by  one's  knowledge  of  the  typical 
boy  and  the  typical  girl  goes  without  question. 

^.  The  final  factor  involved  in  what  I  have  called  here  ideal  teaching 
is  skill  in  manipulating  those  processes  mentioned  in  item  2.  Skill  is 
not  knowledge  so  much  as  doing.  It  may  or  may  not  involve  thinking. 
The  more  intelligence  does  enter  into  any  art,  the  higher  the  grade  of 
the  art.  But  a  large  per  cent,  of  all  the  world's  doings  among  men,  and 
the  most  intelligent  men  concerning  high  affairs  in  state  and  church  and 
society  not  less  than  the  school,  partakes  of  the  mechanical  in  a  painfully 
large  degree.  The  former's  skill  is  a  sort  of  blind  art.  Things  are  done 
as  they  have  been  done,  with  little  thought  of  why  or  why  not.  But  so 
is  the  teacher's  skill  and  the  preaching  of  the  pulpit  and  the  carpenter- 
ing of  the  shop  and  the  keeping  of  books  and  the  running  of  railroads 
and    the    making    of   literature.      Skill    in    manipulating    the    processes 


Council]  GENERAL  CULTURE  IN  PkOPESSIOMAL  TkAINING  353 

involved  in  growth  may  or  may  not  be  conscious.     It  usually  is  not,  or  is 
but  partially  so  ;  and  to  the  degree  that  it  is  not,  is  unintelligent. 

These  three  factors  —  the  habit  of  right  thinking  on  the  part  of  the 
teacher,  a  knowledge  of  the  processes  involved  in  growth,  and  skill  in 
manipulating  these  processes  —  are  ail-inclusive  and  fundamental.  To  omit 
either  is  to  depreciate  the  profession  and  cripple  the  art.  He  who  has 
knowledge  of  the  processes  may  bungle  in  his  instruction  and  have  a 
limited  scope  of  thinking.  One  may  have  skill  in  teaching  and  lack 
both  the  other  requirements.  One  may  have  the  habit  of  right  thinking 
and  not  have  considered'  the  growth  of  mind,  the  steps  in  learning,  and 
the  nature  of  knowledge.  He  who  has  skill,  but  lacks  knowledge  and 
culture,  may  seem  to  teach  well  while  doing  his  children  an  infinite 
harm.  He  who  knows  the  mental  processes  involved  in  education  may 
think  so  crookedly  and  be  generally  so  wrong-headed  as  neither  in 
theory  or  practice  to  be  able  to  render  any  valuable  service  to  his  pupils. 

The  knowledge  of  growth  referred  to  here  includes  the  notion  of  (i) 
individual  growth,  (2)  social  and  institutional  conditions,  and  (3)  racial 
growth,  or  the  evolution  of  civilization.  By  these  headings  it  is  not 
meant  to  discriminate  three  distinct  lines  or  orders  of  growth,  so  much 
as  three  phases  of  growth  of  the  same  being. 

To  understand  growth  in  this  triple  sense,  that  is,  in  the  individual, 
in  the  institution,  and  in  the  race,  there  are  involved  {a)  a  study  of  mind, 
'{b)  the  history  of  education,  {c)  educational  doctrine,  {d)  educational 
agencies,  (<?)  method  with  its  correlative  practice.  Growth  in  the  indi- 
vidual is,  broadly  speaking,  both  as  to  lines  and  conditions,  paralleled 
by  growth  in  the  race.  So  the  psychology  of  the  individual  may  be  illu- 
mined and  verified  by  an  insight  into  the  nature  and  motives  and  instincts 
of  men  in  larger  bodies.  It  is  not  enough  to  have  read  any  text-book  on 
psychology,  however  complete  or  trustworthy.  Familiar  acquaintance 
with  the  individual  mind  comes  thru  the  study  of  the  individual  mind. 
The  valid  acquaintance  with  the  universal  mind  comes  not  only  with 
the  study  of  the  individual  or  numbers  of  individuals,  but  thru  the  study 
of  groups,  masses,  and  organizations ;  national  and  racial  types ;  insights 
into  mind  as  it  has  been  manifested  in  institutions  and  organizations 
and  societies,  and  clubs,  and  churches,  the  state  schools,  the  family, 
individual  bodies,  etc.  That  is,  any  view  of  mind  which  is  not  enlarged 
and  enriched  by  the  acquaintance  with  minds  and  associated  minds 
with  established  and  organic  relations  must  be  partial  and  more  or  less 
unsatisfactory. 

The  way  in  which  child-mind  acts  is  more  than  paralleled  by  the  way 
in  which  primitive  mind  acts.  How  the  boy  thinks  is  typified  by  the 
thinking  of  King  Alfred  and  Charlemagne  and  Caesar.  "  What,"  asks 
Emerson,  "  is  the  foundation  of  that  interest  all  men  feel  in  Greek  his- 
tory, letters,  art,  and  poetry,  for  five  centuries  after  the  Homeric  age  ? 


354  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [National 

What  but  this,  that  every  man  passes  personally  through  a  Grecian  period  ?  " 
Elsewhere,  describing  Xenophon  and  the  experiences  of  his  military  life, 
he  says:  "Throughout  his  army  exists  a  boundless  liberty  of  speech. 
They  quarrel  for  plunder,  they  wrangle  witl>  the  generals  on  each  new 
order,  and  Xenophon  is  as  sharp-tongued  as  any,  and  sharper-tongued 
than  most,  and  so  gives  as  good  as  he  gets.  Who  does  not  see  that  this 
is  a  gang  of  great  boys,  with  such  a  code  of  honor  and  such  lax  discipline 
as  great  boys  have?"  Indeed,  the  Greeks  generally  "combined  the 
energy  of  manhood  with  the  engaging  unconsciousness  of  childhood." 

So,  on  the  other  hand,  acquaintance  with  'history  in  the  larger  sense 
is  meager  and  inaccurate,  and  offers  but  the  veneering  of  culture,  except 
it  be  particularized  and  concreted  in  a  familiar  comprehension  of  the 
several  great  and  common  individuals  who  make  history.  The  one 
enriches,  the  other  enlarges  the  common  notion.  History  of  education 
gives  the  ground  for  one  sort  of  comparative  study ;  that  is,  the  opportu- 
nity to  observe  educational  systems  and  practice  and  agencies,  along  the 
chronological  line.  As  all  best  study  is  comparative,  whether  in  science 
or  philosophy,  in  theology  or  government,  so  in  education  he  who  has 
not  had  his  view  of  -pedagogical  thought  verified  by  the  perspective  of 
Egyptian  and  Chinese  and  Persian  and  Hebrew  and  Greek  and  Roman 
and  all  typical  past  pedagogical  thought,  sees  at  best  but  narrowly  and 
superficially. 

A  study  of  history  of  education  gives  a  balance  and  caution  to  educa- 
tional doctrine.  This  is  the  factor  of  conservation.  It  saves  from  fads 
and  whims  and  caprice  and  tangential  enthusiasm  for  what  is  momenta- 
rily thought  to  be  new.  A  familiar  acquaintance  with  ancient  educa- 
tional ideals  furnishes  a  fertile  soil  in  which  to  sow  the  seeds  of  the  new 
education. 

Theoretically,  whatever  is  best  in  the  modern  doctrine  concerning 
schools  or  culture  or  learning  or  systems  or  the  lines  of  training  may  be 
found  in  general,  at  least  often,  in  a  well-developed  philosophy  in  the 
writings  of  Solomon,  in  the  writings  of  Plato  and  Aristotle,  Quintilian 
and  Bacon,  St.  Thomas  and  Comenius,  St.  Paul  and  Christ.  To  have 
put  ourselves  in  the  place  of  those  who  have  thought  before  us  easily 
tempers  egotism  and  avoids  or  corrects  the  extreme  of  self-assertiveness, 
gives  faith  in  the  man  and  the  race,  and  exhibits  the  lines  along  which 
advance  has  already  been  made  and  must  be  made. 

But  the  most  detailed  and  elaborate  study  of  psychology,  and  the 
conditions  and  lines  of  progress  in  the  race,  would  be  fruitless  and 
unmeaning,  unless  they  be  knit  together  by  a  body  of  inferences  taking 
the  form  of  educational  doctrine ;  that  is,  teaching  is  intelligent  to  the 
degree  that  it  is  inspired  by  some  rationally  held  theory  of  the  purpose 
of  education.  Of  all  professional  subjects,  teachers  most  need  the 
acquaintance    with    educational    doctrine.      Method    is    less    important. 


Council]  GENERAL  CULTURE  IN  PROFESSIONAL  TRAINING  355 

devices  are  insignificant,  acquaintance  with  peoples  barren  of  results, 
the  most  patient  study  of  mind  valueless,  except  these  be  carried  on  in 
the  light  of  some  more  or  less  well  established  doctrine,  or  at  least 
hypothesis,  concerning  the  ends  and  conditions  and  means  of  education. 
Educational  theory  is  the  atmosphere  in  which  all  study  of  mind,  and 
reading  of  history,  and  social  inquiry,  and  philosophic  thinking  must  be 
done.  Give  teachers  right  notions  as  to  the  essential  nature  of  education 
and  right  education,  the  purposes  to  be  achieved  in  the  individual  and 
the  community,  a  mastery  in  their  own  lives  of  the  forces  that  have 
operated  to  elevate  the  race,  a  sound  understanding  of  the  laws  of  mental 
improvement  —  and  they  may  or  may  not  have  read  psychology  or  logic, 
or  books  of  method,  or  history  of  education,  or  school  management  and 
organization  and  courses  of  study.  That  is,  educational  doctrine  is 
needed  as  a  guiding  principle ;  the  laws  of  mind  and  of  learning  and  of 
teaching  would  be  brought  into  line,  if  only  there  be  clearness  of  vision 
with  reference  to  what  has  been  called  here  educational  doctrine.  Never 
more  than  today  has  there  been  needed  by  the  teachers  of  our  country  a 
thoro  comprehension  of  the  grounds  for  a  state-controlled,  state-sup- 
ported, state-established  system  of  secular  education. 

What  are  the  agencies  which  society  provides  for  the  furnishing  of  a 
schooling  ?  What  is  the  relative  service  of  each  ?  What  is  the  place  of 
the  family,  of  the  church,  of  industrial  and  social  organizations,  of  the 
state  ?  In  the  race's  history,  that  education  is  the  function  of  each  of 
these  may  be  found  to  have  at  times  prevailed  in  some  place,  and  often 
with  determined  following.  In  comparatively  recent  years  only,  and  first 
in  this  country,  was  there  developed  in  a  practical  way  the  thought  that 
schooling  —  free  public,  secular  education — was  the  function  of  the  state. 
Germany  has  such  schools  in  occasional  cities  and  provinces,  but  they  are 
not  at  all  common.  In  France  during  the  last  decade  only  has  any  seri- 
ous attempt  been  made  to  effect  a  free  and  secular  education.  The  board 
schools  in  England,  the  only  attempt  at  such  training  of  the  young  as  is 
universal  in  this  country,  have  been  free,  even  in  theory  as  they  are  not 
yet  in  practice,  scarcely  ten  years.  Here  is  a  problem  in  pedagogy  for 
our  teachers  in  the  United  States,  which  has  no  superior  in  educational 
discussion  in  any  country.  Whose  are  these  schools  ?  To  what  end  do 
they  exist  ?  For  what  purpose  are  the  lessons  given  ?  Is  it  to  fit  the  boy 
for  the  church  or  the  bench  or  the  shop  or  the  store  or  the  farm  or  the 
teacher's  desk  ?  Is  it  to  make  him  pious  or  informal  or  skillful  ?  Is  it 
to  give  him  a  trade  or  a  profession  or  a  competence,  or  is  it  to  make  him 
a  man  ?  Of  all  these  agencies  I  am  not  here  to  say  which  has  the  prior 
claim,  or  that  either  should  absorb  the  others.  My  only  plea  is  for  such 
abundant  training  and  large  learning  and  richness  of  culture,  such 
familiar  sympathy  with  the  progress  of  man  and  the  conditions  of  his 
uplifting,  that  these  and  other  questions  may  be  fairly  and  intelligently 


356  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION 


[National 


grappled.  There  is  no  single  danger  which  today  more  menaces  the 
public  school  than  that  teachers  will  prove  themselves  unable — thru  lack 
of  insight  or  fineness  of  discrimination  and  vigorous  thinking,  virility  of 
life  and  mind,  and  mastery  of  the  problems  of  civilization  —  to  take  hold 
of  these  and  like  vital  questions  and  compete  with  the  rich  learning,  the 
large-hearted  zeal,  the  religious  enthusiasm,  or  the  utilitarian  demands  of 
aggressive  individuals  and  organizations.  "The  cause  of  truth,"  said  an 
old  friend  of  my  boyhood,  "has  often  suffered  more  from  its  friends  than 
from  its  enemies."  Nor  does  the  evil  follow  from  wrong  intention.  The 
best  designs,  if  stupid  or  backed  by  mediocre  abilities  or  a  too  limited 
culture  or  careless  judgments  or  loose  thinking,  may  do  only  the  more 
harm.     Here  is  the  danger. 

Three  hundred  thousand  scholarly  teachers  in  our  country,  picked 
men  and  women  of  ability  and  training,  large-minded  and  generous- 
hearted,  possessed  of  that  broad  culture  that  comes  only  thru  much 
reading  and  travel  and  long  study,  in  five  years  would  shift  the  very 
motive  of  government  to  a  higher  plane  and  make  all  life  seem  richer. 

What  is  wanted  primarily,  shall  I  say,  in  the  teacher,  is  that  he  be  a 
man  or  that  she  be  a  woman,  not  a  method-monger.  The  place  and  func- 
tion of  the  public  school,  and  its  right  to  exist  as  the  state's  agent  for  provid- 
ing a  secular  education,  are  not  in  any  sense  guaranteed  by  the  devotion 
of  teachers ;  every  interest  demands  that  it  be  an  intelligent  devotion, 
supported  by  high  scholarship  and  reinforced  by  whatever  lessons  history 
and  philosophy  and  science  have  to  offer.  It  has  been  said  that  "the 
conflicts  of  the  world  do  not  take  place  altogether  on  the  tented  field ; " 
nor,  it  might  be  added,  at  the  ballot-box,  nor  in  Congress.  If  secular 
education,  a  rich,  free,  liberally  extended  and  universal  education,  is  to 
be  saved  to  our  people,  enlarged  and  fortified,  it  must  be  thru  the  people ; 
and  the  campaign  must  be  managed  by  the  teachers,  with  all  wariness 
and  dignity  and  sound  argument,  efficient  work  in  the  schools  and  faith 
in  the  people.  The  conflict  is  one  of  mind,  the  campaign  an  education. 
Cool  heads  and  masterly  judgment  are  needed. 

Moreover,  in  a  knowledge  of  the  growth  referred  to  here  there  is  also 
involved  an  acquaintance  with  what  may  be  called  "  method,"  as  distinct 
from  methods  or  devices.  By  method  is  meant  the  law  of  the  mind's 
movement.  This  is  a  narrower  field  than  that  of  psychology,  and  even 
more  fruitful  of  suggestion  to  the  teacher. 

Psychology  in  the  ordinary  sense  is  static ;  method  is  dynamic.  Thru 
the  study  of  psychology  teachers  learn  of  the  powers  and  experiences 
and  conditions  of  activity  in  mind  ;  thru  method,  of  the  way  in  which 
these  activities  go  on,  or,  rather,  the  law  of  their  going  on.  For  an 
insight  into  method,  teachers  need  logic,  or  the  law  of  inference  or  sug- 
gestion, or  the  sequence  of  experiences.  To  the  teacher,  the  unit  of 
child-experience  is  the  judgment.     The  information  theory  of  the  older 


Council]  GENERAL  CULTURE  IN  PROFESSIONAL   TRAINING  357 

schools  made  the  unit  to  be  the  idea.  How  ideas  follow  one  another, 
are  combined  and  associated  and  breed  other  ideas,  is  the  question  for  a 
gradgrind.  How  judgments  combine,  and  are  mutually  influenced  and 
breed  other  iudgraents,  is  the  law  of  the  new  education.  To  understand 
growth  means  to  understand  the  reason  of  forming  independent  conclu- 
sions, of  gathering  up  experience  by  the  child  and  making  his  inferences. 
The  unit  is  the  judgment.  This  may  be  illustrated  in  the  study  of  geog- 
raphy. If  the  idea  be  taken  as  the  initial  and  typical  experience,  and 
we  seek  to  make  the  child  informed,  then  our  purpose  shall  be  to  give 
him  the  largest  number  of  experiences,  of  ideas.  This  was  the  old  way. 
Am  I  wrong  in  supposing  that  it  is  even  now  the  more  common  way? 
On  the  other  hand,  if  geography  be  taught  as  a  means  of  arousing  ques- 
tions and  suggesting  problems  and  tracing  movements  and  working  out 
physical  forces,  and  gathering  from  data  new  inferences,  the  training  is 
of  a  vastly  different  kind.  The  modern  thought  of  geography  would 
make  a  study  relatively  less  like  memorizing  lists  of  names,  and  more  a 
process  of  reasoning  such  as  geometry  offers,  or  physics ;  that  is,  the  study 
of  method,  which  is  both  a  cause  and  sequence  of  the  knowledge  of 
growth  under  consideration,  is  a  study  that  involves  a  knowledge,  not 
only  of  mind  considered  statically,  or  of  the  individual  mind,  but  of  the 
dynamics  of  mind,  and  mind  in  the  universal  sense  as  it  appears  in  the 
race.  The  method  of  the  school  is  a  statement  of  those  universal  laws  of 
mind  which  are  true  fundamentally  of  either  sex,  of  all  races,  for  every  age, 
and  in  whatever  subject  or  grade  of  school.  Having  to  do  with  the 
forming  of  judgments,  the  growth  and  conserving  and  enriching  of  judg- 
ments, it  will  be  readily  seen  that  all  method  is  grounded  in  logic.  To 
comprehend  the  mind's  way  of  learning  is  to  have  an  acquaintance  with 
the  primary  laws  of  thought,  the  steps  in  maturing,  and  the  conditions 
of  valid  experience.     This  is  well  within  the  field  of  logic. 

But  the  fairly  profitable  pursuit  of  either  of  these  lines  presupposes  a 
maturity  and  mental  integrity  and  large  culture  and  abounding  informa- 
tion, such  as  no  novice  possesses.  A  study  of  psychology  and  the  history 
of  education  and  educational  theory  and  the  principles  of  the  school 
requires  for  their  intelligent  mastery  a  precedent  study  of  those  subjects 
out  of  which  the  science  of  mind  grows,  and  those  phases  of  history  of 
which  the  record  of  education  is  the  flower,  and  those  forms  of  philosophy 
of  which  educational  doctrine  is  the  culmination  ;  and  these  lie  beyond 
the  understanding  of  youth.  The  sooner  we  concede  that  the  profes- 
sional study  of  pedagogy  is  unavailable  for  the  sixteen-year-old,  or  one 
with  elementary  training  only,  and  insist  upon  professional  views  being 
taken  thru  the  glasses  of  learning  and  large  refinement  and  a  tempered 
life,  the  better  for  the  schools.  But,  it  is  asked,  may  not  one  do  fair 
work  as  a  teacher  who  has  but  a  moderate  scholarship  and  ordinary  train- 
ing?    Certainly;  much  instruction  is  tolerable  that  rests  upon  no  liberal 


358  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [National 

culture  ;  but  I  am  reminded  that  the  teacher  is  like  the  ^g%\  it  is  not 
enough  that  he  be  tolerably  good.  If  ideals  are  sought,  it  must  not  be 
along  the  lines  of  mediocrity. 

The  most  radical  emphasis  to  be  put  upon  professional  fitness,  there- 
fore, yet  concedes  the  necessary  precedence  of  academic  fitness.  The 
teacher's  view,  whatever  it  may  be,  is  special  and  hence  narrow.  Its  sig- 
nificance and  helpfulness  are  to  be  measured  by  the  way  in  which  it  is 
rooted  in  a  liberal  preparatory  culture.  It  has  already  been  suggested 
that,  in  the  train  of  a  general  education,  the  resulting  habits  and  discipline 
are  such,  in  themselves  considered,  as  to  carry  a  distinctive  advantage  to 
the  teacher.  But  more  than  this,  they  furnish  the  only  fruitful  conditions 
for  maturing  the  views  peculiar  to  the  teacher's  calling.  The  one  is  the 
foundation  essential  to  the  other  as  a  superstructure. 

In  history  and  the  humanities  generally  is  found  the  class  to  which 
pedagogy  is  referred,  and  which  furnishes  the  principle  both  of  the  science 
of  education  and  the  art  of  teaching.  In  the  physical  sciences  are  found 
the  principal  means  for  all  elementary  training  and  a  convenient  instru- 
ment for  higher  culture.  Not  less,  also,  language  and  mathematics, 
once  understood,  form  an  exercise-ground  in  teaching  whatever  grade, 
fitted  to  the  mind's  needs  and  easily  available. 

But  here,  as  often  elsewhere,  a  little  learning  gives  meager  promise. 
The  varied  uses  of  the  most  common  tool  are  known  to  that  workman 
only  who  has  mastered  it  by  long  and  daily  handling.  The  infinite  sug- 
gestiveness  of  science  comes  to  no  teacher  because  he  is  a  teacher,  nor  to 
the  novice  in  science.  The  idea  of  nature's  resourcefulness  is  his  who 
has  bought  it  by  patient,  willing  sacrifices,  courting  her  secrets  in  all 
moods,  and  tenting  with  her  in  solitude.  How  to  employ  things  as  a 
stimulus  to  thinking  and  make  nature  an  ally  of  mind  is  easy  enough  if 
acquaintance  with  the  conditions  of  learning  is  enriched  as  it  may  be  by 
an  intimate  knowledge  of  the  same  nature  as  an  instrument  of  learning. 
This  is  only  another  way  of  saying  that  he  will  best  use  an  individual 
lesson  in  history,  other  qualifications  being  equal,  who  is  best  able  to 
enrich  it  by  a  largecontributing  knowledge  of  related  facts  and  a  sym- 
pathetic interest  in  the  forces  that  make  for  civilization.  Geography  is 
vitalized  and  bristles  with  suggestions  under  the  instruction  of  a  thought- 
ful, sympathetic  teacher  who  has  traveled  far  and  read  much  and  keeps 
in  close  touch  with  the  great  movements  for  exploration  and  conquest. 

If  our  perceptions  are  significant  according  to  the  content  which  our 
conceptions  contribute  to  our  seeing,  then  the  larger  the  culture  brought 
to  bear  in  any  act  of  teaching,  not  in  fact,  but  in  thought,  the  more 
accurate,  the  richer  the  lesson. 

All  that  is  involved  in  the  preceding  paragraph  under  the  knowledge 
of  growth,  and  acquaintance  with  psychology  and  educational  history  and 
doctrine,  and,  especially,  school  systems  and  agencies,  may  and  ought  to 


Council]  GENERAL  CULTURE  IN  PROFESSIONAL  TRAINING  359 

be  possessed  by  every  intelligent  citizen,  primarily  because  he  is  inter- 
ested in  youth,  or  should  be,  and  also  because  he  is  a  citizen.  Much  of 
what  was  once  regarded  in  law  as  the  exclusive  privilege  of  the  jurist  and 
attorney  has  now  worked  down  into  the  common  life,  and  in  principle 
and  fact  is  acted  upon  by  thousands  of  people  in  their  business  relations 
with  their  fellows,  and  those  who  have  limited  schooling  and  limited  read- 
ing, who  have  never  read  a  page  in  Blackstone  or  Story.  Not  a  little  of 
the  best  hygienic  and  sanitary  thought  of  the  last  century,  then  known 
only  to  medical  experts  and  surgeons,  is  now  not  only  known,  but  followed, 
in  theory  and  practice,  by  hundreds  of  families  whose  lives  are  thereby 
safer,  whose  comforts  are  multiplied,  whose  leisure  is  vastly  increased  and 
dignified,  to  say  nothing  of  the  added  length  of  life.  So,  also,  the  nice, 
exclusive  discriminations  of  the  clergyman,  and  the  interpretations  of  the 
moral  law,  and  the  standards  and  conditions  of  right  living  which  were 
limited  to  the  church  and  to  the  current  theology,  and  were  taken  upon 
authority  and  without  question,  are  now  made  and  held  by  the  average 
individual  for  himself.  More  and  more  the  tendency  grows  to  concede 
to  the  pulpit  only  an  individual's  right  to  think,  and  to  the  pew  an  equal 
individual's  right.  The  exclusive  theology  and  ecclesiastical  privileges  of 
the  last  century  have  worked  down  into  and  become  a  part  of  the  common 
life  of  today.  Just  as  the  principle  has  operated  in  law  and  medicine  and 
theology  to  permeate  the  soil  of  the  common  mind  with  what  was  once  the 
exclusive  possession  of  a  privileged  few,  so  of  education.  To  question  this 
learning  and  science  of  the  mind,  and  civilization  and  legislation  and 
school  systems,  and  growth  and  its  conditions,  is  daily  being  recognized 
as  of  paramount  interest  to  every  father  and  mother;  to  every  law-maker 
or  law-interpreter ;  to  every  pathologist  and  physician  ;  and  particularly  to 
him  who  would  preach  the  conditions  of  right  living  and  worthy  motives 
to  his  congregation.  But  the  teacher  may  fairly  be  held  to  know  the 
problems  of  his  profession  in  a  more  masterful  way,  the  philosophic 
grounds  of  his  service,  its  civic  and  social  and  race  relations,  than  these 
who  have  been  named,  or  any  others.  This  can  only  mean  the  study  of 
purely  professional  questions  thru  a  more  abundant  contributing  dis- 
cipline. 

Skill  in  the  manipulation  of  these  processes  of  growth  comes  by  prac- 
tice only.  No  one  can  predicate  successful  teaching  upon  any  amount  of 
preparatory  study.  The  having  taken  a  four-years'  course  in  pedagogy 
gives  no  certainty  of  efficient  work  before  a  class,  neither  does  a  period  of 
college  and  university  training ;  but  both  offer  strong  assurance.  One 
may  have  mastered  the  collegiate  courses  offered  in  mathematics  or 
science,  and  have  had  years  of  philosophy  and  literature  and  history,  and 
have  made  himself  familiar  with  current  economics  and  politics,  and  read 
Greek  and  French  and  German  and  Spanish  and  Italian,  and  still  be  a 
stupid  before  a  class  of  children.     But  so   may  one  have  mastered  the 


360  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOC fATION  [National 

science  of  education  and  methodology,  and  have  studied  the  principles  of 
school  management  and  school  legislation  and  the  development  of  school 
systems,  and  be  overflowing  with  the  ways  of  the  Greeks  and  the  Romans 
and  Confucius  and  the  Jews  and  Zoroaster,  in  the  way  of  education,  and 
be  equally  impotent  before  children.  Success  in  teaching  can  be  predi- 
cated upon  no  amount  or  kind  of  preparatory  study.  This  only  means 
that,  if  the  teacher  would  claim  rightly  any  real  professional  knowledge, 
the  demand  is  growing  upon  him  more  and  more  to  ground  his  acquaint- 
ance with  and  knowledge  of  these  so-called  professional  matters  upon  a 
more  discriminating  insight,  and  more  fertile  judgment,  and  larger 
acquaintance  with  men  and  institutions  and  social  forces,  and  the  chang- 
ing implications  of  science  and  philosophy.  This  faculty  of  thinking,  and 
right  thinking,  may  be  found,  and  often  has  been  found,  in  men  and 
women  who  have  made  little  or  no  formal  study  of  the  processes  of  growth 
either  in  biology  or  psychology  or  sociology. 

The  schoolmasters  of  the  ancient  Hebrews  were  ^c^ooVmasters ;  so 
were  Socrates  and  Aristotle  and  Plato ;  so  was  St.  Paul  and  the  Man, 
Christ.  Excellent  teachers  may  be  found  all  down  thru  the  ages,  no 
one  of  whom  could  have  defined  to  'the  satisfaction  of  a  modern  any 
mental  function  or  process,  or  technically  described  any  experience  ;  and 
yet  they  taught  well.  There  will  occur  to  you,  in  your  own  observation, 
teachers  who  are  graduates  of  no  normal  school,  who  are  not  informed  as 
to  the  laws  of  mind  and  learning,  who  find  examinations  for  permit  to 
teach  frightful  bugbears,  and  yet  who  succeed.  Still,  not  their  ignorance, 
but  their  wisdom,  is  the  ground  of  their  success  ;  not  what  they  do  not 
know,  but  what  they  do,  is  the  measure  of  their  efficiency.  It  has  been 
said  :  "A  man  is  worth  to  himself  what  he  can  enjoy,  but  to  others  what 
he  can  do."  If,  however,  what  he  can  do  is  daily  enriched  by  the  larger 
possession  of  what  he  enjoys,  the  service  is  more  than  doubled.  To  have 
put  into  the  commonest  service  of  the  hour  the  spirit,  the  enthusiasm 
and  interest  and  confidence  and  hopefulness  which  form  a  large  part  of 
the  enjoyment  of  living,  gives  to  teaching  an  impelling  force,  an  aggres- 
siveness, the  quality,  of  positiveness  and  directness,  and  so  fruitfulness, 
such  as  it  has  in  no  other  way.  This  is  the  function  of  larger  learning 
in  its  reaction  upon  daily  teaching.  It  gives  intensity  to  one's  influence, 
and  directness  to  one's  example,  and  accuracy  and  definiteness  to  one's 
questions;  it  lends  precision  and  clearness;  it  makes  one  fair  and  con- 
siderate to  the  degree  that  one's  own  good  intentions  for  himself  are 
infused  into  his  relations  with  his  pupils.  Learning  is  conservative,  but  it 
is  also  kind  and  large-hearted  and  thoughtful.  Learning  in  the  teacher's 
heart  acts  upon  the  teacher's  mind,  and  kindly  impulse  in  the  one  gives 
sympathetic  force  in  the  other.  This  skill,  therefore,  is  rational  only 
to  the  degree  that  the  teacher's  particular  view  of  the  individual  child  on 
a  given  day,  in  a  specific  mental  act,  is  enriched  by  the  more  general 


Council  J  GENERAL  CULTURE  IN  PROFESSIONAL  TRAINING  36 1 

conception  of  the  aggregate  life,  that  of  the  contemporary  social  and  insti- 
tutional life  of  which  he  is  a  part,  and  that  of  the  progressive  evolution  of 
the  race ;  that  is,  these  give  horizon  and  perspective  to  what  were  other- 
wise local  and  particular. 

Further,  both  the  skill,  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  teacher's  view  of 
learning,  on  the  other,  become  rational  solely  as  they  are  supported  and 
directed  by  right  thinking.  The  juxtaposition  of  these  two  notions,  pro- 
fessional culture  and  gen'eral  culture,  suggests  to  one,  whether  he  be  teacher 
or  not,  some  interesting  opposition  of  thought.  The  paper  thus  becomes 
more  or  less  controversial  and  is  liable  to  be  unfairly  interpreted  by  one 
side  or  the  other.  The  emphasis  of  a  purely  professional  preparation 
omits  just  the  factor  that,  by  the  common-school  teacher,  seems  to  be  most 
neglected.  The  emphasis  of  scholastic  attainment  takes  one  out  of  line 
with  the  prevailing  tendency. 

Incidentally,  then,  along  with  the  purpose  to  deal  fairly  with  both 
aspects  of  training,  there  has  been  more  or  less  conscious  with  the  writer 
an  ever-present  tendency  to  exaggerate  the  importance  of  right  thinking, 
and  a  generous,  mental  habit  to  make  certain  of  its  just  recognition. 
Whatever  of  superlative,  then,  appears  in  the  paper  must  be  charged  to 
the  enforced  controversial  tone  incident  to  the  character  of  the  theme  and 
the  evident  bias  of  the  profession,  not  to  any  one-sided  or  partial  view  of 
it,  intentionally  giving  disproportioned  emphasis  to  either  factor. 

I  think  I  need  not  be  careful  in  this  presence  to  prove  my  faith  in  pro- 
fessional training.  Whatever  I  have  said,  or  shall  yet  say,  of  the  urgency 
of  better  scholastic  qualifications,  you  will,  I  am  sure,  do  me  the  courtesy 
and  yourselves  the  credit  to  think  of  me  as  among  the  pronounced  friends 
of  such  preparatory  work.  The  need  of  pedagogical  training  and  some 
directed  preliminary  practice  is  as  well  defined  and  vital,  it  may  be  claimed, 
as  that  for  medical  training,  or  the  practice  of  law,  or  preaching  ;  and  the 
efficiency  of  such  training  is  quite  as  marked  among  teachers  as  among 
those  of  other  professions.  Nothing  can  be  substituted  in  the  candidate's 
preparation  for  thts  detailed  and  patient  and  systematic  and  philosophical 
study  and  observation  of  school  and  educational  questions. 

My  present  care  is  to  give  what  seems  to  be  a  much-needed  emphasis 
to  the  thought  that  the  richer  the  scholarship,  the  safer  the  special  train- 
ing. The  soundest  pedagogical  doctrine  is  dangerous  if  employed  by 
the  illiterate,  and  only  less  so  with  those  who  are  satisfied  with  an  ele- 
mentary or  other  foreshortened  education.  Some  of  those  who  are  before 
me  will  recall  how,  at  times  and  in  places,  the  wisest  of  professional  direc- 
tions from  Comenius'  dictum  of  "  learning  thru  doing,"  down  thru 
Rousseau  and  Pestalozzi  and  Froebel,  have  received  only  distortion  and 
have  been  wrested  from  their  original  intent  at  the  hands  of  well-meaning 
but  crude  minds  that  saw  in  them  only  an  interesting  mechanism  or  a 
convenient  recipe.     Indeed,  no  device  is  quite  safe  except  in  the  hands 


362  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [National 

of  those  whose  learning  and  resourcefulness  and  mental  balance  and 
intellectual  acumen  are  such  as  to  make  the  device  unnecessary.  The 
larger  the  mental  mastery,  the  safer  the  special  training. 

Let  it  be  premised,  then,  that  the  most  zealous  insistence  upon  the 
necessity  of  what  is  called  "  professional  "  does  not  therefore  imply  dis- 
regard of  "scholastic"  qualifications. 

Speaking  generally  on  the  lowest  plane  and  in  the  language  of  the 
uninitiated,  what  is  to  be  taught  must  be  known.  He  who  does  not  have 
the  facts  of  history  cannot  give  them  nor  judge  of  their  correctness  when 
given.  To  communicate  knowledge  implies  the  possession  6f  knowledge. 
He  who  would  teach  Greek  must  have  Greek.  The  facts  of  science,  their 
conventional  classification  and  nomenclature,  can  be  taught,  i.  e.,  con- 
veyed or  explained  to  another,  only  by  one  whose  possession  they  are. 
Symbols  and  signs,  names,  terms  and  figures,  social  forms  and  conven- 
tions, may  be  taught  by  him  who  knows  them,  and  sometimes  by  the 
simple  process  of  telling.  The  problem  seems  simple  enough.  For 
teaching  on  this  plane,  information,  abundant,  accurate,  and  systematic,  is 
of  supreme  consideration.  There  is  no  teaching  without  it.  When 
teaching  means  telling,  there  must  be  something  to  tell.  The  condition 
is  equally  binding  upon  every  teacher  of  whatever  rank,  in  whatever  sub- 
ject, of  whatever  age  and  attainment.  The  want  is  not  more  felt  in  his- 
tory than  in  science,  in  language  than  in  mathematics.  The  physician 
must  know  his  medicines,  the  jurist  his  law,  philanthropy  the  needy, 
the  sheriff  wrongdoers,  the  preacher  his  creed.  All  are  equally  subject 
to  the  same  law.  That  the  first  may  kill  in  his  attempt  to  heal,  the 
judge  hand  down  unwise,  ill-advised,  antiquated  decisions,  philanthropy 
perpetuate  improvidence,  lawbreakers  slip  thru  official  hands,  and  the 
preacher  be  left  to  face  empty  or  nodding  pews,  cannot  invalidate  the 
fact  that,  to  bestow  a  benefaction  upon  society,  one  must  have  it  to 
bestow. 

The  application  to  school  instruction  you  have  doubtless  already  made. 
It  is  not  far  to  fetch.  If  teaching  be  taken  to  mean  hearing  lessons,  the 
lessons  must  be  had  by  the  teacher.  Other  qualifications  being  the  same, 
he  best  instructs  who  has  most  familiar  and  comprehensive  knowledge  of 
the  sciences  involved.  The  primary  difficulty  today  in  the  introduction 
of  science  into  our  elementary  courses,  or  manual  training,  or  vocal  music, 
or  drawing,  is  in  the  lack  of  teachei^s  who  know  these  subjects,  that  is, 
know  them  in  any  facile,  critical  way.  The  same  might  be  said,  and  with 
equal  truth,  of  grade  work  in  algebra  and  geometry,  the  principles  of 
English  composition,  the  rudiments  of  physical  geography,  and  general 
history  and  literary  studies.  The  statement  holds  for  the  lowest  grade 
of  teachers  even  and  the  most  mechanical  plane  of  instruction. 

Scholarship  is  by  no  means  to  be  disregarded,  even  subordinated.  It 
may  be  frankly  questioned  whether,  in  the  first  flush  of  interest  in   the 


Council]  GENERAL  CULTURE  IN  PROFESSIONAL  TRAINING  3^3 

new  profession  for  teachers,  its  advocates  have  not  allowed  themselves  to 
minify  the  professional  advantages  even  of  an  abundant  and  distinguish- 
ing culture.  To  correct  the  bias,  if  it  exist,  has  been  the  purpose  of  the 
present  paper. 

Larger  views  in  science  and  philosophy  extend  the  horizon  of  one's 
experience  in  other  directions.  To  have  canceled  one's  provincialism  by 
a  prolonged  study  of  history  and  literature,  "to  know  the  best  that  has 
been  said  and  thought  in  the  world,"  these  are  the  best  antidotes  to 
littleness  and  selfishness  and  jealousies  in  class  management.  The 
scholar  easily  drives  out  the  drillmaster.  The  man-of-the-world  is  no 
martinet.  Paucity  of  life  and  meanness  of  habit,  local  and  commonplace 
motives,  temporizing  and  easy  satisfactions,  are  incident  to  primitive 
views  only,  and  the  most  elementary  training;  and  few  qualities  of  mind 
are  more  unwholesome  in  the  schoolroom.  Culture  is  suggestive  and  rich 
in  interpretation  ;  it  discovers  opportunity  and  resource ;  it  has  foresight 
and  adaptation ;  it  attracts  occasion  and  learning  and  confidence  and 
co-operation.  It  is  not  needed  that  anyone  should  emphasize  to  this 
body  how  helpful  these  all  are  to  the  teacher ;  incalculably  helpful  to  him 
who  knows  how  to  use  them. 

No  amount  of  professional  training  as  such  can  take  the  place  of  this 
wide  acquaintance  with  the  race's  thought,  this  participation  in  others' 
culture  and  achievement  and  success,  this  mastery  of  science  and  the 
humanities.  Neither  can  a  study  of  school  questions,  however  extended 
and  detailed,  compensate  for  ignorance  or  indifference  or  mediocrity 
toward  the  world's  rich  life. 

A  vital  defect  in  the  average  teacher,  both  in  our  own  state  and  else- 
where, is  his  limited  information  upon  matters  of  the  most  common  con- 
cern, and  his  still  more  unsatisfactory  mental  habits  and  culture.  How 
greatly  he  has  improved  in  all  these  respects  can  be  really  appreciated  by 
those  only  who  have  critically  observed  him  during  the  process. 

It  is  not  meant  to  hint  even  any  disparagement  of  the  common-school 
teacher.  Most  of  my  professional  life  has  had  to  do  with  the  common 
schools,  and  I  believe  in  them.  Acquaintance  with  the  teaching  body  in 
most  neighboring  states  gives  abundant  room  and  reason  for  pride  in  and 
respect  for  the  honorable  position  held  by  those  who  administer  the  pub- 
lic system.  Nevertheless,  it  remains  true,  I  think,  that  the  advance  made 
in  the  Northwest  in  recent  years  has  been  chiefly  along  professional 
lines,  exhibiting  relatively  less  progress  in  the  culture  that  may  be  called 
liberal. 

Unsatisfactory  as  are  many  of  the  results,  the  conclusions  of  recent 
psychology  and  pedagogy,  the  deductions  from  educational  history,  and 
the  systematic  and  more  or  less  valid  directions  of  experts  in  school 
management,  are  rich  and  varied,  and  have  been  worked  down  into  and 
become  part  of  the  average  school  life,  and  aggressively  influence  the 


364  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  INational 

teaching,  as  has  not  happened,  I  think,  to  the  contributions  of  history  or 
literature  or  science.  Libraries  and  magazines  and  homes  and  schools 
and  lecture-rooms  and  best  society  and  the  pulpit  are  full  of  the  old 
mythologies  and  early  superstitions  and  personal  heroisms  and  art  and 
much  practical  philosophy  and  ethical  standards  and  moral  discrimina- 
tions and  codes  of  social  and  industrial  intercourse  ;  images  of  pure  lives 
and  great  achievement  and  unselfish  devotions;  exalted  motives  and 
divine  patterns,  whose  lessons,  made  common  among  teachers,  both 
urban  and  rural,  would  lend  tone  and  dignity  and  efficiency  to  much  that 
is  now  class-room  dawdling  and  worse. 

Abundant  experience,  richness  of  thought,  generous  scholarship,  wide 
reading  and  travel,  and  the  integrations  of  motive  and  purpose  that  only 
result  from  intelligently  directed,  continuous  study  and  formal  training, 
may  well  be  beyond  the  reach  of  most  teachers,  even  as  professional 
training  seems  now  to  be;  but  their  presiding  in  the  teacher's  chair,  in  a 
moderate  degree  only,  would  impart  life  and  significance  to  much  other- 
wise aimless  teaching.  * 


DEPARTMENT  OF  KINDERGARTEN 
EDUCATION 


SECRETARY'S  MINUTES 


Note. — On  Tuesday,  July  lo,  from  6  to  8:30  p.  m.,  prior  to  the  opening  of  the  session,  a  reception  was 
given  to  the  department  by  the  Local  Kindergarten  Organization  on  the  Charleston  College  campus. 

FIRST  SESSION.— Wednesday,  July  ii,  1900 

The  department  met  in  Hibernian  Hall  at  3  :  30  P.  M.,  and  was  called  to  order  by  the 
president,  Mrs.  Maria  Kraus-Boelte. 

Soprano  solo  —  "A  Dream,"  Bartlett — was  sung  by  Miss  Harriet  Kershaw,  of 
Charleston. 

President  D.  B.  Johnson  of  Winthrop  College,  Rock  Hill,  S.  C,  gave  an  address  of 
welcome  on  behalf  of  the  state.  He  was  followed  by  Dr.  Frank  Frost,  on  behalf  of  the 
city  council ;  Superintendent  Henry  P.  Archer,  on  behalf  of  the  city  schools  ;  Mrs.  W. 
B.  S.  Heyward,  on  behalf  of  the  South  Carolina  Kindergarten  Association. 

The  president  responded,  and  then  delivered  the  president's  address. 

Corporal  Frederick  N.  Wake  sang  a  bass  solo  —  "A  Bedouin  Love  Song,"  Pinsuti. 

Mrs.  Clarence  E.  Meleney,  of  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  read  a  paper  on  "  A  Mother's 
Advice  to  Kindergartners." 

Professor  Philander  P.  Claxton,  of  the  State  Normal  and  Industrial  College,  Greens- 
boro, N.  C,  presented  "The  Need  of  the  Kindergartners  in  the  South." 

The  following  committees  were  then  announced  : 

COMMITTEE  ON  NOMINATIONS 

Miss  Mary  C.  McCuUoch,  St.  Louis,  Mo.  Mrs.  Clarence  E.  Meleney,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 

Miss  Eveline  A,  Waldo,  New  Orleans,  La. 

COMMITTEE  ON  RESOLUTIONS 

Miss  Emma  A.  Newman,  Buffalo,  N.  Y.  Miss  Orietta  Chittenden,  Omaha,  Neb. 

Miss  Harriet  Niel,  Washington,  D.  C. 

Then  followed  a  paper  on  "The  Kindergarten  Gifts  and  Occupations,  and  Their 
Educational  Value,"  by  Miss  Harriet  Niel,  director  of  the  Phebe  A.  Hearst  Kindergarten 
Training  School  of  Washington,  D.  C;  after  which  the  meeting  adjourned. 

SECOND  SESSION.— Thursday,  July  12 

The  department  was  called  to  order  by  the  president  at  3 :  30  P.  M. 

The  first  address  on  the  program  was  by  Miss  Mary  C.  McCulloch,  supervisor  of 
public-school  kindergartens,  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  on  "Froebel's  Mother  and  Cosseting  Songs," 
with  practical  illustrations. 

A  piano  solo  —  Nocturne,  Op.  9,  No.  i,  Chopin  —  by  Mr.  Samuel  Jacob,  of  Charleston. 

Miss  Emma  A.  Newman,  instructor  of  first  grade,  Teachers'  Training  School, 
Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  followed  with  a  paper  on  "  The  Kindergarten  and  the  Primary  School  in 
Their  Relation  to  the  Child  and  to  Each  Other." 

365 


366  NATIONAL  MDVCATlONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Kindergarten 

The  paper  was  discussed  by  W.  H.  Jones,  principal  of  the  graded  school,  Denmark, 
S.  C,  and  Dudley  Redwood  Cowles,  superintendent  of  schools,  Hampton,  Va. 

Song  by  Corporal  Frederick  N.  Wake  —  "  Last  Night." 

The  paper  to  follow  next,  entitled  "  The  Educational  Use  of  Music  for  Children 
under  the  Age  of  Seven  Years,"  by  Miss  Mari  Ruef  Hofer,  of  Chicago,  was  omitted,  as 
Miss  Hofer  had  been  detained  on  the  journey ;  but  the  department  voted  to  request  its 
publication  in  the  volume  of  proceedings. 

Miss  Emma  A.  Newman,  chairman  of  the  Committee  on  Resolutions,  read  the 
following : 

Whereas,  The  Kindergarten  Department  of  the  National  Educational  Association  is  deeply  sensible 
that  the  success  of  every  meeting  is  largely  due  to  the  arrangements  made  by  those  in  charge  of  the  prepara- 
tion for  its  reception  and  comfort ;  therefore  be  it 

Resolved,  That  this  department  desires  to  express  its  deep  appreciation  of  the  cordial  welcome  and  great 
courtesy  extended  to  its  members,  and  particularly  to  thank  the  Local  Executive  Committee,  Mr.  W.  H. 
Welch,  chairman;  the  Local  Kindergarten  Organization,  Miss  Sophie  G.  Rose,  chairman;  the  South 
Carolina  Kindergarten  Association,  Mrs.  W.  B.  S.  Heyward,  president;  the  press  of  the  city;  the  ladies 
and  gentlemen  who  so  kindly  placed  their  musical  talent  at  its  service ;  and  all  those  who  so  generously 
contributed  time  and  effort  to  render  this  meeting  a  memorable  one  in  the  history  of  the  Kindergarten  Depart- 
ment of  the  National  Educational  Associatioii. 

Resolved,  That  a  sense  of  our  sincere  regret  be  recorded  and  extended  to  Miss  Anna  Stovall,  superin- 
tendent of  the  Golden  Gate  Kindergartens,  California,  and  to  Miss  Ella  B.  Elder,  supervisor  of  the  free 
kindergartens  of  Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  whose  circumstances  rendered  it  necessary  for  them  to  resign  from  their 
positions  as  vice-president  and  secretary  of  this  department. 

Resolved,  That  our  sincerest  sympathy  be  extended  to  Miss  Minnie  Macfeat,  of  Winthrop  College, 
Rock  Hill,  S.  C,  vice-president  of  the  department,  whose  illness  prevented  her  attendance  at  the  meetings. 

Resolved,  That  a  sense  of  our  great  appreciation  of  her  efficient  services  be  tendered  Miss  Evelyn 
Holmes,  director  of  the  Kindergarten  Training  School,  Charleston,  S.  C,  as  secretary  of  the  department. 

Emma  A.  Newman,  Chairman. 
Orietta  B.  Chittenden. 
Eveline  A.  Waldo. 

The  report  was  unanimously  adopted. 

The  report  of  the  Committee  on  Nominations  was  submitted  as  follows : 

For  President — Miss  Evelyn  Holmes,  Charleston,  S.  C. 
For  Vice-President — Miss  Anna  Williams,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 
For  Secretary — Miss  Annie  Laws,  Cincinnati,  O. 

The  report  was  unanimously  adopted  and  the  nominees  declared  elected  as  officers 
for  the  ensuing  year. 

The  department  then  adjourned. 

Note. — On  Friday  afternoon  a  Parents'  Conference  was  called  by  the  outgoing 
president,  Mrs.  Maria  Kraus-Boelt^,  with  the  purpose  that  such  an  informal  meeting  should 
be  held  each  year  following  the  sessions  of  the  department,  to  the  end  that  the  connec- 
tion between  home  and  kindergarten  should  become  closer  and  better  understood.  Miss 
Mari  Ruef  Hofer  sang  delightful  children's  songs.  Mrs.  Theodore  D.  Birney,  president 
of  the  National  Congress  of  Mothers ;  Mrs.  Marian  Foster  Washburn,  of  Chicago ; 
Colonel  Francis  W.  Parker, of  Chicago;  W.  K.  Tate,  of  Charleston,  S.  C,  were  present 
and  contributed  to  the  success  of  the  conference. 

Evelyn  Holmes, 

Secretary. 


Department]  PRESIDENT'S  ADDRESS  1^1 


PAPERS  AND   DISCUSSIONS 


PRESIDENTS  ADDRESS 

MRS.    MARIA    KRAUS-BOELTE,  NEW    YORK,    N.    Y, 

In  life  we  are  so  closely  connected,  so  dependent  upon  each  other, 
that  the  very  closeness  of  the  bond  makes  it  hard  for  us  to  realize  it. 
They  upon  whom  we  depend  have  done  their  work  so  long,  and  we  have 
grown  so  accustomed  to  having  them  do  for  us,  that  we  often  fail  to  thank 
them,  or  even  passively  appreciate  them.  In  nature  we  see  the  plant, 
depending  for  life  upon  the  earth  below;  the  sun,  wind,  and  rain  above. 
In  order  to  produce  a  perfect  flower,  each  one  of  its  parts  must  act 
according  to  the  fullest  power  it  possesses. 

We  see  very  few  perfect  flowers  or  trees  in  nature,  but  we  see  enough 
to  show  us  what  the  perfect  whole  might  be. 

So  with  man.  This  idea  is  practically  given  to  the  child  when  he  is 
held  to  do  a  certain  small  duty  within  his  power  and  led  to  feel  that, 
unless  he  does  his  work,  the  mother  cannot  do  hers,  and  he  will  be  the 
loser.  This  contains  the  lesson  of  interdependence  evinced  thruout  the 
world.  The  higher  spiritual  thing  of  which  this  organic  unity  is  the 
reflection  is  "the  kingdom  of  God,"  toward  which  and  for  which  we  are 
all  working.  The  right  understanding  of  this  relation  is  in  the  founda- 
tion of  all  right  living. 

The  kindergarten,  being  the  natural  sphere  of  development,  aids  the 
home  life,  enlarging  the  child's  horizon,  preparing  him  for  school,  com- 
munity, and  church  life  in  the  truest  sense. 

Our  age,  with  its  wonderful  discoveries,  inventions,  and  the  rapid 
rate  of  progress  in  all  directions,  will  demand  much  from  the  men  and 
women  of  the  new  century.  The  child,  accordingly,  must  be  in  touch 
with  his  new  environments,  as  also  with  human  relationships.  Hence, 
the  child's  love  for  companionship  should  be  properly  met.  A  most 
essential  point  should  never  be  left  out  of  view,  namely,  that  there  should 
be  continuity  in  his  training. 

The  true  aim  of  education  is  to  meet  as  far  as  possible  all  the  natural 
inclinations  of  a  child's  mind,  and,  thru  these  inclinations,  to  offer 
opportunities  and  aid  for  the  proper  cultivation  and  growth  of  body  and 
mind.  The  Creator  has  endowed  the  child  with  these  inclinations  as  a 
means  of  assistance,  similar  to  the  seed  that  holds  within  itself  the  sub- 
stance for  the  formation  of  the  rootlet  and  sprout  —  tendencies  which  are, 
alike  in  the  child  as  in  the  seed,  but  the  development  of  the  life  within. 
What  is  not  existent  within  cannot  be  developed  from  either  the  child 


368  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Kindergarten 

or  the  seed.  The  repression  of  any  of  the  natural  inclinations  of  a  healthy 
mind  will  tend  to  dwarf  the  same,  or  to  warp  it  out  of  its  own  individuality. 
If  the  sun  touches  only  one  side  of  a  tree  or  plant,  a  deformed  or  mis- 
shapen tree  or  plant  will  be  the  consequence ;  but  if  the  sun  can  fully 
touch  the  plant,  it  will  develop  symmetrically.  The  child  likewise  needs 
all  the  advantages  for  his  development.  Children  are  to  be  helped  in 
learning  to  use  their  senses,  to  exercise  their  "self  activity,"  to  become 
accustomed  to  habits  of  attention.  The  peculiar  importance  of  the  edu- 
cation of  childhood,  advocated  by  the  kindergarten,  lies  in  the  considera- 
tion that  it  prepares  the  way  for  subsequent  self-education ;  the  first  aim 
being  to  stimulate  the  child  to  find  out  truths  for  himself,  to  be  put  in 
the  way  to  teach  himself. 

The  aim  of  all  true  teaching  should  be  to  increase  the  pupil's  fund  of 
power,  and  not  to  assist  him  merely  in  scrambling  over  present  difficulties. 
Making  every  difficulty  the  means  of  conquest  over  the  next  is  helping 
the  child  to  help  himself. 

"  What,  thoughtful,  the  mother  arouses  and  fosters 
With  joyful,  earnest  play  and  with  song ; 
What  her  love  protectingly  fosters 

Will  work  for  good  countless  ages  long." 

The  truth  regarding  the  human  being  in  his  essence  and  development 
must  find  its  application  in  the  art  and  science  of  education. 

Froebel  gives  us  this  truth  in  his  system  of  "child  play;"  for  the 
kindergarten  is  founded  upon  the  understanding  of  the  human  essence. 
No  matter  whether  a  truth  be  great  or  small,  it  must  take  some  form  in 
order  to  be  received  and  comprehended.  It  is  in  the  kindergarten,  in 
"child-play,"  where  the  young  generation  is  to  be  fitted,  and  where  "use- 
ful helpfulness  "  must  germinate. 

"Great  natures,  born  in  millions,  are  unfolded  but  rarely  in  each 
century,  and  they  have  grown  to  maturity  in  this  or  that  direction  through 
a  cherishing  and  educating  care."  Great  men,  it  is  proved,  in  most  cases 
have  had  especially  good  mothers. 

The  development-  of  that  which  has  been  gained  will  help  toward 
further  progress  —  the  "old"  reappearing  in  the  "new"  —  while  the  bud 
is  ripening  to  fruit. 

In  order  to  reveal  what  helps  to  progress,  in  any  form,  we  must  trace 
it  to  the  origin  and  to  the  development  of  what  now  exists.  And,  above 
all  things,  the  "being"  of  man  has  to  be  studied  in  its  germ. 

The  "science  of  man"  is  the  youngest  of  all  sciences.  We  stand  on 
the  threshold  of  psychological  investigations  and  studies  of  the  little 
child.  The  "science  of  man"  begins  with  his  birth;  the  child,  as  the 
"germ  of  man,"  is  its  first  object.  Whoever  understands  the  germ, 
whoever  nurtures  it  in  conformity  with  its  destiny,  understands  and 
nurtures  man. 


Department]  PRESIDENT'S  ADDRESS  3^9 

The  kindergarten  must  be  counted  among  the  most  valuable  acquisi- 
tions of  the  present  age;  tho  to  expect  the  universal  improvement  of  the 
world  from  this  institution  alone  would  be  folly.  The  salvation  of  the 
world  does  not  depend  upon  one  truth,  one  thought,  or  one  act.  If  a 
new  spirit  is  to  arise  in  the  human  being  himself,  then  a  new  inspiration 
must  penetrate  the  "atmosphere  of  life"  in  every  direction.  If  anew 
thought  is  to  ripen  new  fruits  in  the  field  of  education,  it  must  not  only 
embrace  the  first  stage  of  life,  but  it  must  take  in  the  whole  season  of 
youth,  transforming  all  it  touches. 

Thus  Froebel's  "thought"  must  live  and  thrive  as  well  in  the  family 
and  the  school  as  in  the  kindergarten;  and  then  only  we  shall  be  able  to 
speak  of  true  educational  improvement. 

Rousseau  was  obliged  to  vindicate  the  rights  of  the  individual  as 
such,  as  also  the  rights  of  nature.  Fichte  had  to  combat  the  too  inflex- 
ible self-regard  of  degenerate  individualism,  and  therefore  made  promi- 
nent the  social  side,  i.  e.,  education  in  and  for  the  whole  community. 
Pestalozzi  took  up  the  interest  of  the  oppressed,  and,  from  the  education 
of  those  who  were  quite  neglected,  laid  the  foundation  of  the  modern 
education  of  the  people;  and  opposed  "object-teaching"  to  the  then 
prevalent  abstract  method  of  instruction.  Froebel  combined  all  these 
points  and  would  equally  regard  the  individual  and  the  social  man,  and 
give  the  family,  and  the  life  outside  the  family,  the  same  educating  influ- 
ence, making  both  of  these  factors  of  human  life  work  upon  childhood 
from  the  beginning.  For  his  assistant  he  calls  upon  the  female  sex  to 
learn  the  art  and  science  of  this  "calling,"  which  has  been  peculiarly 
assigned  to  women.  In  his  view,  the  renovated  and  sanctified  family  is 
the  beginning  of  the  renewal  of  society,  because  the  family  is  the  "ele- 
mentary link"  of  community,  church,  and  state. 

The  latest  pedagogical  reformers  have  all  tried  to  introduce  an  educa- 
tion for  work,  or,  at  least,  to  use  work  as  an  assistant  in  education. 
Pestalozzi,  Fourier,  Fellenberg,  t^ancaster,  Owen,  etc.,  have  declared 
learning  and  working,  intellectual  and  bodily  exercises,  to  be  indispen- 
sable for  childhood  and  youth,  and  have  introduced  them  into  their 
educational  institutions.  These  institutions,  in  which  field  and  garden 
culture,  handicrafts  of  all  kinds,  and  bodily  exercises,  have  alternated  with 
instruction,  have  never  been  sufficiently  estimated.  If  the  good  accom- 
plished by  them  had  been  recognized,  they  would  have  been  more  widely 
spread.  However,  in  those  institutions  bodily  and  mechanical  labor 
alternated  with  instruction,  but  they  were  not  means  of  instruction,  as  is 
the  case  in  Froebel's  methods. 

In  the  kindergarten,  according  to  Froebel,  the  work  is  transformed  in 
such  a  manner  that  it  may  be  intellectual  as  well  as  mechanical  discipline, 
that  it  may  become  a  part  of  instruction  in  the  full  sense  of  the  word, 
and  consequently  unite  intellectual  and  bodily  training.    Body  and  mind 


37°  NATIONAL   EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Kindergarten 

thus  are  not  only  generally  cultivated  during  the  first  seven  years,  but 
mechanical  dexterity  is  also  partly  attained  thus  early,  while  the  child  is 
active,  not  merely  mechanically,  but,  at  the  same  time,  with  his  intel- 
lectual powers. 

Rhythm  is  the  fundamental  law  of  all  activity  practiced  in  play,  all 
the  powers  and  organs  being  exercised,  leading  even  the  very  young  child 
to  "  free  creativeness."  Thus,  work,  play,  and  self-instruction  are  becom- 
ing one  as  a  preparation  for  all  the  demands  of  later  life,  offering  to  earliest 
childhood  the  "life-element"  befitting  the  originality  of  his  young  years. 

A  law  must  be  at  the  foundation  of  the  activity  of  man,  as  well  as  at 
that  of  the  activity  of  nature,  as  both  have  one  Creator.  The  organism  of 
our  body  moves  strictly  according  to  law.  All  its  functions  are  sub- 
jected to  a  fundamental  law  which  bears  various  names,  viz.:  action  and 
reaction,  inspiration  and  expiration,  heat  and  cold,  darkness  and  light, 
the  "law  of  contrasts"  or  "  opposites." 

A  critic  as  unsentimental  as  Herbert  Spencer  lays  down  the  law 
that  "  all  education,  in  so  far  as  it  is  true,  tends  to  become  play."  He 
tests  all  methods  by  this  criterion:  Is  it  "task-work,"  or  is  it  to  the 
child  "as  good  as  play"? 

It  is  our  ignorance  of  child-nature,  our  poverty  of  invention,  our 
"  mechanicalness  of  methods"  which  make  learning  mere  work.  There  is 
nothing  incompatible  between  the  merry  play  of  the  nursery  and  the  school 
into  which  we  would  turn  the  child,  if  only  we  can  be  cunning  enough  to 
devise  a  subtle  illusion  wherein,  when  the  children  think  they  are  only 
playing,  we  shall  see  that  they  are  also  learning.  Leaving  them  their 
free,  spontaneous,  natural  impulses  of  playfulness,  we  may  then  lead  these 
impulses  up  into  a  system  which  shall,  with  benign  subtlety,  unwittingly 
to  the  children,  train  them  into  the  most  valuable  of  powers,  fashion  them 
into  the  most  precious  of  habits,  open  within  them  the  deepest  springs 
of  eternal  life.  Only  for  this  finest  and  divinest  of  pedagogics  we  must, 
as  the  Greatest  of  teachers  has  taught  ais,  get  low  down  to  the  plane  of 
the  "little  ones,"  and  ourselves  become  as  children,  that  we  may  enter 
the  kingdom  of  heaven. 


A  MOTHER'S  ADVICE  TO  KINDERGARTNERS 

MRS.  CLARENCE    E.  MELENEY,  BROOKLYN,  N.  Y. 

In  calling  upon  a  mother  to  speak  in  this  assembly  you  honor  the 
home  and  emphasize  the  value  of  early  home  training.  In  responding  to 
the  earnest  request  of  the  president  of  this  department,  I  do  not  wish  to 
be  presumptuous  or  pose  as  an  advisor.  Kindly  receive  what  I  offer  as  the 
suggestions  of  a  mother  who  is  deeply  interested  in  the  training  of  chil- 
dren in  the  home,  in  kindergarten,  and  in  school.     A  mother  cannot  give 


Department)  A  MOTHER'S  ADVICE  TO  KINDERGARTNERS  371 

her  entire  thought  to  any  one  stage  of  the  child's  growth,  but  must  follow 
his  development  from  the  beginning  to  the  end.  The  mother's  happi- 
ness depends  upon  the  successful  rounding  out  of  each  period  thru  which 
the  child  passes,  so  that  her  interest  never  wavers  thru  all  the  years  of 
the  child's  growth.  It  is  indeed  a  God-given  work  to  train  children  in 
the  home,  and  it  needs  the  wisdom  which  comes  from  above,  as  well  as 
all  the  wisdom  which  may  be  gained  by  careful  thought,  study,  and  train- 
ing. We  should  not  be  satisfied  with  ignorance  or  inefficiency  either  in 
the  mother  or  attendant  who  deals  with  the  children  in  the  home.  We 
must  urge  young  women  to  fit  themselves  for  their  womanly  duties,  and  if 
we  do  our  part  to  create  a  sentiment,  future  generations  may  have  a 
trained  motherhood.     Many  courses  of  training  lead  to  this  end. 

Perhaps  no  other  so  well  equips  a  young  woman  for  her  life-work  as  a 
study  of  the  masters  Pestalozzi  and  Froebel  and  their  system  of  "educa- 
tion by  development."  The  testimony  of  mothers  whose  training  and  cul- 
ture have  been  directed  along  other  lines  goes  to  prove  that  the  higher 
courses  of  study  for  women  are  not  strong  along  those  lines  which  develop 
the  highest  possibilities  of  womanhood  and  supply  womanly  needs. 
One  cultured  mother  remarked  to  me  recently  :  "  I  would  gladly  have 
given  up  two  years  of  my  college  life  to  have  had  a  course  of  training 
preparing  me  for  the  work  of  bringing  up  boys."  Another  mother  said  : 
"  I  am  delighted  when  I  think  how  many  years  I  shall  be  able  to  follow 
and  enjoy  with  my  little  girl  her  studies  as  she  grows  ;  but  oh,  it  would 
be  such  a  comfort  if  I  had  something  to  help  me  understand  her  now  in 
the  first  years  of  her  growth." 

I.  In  some  form  every  woman  is  destined  to  come  in  contact  with 
childhood;  why,  then,  should  not  every  young  woman  prepare  herself  to 
perform  her  womanly  duties  as  mother,  teacher,  or  worker  in  the  many 
social  activities  which  demand  a  love  for  and  sympathy  with  growing 
children  ?  You  will  recall,  perhaps,  the  story  of  Maria  Mitchell.  Born 
with  a  love  for  the  children  of  the  heavens — the  stars  —  she  had  no  thought 
of  turning  her  attention  to  the  children  of  men,  until  she  was  sought  out 
by  them,  because  of  her  wide  reading,  to  conduct  the  public  library  of  her 
island  home.  This  she  did  with  such  rare  wisdom  that  the  cultured  life 
of  Nantucket  today  may  be  traced  to  her  work  among  the  children  so 
many  years  ago.  The  true  maternal  instinct  lies  at  the  foundation  of  all 
successful  work  with  little  children.  The  tendency  of  the  kindergarten 
training  is  to  develop  motherliness  ;  to  transform  the  natural  affection 
which  the  young  woman  may  have  for  special  children  into  a  universal 
love  for  childhood.  She  is  here  trained  to  meet  the  poor  little  distorted 
life  with  the  same  loving  sympathy  that  she  bestows  upon  the  more  fortu- 
nate little  ones.  This  is  a  time  for  earnest  thought  and  study,  as  well  as 
for  developing  that  playful  spirit  which  is  essential  in  gaining  the  confi- 
dence of  the  little  child.     This  is  the  period  when  every  young  woman 


S72  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCLAT/ON  [fondergaWen 

who  is  brought  under  the  influence  of  a  wise  and  womanly  training- 
teacher  ac(^uires  that  loving  spirit  which  is  a  necessary  qualification  for 
the  work.  She  realizes  that  it  is  becoming  a  part  of  her  life  and  stands 
•ready  to  give  full,  free  devotion  to  the  cause  of  childhood.  The  kinder- 
:gartner  who  said,  "I  went  into  the  training  class  a  thoughtless  girl  and 
came  out  a  woman,"  expressed  the  thought  I  wish  to  convey,  that  by  this 
course  of  training  and  with  this  appreciation  of  its  responsibilities  the  girl 
is  started  on  her  womanly  career  with  untold  possibilities  before  her.  At 
a  recent  kindergarten  commencement  an  earnest  young  woman  who 
addressed  the  honored  teacher  of  the  class  said  :  "You  have  made  us  con- 
scious of  powers  within  us  that  we  did  not  know  we  possessed."  If 
we  attempt  to  define  these  powers,  we  find  that  the  kindergartner  has 
placed  before  herself  an  ideal  of  a  well-balanced  life,  in  which  she  must 
realize  all  the  possibilities  within  herself.  She  must  possess  the  power  to 
be  active,  and  when  opportunity  offers  to  seek  that  repose  of  mind  and 
body  which  gives  self-poise.  She  must  possess  the  power  to  rise  above 
the  difficulties  which  surround  her  path  in  the  struggle  of  life,  and  at  the 
same  time  be  self-forgetful  in  the  struggle  for  the  life  of  others.  She 
must  have  faith  in  human  nature,  and  confidence  in  a  higher  power  to 
lead  and  guide  the  lives  of  those  who  are  seeking  to  fulfill  the  purpose  for 
which  they  were  created. 

2.  As  the  kindergartner  enters  upon  her  work  it  should  be  to  her  a 
life-work.  Her  experiences  will  be  of  untold  value,  if  she  learns  to 
gather  them  up  from  day  to  day  ;  tries  to  organize  them  and  observe 
how  they  illustrate  or  prove  well-established  educational  laws.  She  should 
compare  her  experiences  with  those  of  other  teachers  in  elementary  work, 
counting  it  a  privilege  to  be  in  touch  with  those  who  will  train  the 
children  from  the  kindergarten  on  thru  the  school.  She  should  seek 
friendly  advice ;  take  kindly  criticism  from  those  in  authority ;  show 
that  in  this  period  of  transition  from  the  home  to  the  school  she  can 
lead  the  children  in  wholesome,  well-organized  work  and  play.  She 
must  prove  the  value  of  her  work  in  the  general  plan  of  education. 
The  kindergartner  should  make  a  study,  as  far  as  possible,  of  the  work 
that  precedes  and  follows  her  own ;  not  until  she  has  dealt  with  all 
classes  under  various  conditions  will  she  know  child-life.  The  kinder- 
gartner's  attitude  toward  her  profession  should  be  one  in  which  she  holds 
herself  open-minded,  teachable,  ever  progressing  by  the  light  which  is 
revealed  thru  the  study  of  children. 

3.  The  relation  between  the  kindergartner  and  child  should  in  a 
measure  resemble  the  relation  between  the  mother  and  child.  There 
should  be  a  [strong  bond  of  sympathy  between  them.  By  intimate  rela- 
tions with  intelligent  motherly  women  the  kindergartner  will  gain  the 
motherly  spirit  which  should  pervade  the  kindergarten  as  well  as  the 
home  ;  under  this  influence  the  children  will  develop  freely.     The  child 


Department]  A  MOTHER'S  ADVICE  TO.  KINDERGARTNERS  373 

should  not  feel  for  a  single  moment  that  he  is  being  studied,  analyzed, 
questioned  to  find  out  what  is  within  his  mind.  The  little  child  should 
not  be  made  to  feel  that  he  has  defects  which  the  kindergartner  is  seeking 
to  discard  or  virtues  which  are  to  be  nurtured.  He  should  be  taken  as  a 
whole,  with  whatever  of  good  or  evil  there  is  in  him,  appreciated,  loved; 
then  will  his  face  turn  toward  goodness  as  the  flower  turns  toward  the 
sun.  In  this  warmth  the  child  will  grow;  he  will  breathe  the  pure  atmos- 
phere of  his  surroundings  ;  he  will  feel  the  sweet  influences  of  song  and 
story ;  he  will  learn  to  love  the  work  and  play  which  helps  him  to 
understand  his  own  life  and  the  life  about  him.  In  a  tender,  noble, 
womanly  way  the  kindergartner  may  help  the  child  to  understand  the 
experiences  which  come  to  him  from  day  to  day.  We  cannot  bring  the 
child  in  touch  with  all  the  typical  experiences  of  life  during  the  kinder- 
garten age,  nor  can  we  bring  to  fruition  every  virtue.  We  must  be  con- 
tent with  preparing  the  way,  leading  the  child  in  body,  mind,  and  heart 
to  start  aright,  knowing  that  strength  and  vigor  of  life  come  with  passing 
years.  I  fear  we  sometimes  fail  to  realize  how  small  the  beginning  must 
be,  and  too  soon  look  for  results  in  our  work  with  the  children.  We 
want  to  hurry  them  on  to  things  beyond  their  circle  of  thought  and 
experience.  Let  me  plead  for  simplicity  in  kindergarten  life  and  work. 
A  young  woman  just  returned  from  a  period  of  study  in  Germany  told 
me  recently  that  she  was  amazed  at  the  simple  little  exercises  which  held 
the  interest  and  attention  of  the  children  thru  a  morning  of  work. 
These  children  were  dealing  with  apples,  the  bright-colored  balls  which 
Mother  Nature  gives  her  children.  This  innovation  may  not  be  desirable 
for  every  kindergarten,  but  we  will  not  go  far  astray  in  giving  the 
children  playthings  Mother  Nature  has  provided  for  them,  and  using 
them  in  such  a  way  that  the  eyes  of  the  children  are  opened  to  new  pos- 
sibilities. As  the  child  passes  from  the  home  to  the  kindergarten  he  is 
full  of  the  thoughts  and  experiences  of  home  life.  The  wise  kinder- 
gartner preserves  this  as  a  basis  of  knowledge,  gently  leading  the  child  to 
a  larger  circle  of  thought  and  experience.  The  kindergartner  should 
lead,  and  in  a  measure  be  led  by,  the  children.  In  following  the  children's 
interests  she  will  find  it  quite  unnatural  to  keep  thought  centered  around 
one  topic  for  a  week  or  month.  The  life  and  experiences  which  the 
children  meet,  the  passing  seasons,  nature's  moods  from  day  to  day,  all 
suggest  immediate  interests  which  she  must  take  advantage  of  for  their 
development,  carefully  avoiding  thoughts  too  remote  from  the  everyday 
life.  In  a  recent  visit  to  a  kindergarten  where  many  of  the  larger 
children  were  absent,  the  little  tots  attempted  to  carry  out  "  the  black- 
smith game,"  but  were  utterly  at  a  loss  because  of  the  mass  of  detail 
which  it  involved.  At  another  kindergarten  I  was  delighted  to  see  that 
the  little  ones  were  given  an  opportunity  to  play  in  a  circle  by  themselves  ; 
the  games  were  simple  and  within  their  understanding.     It  was  interesting 


374  NATIONAL  EDUC4TI0NAL  ASSOCIATION  [Kindergarten 

to  watch  their  faces  as  they  entered  into  the  spirit  of  their  play,  as 
nothing  was  attempted  which  was  beyond  their  circle  of  experience.  As 
the  child  grows  he  is  able  to  pass  on  to  wider  circles  of  thought.  If  he 
comes  to  the  kindergarten  at  five  years,  he  should  not  be  given  the  work 
or  play  suited  to  the  child  of  three  years  of  age  ;  he  is  physically  stronger, 
more  mature,  and  should  receive  work  suited  to  his  larger  capacity.  I 
was  deeply  impressed  with  this  fact  in  visiting  a  kindergarten  which  had 
just  been  established  in  a-  new  section.  The  children,  being  unused  to 
the  material,  were  not  prepared  for  very  active  work.  The  kindergartner 
was  trying  to  give  a  lesson  with  the  second  gift  which  was  admirably 
suited  to  the  babies,  but  the  older  boys  at  the  table  could  not  be  induced 
to  enter  into  the  play.  They  were  longing  to  handle,  to  investigate  the 
possibilities  of  the  gift.  The  wise  kindergartner  and  mother  are  quick 
to  detect  when  the  child  is  ready  to  pass  from  one  stage  to  another,  but 
are  slow  to  force  development. 

We  should  think  carefully  before  forcing  the  spirit  of  the  age  of  chiv- 
alry upon  the  children  before  they  are  capable  of  understanding  it ; 
knighthood  is  something  quite  remote  from  the  very  little  child.  Most 
people  who  have  lived  with  growing  children  and  observed  them  closely 
find  that  this  experience  is  best  understood,  because  of  some  inward 
impulse,  when  the  boy  is  ten  or  twelve  years  old.  In  Jane  Andrew's  Ten 
Boys  Who  Lived  on  the  Road  from  Long  Ago  till  JVoW  we.  find  the  story  of 
Gilbert  the  page,  who  will  one  day  become  a  knight.  This  occupies  a 
place  in  the  history  of  the  world's  development,  and  appeals  to  the 
boyish  heart.  I  find  in  a  recent  number  of  the  Outlook  the  experience  of 
a  mother  who,  in  speaking  of  her  boy  of  eleven  years,  says :  "  During 
this  last  year  he  has  been  completely  absorbed  by  the  age  of  chivalry, 
started  there  by  the  tales  of  King  Arthur.  In  his  play  he  and  his  friends 
personate  King  Arthur,  his  knights,  and  Ivanhoe,  and  his  leisure  time, 
when  not  reading,  is  spent  in  whittling  out  javelins,  swords,  and  shields 
from  sticks  and  boards."  May  we  not  leave,  then,  the  stories  of  knightly 
adventure  to  their  proper  place  in  the  child's  development,  and  not  intro- 
duce kindergarten  games  which  will  cause  the  little  children  to  stand 
with  wondering  eyes  while  knightly  exploits  are  enacted  before  them  ? 
The  primitive  life  of  the  Indian,  so  wonderfully  pictured  by  Longfellow 
in  his  Hiawatha,  should  be  given  when  the  children  are  able  to  receive  it 
in  the  beautiful  language  which  has  made  it  classic.  History  stories 
should  be  left  to  the  school,  so  that  the  teacher  may  present  them  with 
some  degree  of  freshness  and  in  relation  to  other  events. 

As  we  look  back  into  our  own  childhood,  we  hold  dear  mother, 
teacher,  or  friend  who  knew  just  when  we  were  ready  to  enter  into  some 
new  experience,  in  our  process  of  maturing ;  those  who  gave  us  the  right 
books  when  we  were  capable  of  understanding  them  and  appropriating 
their  lessons  to  our  lives  ;  those  who  seemed  to  know  just  when  we  were 


Department]  A  MOTHER'S  ADVICE  TO  KINDERGAKTNERS  375 

passing  from  childhood  to  girlhood,  and  from  girlhood  to  young  woman- 
hood. 

In  the  few  minutes  remaining  I  must  speak  briefly  of  the  relation  the 
kindergartner  bears  to  the  parents  of  her  children.  In  seeking  to  know 
the  individual  needs  of  the  children  she  naturally  turns  to  the  home  and 
the  mother  of  each  child.  She  finds  much  to  encourage  and  much  to 
depress  her  as  she  comes  to  know  home  life  and  the  care  the  children 
receive  in  the  home.  The  conditions  are  so  varied  that  she  wonders 
where  she  may  meet  the  mothers  on  common  ground.  Each  mother 
should  be  met  and  cordially  welcomed  to  the  kindergarten,  her  confi- 
dence should  be  won,  her  co-operation  secured.  She  must  feel  that  the 
kindergartner  has  the  welfare  of  her  child  at  heart.  When  this  general 
good-feeling  has  been  established,  the  mothers  may  be  invited  to  meet 
for  social  intercourse  or  for  the  discussion  of  topics  relating  to  the  chil- 
dren. In  order  to  secure  an  unbroken,  harmonious  development  for  the 
child,  home  and  school  must  work  together.  They  must  be  one  in  spirit. 
Colonel  Parker  said,  in  a  recent  address,  that  at  present  "  the  child  lives 
two  lives,  has  two  streams  of  thought,  one  arising  in  the  home,  the  other  in 
the  school.  These  two  streams  should  be  made  one."  Intelligent  mothers 
realize  this,  and  make  every  effort  to  have  the  home  life  harmonize  with 
the  kindergarten.  These  mothers  will  be  deeply  interested  in  the  prin- 
ciples which  underlie  kindergarten  work  and  method.  But  how  are  the 
unintelligent  mothers  who  are  found  in  our  densely  populated  centers 
to  be  reached  ?  To  gain  the  co-operation  of  these  women  demands  wise 
forethought  and  broad  sympathy  with  the  mass  of  humanity.  The  kin- 
dergartner cannot  hold  herself  aloof  in  any  way  as  she  goes  in  and  out 
among  these  people.  They  are  q^uick  to  detect  a  spirit  of  condescension, 
and  they  are  quick  to  respond  to  womanly  courtesy.  As  the  kindergart- 
ner meets  these  mothers  in  weekly  or  monthly  meetings,  her  spirit  should 
be  cordial  and  inspiring.  Beginning  in  a  simple  way,  where  she  finds 
the  mothers,  she  may  lead  them  to  understand  what  she  is  trying  to  do 
for  their  children.  It  is  not  necessary  or  wise  to  attempt  to  teach  unin- 
telligent mothers  the  philosophy  of  the  kindergarten. 

The  wise  kindergartner  will  make  use  of  story,  song,  and  play  to 
bring  these  poor  women  into  loving  sympathy  with  nature.  Let  them 
learn  that  each  day  should  be  received  with  gladness ;  teach  them  to 
enter  with  their  children  into  the  spirit  of  the  passing  seasons  as  they 
come  and  go.  Gradually  these  mothers  may  be  led  from  thoughts  of 
nature  to  the  consideration  of  higher  moral  influences. 

The  kindergartner  should  select  stories  from  good  literature  to  help 
her  in  her  work  with  the  mothers.  I  have  seen  a  group  of  poor  mothers 
greatly  enjoy  Helen  Hunt's  chapter  entitled  "A  Day  with  a  Courteous 
Mother."  In  considering  the  subject  •'  Morning  and  Evening  Hours 
with  the  Children,"  Charles  Dickens'  "Child's  Dream  of  a  Star"  was  a 


376  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Kindergarten 

pleasing  story  for  the  close  of  the  meeting.  When  "  Fruit  "  was  the  topic 
for  discussion,  Bryant's  "  Planting  of  the  Apple  Tree  "  seemed  appro- 
priate.    What  could  appeal  more  to  the  mother's  heart  than  the  lines : 

There  gently  lay  the  roots 

And  there  sift  the  dark  mould. 

With  kindly  care ; 

And  press  it  o'er  them  tenderly, 

As  round  the  sleeping  infant's  feet 

We  softly  fold  the  cradle  sheet. 

Talks  on  the  physical  care  of  children  will  be  helpful  if  given  by  some 
thoughtful,  sympathetic  physician. 

No  set  program  may  be  established  for  the  conduct  of  parents'  meet- 
ings. Each  kindergartner  must  study  her  group  of  mothers  and  suit  the 
work  to  their  needs. 

A  few  days  ago  I  shook  hands  with  a  group  of  mothers  who  had 
accompanied  the  kindergarten  children  to  the  park.  One  of  the  mothers 
heartily  exclaimed  :  "When  anything  is  going  on  at  the  kindergarten  I 
am  always  there  ! "  How  proud  and  happy  the  children  were,  600  of 
them,  with  the  mothers  surrounding  them,  as  they  entered  into  their  play- 
festival  on  the  green  slopes  of  Prospect  Park  !  The  mother  entering  into 
the  work  and  pleasure  of  her  child  becomes  refreshed  and  awakened  to  a 
deeper  sense  of  her  motherly  duties.  The  prayer  in  Froebel's  Mother 
Book,  if  not  on  her  lips,  will  be  in  her  heart  as  she  watches  the  develop- 
ment of  her  child  :  "  God  keep  him  undefiled,  guide  him  whene'er  the 
tempest  rages  wild  !"     She  will  realize  that 

"  She  must  do  her  best, 
If  hopeful  she  would  rest 
Upon  the  Father's  breast." 

To  sum  up  these  words  of  a  kindergarten  mother  to  her  co-workers  : 

1.  Let  me  urge  young  women  to  take  the  kindergarten  training  as  a 
preparation  for  their  womanly  duties. 

2.  When  trained,  realize  that  you  have  entered  upon  a  life-work  which 
should  broaden  with  the  passing  years  and  hamonize  with  the  entire  edu- 
cational course. 

3.  Let  your  spirit  toward  the  child  be  tender,  noble,  womanly,  appre- 
ciative. 

4.  Take  into  your  confidence  and  call  to  your  help  the  parents  of  the 
children  you  are  so  earnestly  trying  to  nurture. 


TH^  NEED  OF  KINDERGARTENS  IN  THE  SOUTH 

PHILANDER  P.  CLAXTON,  PROFESSOR  OF  PEDAGOGY   IN   THE    STATE    NORMAL 
AND    INDUSTRIAL    COLLEGE,    GREENSBORO,    N.  C. 

Less  than  seventy-five  years  ago  Froebel's  institute  at  Keilhau  was  an 
object  of  suspicion  and  of  persecution  by  the  Prussian  government ;  sixty 


DepartmentJ      THE  NEED  OF  KINDERGARTENS  IN  THE  SOUTH  377 

years  ago  his  first  kindergarten,  at  Blankenburg,  was  laughed  at  as  a  vagary 
of  an  old  man  mildly  insane;  forty-eight  years  ago  Froebel  himself  died 
without  having  seen  his  ideas  become  popular,  or  his  great  discovery 
regarded  with  favor  by  either  governments  or  teachers.  But  his  widow, 
who  died  only  recently  at  the  age  of  eighty-five,  lived  to  see  the  principles, 
to  the  development  of  which  her  husband  gave  his  life,  recognized  by 
students  everywhere  as  fundamental  in  all  grades  of  education  ;  the  kin- 
dergarten established  as  a  part  of  the  educational  outfit  of  every  pro- 
gressive country  of  the  world ;  dozens  of  presses  devoted  to  the  publica- 
tion and  dissemination  of  kindergarten  literature;  scores  of  schools  and 
colleges  filled  with  young  women  of  the  best  ability  and  finest  culture, 
receiving  special  professional  preparation  for  their  work  with  the  little 
ones ;  thousands  of  mothers  with  loving  hearts  hearing  gladly  the  words 
of  this  great  constructive  philosopher  and  friend  of  children,  and  striving 
to  apply  his  teachings  in  the  government  of  their  own  households;  phi- 
lanthropists delighting  to  give  a  portion  of  their  wealth  to  found,  equip, 
and  support  kindergarten  schools;  and  the  organization  of  many  societies, 
local,  state,  national,  and  international,  for  the  sole  purpose  of  forward- 
ing this  movement,  which  already  has  brought  blessings  and  happiness  to 
millions  of  children,  and  has  become,  forevermore,  an  essential  factor  in 
the  world's  civilization  and  uplift  into  freedom  and  truth.  All  this  has 
come  about  in  these  few  years  without  the  force  of  arms,  or  the  power  of 
wealth,  or  high  political  or  social  standing.  Such  is  the  potency  of  truth, 
love,  and  simple  faith  in  humanity.  Truly,  those  who  trust  in  these  have 
laid  hold  on  eternal  life.  The  meek  do  inherit  the  earth,  and  the  pure  in 
heart  see  God. 

Such  has  been  the  rapid  growth  and  spread  of  the  kindergarten  move- 
ment. But  because  of  our  lack  of  large  cities  in  the  South,  the  late 
development  of  our  public-school  systems,  and  certain  peculiar  social 
conditions  and  ideals,  kindergartens  have  not  become  established  in  the 
southern  states  as  they  have  in  some  other  parts  of  the  world.  In  a  dozen 
or  more  of  our  large  cities,  and  in  a  few  smaller  cities  and  towns,  the 
kindergarten  seems  now  to  be  well  established,  supported  either  by  public 
taxation,  as  a  part  of  the  public-school  system,  or  by  voluntary  contribu- 
tions collected  and  administered  by  societies  formed  and  incorporated 
for  this  purpose.  In  other  places  spasmodic  efforts  have  been  made  from 
time  to  time  by  volunteer  societies,  churches,  clubs,  and  enthusiastic  indi- 
viduals to  establish  real  kindergartens,  but  only  with  the  usual  success  of 
such  efforts.  In  a  few  places  there  have  been  excellent  private  kinder- 
gartens established  as  individual  enterprises,  charging  a  fixed  amount  for 
tuition.  In  many  others  the  very  name  has  been  brought  into  disrepute, 
and  made  a  synonym  for  inefficiency  and  charlatanry  by  so-called  "  kin- 
dergarten schools"  taught  by  those  who,  knowing  nothing  of  the  prin- 
ciples of  the  kindergarten  and  little  of  the  practice,  and  who,  frequently 


378  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Kindergarten 

being  unable  to  obtain  a  license  to  teach  in  any  grade  of  the  public  ele- 
mentary schools,  have  resorted  to  this  as  a  means  of  a  livelihood  by  mak- 
ing capital  of  the  name.  I  know  at  least  one  community  in  which  small 
private  schools  of  primary  grade,  differing  but  little  from  other  inefficient 
schools  of  this  kind,  are  dignified  by  the  name  of  kindergarten,  because 
the  society  young  women  who  found  it  necessary  to  make  their  daily 
bread  in  this  way  prefer  to  be  called  kindergartners  rather  than  school- 
teachers. 

That  which  one  finds  in  New  Orleans  and  Louisiana  may,  I  think,  be 
taken  as  a  type  of  the  best  progress  yet  made  in  the  South,  and  as  pro- 
phetic of  what  we  may  expect  to  find  in  most  southern  cities  and  states 
before  the  close  of  another  fifty  years.  The  constitution  of  Louisiana 
has  been  so  amended  as  "to  permit  any  community  desiring  to  establish 
a  public  kindergarten  to  admit  children  to  said  department  between  the 
ages  of  four  and  six,"  and  this  recognition  in  the  fundamental  law  has,  it 
is  said,  greatly  encouraged  the  friends  of  the  kindergarten  in  that  state. 
The  school  board  of  New  Orleans  has  established  a  dozen  or  more  public 
kindergartens,  and  for  some  years  it  has  not  established  a  new  school 
without  a  kindergarten  department.  It  has  also  maintained  for  some 
years  a  kindergarten  training  department  in  the  city  normal  school.  The 
board  and  teachers  of  that  city  "have  accepted  the  kindergarten  as  the 
foundation  of"  their  educational  system.  Of  the  excellent  work  done  in 
Charleston  you  have  already  heard. 

The  kindergarten  is  needed  in  the  South,  as  everywhere  else,  because 
it  is  based  on  true  principles  and  presents  the  best  educational  practice; 
and  the  time  has  come  when  we  must  claim  the  best  for  ourselves  and 
our  children,  and  must  no  longer  be  content  with  less. 

We  need  the  kindergarten  in  the  South  because  of  the  power  it  has  to 
stimulate  the  interest  of  parents  in  all  phases  of  the  education  of  their 
children,  and  to  awaken  them  to  a  sense  of  their  duty  to  know  something 
of  the  schools  in  which  their  children  spend  a  good  part  of  the  most 
impressionable  years  of  their  lives,  and  of  the  teachers  who  direct  their 
thoughts  and  form  their  habits.  Where  the  kindergarten  has  become  an 
integral  part  of  the  public-school  system,  bands  of  women  —  mothers  and 
older  sisters  —  have  soon  been  formed  to  co-operate  with  the  teachers  and 
school  officers  in  beautifying,  cleaning,  and  making  comfortable  and 
attractive  the  schoolrooms  and  grounds.  Following  the  babies  with  a 
tenderer  solicitude  than  that  with  which  they  have  been  accustomed  to 
follow  the  older  children,  their  interest  soon  extends  upward  to  all  grades 
of  the  school.  Putting  the  kindergarten  classes  in  the  public  school  at 
once  adds  the  mother  element,  and  tends  to  unite  the  home  and  the 
school.  ♦ 

Nor  is  the  result  less  valuable,  tho  somewhat  different  in  kind,  where 
the  kindergartens  are  supported  by  volunteer  societies.     The  very  fact 


Department]       THE  MEED  OF  KINDERGARTENS  IN  tSe  SOUTH  379 

of  laboring  earnestly  and  constantly  for  the  support  of  these  schools, 
visiting  the  homes  of  the  children  of  kindergarten  age  —  many  of  them 
destitute  enough  of  every  home  comfort,  of  love,  and  of  physical  and 
spiritual  health  —  and  having  to  take  thought  for  the  general  plan  and 
conduct  of  the  work  in  the  schoolroom,  is  an  educating  influence  of  no 
mean  value  to  the  members  of  any  such  society  and  to  the  community  in 
which  they  work.  These  things  give  real  occupation  for  time  that  would 
otherwise  be  spent  frivolously,  and  a  purpose  in  life  to  those  too  often 
without  purpose.  Labor  for  and  with  children  can  never  fail  to  bring 
with  it  nobler  purpose  and  sweeter  culture.  Nor  can  one  become  inter- 
ested in  any  one  means  of  welfare  to  the  children  of  a  community  with- 
out becoming  interested,  to  some  extent  at  least,  in  every  other  means  to 
the  same^end ;  and  the  interest  will  spread  to  the  community  as  a  whole. 
Here  also  "a  little  child  shall  lead  them." 

We  need  the  kindergarten  in  the  South  to  give  us  —  teachers,  parents, 
and  school  officers  — a  truer  insight  into  the  real  nature  and  meaning  of 
education,  and  a  juster  appreciation  of  its  worth.  Too  long  have  the 
school  and  its  work  been  thought  of  as  something  apart  from  the  real 
life  of  the  child  and  the  home.  For  this  reason,  chiefly,  have  we 
regarded  school  education  as  of  secondary  importance,  and  the  teacher 
of  the  elementary  school  as  worthy  of  little  esteem,  and  consequently 
have  been  unwilling  to  provide  sufficient  funds  for  the  equipment  and 
support  of  our  schools.  We  need  to  see  the  connection  between  the 
school  and  the  home,  to  understand  that  the  school  life  is  an  integral 
part  of  all  life  and  the  work  done  there  the  prime  factor  in  future  suc- 
cess, and  that  the  school  is  the  best-paying  stock  in  which  we  can  invest 
our  money.  Our  teachers  need  to  see  more  clearly  the  connection 
between  the  school  life  and  the  home  life  of  the  child,  and  to  realize 
that  the  one  must  build  on  the  other. 

I  have  known  the  entire  school  system  of  a  city  to  be  reformed  and 
vitalized  thru  the  influence  of  kindergartens  supported  by  a  kindergarten 
association,  but  not  connected  with  the  schools,  except  that  the  superin- 
tendent and  some  of  the  teachers  of  the  school  were  active  members  of 
the  association.  The  influence  was  first  felt  in  the  primary  grades  and 
gradually  worked  up  to  the  high  school.  Before  the  kindergarten  had 
been  in  operation  three  years,  some  of  the  kindergartners  were  meeting 
with  the  teachers  in  their  regular  weekly  meetings,  and  the  teachers  w6re 
studying  Froebel's  Education  of  Man.  A  little  later  some  of  the  teachers 
were  attending  the  lectures  given  in  the  kindergarten  training  school 
that  had  been  established  in  the  city.  By  being  brought  into  the  kin- 
dergarten, and  hearing  the  happy  voices  of  the  children,  and  seeing  their 
busy  work  and  merry  games,  men  who  had  opposed  the  establishment  of 
the  public  schools  and  did  not  believe  in  the  education  of  the  masses 
were  converted  from  the  error  of  their  ways  and  to  a  better  faith.     The 


i&O  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Kindergarten 

mothers'  meeting  of  the  kindergartens  later  developed  into  a  paidology 
club,  and  still  later  into  a  teachers'  and  parents'  association,  with  meet- 
ings in  the  school  buildings  at  stated  times  for  the  discussion  of  topics 
of  common  interest  to  parents  and  teachers.  Those  schools  are  now  the 
best-equipped  schools  in  the  state  in  which  they  are,  and  the  walls  and 
halls  of  the  buildings  are  ornamented  with  pictures  and  statuary  of  the 
best  kind  to  a  greater  extent  than  can  be  found  elsewhere  in  the  state. 
The  school  board  of  that  city  is  now  considering  the  question  of  adopt- 
ing the  four  kindergartens  which  have  been  supported  for  eleven  years  by 
voluntary  contributions  collected  and  administered  by  a  society  organized 
and  incorporated  for  that  purpose.  The  kindergartens  have  made  their 
worth  manifest,  and  have  won  their  way  to  the  hearts  of  the  people. 

We  need  the  kindergarten  to  add  its  years  to  the  school  life  of  our 
children  —  all  too  short  everywhere  in  the  South  except  for  the  favored 
and  persistent  few.  Even  in  our  best  towns  and  cities  the  schools  are 
from  twenty  to  forty  days  shorter  than  in  other  parts  of  the  country,  and 
the  majority  of  our  children  do  not  reach  the  fifth  school  year.  Our 
people  still  believe  it  is  necessary  to  take  their  children  away  from  school 
early,  that  they  may  join  in  the  struggle  of  bread-winning,  or,  as  is  too 
often  the  case,  bear  the  whole  burde'n,  while  the  father  whittles  goods- 
boxes  and  talks  politics  of  a  type  long  out  of  date. 

I  would  not  have  these  years  given  to  the  ordinary  work  of  the  primary 
school,  as  is  commonly  done  in  England ;  they  should  be  filled  with 
legitimate  kindergarten  work,  the  joyous  play  and  the  exercises  that 
develop  the  senses,  the  mind,  the  soul,  forming  the  characters  of  the  chil- 
dren and,  by  enabling  them  to  live  most  fully  the  real  child-life  of  these 
years,  preparing  them  best  for  all  future  life,  whether  in  school  or  out. 
Thus  not  only  might  these  years  be  added  to  the  brief  years  of  the 
child's  school  life,  but  the  years  of  school  life  might  be  made  to  yield 
fuller  results  than  they  now  yield. 

If  all  homes  were  ideal,  still  the  broader  social  life  for  which  Froebel 
pleaded  for  the  children  would  need  to  be  supplied  by  the  kindergarten. 
But,  alas,  they  are  not  all  ideal.  In  many,  grinding  poverty  and  tradi- 
tional ignorance  have  done  their  work  all  too  perfectly.  In  many  there 
is  want  of  intelligent  mother-love.  Harshness  takes  the  place  of  gentle- 
ness, filth  and  negligence  of  cleanliness  and  loving  care,  profanity 
and  vice  of  the  pure  speech  and  simple  virtues  that  should  greet  the  ear 
and  appeal  to  the  heart  of  every  child.  For  many  children  the  home  is 
on  the  street.  In  many  homes  of  wealth  and  refinement  the  negro  nurse 
is  the  child's  most  constant  companion.  This  does  not  mean  what  it 
did  when  the  old  black  "mammy,"  true  and  tried,  cultured  and  refined 
by  years  of  the  most  intimate  association  with  her  mistress  and  the  mother 
of  her  mistress,  and  mellowed  into  the  finest  sympathy  by  the  care  of 
more  than   one  generation  of  children,  cared   for  the  children  with  a 


Department]       THE  NEED  OF  KINDERGARTENS  IN  THE  SOUTH  381 

mother's  love  and  devotion,  and  the  watchfulness  developed  by  family 
pride  and  a  strong  sense  of  personal  responsibility.  She  has  gone  with 
the  days  that  are  no  more,  and  her  successor,  a  half-grown  negro  girl, 
hired  for  a  few  weeks  or  months  at  most  and  then  replaced  by  another 
of  whom  you  have  probably  never  heard  before,  is  of  a  different  type. 
The  cultured  and  refined  white  woman,  with  her  mother-heart  and  patient 
care  in  the  kindergarten,  certainly  might  well  replace  this  negro  nurse. 
Shall  we  of  the  South  never  learn  this  lesson  ? 

But  we  need  the  kindergarten  most  especially  for  another  reason. 
The  southern  states  are  rapidly  becoming  the  home  of  the  factory.  We 
are  beginning  to  see  that  we  should  manufacture  a  portion  at  least  of  our 
abundant  raw  material.  We  shall  soon  cease  to  be  hewers  of  wood  and 
drawers  of  water  for  the  wealthy  manufacturing  communities  of  the 
North.  Already  the  cotton  factory  is  a  familiar  sight  in  the  Carolinas 
and  Georgia.  The  country  people  are  moving  into  the  factory  towns 
from  their  country  homes  with  their  large  families  of  children.  Is  it 
needful  that  I  should  depict  for  you  this  factory  town  and  its  life  ?  The 
large  brick  factory  building,  with  its  long  rows  of  humming  spindles  and 
rattling  looms,  at  which  men,  women,  and  children  work  twelve  hours  a 
day  —  I  have  seen  boys  and  girls  under  ten  working  thru  the  night,  from 
six  to  six,  drinking  their  cup  of  black  coffee  at  midnight  to  keep  them 
awake  till  dawn ;  the  groups  and  rows  of  houses  without  beauty  of 
architecture,  and  with  no  relief  of  lawn,  garden,  or  fruit  trees ;  no  public 
library;  an  ungraded  public  school,  taught  from  three  to  eight  months 
by  an  incompetent  teacher,  in  a  house  unfit  for  such  use,  and  only  one- 
fourth  of  the  children  of  school  age  in  attendance  ;  the  young  children 
with  pale  faces  and  unkempt  locks  playing  in  the  street  thru  the  long 
hours  of  the  day,  while  their  mothers  and  older  brothers  and  sisters  are 
in  the  mills  with  only  forty  minutes  for  dinner — a  time  too  short  to  per- 
mit more  than  a  hasty  glance  and  a  few  sharp  words  of  command  for  the 
little  ones — the  picture  is  becoming  familiar  to  us  all.  I  welcome  the 
cotton  mill,  with  every  other  form  of  industry  that  shall  bring  wealth,  and 
its  power  and  possibilities,  to  our  people,  but  the  blood  of  the  children 
must  not  be  woven  into  the  web,  dyeing  it  a  crimson  hue ;  nor  must 
their  cry  continue  to  go  up  to  the  Father,  in  whose  sight  the  soul  of  one 
of  these  little  ones  is  of  more  value  than  all  the  trade  of  the  Philippines. 
If  so,  his  curse  will  blight  our  enterprise. 

In  the  factory  town,  above  all  places  in  our  southland,  is  the  kinder- 
garten needed  with  its  strong  saving  influences,  mighty  to  build  against  the 
evils  of  later  life.  I  think  these  children  would,  above  all  others,  move  the 
heart  of  the  great  father  of  the  kindergarten  —  great  in  heart  as  in  mind. 
And  the  kindergartner  in  this  town  should  be  more  than  she  need  be, 
or  can  be,  in  most  other  communities.  She  must  be  an  angel  of  light 
*  and  hope  to  the  community ;  she  must  take  hold  on  the  entire  life  of  the 


382  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Kindergarten 

town.  What  an  opportunity  for  the  school  garden,  tended  and  cared  for 
by  the  loving  hands  of  the  children  —  such  as  Froebel  would  have  had  as 
a  part  of  his  child-garden.  For  flowers  will  bloom  all  the  year  round  in 
this  climate.  Here  the  kindergartner  might  bring  around  her  the  older 
children  who  can  be  saved  from  the  factory  a  few  hours  in  the  week, 
directing  them  in  this  simple  garden  culture.  How  many  bright  spots 
might  thus  be  added  to  the  town ;  and  how  many  happy  faces  and  rosy 
cheeks ! 

If  the  kindergartner  in  this  town  should  be  a  woman  of  broad  mind, 
strong  will,  and  winning  manners,  it  would  be  possible  for  her  to  induce 
superintendents  and  directors  to  do  many  things  for  the  welfare  of  the 
community.  For  these  men  are  not  hard  of  heart  nor  careless  of  the 
welfare  of  their  employes.  Few  of  them  love  gold  more  than  life.  Sup- 
pose the  kindergartner  knew  of  the  work  of  the  National  Cash  Register 
people  at  Dayton,  O.,  as  described  in  the  Kindergarten  Magazine  for  Feb- 
ruary of  1899!  I  know  more  than  one  cotton -mill  owner  who  would 
gladly  respond  to  any  suggestions  looking  to  like  results  for  his  people 
and  his  business.  If  you  know  men  and  women  who,  having  an  abun- 
dance of  this  world's  goods,  would  like  to  lay  up  treasure  in  heaven  and 
make  their  name  dear  to  the  children  of  the  poor,  that  they  may,  in  the 
last  day,  rise  up  and  call  them  blessed,  direct  them  to  me,  and  I  will 
point  out  the  opportunity  in  any  one  of  fifty  or  more  mill  towns  in  North 
Carolina. 

One  other  cause  of  need  I  would  not  forget :  the  millions  of  children 
of  the  dusky  race  whose  home  is  among  us.  The  education  of  a  race 
from  a  lower  to  a  higher  stage  of  life  is  no  easy  task,  to  be  completed  in 
a  few  years  or  decades ;  but  the  thing  we  call  the  "  race  problem  "  is  ours 
by  inheritance,  and  it  must  ever  remain  our  first  question  until  it  is  solved 
with  the  only  possible  solution  —  the  education  of  the  negro  to  indus- 
try, thrift,  morality,  and  good  citizenship.  The  restraining  force  of  the 
master's  word  and  presence,  and  the  educating  influence  of  the  fine  Chris- 
tian character  of  the  .mistress,  are  gone,  as  is  the  wholesome  fear  of  the 
overseer's  lash  for  every  flagrant  breach  of  the  moral  code.  Separation, 
the  chain-gang,  the  gallows,  and  the  stake  have  taken  their  place,  to  the 
detriment  of  all.  Education  must  produce  in  the  negro  habits,  ideals, 
and  a  conscience  strong  enough,  high  enough,  and  keen  enough  to  take 
the  place  of  the  inspiring  and  restraining  influences  of  the  old  regime. 

Those  who  know  the  negro  best  know  that  he  does  respond  to  the 
influences  of  right  education.  If  his  education  is  to  have  this  trans- 
forming influence,  should  it  not  be  begun  in  early  childhood  ?  And  what 
type  of  school  is  better  fitted  for  this  purpose  than  the  kindergarten  ? 
Who  are  better  prepared  for  it  than  our  southern  women,  who  understand 
the  problem  better  than  any  others  can  ?  A  heavy  burden,  you  will  say ;  but 
a  very  large  portion  of  the  "white  man's  burden"  must  be  borne  by  us 


Department  J  THE  KINDERGARTEN  GIFTS  383 

in  the  South,  and  the  only  release  from  it  must  come  thru  giving  the 
colored  man  the  power  to  walk  alone,  and,  perchance,  to  bear  some  part 
of  the  common  burden.  The  little  negro  is  at  least  imitative.  Which 
school  will  most  probably  lead  him  in  the  paths  in  which  he  should  walk 
—  for  his  good  and  ours  —  the  school  of  idleness  on  the  streets,  among 
the  dirt  and  filth  of  the  negro  quarters  of  our  towns  and  cities,  or  the 
kindergarten  with  a  woman  of  culture  and  consecration  as  teacher  ?  I 
like  the  plan  which,  I  believe,  you  still  follow  in  this  city  — that  of  filling 
your  colored  schools  with  white  teachers  of  the  same  grade  and  qualifica- 
tions as  those  in  the  schools  for  white  children. 

"But  the  kindergarten  costs  money,"  I  think  I  hear  someone  say  ;  "we 
cannot  afford  it."  We  can  afford  it,  and  all  other  educational  facilities 
necessary  for  the  full  education  of  our  people.  Cannot  a  brave  and 
noble  people,  industrious  and  economical,  make  from  the  right  use  of  the 
fertile  fields,  broad  forests,  rich  mines,  and  the  hundreds  of  singing  water- 
falls of  this  vast  empire,  won  for  us  by  our  fathers,  the  few  raillians  neces- 
sary to  fit  our  children  for  all  that  is  best  in  life  ?  We  must  do  it ;  it  is 
our  first  duty  to  our  children,  for  whom  alone  we  live,  and  in  and  thru 
whom  we  must  live  after  we  are  dead.  The  wealth  we  have  is  theirs  — 
beyond  that  which  we  must  consume  in  the  needs  of  our  daily  life.  Sooner 
or  later  we  must  leave  it  to  them ;  we  are  only  their  stewards  and  guard- 
ians. Shall  we  invest  their  money  for  them  in  bonds  or  brains,  in 
lands  or  life  ?  Shall  we  leave  them  money,  or  skill  to  produce  money 
and  more  than  money  ? 

When  we  have  done  our  full  duty  by  providing  for  our  children  kin- 
dergartens and  schools  of  all  grades  and  kinds,  when  the  forgotten  child 
is  remembered  and  the  "last  waif"  has  been  housed  and  redeemed,  then 
shall  we  enter  fully  into  our  rightful  heritage,  and  wealth  and  honor  and 
power  shall  be  ours  beyond  what  we  can  now  comprehend.  And  when 
these  things  have  come  to  us  or  to  our  children,  we  or  they  will  see  that 
the  little  child  has  led  us ;  and  the  name  of  the  kindergartner  and  of 
the  faithful  teacher  of  children  shall  be  named  with  love  and  reverence, 
and  with  the  honor  that  is  theirs  by  right  of  noble  and  valuable  service. 


THE  KINDERGARTEN  GIFTS 
A  FRAGMENT 

MISS   HARRIET  NIEL,  DIRECTOR    OF   THE    PHEBE    A.   HEARST    KINDERGARTEN 
TRAINING    SCHOOL,    WASHINGTON,    D.  C. 

"The  latest  gospel  of  this  world  is,  'Know  thy  work  and  do  it.'" 

"  Man  is  blessed  with  struggle  and  labor  and  God-endowed  with  capacity  to  win." 

It  has  become,  in  our  kindergarten  parlance,  a  truism  that  we  learn  by 
doing.     We  need  to  remind  ourselves  that  we  learn,  too,  by  intuition, 


384  MATtOMAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [kindetgarten 

hope,  and  fear ;  by  failure,  faith,  and  love.  We  need  the  critic  to  remind 
us  that  we  learn  by  questioning  and  by  seeing. 

One  of  the  vital  educators  of  our  day  has  pointed  out  that  "  imagi- 
nation and  feeling  increasingly  bear  the  brunt  of  shaping  human  opinion 
and  human  conduct.  Intelligence  does  its  organizing  work  and  then  dis- 
appears below  the  surface."  Another  has  diagnosed  our  spiritual  condi- 
tion as  threatened  with  loss  of  power  to  reflect. 

Life  presses  upon  us  from  so  many  points  of  interest  that  we  are 
stung  as  by  gadflies,  and  either  rush  about  swayed  by  every  wind  of  doc- 
trine, or  languish  in  a  torpor  which  is  equally  fatal  to  spiritual  wholeness. 
Unreasoning  conservatism,  listlessness,  and  the  strong  power  of  habit  bind 
us  to  the  old;  rashness  and  "mad  endeavor"  drive  us  to  the  new;  and 
there  is  no  hope  for  our  declining  health  save  as  we  restore  and  nourish 
our  dormant  power  to  reinterpret  those  "truths  which  wake  to  perish 
never." 

Froebel  declares  the  purpose  of  the  kindergarten  gifts  to  be  to  satisfy, 
"not  only  the  needs  of  childhood,  but  of  youth,  of  educator  and  pupil." 
Their  aim  is  "human  cultivation,"  both  as  individual  and  as  social  whole, 
"  as  member  of  a  family,  of  a  nation,  of  humanity." 

Again,  their  aim  is  "to  foster  independent  action,"  "and  the  antici- 
pation, recognition,  and  finally  the  comprehension  of  the  inner  coherence 
of  material  things,  and  of  the  phenomena  of  life,  and  also  of  the  oneness 
of  material  and  spiritual  worlds  and  of  the  increasing  similarity  of  their 
laws."  Furthermore,  he  claims  that  his  instrumentalities  "will  especially 
state  the  clearly  formed  truths  of  nature  and  life  obviously  contained 
therein,  for  the  purpose  of  self-discovery,  self-observation,  self-develop- 
ment." Nor  is  there  omitted  the  express  statement  that  they  contemplate 
"satisfying  the  needs  and  requirements  of  the  present  stage  of  human 
development." 

"Here  will  be  presented,"  says  Froebel,  "in  conformity  with  each  line 
of  culture,  comprehensive  summaries  of  all  parts  which  belong  together, 
and  of  the  relatively  higher  unities  and  the  highest  unity  of  all  these 
parts.  The  purpose  of  these  summaries  is  that  the  human  being  may  be 
led  from  the  visible  and  external  to  the  invisible  and  internal,  from  appear- 
ance to  true  being,  and  thus,  led  into  himself,  may  also  be  led  to  God. 
Thus  man  may  clearly  be  shown  to  man  in  his  nature,  in  his  unfolding, 
and  in  his  relation  to  totality,  ....  and  so  may  come  to  man  in  all  the 
relations  of  life,  unity,  clearness,  ....  insight,  and  therefore  joyousness, 
peace,  and  freedom."  Truly  these  are  claims  of  a  man  not  afraid  to 
"  hitch  his  wagon  to  a  star." 

Our  practice  with  the  gifts  emphasizes  the  fact  that  nature  and  man's 
work  show  a  preference  for  certain  fixed  forms,  as  spheres,  cubes,  and 
cylinders ;  and  we  proceed  to  induce  children  to  repeat  such  sentences  as  : 
"Apples  are  round  like  the  sphere;"  "Tree  trunks  are  round  like  the 


Department] 


THE  KINDERGARTEN  GIFTS  3^5 


cylinder  ;"  "  Bureaus  and  houses  are  flat  like  the  cube  ;  "  etc.  We  count 
faces,  corners,  and  edges,  and  vainly  fancy  we  are  giving  the  child  a 
sufficient  clue  to  nature  ;  but  if  we  stop  on  the  plane  of  thought  which 
these  examples  indicate,  are  we  giving  the  child  in  the  kindergarten  or 
the  student  in  the  training  class  any  intimation  of  one  of  the  greatest 
truths  declared  in  our  own  day  —  of  nature  as  a  colossal  process  of 
becoming  ? 

The  type  aspect  of  the  gifts,  as  crudely  conceived,  shows  nature  only 
as  a  collection  of  fixed  forms.  But  the  truth  about  nature  is  that  she  is 
not  static,  a  congeries  of  forms  and  colors  and  magnitudes,  but  that  a 
persistent  energy  is  working  back  of  appearance,  producing  all  phe- 
nomena. 

The  truth  about  Froebel's  gifts,  as  interpreters  of  nature,  is  not  alone 
that  as  types  they  stand  for  particular  things  or  classes  of  things,  but 
that  they  furthermore  intimate,  thru  their  succession,  nature's  ascending 
manifestations.  A  new  exploiting  of  Froebel's  second  gift  has  revealed 
its  possibility  of  bringing  to  the  experience  of  little  children  illustrations 
of  this  evolutionary  characteristic  of  nature.  May  I  briefly  illustrate  by 
the  twirling  exercises  and  the  cuttings  suggested  by  Froebel  for  the 
extended  second  gift  ? 

1.  Cut  a  sphere  by  its  three  dimensions,  producing  the  forerunner  of 
the  cube.  This  produces  the  cube  in  static  form  by  getting  to  the  center 
of  the  sphere  itself ;  in  other  words,  the  sphere  contains  potentially  its 
own  opposite. 

2.  By  twirling  the  cube  thus  produced,  that  is,  by  revolving  it  on  one 
of  its  three  axes,  is  revealed  the  shadowy  form  of  its  antecedent,  the  round  ; 
and  also  supplied,  by  the  different  velocities  at  which  it  moves,  a  great 
many  shadowy  forms  intermediate  between  these  extremes.  The  child 
can  behold  the  merging  of  one  form  into  another,  and  the  final  restora- 
tion of  the  original  cube  when  the  motion  ceases.  Such  exercises  call 
upon  him  "to  make  a  distinction  between  the  thing  or  being  and  its 
appearance,  and  thus  to  protect  himself  from  deception." 

3.  Froebel's  fourteen  forms,  which  crystallize  the  passing  ones  hinted 
at  by  twirling  the  cube. 

4.  Miscellaneous  forms,  with  illustrations  how  we  have  used  them  this 
year. 

5.  Three  circles  at  right  angles ;  structure  of  sphere ;  looking  thru 
and  seeing  its  inner  workings. 

6.  Nested  balls,  cubes,  and  cylinders,  which  bring  to  the  child's 
experience  the  fact  that  the  essential  thing  in  these  forms  is  not  depend- 
ent upon  the  accident  of  size. 

All  these  and  similar  exercises  are  an  approach  to  the  grasp,  not  of 
form  alone,  as  our  practice  too  frequently  distorts  the  intention,  but  of 
the  evolutionary  process  of  "formation." 


386  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Kindergartett 

What  interests  the  child  in  these  twirling  and  subdividing  exercises, 
as  well  as  in  the  jointed  slats  and  thread  games,  is  just  this  transforma- 
tion taking  place  before  his  very  eyes  and  at  his  own  command.  One  of 
the  deepest  mysteries  of  our  unfathomed  nature  is  that  we  persist  thru 
all  our  varying  caprices,  moods,  and  tenses.  This  may  account  funda- 
mentally for  our  delight  in  the  discovery  of  an  old  friend  under  new  and 
unexpected  changes.  You  remember  the  delight  of  Emerson's  boy 
when  he  discovered  that  his  knife,  which  he  had  supposed  to  be  good 
mainly  for  whittling,  suddenly  took  to  attracting  steel  filings.  You 
remember  the  astonishing  new  manifestations  Pegotty  displayed  under 
affliction,  while  she  yet  remained  Pegotty. 

Critics  of  Froebel's  school  of  drawing  fail  to  discover  that  in  this 
occupation  he  is  trying  to  show  how  the  simple  element  —  one  straight 
line  —  multiplied  and  varied  in  the  two  predicates  of  length  and  inclina- 
tion, will  afford  illustration  of  a  complex  and  varied  whole  resulting 
from  this  simplest  element,  and  how  from  this  simple  line  itself  points 
are  offered  in  common  with  a  curved  line,  its  own  opposite.  Recall  the 
cobweb  figure  of  the  drawing.  "  All  that  is  great,"  says  Froebel,  "  if  one 
traces  it  back  to  its  germ  and  the  first  intimation  of  it,  begins,  almost 
always,  with  what  is  quite  insignificant,  and  the  manifold  goes  forth 
from  the  simple,  indeed  the  heavenly  from  the  earthly,  just  because  the 
latter  contains  the  heavenly  in  itself.  I  always  think  of  this  when  my 
boy  in  the  company  of  his  playmates  cuts  his  reed  flute  in  the  spring, 
and  when  I  go  into  the  church  and  hear  a  Thuringian  chorister  playing 
onthe  organ,  with  its  'vox  humana^  stop,  the  introduction  to  an  '  Allein 
Gott:  " 

A  little  boy  of  whom  I  heard  the  other  day  put  the  same  thing  into 
words  when  he  said  in  answer  to  the  question,  "Who  made  you  ?"  "God 
made  me  about  so  big,  and  I  growed  the  rest  of  the  way." 

We  have  kept  our  experiences  and  exercises  with  children  too  fixed, 
and  so  have  given  a  bias  toward  a  one-sided  view  of  even  nature.  We 
have  not  built  enough  on,  or  thought  enough  on,  or  planned  exer- 
cises enough  on,  the  interesting  and  suggestive  twirlings,  analyses,  and 
reconstructions  of  the  total  second  gift,  which  projects  the  whole  tour  of 
the  gifts. 

We  have  not  ourselves  understood  what  Froebel  means  by  a  simple 
and  a  complex  unity  as  related  to  the  sphere  and  back  to  the  sphere 
itself  again.  We  conceive  the  simple  unity  to  be  epitomized  in  the  first 
gift,  the  complex  unity  in  the  sixth  or  some  succeeding  gift.  "  I  place 
great  value  on  everything,"  says  Froebel,  "  in  which  manifoldness  devel- 
ops from  unity  thru  contrast  and  again  returns  to  unity." 

Froebel  meant  the  child  in  the  nursery  and  early  kindergarten  experi- 
ence to  have  the  ball  given  him;  that  he  should  freely  play  with  it  as 
he  needs  no  urging  to  do;    that  in  his  play  he  should  get  clearer  and 


DepartmentJ  THE  KINDERGARTEN  GIFTS  387 

clearer  perceptions  of  its  representative  character  —  hopping  like  a  bird, 
etc. —  and  of  its  movement  in  typical  directions  —  up,  down,  right  and  left, 
around  and  around,  and  then  round  its  own  axis  ;  but  that  these  directions 
which  the  ball  travels  on  an  outward  track,  so  to  speak,  shall  be  discov- 
ered in  the  ball  itself,  as  I  tried  to  show  a  few  moments  ago  in  the 
divided  sphere. 

The  child's  desire  to  get  to  the  heart  of  things  is  not  restricted  to  the 
third  gift,  but  is  carried  back  to  his  first  plaything  as  well,  and  either 
in  the  kindergarten  or  in  the  connecting  class  the  ball  which  he  received 
primarily  as  a  free  gift  he  shall  possess  ultimately  by  conquest.  Finally 
the  child  is  to  make  in  clay  or  cardboard  these  same  gifts. 

It  is  told  of  Xerxes  that  he  refused  to  eat  Attic  figs  until  he  had  con- 
quered the  country  which  produced  them,  and,  while  our  own  infirmities 
would  press  too  heavily  upon  us,  if  we  could  enjoy  only  what  we  have 
conquered,  with  no  room  for  free  acts  of  grace  from  others,  the  tendencies 
of  our  time,  with  its  richness  of  opportunity,  are  to  make  the  individual 
an  unquestioning,  and  maybe  an  unappreciative,  recipient.  Certainly  the 
poet's  admonition, 

What  from  thy  father's  heritage  is  lent, 
Earn  it  anew,  really  to  possess  it, 

is  not  enough  borne  in  upon  us. 

Children  should  have  repeated  experiences  of  making  inside  out- 
side, turning  pockets  inside  out,  cutting  apples  and  oranges,  etc., 
and  discovering  the  formation  there.  Froebel  points  out  that  the 
botanist  must  get  to  the  heart  of  his  tree  or  flower,  to  approach  its 
deepest  secret ;  and  that  the  hammer  of  the  geologist  is  indispensable 
to  his  study. 

But  this  aspect  of  the  gifts,  as  offering  means  for  the  interpretation 
of  nature,  is  not  the  only  one  in  the  plan  of  their  projector.  Froetlel 
marshals  his  forces  around  that  nature  which  education  contemplates, 
human  nature,  the  nature  of  mind.  Says  Froebel:  "This  consideration 
of  the  outside  world  leads  in  a  very  remarkable  way  (which  has  not  yet 
been  completed  and  carried  thru  in  the  education  of  human  beings)  into 
the  linking  together  of  the  activities  and  vocations  of  man,  and  even  into 
the  history  of  human  development."  The  whole  world  is  a  spectacle  of 
disrobing,  of  lowly  things  laying  off  their  lowliness,  throwing  off  the  "gar- 
ment of  life,  which  divinity  wears." 

Froebel  in  one  place  declares  the  goal  of  his  instrumentalities  to 
be  "self-discovery,  self-cultivation,  self-determination,  clearness,  insight, 
peace,  and  freedom ;  "  bestowed  as  dower  by  the  institutions  of  men, 
and  won  as  possessions  by  individual  man.  Is  his  claim  too  much  ? 
Has  he  aimed  higher  than  his  arrow  struck  ?  Are  our  sympathies  with 
the  cat  or  with  the  bird  in  Dr.  Raymond's  clever  little  poem,  "Felis 
Agnostica"  ? 


388  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Kindergarten 

Said  the  cat  to  the  bird  : 
"  Those  things  on  your  back  are  absurd. 

Why  don't  you  cast  them  free 

And  walk  about  like  me  ?  " 

Said  the  bird  to  the  cat : 
"  Don't  be  so  sure  of  that. 

You  would  more  wisely  not 

Despise  what  you  haven't  got. 
Those  things 
Are  wings. 

"  I  know  what  legs  are  worth 
To  walk  upon  the  earth. 
And  I,  whenever  I  choose, 
My  legs  like  you  can  use. 
We  both  tread  earth,  but  I, 
Whenever  I  choose  to  fly. 
Command  both  earth  and  sky." 
Then  away  the  bird  flew 
And  the  cat  cried  :  "  Mew, 
How  do  I  know  it's  true  ?  " 

That's  always  the  way  I  find 
With  folks  of  a  fanciful  mind. 
If  you  try  to  set  them  right, 
They  defy  your  logic  quite. 
And  go  somewhere  out  of  sight. 
Now  what  sort  of  proof  is  that 
To  a  cat  ? 

Froebel's  great  aim,  to  give  men  themselves,  runs  thru  every  instru- 
mentality he  fashions.  The  Mother  Play  is  undoubtedly  the  apex  of  its 
attainment,  but  the  "  Gifts  and  Occupations"  are  in  the  series  too  and  aim 
at  the  same  goal. 

*  The  gifts  are  not  the  truths  they  typify,  nor  those  they  symbolize. 
"  Art  is  not  truth  nor  beauty,  but  a  revelation  of  beautiful  truth  thru  indi- 
vidual vision.  It  is  the  artist's  reaction  to  the  stimulus  of  his  universe." 
The  gifts  are  not  the  principles  to  which  they  point,  nor  the  thousand 
possible  examples  which  they  suggest ;  but,  as  types  and  symbols,  stand 
midway  between  these  two  extremes. 

To  be  convinced  that,  in  the  plan  of  Froebel,  human  nature  or  mind 
was  the  dominant  thought,  one  need  only  read  the  first  few  pages  of  his 
chapter  on  the  "  Gifts  and  Occupations,"  to  which  I  refer  you.  He  begins 
with  not  a  word  specifically  about  them,  nor  does  he  mention  them  for 
about  six  pages  out  of  forty-one.  He  rings  out  a  clear  note  at  once  on 
the  threefold  nature  of  man  and  his  threefold  relationships.  The  illus- 
trations which  follow  emphasize  the  mother's  mediatorial  services  and 
culminate  in  the  child's  own  nature  as  mediator.  All  this  is,  of  course, 
introductory  to  the  mediatorial  aspect  of  Froebel's  gifts. 

The  mastery  of  technique  in  Froebel's  "  Gifts  and  Occupations"  is  very 


Department]  THE  KINDERGARTEN  GIFTS  389 

little;  but  that,  thru  the  use  of  them,  there  begins  to  emerge  the  power  to 
transform,  to  reflect,  to  interpret,  is  everything.  A  little  boy  in  a  kinder- 
garten said  not  long  ago,  after  looking  at  the  sphere,  "Why,  it  has  so 
many  corners  it  hasn't  any;"  not  a  bad  preparation  for  Harvard's 
accepted  definition  of  a  circle  as  "  a  polygon  of  an  infinite  number  of 
sides." 

The  gifts  hint  in  wood  and  stuff  what  the  parable  does  in  word. 
Froebel,  you  remember,  has  a  great  deal  to  say  of  the  parable  in  work  of 
the  transition  class  and  the  innate  transmuting  power  of  the  mind,  and 
readily  makes  the  transfer  of  meaning  implied. 

"Do  men  gather  grapes  of  thorns,  or  figs  of  thistles?"  "A  sower 
went  forth  to  sow  his  seed."  "I  am  the  vine;  ye  are  the  branches." 
None  of  these  have  failed  of  their  aim,  which  certainly  was  mediatorial 
between  the  hints  of  nature  and  the  truth  of  character.  I  once  heard 
education  defined  as  "the  giving  of  life  from  the  living,  thru  the  living, 
to  the  living." 

Is  not  life,  as  infused  into  the  world  thru  great  personalities,  one  of 
the  foremost  gifts  of  God  to  man  ?  Rob  the  world  of  Homer  and 
Dante,  of  Plato  and  Aristotle,  of  Shakespeare  and  Christ,  and  of  the 
other  seers,  and  the  world  would  still  be  barbaric.  No  education  is 
vital  which  does  not  coincide  with  the  main  issues  and  interests  of  indi- 
vidual and  community  life,  indeed  with  the  ascent  of  human  history. 
Has  that  not  been  a  spectacle  of  man's  coming  to  know  and  to  own  him- 
self ?  There  is  no  possession  to  which  the  child  has  so  inalienable  a 
right  as  to  self-possession.  There  is  no  possession  to  which  the  adult 
would  consent  to  receive  so  poor  a  title  as  most  of  us  hold  to  our  own 
self-possession. 

You  remember  this  was  the  gift  Froebel  wanted  to  bestow.  He  wrote 
in  the  album  of  a  friend :  "  May  Fate  grant  to  you  a  happy  home,  a 
loving  wife.  May  she  drive  me  restlessly  from  place  to  place,  granting 
me  only  in  the  end  life's  best  gift — knowledge  of  myself."  After  a 
pause  he  adds :  "  You  give  men  bread.  May  it  be  my  effort  to  give 
them  themselves." 

The  stuff  we  are  working  on  is  human  souls.  The  stuff  we  are  work- 
ing with,  in  the  last  analysis,  is  not  wood  nor  clay  nor  paper  nor  wool ; 
not  even  sunshine  and  sky  and  flower  and  art ;  but  our  own  defective, 
hungering,  individual  souls.  What  gifts  of  the  spirit  are  ours  to  bestow  ? 
What  waters  of  life  can  we  set  a-flowing,  in  our  few  short  months  of 
influence,  in  the  children,  in  the  students,  in  the  homes  ?  Have  we  not 
need  of  self-refreshment,  have  we  not  need  to  keep  in  the  company  of  the 
great,  to  be  reassured  and  reaccoutered  for  our  work  ?  Not  the  doing 
only,  but  the  doing  and  the  seeing,  the  questioning  and  the  answering, 
will  equip  a  teacher.  Listen  to  the  testimony  of  the  great  race-teacher, 
Dante : 


39°  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Kindergarten 

The  greatest  gift  which  in  his  largess  God 
Creating  made,  and  unto  his  own  goodness 
Nearest  conformed,  and  that  which  he  doth  prize 
Most  highly,  is  freedom  of  the  will. 
Wherewith  the  creatures  of  intelligence 
Both  all  and  only  are  endowed. 

And  again  listen  when  he,  the  poet  of  the  thirteenth  century,  hears  real- 
ized what   Froebel,  the  educator   of  the   nineteenth  century,  hoped  to 

minister  to  : 

Free  and  upright  is  thy  free  will. 

Thee  o'er  thyself  I  therefore  crown  and  miter. 

Can  the  twentieth-century  teacher,  in  a  country  committed  to  indi- 
vidual free  will  and  self-government,  have  a  higher  incentive  for  con- 
tributing her  mite  ?  Can  she  fail  to  realize  the  glory,  the  privilege,  and 
the  responsibility  of  her  vocation  ? 


THE  KINDERGARTEN  AND  THE  PRIMARY  SCHOOL  IN 
THEIR  RELATION  TO  THE  CHILD  AND  TO  EACH 
OTHER 

MISS  EMMA  A.  NEWMAN,  INSTRUCTOR    OF  FIRST  GRADE,  TEACHERS'  TRAINING 
SCHOOL,  BUFFALO,  N.  V. 

In  an  age  of  transition,  such  as  the  century  just  passing  has  been,  the 
department  of  education  cannot  fail  to  bear  its  share  of  unrest  in  efforts 
to  adjust  itself  to  changed  conditions.  The  application  of  steam  and 
electricity  has  not  revolutionized  the  industrial  world  alone,  but  has 
brought  new  ethical  and  spiritual  conditions  —  conditions  presenting 
problems  yet  unsolved,  tho  the  best  thought  of  many  minds  has  been 
grappling  with  them  for  years.  It  is,  therefore,  not  strange  if  in  the 
educational  world,  which  depends  so  largely,  if  not  upon  an  intelligent, 
understanding  of  conditions  and  facts,  at  least  upon  the  good-will  of  the 
people  at  large,  for  any  radical  change  of  method,  there  should  be  found 
much  confusion  and  many  methods. 

Here  and  there  thru  the  centuries  minds  endowed  with  insight  into 
eternal  truths  have  given  forth  words  of  wisdom  applicable  to  all  ages 
and  generations.  Slowly  these  golden  strands  of  thought  are  being 
gathered  up,  harmonized,  and  applied  to  present-day  conditions.  There 
is  no  longer  any  question  in  the  minds  of  intelligent  people  as  to  the 
value  of  kindergarten  training  for  the  young  child.  The  principles 
upon  which  the  system  is  based  are  conceded  by  all  prominent  educators 
to  be  sound  psychologically  and  true  to  child  nature.  However  justly 
fault  may  be  found  with  particular  schools  or  exponents  of  the  system, 
these  closing  years  of  the  nineteenth  century  have  witnessed  a  sharp  dis- 
tinction between  such  exponents  and  the  genuine  principles  for  which 


Department!     THE  KINDERGARTEN  AND  THE  PRIMARY  SCHOOL  39^ 

the  name  of  Froebel  stands.  This  is  a  distinctive  gain  in  the  educational 
field  ;  for  it  opens  wide  the  door  to  tens  of  thousands  of  little  children 
from  three  to  six  years  of  age,  takes  them  from  the  streets  with  the  moral 
contamination  there  found,  to  place  them  in  sunny  rooms  under  the  care 
of  loving  hearts  and  willing  hands  to  be  taught  how  to  play,  how  to  make 
use  of  that  inborn  activity  which,  left  to  itself,  so  often  degenerates  into 
mischief  and  evil. 

The  value  of  kindergarten  training  may  be  briefly  stated  as  follows  : 
Thru  association  with  children  of  like  age  and  ability  those  qualities  which 
make  for  selfishness,  which  unfit  for  social  life,  are  eradicated  ;  in  their 
place  a  right  estimate  of  self,  a  spirit  of  independence,  of  courage,  of 
brotherly  love  and  helpfulness,  a  sense  of  mutual  interdependence,  are 
fostered  ;  that  training  of  the  senses — sight,  hearing,  touch — so  essential  to 
clear  perception,  which  forms  a  basis  for  all  higher  mental  operations,  is 
gained ;  an  intelligent  interest  in  nature,  leading  not  merely  to  a  careful 
observation  of  facts,  but  to  love  for  the  beautiful,  and  tender  care  for  all 
the  helpless  things  over  which  man  has  been  placed,  is  aroused  ;  a  sym- 
pathy with  and  respect  for  the  various  occupations  of  mankind  is  inculcated 
—  work  is  dignified  in  the  eyes  of  the  child  ;  the  effort  and  tact  necessary 
in  mastering  difficulties  encountered  in  the  concrete  expression  of  mental 
concepts  tend  to  develop  perseverance,  self-control,  and  a  certain  power 
of  self-direction  which  offers  the  best  possible  foundation  for  the  growth 
of  independence  of  character,  of  self-helpfulness,  of  power  to  help  others. 
The  mistaken  zeal  of  friends  has  often  proved  more  harmful  to  the 
kindergarten  cause  than  the  frank  criticisms  of  opponents.  Slowly  but 
surely  a  clearer  understanding  of  the  principles  for  which  Froebel  stood 
is  spreading.  There  is  less  contention  over  details  of  method,  more 
openness  of  mind  in  looking  for  results  in  the  lives  of  the  children,  with 
a  better  knowledge  of  what  these  results  should  be.  All  causes  in  their 
infancy  suffer  from  a  blind  adherence  to  the  letter  of  the  law,  as  well  as 
from  misapprehension  of  it.  The  kindergarten  has  been  no  exception 
to  the  rule.  But  it  has  weathered  the  storms,  outgrown  the  trials  of 
infancy,  proved  its  right  to  live  because  of  its  power  to  give  the  best  and 
fullest  opportunity  for  an  all-around  development  to  childhood.  It  is 
only  a  question  of  time  when  all  children  shall  be  given  the  chance  of 
profiting  by  that  which  the  kindergarten  stands  ready  to  bestow. 

We  are  all  familiar  with  the  saying  that  the  only  way  to  preserve  the 
free  institutions  of  our  country  is  thru  the  education  of  the  masses.  We 
likewise  know  what  strenuous  efforts  have  been  put  forth  in  this  direction 
since  our  birth  as  a  nation.  Each  succeeding  generation  has  realized  in 
fuller  measure  its  pertinency.  Nevertheless  there  is  an  undercurrent  of 
feeling,  making  itself  felt  more  and  more  strongly,  that  somehow  educa- 
tion has  not  brought  about  just  the  results  expected  of  it.  When  our 
boys  and  girls  enter  the  arena  of  practical  life  they  are  found  wanting  in 


392  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Kindergarten 

some  of  the  attributes  necessary  for  success  in  even  the  humblest  voca- 
tions. Their  education  seems  to  have  given  them  little,  if  any,  ability  to 
cope  with  life's  practical  difficulties.  This  seems  to  be  increasingly  true 
of  the  children  of  our  large  cities. 

The  country  child  still  enjoys  some  of  the  advantages  common  to  all 
children  a  generation  or  two  ago.  Life  is  less  complex  in  the  country ; 
there  are  fewer  things  to  appeal  to  the  child-mind  with  such  distracting 
rapidity  of  succession.  He  is  brought  into  closer  touch  with  nature's 
elemental  forces  and  products.  He  is  able  to  understand  man's  conquest 
of  the  one  and  assistance  in  bringing  the  other  to  fruition.  Some  con- 
ception of  man's  power  and  limitations,  of  the  ultimate  results  of  patience 
and  perseverance,  becomes  unconsciously  a  part  of  the  country  child's 
inheritance.  Then,  too,  he  invariably  has  his  share  of  the  family  work 
to  do;  finding  many  opportunities  for  exercising  his  ingenuity  in  carry- 
ing out  his  own  plans,  or  in  helping  others.  The  city  child  learns  all  too 
soon  a  few  cents  and  the  neighboring  store  will  save  him  the  necessity  of 
constructing  some  contrivance,  more  or  less  clumsy,  necessary  to  the 
completion  of  his  plan,  thus  losing  that  training  which  comes  from 
helping  himself  over  difficulties,  which  develops  originality  and  fore- 
thought. 

Even  where  the  city  child  is  compelled  by  necessity  to  lend  his  mite 
of  strength  to  increase  the  family's  slender  income,  how  different  are  the 
conditions !  Instead  of  contributing  his  legitimate  share  of  labor  where  he  is 
an  integral  part  of  the  family  life,  inferior  only  because  of  immaturity,  he  is 
turned  out  to  compete  upon  street,  in  store,  or  in  factory  with  large  num- 
bers of  his  own  age.  Thrust  into  the  midst  of  the  evils  engendered  by 
competition  while  still  too  young  to  comprehend  them,  he  nevertheless 
is  molded  by  their  influence.  A  sharp  eye  for  a  bargain,  looking  out 
for  self  at  the  expense  of  others,  giving  as  little  service  as  will  bring  the 
desired  pence,  are  some  of  the  moral  ideas  unconsciously  imbibed. 

It  is  true  also  that  the  children  from  better  homes  in  our  cities 
have  lost  much  of  their  birthright  of  freedom.  Crowded  apartment 
houses,  with  no  open  spaces,  are  turning  the  children  upon  the  streets  or 
into  dark  basements  to  enjoy  their  time-honored  games.  When  the 
street  is  the  playground,  often  the  whereabouts  of  the  "guardians  of  the 
peace"  must  be  carefully  kept  track  of.  Free  play,  with  its  endless 
opportunities  for  developing  a  child's  resourc^ulness,  generalship, 
patience,  and  good-fellowship,  is  fast  becoming  an  impossibility  for  our 
city  children. 

Child-energy  must  have  an  outlet ;  if  it  cannot  spend  itself  in  legiti- 
mate ways,  it  will  find  others  not  so  good  for  body,  mind,  or  soul.  There- 
fore it  seems  to  me  that  all  our  city  children  are  losing  ground  thru  a 
too  early  encounter  with  competition  ;  thru  the  curtailment  of  free  play  ; 
thru  the  e^se  with  which  they  can  procure  ready-made  implements   for 


Department]     THE  KINDERGARTEN  AND  THE  PRIMARY  SCHOOL  393 

the  furthering  of  their  plans  ;  thru  the  mistake  of  putting  complicated, 
finished  toys  into  their  hands  from  earliest  childhood,  thus  deadening 
creative  ingenuity. 

With  this  somewhat  cursory  view  of  the  conditions  into  which  modern 
city  children  are  born  in  mind,  let  us  inquire  what  the  primary  school,  whither 
they  must  wend  their  way  at  five  or  six  years  of  age,  has  to  offer  them. 

Tho  the  children  of  today,  and  those  of  past  generations,  possess  such 
different  mental  and  moral  equipments,  because  of  the  changed  and  vastly 
more  complicated  environment  of  today,  the  matter  taught  in  the  first 
three  years  of  school  life  remains  the  same — "the  three  R's,"  only  sugar- 
coated  that  the  dry  facts  may  be  more  palatable.  A  little  science,  a  few 
stories,  are  thrown  in  as  a  sort  of  center  around  which  the  other  work  is 
to  group  itself;  nevertheless  teacher  and  child  are  judged,  not  by  these 
accessories,  but  by  the  latter's  ability  to  read,  write,  and  use  figures. 
There  is  not  the  slightest  doubt  but  that  the  child  of  ordinary  —  yes,  of 
less  than  ordinary  —  intelligence  can,  between  the  ages  of  five  and  eight, 
be  taught  to  read  and  write  well  and  use  figures  to  some  extent. 

The  only  means  of  securing  this  result  is  thru  a  process  of  repetition. 
The  best  thought  of  intelligent  teachers  has  long  been  seeking  to  relieve 
this  process  of  some  of  its  irksomeness,  and  a  large  measure  of  success 
has  attended  their  efforts.  But  there  is  another  side  to  the  problem 
which  has  not  received  such  close  attention.  While  it  is  now  possible  to 
present  the  same  fact  in  such  a  variety  of  ways  as  to  retain  attention  and 
interest  until  the  fact  has  become  a  part  of  the  child's  mental  possession, 
try  as  we  may,  we  nevertheless  are  forced  to  call  into  play  the  same 
powers  of  mind,  the  same  senses,  the  same  muscles  on  the  part  of  the 
child.  Nature  has  set  an  absolute  limit  here.  Certain  senses,  muscles, 
mental  powers,  must  respond  each  time  to  similar  stimuli.  All  must  per- 
ceive the  harm  resulting  from  this  constant  use  of  one  set  of  powers  to 
the  exclusion  of  others.  That  it  naturally  results  in  the  child's  drifting 
into  a  more  or  less  mechanical  habit  of  thought  and  life,  which,  unless 
counteracted,  will  result  in  an  atrophy  of  individuality,  of  those  qualities 
essential  in  coping  successfully  with  life's  practical  difficulties,  is  patent 
to  any  thoughtful  mind.  Happily  for  the  child,  his  "own  nature  so  rebels 
at  being  run  into  a  mold  that  he  responds  with  amazing  quickness  to  the 
slightest  help  in  the  direction  of  freedom. 

The  kindergarten,  manual  training,  and  child  study  are  slowly  open- 
ing our  eyes  to  the  radical  changes  necessary  if  education  is  to  preserve 
individuality,  increase  the  power  of  self-direction,  develop  forethought  and 
ability  to  master  difficulties,  train  to  a  respect  and  love  for  work,  whether 
mental  or  physical.  Mere  ability  to  read,  write,  and  figure  will  not  make 
men  and  women  qualified  for  intelligent  citizenship  in  this  great  republic. 
In  the  past,  when  outside  environment  supplied  opportunities  for  develop- 
ing the  other  qualities  needed,  the  state's  duty  to  its  children  was  done 


394  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Kindergarten 

when  it  furnished  instruction  in  "  the  three  R's."  But  the  changed  con- 
ditions of  today  demand  a  different  training,  if  it  is  to  be  an  efficient  one. 
Visit  a  kindergarten  sufficiently  often  to  become  conversant  with 
the  methods  used  and  acquainted  with  individual  children ;  note  their 
steady  growth  in  the  power  to  discover  facts  thru  the  use  of  their  own 
senses,  to  express  the  thought  gained  in  language  or  concrete  handwork; 
watch  the  mastery  of  self,  the  tact  in  overcoming  difficulties;  see  the 
growth  of  a  community  spirit.  Also  watch  with  equal  care  a  primary 
class  conducted  according  to  the  most  approved  modern  methods.  A 
comparison  at  the  close  of  the  year  will  reveal  the  fact  that  the  children 
of  the  former  have  outstripped  the  latter  in  general  intelligence,  in  power 
to  think  and  act  independently;  are  more  amenable  to  social  laws. 

"  The  most  colossal  improvement  which  recent  years  have  seen  in  secondary  education 
lies  in  the  introduction  of  the  manual-training  schools ;  not  because  they  will  give  us  a 
people  more  handy  and  practical  for  domestic  life  and  better  skilled  in  trade,  but  because 

they  will  give  us  citizens  with  an  entirely  different  intellectual  fiber Laboratory 

work  and  shop  work  engender  a  habit  of  observation,  confer  precision,  honesty,  self- 
reliance." 

After  years  of  patient  struggle  manual  training  has  won  for  itself  a 
place  in  secondary  education  because  of  its  effect  upon  character.  Thus 
the  kindergarten  and  secondary  education  meet  upon  a  common  ground  ; 
but  between  them  is  a  wide  gap.  That  which  meets  and  satisfies  the 
needs  of  early  childhood,  that  which  affords  a  development  in  stability  of 
character  which  mere  intellectual  training  failed  to  give  to  youth,  surely 
cannot  fail  to  be  of  benefit  between  the  ages  of  six  and  twelve  years. 
Why,  then,  has  it  no  place  in  our  primary  curriculum  ? 

Tradition  and  habit  are  strong.  Tho  the  kindergarten  on  the  one 
hand,  and  manual  training  on  the  other,  have  opened  our  eyes  in  a 
measure,  we  are  slow  to  follow  their  leading.  The  great  mass  of  man- 
kind still  believes  a  sort  of  magic  lies  hidden  somewhere  in  the  mere 
ability  to  decipher  a  printed  page ;  not  realizing  that  the  power  of  mind 
which  can  make  use  of  what  is  so  gained  is  the  force  which  counts  in  the 
world.  The  bare  art  of  reading  is  valueless ;  it  is  the  transmutation  of 
what  is  read  into  thought,  act,  character  which  works  for  good  or  ill.  If 
we  teach  the  art  (a  thing  offering  no  difficulty  at  the  right  time  and  place) 
—  if  we  teach  the  art,  without  the  mental  habit,  the  moral  force  to  grasp 
and  use  purposefully  such  matter  as  can  be  gained  thru  the  art,  how  are 
the  children  benefited  ? 

There  comes  a  time  when  certain  powers  of  body  and  mind  have 
developed,  when  certain  mental  habits  have  been  acquired,  when  certain 
ideas  and  ideals  have  been  fostered  in  the  child-mind  and  heart,  when  he 
feels  the  need  of  and  has  the  preparation  for  receiving  with  little  effort 
those  mechanical  aids  to  further  knowledge,  letters,  and  figures.  All  that 
is  now  so  laboriously  struggled  for  from  the  age  of  five  to  ten,  and  which 


Department]     THE  KINDERGARTEN  AND  THE  PRIMARY  SCHOOL  395 

results  in  a  stultification  of  the  reasoning  power,  in  the  elimination  of  the 
individuality  of  such  a  large  percentage  of  the  mass  of  children,  with  a 
suitable  training  preceding,  can  readily  be  acquired  between  the  ages  of 
eight  and  ten,  and  so  acquired  as  to  leave  the  children  in  full  possession 
of  all  their  powers,  keen,  active,  trained  for  their  highest  usefulness. 

The  child  of  six  to  eight  years  of  age  has  the  same  need  —  nay,  an 
increasing  need  —  of  the  civilizing  influences  of  sympathetically  directed 
play.  The  deepest  ethical  principles  are  often  gained  upon  the  play- 
ground. Principles  of  justice,  of  fair  play,  can  be  inculcated  there  as 
nowhere  else,  because  practical  results  are  seen  and  felt ;  they  are  not 
arbitrary  injunctions  imposed  by  superior  strength. 

Literature  opens  to  the  child  its  rich  treasures  of  imagination  and 
experience ;  treasures  which  deepen  and  broaden  the  life,  while  satisfying 
the  instinctive  craving  of  the  child-heart  for  a  means  of  comparing  its 
own  little  life  with  the  experiences  of  others.  The  story  hour  is  all  too 
sparingly  used.  It  offers  to  the  child-soul,  as  nothing  else  ever  can,  the 
noblest,  the  truest  thoughts  the  world  possesses,  in  a  form  which  child- 
hood loves  and  claims  as  peculiarly  its  own.  Once  given  its  proper  place 
and  allowed  to  fulfill  its  mission  of  storing  heart  and  mind  with  its  best, 
the  problem  of  keeping  the  youth  of  the  land  from  vile  literature  will  be 
largely  solved. 

Now  we  starve  the  heart  and  soul  that  we  may  gain  time  to  furnish  the 
mind  with  the  key  to  unlock  the  storehouse  of  knowledge  for  itself. 
There  is  no  time  to  bestow  the  greater  boon,  the  creation  of  ideals  which 
contact  with  the  great  thoughts  contained  in  the  told  stories  would 
engender.  Think  of  the  thousands  of  little  children  who  have  no  higher 
ideals  than  those  gained  from  the  squalid  surroundings  into  which  they 
are  ushered  at  birth,  and  amid  which  they  must  live  and  die.  Where  are 
they  to  gain  food  for  heart  and  soul  ?  How  are  the  garnered  treasures 
of  the  ages  to  be  brought  within  the  reach,  to  be  made  of  service  to,  the 
great  mass  of  children  ?  What  better,  or  more  natural,  way  than  thru 
the  story  told  ? 

Then,  when  the  time  has  come  for  mastering  the  technicalities  of  read- 
ing, the  delight  of  discovering  on  the  printed  page  the  much-loved  stories 
serves  as  an  added  incentive  to  effort.  Now  thought  has  to  be  sacrificed 
to  gain  repetition. 

Manual  training  continues,  in  form  suited  to  increase  strength  and 
ability,  that  training  begun  in  the  kindergarten  which  satisfies  the  instinct 
for  making,  develops  judgment,  concentration  of  mind,  perseverance  in 
the  accomplishment  of  a  purpose ;  this  in  addition  to  the  sense-training 
for  hand  and  eye.  There  should  be  included  in  this  connection  also  a 
practical  working  knowledge  of  all  the  common  weights  and  measures. 
Children  of  this  age  dearly  love  to  play  store.  Why  not  let  them  do  so 
to  some  purpose  ?     The  amount  of  genuine  mental  effort  made  under  the 


396  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Kindergarten 

inspiration  of  pleasure,  free  from  the  entanglement  of  figures,  is  amazing. 
A  cultivation  of  a  quickness  of  ear  in  detecting  differences  of  sound,  a 
keenness  of  eye  in  distinguishing  differences  in  form,  a  delicacy  and  deft- 
ness of  touch,  must  have  a  place  in  the  curriculum  if  it  is  to  prepare  for  an 
easy  mastering  of  "the  three  R's." 

Science  has  opened  up  a  new  realm  to  childhood  as  well  as  to  man- 
kind. All  about  him,  arousing  curiosity  and  interest,  the  child  sees  the 
forces  of  nature  swiftly,  accurately  performing  the  mandates  of  man. 
Into  what  better  channel  than  a  study,  thru  simple  experiments,  of  the 
manifestations  of  the  elementary  forces  of  nature  and  their  practical  appli- 
cation to  daily  life,  can  you  direct  a  child's  instinct  for  investigation  ? 
Such  work,  aside  from  its  intensely  interesting  character,  leads  to  habits 
of  close  observation,  concise  statement ;  offers  large  opportunities  for  the 
exercise  of  comparison,  inference,  reason,  judgment.  The  finer  qualities 
of  the  soul  —  sympathy,  kindness,  care  for  helplessness  —  are  quickened  and 
deepened  thru  a  right  contact  with  plant  and  animal  life. 

Is  it  more  profitable  in  the  end  to  spend  from  three  to  five  of  the  most 
impressionable  years  of  a  child's  life  in  mastering  technicalities  by  means 
of  constant  drill ;  or  will  it  be  better  to  devote  as  much  of  that  time  as 
possible  to  developing  brain-power  and  character,  and  then  acquire  the 
technicalities  at  a  time  when  the  child's  own  ability  fits  him  to  do  it  with 
ease  and  speed  ?  Were  it  not  that  the  former  method  comes  to  us  weighted 
with  the  authority  and  veneration  of  hoary-headed  tradition  and  habit, 
there  could  be  no  hesitation. 

With  senses  trained  to  be  alert,  active,  accurate ;  with  minds  stored 
with  facts  obtained  by  observation,  or  experiment;  with  the  ability  to 
express  thought  in  good  language  ;  with  the  opportunity  of  using  their 
now  pent-up  energies  in  the  production  of  objects  which  are  concrete 
expressions  of  their  own  mental  images  ;  with  the  gain  in  self-control, 
moral  purpose,  and  forethought,  thru  persistence  in  adjusting  means  to 
the  accomplishment  of  an  end  ;  with  a  healthier  insight  into  the  meaning 
and  relations  of  life  gained  thru  story,  games,  and  contact  with  nature; 
possessed  of  these  qualities,  can  anyone  doubt  that  children  will  be  hap- 
pier, will  not  only  be  better  prepared  to  be  taught  the  technicalities  which 
permit  of  more  rapid  advancement  in  formal  knowledge,  but  will  also 
have  a  fairer  chance  to  grow  into  men  and  women  possessed  of  nobility 
and  strength.of  character  ? 

The  birthright  of  every  child  is  an  opportunity  for  the  free  and  full 
development  of  all  his  powers  of  body,  mind,  and  soul,  that  he  may  be 
fitted  to  meet  life's  struggles  and  opportunities. 

Education  will  have  accomplished  its  noblest  purpose,  have  reached 
its  highest  ideal,  when  it  secures  this  for  all  children. 


department]         MUSIC  FOR  CHILDREN  UkDER  SEVEN  YeAR^  J97 

THE  EDUCATIONAL    USE    OF  MUSIC  FOR    CHILDREN 
UNDER  THE  AGE  OF  SEVEN  YEARS 

MISS    MARI    RUEF    HOFER,  CHICAGO,  ILL. 

The  ideas  of  the  new  education,  as  inaugurated  by  the  kindergarten, 
have  been  so  generally  accepted  during  the  last  decade  that  they  no 
longer  furnish  occasion  for  argument,  but  we  find  them  incorporated  in 
general  good  theory  and  practice.  The  terms  "self -activity,"  "crea- 
tivity," "spontaneity,"  "self-expression,"  the  "play-spirit,"  and  their 
equivalents,  have  become  familiar  words  in  school  circles  —  in  fact,  it  may 
be  said  of  them  that  they  have  graduated  from  the  kindergarten,  and 
are  now  receiving  most  serious  attention  at  the  universities  and  other 
seats  of  advanced  learning. 

In  the  early  days  these  inagic  words  came  as  heaven-sent  messages 
to  the  teacher.  At  their  bidding  she  found  herself  called  from  the  plain 
fare  and  unadorned  conditions  of  "the  three  R's"  to  revel  in  the  munifi- 
cence of  philosophy,  science,  and  art,  with  the  liberty  to  think,  feel,  and 
experiment  freely  along  all  lines.  What  vistas  of  joy  and  growth  revealed 
themselves  to  her  in  the  new  methods !  What  luxurious  browsings  in 
hitherto  unexplored  fields  were  now  permissible !  Also,  what  problems 
of  individual  reconstruction  had  to  be  met,  what  bridges  of  inefficiencies 
and  despair  had  to  be  crossed,  before  these  things  could  be ! 

In  the  first  abandonment  to  the  new  freedom  lay  the  education  of  the 
teacher  from  the  old  to  the  new  ideal  of  teaching.  If  in  the  embarrass- 
ment of  her  riches  it  was  difficult  for  the  kindergartner  to  act  with  judg- 
ment and  discretion  in  the  use  of  her  resources,  it  is  hardly  to  be  wondered 
at.  The  first  great  step  was  the  conquering  of  herself  and  her  material. 
The  second  step  immanent  in  all  education  today  is  to  learn  to  discrimi- 
nate, and  use  things  in  their  right  proportion  and  place.  The  days  of 
first  enthusiasms  are  long  past,  and  the  cool  eye  of  professionalism  is  upon 
the  kindergarten,  questioning  its  uses  and  the  effectiveness  of  its  work. 

In  its  motiving  capacity  the  kindergarten  holds  a  peculiar  and  pro- 
phetic relation  to  all  later  education.  Here  the  ingredients  for  future 
life  and  living  receive  their  initial  stirring,  and  the  questions  as  to  future 
flavor  and  quality  of  the  individual  are  largely  determined.  Here,  in 
the  realm  of  the  impulse  and  caprice  of  childhood,  is  recognized  and 
conserved  the  creative  element  as  the  chief  cornerstone  of  future  progress. 
Froebel,  as  no  other  educator,  prognosticates  the  artist.  By  joining  intui- 
tion to  education  he  left  the  door  of  the  soul  ajar,  that  its  mysteries 
might  forever  after  mingle  with  the  common  life.  In  the  materials  of 
education  he  sees  only  the  media  thru  which,  in  the  end,  shall  be  attained 
the  perfect  man  and  his  perfect  work.  If  Froebel's  principles  are  true, 
the  production  of  the  artist  must  be,  not  only  a  theoretical,  but  a  practical 
end  in  our  work. 


398  kAtlOkAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Kindergarten 

We  may  question  ourselves  :  Are  our  methods  conducive  to  this  result  ? 
With  all  our  insight  and  philosophy,  are  we  practically  demonstrating  our 
problem  ?  Are  we  really  working  from  the  creative,  thought-generating 
standpoint  ?  Are  our  children  creative,  originative,  originating  beings  ; 
or  does  much  of  our  work  yet  remain  fanciful  theory  and  undigested 
practice  ?  Are  we  doing  the  inceptive  work  in  the  kindergarten  which 
truly  motives  the  individual  and  starts  native  impulses  well  along  the 
path  of  creative  doing  ? 

In  music,  as  in  other  things,  it  is  necessary  for  us  to  lay  a  broad  plat- 
form if  we  wish  fully  to  utilize  the  opportunity  offered  in  the  initial  train- 
ing. In  the  present  urging  of  the  musical  ideal,  and  in  our  eagerness  to 
give  the  child  the  best  from  the  standpoint  of  today,  the  danger  is  to 
plunge  him  too  soon  into  the  full  representation  of  music  and  its  repro- 
duction, without  permitting  him  the  benefit  of  natural  growth  and  develop- 
ment ;  also  ignoring  the  tiny  germ  of  self-effort  which  should  be 
encouraged  from  the  start.  Especially  is  this  detrimental  because  of  the 
many  partially  defected  children  along  hearing  and  ultimately  musical 
lines. 

In  music-teaching  more  than  in  any  other  subject  have  we  suffered 
from  the  two  extremes  :  on  the  one  hand  the  professional  musician  absorbed 
in  the  technique  of  his  art  and  knowing  little  of  the  art  of  teaching ;  on 
the  other  hand  the  unmusical  teacher,  who,  while  familiar  with  teaching 
methods,  is  wholly  ignorant  as  to  musical  ideals.  These  two  extremes  must 
also  be  met  in  the  kindergarten  ranks.  It  is  not  possible  to  induce  the 
musical  ideal  by  methods  alone.  There  is  that  which  is  subtle  and  far- 
reaching  in  musical  suggestion  and  impression,  which  necessitates  the 
presentation  of  pure  ideal.  Children  may  be  wholly  demoralized  as  to  tone 
ideals  by  the  harsh  and  poor  singing  of  the  teacher,  which  may  induce 
bad  vocal  habits  and  inferior  tone-appreciation  for  the  remainder  of  life. 

Next  to  the  importance  of  impression  and  the  preserving  of  the  ideals 
of  music  would  come  a  rational  educational  treatment  of  the  subject,  which 
would  insure  a  development  of  the  child  thru  music  as  well  as  the  gradual 
acquirement  of  musical  knowledge. 

While  music  can  be  appreciated  and  understood  —  certainly  felt  as  an 
influence  —  without  analysis,  as  can  no  other  art,  the  larger,  formulated 
ideal  of  music  must  be  abstract  and  confusing  to  the  child. 

The  beginning  work  here,  as  in  other  studies,  should  have  less  to  do 
with  direct  training  in  music  itself  than  with  the  accessories  and  environment 
which  help  a  child  to  become  musical.  In  this  early  period  all  is  grist 
which  comes  to  his  mill ;  all  sound,  all  motion,  are  musict  o  him.  He 
claims  the  whole  earth  and  the  heavens  above  for  his  themes  —  the  sun, 
the  moon,  the  stars,  the  earth,  the  air,  and  all  that  in  them  is,  furnish  him 
with  the  musical  occasion.  He  hears,  feels,  and  imbibes  and  appreciates 
the  materials  of  music  in  a  thousand  forms.     The  world  is  his  instrument, 


Department]         MUSIC  FOR  CHILDREN  UNDER  SEVEN  YEARS  399 

W 

and  nature  supplies  him  with  melodies,  rhythms,  and  harmonies  at  first 
hand.  All  this  is  theoretically  recognized  in  the  kindergarten  as  in  no 
phase  of  education.  Here  the  work  is  to  convert  nature  into  the  materials  of 
life.  In  the  order  of  impression  a  concrete  tone-experience  should  precede 
general  musical  training.  This  can  be  gained  naturally  and  unconsciously 
in  the  poorest  neighborhood.  A  little  thoughtful  work  on  the  part  of  the 
teacher,  in  the  kindergarten  and  first  primary,  and  later  in  connection 
with  the  science  work  of  the  grades,  would  be  sufficient  to  equip  the  most 
backward  child,  in  a  hearing  experience,  with  the  power  to  discriminate 
and  reproduce  all  sounds  thru  imitation  and  association.  This  is  the 
significance  of  the  early  imitative  or  bow-wow  period,  which,  thru  the 
ignorance  and  indolence  of  parents  and  nurses,  is  unutilized  ;  and  the 
sense  remains  dulled  and  undiscriminating  and  uneducated. 

As  the  child  looks  forth  from  his  undefined  wonder-world,  it  takes 
but  the  magic  of  a  "See  the  flower"  or  "Hear  the  bird"  to  arouse  and 
focus  baby-interest  into  active  appreciation.  From  listening  to  individ- 
ual sounds  we  pass  rapidly  to  association  of  sounds  with  objects,  dis- 
crimination between  sounds,  comparing  and  contrasting  and  locating 
sounds.  Indeed,  a  very  simple  but  logical  program  can  be  carried  thru 
the  year,  based  upon  the  occasion  of  everyday  development,  with  the 
result  to  greatly  quicken  and  develop  the  hearing  sense,  and  thru  imita- 
tion of  sounds  a  natural  system  of  phonics  would  train  the  vocal  organs. 

Nor  need  we  go  far  from  home  in  order  to  effect  this.  A  teacher, 
hearing  some  of  the  suggestions,  anxiously  asked:  "Where  and  how  shall 
I  get  the  apparatus  ? "  But  sit  still  and  listen.  Whether  in  the  city  or 
country,  house  or  street,  in  five  minutes  you  will  hear  more  sounds  than  you 
can  analyze  in  an  hour.  And  all  to  the  end  of  ear-training,  and  undoubtedly 
leading  to  the  establishing  of  an  auditory  imagery  which  must  be 
effective  in  assisting  the  later  appreciation  of  music.  To  arouse  the 
musical  consciousness,  thru  an  enlarged  capacity  for  hearing  and  appre- 
ciating tone,  would  be  a  step  toward  the  creative  imagination  which  is  the 
equipment  of  the  one  gifted  in  music.  While  today  talent  is  largely 
bent  of  mind  combined  with  trained  resource,  the  new  education  hardly 
guarantees  to  manufacture  genius,  but  it  does  and  can  undertake  to  free 
the  powers  which  may  lead  to  it.  As  a  tree  cannot  blossom  without  an 
overfullness  of  life,  so  a  child  cannot  function  song  without  a  fullness  of 
experience  and  an  overflow  of  the  mind  and  soul. 

In  regard  to  voice,  how  fully  we  are  becoming  aware  that  it  is  the 
mind  primarily,  and  not  the  body,  that  sings !  The  utterance  of  the 
individual  thru  the  voice  is  as  inevitable  in  kind  and  quality  as  the  very 
identity  of  the  individual  himself.  The  color  and  character  of  the  human 
voice  is  not  a  matter  of  chance  or  accident  when  unhampered  by  habit 
and  disease,  but  the  result  of  law  and  proportion,  unmistakably  speaking 
out  the  story  of  its   possessor.     In   the  voice  are  involved,  not  only  the 


400  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Kindergarten 

proportions,  the  fiber,  the  timber  of  the  individual ;  but  race,  nationality, 
environment,  local  influences,  temperament,  habit,  etc.  Here  we  find 
the  old  principle  of  the  vacuum  applying  itself.  Unoccupied  space, 
whether  in  earth  or  brain  tracts,  has  a  fatal  way  of  growing  crops  of  its 
own,  if  allowed  to  remain  untilled  and  uncultivated.  Inability  to  sing  is 
not  always  due  to  a  fundamental  lack  of  power  to  sing.  Following  a 
sort  of  "  House  that  Jack  Built "  method,  we  might  say  that  lack  of  voice  is 
due  to  a  lack  of  response  on  the  part  of  an  unused  member,  due  to  lack  of 
desire  to  sing,  due  to  indifference  of  mind  to  the  higher  sentiments, 
due  to  cares  and  worries,  worldliness,  business  absorption,  etc.,  etc.,  ad 
infinUtun.  Most  of  the  cases  of  unmusicalness  and  lack  of  vocal  ability 
can  be  traced  to  spiritual  and  aesthetic  indifference.  Highly  intellectual- 
ized  habits,  the  modern  mental  approach  to  life  in  which  the  emotions 
are  little  concerned  and  involved,  have  a  tendency  to  absorb  the  energies 
which  go  toward  the  more  vital  functioning  of  song.  Is  it  to  be  wondered 
at  if  many  of  these  sins  of  omission  and  commission  reflect  themselves 
upon  the  children  ? 

The  delicate  sense-adjustment  of  the  child  so  easily  becomes  jangled 
and  tuneless  thru  neglect.  Again,  as  we  know,  with  careful  sympathetic 
treatment  it  may  be  made  to  vibrate  continually  sweeter  and  truer.  In 
the  case  of  the  monotone  and  so-called  unmusicalness,  much  can  be  done 
if  we  "catch  the  Scotchman  young  enough."  The  psychological  subtle- 
ties of  "Why  people  do  not  sing"  have  not  yet  been  sufficiently 
revealed  to  suggest  cure-alls  for  musical  inefficiencies.  Upan  investiga- 
tion, it  must  be  confessed  that  ignorance  and  indifference  seem  more 
potent  factors  than  either  heredity  or  disease.  The  fact  that  with  the 
monotone  child  the  desire  to  sing  is  often  stronger  than  in  the  case  of 
the  normal  child  shows  that  voice  is  more  than  a  physical  fact.  The 
kindergartner  has  too  often  witnessed  the  miracle  of  the  deaf  being  made 
to  hear  and  the  dumb  to  sing  to  question  the  efficacy  of  early  musical 
influence  to  open  the  avenue  of  song  to  the  child.  The  interesting  pro- 
cess of  scientifically  "  uncovering  "  voices  is  going  on  daily  in  the  best 
vocal  studios  of  the  country.  Here  seemingly  indifferent  material  is  often 
converted  into  rare  quality  and  power.  What  more  interesting  conditions 
can  present  themselves  to  the  kindergartner  than  the  vocal  individuali- 
ties of  her  little  flock  ?  What  a  variety  of  coloring  and  contour  is  here 
found,  as  in  complexion,  faces,  and  hair;  as  hoarse,  suppressed,  harsh, 
wheezy,  gold  and  silver  voices  mingle  together!  The  careful  study  of 
their  needs  and  limitations  would  inspire  many  happy  experiments  and  a 
better  adjustment  of  song  and  verse  to  the  child. 

While  children  understand  melody  almost  instinctively,  the  word 
stands  to  them  for  the  meaning  of  the  thing  and  is  the  natural  bridge  to 
conscious  knowledge.  Froebel  gives  us  valuable  thoughts  in  connection 
with  the  early  teaching  of  language  and  the  use  of  the  "word"  as  the 


Department]  MUSIC  FOR  CHILDREN  UNDER  SEVEN  YEARS  \0\ 

medium  between  the  thought  and  the  thing.  The  proper  expression  of 
the  word  thru  sound  and  a  pure  vowel-quality  would  be  a  valuable 
aid  in  vocal  development.  The  careless  use  of  language  in  regard  to 
vowel-quality,  and  later  the  perfunctory,  hurried,  and  chattering  use  of 
words  in  common  speech  —  the  purely  mental  use  of  language  on  the 
part  of  the  adult,  with  no  regard  to  the  expression  side,  involving  no 
emotional  element — results  in  a  paucity  of  tone  and  individuality  in  the 
quality  of  the  voice  which  must  go  a  long  way  in  limiting  the  vocal 
power.  For  this  reason  song  as  speech  and  speech  as  song  should  be 
thoroly  interbl-ended  during  the  kindergarten  period.  Song  should  be 
musical  conversations,  largely  of  the  active  mode,  first  person,  and 
present  tense.  These  should  naturally  lead  to  musical  good-mornings, 
and  all  kinds  of  simple  phrases  sung,  bits  of  talk  and  song  made  up  by 
the  children  themselves,  and  sung  without  the  piano.  From  this  the 
skillful  teacher  can  lead  up  to  difficulties  of  pitch  and  individual  defects. 

A  careful  study  of  relation  of  voice  to  pitch  in  the  natural  expression 
of  idea  must  here  be  made  by  the  teacher,  in  order  to  do  intelligent 
work.  A  child  thoroly  sensitive  to  tone-discriminations  and  impres- 
sions naturally  and  logically  takes  the  next  step.  This  is  the  creative 
effort  in  making  up  tunes,  which,  in  the  yet  unco-ordinated  condition  of 
education,  the  kindergartner  is  not  always  permitted  to  follow. 

A  little  girl  of  my  acquaintance,  just  stepping  out  of  the  kindergarten 
ranks,  and  proceeding  according  to  the  law  of  inner  development,  is  busy 
picking  out  the  tunes  of  the  songs  she  has  learned  from  the  piano. 
"Peter,  Peter"  also  gives  her  great  satisfaction.  One  day  she  originated 
a  new  tune  of  her  own,  which  was  not  "  Peter,  Peter,"  as  she  joyfully 
announced  to  her  mother.  "But,"  she  anxiously  inquired,  "mamma, 
what  does  it  say  ? "  She  had  made  her  tune  from  the  musical  basis 
without  words.  The  mother  suggested  that  her  song  might  be  about  one 
of  the  many  things  she  knew  about.  She  soon  returned  and  brought 
these  rather  remarkable  lines  : 

Hark  !  the  bluebird  now  is  singing, 
And  the  apple  tree  is  swinging. 

It  is  needless  to  say  that  her  mind  was  not  a  blank  sheet  of  white  paper 
to  begin  with,  but  here  was  clearly  the  transition  from  musical  idea  into 
tune,  and  from  tune  into  words — the  two  happily  wedded  as  song.  We 
may  fairly  forecast  that  the  formal  and  largely  imitative  use  of  songs  will 
decrease  as  we  learn  to  appreciate  the  creative  opportunity  given  us  here. 
The  soul  of  the  child  lives  in  motion  as  the  mind  of  the  adult  does  in 
thought.  In  rhythm,  again,  we  are  asserting  the  broader  freedom.  The 
old  and  more  formal  and  technical  plays  are  dividing  honors  with  freer 
rhythmic  expression,  which  represents  the  more  impulsive  and  spontane- 
ous activity  of  the  child.  Here  the  vital  and  physical  energies  come 
more  into  play,  and  in  turn  supply  vigor  and  grasp  to  the  thought-side  of 


4° 2  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Kindergarten 

the  work.  While  the  kindergartner  is  always  in  pursuit  of  the  "thought," 
as  can  be  testified  by  suffering  relatives  and  friends,  children  in  the 
kindergarten  may  suffer  from  passive  thinking  and  enter  the  game  not 
sufficiently  awake  or  aroused  to  dramatic  action.  Thru  simple  rhyth- 
mic activities  we  can  help  lay  the  foundation-experience  in  feeling  which 
will  enrich  the  larger  experience  of  the  game.  One  teacher  says:  "I 
find  in  working  out  the  incidental  experiences  more  fully  in  free  rhythmic 
play  the  children  are  better  prepared  for  vital  and  spontaneous  participa- 
tion in  the  later  dramatizations  of  the  games.  They  think  out  their  own 
activities  Jaetter  and  more  creatively,  and  show  greater  freedom  and  better 
control." 

By  working  constructively,  covering  all  with  the  spirit  of  genuine 
play,  avoiding  sensational  music  and  dance  forms,  the  new  element  of 
rhythm  becomes  a  valuable  adjunct  of  child-training. 

In  the  kindergarten  one  is  specially  impressed  with  the  discouragingly 
slow  process  of  formal  music-assimilation  on  the  part  of  the  children.  It 
often  takes  weeks  and  months  for  a  song  seemingly  childlike  and  suitable 
to  reach  the  point  of  reproduction.  We  fail  to  remember  that  a  song  is 
a  logical  and  sustained  activity  involving  many  co-ordinations — simulta- 
neous control  and  functioning  of  body  and  mind.  To  express  a  song 
the  entire  organism  must  be  poised  and  ready. 

Little  children  often  dream  or  are  inspired  to  other  activity  than  that 
of  utterance  while  the  song  is  in  progress.  Cannot  the  piano  find  its 
right  use  here,  instead  of  usurping  the  place  of  independent  song  on  the 
part  of  these  children  ?  Here  we  have  been  handicapped  by  the  lack  of 
organized  material,  taste,  judgment,  and  the  ability  to  play.  The  delight 
of  the  children  in  having  their  concrete  experiences  told  in  another  kind 
of  story  by  the  piano,  in  harmony,  tone,  and  rhythm  —  this  alone  will 
compensate  any  effort  made  in  this  direction.  His  ear-mind  can  appre- 
ciate and  understand  long  before  he  is  able  to  reproduce.  A  great  step 
in  the  training  of  the  teacher  must  be  taken  in  order  to  do  justice  to  this 
need. 

In  review,  the  child  to  whom  everything  "sings,"  from  the  rocking 
"whirr"  of  the  passing  street-car  to  the  cracking  of  the  flames  in  the  fire- 
place, the  mysteries  of  interpretation  will  never  need  to  be  especially 
explained. 

Further,  the  child  who  has  concretely  experienced  and  represented, 
observed  and  appropriated,  the  life-qualities  of  the  things  about  him  will 
easily  recognize  their  tonal  and  rhythmic  meanings.  Music  becomes  a 
language  to  him,  another  way  of  telling  things,  a  means  for  the  commu- 
nication of  ideas.  From  the  simple  and  concrete  we  can  easily  pass  to 
the  higher  and  complex  in  music-culture,  gradually  leading  the  mind  into 
the  realms  of  art-appreciation  and  spiritual  unfoldment. 


DEPARTMENT  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 


SECRETARY'S  MINUTES 


FIRST  SESSION.— Thursday,  July  12,  1900 

The  Elementary  Department  of  the  National  Educational  Association  was  called  to 
order  at  3  :  30  P.  M.  in  the  First  Presbyterian  Church  by  the  president,  J.  W.  Dinsmore, 
Beatrice,  Neb. 

An  organ  recital  by  Miss  Virginia  Douglas  and  a  vocal  solo  by  Mrs.  Charles  Wilkie, 
ladies  of  Charleston,  introduced  the  regular  program  of  the  department. 

The  first  paper,  "  Nature  Study  in  the  Public  Schools,"  was  read  by  D.  Lange, 
instructor  in  nature  study  in  the  public  schools  of  St.  Paul,  Minn. 

In  the  absence  of  Professor  Parker,  of  South  Carolina,  the  second  topic,  "  Nature 
Study  in  the  Primary  Grades,"  was  presented  by  Superintendent  W.  C.  Warfield,  of  Ken- 
tucky, in  a  brief  and  informal  discussion. 

"  The  Geographical  Phase  of  Nature  Study  "  was  treated  by  Dr.  Jacques  W.  Redway, 
of  Mount  Vernon,  N.  Y. 

The  discussion  was  introduced  by  Henry  R.  Sanford,  of  Penn  Yan,  N.  Y.,  and  con- 
tinued by  Hon.  G.  R.  Glenn,  of  Atlanta,  Ga. 

The  Committee  on  Nomination  of  Officers  was  appointed  as  follows  : 

T.  A.  Mott,  of  Indiana.  W.  C.  Warfield,  of  Kentucky. 

L.  M.  Landrum,  of  Georgia. 

This  committee  was  instructed  to  report  at  the  close  of  the  succeeding  session,  and 

the  department  was  adjourned  to  Friday  afternoon  at  3  :  30. 

SECOND  SESSION.— Friday,  July  13 

The  department  met  at  3 :  30  P.  M.,  President  Dinsmore  in  the  chair. 

Music  by  Mrs.  Bell,  of  Charleston. 

The  first  subject  for  the  afternoon,  "  English  in  the  Grades,"  was  presented  by  Super- 
intendent A.  A.  Reed,  of  Crete,  Neb.,  who  was  followed  in  discussion  by  Mrs.  Sara  D. 
Jenkins,  of  Ithaca,  N.  Y.  The  discussion  was  continued  by  Superintendent  J.  W.  Carr,  of 
Indiana  ;  Professor  C.  A.  Graeser,  of  Charleston,  S.  C. ;  President  John  R.  Kirk,  of  Mis- 
souri;  Miss  Thurston,  of  South  Carolina;  and  J.  J.  Burns,  of  Ohio. 

The  second  paper,  "The  Elimination  of  the  Grammar  School,"  was  presented  by 
Superintendent  Otis  Ashmore,  of  Savannah,  Ga.,  and  its  discussion  was  introduced  by 
President  John  R.  Kirk,  of  Missouri. 

Remarks  were  also  made  by  Superintendents  Landrum,  of  Georgia  ;  Carr,  of  Indiana, 
and  Raymond,  of  East  Liverpool,  O.  The  discussion  was  closed  by  Superintendent 
Ashmore. 

The  Committee  on  Nominations  reported  as  follows  : 

For  President — J.  W.  Carr,  of  Indiana. 

For  Vice-President  —  J.  C.  Harris,  of  Georgia. 

For  Secretary —  Mrs.  Sara  D.  Jenkins,  of  New  York. 

The  report  was  approved,  the  persons  named  declared  elected,  and,  on  motion,  at 
6 :  30  p.  M.  the  department  adjourned.  Bettie  A.  Dutton 

Secretary. 
403 


404  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Elemental' 


PAPERS  AND  DISCUSSIONS 


NATURE  STUDY  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

D.  LANGE,  SUPERVISOR  OF  NATURE  STUDY  IN  CITY  SCHOOLS,  ST.  PAUL,  MINN, 

In  order  to  prevent  any  misunderstanding,  it  maybe  well  to  state  that 
by  nature  study  as  used  in  this  paper  is  understood  the  work  in  elemen- 
tary science  taught  below  the  high  school  —  in  botany,  zoology,  physics, 
chemistry,  and  geology. 

As  we  are  dealing  with  a  subject  comparatively  new  in  many  of  our 
rural  and  graded  schools,  it  would  not  be  wise  to  demand  too  much  time 
for  it ;  but  at  least  two  lessons  a  week  of  not  less  than  half  an  hour  each 
should  be  devoted  to  it ;  three  lessons  would  be  much  better  ;  and,  if  prop- 
erly managed  and  connected  with  other  branches,  one  lesson  a  day  could 
be  made  most  profitable. 

I  shall  first  briefly  outline  what  material  might  be  selected  from  the 
large  amount  available.  In  the  first  place  let  me  say  :  Begin  at  home, 
begin  with  such  objects  and  phenomena  as  attracted  the  child's  atten- 
tion before  he  came  to  school.  The  little  child,  manifesting  a  lively 
interest  in  bright  flowers  and  birds,  tells  us  to  begin  with  conspicuous 
flowers  and  beautiful  common  birds.  With  these  subjects  a  study  of  some 
common  trees,  shrubs,  and  vines,  and  a  few  house  and  garden  plants,  is 
easily  connected.  Then  might  follow  a  study  of  a  few  common  and  con- 
spicuous insects,  special  attention  being  paid  to  those  that  are  injurious 
to  gardeners  and  farmers.  A  knowledge  of  a  few  of  the  most  injurious 
weeds  and  common  poisonous  plants  would  about  complete  a  chapter  on 
hostile  forms  in  nature. 

We  should  not  omit  a  simple  study  of  the  more  important  agricultural 
plants  of  our  region,'  a  glimpse  of  the  forests  and  forest  products,  and  of 
life  in  the  water.  At  some  convenient  time,  when  outdoor  work  is  not 
possible,  we  should  remember  our  faithful  servants  —  the  domestic  animals, 
whose  toil  and  whose  sacrificed  lives  have  enabled  mankind  to  occupy  its 
lofty  position. 

Local  geological  and  physiographical  matter  may  be  taught  in  con- 
nection with  biology,  or  suitable  months  maybe  exclusively  devoted  to  it. 
The  latter  plan  is  probably  the  better. 

As  far  as  my  experience  goes,  whatever  is  to  be  taught  of  chemistry 
and  physics  must  be  taught  in  lessons  set  aside  for  these  subjects ;  inci- 
dental work  will  accomplish  nothing. 

Is  it  not  impossible  to  cover  all  these  fields  ?  The  answer  is  that  a 
careful  —  even  a  rigid  ^—selection  is  necessary.     In  a  small  inland  town  of 


Department]  NATURE  STUDY  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS  405 

the  North,  the  trees,  the  denizens,  and  the  products  of  the  pine  forest 
should  receive  special  attention  ;  while  children  in  a  southern  seaport  have 
their  interests  attracted  by  other  forms  of  life.  The  course  for  any  par- 
ticular school  or  schools  must  be  planned  in  accordance  with  the  time  to 
be  given  to  it,  and  teachers,  superintendents,  and  supervisors  must  see 
that  both  shallowness  and  misapplied  thoroness  are  avoided.  It  is  by 
no  means  an  easy  thing  to  lay  out  a  nature-study  course  in  which  local 
and  general  climatic  and  physiographical  conditions  have  received  due 
consideration  ;  a  course  which  offers  what  is  alike  interesting,  practical, 
and  available,  in  plant  and  animal  life ;  a  course  in  which  the  time  to  be 
used,  and  the  training  of  the  teachers,  has  received  due  consideration. 
Such  a  course  cannot  be  struck  off  in  an  hour. 

We  shall  now  proceed  to  a  brief  discussion  of  the  method  to  be  fol- 
lowed. I  beliieve  it  a  good  plan  to  co-ordinate  nature  study  with 
geography  as  closely  as  practicable,  but  do  not  believe  that  it  should  be 
taught  incidentally  with  geography.  In  smaller  towns,  and  to  some  extent 
as  well  in  large  cities,  the  teacher  can  do  much  toward  helping  his  pupils 
to  form  great  nature  pictures,  if  the  subjects  are  selected  at  the  different 
seasons  by  life-associations.  Such  topics  as  "Animal  Life  in  the  Woods," 
"The  Woods  in  Early  Spring,"  "Life  in  Our  Pond,"  and  many  others, 
are  rich  in  suggestions.  In  a  large  city  this  method  encounters  difficulties ; 
still  such  collective  topics  as  "  Our  City  Park  in  May,"  "  Our  Street  Trees 
in  Winter,"  can  be  studied  even  by  children  who  have  few  opportunities 
for  real  field  lessons. 

And  now  we  come  at  once  to  the  difficult  question  of  outdoor  lessons. 
We  must  have  them  in  one  way  or  another.  The  happy  country  children 
can  often  be  directed  what  to  observe  on  their  way  to  and  from  school ; 
city  children  who  live  where  there  are  lawns  and  gardens,  trees  and  birds, 
can  be  given  similar  directions  ;  but  those  children  who  live  on  city  streets, 
where  the  pavement  covers  our  mother  earth,  must  be  taken  out  where 
they  can  at  least  get  a  glimpse  of  nature ;  and  every  class  in  any  kind 
of  school  should  be  given  a  few  class  lessons  in  the  fields  or  woods.  The 
reason  is  simple  :  No  child  can  have  a  correct  picture  of  rivers  and  lakes,  of 
swamps  and  woods,  unless  he  has  seen  them.  The  study  of  trees  confined 
to  twigs,  leaves,  and  fruit  brought  into  the  schoolroom  will  not  teach  the 
child  how  the  oak,  the  elm,  the  cottonwood,  the  magnolia  grow  in  woods 
and  parks.  The  teacher  must  be  familiar  with  the  ground,  and  must 
know  just  what  she  wants  to  teach.  A  field  lesson  should  not  be  simply 
a  ramble.  Teachers  have  often  asked  me  :  "  What  shall  we  do  about  these 
field  lessons?  Our  patrons  would  object  to  them  during  school  hours,  and 
some  object  to  them  under  all  circumstances."  If  a  teacher  should  always 
wait  until  the  school  patrons  suggest  an  improvement,  in  some  quarters  of 
our  country  progress  would  not  be  rapid.  Let  every  teacher  be  a  leader, 
altho  a  discreet  leader — by  no  means  be  a  passive  follower. 


4o6  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Elementary 

Next  in  importance  to  field  lessons  is  suitable  material.  Twigs, 
flowers,  fruits,  and  entire  plants  must  be  procured.  Fresh  specimens  are 
preferable,  but  dried  or  alcoholic  material  may,  and  sometimes  must, 
answer  the  purpose.  Insects  and  other  small  creatures  may  be  shown  in 
bottles  and  jars,  or  specimens  from  a  mounted  collection  may  be  used. 
In  all  cases  the  teacher  should  be  sure  that  growing  trees  and  shrubs  are 
not  mutilated.  Twigs  should  be  cut,  not- torn  off,  altho,  I  regret  to  state, 
ladies  generally  tear  them  off.  Allow  no  creature,  however  humble,  to 
be  tormented  by  the  pupils.  This  will  surely  happen  unless  children  who 
do  the  collecting  are  properly  cautioned. 

I  very  much  doubt  the  advisabriity  of  animal  dissection  below  the 
high  school.  If  it  is  undertaken  at  all,  it  should  be  under  the  direction 
of  a  well-equipped  teacher.  The  demonstration  of  an  important  scien- 
tific fact  may  be  indispensable  to  the  working  scientist  and  interesting  to 
a  mature  person,  but  to  the  average  child  it  might  only  be  a  repugnant 
post-mortem  examination. 

Graded  and  rural  schools  do  not  need  a  collection  of  birds  and  eggs. 
Study  the  birds  outdoors  and  use  good  pictures,  and  let  alone  the  birds 
you  cannot  reach  by  these  methods.  It  is  not  our  purpose  to  train  orni- 
thologists, and  we  certainly  do  not  wish  to  imitate  the  cat  that  caught  and 
killed  a  nightingale,  and  then  with  her  claws  tried  to  find  the  joyful  song 
of  spring  in  the  dead  bird's  throat. 

It  need  hardly  be  mentioned  that  nature  study  offers  unlimited  oppor- 
tunities for  the  hand  to  draw  what  the  eye  has  seen,  and,  as  far  as 
practicable,  the  pupils  should  also  carefully  write  up  in  good,  connected 
English  the  results  of  their  experiments  or  observations.  A  large  amount 
of  statistics  which  the  teacher  is  not  able  to  control,  and  which  the  pupils 
cannot  combine  and  interpret,  is  of  doubtful  value.  We  should,  how- 
ever, aim  at  definite  results.  Gushing  sentimentalism  or  mere  rambling 
talks  will  be  as  barren  in  results  as  undigested  statistics.  To  avoid  this,  the 
teacher  should  always  have  a  definite  plan  before  her  when  the  lesson 
begins. 

A  text-book  for  the  class  seems  to  me  not  necessary.  The  education 
of  our  children  is  too  bookish  now.  If  a  text  is  used  as  an  outline  or  a 
help,  it  may  produce  good  results,  but  if  the  teacher  simply  assigns  les- 
sons from  it,  the«  it  becomes  a  positive  evil.  Good  books  rightly  used 
teach  us  how  to  use  our  own  senses ;  they  ipspire  and  lead  us  closer  to 
nature.  With  these  few  outline  suggestions  on  matter  and  method,  to 
which  the  time  at  our  disposal  limits  us,  we  will  proceed  to  discuss  a  little 
more  fully  the  objects  to  be  attained  by  this  work. 

Our  people  recognize  the  value  of  reading,  writing,  and  arithmetic; 
but  I  could  not  truthfully  say  that  all  town  trustees,  nor  even  all  city 
superintendents  and  principals,  see  the  use  of  learning  about  such  non- 
classical  and  unconsecrated  things  as  frogs  and  weeds.     Nevertheless,  the 


Department]  NATURE  STUDY  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS  407 

very  question,  "What  is  the  good  of  it?"  shows  that  our  people  take  an 
interest  in  education,  an  interest  which  I  hope  they  will  always  main- 
tain. 

The  first  reason  why  we  should  teach  elementary  science  is  a  purely 
humanistic  one.  We  should  teach  about  flowers,  butterflies,  and  birds 
because  the  child  desires  to  know  about  them.  Long  before  the  boy  is 
able  to  understand  the  complex  relations  of  social  and  political  institu- 
tions, and  long  before  he  cares  anything  about  them,  he  is  intensely  inter- 
ested in  the  life  of  birds,  bees,  and  flowers  ;  in  the  relations  between  boys, 
fish,  and  angle-worms.  Teach  him  what  he  wants  to  know,  then  no 
cramming  is  needed;  give  him  food  his  mind  can  digest,  and  on  it  his 
powers  of  observation,  of  combination,  and  of  reasoning  will  grow  as  strong 
as  his  muscles  do  by  the  incessant  training  he  gives  them  in  all  the  various 
modes  of  warfare  with  his  friends  and  enemies,  and  in  his  whole  awe- 
inspiring  activity  which  he  displays  as  long  as  he  is  thoroly  awake.  If  we 
grown  people  do  not  devote  most  of  our  time  to  things  we  care  nothing 
about,  why  should  not  the  child  be  allowed  to  devote  some  of  his  time  to 
things  he  really  wants  to  know?  The  accident  that  one  child  is  born  in 
America,  another  in  Germany,  and  another  in  France  fixes  to  a  great 
extent  the  educational  program  of  each  one ;  that  all  three  are  born  in 
civilized  countries  in  the  twentieth  century  also  predetermines  that  they 
must  undergo  a  systematic  training  during  childhood,  if  they  are  to  fight 
with  success  the  battle  of  modern  life.  But  whether  our  parents  were 
Jews  or  gentiles,  English  or  Boer,  black  or  white,  we  were  all  born  as 
human  beings,  as  citizens  of  the  world.  But  how  few  learn  to  know  their 
great  home  !  A  large  number  never  leave  the  dim  closets  of  their  birth ; 
some  take  an  occasional  peep  into  the  backyard.  How  few  ever  get  a 
view  from  the  great  mountains  and  feel  the  breeze  from  the  vast  ocean  of 
life  and  nature !  All  were  born  men,  but  few  die  as  men.  The  one  dies 
a  grocer,  the  other  a  lawyer ;  the  one  a  money-maker,  the  other  a  money- 
spender  ;  a  few  die  as  office-holders,  and  many  die  as  school-teachers. 

Against  the  narrowing,  blinding,  specializing  of  modern  life,  what 
better  remedy  is  there  than  an  introduction  into  the  great  and  universally 
true  life  of  nature  ?  That  but  few  can  travel  great  distances  into  this 
world  without  end  is  certainly  no  reason  why  not  all  should  enter  it. 

Let  us  now  briefly  consider  the  aesthetic  and  moral  aspects  of  nature 
study.  A  strong  effort  is  now  being  made  to  cultivate  the  appreciation 
of  the  beautiful  by  means  of  pictures  and  other  works  of  art.  This  is 
certainly  to  be  commended,  and  will  not  be  without  beneficial  results. 
The  younger  the  child,  the  more  emphatically  he  demands  colors  ;  but 
good  colored  pictures  are  too  expensive  for  most  homes,  and  certainly  for 
most  school  boards.  Happily  for  the  majority  of  children  in  the  land, 
wild  flowers  cost  nothing,  and  orioles  and  tanagers  exhibit  without  the 
small  boy's  great  drawback  to  all  shows — the  admission  ticket.     To  a 


40 8  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  LElementaiy 

certain  extent  all  art  is  an  imitation  and  symbolization  of  nature.  Should 
we  not,  therefore,  first  lead  the  child  to  appreciate  the  beautiful  in 
nature  ?  Have  you  not  found  that  the  child  more  easily  understands  a 
difficult  sentence  than  the  symbol  of  its  diagram  ?  No  painted  flowers 
will  cause  a  child  to  run  and  rapture  like  a  knoll  of  wild  flowers 
with  nature's  own  setting  and  on  nature's  own  background.  From  the 
beautiful  in  nature  the  acting,  the  dramatic  element,  is  never  entirely 
absent.  Living  bees  and  butterflies,  real  thorns  and  prickles,  running 
brooks,  real  sunshine  and  wind,  make  up  the  "each  and  all"  of  the  wild 
flowers,  which  no  master  can  fix  on  the  canvas.  Then  think  of  all  the 
things  the  child  can  do  with  the  real  leaves,  twigs,  flowers,  and  especially 
with  the  beautiful  fruits.  Birds,  fishes,  insects,  and  all  animals  always 
attract  the  boy.  Some  are  beautiful,  others  cunning ;  some  are  brave, 
others  elusive.  They  are  always,  like  himself,  doing  something  or  about 
to  do  something,  and  he  is  interested.  How  different  is  all  this  in  a  pic- 
ture! If  it  is  not  colored  or  does  not  suggest  some  vigorous  action,  the 
child  really  cares  little  for  it.  He  must  not  handle  it,  not  even  touch  it. 
The  laudable  instinct  to  touch  and  to  handle  never  dies  out ;  in  this  we  all 
remain  boys  and  girls.  It  is  on  account  of  this  instinct  that  you  have 
your  canes  and  umbrellas  checked  before  you  enter  a  picture  gallery, 
and  after  you  have  entered  an  iron  railing  keeps  you  a  little  more  than 
arm's  length  from  the  objects  you  may  study  by  the  sense  of  sight  only. 
Many  works  of  art  are  interesting  to  adults  on  account  of  what  they  sug- 
gest to  us.  For  this  reason  we  should  make  the  child's  life  rich  by  con- 
tact with  nature,  with  human  life  and  history.  A  certain  maturity  of 
mind  is  a  prerequisite  for  a  true  appreciation  of  most  works  of  art. 

Now,  turning  our  attention  for  a  moment  from  painting  and  sculpture 
to  literature,  think  of  the  works  of  Longfellow,  Whittier,  Lowell,  Tho- 
reau.  Burroughs,  and  other  well-known  American  writers  and  poets.  Can 
you  imagine  these  men  to  have  spent  their  best  years,  and  especially  their 
boyhood,  in  the  stifling  gloom,  in  the  noise  and  crowds,  of  a  large  city  ? 
Do  you  believe  that  Dickens  could  have  written  Evangeline  and  Hia- 
watha? Nature,  which  inspired  all  the  great  poets  of  all  nations,  cer- 
tainly deserves  a  place  in  our  schools  and  in  the  lives  of  our  children. 
Let  the  children  ramble  in  the  Avoods,  let  them  pick  flowers,  but  teach 
them  that  it  is  a  kind  of  hoggishness  to  take  all  in  sight,  and  then  crowd 
a  hundred  flowers  into  a  small  vase,  and  do  violence  to  nature  and 
aesthetics.  Let  us  teach  them  that  a  few  plants  showing  their  leaves 
and  flowers  are  more  beautiful  than  a  vulgar  bunch,  and  let  us  not  omit 
that  the  flowers  are  most  beautiful  where  they  grow.  A  similar  rule  we 
must  follow  about  the  birds.  We  want  more  birds  to  sing  to  us  from 
trees  and  fields  ;  we  do  not  want  more  in  neglected  collections.  Every 
teacher  who  countenances  the  bird-  and  egg-collecting  mania  among 
boys  is  not  doing  his  duty.    Nor  is  a  teacher  doing  hjs  duty  if  he  looks 


Department]  NATURE  STUDY  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS  4° 9 

on  passively  at  the  work  of  the  Audubon  societies  and  similar  organiza- 
tions. A  true  teacher  is  not  satisfied  to  be  moved  with  the  world  ;  he 
takes  a  hold  and  helps  to  move  it. 

Let  mp  now  turn  to  the  moral  and  ethical  aspect  of  our  subject. 
How  much  have  we  not  heard  about  kindness  to  animals  and  man  ;  how 
many  protests  have  been  uttered  against  the  reckless  waste  of  our 
forests  !  To  reform  a  people  we  must  train  the  young  into  an  intelligent 
sympathy  with  bird  and  beast,  and  with  trees  and  flowers.  A  person  cares 
little  or  nothing  for  entire  strangers.  As  long  as  birds,  beasts,  and  plants 
are  entire  strangers  to  the  children,  the  boys  will  keep  on  killing  birds 
and  robbing  their  nests.  But  once  teach  a  boy  to  know  the  birds,  and 
show  him  that  tormenting  any  dumb  creature  is  as  cowardly  and  mean  as 
if  a  big  boy  abuses  a  little  boy,  and  the  boys  will  become  more  effective 
bird  protectors  than  laws,  game  wardens,  and  humane  societies.  Teach- 
ing is  effective  ;  mere  preaching  is  often  repugnant.  It  is  probably  use- 
less to  preach  against  fashion,  but  I  think  that  very  few  women  would 
wear  songbird  corpses  on  hats  against  the  protests  of  their  own  children. 
As  teachers  of  science  let  us  not  forget  that  man,  beasts,  birds,  and  plants 
have  all  one  Father,  that  one  God  created  them  all.  Man  is  not  the  only 
being  that  has  a  right  to  live.  He  may  use  all  lower  forms  of  life,  but  as 
a  civilized  man,  and  as  a  Christian,  he  may  not  abuse  them.  If  all  women 
appreciated  that  by  wearing  dead  birds  on  hats  they  had  caused  thousands 
of  youpg  birds  to  starve,  I  believe  that  most  of  them  would  be  willing  to 
forego  a  low  pleasure  for  the  higher  pleasure  of  seeing  and  hearing  our 
harmless  birds  in  fields  and  woods  and  at  lake  and  seaside.  These  objec- 
tions do  not  apply  to  domestic  birds  and  to  game  birds  killed  in  season, 
but  they  do  apply  to  all  other  birds,  and  to  foreign  birds  as  well  as  to 
American  birds.  Lack  of  time  forbids  me  to  go  farther  into  this  subject, 
but  let  every  teacher  read  the  magazine  Bird  Lore,  and  if  she  is  not 
interested,  she  will  become  interested. 

Leaving  now  the  moral  aspect  of  nature  study,  let  us  see  how  we  can 
answer  from  the  materialistic  point  of  view  that  oft-repeated  question  : 
What  is  the  use  of  it  ?  We  live  in  an  age  of  applied  sciences ;  in  com- 
merce and  manufacture,  in  agriculture  and  horticulture,  in  forestry  and 
mining,  in  peace  and  in  war,  the  principles  of  all  branches  of  science 
receive  practical  application.  The  man  who  knows  a  little  about  insect 
life  can  in  most  instances  largely  control  any  insect  pest  that  may 
threaten  to  destroy  his  flowers,  shade  trees,  or  crops.  What  a  certificate 
of  ignorance  that  man  gives  himself  who  indiscriminately  nails  to  his 
barndoor  every  hawk  and  owl  he  can  shoot !  I  know  farmers  who  could 
have  saved  themselves  years  of  labor  if  they  had  known  the  dangerous 
character  of  certain  weeds  and  insects.  A  few  years  ago  one  of  our 
American  blessings,  in  the  disguise  of  the  potato  bug,  appeared  in  Ger- 
many.   The  German  government,  backed  by  an  intelligent  public  opinion, 


41 0  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL   ASSOCIATION  [Elementary 

promptly  exterminated  the  pest.  It  would  be  ridiculous  to  claim  that  by 
teaching  about  weeds  and  injurious  insects  we  could  exterminate  these 
nuisances.  We  can,  however,  do  our  share — and  it  is  a  large  share — in 
creating  an  intelligent  public  opinion,  and  thus  aid  the  efforts  of  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  the  state  agricultural  stations, 
the  public  press,  and  wise  legislation ;  for  everybody  knows  that  in  a 
republic  any  law  not  supported  by  a  fairly  strong  public  opinion  is  a  dan- 
gerous dead  letter. 

Last  Christmas  one  of  my  Minnesota  friends  closed  her  house  and 
went  away  on  a  visit.  When  she  returned,  the  tank  of  the  kitchen-range 
had  burst  and  contained  a  cylinder  of  ice.  She  had  turned  off  the  water 
and  thought  that  thus  she  had  emptied  the  tank.  If  her  twelve-year-old 
girl  had  learned  a  little  "household  physics,"  the  family  would  have 
escaped  a  very  considerable  plumber's  bill. 

What  we  desire  to  accomplish  is  to  cause  the  growing  generation  to 
observe  and  to  think.  If  that  could  have  been  done  in  former  years, 
our  forests  would  not  now  be  almost  ruined  by  fires  and  wasteful  meth- 
ods of  lumbering,  for  it  is  largely  the  class  of  people  who  do  not  observe 
and  do  not  think  that  are  responsible  for  thousands  of  square  miles  of 
burned,  ruined  forests,  while  we  pay  $6  for  a  cord  of  wood  and  $30  for  a 
thousand  feet  of  lumber.  Just  as  our  forests  have  been  wasted,  our 
game  has  been  thoughtlessly  slaughtered.  The  value  of  game  to  our 
country  does  not  so  much  consist  in  its  money  value  on  the  market  as  in 
the  recreation  and  health-giving  exercise  it  furnishes  to  our  people. 
Fishing  with  bait  and  hook  and  hunting  with  gun  and  rifle  may  not  be 
the  highest  form  of  recreation  ;  still  none  but  a  vegetarian  can  condemn 
it  as  morally  wrong.  If  it  is  right  to  take  animal  life  for  the  need  of  our 
stomachs,  it  cannot  be  wrong  to  take  it  for  the  benefit  of  bodily  health 
and  mental  vigor,  as  long  as  the  hunter  contents  himself  with  a  reason- 
able bag  and  does  not  make  a  game-hog  of  himself.  If  hunting  with  a 
gun  is  repugnant  to  you,  hunt  with  a  camera,  which  will  give  you  as 
much  health,  and  may  furnish  you  much  more  exercise.  Advocating 
and  furthering  reasonable  forest  and  game  protection  is  the  duty  of  all 
science  teachers.  When  we  learn  from  a  report  carefully  compiled  by 
Mr.  W.  T.  Hornaday  that  in  Florida,  to  cite  only  one  instance,  birds  in 
general  have  decreased  75  per  cent,  within  the  last  fifteen  years,  and,  as 
everybody  knows,  that  the  noble  buffalo,  which  fifty  years  ago  roamed 
the  plains  in  herds  aggregating  to  millions  of  animals,  is  now  practically 
extinct,  we  must  admit  the  necessity  of  a  general  awakening  on  this 
problem.  The  League  of  American  Sportsmen,  and  other  associations, 
have  accomplished  much  in  this  direction  during  the  last  few  years  ;  but 
how  few  teachers  have  done  their  duty!  Take  a  hand  in  the  battle  — 
don't  ride  behind  on  the  baggage  wagon  —  must  again  be  our  motto. 

In  closing,  allow  me  to  add  a  few  words  on  the  purely  scientific  and 


DepartmentJ  NATURE  STUDY  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS  4*  t 

moral  aspects  of  our  subject.  There  is  one  great  question  humanity  has 
been  asking  ever  since  a  ray  of  the  infinite  light  began  to  shine  upon  the 
speck  of  dust  we  call  man.  The  heathen  Pilate  asked  it  of  Him  who 
came  to  bring  light  and  mercy  into  the  world  :  "What  is  truth  ?"  The 
humblest  slaves  and  the  kings  of  intellect  have  ever  asked  the  same  ques- 
tion. At  first  it  was  asked  timidly,  then  boldly;  now  the  whole  race 
repeats  it.  On  this  side  of  the  great  unknown  the  whole,  infinite  truth 
will  never  be  revealed.  But,  where  in  former  ages  slaves  and  savages 
quaked  in  fear  and  superstition,  great  nations  now  strive  hopefully,  fear- 
lessly, onward  and  upward.  What  is  the  value  of  science  ?  Like  a  benefi- 
cent goddess  she  has  begun  to  emancipate  humanity  from  barbarism, 
from  the  slavery  of  toil,  from  fear  and  superstition.  To  search  for  truth 
without  prejudice,  to  accept  it  with  sincerity,  to  act  upon  it  with  the  force 
of  conviction  —  that  is  the  great  moral  lesson  science  is  teaching  man- 
kind. 


NATURE  STUDY  IN   THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS—THE 
GEOGRAPHICAL  PHASE 

JACQUES     W.     REDWAY,    F.R.G.S.,    MT.    VERNON,    N.    Y. 

In  the  times  that  are  now  happily  becoming  a  thing  of  the  past,  the 
factor  next  in  importance  to  the  president  of  the  board,  the  superintend- 
ent, and  the  course  of  study  was  the  teacher.  As  an  individual  in  the 
community  he  was  a  creation  upon  whom  all  the  miseries  of  life  were  to 
be  unloaded  ;  as  a  professional  worker,  however,  his  chief  value  lay  in  his 
having  a  method,  and  in  his  ability  to  "present"  the  various  things,  real 
and  fanciful,  popularly  called  education. 

Somewhere  or  other  in  the  system  the  child  had  a  place  —  at  least  in 
theory;  the  place  was  a  secondary  matter,  however,  and  the  chief  use  of 
the  child  was  to  be  a  necessary  evil  upon  whom  psychological  and  peda- 
gogical presentation  was  to  be  practiced.  As  a  rule,  the  child  was  a  pas- 
sive entity — a  sort  of  receptacle  into  whom  an  abnormal  amount  of 
graded  and  sometimes  useful  misinformation  was  to  be  ingested.  Outside 
of  the  practice  work  in  writing  lineal  miles  of  equations  and  reducing 
fractions  to  uncommon  denominators,  or  an  occasional  composition 
on  "Socrates,"  "The  Beauties  of  Poesy,"  or  "The  Isness  of  the  Was," 
there  was  but  little  chance  for  the  child  to  cultivate  his  activities ;  indeed, 
beyond  the  fact  that  the  child  had  an  ever-present  desire  to  be  mixed  up 
in  some  cussedness  or  other,  there  was  a  sort  of  lurking  belief  that  he 
had  no  activities. 

Even  in  the  study  of  the  sciences  the  activity  of  the  pupil  did  not 
go  beyond  seeing  what  the  instructor  or  professpr  did.  In  botany  it  was 
the  instructor,  and  not  the  student,  who  pulled  the  flower  to  pieces ;  or  if, 
perchance,    it   was   to   be  determined   whether  a    leaf    was    lanceolate* 


412  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Elementary 

oblanceolate,  or  sagittate,  it  was  quite  as  likely  studied  from  a  picture 
and  not  a  leaf.  In  mineralogy  the  student  was  generally  required  to 
memorize  the  chemical  formulas  of  minerals  ;  he  must  know  that  quartz 
^  was  ^Oj,  but  to  ask  him  to  pick  out  a  piece  of  quartz  from  a  number  of 
minerals  having  vitreous  luster  was  scarcely  less  than  an  imposition. 
His  knowledge  of  chemistry  was  achieved,  in  many  instances,  without 
even  a  shadow  of  contact  with  the  elements  most  concerned.  Knowing 
the  symbols  of  the  elements,  and  having  a  glibness  in  the  manner  of 
expressing  HgSO^  or  K2Cr20,,was  considered  evidence  of  proficiency; 
if  he  could  write  the  reaction  by  which  grape  sugar  breaks  up  into 
alcohol  and  carbon  dioxide,  he  was  considered  an  expert.  Experiments, 
as  a  rule,  were  considered  unnecessary,  and  were  performed  by  the 
teacher  and  not  the  pupil. 

In  zoology  the  instruction  was  even  more  meager ;  the  student 
memorized  the  classification,  and  probably  remembered  that  animals 
were  divided  into  birds,  insects,  beasts,  and  fishes.  The  idea  of  a  biologi- 
cal basis  in  the  study  of  zoology  and  botany  was  considered  preposterous. 
In  geology  the  chief  end  was  to  memorize  the  order  of  strata,  and  learn 
the  names  of  a  certain  number  of  fossils.  The  trilobite  was  always  in 
evidence,  and  sometimes  the  class  got  as  far  as  megatherea  and  amphi- 
pleurse  pelucidse.  A  limited  amount  of  dynamic  geology  was  permitted, 
but  woe  be  to  the  teacher  or  professor  who  should  advance  the  idea  that 
the  world  was  one  minute  older  than  six  thousand  years !  In  geography 
the  conditions  seemed  even  more  hopeless.  Physical  geography  was 
looked  upon  as  a  useless  luxury,  and  in  not  a  few  instances  it  was  put 
under  the  same  ban  that  shut  geology  out  from  so  many  schools.  Physio- 
graphic geography  was  considered  especially  vicious,  from  the  fact  that  it 
was  supposed  to  be  in  league  with  evolution.  The  general  science  of 
geography  consisted  of  mathematical  and  political  geography.  In 
mathematical  geography  the  pupils  were  expected  to  learn  the  exact 
inclination  of  the  earth's  axis,  and  also  the  names  and  position  of  the 
polar  and  tropical  circles.  It  was  also  an  unwritten  rule  that  these  circles 
were  to  be  learned  as  the  boundaries  of  the  zones  of  climate,  which  is 
absolutely  untrue.  Political  geography  was  the  great  stand-by,  however, 
and  the  knowledge  of  it  consisted  almost  wholly  of  memorized  statistics  — 
capes,  peninsulas,  bays,  capitals,  and  boundaries ;  and  until  recently  the  sum 
and  substance  of  geography  has  been  locked  up  in  this  sort  of  knowledge. 
Now,  in  the  course  of  time,  the  science  teachers  of  the  secondary 
schools  and  of  not  a  few  colleges  were  drawn  from  the  young  men  whose 
preparation  for  their  work  covered  just  about  the  ground  noted  in  the 
preceding  paragraphs,  and  the  surprising  thing  about  it  is  the  fact  that 
they  knew  their  subjects  pretty  thoroly  so  far  as  theory  is  concerned. 
Their  pupils  likewise  were  well  enough  stuffed  with  information  to  pass 
the  entrance  examination  into  the  university. 


Department]  NATURE  STUDY  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS  413 

But  when  the  student  of  the  university  had  reached  the  place  where  he 
was  compelled  to  get  his  information  from  sources  other  than  books,  or 
his  teacher's  stock  in  trade,  he  found  himself  at  a  dead  standstill.  As  a 
result,  he  had  the  choice  either  of  failure  or  of  the  extra  work  required  to 
cultivate  a  faculty  that  hitherto  had  been  dormant  —  that  of  observation. 

In  the  many  discussions  that  were  brought  about  by  this  state  of  affairs 
there  was  one  thing  that  the  university  professor  never  failed  to  demand, 
namely,  that  the  observational  powers  of  the  pupil  should  be  cultivated 
as  well  as  the  memory  faculty  ;  indeed,  this  is  one  of  the  few  reforms  in 
education  that  have  come  from  the  university  and  not  from  the  primary 
educator.  Thus  it  has  come  to  be  generally  recognized  that  the  knowl- 
edge the  child  gets  by  discovery  is  worth  far  more  than  that  which  he 
obtains  by  word  of  mouth.  And  so  also  the  demand  for  observational 
work  which  started  within  the  walls  of  the  university  reached  downward, 
step  by  step,  until  it  became  a  fundamental  principle  even  of  the  lowest 
primary  work. 

Nature  study,  therefore,  has  come  to  be  an  established  feature  in 
almost  all  schools ;  and  granting  that  in  the  hands  of  the  novices  at 
teaching  some  wasteful,  injudicious,  and  even  ridiculous  work  has  been 
done,  the  results  have  been  distinctively  good.  It  has  been  good  for  the 
child,  because  it  has  given  him  self-power  to  discover  and  acquire  knowl- 
edge ;  it  has  been  good  for  the  teacher  by  giving  self-knowledge  instead 
of  a  second-hand  acquaintance  with  the  subject-matter  taught.  There  is  a 
wonderful  difference  between  the  knowledge  of  contact  and  that  which 
comes  from  reading  about  a  thing ;  it  is  as  solid  gold  compared  with 
paper  tinsel. 

It  has  come  to  be  an  established  fact  also  that  pretty  nearly  all  the 
departments  of  knowledge  classed  as  natural  sciences  have  a  geographic 
basis,  and  therefore  may  be  called  differentiated  geography.  Animals 
and  plants  depend  for  their  existence  on  conditions  of  environment  that 
are  distinctly  geographic.  Indeed,  it  would  not  be  a  very  great  breach  of 
truth  to  say  that  a  camel  is  a  camel  because  of  the  desert ;  a  fish,  a  fish 
because  of  the  water  ;  a  bird,  a  bird  because  of  the  air ;  there  could  not 
even  be  a  duck  if  there  were  no  impounded  water.  All  life  requires  food  ; 
indeed,  nutrition  is  the  physical  basis  of  life,  and  nutrition  comes  from 
the  earth.  Therefore,  in  studying  life-forms  we  are  studying  things  that 
are  essential  to  the  life  of  mankind ;  and  we  cannot  study  them  logically 
without  making  geographic  environment  the  basis  of  research. 

The  study  of  rocks,  including  that  of  minerals,  is  also  closely  con- 
nected with  the  work  of  geography  in  the  grades.  Excepting  the  special- 
ists along  certain  lines  of  scientific  work,  there  are  but  few  men  and  women 
who  require  a  good  working  knowledge  of  more  than  thirty  mineral 
species  and  ten  kinds  of  rock.  Most  of  these  enter,  one  way  or  another, 
into  the  affairs  of  life,  and  nearly  all  can  be  recognized  by  their  physical 


414  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Elementary 

properties.  With  perhaps  a  dozen  exceptions,  their  blowpipe  and  humid 
reactions  are  so  simple  that  the  determinations  may  be  made  with 
certainty  by  pupils  in  the  grammar  school  grades. 

In  the  ordinary  work  of  geography  there  is  a  wide  field  for  some  very 
practical  nature  study.  In  nearly  all  schools  the  first  three  years  of  geog- 
raphy study  is  observation  ;  and  this,  when  intelligently  planned  and 
carried  out,  is  nature  study  pure  and  simple.  Both  vertical  and  horizon- 
tal outlines  must  be  made  familiar,  and  these  are  best  learned  as  one  sees 
them  in  nature.  There  are  but  few  localities  in  which  most  of  them  can- 
not be  studied,  either  in  miniature  or  in  fact.  In  many  instances  they  are 
very  conveniently  studied  from  pictures ;  and,  as  a  rule,  they  are  better 
studied  from  good  photographs  and  half-tones  than  from  ordinary 
models.' 

It  is  well  also  to  bear  in  mind  the  fact  that  one  example  of  a  form  is 
rarely  sufficient.  Mountains,  islands,  hills,  peninsulas,  and  isthmuses  take 
such  diverse  forms  that  in  some  instances  half  a  dozen  or  more  must  be 
studied  before  the  pupil  discovers  the  salient  feature.  Thus  the  terms 
"hill"  and  "mountain"  have  each  varied  applications.  The  hill  may  be 
either  a  cliff,  a  grade,  or  a  knoll ;  the  mountain,  a  peak,  a  short  range,  a 
small  plateau,  or  a  cliff  that  has  a  high  and  abrupt  escarpment. 

Having  learned  something  about  topographic  forms,  manifestly  the 
logical  plan  is  to  study  the  physiographic  processes  by  which  they  are 
shaped.  Here,  too,  observational  work  becomes  of  the  highest  value. 
One  may  possibly  get  fairly  correct  ideas  of  topographic  forms  by  dint  of 
verbal  description,  but  the  latter  gives  one  very  feeble  and  unsatisfactory 
ideas  of  earth-sculpture.  And  yet  many  of  the  fundamental  principles  of 
earth-sculpture  may  be  observed  in  a  rainstorm.  The  child  who  discovers 
that  water  in  motion  makes  gullies  and  carries  rock-waste  has  got  at  the 
foundation  of  geography. 

The  study  of  physiographic  processes  is  the  key  to  topographic  forms, 
but  what  is  the  ulterior  explanation  of  these  ?  And  the  answer  is, 
climate.  In  other  words,  the  climatic  control  of  land-forms  brings  us  a 
step  nearer  to  the  ultimate  principles  of  geography.  Even  this — or,  at 
least,  much  of  it — is  within  the  scope  of  the  grades.  The  effects  of  heat 
and  cold  upon  the  growth  and  development  of  life-forms  are  not  difficult 
to  understand ;  and  when  the  observation  is  directed,  the  child  will  pick 
up  almost  unconsciously  a  great  deal  of  useful  knowledge.  The  effects 
of  moisture  impress  themselves  to  even  a  greater  degree ;  for  moisture  is 
not  only  necessary  to  life,  but  the  condensation  of  atmospheric  moisture 
is  the  cause  of  erosion  and  corrasion,  the  two  processes  that  are  so  inti- 
mately connected  with  physiography.  The  drying  of  pools  of  water  or 
of  muddy  roads  shows  the  fundamental  principles  of  evaporation.  The 
momentary  cloud  that  forms  from   the  breath   on  a  cold  day  illustrates 

I  Models  that  are  topographically  good  and  at  the  same  time  artistic  are  hard  to  obtain,  and  almost 
always  expensive. 


Department]  NATURE  STUDY  TN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS  4^5 

the  formation  of  clouds,  and  the  gathering  of  moisture  on  the  inner  sur- 
face of  a  window-pane  illustrates  the  principle  of  condensation.  It  is 
necessary  to  go  only  a  step  farther  in  order  to  understand  that  upon  the 
conditions  of  heat  and  moisture  the  distribution  of  life  depends. 

Doubtless  all  the  things  noted  in  the  foregoing  paragraphs  form  a 
part  of  the  course  in  geography  in  many  schools,  and  probably  all  the 
points  mentioned  have  a  place  in  the  work  of  some  schools.  The  only 
question  is :  Can  nature  study  be  made  more  practical  and  yield  a 
greater  worth  ?  This,  I  am  inclined  to  think,  may  be  answered  in  the 
afifirmative. 

Let  us  take  the  study  of  animals  and  plants  as  an  example.  The 
pupil  of  the  primary  grades  observes  the  germination  of  seeds  :  why  not 
extend  the  work,  taking  systematically  some  of  the  principles  of  biology 
in  the  succeeding  grades  ?  If  this  were  done,  there  would  be  no  need  of 
the  course  in  biology  in  the  high  school,  because  the  work  would  have 
been  already  accomplished.  The  pupil  who  stopped  his  school  work  at 
the  threshold  of  the  high  school  would  have  received  the  needed  training 
of  his  faculties  of  observation  ;  the  pupil  who  entered  the  high  school 
would  be  ready  for  advanced  work  ;  the  university  student  would  not  be 
compelled  to  waste  a  year  of  time  in  learning  how  to  see. 

A  still  more  practical  side  would  be  a  wider  knowledge  of  the  species 
of  animals  and  plants  living  within  the  pupil's  vicinity;  and  to  the  boy 
or  the  girl  brought  up  on  a  farm  this  knowledge  would  be  a  most  valu- 
able capital.  A  knowledge  of  the  minerals  of  economic  value  would  be 
a  still  greater  working  capital.  The  farmer  who  adds  to'  a  practical 
information  of  these  things  a  knowledge  of  the  demands  of  the  markets 
may  defy  the  trust  octopus,  the  corporation  dragon,  or  the  devil. 

In  the  study  of  physiographic  geography  there  are  abundant  oppor- 
tunities for  doing  much  of  the  wOrk  by  laboratory  and  field  methods  that 
is  now  attempted  by  didactic  methods  —  or  else  not  done  at  all.  Now, 
were  natural  study  systematically  planned  thruout  the  grades,  physical 
geography  might  be  finished  in  the  latter  half  of  the  eighth  year,  and  a 
course  in  economic  or  commercial  geography  put  into  the  first  year  of 
the  high  school.  The  observation  work  in  physiography  can  be  made  a 
most  practical  introduction  to  ^ementary  geology,  and  the  course  in  the 
latter  then  could  be  restricted  to  half  a  semester  in  one  of  the  last  years 
of  the  high  school,  or,  better  even,  transferred  to  the  university. 

A  still  more  practical  result  may  be  obtained  by  systematizing  the 
weather  observations,  which  now,  a  few  localities  excepted,  are  desultory ; 
that  is,  they  lead  to  no  tangible  results.  In  the  sixth  and  seventh  years 
the  observations  of  clouds,  wind  direction,  rain,  etc.,  might  be  system- 
atically recorded,  and  in  the  eighth  year  the  study  of  weather-maps  and 
the  making  of  weather  predictions  could  be  practiced.  That  this  kind 
of  work  is  not  too  difficult  for  eighth-year  and  high-school  pupils  is 


41 6  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Elementary 

evident  from  the  fact  that  it  is  now  done  in  many  schools,  and  the  pre- 
dictions are  verified  to  a  high  degree  of  accuracy. 

The  direct  results  of  nature  study,  when  planned  and  carried  out  with 
a  modicum  of  common-sense,  are  twofold.  In  the  first  place,  it  supplies 
a  sort  of  knowledge  which  the  pupil  needs  and  can  use  in  his  experience 
with  the  world  ;  in  the  second,  it  stimulates  all  the  faculties  of  observation 
and  perception,  making  him  stronger  and  more  self-reliant ;  and  this,  I 
believe,  is  its  greatest  value.  It  has  been  a  stimulus  not  only  to  the  child, 
but  to  the  teacher  as  well ;  and  it  is  even  now  giving  the  instructor  in 
every  department  from  the  kindergarten  to  the  university  a  broader  and 
more  accurate  knowledge  of  the  world  and  the  things  in  it.  Grant  that 
it  sometimes  leaves  one  in  doubt  concerning  the  exact -truth;  if  so,  so 
much  the  better.  Absolute  knowledge  does  not  come  in  cut-and-dried 
chunks;  and  to  learn  this  is  the  beginning  of  wisdom.  In  other  words, 
the  science  teaching  of  the  past  decade  is  becoming  the  scientific  teaching 
of  the  present. 

The  president  of  this  department  has  kindly  suggested  the  subject  of 
this  preachment  in  the  form  in  which  it  appears  in  the  progam  ;  and  there 
is  a  pleasant,  scholarly  ring  about  it  that  I  like.  Were  I  .to  follow  nly  own 
feelings  in  the  matter,  however,  I  should  have  put  it  in  a  homelier  but 
more  expressive  form,  and  written  as  my  text :  "  Give  the  kid  a  chance." 


ENGLISH  IN  THE  GRADES 

A.    A.    REED,    SUPERINTENDENT    OF    SCHOOLS,    CRETE,    NEB. 

Instruction  in  English  will  be  discussed  under  three  divisions:  tech- 
nical, constructive,  and  interpretative.  Technical  English  considers  all 
phases  of  grammatical  and  rhetorical  accuracy  of  language.  Constructive 
English  has  to  do  with  the  ability  to  use  language  effectively  for  accom- 
plishing a  given  purpose.  Interpretative  English  concerns  the  realization 
of  the  power  of  language.  Technical  English  is  but  an  incident  to  the 
other  divisions,  and  for  the  most  part  should  have  incidental  treatment* 
This  will  include  all  necessary  facts  of  form  and  construction,  presented 
as  they  occur  organically  in  the  use  of  Janguage.  The  way  to  make  an 
awkward,  self-conscious  child  is  to  teach  it  "manners"  constantly.  The 
way  to  produce  a  wooden  writer  is  to  dwell  continually  on  the  errors  of 
form.  The  child  living  in  an  atmosphere  of  culture  moves  with  natural 
grace  and  dignity.  So  the  youth  who  has  studied  under  conditions 
favorable  for  correct,  natural,  effective  language  speaks  and  writes  with 
correctness  and  power.  Pupils  in  primary  grades  who  have  been  accus- 
tomed to  use  language  under  normal  conditions,  with  incidental  considera- 
tion of  form,  have  put  to  shame  college  graduates  of  the  tread-mill  school. 
The  mere  avoidance  of  error  is  not  a  virtue,  either  ethically  or  intellectually, 


Department]  ENGLISH  IN  THE  GRADES  417 

3'et  it  is  a  consideration  to  be  desired.  Even  this  can  be  secured  in  a  form 
to  be  permanent  when  acquired  thru  activity  under  a  degree  of  energiza- 
tion. But  we  are  told  that  forms  and  principles  must  be  drilled  upon 
until  they  are  memorized  —  that  old  pedagogical  error  that  iteration  is  of 
prime  importance  in  memorizing.  One  experience  is  as  potent  as  a  thou- 
sand, if  the  soul  has  entered  it.  The  teacher  is  concerned  with  realization, 
not  iteration.  This  principle  has  produced  valuable  results  in  English,  not 
only  when  applied  to  elementary  schools,  but  also  in  schools  of  college 
and  university  grade.  In  one  institution  a  class  of  seventy  sophomores, 
as  degenerate  victims  of  misapplied  efforts  in  English  as  a  system  could 
hope  to  produce,  was  changed  in  twelve  weeks  to  a  class  with  ideal  form 
by  disregarding  technique  and  devoting  all  the  attention  to  securing 
favorable  conditions  for  energized  modes  and  better  matter. 

The  limits  of  the  time  and  the  extent  of  the  subject  compel  me  to 
consider  mainly  constructive  English,  the  phase  which,  if  placed  upon  a 
proper  basis,  would  remedy  most  0/  the  evils  incident  to  the  other  divisions. 

The  difficulties  in  teaching  constructive  English  are  (i)  to  arouse 
interest  in  the  subject  and  (2)  to  prevent  the  methods  of  the  class-room 
from  rendering  the  pupils  intellectually  defective.  Three  causes  are 
plainly  in  evidence  :  (i)  The  so-called  "  language  work  "  is  too  simple  and 
is  stultifying  to  the  self-respect  of  the  child.     Pupils  are  still  set  to  filling 

blanks  of  the  type,  "  Fishes in  the  water,"  an  exercise   that    seldom 

requires  mental  energy  or  arouses  enthusiasm.  They  are  required  to  group 
words  in  sentences  having  no  organic  relation.  They  are  encouraged  to  write 
things  that  no  one  but  an  imbecile  would  be  guilty  of  saying,  in  the  belief 
that  such  a  process  has  some  relation  to  "  language-training."  (2)  Com- 
positions are  approached  at  long  intervals  in  a  formal  manner,  with  fear 
and  trembling  on  the  part  of  both  pupil  and  teacher,  changing  what  should 
be  a  source  of  mutual  pleasure  to  a  cause  of  annoyance.  The  preparation 
generally  makes  the  child  artificial  and  self-conscious  rather  than  natural 
and  free  in  expressing  self.  To  the  teacher  the  period  for  writing  should 
be  an  opportunity  for  breaking  away  from  much  of  the  formality  that 
deadens  the  work  of  the  school,  and  of  dealing  with  the  realities  of  life. 
To  the  pupil  it  should  be  an  opportunity  for  exercising  a  God-given  power 
of  realizing  self  in  an  attempt  at  interpreting  its  own  ideals.  (3)  Technical 
grammar  is  made  the  medium  for  instruction  in  language.  The  only 
master  who  requires  his  apprentice  to  learn  the  names  and  classification 
of  the  tools  he  is  about  to  use  is  the  schoolmaster.  Such  a  blunder  would 
be  impossible  in  a  carpenter-shop.  The  carpenter's  apprentice  does  learn 
the  names  and  uses,  and  effectively,  for  he  learns  them  incidentally  as  he 
has  occasion  to  use  them.  Thus  they  enter  into  his  consciousness  in  their 
logical  relation,  and,  reaching  the  understanding,  are  beyond  the  possibility 
of  being  forgotten.  Children  should  acquire  the  correct  use  of  language 
by  using  it  correctly  and  organically.     Knowing  the  terminology  of  the 


41 8  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Elementaiy 

science  gives  no  power  in  the  art.  It  is  as  absurd  to  hope  to  arouse  an 
interest  in  language  by  teaching  the  analysis  and  classification  of  its  ele- 
ments as  it  is  to  attempt  to  cause  a  love  for  nature  by  teaching  the  analysis 
and  classification  of  plants.  Let  the  child  revel  in  the  beauties  of  lan- 
guage as  it  will  in  the  beauties  of  nature,  if  turned  loose  in  that  direction, 
using  classification  as  it  can  be  made  to  summarize  and  broaden  the  later 
stages  of  the  study. 

The  first  essential  for  securing  good  language  work  is  to  obtain  con- 
ditions favorable  for  awakening  interest  on  the  part  of  the  pupil.  Adults 
can  do  fairly  good  work  from  voluntary  attention,  but  unless  the  child  is 
energized  to  such  an  extent  that  it  really  wants  to  do  a  task,  the  result 
must  be  mainly  a  failure.  This  is  as  true  physically  as  mentally.  A  little 
child  will  hop,  skip,  and  jump  for  hours  with  evident  pleasure.  Let  it  be 
required  of  him  three  minutes,  and  he  is  in  a  state  bordering  on  physical 
exhaustion.  The  most  stolid  person  will  talk  effectively  when  the  occasion 
demands  it.  He  may  be  lacking  in  elegance,  but  never  in  power.  So 
the  boy  or  girl  who  can  be  brought  to  the  right  mental  attitude  will  do 
strong,  effective  work  in  English.  It  is  entirely  our  fault  that  the  boy 
who  can  most  effectively  set  forth  a  position  or  maintain  an  argument  on 
the  playground  becomes  entirely  wooden  when  called  upon  to  write  in 
the  class-room.  Close  observers  realize  that  the  fool  of  the  schoolroom 
is  often  the  leader  in  affairs  outside.  Such  pupils  would  be  leaders  in 
schools  where  normal  methods  prevail.  It  is  among  just  this  class  that 
the  greatest  improvement  is  found  as  a  result  of  methods  in  English  that 
are  based  upon  the  known  operations  of  the  mind,  and  that  connect  the 
work  with  humanity  and  the  pupil's  environment. 

As  an  aid  in  presenting  constructive  English  watch  the  effort  at 
description  by  a  boy  under  intense  excitement  from  the  influence  of  the 
object  described.  He  seizes  hold  of  the  strong  element  that  has  taken 
possession  of  him,  and  sets  it  forth  clearly,  so  as  to  cause  you  to  see  the 
whole  picture  thru  the  activity  of  the  imagination.  Instead  of  assisting 
the  boy  to  use  the  mode  which  instinct  prompts,  we  allow  him  to  believe 
that  writing  is  a  strange  process,  widely  different  from  those  which  he 
ordinarily  uses.  We  permit,  and  even  cause,  him  to  give  such  descriptions 
as  the  following  : 

THE  teacher's  DESK 
This  is  the  teacher's  desk.  It  stands  upon  a  platform  six  inches  higher  than  the 
floor.  It  has  four  legs,  one  at  each  corner.  The  legs  are  cylindrical  in  form,  tapering 
somewhat  near  the  bottom.  The  desk  has  a  lid  which  is  attached  by  hinges  and  can  be 
raised  and  lowered  by  hand.  On  the  desk  are  some  books  and  an  ink  bottle  with  a  pen 
in  it.     I  think  it  is  a  very  nice  desk. 

There  are  two  causes  that  produce  such  an  absurdity.  Often  the 
subject  offers  nothing  worthy  of  description.  Where  the  subject  is  rea- 
sonable, there  is  failure  because  the  pupils  are  not  shown  that  a  multi- 
plicity of  details  causes  cloud  rather  than   clearness.     In  the  case  above 


Department] 


ENGLISH  IN  THE  GRADES 


419 


there  was  nothing  to  require  description.  That  is  a  fault  of  a  large  per- 
centage of  assignments.  No  normal  boy  would  have  made  that  error 
orally,  or  at  least  not  among  his  classmates.  Should  he  do  so  once  he 
would  be  proof  against  repeating  the  blunder.  Children  do  not  say,  or 
permit  to  be  said,  things  that  are  stultifying.  Yet  teachers  encourage 
this  in  writing  ;  just  so  pupils  show  power  to  spell,  write,  and  string  words 
together  into  sentences.  While  the  process  may  secure  some  techni- 
cal accuracy,  it  is  under  abnormal  conditions,  resulting  in  spiritual 
deformity  of  serious  and  far-reaching  significance.  Better  that  the  child 
violate  every  rule  of  construction  and  feel  and  say  something  that  causes 
the  spiritual  thermometer  to  register  a  rise,  than  to  produce  the  most  pol- 
ished platitude  so  characteristic  of  the  school  compositions  of  the  age.  If 
the  production  contains  life,  it  may  become  organic ;  but  if  it  be  dead 
already,  it  can  be  but  carrion.  Had  there  been  anything  to  describe 
about  that  desk,  it  would  have  been  because  the  quality  was  individual- 
izing. Generic  ideas  already  in  consciousness  need  no  description.  The 
qualities  mentioned  are  not  characteristic,  and  so  add  nothing  not  already 
in  consciousness  at  the  mere  naming  of  the  object.  Had  such  a  quality 
existed,  its  presentation  would  have  kindled  the  imagination  and  caused 
it  to  supply  the  details  common  to  desks  of  this  class,  thus  causing  clear 
visualization. 

Children  are  capable  of  using  and  appreciating  in  kind  most  of  the 
elements  of  writing  used  by  adults,  the  difference  being  mainly  in  the 
degree.  Moreover,  the  child  is  even  more  responsive  to  an  appeal  to  the 
imagination  than  is  the  adult  —  a  truth  overlooked  by  many  writers  and 
compilers  who  have  tried  to  "  write  down  "  to  the  capacity  of  the  child- 
mind.  Visualization,  the  highest  type  of  description,  can  be  used  in  all 
grades,  with  such  variation  in  presentation  as  the  age  of  the  pupil  may 
require.  Most  of  what  passes  as  description  is  mere  identification,  or  at 
most  an  enumeration  of  characteristics.  Before  there  can  be  good  saying 
there  must  be  good  seeing.  So  the  vital  consideration  is  to  cultivate  clear 
seeing — seeing  that  will  cause  the  discrimination  of  type-qualities.  We 
are  prone  to  see  generically.  We  can  cultivate  seeing  specifically.  Gen- 
erally one  quality  can  be  found  that  will  cause  the  imagination  to  move 
in  the  direction  intended.  It  is  power  in  the  discrimination  of  this 
quality  that  should  be  cultivated  in  the  instruction  in  description. 

After  visualization  has  been  presented  constructively,  it  should  be 
used  analytically  in  connection  with  reading  and  the  study  of  literature. 
Pupils  readily  add  it  to  their  elements  of  criticism  and  enjoyment.  They 
should  be  sent  to  the  library  to  find  the  element  as  used  by  standard 
writers.  Classes  with  but  slight  preparation  have  obtained  high  pleasure 
from  the  writings  of  F.  Hopkinson  Smith,  James  Lane  Allen,  Mary  E. 
Wilkins,  and  kindred  writers  who  have  been  so  successful  in  descrip- 
tion.    Each  description  is  made  to  pass  a  careful  examination.     No  writer, 


420  NATIONAL   EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Elementary 

however  great  his  name,  will  mislead  the  pupils  by  beautiful  combinations 
of  words  that  give  no  mental  product.  No  skillful,  clear-cut  delineation 
will  escape  appreciation.  The  enthusiasm  resulting  is  of  the  highest  edu- 
cational value. 

If  the  same  boy  who,  when  in  the  right  mood,  gave  an  effective 
description  were  asked  a  question  touching  the  sort  of  a  person  some 
friend  is,  he  would  probably  answer  first  in  a  trite  term  indicative  of 
degree  of  feeling.  If  still  pressed,  he  would  probably  proceed  to  tell 
something  that  that  person  had  done,  leaving  you  to  infer  the  type-mean- 
ing intended.  If  you  cause  the  boy  to  see  that  the  latter  is  what  you 
want  when  you  call  for  written  themes  of  character,  you  have  secured 
favorable  conditions  for  writing.  When  he  has  a  potential  idea  which  he 
wishes  to  develop,  it  is  hard  to  keep  him  from  writing. 

Common  people  when  talking  characterize  concretely.  Great  writers 
do  the  same  thing.  Mediocre  writers  and  pupils  generally  feel  called 
upon  to  do  a  strange  and  wonderful  thing,  and  wander  from  a  process 
simple  and  satisfactory,  in  harmony  with  life,  to  a  strange  process, 
unsatisfactory  in  all  its  relations.  The  teacher  has  but  to  assist  the  pupils 
in  using  consciously  a  process  they  are  actually  using  a  score  of  times 
daily.  Parents,  teachers,  merchants,  classmates  are  all  being  weighed  in 
the  balance  daily.  The  babe  in  its  mother's  arms  springs  to  one  stranger 
and  shrinks  from  another.  The  man  of  affairs  intrusts  his  fortune  to 
one  and  another.  Both  are  using  the  same  process.  Both  depend  upon 
the  emotional  inference. 

There  are  emotional  inferences  of  mood  rather  than  character.  All  read 
them  readily  in  life.  Every  schoolboy  knows  when  not  to  take  liberties 
with  even  the  most  long-suffering  teacher.  Trust  the  boy  who  wants  a 
boon  not  to  err  in  the  times  and  seasons  for  approaching  a  parent. 
Since  children  use  these  so  readily  in  life,  it  is  easy  to  secure  their  use  in 
writing.  Ask  to  be  shown  by  what  is  said  or  done  that  a  person  is  happy, 
angry,  surprised,  or  in  such  other  mood  as  the  age  of  the  pupil  and  the 
condition  of  the  class  may  suggest.  There  will  be  no  lack  of  material 
presented.  The  pupils  will  be  energized  by  the  very  consciousness  of 
moving  upon  safe  ground  in  dealing  with  a  reality,  and  the  result  will  be 
organic.  Generally  the  emotional  element  in  the  experience  recalled  will 
assist  in  securing  favorable  conditions. 

The  theme  of  stories,  poems,  and  pictiires  should  be  made  the  basis 
of  language  lessons.  In  this  work  the  theme  must  not  be  thought  of  as 
necessitating  monograph  treatment,  or  as  much  matter  as  would  fill  a 
chapter  of  several  paragraphs.  A  theme  may,  like  the  first  sums  in 
arithmetic,  consist  of  very  low  units,  as  low  as  a  single  sentence  or  even 
a  clause.  "  A  rolling  stone  gathers  no  moss,"  may  be  the  theme  of  low 
denomination  that  may  serve  as  the  basis  for  a  poem  or  a  book  of  high 
denomination  treatment,  just  as  a  fraction  may  be  changed  to  any  higher 


Department]  ENGLISH  IN  THE  GkADES  4^i 

denomination  without  change  of  value.  Every  complete  work  of  art  will 
have  a  major  theme,  or  final  meaning,  and  it  is  of  the  highest  educational 
value  to  cause  the  pupils  to  determine  and  express  this  meaning.  Many 
excellent  writers  have  insisted  upon  adding  this  meaning  in  a  modified 
form  of  '^Haec  fabula  docet."  The  child  has  a  right  to  interpret  the  mean- 
ing for  himself.  If  the  author  limits  this  interpretation  by  suggesting  one 
of  his  own,  the  teacher,  in  the  interest  of  independent  spiritual  growth, 
should  remove  this  part,  presenting  it  for  comparison  after  the  child  has 
exercised  its  own  individuality. 

In  this  age  of  Perry  pictures  and  other  inexpensive  reproductions  of 
the  world's  masterpieces  of  art,  a  wonderful  opportunity  is  presented  for 
improving  the  character  of  language  work  thru  picture  studies.  The 
final  value  of  these  studies,  however,  will  depend  upon  the  purpose  in 
view.  Too  many  are  making  them  merely  the  basis  for  teaching  observa- 
tion, and  that  not  of  a  discriminating  kind.  A  great  picture  does  not 
come  into  existence  to  delineate  objects.  It  is  an  interpretation  or  reve- 
lation of  some  type  of  ultimate  truth  or  beauty,  and  exists  for  the  theme- 
meaning  contained.  Whatever  else  may  be  written  about  a  picture,  the 
interpretation  of  this  theme  should  be  a  chief  consideration.  A  study  of 
Landseer's  "The  Highland  Shepherd's  Chief  Mourner"  would  fail  of  its 
true  purpose,  however  accurately  it  described  the  objects  in  the  room, 
unless  from  the  relation  of  the  objects  in  that  chamber  of  death  and  from 
the  agonized  position  of  the  faithful  dog  it  made  you  feel  how  lonesome 
had  been  that  life  now  departed  and  how  strong  was  that  almost  human 
affection  that  outlasts  the  tomb. 

A  plan  of  constructive  and  interpretative  studies,  of  which  this  paper 
suggests  a  few  features,  has  been  used  for  several  years  in  schools  of  all 
grades,  and  its  value  has  been  clearly  established.  It  has  resulted  in  pro- 
ducing excellent  work  both  in  form  and  in  matter  from  a  remarkably  large 
percentage  of  the  whole  classes  engaged.  Not  only  have  dull  students 
come  to  do  better  work  in  English,  but  they  have  been  energized  in  all 
their  work.  It  has  resulted  in  magnifying  the  importance  of  quality  and 
minimizing  the  importance  of  quantity.  It  has  caused  pupils  to  write 
because  they  wanted  to  say  something,  and  so  they  have  written  succinctly 
and  effectively.  It  has  caused  them  to  refrain  from  writing  when  they 
had  nothing  to  say — a  virtue  of  no  less  moment.  It  has  connected 
literature  with  life,  and  has  helped  pupils  to  approach  it  thru  the  natural 
road  of  experience,  thus  causing  appreciation.  Ethically  it  has  caused 
children  and  adults  to  be  more  responsive  to  deeper  and  higher  ideals,  and 
to  realize  the  influence  of  their  own  thoughts  and  acts  upon  their  char- 
acters and  lives.  It  is  the  natural  basis  for  moral  training — a  basis  that 
does  not  require  moralizing,  but  does  demand  right  thinking,  right  feel- 
ing, and  right  living.  It  has  produced  results  intellectually  and  ethically 
of  so  positive  a  nature  as  to  demand  a  careful  consideration  at  the  hands  of 
all  who  are  earnestly  seeking  to  improve  the  educational  methods  of  the  age. 


42^  /National  educational  association  [Elementary 


DISCUSSION 

Mrs.  Sara  D.  Jenkins,  Ithaca,  N.  Y. — English  possesses  a  large  body  of  subject- 
matter,  thru  the  study  of  which,  or  not  at  all,  the  child  must  become  a  good  English 
scholar.  Correct  usage  is  the  only  law  of  language,  but  usage  in  this  subject  should  be 
as  pure  as  the  laws  of  mathematics  are  inflexible.  To  lead  the  child  to  know  and  to  love 
music,  painting,  and  sculpture,  works  of  the  great  masters  are  placed  before  him  at  the 
earliest  possible  age.  Shall  we  delay  for  the  first  twelve  years  of  the  child's  life  the 
informing  and  uplifting  influence  of  the  masters  of  the  mother-tongue  ? 

The  English  of  the  people  is  dependent  upon  the  English  of  the  grades,  and  this, 
in  turn,  depends  upon  teachers  whose  ideal  of  instruction  in  the  subject  is  "  to  furnish  a 
tool  useful  in  subsequent  education."  For  generations  the  tool-conception  of  English  has 
prevailed,  and  to  its  use  there  has  been  trained  a  sorry  set  of  mechanics.  It  is  a  lamen- 
table fact  that  the  majority  of  American  citizens  born  in  this  country  and  trained  in  the 
public  schools  cannot  speak  their  own  language  correctly,  few  speak  it  fluently  and 
accurately,  and  only  the  exceptions  speak  it  with  ease  and  elegance.  All  subjects  are  pro- 
tected because  specialties  are  still  further  guarded  by  skilled  supervision ;  but  the  mother- 
tongue,  exposed  to  foes  without  and  within,  deflected,  degraded,  corroded  by  every 
atmosphere,  is  left  defenseless,  without  standard  or  leader.  The  result  is,  the  ability  to 
write  faultless  English  is  regarded  as  a  gift  of  God ;  and  the  ability  to  speak  it  uprightly 
is  a  lost  art.  Low  aim,  false  standards,  and  mistaken  purpose  have  done  their  work.  By 
present  methods,  in  the  hands  of  incompetent  teachers,  valuable  time  is  wasted,  wrong 
forms  of  expression  become  confirmed,  and  there  is  destroyed  the  true  feeling  for  litera- 
ture that  comes  only  from  early  association  with  great  authors  in  prose  and  verse. 

Mastery  of  the  English  language  is  an  unequaled  accomplishment,  whose  foundation 
should  be  laid  in  the  cradle,  and  whose  superstructure  must  be  reared  by  teachers  of 
culture.  If  the  people  are  to  be  trained  to  speak  accurately,  to  write  creditably,  and 
to  read  with  profit  and  delight,  it  must  be  during  the  first  five,  or  at  most  six,  years  of 
school  life,  and  by  drinking,  not  from  broken  cisterns,  but  from  wells  of  English  undefiled. 
The  child  whose  habits  of  speech  are  not  formed  and  in  whom  literary  tendencies  are 
not  awakened  before  the  high-school  age  is  at  a  disadvantage  for  life.  The  days  of  English 
in  the  high  school  are  few  and  evil  — made  evil  by  wrong  aim  in  the  eight  sub-academic 
years;  "Achilles  absent  is  Achilles  still."  Where  Latin  or  Greek  has  been  well  taught, 
as  language  and  literature,  eight  years  turn  out  in  the  average  pupil  what  is  considered 
a  good  Latin  or  a  good  Greek  scholar.     Can  this  be  said  of  English  ? 

The  child  enters  school  at  an  early  age  possessed  of  a  large  speaking  vocabulary ; 
he  has  understood  by  hearing  for  years,  and  he  now  begins  what  we  are  pleased  to  call 
the  study  of  language.  In  the  eight  years  of  English  instruction  what  is  done  ?  What 
degree  of  perfection  is  attained  ?  Just  what  might  be  expected  from  mistaken  aim  and 
home-made  method.  Children  are  permitted  to  create,  capitalize,  punctuate,  and  by 
other  means  to  stamp  indelibly  upon  consciousness  detached  elements  of  English  com- 
position, of  which  the  following  are  selected  specimens  : 

"  A  man  stroking  a  big  dog  with  a  great  sore  on  him  was  saying  :  '  Poor  doggie,  you 
have  to  suffer.'  "  "  A  tall,  slim  girl  with  large  teeth  is  carrying  a  basket."  "  A  man  with 
red  whiskers  goes  to  church." 

The  mind  grows  by  what  it  feeds  upon.  From  childhood  Milton  read  only  the  choi- 
cest literature  of  all  schools,  and  before  he  had  reached  manhood  his  name  was  immortal. 
Comus,  Lycidas,  V Allegro,  II Fenseroso,  and  "The  Hymn  to  the  Nativity"  bear  testimony 
to  long  and  patient  study  of  the  classics  with  which  the  boy  is  said  to  have  been  familiar 
before  the  age  of  twelve  years. 

In  English,  as  in  no  other  subject,  it  is  true  that  whatever  of  method,  of  intelligence 
of  insight  lies  in  the  man  will  lie  written  in  his  work.     In  order  to 


Department]  ENGLISH  IN  THE  GRADES  423 

"  Kindle  in  the  human  clod 
Thoughts  of  destiny  and  God," 

the  teacher  of  the  grades,  from  lowest  to  highest,  must  see  the  wealth  and  know  the  worth 
of  the  English  tongue  ;  must  know  where  to  look  for  sources  of  inspiration.  If  the  high- 
est purpose  of  verse  and  prose  in  the  schoolroom  is,  while  giving  skillful  use  of  tools,  to 
lead  the  human  soul  to  assume  new  attitudes  toward  truth,  we  must  not  for  eight  long 
years  dwell  with  parts  of  speech  and  the  semicolon.  There  must  flow  from  the  teacher 
a  power  of  direction  and  inspiration  which  no  text-book  can  contain  or  suggest.  English 
is  not  a  question  of  mechanics.  It  is  a  question  of  subject-matter  —  of  mechanics  thru 
subject-matter.  By  Thanatopsis  Bryant  at  seventeen  astonished  the  Old  World  poets,  but 
Bryant  had  escaped  the  language  lesson.  With  his  father  he  had  for  friends  the  great  of 
all  ages.  Shakespeare  became  a  playwright  by  mending  old  plays.  Hawthorne  became 
master  of  the  paragraph  thru  loving  study  of  classic  writers. 

Gifted  teachers  have  lifted  their  pupils  to  pure  expressions  of  lofty  thought,  even  to 
noble  life  and  action  ;  but  this  they  have  done  thru  knowledge  of  the  subject,  thru  scholar- 
ship, and  thru  personal  superiority.  Their  triumph  owes  nothing  to  stereotyped  method 
or  to  weak  text.  They  have  learned  that  the  letter  kills,  that  upon  the  English  plant 
there  must  be  distilled  the  dew  of  the  spirit.  Instead  of  training  to  dull,  meaningless 
repetition  of  empty  forms,  to  making  sentences  for  the  sake  of  the  sentence,  teacher  and 
child  have  together  gone  where  poets  have  strung  the  lyre  with  heart-strings,  where  life- 
blood  has  been  poured  on  the  altar  of  thought,  that  a  flame  might  be  kindled  to  illumine 
all  that  is  dark  and  to  warm  to  newness  of  life. 

The  sources  are  infinite,  and  the  vision  of  the  child  is  unconditioned.  From  the  day 
of  Homer  and  David  to  our  own,  all  great  writers  have  left  something  for  the  children's 
hour,  and  the  successful  teacher  must  thru  it  secure  correct  English.  Orpheus,  seeking 
the  soul  he  loved,  feared  neither  death  nor  Hades.  No  degrading  sound,  no  dread  form, 
could  lure  him  from  singing  to  the  gods.  Then  let  no  deluding  device,  no  misleading 
method,  draw  us  from  the  delightful  task  of  leading  little  ones  to  love  real  literature,  to 
absorb  poetic  form  and  spiritual  truth,  to  rise  to  nobler  utterance  and  to  purer  life. 

Superintendent  J.  W.  Carr,  Anderson,  Ind.,  following  Mrs.  Jenkins'  discussion, 
commended  the  paper  because  of  its  constructiveness,  and  believed  that  the  schools  will 
find  the  way  for  effective  work  along  these  lines.  He  believed  that  much  can  be  done 
thru  the  homes  of  the  children,  and  this  as  a  result  of  the  increase  of  higher  education 
among  women.  The  child  should  be  taught  by  the  educated  mother,  and  not  left  to 
uneducated  servants.     The  school  and  the  home  should  be  confederates. 

Professor  C.  A.  Graeser,  of  South  Carolina,  raised  the  question  whether  there  is 
not  a  development  in  appreciation  to  be  attained  before  the  children  can  gain  by  the  use 
of  classical  poems. 

President  J.  R.  Kirk,  of  Missouri,  stated  that  he  was  always  ready  to  defend  the 
use  of  the  best  models,  for  even  very  young  pupils.  The  twelve-year-old  girls  and  boys 
are  ready  to  analyze  the  best  things  in  literature  ;  and  under  the  leadership  of  a  teacher 
to  whom  these  things  are  real  the  mind  is  already  prepared. 

Miss  Thurston,  of  South  Carolina,  thought  that  the  Bible  and  Homer  and  Shake- 
speare and  Milton  would  furnish  full  material  for  the  work. 

Dr.  J.  J.  Burns,  of  Ohio. —  It  would  take  more  assurance  than  inspires  me  even 
when  on  my  native  heath  to  attempt  the  discussion  of  a  paper  which,  in  large  part,  it  was 
my  misfortune  not  to  hear.  I  listened  with  interest  to  its  concluding  pages,  and  to  the 
earnest  speeches  following  it ;  enjoyed  all  and  believed  most. 

It  seems  to  me  that  in  our  work  in  reading  or  literature  —  synonymous  terms  —  we  are 
drifting  or  rowing  into  a  custom  of  having  our  pupils  find  things  in  the  poems  they  study  — 
deep  suggestions,  "  best-laid  schemes  "  which  the  author  never  consciously   put  there. 


424  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Elementary 

Certainly  this  is  true  in  the  reading,  the  analysis,  the  destructive  distillation  of  Shake- 
speare's immortal  plays.  I  have  not  time  to  enlarge  upon  this  text.  I  am  much  more 
desirous  that  my  young  friends  should  grow  into  a  sincere  love  of  Shakespeare  and  make 
the  reading  of  him  a  habit  of  their  lives,  than  that  they  should  learn  to  do  this  profound 
interpreting  —  like  translating /'//g^rmV /V(7g^rifji  into  the  style  of  Sartor  Resartus.  All 
along  the  years  the  teacher  and  class  should  be  a  committee  of  the  whole  on  the  fine  art 
of  extracting  enjoyment  from  the  bit  of  literature  upon  which  they  are  engaged  —  think- 
ing the  author's  thought  after  him,  and  feeling  his  emotions  as  far  a"s  their  individual  ages 
and  experiences  endow  them.     The  first-year  pupils  may  be  taught : 

"  My  heart  leaps  up  when  I  behold 
A  rainbow  in  the  sky," 

and  may  thereafter  thrill  with  the  thing  of  beauty  all  the  more  keenly  from  memory's  echo 
of  the  trumpet  lines ;  but  it  is  a  far  cry  to  the  time  when  they  can  grasp  the  big  utterance  : 
"  The  child  is  father  of  the  man."  A  lengthening  experience  convinces  me  of  the  good 
to  come  from  the  habit  of  committing  to  memory  some  of  the  best  things  we  find  in  our 
reading,  and  I  urge  a  well-chosen  course  of  literature  for  the  memory  and  heart.  Before 
I  yield  the  floor  I  wish  to  affirm  that  the  study  of  English  is  our  profoundest  study,  but 
it's  a  life-study;  this  reading  class  is  our  most  difficult  class,  and  who  can  estimate  the 
folly  of  the  school  of  platform  orators  who  so  wordily  declare  to  teachers,  "  You  must  do 
this,  you  should  do  that,  you  must  not  leave  undone  the  third,"  till  plain  sense  mingled 
with  practical  experience  inquires :  "  What  impossible  matter  will  they  make  easy  next  ?  " 
The  teachers  who  are  to  work  this  series  of  miracles  are  probably  the  youngest  in  the 
corps,  and  more  probably  the  most  scantily  paid.  The  force  of  absurdity  can  no 
farther  go. 

THE  ELIMINATION  OF  THE  GRAMMAR  SCHOOL 

OTIS    ASHMORE,    SUPERINTENDENT    OF    SCHOOLS,    SAVANNAH,    GA. 

There  are  some  principles  of  education  that  are  as  firmly  established 
as  the  fundamental  truths  of  mathematics,  and  it  would  seem  that  they 
need  not  be  called  in  question.  If,  however,  there  is  more  than  one  side 
to  this  question,  I  trust,  at  least,  that  this  paper  may  serve  to  disclose  it, 
and  to  provoke  such  discussion  as  may  be  beneficial  to  this  body. 

The  term  "  grammar  school "  is  somewhat  loosely  used  in  different  parts 
of  our  country,  but  for  the  purpose  of  this  discussion  I  shall  assume  that 
it  refers  to  the  two  or  three  years  of  the  ordinary  school  course  next  pre- 
ceding the  high  school.  I  shall  also  assume  that  the  term  "elimination  " 
used  in  this  connection  refers  rather  to  the  transfer  to  the  high  school  of 
certain  studies  now  generally  pursued  in  the  grammar  school,  than  to  the 
complete  abolition  of  this  department,  for  I  cannot  conceive  of  any  other 
rational  basis  on  which  the  subject  may  be  considered. 

Unfortunately,  I  have  not  been  able  to  ascertain  the  scope  or  nature 
of  previous  discussions  upon  this  subject  beyond  that  contained  in  the 
report  of  the  Committee  on  College-Entrance  Requirements  made  at  Los 
Angeles,  and  hence  my  treatment  of  it  may  not  be  altogether  to  the 
point. 

If,  as  it  would  appear,  there  are  studies  in  the  grammar-school  course 
that  ought  to  be  transferred  to  the  high  school,  it  is  pertinent  to  inquire 


Department]        THE  ELIMINATION  OF  THE  GRAMMAR  SCHOOL  425 

__  _  _ 

what  these  studies  are,  and  to  what  extent  this  transfer  is  applicable. 
All  educators,  I  think,  will  agree  that  the  character  of  the  studies  pre- 
scribed for  any  stage  of  educational  development  should  conform  to  the 
well-known  laws  of  mental  growth  and  of  the  orderly  development  of  the 
various  faculties.  The  average  age  at  which  pupils  at  present  enter  our 
high  schools  is  between  fourteen  and  fifteen  years,  a  period  when  the 
rational  faculties  begin  to  take  on  a  more  rapid  growth,  and  when  the 
perception  and  memory  begin  to  yield  in  relative  activity  to  those  powers 
which  deal  with  causes  and  effects. 

It  will  be  at  once  admitted  that  several  of  the  studies  now  pursued  in 
the  grammar  school  can  find  their  best  maturity  in  the  high  school,  where 
larger  mental  power  is  present  to  grasp  the  complex  relations  which  can- 
not be  adequately  dealt  with  by  the  less  mature  mind.  Chief  among 
these  are  arithmetic,  grammar,  and  history.  These  studies,  especially 
in  advanced  stages,  require  the  exercise  of  those  mental  powers  which  age 
alone  can  give,  and  they  ought  not  to  be  laid  aside  in  the  high-school 
course. 

I  believe  it  is  a  most  serious  defect  in  the  high -school  courses  of  study 
to  neglect  a  systematic  consideration  of  these  branches  thruout  the  course. 
It  matters  not  how  well  a  pupil  may  have  been  taught  arithmetic  in  the 
grammar  schools,  there  are  phases  of  the  study  which  no  pupil  under 
fifteen  years  of  age  can  adequately  understand.  The  same  is  true  of 
grammar  and  history.  It  may  be  laid  down  as  a  safe  rule,  then,  that  the 
proper  studies  for  a  high-school  course  should  be  chiefly  those  which 
psychologically  are  adapted  to  a  maturer  mind,  and  which  cannot  eco- 
nomically be  pursued  by  pupils  under  fourteen  or  fifteen  years  of  age. 

It  is  far  from  my  purpose  to  imply  that  such  subjects  as  arithmetic, 
grammar,  and  history  should  not  be  pursued  by  pupils  under  fourteen 
years  of  age ;  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  my  opinion  that  it  would  be  a  serious 
mistake  not  to  begin  these  studies  at  a  much  earlier  period. 

The  truth  is  —  and  modern  education  is  coming  more  and  more  to  rec- 
ognize it  —  that  almost  every  subject  taught  in  the  schools  is  susceptible  of 
such  a  division  and  treatment  as  to  render  certain  phases  of  it  a  perfectly 
legitimate  study  in  every  grade.  The  subject  of  geometry,  for  instance, 
which  lies  almost  wholly  in  the  domain  of  reason,  is  very  properly 
assigned  to  the  maturer  years  of  the  high-school  course ;  but  every 
thoughtful  educator  knows  well  that  there  are  some  of  the  facts  and  defi- 
nitions of  geometry  that  may  with  perfect  propriety  be  taught  to  the 
earlier  grades  of  a  grammar  school.  The  same  thing  is  true  of  botany, 
physical  geography,  the  ancient  and  modern  languages,  and  many  others. 

There  is  another  thought  in  connection  with  this  subject  that  must 
not  be  forgotten.  All  true  educational  development  is  of  slow  growth ; 
but  it  should  be  continuous  to  maturity,  and  not  be  subject  to  sudden 
changes  or  arrests  in  any  line  of  mental  activity.     Too  often  is  it  the  case 


426  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Elementary 

-% 

that  arithmetic  and  grammar  are  laid  aside  just  at  a  time  when  the  best 
fruits  of  these  subjects  are  maturing,  and  some  other  subject  entirely  dif- 
ferent taken  up  in  their  stead.  The  result  is  that  the  pupil  soon  forgets 
what  little  he  has  learned  about  these  subjects,  and  is  often  shocked  by 
the  sudden  transition  from  a  familiar  to  a  totally  different  field. 

So  it  would  seem  that  there  is  not  so  much  a  need  for  eliminating  the 
grammar  school,  either  in  fact  or  in  name,  as  there  is  for  such  an  adjust- 
ment of  the  courses  of  study  thruout  the  pupil's  educational  career  as  to 
unify  and  harmonize  the  whole,  utilizing  at  the  same  time  every  advan- 
tage which  the  correlation  of  studies  offers. 

Despite  the  revolutionary  aspect  of  the  subject  of  this  paper,  I  cannot 
bring  my  mind  to  believe  that  there  is  any  serious  thought  of  eliminating 
the  grammar  school  in  the  sense  of  abolishing  it;  for  this  idea  seems  to 
me  to  be  not  only  impracticable,  but  positively  absurd.  The  grammar 
school  may  be  modified,  and  it  doubtless  will  be  from  time  to  time,  and 
even  its  name  may  be  changed  without  detriment ;  but  the  substantial 
character  of  the  grammar  school  as  now  organized  will  remain,  as  it 
should  remain,  the  same  as  it  is  now. 


DISCUSSION 


John  R.  Kirk,  president  of  the  State  Normal  School,  Kirksville,  Mo. —  The  paper 
by  Mr.  Ashmore  is  tempered  with  modesty,  caution,  and  conservatism  —  probably  too  much 
conservatism.  In  my  opinion  the  gentleman  hardly  meets  the  issue  as  it  should  be  met. 
Caution  and  conservatism  are  good  enough  in  their  places,  but  they  never  spanned  a 
river,  tunneled  a  mountain,  improved  the  architecture  of  a  schoolhouse,  or  stimulated 
human  genius  to  high  possibilities.  Caution  and  conservatism  are  forever  saying : 
"  These  things  are  good  enough ;  let  good  enough  alone." 

My  plea  is  for  the  boys  and  girls  in  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades.  They  are 
entitled  to  better  things  than  they  get.  The  twelve-year-old  boy  is  a  bundle  of  working 
nerve  force,  a  veritable  steam-engine,  capable  at  all  times  of  doubling  the  work  which 
the  typical  grammar  school  permits  him  to  do.  The  girl  is  an  electric  battery  whose 
energy  is  suppressed  and  whose  soul  is  cramped  by  the  conventionalities,  insipidities,  and 
stupefying  routine  of  a  preconceived  scheme  for  using  up  her  time.  We  talk  about  the 
stormy  and  uncertain  period  of  adolescence  in  the  high  school ;  but  the  grammar-school 
children,  many  of  them,  are  just  entering  upon  this  same  period  of  storm  and  stress ; 
they  have  their  dull  and  moody  periods,  too ;  they  deserve  all  the  advantages  now  given 
the  high-school  students.  We  find  no  fault  with  the  grammar-school  teachers.  They  do 
their  best.  Most  of  them  see  possibilities  which  the  grinding  machinery  of  so-called 
"  system  "  prohibits  them  from  even  attempting. 

Look  at  the  facts:  The  grammar-school  teacher  has  talent  and  as  much  versatility  as 
anyone.  She  also  has  preferences  among  subjects  to  be  taught.  We  demand  of  her 
impossibilities.  She  knows  it.  Not  one  in  a  hundred  is  at  her  best  in  all  subjects.  One, 
having  the  classical  mold,  is  saturated  with  grammar,  literature,  and  art,  and  teaches 
these  excellently.  Another  has  the  laboratory  stamp,  and  perchance  teaches  nature 
study,  science,  mathematics,  and  mechanical  drawing  excellently.  Another  is  an  expert 
in  the  arts  of  expression  and  gets  children  to  deliver  their  thoughts  unusually  well.  But 
the  expert  in  art  and  classics  often  has  comparatively  little  knowledge  of  arithmetic  and 


r 


Department]        THE  ELIMINATION  OF  THE  GRAMMAR  SCHOOL  427 

science,  and  a  positive  dislike  for  them.  This  is  human  nature.  Several  of  this  audience 
nod  assent  to  this  well-known  fact.  The  expert  in  arithmetic  often  has  poor  appreciation 
•  of  grammar  and  literature.  No  amount  of  skilled  supervision  will  make  this  individual 
a  good  teacher  of  grammar  and  art.  The  grammar-school  teacher,  like  every  other 
teacher,  is  at  her  best  in  a  few  things. 

Therefore,  suppose  three  or  four  teachers  in  the  same  building  have  grammar-school 
grades,  and  even  other  grades  reaching  a  little  lower  and  a  little  higher.  Why  not  allow 
these  people  to  use  their  best  talents  by  exchanging  places  with  one  another  ?  They  can 
do  it  at  no  inconvenience  to  anybody.  Why  not  allow  the  sensible  teacher  of  arithmetic 
to  go  the  rounds  and  stimulate  all  children  to  their  best  efforts  in  that  subject  ?  Why  not 
allow  the  cultured  lover  of  classics  and  art  daily  contact  with  the  children  of  three  or 
four  or  more  rooms,  where  she  can  illuminate  the  lessons  in  grammar  and  literature  with 
her  own  clean-cut  and  far-reaching  conceptions  ?  This  costs  no  more  than  to  confine  each 
teacher  wholly  to  a  separate  grade  and  bound  her  usefulness  by  four  walls.  Where  it 
has  been  tried  by  sensible  and  industrious  people  who  believe  in  it  and  who  are  willing  to 
believe  in  better  things,  it  has  already  produced  results  which  demonstrate  its  excellence. 
You  raise  the  question  of  discipline.  The  grammar-school  children  have  to  be  "  disci- 
plined "  because  their  souls  are  starving.  They  want  intellectual  food.  Give  them  what 
their  natures  crave,  and  the  question  of  discipline  is  settled.  Reward  their  toil  and  they 
will  be  as  much  interested  in  good  order  as  their  teachers  can  possibly  be. 

We  obscure  this  subject  by  unfortunate  terminology.  We  do  not  seek  "  the  elimina- 
tion of  the  grammar  school."  The  expression  "  departmental  work  in  the  grammar 
school  "  is  offensive.  It  is  better  to  drop  this  cumbersome  verbiage.  Let  us  talk  about 
adapting  our  talents  to  the  best  purposes.  A  mere  exchange  among  teachers  in  consecu- 
tive grades  and  in  adjoining  rooms  —  this  is  all  we  want.  This  we  do  want,  for  by  it  we 
avail  ourselves  of  the  highest  talent  of  all  teachers.  We  circumscribe  no  one's  horizon. 
We  reduce  no  one's  activity.  We  broaden  the  horizon  of  the  teacher  and  the  child.  We 
illuminate  all  the  grammar-school  work  with  the  better  and  stronger  light  of  richer  and 
riper  scholarship  and  more  willing  service.  We  do  not  make  specialists  of  the  grammar- 
school  teachers.  We  do  not  make  them  narrow.  We  give  them  incentives  to  greater 
effort  and  loftier  purposes.  We  make  their  lives  happier.  Their  spirit  creates  a  livelier 
atmosphere  in  the  grammar-school  room. 

Permit  us,  we  pray  you,  to  rid  ourselves  of  dull  and  deadening  mechanical  processes, 
and  we  shall  have  less  of  the  baneful  and  artificial  production  of  stupidity.  We  shall 
better  build  sterling  character  in  young  Americans  by  the  constant  stimulus  of  labor 
which  is  felt  to  be  its  own  reward.  Then  every  teacher  will  be  a  live  wire  abounding  in 
energy.  Contact  with  such  teachers  will  vitalize  many  a  grammar  school  whose  present 
regime  is  pure  drudgery,  and  the  reward  of  whose  toil  is  "  getting  grades," 


DEPARTMENT  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 


SECRETARY'S  MINUTES 


FIRST  SESSION.— Wednesday,  July  ii,  1900 

The  session  of  the  department  was  called  to  order  in  Carolina  Rifle  Hall  at  3 :  30 
P.  M.,  with  President  E.  W.  Coy,  of  Cincinnati,  in  the  chair. 

In  the  absence  of  the  secretary,  H.  L.  Boltwood,  of  Evanston,  111,,  a  motion  was 
made  and  carried  to  elect  C.  A.  Graeser,  of  Charleston,  S.  C,  as  acting  secretary. 

Principal  William  J.  S.  Bryan,  of  St.  Louis,  read  a  paper  on  the  subject,  "To  What 
Extent  Should  the  Pupil  in  the  High  School  be  Allowed  to  Choose  His  Studies  ?" 

The  discussion  of  this  paper  was  opened  by  A.  H.  Nelson,  of  Chicago,  111.  The 
discussion  was  continued  by  Superintendent  J.  W.  Carr,  of  Anderson,  Ind.,  and  Principal 
W.  M.  Slaton,  of  Atlanta,  Ga. 

The  second  paper,  entitled,  "  How  Shall  We  Teach  Our  Pupils  the  Correct  Use  of 
the  English  Language?"  was  presented  by  Principal  Oliver  S.  Westcott,  of  Chicago, 111. 

Discussion  by  Superintendent  J.  J.  Burns,  of  Defiance,  O.,  and  M.  L.  Britton,  of 
Atlanta,  Ga. 

President  Coy  appointed  as  a 

COMMITTEE  ON  NOMINATIONS 

Principal  Reuben  Post  Halleck,  Louisville,  Ky.  Principal  William  M.  Slaton,  Atlanta,  Ga. 

Principal  J.  Remsen  Bishop,  Cincinnati,  O. 

Subsequently  the  nominating  committee  reported  the  following  nominees,  who  were 
unanimousl)'  elected  as  officers  for  the  ensuing  year : 

For  President — W.  J.  S.  Bryan,  St.  Louis,  Mo. 

For  Vice-President — Miss  Nettie  Filmore,  Cincinnati,  O. 

For  Secretary — C.  A.  Graeser,  Charleston,  S.  C. 


The  meeting  then  adjourned. 


C.  A.  Graeser, 

Acting  Secretary. 


PAPERS  AND  DISCUSSIONS 


TO     WHAT   EXTENT    SHOULD    A    PUPIL    IN    THE.  HIGH 
SCHOOL    BE   ALLOWED    TO  CHOOSE    HIS  STUDIES? 

WILLIAM    J.    S.    BRYAN,    PRINCIPAL    OF    HIGH    SCHOOL,  ST.    LOUIS,  MO. 

The  extent  to  which  a  pupil  in  the  high  school  should  be  allowed  to 
choose  his  studies  is  a  question  that  has  for  some  years  engaged  the 
attention  of  high-school  teachers.  Widely  divergent  views  are  expressed, 
with  varying  degrees  of  positiveness,  and  are  supported  by  arguments 

428 


Department!  ELECTION  IN  HIGH-SCHOOL  STUDIES  429 

more  or  less  logical.  No  subject  deserves  or  has  received  more  considera- 
tion from  educators  than  the  course  of  study  to  be  pursued  by  pupils  of 
all  grades,  from  kindergarten  to  university;  especially  by  pupils  of  sec- 
ondary schools.  Committees  composed  of  the  most  active,  most  pro- 
gressive, and  most  successful  educators  of  all  sections  of  the  country  have 
studied  with  the  deepest  interest  and  most  assiduous  industry  the  problem 
of  the  coifrses  of  study  calculated  to  give  the  pupils  of  the  various  grades 
the  best  education.  Psychology  has  been  invoked  to  reveal  the  secret  of 
the  educational  values  of  the  numerous  branches  that  compose  the  cur- 
ricula from  first  to  last,  and  the  experience  of  the  past  has  been  questioned 
as  to  the  results  actually  attained  by  the  pursuit  of  different  studies  and 
combinations  of  studies. 

The  famous  report  of  the  Committee  of  Ten  is  known  to  all  inter- 
ested in  the  actual  work  of  American  secondary  schools,  and  its  sugges- 
tions as  to  the  studies  to  be  taught  in  secondary  schools,  the  order  of 
their  presentation,  and  the  method  of  their  selection  for  the  individual 
pupil  have  doubtless  been  carefully  considered,  as  was  surely  demanded 
by  the  weight  of  authority  resulting  from  the  composition  of  the  com- 
mittee and  of  the  conferences  on  special  studies  whose  recommendations 
were  indorsed  by  it.  Without  good  reason,  no  one  should  disregard  the 
lines  of  progress  laid  down  in  this  report  or  set  at  naught  the  logical 
conclusions  reached. 

Change  is  not  necessarily  improvement.  Progress  and  conservatism 
are  not  antonyms.  In  education  as  in  religion,  it  is  wise  to  prove  all 
things  and  to  hold  fast  that  which  is  good.  The  injunction  to  Laertes, 
"  The  friends  thou  hast,  and  their  adoption  tried,  grapple  them  to  thy  soul 
with  hoops  of  steel,"  is  as  good  a  maxim  of  pedagogy  as  it  is  of  friend- 
ship. Fidelity  to  friends,  hospitality  to  strangers,  is  the  proper  spiritual 
and  intellectual  attitude.  Progress  in  the  science  and  art  of  pedagogy  is 
made  by  using  the  most  advanced  positions  and  methods  of  the  present 
as  means  of  further  incursions.  The  danger  is  that  leaving  the  sure  base 
of  supplies  we. may  lose  the  vantage-ground  now  held,  and  expend  our 
forces  and  equipment  in  misguided  enterprises. 

In  order  to  establish  the  limit  of  choice  to  be  allowed  pupils  of  the 
high  school,  it  will  be  necessary  to  determine  the  objects  of  secondary 
education ;  the  relation  of  the  several  possible  studies  to  that  object  as  a 
result  of  their  educational  values ;  the  knowledge  of  such  values  possessed 
by  pupils,  teachers,  and  parents;  the  conditions,  financial,  pedagogical, 
intellectual,  physical,  and  temporal,  that  are  requisite  to  the  possibility  of 
such  a  choice  by  individual  pupils ;  the  effect  upon  the  preparation  of  the 
pupils  desirous  of  meeting  the  entrance  requirements  of  various  colleges  ; 
the  advantage  to  be  derived  by  the  pupil  from  freedom  of  choice. 

What,  then,  are  the  objects  of  secondary  education  ?  Ask  the  pupil 
who  is  about  to  enter  the  high  school  why  he  proposes  to  do  so,  and  his 


430  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Secondary 

answer,  not  very  definite  or  profound,  probably  will  be  that  he  may  con- 
tinue his  education,  that  he  may  fit  himself  for  life,  that  later  he  may  be 
able  to  earn  more,  that  he  may  do  as  his  parents  direct.  Ask  the  teacher  by 
whom  he  has  been  taught —  I  do  not  say  prepared  —  why  he  should  pursue 
his  studies  farther,  and  the  answer  may  not  be  clearer  or  show  more 
thought.  At  times  it  will  not  be  as  satisfactory.  Ask  even  the  teachers 
of  the  high  school  itself,  and  there  may  be  some  hesitation,  som*e  vague- 
ness of  thought,  some  uncertainty  of  position  ;  for  they  often  take  for 
granted  the  proposition  they  should  be  ready  to  maintain  with  clearness 
and  completeness  of  demonstration.  Ask  the  parents.  If  they  have 
enjoyed  the  advantages  of  education,  they  will  say  that  they  wish  their 
children  to  be  at  least  as  well  fitted  for  the  exigencies  of  life  as  they  were, 
and  to  enjoy  all  the  advantages  that  education  furnishes.  If  they  have 
been  without  such  advantages,  then  they  will  assert  their  intention  to  give 
their  children  better  opportunities  than  they  themselves  had. 

There  are  those  who  are  not  content  with  the  proper  sphere  of  the 
high  school  in  the  system  of  public  schools,  which  now  truthfully  may  be 
said  to  include  all  phases  of  scholastic  training  from  the  kindergarten  to 
the  university,  and  are  constantly  seeking  to  invade  what  seems  to  them 
a  higher  sphere  of  education  ;  but,  rightly  viewed,  no  one  part  of  the 
system  is  of  greater  importance  than  another,  if  the  completed  product 
is  to  be  considered  ;  and  if  we  regard  the  number  reached,  the  primary 
phase  of  education  is  by  far  the  most  important.  The  object  of  the  high 
school  is  to  take  the  boys  and  girls  who  have  reached  a  certain  stage  of 
advancement  —  at  present,  those  who  have  acquired  a  reasonable  knowledge 
of  grammar,  history,  geography,  and  arithmetic  —  and  to  engage  their 
energies  in  the  mastery  of  advanced  studies  which  will  discipline  their 
several  faculties,  develop  their  individual  powers,  give  them  a  general 
survey  of  the  inviting  fields  of  knowledge  and  effort,  furnish  them  with 
tools  and  motive  power  to  extend  their  conquest  of  the  material  and 
spiritual  universe  to  the  limit  set  by  their  native  endowments ;  withal  to 
excite  in  them  an  insatiable  thirst,  an  undying  love,  for  the  true  as  dis- 
covered in  science,  or  philosophy,  or  religion ;  for  the  beautiful  as  dis- 
closed in  nature,  or  literature,  or  art ;  for  the  good  as  revealed  in  history 
or  ethics ;  to  enkindle  in  them,  I  say,  an  absorbing  passion  for  the  true, 
the  beautiful,  and  the  good  ;  the  true  —  the  real,  our  environment  material 
and  spiritual;  the  beautiful  —  the  ideal,  to  be  realized  in  personal  life,  in 
the  home,  in  society,  in  the  nation,  in  the  world;  the  good  —  the  means 
of  uniting  the  real  and  the  ideal,  the  marriage  of  the  beautiful  and  the 
true. 

In  this  statement  of  the  function  of  the  high  school  I  have  not  thrown 
overboard  chart  and  compass,  or  unshipped  the  rudder.  I  have  inten- 
tionally kept  in  mind  previous  surveys  and  soundings.  At  the  same  time 
I  am  not  unmindful  of  other  views,  which  are  regarded  as  in  advance  of 


Department]  ELECTION  IN  HIGH-SCHOOL  STUDIES  431 

the  times  perhaps,  but  as  sure  to  be  carried  into  effect  in  the  high  school 
of  the  future.  Briefly  stated  they  are  as  follows  :  It  is  the  purpose  of 
the  high  school  to  give  to  anyone  who  desires  it  an  opportunity  to  study 
anything  he  may  wish  to  study,  as  long  as  his  convenience  or  inclination 
may  dictate,  and  at  such  times  as  may  suit  his  other  engagements;  or,  it 
is  the  province  of  the  high  school  to  prepare  its  pupils  for  the  actual  life 
to  be  lived  by  each,  not  by  giving  to  all  such  general  preparation  as  will 
enable  each  to  adjust  himself  to  the  special  work  to  be  done,  but  by 
teaching  the  particular  art  or  trade  that  in  the  vicissitudes  of  life  he  may 
be  called  upon  to  practice;  or,  it  is  the  business  of  the  high  school  to 
ascertain  the  particular  bent  of  each  individual  mind,  and  to  develop  these 
individual  aptitudes  or  talents  to  the  fullest  possible  extent.  Between 
my  own  views,  which  were  expressed  in  the  first  statement,  and  those 
represented  in  the  other  statements,  there  is  an  almost  endless  variety  of 
opinions,  and  before  anyone  can  have  a  basis  of  decision  of  the  main 
question,  he  must  determine  his  attitude  on  the  question  of  the  function 
of  the  high  school. 

Our  knowledge  of  the  educational  values  of  the  several  studies  must 
be  derived  from  personal  observation,  from  the  history  of  education,  and 
from  psychology.  The  contributions  made  to  the  science  of  pedagogy 
by  the  reports  of  the  numerous  conferences  on  special  studies  are  of  the 
greatest  value,  and  the  paper  of  Dr.  William  T.  Harris  on  "The  Necessity 
for  Five  Co-ordinate  Groups  of  Studies  in  Schools"  presented  in  clear 
and  succinct  form  the  conclusions  reached  by  the  Committee  of  Fifteen, 
which  evidently  were  in  accord  with  his  own  profound  convictions.  The 
limits  o'f  this  paper  preclude  the  possibility  of  presenting  the  conclusions 
further  than  to  say  that, it  was  shown  that  the  five  groups  of  studies  differ 
both  objectively  and  subjectively,  and  call  into  activity  different  methods 
of  observation  and  different  trains  of  thought,  and  therefore  one  of  them 
could  not  be  substituted  for  another,  or  omitted  entirely,  without  distort- 
ing the  pupil's  view  of  the  world,  or  at  least  rendering  it  incomplete.  It 
follows  that  a  course  of  study  complete  in  every  part  would  include  at  all 
stages  of  the  pupil's  progress  some  one  of  each  of  the  five  groups  of 
studies  discriminated,  the  selection  being  made  in  accordance  with  the 
maturity  of  the  pupil.  The  wisdom  of  representing  each  of  the  five 
types  of  studies  in  the  various  stages  of  the  child's  progress  will  become 
apparent  from  a  consideration  of  the  relative  ease  with  which  we  acquire 
knowledge  similar  in  kind  to  that  already  possessed,  in  accordance  with 
the  doctrine  of  apperception,  and  the  profound  pedagogical  truth  that 
education  should  be  a  growth,  a  development. 

Nature,  inorganic  and  organic,  and  man,  theoretical,  practical,  and 
aesthetic,  should  be  the  ever-present  subjects  of  primary  and  secondary 
education,  the  view  becoming  ever  clearer  and  broader  and  deeper 
3S  the  world  is  formed  jn  the  consciousness  of  the  individual,  and  he 


432  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION    *  [Secondary 

comprehends  more  fully  his  own  place  in  the  universe.  By  the  study  of 
mathematics  and  the  sciences,  physics  and  chemistry,  an  acquaintance 
with  the  general  laws  of  nature  and  with  her  inorganic  phases  is  gained ; 
thru  botany,  zoology,  and  other  branches  of  natural  history  we  arrive  at  a 
knowledge  of  the  organic  aspect  of  nature.  The  languages  and  psychology 
afford  a  view  of  man  as  a  thinking  being;  history  —  including  civics, 
sociology,  law — presents  him  as  willing  and  doing;  literature  and  art 
reveal  his  aesthetic  nature.  The  matter  of  education  has  so  extended 
itself  that  in  its  details  it  is  far  beyond  the  grasp  of  any  one  mind,  but  a 
rational  view  may  be  secured  by  a  study  of  man  and  nature  in  the  several 
aspects  presented. 

The  crucial  test  of  every  system  of  education  is  the  world-view  it 
gives ;  the  touchstone  to  apply  to  each  study  is  its  ability  to  contribute 
essential  elements  to  this  world-view.  Much  harm  has  been  done  to  the 
cause  of  education  and  to  the  lives  of  pupils  by  unintelligent  manipula- 
tion of  courses  of  study.  The  fact  that  the  place  of  a  study  in  a  course 
is  called  in  question  is  not  evidence  that  it  ought  to  be  displaced 
by  another  for  which  room  is  sought.  It  may  be  only  an  indication  of 
ignorance  of  its  value.  The  studies  for  which  there  is  the  profoundest 
psychological  and  pedagogical  reason  are  perhaps  most  frequently  chal- 
lenged, because  the  reason  for  their  existence  does  not  appear  to  the 
superficial  observer.  No  study  can  strongly  appeal  to  the  reason  of  one 
who  is  ignorant  of  its  content.  The  cry  of  "impractical,"  "out  of  date," 
"fetich,"  and  other  like  expressions,  may  be  effective  with  the  unin- 
formed, but,  like  the  argumenium  ad  hominem,  may  prove  nothing  but 
the  paucity  of  reasons  in  the  mind  of  some  advocate  of  a  so-called  practi- 
cal study.  In  many  minds  the  word  "practical"  is  synonymous  with 
directly  convertible  into  dollars  and  cents  —  more  frequently  cents. 

The  perfectly  natural  and  readily  explained  general  ignorance  of  the 
educational  values  of  subjects  composing  courses  of  study  prevents  the 
formation  of  logical  judgments  in  such  matters  by  the  public;  and  this 
term  should  include  parents  and  pupils,  and  such  teachers  as  have  not 
given  special  attention  to  the  subject  of  educational  values  and  the  proper 
composition  of  courses  of  study.  Fortunately  for  the  cause  of  education 
in  America,  the  public,  while  lacking  the  information  and  training  requi- 
site to  the  formation  of  a  valid  judgment  in  such  matters,  has  to  a 
marked  degree  the  most  excellent  quality  of  common-sense,  which  makes 
it  conscious  of  its  need  of  information  and  leads  it  to  leave  the  decision 
of  such  matters  to  those  who  have  made  them  a  study.  Sometimes,  thru 
confidence  in  injudicious  teachers,  the  public  is  misled  into  positions  from 
which  it  is  necessary  to  retreat,  with  larger  experience,  but  with  cost  of 
children's  lives  and  wasted  treasure ;  but  the  public  schools  of  America 
are  not  in  imminent  danger  of  being  led  far  into  error  by  zeal  without 
knowledge,  as  is  shown  by  the  Commissioner's  report  of  the  number  of 


r 


Department]  ELECTION  IN  HIGH-SCHOOL  STUDIES  433 

pupils  who  are  engaged  in  studying  the  several  branches  taught  in  second- 
ary schools  —  a  report  that  should  convince  the  most  timorous  and 
pessimistic  that  there  is  a  very  bright  future  for  education  in  these  United 
States. 

Beyond  controversy,  this  is  a  "  government  of  the  people,  by  the 
people,  for  the  people  ; "  but  at  times  there  seems  to  be  some  misapprehen- 
sion of  the  application  of  the  term  "people."  The  editorial  "we"  is 
more  potent  and  less  offensive  than  the  capital  "  I,"  and  the  enthusiastic 
advocate  of  some  change  in  the  course  that  in  imagination  is  going  to 
revolutionize  education,  making  the  crooked  places  straight  and  the 
rough  places  smooth,  exalting  the  valleys  and  laying  low  the  hills,  with 
his  ear  to  the  ground  and  his  eyes  uplifted  to  get  a  glimpse  of  his  own 
prospective  greatness,  thinks  he  catches  the  accents  of  the  people  loudly 
clamoring  for  the  device  that  is  to  pave  a  royal  road  to  learning  with  the 
smooth  blocks  of  desire  set  in  undeveloped  interest.  Pupils  do  not  know 
enough  about  themselves  or  the  studies  that  constitute  the  curriculum  of  a 
high  school  to  decide  which  studies  they  should  take  to  develop  their  indi- 
vidual and  peculiar  genius,  or  to  suit  their  ultimate  but  as  yet  undiscovered 
purpose  in  life,  or  even  to  awaken  and  hold  their  interest.  Choice  with- 
out power  to  discriminate  is  not  choice,  but  caprice,  unbridled  fancy, 
unreasoning  folly,  distasteful  even  to  children.  Parents  are  full  of  sym- 
pathy for  their  children,  as  they  should  be  ;  they  have  plans  of  their  own, 
more  or  less  in  harmony  with  the  unformed  taste  of  their  children  ;  but, 
happily,  with  few  exceptions,  they  defer  to  the  calmer,  unbiased  judgment 
of  the  one  whose  business  it  is  to  know  all  that  can  be  learned  about  the 
functions  of  different  studies,  and  whose  experience  is  many  times  as 
broad  as  that  of  any  individual  otherwise  employed.  This,  I  am  well 
aware,  throws  a  great  responsibility  upon  the  principal  of  the  high  school ; 
but  a  public  office  is  a  public  trust,  and  emoluments  and  burdens,  oppor- 
tunities and  obligations,  have  a  fixed  relation  to  each  other. 

Even  if  it  were  desirable  that  each  individual  should  choose  his  own 
studies  and  arrange  a  special  course,  there  are  inherent  difficulties  to  pre- 
vent such  freedom  of  action.  Expense  will  always  fix  a  minimum  for  the 
number  to  constitute  a  class  ;  the  natural  sequence  of  studies  is  in  many 
cases  perfectly  evident  and  unalterable;  a  certain  intellectual  maturity  is 
indispensable  to  the  prosecution  of  some  studies;  there  is  a  physical 
limit  to  the  work  that  each  pupil  can  do  ;  there  are  not  an  indefinite 
number  of  hours  for  the  arrangement  of  a  progam  of  studies ;  there 
are  still  college  requirements  to  be  met  by  those  who  are  not  entirely  self 
sufficient. 

But  what  are  the  advantages  to  be  derived  from  an  unrestricted  elec- 
tion, if  it  were  practicable?  Chief  among  those  that  are  mentioned,  and 
the  one  most  in  keeping  with  the  intense  individualism  of  this  century 
and  this  country,  is  the  interest  it  would  ipsure  in  the  work  to  be  dope, 


434  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Secondary 

Work  done  under  compulsion  is  said  to  be  slavish  and  necessarily  lacking 
in  interest  and  enthusiasm.  But  is  it  true  that  the  work  done  by  high- 
school  pupils  is  done  under  compulsion  ?  Is  not  all  freedom  possible 
only  to  him  who  voluntarily  does  the  things  which  the  laws  of  his  nature 
require  ?  If,  in  my  ignorance,  I  choose  that  which  would  not  be  my 
choice  if  I  understood  my  own  needs  or  the  nature  of  the  study,  shall  I, 
therefore,  take  an  interest  in  my  work?  Shall  I  not  rather  be  displeased 
with  myself,  dissatisfied  with  my  work,  disgusted  with  the  system  that 
made  such  a  misfit  possible  ?  Is  the  interest  that  pupils  take  in  their 
studies  due  altogether  to  the  character  of  the  studies  or  to  their  free 
choice  of  them  ?  Is  it  not  rather  frequently  due  to  the  influence  of  the 
teacher,  who  by  reason  of  the  fullness  of  his  own  knowledge  and  his  own 
kindling  enthusiasm  for  his  subject,  and  because  of  his  love  for  his  pupils, 
is  able  to  awaken  in  them  an  interest  kindred  to  his  own  ?  Is  not  the 
need  of  the  hour, 'not  selection  of  studies,  but  selection  of  teachers  ? 

The  privilege  of  certain  options  and  choices  has  long  been  given,  and 
the  only  living  phase  of  the  question  is  how  far  this  privilege  should  be 
extended.  The  National  Educational  Association  by  its  appointment  of 
committees  to  consider  the  courses  of  study  for  secondary  schools  has 
done  much  toward  shaping  public  opinion  and  effecting  a  general  agree- 
ment as  to  the  subjects  to  be  taught  and  the  importance  of  representing 
the  five  co-ordinate  branches  of  study  at  every  stage  of  progress.  Within 
these  limits,  which  have  been  quite  clearly  defined,  the  individuality  of 
the  pupil  should  be  carefully  considered  by  the  principal  in  consultation 
with  the  child  and  the  parents,  but  the  desire  of  the  individual  ought  not 
to  be  allowed  to  interfere  with  his  own  education,  or  to  work  to  the  detri- 
ment of  other  pupils  or  of  the  general  welfare.  Delicate  pupils,  or  back- 
ward pupils,  or  pupils  whose  time  is  necessarily  partly  occupied  with  other 
interests,  can  easily  be  accommodated  without  detriment  to. others  by 
giving  them  the  privilege  of  postponing  part  of  the  work  of  any  term  to 
the  next.  Greater  freedom  from  restriction  seems  hardly  desirable  or 
practical.  If  the  arranged  courses  of  study  preserve  the  proper  sequence, 
and  if  indeed  it  is  not  true  that  they  are  merely  aggregations  of  studies 
without  logical  connection  or  principle  of  cohesion,  it  is  hard  to  see  how 
the  privilege  of  disregarding  the  lines  drawn  could  be  granted  without 
harm  to  the  individual  pupil  and  to  the  school.  The  educative  effect  of 
completing  a  part  of  a  well-ordered  course  will  be  greater  than  the  effect  of 
pursuing  some  of  the  studies  to  a  farther  limit,  and  the  chances  of  com- 
pleting the  entire  course  will  be  greater.  I  have  no  sympathy  with  the 
defect  in  child-training,  common  in  our  day,  which  exalts  the  immature 
judgment  of  youth  above  the  maturer  judgment  of  parent  or  teacher,  in 
so  far  at  least  as  it  allows  it  to  determine  the  action  in  specific  cases. 
Hear  the  statement  of  the  case,  as  it  lies  in  the  child's  mind  ;  point  out  the 
fallacies  that  appear ;  but  insist  upon  the  supremacy  of  reason.     Freedoro 


Department]  ELECTION  IN  HIGH-SCHOOL  STUDIES  435 

is  subjection  of  will  to  righteous  laws,  and  the  will  is  trained  to  righteous- 
ness by  habitually  doing  right.  Not  desire,  but  recognition  of  duty,  leads 
man  to  self-control.     Not  enjoyment,  but  service,  is  the  measure  of  life. 


DISCUSSION 


A.  H.  Nelson,  Chicago,  111. —  Mr.  James  H.  Harris,  in  the  Educational  Review  for 
May,  in  discussing  "  The  Natural  Limitations  of  the  Elective  System,"  says  (and  I  assent 
to  the  statement):  "The  restrictions  and  limitations  of  physical  and  intellectual  capacity, 
the  laws  of  meiftal  growth  and  of  sequence  of  studies,  the  counsel  and  guidance  of 
parents  and  teachers,  are  amply  sufficient  to  safeguard  the  interests  and  promote  the  free 
progress  of  the  youth  without  further  limitations."  If  we  could  treat  that  as  an  algebraic 
proposition  and  cancel  all  possible  factors,  we  should  have  left  only  the  "  counsel  and 
guidance  of  teachers,"  for  "  the  guidance  of  parents  "  is  still  an  unknown  quantity,  and 
all  real  election  by  the  pupil  would  be  eliminated. 

Those  who  would  broaden  the  scope  of  election  for  high-school  pupils  must  always 
reckon  with  two  factors,  constant  and  controlling  in  the  solution  of  this  as  well  as  of  every 
other  educational  problem.  Naming  these  in  the  inverse  order  of  their  importance,  they 
are  :  (l)  the  intellectual  status  of  the  average  high-school  matriculate  ;  and  (2)  the  single 
and  only  aim  of  all  public-school  instruction.  I  do  not  believe  that  there  is  a  teacher 
before  me,  whether  such  teacher  has  had  much  or  little  of  psycho-pedagogical  training, 
that  will  not  agree  with  me  in  characterizing  the  years  between  the  age  of  graduation 
from  the  grammar  school  and  that  of  matriculation  in  college  as  the  period  of  greatest 
unrest,  psychical  as  well  as  physical.  It  is  the  time  of  nascent  manhood  and  wonaanhood, 
when  boys  and  girls  study  themselves  and  each  other  with  far  greater  interest  than  they 
study  any  text-book ;  the  time  when  coeducation  leads  to  the  very  delightful  discovery  of 

"  Books  in  the  running  brooks,  sermons  in  stones. 
And  good  in  everything ;  " 

the  time  when  the  girl  coils  up  her  braids,  and  the  boy  turns  up  his  trousers.  It  is,  in  short, 
just  the  period  when  the  guidance  of  experience,  the  control  of  a  master-mind  in  deter- 
mining the  course  of  study,  is  most  essential.  An  editorial  writer  upon  one  of  our  daily 
papers  has  said  :  "  The  average  high-school  boy  has  hardly  got  beyond  the  period  when 
he  is  puzzled  to  decide  whether  he  will  be  a  general,  admiral,  or  a  circus  clown.  To 
throw  open  a  course  of  study  to  the  election  of  such  immature  minds  would  be  as  edify- 
ing a  spectacle  as  to  allow  an  infant  to  experiment  with  different-colored  candies,  for  the 
similitude  could  be  extended  to  the  ultimate  effect  on  brain  and  bowels." 

Those  who  advocate  an  increase  in  the  number  of  electives  argue  that  there  can  be 
no  proper  development  of  the  individual  unless  there  is,  or  can  be  awakened,  in  the  pupil 
an  interest  in  his  studies.  This  argument  Professor  Munsterberg  analyzes  and  answers 
after  this  fashion  :  "  All  instruction  must  be  interesting.  If  the  pupil's  interest  is  not  in 
it,  the  whole  instruction  is  dead  matter,  useless  vexation.  Everything  which  appeals  to 
the  natural  tastes  of  the  child  is  interesting.  Instruction,  therefore,  must  be  adjusted  to 
the  natural  instincts  and  tastes."  The  logical  fallacy  of  this  ought  to  be  evident.  All 
instruction  which  is  good  must  be  interesting ;  but  does  it  follow  therefrom  that  all 
instruction  which  is  interesting  must  also  be  good  ?  Are  there  not  kinds  of  interest  which 
are  positively  bad  and  destructive  ?  Is  not  the  true  meaning  of  education  to  discrimi- 
nate between  good  and  bad  desires,  to  suppress  lower  instincts  and  to  reinforce  the 
higher  ?  Wanting  the  faculty  to  discriminate  between  good  and  bad  desires,  election  in 
studies,  even  with  reference  to  a  special  future  occupation,  is,  as  the  same  writer  has  said, 
"merely  the  cumulation  of  a  hundred  chance  influences." 


436  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Secondary 

In  anticipation  of  this  discussion,  and  that  I  might  know  the  opinion  of  a  college 
president  of  very  many  years'  experience  with  the  graduates  of  secondary  schools,  I  sat 
down  a  few  weeks  ago  in  the  study  of  such  a  president  and  asked  him  point  blank  the 
very  question  we  are  discussing  today.  His  reply  was  in  substance  as  follows  :  "  The 
longer  I  remain  in  this  office,  the  more  fixed  am  I  in  the  opinion  that  until  even  a  col- 
legian has  reached  his  junior  year  the  scope  of  election  should  be  very  narrow.  As  for 
high-school  boys  and  girls,  they  are  of  such  comparatively  low  average  in  intellectual 
maturity  that  there  is  positively  no  room  for  election  by  them,  if  the  course  of  study  they 
are  to  pursue  is  to  be  in  any  true  sense  preparation  for  college.  Evidence  that  some  of 
the  secondary  schools  are  tending  very  strongly  in  the  opposite  direction  I  am  constantly 
having  in  the  young  men  and  young  women  whose  preparation  to  enter  this  university 
has  very  largely  been  directed  by  their  own  likings,  rather  than  by  the  mature  judgment 
and  experience  of  teachers." 

In  my  opinion,  however,  the  chief  objection  to  the  multiplication  of  the  number  of 
subjects  from  which  pupils  in  our  high  schools  may  elect  a  course  of  study  inheres  not  so 
much  in  the  intellectual  immaturity  of  the  scholar  —  the  first  of  the  factors  I  have  above 
quoted  —  as  in  the  second  of  those  factors,  namely,  the  single  and  only  legitimate  aim  of 
all  public-school  education  in  this  country ;  for  I  understand  that  in  this  discussion  we  are 
rigidly  confined  to  the  schools  that  are  maintained  by  public  taxation.  That  single  and 
only  legitimate  aim  is  intelligent  American  citizenship.  Unquestionably  this  is  in  very 
many  cases  not  apprehended  as  the  raison  d^iire  of  every  high  school  as  well  as  of  every 
elementary  school,  and,  where  it  is  apprehended  at  all,  it  is  not  consistently  treated 
as  the  chief  aim  of  public-school  education.  It  is  not  to  be  wondered  at  that  those  who 
advocate  a  gradual  increase  of  the  number  of  electives  as  compared  with  required  subjects 
in  the  course  of  study  for  high  schools  seem  to  consider  the  purpose  of  the  school  to  be 
to  sift  the  finished  product  of  the  grammar  school,  to  the  end  that  the  few  score  of  boys 
and  girls  who  have  really  fixed  upon  some  calling  or  profession  in  which  to  do  their  life's 
work  may  be  segregated  from  the  hundreds  —  the  very  large  majority  in  every  high  school 
—  who  are  simply  there  because  their  parents  send  them,  and  very  of  ten  with  no  better  rea- 
son for  such  sending  than  that  it  is  "  the  thing  to  do." 

But  if  it  be  true  that  intelligent  American  citizenship,  and  that  only,  is  the  reason  for 
levying  taxes  for  educational  purposes  (and  I  do  not  think  that  that  definition  can  be 
safely  expanded  one  iota),  then  so  to  consider  the  work  of  the  high  school  is  to  substitute 
for  liberal  education,  that  in  which  alone  all  the  people  can  share,  professional  education, 
which  must  always  be  for  the  select  few.  However  valuable  the  doctrine  of  manifest 
destiny  may  be  as  an  indorsement  of  political  and  territorial  expansion,  it  is  fraught  with 
dangerous  possibility  when  it  finds  a  place  among  the  motives  directing  the  public 
instruction  of  the  youth  of  this  country. 

The  captain  of  a  company,  or  even  the  colonel  of  a  regiment,  has  not  that  knowledge 
of  the  special  and  objective  point  of  a  campaign  necessary  for  planning  the  combined  and 
interdependent  operations  of  the  several  branches  of  the  army.  A  wider  range  of  vision 
is  necessary  for  the  intelligent  planning  for  the  campaign  as  a  whole.  For  a  like  reason 
the  statement  of  Professor  Withers,  which  I  quoted  at  the  outset,  will  serve  as  a  criterion 
by  which  to  test  the  value  of  much  that  has  been  and  is  being  written  by  high-school 
principals  and  teachers  upon  this  subject.  If  "the  proper  study  of  mankind  is  man," 
then  the  constant  study  of  early  manhood  and  womanhood,  the  daily  occupation  of  the 
schoolmaster,  must  of  necessity  act  as  a  powerful  stimulus  to  enthusiasm  in  his  work ;  but 
enthusiasm  is  always  restive  under  the  suggestions  of  judgment,  and  too  often  ignores  the 
counsels  of  experience  ;  hence  the  enthusiastic  high-school  principal  or  teacher  is  very  apt 
to  forget  that  because  in  science  or  literature,  in  biology  or  psychology,  he  finds  that 
which  stimulates  and  develops  his  own  intellectuality,  it  does  not  follow  that,  even  if  any 
number  of  high-school  pupils  express  a  preference  for  such  studies,  such  studies  should 
be  pursued.     He  is  a  professional  man,  and  his  place  in  the  world  is  among  professional 


DepartmentJ 


HOW  TO  TEACH  CORRECT  USE  OF  LANGUAGE 


437 


men  and  women  ;  but  the  average  high-school  pupil  will  never  rise  to  that  level ;  nor  is  it 
the  chief  purpose  of  the  high  school  to  prepare  pupils  for  college  or  professional  life,  tho 
the  tendency  to  so  consider  a  high-school  course  is  all  but  universal.  It  has  been  well 
and  wisely  said  :  "  The  high  school  ought  to  be  faithful  to  its  only  goal  of  general  educa- 
tion, without  professional  anticipations."  The  infusion  of  the  utilitarian  spirit  into  our 
educational  life  is  to  be  deprecated.  True  education  is  a  life-process,  and  is  not  bounded 
by  the  kindergarten  and  university.  That  in  the  highest  type  of  manhood  and  woman- 
hood to  make  a  life  rather  than  to  make  a  living  is  the  controlling  purpose,  should  ever 
be  kept  before  the  youth  in  our  secondary  schools ;  but  those  who  determine  the  course 
of  study  in  such  schools  ought  to  remember  that  in  the  domain  of  the  intellectual 
as  well  as  the  spiritual  the  wide  gate  and  the  broad  way  "leadeth  unto  destruction," 
while  "strait  is  the  gate  and  narrow  is  the  way  that  leadeth  unto  life." 


HOW  SHALL   WE  TEACH  OUR  PUPILS  THE  CORRECT  USE 
OF  THE  ENGLLSH  LANGUAGE? 

OLIVER    S.   WESTCOTT,    PRINCIPAL    OF    THE    NORTH    DIVISION    HIGH    SCHOOL, 

CHICAGO,    ILL. 

I  answer  the  question  in  two  words :    By  example. 

The  rules  of  grammar  are  accepted  as  the  shibboleth  of  intellect  by  too  many.  We 
all  know  persons  who  seem  always,  when  listening  to  informal  conversation,  to  be  eaves- 
dropping for  solecisms,  which  they  register,  when  found,  more  or  less  brutally,  and  store 
up  to  retail  as  malicious  gossip  later.  These  spies  and  informers  of  everyday  life  seem 
to  assume  that  a  breach  of  grammar  is  a  breach  of  the  peace,  that  a  slipshod  syntactician 
is  a  public  nuisance,  and  that  a  double  negative  is  complete  damnation.  Yet  we  all  know 
certain  absolute  asses  whose  impeccable  grammar  only  emphasizes  the  emptiness  of  their 
thoughts,  whose  brains  are  as  free  from  the  possibility  of  inspiration  as  any  Chinese 
laundryman's  adding  machine.  And  we  all  know  certain  men  whose  thought  takes 
magnificent  strides  and  covers  a  noble  parish  without  check  from  the  barbed-wire  fences 
and  "  no  thoroughfare "  signs  of  grammar.  These  unshackled  souls  are  rather  above 
than  beneath  the  jurisdiction  of  justices  of  the  peace  like  Lindley  Murray. 

This  exordium  is  stolen  in  its  entirety.  Many  of  you  have,  no  doubt, 
already  perused  it  in  "The  Point  of  View"  in  the  May  Scribner's.  It  is 
apparently  to  some  extent  apologetic  of  what  is  to  follow,  viz.,  sundry 
quotations  from  classic  English  authors  showing  plainly  that  occasional 
nodding  is  not  confined  to  Homer.     He  continues  as  follows : 

But  if  grammar  is  upheld  as  the  sine  qua  non  of  respectable  speech,  by  so  much 
the  more  is  it  demanded  of  the  written  word.  A  reviewer  who  has  caught  a  young 
author  in  flagrant  errors  in  syntax  feels  quite  justified  in  holding  a  wake  over  him  without 
further  ado.  But  this,  I  aver,  is  not  justified  even  by  precedent  or  that  consuetude  which 
Quinctilian  called  certissima  loquendi  magistra.  For  the  most  loftily  renowned  of 
writers  have  made  slips  —  slips  that  cannot  be  palmed  off  or  licensed  as  constructions 
which  the  high  authority  of  their  authors  legalizes  —  slips,  indeed,  which  can  be  forgiven, 
but  not  justified. 

Tho  matter  is  unquestionably  of  more  importance  than  manner,  the 
thought  more  to  be  considered  than  its  dress,  it  is  nevertheless  as  true 
in  rhetoric  as  in  the  social  circle  that  dress  comes  in  for  a  liberal  share 


438  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Secondary 

of  attention,  and  that  special  consideration  is  always  vouchsafed  to  a 
person  of  engaging  presence.  The  old  saw,  "  If  you  would  give  your 
talents  fair  play,  dress  well,"  is  as  applicable  to  literature  as  to  life. 

The  writer  of  "The  Point  of  View"  certainly  makes  good  his  claim 
that  so-called  classic  English  authors  are  far  from  immaculate  in  the 
matter  of  English  construction.  It  is  passing  strange  that  he  should 
devote  so  large  a  part  of  his  disquisition  to  commenting  upon  quotations 
from  authors  centuries  old.  No  one  feels  disposed  to  hold  to  the  strictest 
rules  our  earlier  English  authors  —  Beaumont  and  Fletcher,  Fielding, 
Shakespeare,  Ben  Jonson,  Jane  Austen,  Sterne,  etc. —  and  we  excuse  their 
shortcomings  by  the  unexpressed  belief  that  the  language  in  their  time 
had  not  been  so  crystallized  as  to  warrant  our  expecting  the  exactness  we 
ought  to  find  in  the  practice  of  later  writers.  But  when  Thackeray  and 
George  Eliot  and  Scott  and  Bulwer  Lytton  and  Stevenson  and  Crane 
and  Meredith  are  justly  listed  in  the  category  of  literary  sinners,  we  are 
hardly  disposed  to  join  with  the  author  in  his  moral,  or  emphatically  to 
indorse  his  own  English  when  he  concludes : 

If,  after  quoting  out  of  a  large  catalogue  this  few  (which  is  already  too  many),  I  shall 
have  earned  a  little  more  mercy  to  the  frailties  of  the  weak  by  betraying  the  frailties  of 
the  strong,  it  is  well  with  my  soul. 

Philosophically  the  position  seems  to  be  vastly  more  tenable  that  the 
sins  of  the  great  should  not  palliate  the  sins  of  the  small,  and  if  these 
errors  are  to  be  collated  and  presented  for  consideration,  they  should  be 
presented  as  pitfalls  to  be  carefully  avoided.  If  the  writers  of  the  coming 
generation  are  to  be  unamenable  to  such  scathing  and  deserved  criticism 
as  this,  something  effective  must  be  done  by  us  to  enhance  their  rever- 
ence for  and  their  familiarity  with  their  vernacular. 

What,  then,  shall  we  do  ? 

When  an  old-fashioned  revivalist  used  to  lay  out  his  program  for  a 
revival  in  a  town  he  did  exactly  as  Mr.  Moody  once  did  in  Philadelphia. 
First,  he  examined  the  condition  of  the  church  itself.  To  bring  sinners 
to  see  the  error  of  their  ways,  nothing  was  deemed  so  potent  as  the  influ- 
ence of  good  example,  and  a  few  weeks  spent  in  getting  professed  Chris- 
tians into  line,  and  a  sermon  or  two  from  the  standard  text,  "Go 
through,  go  through  the  gates;  cast  up,  cast  up  the  highway;  gather  out 
the  stones  ;  lift  up  a  standard  for  the  people,"  were  deemed  to  be  of 
essential  necessity  in  preparing  to  do  battle  with  the  wicked  and  batter 
down  the  strongholds  of  Satan.  This  was  a  philosophical  plan.  Why, 
then,  should  not  we  as  teachers  exercise  as  much  shrewdness  in  endeavor- 
ing to  do  battle  with  the  hosts  of  ignorance?  Let  us,  then,  go  thru  the 
gates  and  at  least  show  where  some  of  the  pebbles,  nay,  boulders,  lie, 
which  must  be  gathered  out  before  the  standard  of  the  English  language 
can  be  lifted  above  the  dead  level  where  it  has  so  long  been  trailing  near 
or  on  the  ground. 


Department]         ^OlV  TO  TEACH  CORRECT  USE  OF  LANGUAGE  439 

The  best- educated  are  too  often  inexcusably  careless  in  colloquial 
discourse.  The  school  superintendent  of  one  of  the  largest  cities  in  the 
United  States  said  publicly  to  an  institute  on  two  different  occasions  that 
it  is  of  little  or  no  consequence  that  we  teachers  occasionally  mispro- 
nounce words  in  our  intercourse  with  one  another.  Does  he  think  that 
he  can  give  himself  so  much  latitude  in  public  and  be  more  particular  in 
his  own  family  in  intercourse  with  his  children?  Surely  such^ leniency 
will  be  misinterpreted.  His  own  influence  with  teachers,  their  influence 
upon  one  another  and  upon  other  people  with  whom  they  are  brought  in 
contact,  his  influence  with  his  children,  their  influence  upon  their  asso- 
ciates and  companions  at  school,  the  consequent  further  influence  of 
these  latter  upon  members  of  other  families,  may  all  be  referred  to  him 
as  the  central  motor  of  these  concentric  and  ever-widening  circles  whose 
limit  is  indefinable.  Many,  very  many  derelictions  in  the  use  of  the 
English  language  may  not  unjustly  be  laid  to  his  charge,  if  in  his  own 
practice  he  permits  himself  the  slightest  digression  from  the  rules  of  the 
strictest  propriety. 

Let  those  who  are  fortunate  in  being  parents  (and  all  parents  are  also 
teachers)  see  to  it  that  no  influence  goes  out  from  their  firesides  that 
shall  militate  against  the  efforts  of  the  professional  teachers  of  language, 
that  so  their  best  endeavors  be  not  rendered  utterly  futile.  Those  parents 
with  whom  we  are  not  immediately  brought  in  contact  are  admittedly 
beyond  our  reach  for  special  influence.  But  we  can  furnish,  and  we 
ought  to  furnish,  parents  for  coming  generations  who  shall  deem  it  one 
of  the  primary  duties  they  owe  society  to  see  to  it  that,  in  their  own 
homes  at  least,  only  good  English  is  tolerated. 

But  parents  are  not  the  only  teachers.  When  our  pupils  are  out  of 
the  schoolroom  they  are  likely  to  be  brought  in  contact  with  other  chil- 
dren from  the  families  of  individuals  from  every  nation  under  heaven. 
The  jargon  at  Babel  could  scarcely  have  been  more  pronounced  than 
what  may  easily  be  heard  upon  the  streets  of  any  of  our  large  cities  and 
of  most  of  our  smaller  towns.  This  potent  influence  for  evil  cannot, 
perhaps,  be  entirely  counteracted,  and  yet  it  may  be  modified  by  thoroly 
inculcating  upon  the  pupil  the  necessity  of  avoiding  in  his  own  conversa- 
tion any  scraps  of  patois  that  he  may  be  compelled  to  hear.  Teachers 
and  parents  should  combine  so  far  as  possible  to  prevent  the  introduction 
of  foreign  words  into  ordinary  conversation.  And  this  is  the  very  least 
of  the  evils  in  this  direction.  The  provincialisms  and  the  localisms  of 
the  various  parts  of  our  country  and  of  the  shires  of  Egland  are  inces- 
santly cropping  out  and  are  sure  of  a  luxuriant  growth  unless  unceremo- 
niously nipped  in  the  bud. 

But  we  teachers  are  perhaps  the  most  amenable  to  charges  like  the 
above,  and  at  the  same  time  the  least  excusable.  How  many  of  us  watch 
our  own  conversation  in  school  or  out  with  half  the  care  with  which  we 


440  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Secondary 

watch  that  of  the  pupils  under  our  charge  ?  Are  we  careful  that  in  every 
recitation  the  sentences  of  both  teacher  and  pupil  are  carefully  con- 
structed after  the  most  approved  models  ?  Is  the  recitation  in  science 
or  the  recitation  in  mathematics  allowably  more  careless  than  the  recita- 
tion in  language  ?  It  takes  line  upon  line  and  precept  upon  precept  to 
induce  pupils  to  say,  the  sum  of  the  angles  of  a  triangle  is,  rather  than 
are.  Few  classes  in  geometry  are  clear  of  statements  regarding  the 
frustrum  ot  a  cone  or  a  pyramid,  and  fewer  still  are  those  no  one  of 
whose  pupils  will  say :  "  divide  a  line  into  extreme  and  mean  ratio." 
Why  is  this  ? 

In  the  zeal  of  the  times  for  getting  the  chasm  bridged  by  introdu- 
cing all  the  "ologies"  into  the  elementary  schools,  the  pupils  are  crammed 
to  repletion  with,  to  them,  meaningless  words  and  indigestible  facts;  and 
there  is  no  healthy  assimilation.  If  only  the  mental  stomach  could  as 
easily  regurgitate  as  can  the  bodily  one,  the  next  thing  in  order  should 
be  a  vigorous  emetic.  But  if  we  believe  that  an  ounce  of  prevention  is 
worth  a  pound  of  cure,  let  us  cease  this  senseless  cramming  and  avoid  the 
suggested  necessity. 

We  are  glad  to  know  that  so  high  an  authority  as  Dr.  Nicholas  Murray 
Butler  believes  with  many  of  us  that  mental  growth  during  the  period 
of  adolescence  is  not  the  mental  growth  of  the  child ;  that  there  should 
and  must  be  an  entirely  different  course  of  procedure  in  the  elementary 
and  in  the  secondary  schools  ;  that  the  bridging  of  the  alleged  chasm  by  the 
so-called  "  enriching  "  of  the  course  in  the  elementary  schools  is  utterly 
unpsychological,  if  not  absolutely  impossible,  and,  at  any  rate,  by  such  a 
method  both  pedagogically  and  philosophically  undesirable.  Let  us 
rather  cause  the  chasm  to  vanish  by  the  inculcation  of  studious  habits,  by 
laying  a  solid  foundation  for  broad  and  accurate  scholarship,  and  not 
drag  down  material  from  the  secondary  schools  for  the  use  of  pupils  not 
yet  able  to  cope  with  it.  The  abstractions  of  algebra  and  geometry 
require  a  certain  maturity  of  the  intellectual  powers  and  a  thoughtful 
preparation  in  dealing  even  with  the  practical  side  of  these  branches  in 
connection  with  arithmetic.  Unless  time  is  given  for  a  philosophical 
preparation,  it  is  obviously  unfair  to  expect  successful  work  from  the 
pupil.  Relegate  algebra  and  geometry  and  Latin  to  the  secondary 
schools,  where  abundant  opportunity  is  given  for  their  acquisition,  unless 
a  place  can  be  found  for  them  in  the  elementary  schools  without  trench- 
ing upon  the  time  of  things  fundamental  and  more  important. 

Theoretically  we  admit  that  the  rudiments  of  geometrical  science 
require  the  simplest  of  mathematical  concepts.  We  admit  that  it  has 
been  demonstrated  repeatedly  that  the  use  of  such  a  book  as  Hill's 
Geometry  can  be  made  profitable  with  children  from  eight  to  ten  years 
old,  and  indeed  younger.  The  fundamental  rules  of  arithmetic  may 
profitably  be  followed  by  some  of  the  simplicities  of  algebra.     Then  the 


I 


Department]  HO IV  TO  TEACH  CORRECT  USE  OF  LANGUAGE  44 1 

three  branches  of  mathematical  science  with  which  all  children  should  be 
made  more  or  less  familiar  may  be  taken  up  together  and  progress  in 
geometry,  algebra,  and  arithmetic  ^xoct&d  pari  passu.  But  if  algebra  and 
geometry  and  Latin,  etc.,  are  grafted  upon  a  tree  whose  present  foliage 
and  possibly  prospective  fruit  are  able  utterly  to  exhaust  all  nutriment 
that  can  be  supplied  by  the  air  or  by  the  soil,  the  resylts  can  only  be 
deleterious.  While  the  new  grafts  do  not  thrive  vigorously,  the  old 
shoots  are  robbed  of  their  legitimate  claims  and  the  whole  organism 
deteriorates. 

It  is  strange  that  teachers  in  secondary  schools  often  excuse  their 
shortcomings,  by  saying  that  pupils  should  have  learned  such  or  such  a 
thing  in  the  elementary  schools.  Granted,  but  that  is  no  excuse  for 
further  neglect.  Since  a  minute  and  accurate  knowledge  of  English  is 
indispensable  to  one  who  wishes  to  communicate  thought  with  English 
as  his  chosen  medium,  it  should  go  without  saying  that  anything  needed 
and  possible  of  supply  by  the  secondary-school  teacher  should  be  willingly 
and  lovingly  rendered.  And  it  should  not  be  forgotten  that  the  example 
of  the  teacher  should  in  all  respects  be  worthy  of  imitation.  Does  the- 
student  of  geometry  yfv'iit  porporiion  ox  porprotion  for  proportion,  it  is  not 
alone  his  present  carelessness.  His  previous  pronunciation,  or  mayhap 
that  of  his  teacher,  has  left  no  definite  impression  upon  his  mind  as  to 
the  word  characteristics.  He  writes  therium  for  theorem,  and  the  same 
suggestion  explains. 

Pronunciation  and  orthography  go  hand  in  hand  in  a  much  larger 
number  of  cases  in  the  English  language  than  is  assumed  by  our  fault- 
finding teachers  and  professors  who  boast  of  being  poor  spellers.  If  only 
they  would  spend,  in  making  themselves  and  their  pupils  absolutely 
accurate,  a  tithe  of  the  time  which  they  spend  in  putting  forward  a  few 
objectionable  peculiarities  of  the  language,  and  abusing  the  most  copious, 
the  richest,  and  the  best  language  now  spoken  by  any  nation  on  the  face 
of  the  earth,  their  time  would  be  spent  to  far  greater  advantage. 

So  potent  are  the  influences  of  example  that  I  verily  believe  that  any 
large  city  could  well  afford,  in  the  interest  of  its  children,  to  employ  one 
officer,  who  should  be  styled,  if  you  please,  sign-supervisor,  who  should 
have  absolute  authority  to  order  removed  any  sign  not  conformable  in 
orthography  and  style  to  the  authorized  Usages  of  the  language.  Then  the 
ubiquitous  over-Websterianism  of  metalic  for  metallic  would  disappear. 
Butermilk  would  be  consigned  to  oblivion  and  the  cistren  manufacturer 
would  be  compelled  to  take  in  his  marvelous  metathesis.  It  may  already 
have  occurred  to  you  that  the  wonderfully  constructed  sinistral  j'sand  z'% 
andy's  which  occasionally  stand  revealed  to  your  astonished  gaze  in  the 
schoolroom  come  from  the  most  observing  pupils,  and  that  the  supposed 
idiosyncrasy  can  easily  be  traced  to  some  exterior  influence  like  the  one 
suggested. 


442  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Secondary 

These  are  but  phases  of  an  inexhaustible  subject.  Admitting  our 
inexcusably  careless  pronunciation  and  our  lamentably  deficient  orthog- 
raphy, what  shall  we  say  of  the  neglected  grammar  and  the  abused 
rhetoric;  of  the  stammering,  unmelodious  flow  of  the  words  and  the 
utter  lack  of  rhythm  in  the  periods  of  our  extempore  speech  ?  Let  us 
mercifully  draw  a  veil. 

What  books  as  teachers  do  our  pupils  read  ?  Many  of  our  pupils  are 
not  extensive  readers.  The  old  saying  of  Bacon,  that  "  reading  makes  a 
full  man;  talking,  a  ready  man  ;  writing,  an  exact  man,"  is  as  true  today 
as  on  the  occasion  of  its  first  utterance,  and  its  terseness  and  sense  will 
doubtless  combine  to  render  its  existence  as  immortal  as  that  of  the 
language  itself.  But  while  this  apothegm  is  an  excellent  one  with  which 
to  familiarize  our  pupils,  it  is  incumbent  on  us  as  teachers,  and  most 
especially  incumbent  on  us  as  parents,  to  care  for  what  is  read,  what  is 
talked,  what  is  written.  For  what  is  read,  as  indicating  also  what  is 
talked  and  what  is  written,  the  inquirer  is  respectfully  referred  to  the 
records  of  any  of  our  public  libraries.  From  these  records  it  is  painfully 
evident  that  the  character  of  the  mass  of  reading  supplied  at  these  sources 
is  scarcely  elevating.  It  is  tolerable  only  in  that  it  may  temporarily  pre- 
vent a  worse  waste  of  time,  tho  the  sequence  to  thoughts  engendered  by 
persistent  perusal  of  the  light  literature  of  the  day  may  yet  be  but  another 
illustration  of  what  is  meant  by  "  reaping  the  whirlwind."  While,  as 
already  intimated,  this  is  a  matter  primarily  concerning  the  parents,  the 
teacher  cannot  altogether  shirk  responsibility  even  here.  Let  him  not 
then  refuse,  but  rather  seek  opportunities  for  exerting  an  influence  in  the 
selection  of  books  for  libraries,  and,  true  to  his  calling,  let  him  see  that 
the  selections  are  at  least  commendable  for  containing  good  English. 

In  the  teacher's  ambition  to  secure  accuracy  the  school  journals 
ought  surely  to  be  able  assistants.  A  perusal  of  any  issue  of  many  of 
them  suggests  merely  the  blind  leading  the  blind. 

One  says :  "  Scholars  generally  do  not  possess  the  pen  of  a  ready 
writer,  and  need  terribly  all  the  practice  possible  to  hasten  that  con- 
summation.^' 

Another  says  :  "  If  anyone  having  a  copy  of ,  dated 

,  will  send  it  to  this  office,  we  will  consider  it  a  great  favor,  and 


extend  their  subscription  one  month." 

But  why  multiply  instances  ?  It  is  only  presenting  inferior  things  for 
our  imitation  when  all  error  should  rather  be  studiously  kept  out  of  sight. 

Our  text-books  are  largely  amenable  to  similar  criticisms.  Even  our 
grammar-books  and  treatises  on  rhetoric  do  not  hesitate  to  violate  the 
laws  they  lay  down.  The  grammar-book  which  says  that  "a  preposition 
is  a  very  improper  word  to  end  a  sentence  with"  must  have  been  written 
by  a  relative  of  the  school  superintendent  who  is  quoted  as  saying  : 
"  'Taint  proper  to  say  'taint !  " 


I 


bepartmentj         HOW  TO  TEACH  CORRECT  USE  OF  LANGUAGE  443 

The  writer  confesses  to  being  a  registrar  of,  but  not  an  "  eavesdropper" 

for,  solecisms.     He   does   not,  however,  register  them  when  occurring  in 

"informal  conversation,"  but  only  when  occurring  in  the  formal  public 

utterances  of  presidents  of  colleges  and  universities,  of  professors  in  the 

same,  of   superintendents    of    public   instruction,   and   of   principals  of 

secondary  schools.     No   English,  however  bad,  emanating   from   persons 

occupying  less  prominent  educational  positions   than  the   members   of 

this  somewhat  limited  class  is  admitted  to  this  my  private  index  expurga- 

iorius.     Surely  this  group   of  educators  should  be  willing  to  make   of 

themselves  fit  exemplars  for  the  rising  generation.     This  list  is  not  for 

publication.     In  this  case  the  old  distich, 

A  chiel's  amang  ye  takin'  notes, 
And  faith  he'll  prent  'em, 

is  entirely  inapplicable.  Such  a  publishment  should  be  confined  to  a 
round-table  meeting  for  which  it  was  prepared,  and  not  displayed  in  all 
its  hideousness  before  others  than  the  members  of  the  inner  circle.  It  is 
sufficient  for  the  present  purpose  to  assert  that  we  are  all  more  or  less 
guilty.  "We  have  done  the  things  we  ought  not  to  have  done,  and  have 
left  undone  the  things  we  ought  to  have  done." 

But,  unfortunately,  our  delinquencies  do  not  stop  here.  The  pity  is 
that,  alas  !  we  have  not  a  proper  respect  for  our  own  language.  We 
introduce  German  and  Latin  into  our  elementary  schools  and  neglect  the 
English. 

Spelling  is  now  regarded  as  a  matter  of  but  slight  importance.  "  It 
should  be  learned,"  to  quote  one  of  our  prominent  high-school  principals, 
"incidentally."  It  is  a  matter  of  great  regret  that  superintendents  and 
principals,  who  should  be  burning  and  shining  lights  in  the  educational 
world,  are  deluded  into  taking  such  a  pathway  and  alluring  others  into 
it.  Yet  it  is  pitifully,  shamefully  true  that  their  knowledge  of  our  lan- 
guage, whether  in  its  orthoepy  or  its  orthography,  is  too  often  plainly, 
not  only  incidental,  but  accidental. 

The  use  of  good  English,  the  study  of  technical  grammar,  and  of 
common  arithmetic  is  alarmingly  z^wcommon.  It  has  become  so  fashion- 
able with  educators  to  hold  up  to  ridicule  the  topics  in  arithmetic  of 
multiples  and  factors,  alligation,  repetends,  evolution,  progressions,  etc., 
that  teacher  and  pupil  alike  are  willing  to  go  farther  and  omit  the  sub- 
jects of  common  fractions  and  percentage,  and,  by  some,  even  division 
is  regarded  with  horror.  To  many  pupils,  and  even  to  some  teachers, 
the  old  ditty  is  peculiarly  applicable  : 

Multiplication 

Is  vexation, 
Division  is  as  bad  ; 

The  rule  of  three 

It  troubles  me, 
And  fractions  make  me  mad. 


444  MATtONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Secondary 

The  same  evolutionary  process  is  going  on  in  the  matter  of  English 
and  technical  grammar.  If  pupils  are  uncertain,  as  they  too  often  are, 
as  to  the  subject  and  predicate  of  a  proposition,  it  is  tolerably  evident 
that  they  have  not  been  burdened  with  technical  grammar.  The  for- 
malities thru  which  we  used  to  go  in  our  grammar  recitation  were  not 
altogether  useless:  "The  man  runs."  Man  is  a  noun  because  it  is  a 
name;  common,  it  is  a  general  name;  third  person,  it  is  spoken  of; 
singular  number,  it  means  but  one  ;  masculine  gender,  it  is  the  name  of 
a  male ;  nominative  case,  it  is  the  agent,  actor,  or  doer ;  and  is  the  sub- 
ject of  the  finite  verb  runs,  according  to  Rule  VI :  "The  subject  of  the 
finite  verb  is  in  the  nominative  case."  I  am  prepared  to  admit  that  an 
interminable  repetition  of  this  matter  was  needless.  But  no  one  can 
deny  that  its  utterance  demanded  and  secured  attention,  and  close 
attention,  on  the  part  of  the  pupil ;  and  if  the  habit  of  attention  was  thus 
fixed,  cultivated,  improved,  enlarged,  the  labor  was  not  in  vain. 

But  we  are  told  that  ours  is  a  grammarless  tongue,  and  therefore  our 
strength  should  be  expended  upon  the  Latin.  One  prominent  super- 
intendent says  publicly  that  he  would  sooner  have  English  grammar 
dropped  from  the  elementary  schools  than  Latin.  He  asserts  that  Eng- 
lish grammar  can  be  best  taught  thru  the  Latin.  The  last  time  that  I 
heard  him  make  publicly  this  often-repeated  statement,  he  perpetrated,  a 
few  minutes  afterward,  a  most  egregiously  inexcusable  pun  about  bucks 
and  ewes,  and  shortly  afterward  found  himself  tripping  over  the  little 
word  "which,"  which  he  conscientiously  changed  to  "whom."  I  could 
not  help  wondering  where  in  the  Latin  grammar  he  had  discovered  that 
"which"  and  "whom"  are  not  interchangeable  words,  and  whether 
Cicero  or  Virgil  could  possibly  inform  him  that  the  proper  feminine  of 
"buck"  is  doe. 

The  truth  is  that  technical  grammar  should  be  insisted  upon,  and  it 
should  be  insisted  upon  in  the  secondary  schools.  Our  pupils  must  be 
taught  the  things  they  have  not  yet  learned  as  to  the  correct  use  of  the 
English  language.  Truism  as  it  is,  this  statement  needs  to  be  made  and 
emphasized.  In  the  elementary  schools  they  are  not  sufficiently  mature 
to  apprehend  many  of  our  idioms,  or  even  to  appreciate  the  beauties  of 
our  ordinary  speech. 

I  am  willing  to  be  classed  as  an  old  fogy  with  Professor  Tyndall,  the 
scientist,  who,  in  an  often-quoted  paragraph,  says : 

I  hold  that  the  proper  study  of  language  is  an  intellectual  discipline  of  the  highest 
kind.  The  piercing  through  the  involved  and  inverted  sentences  of  Paradise  Lost,  the 
linking  of  the  verb  to  its  often  distant  antecedent,  of  the  agent  to  the  object  of  the 
transitive  verb,  of  the  preposition  to  the  noun  or  pronoun  which  it  governs ;  the  study  of 
variations  in  mood  and  tense,  the  transformation  often  necessary  to  bring  out  the  true 
grammatical  structure  of  a  sentence  —  all  this  was,  to  my  young  mind,  a  discipline  of  the 
highest  value,  and,  indeed,  a  source  of  unflagging  delight. 

There  is   no  doubt  whatever  that  the  discipline  here  undergone  was 


Department]         ^OW  TO  TEACH  CORRECT  USE  OF  LANGUAGE  445 

of  the  highest  utility  when,  in  after-years,  he  was  anxious  to  express  him- 
self methodically,  lucidly,  and  truthfully  in  regard  to  matters  in  his  own 
chosen  field  of  research. 

With  a  course  in  English  grammar  in  the  latter  part  of  the  course  in 
secondary  schools,  we  are  in  a  position  to  avail  ourselves  of  all  the  lin- 
guistics our  pupils  may  have  already  acquired.  To  know  English,  we  are 
to  know  as  much  as  possible  of  the  languages  which  have  contributed  to 
its  marvelous  resources.  Science  too  often  scoffs  at  linguistics,  but  the 
scientific  man  does  not  commend  himself  to  scholars  in  other  departments 
when  he  persistently  disregards  the  fundamentals  of  education  in  linguis- 
tics. It  we  hear  a  man  talk  upon  a  subject  wherein  we  are  confessedly 
ignorant,  but  with  regard  to  which  we  would  willingly  sit  at  his  feet,  as 
at  those  of  another  Gamaliel,  we  lose  confidence  in  him  when  we  find 
him  boastfully  ignorant  of  things  we  have  been  taught  to  believe  essen- 
tial to  a  correct  use  of  his  vernacular.  The  meteorologist  who  says,  "  It 
looks  like  it  was  going  to  rain,"  does  not  command  possibly  deserved 
respect  in  his  special  department  of  study.  The  conchologist  who  calls 
modiola  plicatula,  modioly  plicatooly,  or  the  entomologist  who  calls  the 
TettigidcE.  the  TettiguydcB,  cannot  command  even  the  deserved  respect  of 
the  veriest  tyro  in  Latin. 

Some  twenty  years  ago  it  was  revealed  to  some  of  us  principals  of  the 
secondary  schools  that  more  literature  and  less  technical  grammar  would 
be  conducive  to  the  mental  growth  of  secondary-school  students.  It  was 
also  deemed  advisable  to  have  our  pupils  read  entire  literary  works  instead 
of  fragments.  It  is  a  serious  question  whether  this  practice  has  not 
now  gone  far  enough,  not  to  say  too  far.  The  results  have  hardly  been 
commensurate  with  our  expectations.  Literature  has  been  pushed  with 
avidity  down  thru  the  elementary  schools,  even  to  the  kindergarten,  but 
its  contact  has  not  developed  accurate  English.  The  pupil  who  can  pass 
a  fairly  rigid  examination  on  The  Lady  of  the  Lake  will  continue  to  say, 
"He  trun  a  paper  at  me,"  and  the  juvenile  admirer  of  Ivanhoe  \>o^s,\.% 
that  he  is  "troo  de  eight  grade." 

We  can  never  inculcate  a  proper  respect  for  anything  for  which  we 
have  not  a   proper   respect    ourselves.      We    have   nothing   to    say    to 

the  secondary-school  principal  who  writes  that  Miss  had  been 

" promotted''  to  the  first  class,  had  studied  ^'antient"  history,  and  had  read 
the  orations  against  "  Cataline."  In  the  face  of  such  example  one  can 
hardly  find  fault  with  the  pupils.  Such  ingrained  disrespect  for  the 
vernacular  will  never  make  accurate  scholars  of  our  pupils.  If  such  are 
the  results  of  the  banishment  of  the  spelling-book  and  the  grammar-book 
from  the  schools —  and  surely  no  one  can  gainsay  the  justice  of  such  con- 
clusion—  must  we  not,  in  all  honesty,  restore  them  to  their  legitimate 
places,  even  if  we  are  branded  as  old  fogies,  non-progressive,  and  no 
admirers  of  the  new  education  ?  Or  do  you  prefer  that  this  education 
shall  be  incidental  and  accidental  ? 


446  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCTATION  [Secondary 

The  most  illiterate  German  of  your  acquaintance  will  say  with  accurate 
judgment  and  logical  power,  "Ich  habe  nur  sechs  gehabt,^''  and  will  justly 
wonder  at  your  presumption  in  pretending  to  a  knowledge  of  German,  if 
you  say:  '■'■  Ich  nur  habe  seeks  gehabty  But  cultivated  professors  in  our 
universities  say,  "/  only  had  six,"  and  no  one  dares  object,  and  possibly 
some  of  us  fail  to  notice  the  incongruity. 

Who  was  the  man  who,  in  days  of  old,  rose  in  the  audience  to  correct 
the  pronunciation  of  one  of  the  famous  orators  of  Greece  ?  Long  may  he 
be  revered,  and  may  the  orator,  who  accepted  the  correction,  also  be  held 
in  lasting  honor  as  an  example  for  others,  in  later  times,  whose  careless- 
ness is,  alas!  but  too  evident. 

Spelling  should  be  taught  somewhere.  If  a  pupil  comes  to  the  second- 
ary school  without  having  acquired  this  essential  accomplishment,  some- 
thing should  be  done  for  him  at  once.  He  should  be  made  familiar  with 
the  laws  of  the  language.  The  rules  of  English  spelling  should  go  hand 
in  hand  with  all  possible  information  derivable  from  the  language  to 
which  it  is  indebted.  A  recently  issued  report  of  a  library  in  one  of  our 
largest  cities  has  occasion  to  use  the  word  "collectible."  Even  Shake- 
speare's reputed  little  Latin  and  less  Greek  should  suggest  the  origin  of 
the  word,  and  our  indebtedness  to  the  Latin  form  should  be  acknowledged 
by  our  carefully  avoiding  the  spelling  "collectable." 

Some  otherwise  commendable  teachers  are  inoculated  with  the  idea 
that  good  spellers  are  born,  not  made.  It  is  doubtless  true  that  even 
Horace's  oft-quoted  line  is  to  be  taken  only  as  intended  by  the  poet,  for 
even  the  best  poet  would  hardly  succeed  in  establishing  a  reputation 
among  his  fellow-men  without  a  language  in  which  to  clothe,  and  by  means 
of  which  to  communicate,  his  poetical  ideas.  Such  remarks  from  teachers 
to  pupils  are  not  likely  to  increase  the  ambition  of  the  latter.  Let  them 
rather  believe  that  accuracy  is  possible  and  that  labor  will  bring  about 
the  desired  result.  Honorable  teachers  will  strenuously  avoid  saying 
anything  which  will  tend  to  throw  disrespect  upon  our  language.  How 
dare  any  say  that  it  has  no  rules  for  spelling,  no  rules  for  pronunciation, 
no  grammar  ?  The  poor  spellers  should  not  for  an  instant  think  they 
will  ever  have  theif  personal  idiosyncrasies  tolerated  by  scholars,  even  if 
legislative  action  should  be  secured  in  their  favor.  By  royal  edict  the 
present  is  the  first  year  of  the  twentieth  century. 

"jE  pur  se  muove"  said  Galileo. 

The  lexicographer  Walker  did  an  excellent  work  when  he  succeeded 
in  formulating  for  use  concise  rules  for  spelling,  accentuation,  syllabica- 
tion, etc.  These  rules  for  many  years  did  yeoman's  service  in  unifying 
the  pronunciation  of  the  ancient  languages  from  an  English  standpoint, 
and  also  in  unifying  the  pronunciation  of  English.  When  the  colleges 
and  secondary  schools  put  aside  the  English  pronunciation  and  adopted 
the  one  now  in  vogue,  pupils  and  teachers  alike  soon  lost  the  skillful 


Department]         HOW  TO  TEACH  CORRECT  USE  OE  LANGUAGE  447 

use  of  this  codified  knowledge,  and  doubtless  many  graduates  from  our 
colleges  would  be  at  a  loss  to  tell  why  v-a-r-i-a-b-l-e  spells  variable,  but 
v-i-r-e-o  spells  vireo.  To  be  sure,  these  laws  can  all  be  found  in  our 
English  lexicons,  but  how  many  pupils  are  told  where  to  find  them  ?  The 
change  of  the  pronunciation  of  the  dead  languages  was  a  pronounced 
and  distinctive  loss  in  the  consequent  weakness  and  uncertainty  of 
English  pronunciation.  Whether  the  advantages  of  the  change  outweigh 
this  great  disadvantage  is  at  least  an  open  question. 

This  leads  to  my  last  contention,  viz.,  that  teachers  should  be  students. 
Teachers  of  science  must  study  to  keep  abreast  of  the  times.  The  scien- 
tific expert  of  only  a  score  of  years  ago  would  make  but  a  poor  showing 
as  a  teacher  of  science  in  any  line  today.  The  teacher  of  English  should 
as  emphatically  be  a  student  of  English,  and  not  altogether  of  English 
as  a  literature,  but  English  as  a  language.  The  biologist  and  chemist 
and  the  physicist  cannot  satisfactorily  perform  this  year's  work  by  last 
year's  schedule.  No  more  should  the  teacher  of  English  expect  to  do  so. 
The  teacher  of  English  should  know  something  of  the  languages  to  which 
our  English  is  most  largely  indebted.  His  motto  should  possibly  be  non 
multum  sed  multa,  for  without  a  cursory  knowledge  of  many  contributing 
languages  he  can  hardly  satisfy  the  moderately  inquisitive  student.  If 
this  ideal  is  too  high  for  possible  attainment,  it  is  at  least  not  too  high 
as  an  object  to  be  aimed  at,  and  thus  there  is  always  something  beyond 
as  an  object  of  ambition  for  the  devoted  teacher ;  for  the  devoted  teacher 
is  the  devoted  student. 

DISCUSSION 

Dr.  J.  J.  Burns,  Defiance,  O. —  Of  all  the  millions  who  have  used  that  form  of 
speech  which  King  Alfred  said  is  "  Englysse  ynemde,"  the  one  who  Aid  most,  and  is 
yet  doing  most,  to  make  others  wish  to  speak  correct  English  and  to  show  them  how 
to  do  it,  put  it  into  the  mind  of  one  of  his  fairest  talkers  to  say,  "  If  to  do  were  as 
easy  as  to  know  what  it  were  well  to  do,  chapels  had  been  churches,"  and  so  following. 
If  to  have  our  high-school  pupils  use  correct  English  were  as  easy  as  to  know  approxi- 
mately what  English  they  should  use,  then  graduating  essays,  "  good  sentences  and  well 
pronounced,"  would  sound  to  the  charmed  ear  as  if  written  by  the  brilliant  Portia  herself. 

What  is  "  correct "  English  ?  Simply  grammatical  in  the  common  significance  of 
that  term  ?  Properly  spelled,  capital  letters  in  every  coign  of  vantage,  commas  and 
periods  in  their  right  places  along  the  line  of  the  writer's  forward  or  devious  march  ? 
This  is  well,  if,  as  the  good  lady  said  about  Christian  perfection,  "a  body  doesn't  carry  it 
too  far."  But  is  it  rank  "  burglary  "  to  say  that  clearness  and  force  in  the  English  used 
by  our  pupils  should  be  objects  of  more  tender  solicitude  than  careful  avoidance  of  syn- 
tactical pitfalls  ?  And  a  righteous  end  to  aim  at,  especially  in  the  still  air  of  written 
English,  to  be  such  an  arrangement  of  strong  and  weak  words,  of  accented  and  unac- 
cented syllables,  as  will  make  the  composition  easy  to  read,  either  aloud  or  silently,  and 
consequently  more  pleasant  to  hear  ?  I  need  not  be  informed  that  this  paragraph  is  not  in 
strictness  upon  the  question,  nor  reminded  that  this  same  rhetorician  admitted  that  it  is 
easier  to  teach  ten  what  to  do  than  to  be  one  of  the  ten  to  follow  "mine  own  instruction." 
I  meekly  return. 


448  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Secondaiy 

Correct  English  should  be  free,  humanly  speaking,  from  slang.  I  tacked  on  that 
semi -parenthesis  because  of  some  curious  experience- in  trying  to  learn  from  dictionaries 
and  other  reputable  sources  of  information  precisely  what  this  horrid  thing  is,  and  where 
the  clear  line  of  demarkation  may  be  found  between  slang  and  metaphor.  A  teacher 
friend  of  mine,  who  has  been  recently  and  highly  promoted,  and  has  found  out  already 

that 

"  Uneasy  lie  the  heads  of  all  who  rule ; 
His,  most  of  all,  whose  kingdom  is  a  school," 

wrote  me  these  short  Saxon  vocables  :  "  Trouble  is  up  to  me  !  "  Did  he  use  slang  ?  If 
this  is  slang,  will  it  be  so  when  in  a  few  years  it  will  be  met,  along  with  "  from  start  to 
finish,"  and  other  echoes  from  the  local  reporter's  lowly  desk,  upon  the  pages  of  dignified 
history  ?  But,  shying  away  from  this  interesting  and  profitable  study  in  language,  and 
leaving  it  to  makers  of  dictionaries  to  preserve  the  one-tenth  of  one  per  cent,  of  the  slang 
of  this  generation  for  a  tonic  element  in  the  literature  of  the  next,  I  certainly  am  at  peace 
with  those  who  would  have  the  speech  of  the  young  free  from  the  muddy  deluge  of 
expressions  which  fall  from  the  lips  of  adepts  in  this  art  as  autumnal  leaves  strew  the 
brooks  in  Valambrosa,  and  elsewhere.  And  along  with  these,  which  sometimes  have  the 
merit  of  being  at  least  striking,  I  would  have  banished  the  falsehoods  of  this  type  : 
"  There  is  not  a  dull  line  in  the  book."  Such  a  book,  unrelieved  by  passages  of  allaying 
dullness,  it  has  not  been  my  lot  to  read,  and  I  am  sure  that  no  one  of  us  contemplates  —  to 
use  a  local  correspondent's  word  —  the  writing  of  one.  Byron  did  not  wish  to  look  upon  a 
midnight  all  stars. 

Worse  than  these  hyperboles,  which  do  little  harm,  nobody  believing  them,  are  the 
tinsel  phrases,  emptied  of  all  meaning  by  frequent  and  inverted  use  :  "  charming  hostess," 
"dainty  refreshments,"  "lovely  coffee  "  "well-chosen  words."  True,  it  would  not  be  safe 
always  to  tell  the  truth ;  but  not  all  hostesses  are  charming,  and  coffee  cannot  be  lovely. 

If  our  pupils  are  to  use  correct  English  in  oral  recitation,  in  written  essay,  in  con- 
versation with  their  fellows,  by  some  strategy  or  other  we  must  make  it  the  fashion,  we 
must  capture  those  who  set  the  pace  —  I  beg  pardon  —  those  to  whom  their  comrades 
look  with  admiration  and  unconsciously  follow.  I  have  heard  correct  forms  of  speech 
mocked  at. 

Every  class  should  be  a  class  in  English ;  every  recitation  an  exercise  in  good  Eng- 
lish. Not,  of  course,  would  I  stop  a  pupil  who  is  giving  a  mathematical  demonstration 
to  tell  him  that  his  unfortunate  verb  had  somewhat  failed  to  agree  with  his  twin  sub- 
jects "connected  by  and  "  — a  rule  in  sad  need  of  delimitation  —  or  that  his  two  nega- 
tives made  an  affirmative  —  which,  as  commonly  taught,  they  do  not  do.  The  main  thing 
now  is  the  integrity  of  his  argument ;  but  at  the  close  of  his  recitation  it  were  well  to 
have  a  class  symposium  upon  the  better  forms  of  expression  and  the  sins  that  so  easily 
beset  one  who  is  framing  sentences  while  his  whole  attention  is  stretched  toward  the 
thing  he  has  to  say,  not  to  how  he  is  saying  it. 

In  history  or  geography  the  teacher  may  be  more  exacting,  and  if  a  pupil  is  mar- 
shaling—  telling  in  his  own  words  —  the  events  that  led  to  the  siege  of  Boston,  or 
describing  the  climate  of  South  Carolina,  the  clearness  and  correctness  of  his  expression 
are  as  well  worth  looking  into  as  the  truth  of  what  he  utters. 

To  have  our  pupils  use  more  correct  English  in  the  higher  grades  we  must  have 
better  work  done  in  the  reading  class,  teaching  the  way  to  get  the  thought  from  the 
printed  page  and  give  it  fair  expression  in  the  author's  words,  and  also  frequent  exer- 
cises in  silent  reading  of  paragraphs,  to  be  tested  by  the  pupil's  expressing  the  content 
thereof  in  his  own  best  way. 

In  many  schools  the  only  stated  effort  to  teach  language  is  the  grammar  study.  If  by 
"grammar"  we  mean  what  the  old  definition  pointed  out  as  the  path  for  our  teachers  to 
walk  in  —  tho  I  do  not  recall  that  mine  ever  "deviated  into"  it — "the  art  of  speaking  and 
writing "  and  so  forth  —  it  is  second  to  no  line  of  class-room  effort  or  effort  beyond  the 


I 


Department]         HOW  TO  TEACH  CORRECT  USE  OF  LANGUAGE  449 

class.  For  this  prime  effort,  however,  there  is  little  need  of  a  grammar  in  the  pupils'  hands 
except  as  a  book  of  reference.  From  the  book  abundant  theory  is  taught,  but  this  "  art" 
is  practice.  Besides,  in  this  grammar-book  work  there  is  a  sad  waste  of  precious  time 
over  fictions  and  trifles  : 

1.  The  first  and  second  persons  of  nouns. 

2.  The  gender  of  the  first  and  second  personal  pronoun.  As  well  speak  of  their 
latitude. 

3.  What  adjectives  may  be  compared  and  how.     Matters  of  taste,  not  grammar. 

4.  The  restricted  use  of  the  superlative.  You  must  not  use  it,  forsooth,  unless  you 
have  counted  your  specimens  and  find  them  three ;  altho  if  a  child  have  seen  but  two 
lions  and  these  of  unequal  size,  one  of  them  is  surely  the  largest  lion  he  ever  saw,  and 
fancy  the  fond  mother  of  two  girls  introducing  you  to  her  "older  daughter"  ! 

5.  The  kind  of  a  word  you  must  not  allow  a  sentence  to  end  with. 

6.  Grinding  the  regular  verbs,  saying  the  same  word  a  half  dozen  times  and  calling 
the  performance  inflection. 

7.  Making  diagrams  of  sentences  with  the  righteous  intention  of  causing  the  latter  to 
illustrate  the  former. 

If  the  teacher  would  admit  that  in  the  great  file  of  sentences  the  correct  oral  reading 
is  a  sufficient  analysis,  time  could  be  saved  for  practice  in  speaking  and  writing  cor- 
rectly. 

There  is  a  science  of  grammar.  Lurking  in  the  back  part  of  some  man's  brain  there 
may  be  an  intelligible  and  true  definition  of  mode,  and  a  knowledge  of  the  proper  sequence 
of  tenses;  and  up  the  stream  of  English  there  are  interesting  and  illuminating  facts  wait- 
ing to  brighten  many  a  cloudy  spot  in  grammar,  but  the  neither  mute  nor  inglorious 
fathers  out  in  the  "  unpaved  districts  "  who  object  to  their  children's  studying  grammar 
in  the  wonted  fashion  grumble  wiser  than  they  know. 

Falstaff  observed  the  "  semblable  coherence  "  of  Justice  Shallow's  men's  spirits  and 
his,  "  It  is  certain  that  either  wise  bearing  or  ignorant  carriage  is  caught  one  of  another ; 
therefore,  let  men  take  heed  of  their  company." 

This  coherence  is  as  semblable  between  teacher  and  pupils,  if  said  pupils  respect 
said  teacher ;  and  his  errors  they  may  grow  into  even  without  the  condition  given  ;  for, 
reversing  the  Tennysonian  line,  we  note  that  things  in  English  heard  are  mightier  than 
things  seen. 

One  article  of  my  creed  expresses  the  value  of  the  practice  of  having  pupils  of  all 
grades  persistently  intrust  to  the  sacred  care  and  keeping  of  memory,  poems  upon  which 
Time  has  set  his  stamp  of  approval,  and  one  reason  for  my  faith  is  the  results  I  have  seen 
upon  the  pupils'  taste  in  English  and  their  desire  to  use  it  properly. 

I  know  that  my  time  in  this  discussion  has  passed  into  the  pluperfect. 

Let  all  our  pupils  have  good  exemplars  thru  all  their  school  years  in  the  fine  art  of 
speaking  and  writing  English  correctly,  and  let  them  have  much,  very  much,  more  prac- 
tice in  the  same. 

M.  L.  Brittain,  county  school  commissioner,  Atlanta,  Ga. —  There  is  one  great 
advantage  that  the  teacher  of  English  has  over  his  fellow-instructors  —  he  is  never  put 
upon  the  defensive,  as  is  the  case  with  those  who  preside  over  other  departments,  Latin 
and  Greek  for  example.  It  is  true  that  the  teaching  of  formal  grammar  is  occasionally 
derided,  one  high  authority  going  so  far  as  to  claim  that  the  English  is  a  grammarless 
tongue  ;  but  of  so  much  importance  is  it  that  it  is  commonly  understood  that  every  depart- 
ment must  lend  it  aid,  at  least  to  the  extent  of  correcting  errors  committed  in  the  class- 
room. There  are  two  main  purposes  to  be  derived  from  the  study  of  English  :  (i)  the 
communication  of  ideas  —  strictly  speaking,  the  material  of  the  grammarian  and  philologiFt, 
and  hence  falling  within  the  domain  of  science ;  (2)  familiarit)'  with  good  literature  — 
rather  the  department  of  the  literary  critic  and  extending  into  the  realms  of  art. 


45°  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Secondary 

Thoughts,  no  matter  how  great,  are  useless  to  the  world  unless  expressed.  This  may 
be  done  in  two  ways  —  in  oral  or  written  fashion.  For  the  first,  a  knowledge  of  articula- 
tion, modulation,  and  emphasis  is  required  ;  for  the  second,  penmanship  and  spelling ; 
while  a  knowledge  of  the  meaning  of  words  and  facility  in  their  use  is  demanded  for  both. 
Hence  the  necessity  for  composition  exercises,  oral  and  written,  and  also  for  formal 
grammar. 

In  the  earlier  years  of  the  child's  work  he  learns  largely  thru  imitation,  and  here  a 
great  difficulty  presents  itself :  how  to  make  the  six  or  eight  hours  of  correct  instruction 
at  school  overbalance  the  careless,  and  oftentimes  illiterate,  home  influence.  For  there 
can  be  no  Sunday  speech  or  holiday  dress,  as  is  the  case  with  our  clothes.  The  ease  with 
which  one  slips  into  slang  and  provincialism,  and  the  difficulty  with  which  one  recovers 
from  early  errors,  make  the  task  of  the  teacher  at  this  point  unceasing.  In  his  earlier 
years  the  child  learns  mainly  thru  the  ear,  and  hence  the  necessity  for  him  to  be  sur- 
rounded by  an  atmosphere  of  correct  speech.  Later,  when  he  drinks  more  deeply  at 
the  well  of  the  world's  literature,  the  ear  is  aided  by  the  eye. 

But  oral  work  is  too  intangible  and  elusive  ;  it  is  necessary  to  reinforce  it  with  written 
exercises  in  order  to  secure  more  exactness  and  precision.  The  two  may  be  used  together 
with  most  advantage,  after  oral  narration  and  description  requiring  reproduction  in 
written  form.  These  exercises  should  be  criticised  at  the  next  lesson,  and  excellences 
as  well  as  defects  pointed  out.  Excellences  niost  certainly,  for  the  average  boy  needs 
much  encouragement  with  his  work.  Generally  he  feels  that  he  has  nothing  to  say, 
and  does  not  know  how  to  say  that.  Love  for  the  child  and  appreciation  of  the 
work  is  the  first  requisite  of  a  teacher  in  this  department.  The  pedagog  who  per- 
sisted in  seeing  nothing  but  the  omission  of  commas  in  the  teaching  of  English  ought 
to  get  out  at  once.  Of  course,  perfect  English  is  not  to  be  expected  in  early  life ;  it 
comes  only,  when  it  comes  at  all,  after  long  years  of  effort  and  discipline ;  and  what  a 
subtle  delicacy  there  is  about  correct  and  elegant  expression  !  How  it  delights  the  soul, 
like  the  sweet  aroma  that  comes  from  the  rose  leaf ! 

I  have  a  criticism  to  make  on  the  arrangement  of  the  course  in  English  in  the  average 
high  school.  Too  frequently  it  is  not  planned  with  reference  to  any  sort  of  orderly 
sequence  or  congruity.  The  pupil  is  rushed  aimlessly  from  England  to  America,  from 
Alexander  Pope  to  Webster's  Bunker  Hill  oration,  "from  the  shadowy  fascination  of 
Midsummer  Nighfs  Dream  to  a  rude  awakening  in  the  Biglow  Papers."  I  do  not  mean 
that  chronological  order  should  always  be  observed,  but  I  do  mean  that  the  systematic 
study  of  English  should  be  substituted  for  the  desultory  reading  so  much  in  vogue  in 
some  of  our  high  schools. 

And  another  thing :  it  is  unreasonable  to  permit  one's  patriotism  to  overbalance  the 
judgment  in  choosing  between  English  and  American  authors.  American  literature  is 
only  about  a  hundred  years  old,  and  we,  too,  are  joint  heirs  with  our  brethren  across  the 
Atlantic  to  that  literature,  from  Caedmon  to  Tennyson,  that  has  circled  the  globe  with  a 
music  far  grander  than  England's  martial  drum-beat. 

It  seems  to  me  that  it  is  not  unreasonable  to  expect  the  grammar  schools  to  cover  the 
field  of  American  letters,  in  so  far  as  it  may  be  appropriate  to  the  development  of  the 
child,  and  leave  the  high-school  teacher  free  to  take  up  the  subject  of  modern  English 
and  go  backward,  proceeding  from  the  familiar  to  the  Jess  familiar.  Starting  with  the 
writers  of  the  Victorian  age,  an  excellent  plan  would  be  to  take  up  different  periods,  as, 
for  example,  the  Romantic  School,  the  Puritan  period,  the  Elizabethan  writers,  and  the 
Renaissance.  If  the  chronological  order  is  not  preferred,  some  other  division  —  as  the 
Lake  School,  English  essayists,  nineteenth-century  fiction,  etc. —  may  be  chosen. 

But,  after  all,  the  details  of  method  are  completely  subordinate  to  love  for  the  child 
and  the  work.  The  teacher  of  literature  whose  pulse  does  not  beat  quicker  before  a  master- 
piece of  art ^ in  unison  with  the  "thoughts  that  breathe  and  words  that  burn"  —  should 
change  his  business.     To  substitute  for  this  passion  narrow  linguistic  drill  will  only  bring 


Department]  DISCUSSION  OF  COLLEGE-ENTRANCE  REQUIREMENTS        451 

up  pupils  to  hate  the  name  of  the  grand  old  masters  and  to  lose  all  the  incentives  to  con- 
duct and  achievement  furnished  the  human  race  by  their  high  ideas  of  beauty,  honor, 
duty,  and  love.  For  love  is  the  master-passion  of  mankind  and,  more  than  all  other  incen- 
tives, can  be  used  to  inspire  the  human  race  to  action. 


DISCUSSION  OF  THE  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMITTEE  ON 
COLLEGE  ENTRANCE  REQUIREMENTS  IN  JOINT 
SESSION  OF  SECONDARY  AND  HIGHER  DEPARTMENTS 

At  the  joint  meeting  of  the  Departments  of  Secondary  and  Higher  Education,  held 
at  the  Citadel  Church,  Charleston,  Thursday  afternoon,  July  12,  in  the  absence  of  Dr.  A. 
F.  Nightingale,  Dr.  B.  A.  Hinsdale  opened  the  discussion  on  the  report  of  the  Committee 
on  College-Entrance  Requirements.     Dr.  Hinsdale  said  in  substance  : 

It  is  necessary,  first  of  all,  to  understand  what  the  Report  of  the  Committee  on  Col- 
lege-Entrance Requirements  is.  The  title  is  used  in  two  senses.  It  means,  first,  the 
pamphlet  of  one  hundred  and  eighty  odd  pages  bearing  this  title,  published  by  the 
National  Educational  Association.  It  means,  secondly,  the  first  forty-nine  pages  of  this 
pamphlet,  or  so  much  of  it  as  appears  over  the  signatures  of  the  committee.  Like  the 
Committee  of  Ten  and  the  Committee  on  Rural  Schools,  the  Committee  on  College- 
Entrance  Requirements  called  into  its  service  men  who  are  especially  familiar  with  vari- 
ous parts  of  the  subject,  and  then  published  the  facts,  views,  recommendations,  and  argu- 
ments so  obtained  as  information,  no  matter  whether  agreeing  with  them  or  not. 
Generally,  the  committee  appealed  to  existing  organizations  or  societies,  as  the  American 
Philological  Association  and  the  American  Historical  Association,  and  did  not,  like  the 
Committee  of  Ten,  organize  special  conferences,  or,  like  the  Committee  on  Rural  Schools, 
depend  wholly  upon  individual  experts.  The  material  so  obtained,  making  more  than 
two-thirds  of  the  pamphlet,  differs  considerably  in  quality,  but  much  of  it  is  of  the  highest 
interest  and  importance.  For  none  of  this  matter,  however,  is  the  Committee  on  College- 
Entrance  Requirements  to  be  held  responsible,  save  in  the  indirect  sense  that  has  been 
explained.  The  committee  is  to  be  credited,  or  charged,  with  what  appears  in  its  own 
report,  no  more  and  no  less,  except  in  so  far  as  it  may  have  given  formal  approval  to 
some  of  this  supplementary  material. 

The  next  thing  to  be  explained  is  the  point  of  view  that  the  committee  adopted  in  its 
investigation  ;  or  what  the  committee  sought  to  accomplish  in  its  report. 

To  approach  the  inquiry  on  the  negative  side,  the  committee  did  not  attempt  to  make 
out  a  list  of  entrance  requirements  for  the  colleges  and  universities  of  the  country  or  for 
any  of  them.  A  majority  of  the  members,  and  probably  all  of  the  members,  looked  upon 
that  as  a  vain  undertaking.  Requirements  for  admission  to  college  depend  upon  varying 
causes  and  conditions,  such  as  the  general  state  of  culture  in  the  community  whence  the 
institution  draws  its  students,  industrial,  economical,  and  financial  circumstances,  and  the 
history  and  resources  of  the  institution  itself.  Accordingly,  such  requirements  vary  more 
or  less,  and  will  continue  so  to  vary.  Attempts  to  bring  about  mechanical  uniformity  are 
necessarily,  not  only  ineffective,  but  mischievous.  No  doubt  it  is  very  desirable  to  elimi- 
nate some  of  the  divergences  existing  at  present  ;  but  artificial  attempts  to  accomplish 
that  end  would  be  barren  of  results.  So  the  committee  proposed  to  leave  the  colleges  and 
universities  just  as  free  in  this  matter,  in  the  large  sense  of  the  language,  as  they  are  at 
present. 

Passing  to  the  positive  side  of  the  subject,  the  committee  sought  to  do  two  principal 
things :  first,  to  set  the  stamp  of  its  approval  upon  certain  subjects  or  studies  that  it 
deemed  suitable  to  be  required  for  college-entrance  purposes ;  and,  secondly,  to  provide  a 


452  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Secondary 

measure  or  unit  to  be  employed  in  determining  the  amount  or  quantity  of  such  subjects  or 
studies  as  shall  be  required  by  the  college  of  the  school. 

It  will,  therefore,  be  understood  that  all  the  subjects  or  studies  formally  approved  by 
the  committee  are,  in  its  judgment,  proper  ones  for  the  higher  institutions  to  demand  of 
students  seeking  admission  to  their  freshman  classes.  This  does  not  mean  that  these 
institutions  are  necessarily  to  require  all  these  studies ;  that  would  be  preposterous,  owing 
to  the  amount  of  work  that  the  committee  approved ;  it  means  rather  that  the  colleges 
and  universities  should,  in  the  judgment  of  the  committee,  choose  the  studies  that  they 
require  from  the  list  of  studies  so  approved. 

In  the  next  place,  the  committee  adopted  as  its  unit  of  measure  four  secondary- 
school  periods,  or  recitations,  a  week,  running  thru  an  entire  school  year.  If  a  school  is 
in  session  forty  weeks  and  assigns  forty- five  minutes  to  a  recitation,  then  the  total  value 
of  a  unit  would  be  i6o  recitations  of  three-quarters  of  an  hour  each  in  length.  Two 
units  would  be  twice  that  amount  of  work,  three  units  thrice,  and  so  on.  The  committee 
insisted  that,  with  two  exceptions,  which  are  more  apparent  than  real,  no  requirement 
should  be  made  that  is  less  than  a  full  unit.  This  insistence  springs  out  of  the  fact  that, 
in  the  judgment  of  the  committee,  the  rule  now  followed  in  many  schools  of  making 
small  requirements  tends  to  weakness  and  superficiality  in  scholarship.  To  take  a  con- 
crete case,  the  committee  believes  that  if  a  college  is  to  require  physics,  it  should  require 
at  least  four  periods  of  physics  running  thru  a  school  year ;  or  if  history,  it  should  require 
not  less  than  four  periods  of  history  for  the  same  limit  of  time.  The  two  exceptions 
are  botany  and  zoology.  Owing  to  the  common  qualities  or  nature  of  these  two  studies, 
in  their  elementary  stages,  it  was  thought  that  they  might  very  properly  be  thrown 
together,  making  one  unit,  neither  one  to  be  given,  however,  or  at  least  to  be  counted  with 
credit,  without  the  other.  When  one  or  more  full  units  in  any  subject  have  been  required, 
there  is,  of  course,  no  objection,  unless  it  may  be  a  practical  one,  to  adding  fractions,  as 
halves ;  which  will  explain  the  appearance  of  fractions  where  they  appear  in  the  com- 
mittee's recommendations. 

In  the  discussions  at  Chicago  it  was  suggested  that  the  function  of  the  committee 
was  similar  to  that  of  a  mint,  its  business  being  to  send  out  an  educational  coinage  or 
money  in  which  colleges  can  measure  and  students  pay  their  college-entrance  charges. 
Two  things  are  involved  —  the  approval  of  metals  or  money-material,  and  the  establish- 
ment of  a  definite  unit,  which  may  be  called  the  dollar  of  this  new  coin  of  the  realm. 

The  committee  no  more  supposed  that  all  the  secondary  schools  would  attempt  to 
teach  all  the  studies  approved  than  it  supposed  that  every  college  would  demand  them  all. 
So  there  is  room  for  electives  on  the  one  part,  as  there  is  for  alternatives  on  the  other. 
The  great  secondary  schools  may  properly  attempt  to  teach  all  these  studies,  but  the 
smaller  schools  will  not  wisely  follow  their  example ;  on  the  other  hand,  they  will  confine 
themselves  to  the  studies  that  they  can  teach  best,  just  as  the  colleges  will  arrange  their 
alternatives  with  reference  to  their  own  peculiar  conditions.  Still  the  committee  did  not 
propose  to  leave  the  whole  matter  open  to  the  higher  institutions,  on  the  one  hand,  or  to  the 
secondary  schools,  on  the  other.  It  believed  firmly  that  certain  studies  in  certain  mini- 
mum measures  should  be  found  in  the  requirements  for  admission  to  college  to  be 
demanded  of  every  student,  no  matter  what  institution  he  may  seek  or  what  course  of 
study  he  may  propose  to  take.  The  committee  expressed  its  faith  on  this  point  in  the  fol- 
lowing resolutions : 

"That,  while  the  committee  recognizes  as  suitable  for  recommendation  by  the  col- 
leges for  admission  the  several  studies  enumerated  in  this  report,  and  while  it  also  recog- 
nizes the  principles  of  large  liberty  to  students  in  secondary  schools,  it  does  not  believe 
in  unlimited  election,  but  especially  emphasizes  the  importance  of  a  certain  number  of 
constants  in  all  secondary  schools  and  in  all  requirements  for  admission  to  college. 

"  That  the  committee  recommends  that  the  number  of  constants  be  recognized  in  the 
following  proportion,  viz.:  four  units  in  foreign  languages  (no  language  accepted  in  less 


Department]   DISCUSSION  OF  COLLEGE-ENTRANCE  REQUIREMENTS       453 

than  two  units),  two  units  in  mathematics,  two  in  English,  one  in  history,  and  one  in 
science." 

These  constants  together  make  ten  units,  and  the  ratio  that  they  bear  to  the  total 
requirement  will  be  determined  by  the  total  number  of  units  required  for  admission  to  a 
given  college.  Thus  the  ratio  may  be  lo  to  i6,  lo  to  i8,  lo  to  20,  according  as  the  college 
shall  require  sixteen,  eighteen,  or  twenty  units. 

Much  more  than  has  been  explained  in  this  statement  will  be  found  in  the  Report  of 
the  Committee  on  College-Entrance  Requirements.  These,  however,  are  the  primary 
idea  underlying  that  report,  and  so  are  essential  to  a  proper  understanding  of  it. 
Examinations  will  show  that  some  of  the  recommendations  made  by  the  committee,  no 
matter  how  valuable  they  may  be,  are  not  organically  connected  with  these  primary  and 
essential  ideas.  The  report  of  the  committee  itself,  therefore,  consists  of  two  parts,  viz., 
those  that  are  essential  to  the  general  scheme  or  plan  that  it  propounds,  and  those  that 
are  not  essential  to  this  scheme  or  plan,  but  that  stand  on  their  own  footing. 

President  William  H.  Black  of  Missouri  Valley  College,  Marshall,  Mo.,  stated 
that  he  considered  the  Report  of  the  Committee  on  College-Entrance  Requirements  as 
one  of  the  most  valuable  contributions  to  our  educational  literature.  He  called  attention, 
however,  to  Resolution  XIII,  which  he  thought  susceptible  of  an  interpretation  which 
might  lend  direct  approval  to  an  institution  which  he  doubted  if  this  department  is  ready 
to  indorse  —  the  so-called  commercial  high  school.  It  would  be  possible,  under  the 
apparent  sanction  of  this  resolution,  to  quote  this  department  of  the  National  Educational 
Association  as  giving  its  authorization  to  this  institution.  The  experiment  at  Philadelphia 
and  the  plan  adopted  at  Chicago  are  not  sufficiently  worked  out  to  warrant  the  approval 
of  this  body. 

The  commercial  high  school  is  not  sufficiently  developed  to  be  called  an  institution, 
is  of  doubtful  merit,  and  should  not  receive  the  indorsement  of  this  department.  Dr. 
Charles  W.  Eliot,  of  Harvard,  says  that  the  so-called  commercial  high  schools  seldom 
train  anybody  for  service  beyond  that  of  a  clerk.  He  advocates  what  he  calls  the  "upper 
commercial  school,"  resting  on  secondary  education.  He  claims  that  two  or  three  years 
after  completing  the  high  school  might  be  given  to  such  a  course.  Dr.  C.  A.  Herrick,  in 
the  supplement  to  the  last  Yearbook  of  the  Herbart  Society,  cautions  the  advocates  of 
the  commercial  high  school  lest  they  commit  crime  in  the  name  of  educational  progress. 
Dean  Ashley  of  New  York  University,  before  the  American  Social  Science  Association, 
quotes  ex- President  Dwight  of  Yale  as  saying  that  specialization  for  youth  has  become 
excessive,  and  that,  if  the  best  education  is  to  continue,  this  tendency  must  be  counter- 
acted. In  the  Educational  Review  Dr.  Jones,  of  Hobart  College,  declares  that  the  high- 
school  graduate  is  not  mature,  has  not  developed  the  power  of  self-direction,  and  is  unfit- 
ted to  go  without  guidance. 

These  are  all  sound  positions  and  go  to  show  that  this  department  cannot  afford  to 
approve  the  commercial  high-school  idea.  First,  the  students  in  the  secondary  schools 
are  not  mature  enough  to  undertake  such  studies;  second,  it  is  the  wrong  time  and  place 
to  undertake  specialization  ;  third,  the  subjects  can  be  taught  only  by  processes  of  cram- 
ming, which  is  bad  pedagogics  ;  and  fourth,  it  will  have  a  tendency  to  divert  the  students 
from  the  pursuit  of  an  education  into  the  lower  forms  of  non-productive  industry.  If 
there  is  anything  in  Lowell's  statement  that  the  United  States  is  the  most  common- 
schooled  and  the  least  educated  nation  in  the  world,  let  us  beware  lest  we  make  matters 
worse  instead  of  better.  I  strongly  support  the  report  with  the  above  qualification.  I  am 
the  more  free  to  do  this  because  I  do  not  find  the  commercial  studies  discussed  in  the  part 
of  the  report  in  which  the  secondary  subjects  are  expounded.  Hence  I  doubt  if  Resolu- 
tion XIII  was  very  carefully  considered  in  all  its  bearings. 


DEPARTMENT    OF  HIGHER   EDUCATION 


SECRETARY'S  MINUTES 


FIRST  SESSION.— Wednesday,  July  ii,  1900 

The  first  session  of  the  department  was  called  to  order  in  the  Citadel  Square  Baptist 
Church  at  3  :30  p.  M.  by  President  Jerome  H.  Raymond.  In  the  absence  of  the  secretary, 
Oscar  J.  Craig,  of  Missoula,  Mont.,  Richard  Jones,  of  Vanderbilt  University,  Tenn.,  was 
elected  acting  secretary. 

President  Charles  F.  Thwing  of  Western  Reserve  University,  Cleveland,  O., 
delivered  an  address  on  "The  Satisfactions  of  Being  a  College  President."  Discussion 
was  opened  by  President  James  H.  Baker  of  the  State  University  of  Colorado. 

The  second  address,  on  "  State  Aid  to  Higher  Education  in  Europe  and  America," 
was  presented  by  President  Joseph  Swain  of  Indiana  University,  Bloomington,  Ind.  The 
paper  was  discussed  by  President  James  K.  Powers  of  the  University  of  Alabama ;  Presi- 
dent James  H.  Baker  of  the  University  of  Colorado ;  Dr.  Richard  Jones,  of  Vanderbilt 
University,  Tennessee ;  Professor  I.  W.  Howerth,  of  the  University  of  Chicago ;  and 
Professor  C.  C.  Thach,  of  the  Alabama  Polytechnic  Institute,  Auburn,  Ala. 

JOINT  SESSION  OF  HIGHER  AND  SECONDARY  DEPARTMENTS 
Thursday,  July  12 

The  joint  session  of  the  Departments  of  Secondary  and  Higher  Education  met  in 
the  Citadel  Square  Baptist  Church  at  3  :  30  P.  M.  President  Jerome  H.  Raymond  of  the 
Department  of  Higher  Education  was  elected  chairman,  and  Professor  Richard  Jones,  of 
Vanderbilt  University,  secretary. 

The  Report  of  the  Committee  on  College-Entrance  Requirements  was  taken  up  for 
discussion  as  per  action  at  the  joint  session  of  these  departments  the  year  before  at  Los 
Angeles,  Cal. 

In  the  absence  of  the  chairman  of  the  committee,  Dr.  A.  F.  Nightingale,  of  Chicago, 
the  discussion  was  introduced  by  Dr.  B.  A.  Hinsdale,  of  Ann  Arbor,  Mich.,  a  member  of 
the  committee,  and  was  continued  by  Principal  J.  Remsen  Bishop,  of  Cincinnati,  O.,  also 
a  member  of  the  committee,  and  President  William  H.  Black  of  Missouri  Valley  College, 
Marshall,  Mo. 

President  James  H.  Baker  of  the  University  of  Colorado  offered  the  following  reso- 
lution : 

Resolved,  That  the  Departments  of  Secondary  and  Higher  Education  of  the  National  Educational  Asso- 
ciation commend  the  report  of  the  special  Committee  on  College-Entrance  Requirements  as  offering  a  basis 
for  the  practical  solution  of  the  problems  of  college  admission,  and  recommend  the  report  to  the  colleges  of 
the  country. 

After  discussion  by  Principal  E.  W.  Coy  of  the  Hughes  High  School,  Cincinnati,  O.; 
Principal  J.  Remsen  Bishop,  of  Cincinnati,  O.;  Dr.  B.  A.  Hinsdale,  of  the  University  of 
Michigan  ;  Principal  Reuben  Post  Halleck  of  the  Boys'  High  School,  Louisville,  Ky.;  and 
President  Joseph  Swain  of  the  University  of  Indiana,  the  resolution  was  unanimously 
adopted. 

The  session  adjourned. 

454 


Department]     SATISFACTIONS  OF  BEING  A  COLLEGE  PRESIDENT  455 

SECOND  SESSION.— Friday,  July  13 

The  department  met  at  3  :  30  P.  M.,  President  Raymond  in  the  chair. 
A  Committee  on  Nominations  was  appointed,  consisting  of 

James  H.  Baker,  of  Colorado.  Richard  Jones,  of  Tennessee. 

W.  M.  Beardshear,  of  Iowa. 

The  committee  reported  the  following  nominations  for  officers  for  the  ensuing  year, 

viz.: 

For  President — Charles  F.  Thwing,  Cleveland,  O. 

For  Vice-President  —  William  M.  Beardshear,  Ames,  la. 

For  Secretary — William  H.  Black,  Marshall,  Mo. 

A  paper  on  "An  Ethnic  View  of  Higher  Education"  was  read  by  Dr.  I.  W.  How- 
erth.  University  of  Chicago,  Chicago,  111.  President  William  M.  Beardshear  read  a  paper 
on  "  The  Function  of  the  Land-Grant  College  in  American  Education." 

The  session  then  adjourned. 

Richard  Jones, 

Acting  Secretary. 


PAPERS  AND  DISCUSSIONS 


THE  SATISFACTIONS  OF  BEING  A  COLLEGE  PRESIDENT 

PRESIDENT    CHARLES    F.    THWING,    WESTERN    RESERVE     UNIVERSITY, 
CLEVELAND,    O. 

[an  abstract] 
President  Thwing  spoke  of  seven  opportunities  which  college  presi- 
dents enjoy,  and  which  constitute  the  "Satisfactions  of  Being  a  College 
President."     He  said  in  part : 

1.  The  first  satisfaction  which  I  shall  name  of  being  a  college  presi- 
dent is  the  opportunity  of  living  with  youth.  Youth- has  at  least  three 
characteristics  :  it  is  vital,  it  is  hopeful,  it  is  picturesque.  Even  if  the 
picturesque  side  of  youth  should  show  itself  in  forms  either  ridiculous  or 
admirable,  it  is  always  interesting. 

2.  The  opportunity  of  living  with  scholars  and  gentlemen.  The 
human  environment  is  of  larger  significance  and  gives  larger  joy  than 
any  environment  of  nature. 

3.  The  opportunity  of  meeting  the  best  people  on  their  best  side. 
The  people  who  send  their  sons  and  daughters  to  college  are,  on  the 
whole,  the  best  people  in  the  country.  They  never  show  their  best  side, 
and  their  best  side  is  a  very  good  one,  better  than  when  they  are  talking 
with  a  college  president  about  the  education  of  their  children.  The  col- 
lege president  is  also  called  upon  to  associate  with  teachers  of  all  grades 
and  from  many  parts  of  the  country,  and  the  teachers  of  the  United 
States  are  among  the  best  people. 

4.  A  fourth   satisfaction   is  found   in  doing  a  work  that   unites  the 


456  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Higher 

executive  and  the  scholastic,  the  practical  and  the  theoretical  elements. 
Executive  work  tends  to  impoverish  reflective  and  scholarly  ability. 
Scholastic  work  tends  to  remove  one  from  humanity.  The  union  of  the 
two  types  tends  to  keep  one  in  touch  with  the  great  human  work  of  a 
very  human  world,  and  also  tends  to  give  intellectual  enrichment.  If  the 
college  president  is  a  mere  executive,  he  becomes  intellectually  thin. 
The  college  president  who  is,  as  are  most  college  presidents,  at  once 
an  executive  and  a  scholar  is  doing  the  most  delightful  work  that  can 
be  done. 

5.  Another  satisfaction  of  being  a  college  president  consists  in  the 
opportunity  of  transmuting  wealth  into  character.  Wealth  does  not  con- 
stitute a  college ;  but  no  college  can  be  constituted  without  wealth. 
Wealth  is  the  embodiment  of  the  power  necessary  for  making  a  college. 
The  college  president  is  to  be  an  avenue  thru  which  wealth  flows  into 
the  college.  Wealth  may  be  transmuted  into  truth,  into  righteousness, 
into  beauty,  into  joy,  into  human  character.  In  this  process  of  the  trans- 
mutation of  the  lower  value  into  the  higher  the  college  president  bears  a 
necessary  part. 

6.  Another  element  in  the  satisfaction  lies  in  the  opportunity  of  asso- 
ciating one's  life  and  work  with  a  lasting  institution,  the  American  col- 
lege. Individuals  die  and  are  forgotten.  Institutions  live.  The  college 
president  who  puts  his  life  into  a  college  is  sure  of  an  earthly  immortality. 
Colleges  are  seldom  named  after  their  presidents,  but  presidents  always 
live  in  their  colleges,  and  not  a  few  colleges  cannot  live  the  worthiest 
life  without  worthy  presidents.  Not  to  mention  the  living,  one  can  say 
that  Woolsey's  twenty-five  years  at  Yale  are  to  live  for  centuries  in  the 
university  at  New  Haven,  and  also  that  McCosh's  life  at  Princeton  is  to 
live  so  long  as  Princeton  lives. 

7.  The  last  satisfaction  of  being  a  college  president  lies  in  doing 
somewhat  for  the  nation  and  the  world  thru  giving  inspiration,  train- 
ing, and  equipment  to  American  youth.  The  value  of  the  American  col- 
lege to  the  American  youth  lies  in  some  five  elements:  the  discipline  of 
the  regular  studies,  the  inspiration  of  friendships,  the  enrichment  of 
general  reading,  the  culture  from  association  with  scholars,  private  read- 
ing, and  literary  societies.  The  most  important  of  these  elements  is  the 
inspiration  which  is  derived  from  association  with  men  of  culture.  The 
college  president  ought  to  be  the  chief  of  all  these  personal  influences 
touching  the  character  of  the  students.  He  lives  in  the  lives  of  other 
men  so  long  as  they  live,  and  he  lives  also  in  the  lives  of  other  men  so 
long  as  the  lives  of  his  students  touch  the  lives  of  other  men. 

These  seven  opportunities  represent  the  mighty  satisfactions  which 
the  college  president  enjoys.  They  help  to  constitute  his  work  as  one  of 
the  most  interesting  and  happiest  works  which  it  is  given  to  any  man 
to  do, 


Department]  STATE  AID  TO  HIGHER  EDUCATION  457 

STATE  AID    TO  HIGHER   EDUCATION  IN  EUROPE  AND 

AMERICA 

JOSEPH    SWAIN,    PRESIDENT    OF    INDIANA    UNIVERSITY,    BLOOMINGTON,    IND. 

Higher  education  has  been  promoted  by  the  state  from  the  early  times 
until  the  present.  The  first  university  of  the  world  was  the  Museum  of 
Alexandria,  supported  from  the  public  treasury  under  the  Ptolemies. 
The  Museum  of  Alexandria  had  a  great  library,  zoological  gardens,  a 
learned  faculty,  and  other  equipments,  all  provided  by  the  state.  It 
rendered  an  incalculable  service  to  humanity  by  advancing  science,  and 
preserving  and  handing  down  to  succeeding  generations  the  knowledge 
and  culture  of  the  past ;  and  the  fact  that  the  university  once  existed  is 
even  today  the  chief  glory  of  Alexandria. 

State  support  of  higher  education  became  the  policy  of  the  Roman 
empire.  It  was  recognized  that  if  the  state  would  have  leaders  it  must 
have  trained  men. 

Throughout  the  length  and  breadth  of  the  vast  Roman  empire,  whether  at  Rome, 
Lyons,  or  Athens  in  the  West,  or  at  Constantinople,  Antioch,  or  Alexandria  in  the  east, 
higher  education  became  the  policy  of  the  state  ;  to  cherish  and  strengthen  it  was  felt  to 
be  among  the  foremost  duties  of  the  emperors ;  to  neglect  it  was  to  cripple  the  empire ; 
for  the  power  of  Rome  was  founded  largely  on  her  superior  civilization,  won  by  the  supe- 
rior knowledge  of  her  governors.' 

In  the  Middle  Ages  there  was  perhaps  no  greater  man  than  Charle- 
magne. His  proudest  title  to  distinction  was  his  patronage  of  all  forms 
of  higher  education.  His  quick  eye  discovered  that  nothing  would  so 
raise  his  Franks  among  surrounding  peoples,  nothing  give  them  such 
lasting  prominence  and  power,  as  superior  culture.  Today,  as  of  old, 
Charlemagne  is  honored  as  highly  because  he  was  the  friend  of  Alcuin  as 
because  he  was  the  first  of  mediaeval  paladins.  This  work  begun  by 
Charlemagne  is  continued  in  France  today.  France  maintains  fifteen 
state  universities  at  an  annual  expense  to  the  government  of  about  fifteen 
million  francs.  In  addition  to  these  institutions  eleven  others  receive  in 
all  about  two  million  francs. 

By  the  promulgation  of  the  law  of  1835  the  government  of  Belgium 
has  actively  developed  and  strengthened  its  institutions  of  higher  learn- 
ing. The  government  appropriated  to  the  state  universities  of  Ghent 
and  Li^ge  in  1891  the  sum  of  ^453,154.  Each  of  these  institutions  has 
the  four  faculties  of  arts,  science,  law,  and  medicine. 

EDUCATION    IN    SWEDEN 

Education  in  Sweden  is  chiefly  an  affair  of  the  state.  The  universi- 
ties of  Upsala  and  Lund  are  both  state  institutions.  Dr.  Lagerstedt,  in 
speaking  of  Swedish  education,  says  : 

I  J.  Edward  Simmons,  Education  in  France. 


458  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Higher 

The  universities  of  Europe  generally  are  expected  to  fill  certain  requirements 
demanded  by  the  state.  The  state  requires  from  its  officials  and  private  citizens  pro- 
posing to  enter  certain  important  vocations  —  that  of  medicine,  for  instance  —  that  they 
give  evidences  of  possessing  the  knowledge  and  skill  necessary  to  their  special  calling. 
Now,  in  some  cases,  the  university  teaching  and  the  ordinary  examinations  have  been 
considered  as  serving  this  additional  public  end.  In  other  cases  the  universities  have 
had  to  undertake  the  organization  of  courses  of  instruction  required  by  the  state  for  the 
purpose  just  mentioned,  and  the  testing  of  proficiency  therein  by  special  examinations  — 
civic  or  state  examinations,  as  they  are  called.  This  part  of  university  work  naturally 
has  a  less  scientific  character,  it  is  more  elementary,  and  the  object  of  the  examination  is 
to  ascertain  that  the  students  have  attained  certain  fixed  standards  of  knowledge  rather 
than  to  ascertain  the  results  of  deep  scientific  stud)\  The  practical  importance  of  this 
part  of  the  universities'  work  may  sometimes  offer  temptations  subordinate  to  their 
strictly  scientific  work,  and  make  the  higher  examinations,  the  university  examinations 
proper,  by  technicalities  or  regulation,  too  much  like  the  civic  or  state  examinations.  The 
present  regulations  and  arrangements  of  the  Swedish  universities  seem  to  avoid  this  danger. 

EDUCATION    IN- GERMANY 

The  regular  state  appropriations  to  the  German  universities  in 
1891-92  were  $3,606,306.  This  amount  is  not  exceptional.  Liberality  is 
a  well-established  policy,  and  the  appropriations  have  increased  from 
year  to  year  with  the  demands. 

No  better  illustration  of  the  advantages  of  higher  education  to  the 
state  need  be  given  than  the  wonderful  advances  of  the  German  empire 
in  the  present  century,  and  these  advances  are  conceded  to  be  due  to  the 
establishment  and  support  by  the  state  of  her  public  education.  This 
was  shown  in  a  marked  way  in  the  Franco-Prussian  war  of  1870.  To 
those  systems  of  general  training,  of  which  higher  education  by  the  state 
is  a  part,  is  due  the  success  of  Germany  in  this  war. 

The  achievements  of  this  war  are  not  to  be  considered  the  mere  result  of  a  levy  en 
masse  under  the  command  of  a  great  military  genius ;  they  are  rather  an  application  to 
military  affairs  of  the  whole  intelligence  of  a  nation  of  extraordinary  mental  and  moral 
culture.  They  are  the  result  of  no  qualities  that  can  be  drilled  into  any  army  in  a  month 
or  a  year ;  but  of  those  which  are  interwoven  into  the  very  tissue  of  the  nation's  thinking 
and  feeling.  They  come  not  from  the  genius  of  a  few  alone  ;  but  rather  from  the  genius 
of  the  few  united  with  the  superior  training  and  culture  of  the  many.  They  are  the  fruit 
of  an  application  to  military  affairs  of  the  actual  character  of  the  nation. 

But  what  is  the  Prussian  culture  of  which  I  speak  ?  In  general,  it  may  be  answered 
that  it  consists  of  those  attainments  which  are  acquired  by  the  universal  adoption  of  the 
truth  that,  whether  you  want  a  man  for  war  or  for  peace,  for  a  profession  or  for  a  trade, 
there  is  no  way  in  which  you  can  make  so  much  of  him  as  by  training  him,  and  training 
him  not  in  parts,  but  as  a  whole  ;  and,  furthermore,  that  in  all  the  contests  of  life,  other 
things  being  equal,  the  trained  men  are  sure  to  attain  the  highest  success.  On  this 
theory,  not  as  simple  sentiment,  but  as  a  solid  foundation  on  which  to  rear  the  whole 
fabric  of  society,  the  lawmakers  of  Germany  went  to  work.' 

Germany's  rapid  advance  to  commercial  rivalry  with  England  is  due 
in  large  part  to  the  absorption  of  university  men  into  the  trades. 

Oxford  and  Cambridge  have  received  large  contributions  from  royal 
favors.     The  University  of  Edinburgh  has  received  large   support  from 

I  Charles  Kendall  Adams. 


Department]  STATE  AID  TO  HIGHER  EDUCATION  459 

the  British  government.  Private  wealth  did  early  what  the  state  might 
have,  done  later.  The  existence  of  colonial  state  universities  is  ample  evi- 
dence that  the  English  spirit  favors  higher  education  by  the  state. 

IN    THE    AMERICAN    COLONIES 

To  the  early  American  colonists  learning  was  a  trust  which  had  been 
carried  across  the  sea  to  be  fostered  and  handed  down  to  posterity,  and 
it  was  sacred  alike  to  the  church  and  to  the  society  of  the  new  com- 
munity. The  first  schools  in  this  country  were  copies  of  the  English 
schools.  The  grammar  schools  of  the  old  country  furnished  models  for 
the  grammar  schools  in  the  colonies.  Rugby,  Eton,  and  Westminster 
were  patterns  for  the  academies ;  and  the  English  classical  schools  which 
were  shaped  by  mediaeval  influences  were  closely  followed  by  Harvard, 
William  and  Mary,  Yale,  Columbia,  and  Dartmouth.  But  the  financial 
and  intellectual  forces  of  the  old  country  were  lacking  in  the  new,  and 
the  American  schools  could  not  rival  their  foreign  prototypes.  In  this 
condition  of  affairs  the  colonial  government  came  to  the  support  of  the 
schools  and  furnished  an  income  by  means  of  taxation. 

Thruout  the  colonial  period  Harvard  University  was  largely 
dependent  on  the  colonial  court  of  Massachusetts.  It  has  been  recently 
pointed  out  that  the  colonial  legislature  before  the  end  of  the  eighteenth 
century  made  more  than  one  hundred  different  appropriations  for  the 
colleges,  on  an  average  as  many  as  one  every  two  years. 

The  state  gave  in  all  $595,797  to  Harvard  College,  which  sum  then 
represented  ten  times  as  much  to  Harvard  College  as  a  similar  gift 
today. 

Like  Harvard  in  Massachusetts,  Yale  College  in  Connecticut  received 
constant  support  from  the  legislature  of  the  colony  in  which  it  was  situ- 
ated. The  appropriations  took  the  form  of  land  grants,  taxes,  bills  of 
credit,  and  the  like.  At  the  end  of  the  last  century  the  first  President 
Dwight  declared  that  the  state  of  Connecticut  had  been  the  chief  bene- 
factor of  Yale  College. 

Columbia  College  in  New  York  grew  out  of  King's  College  founded 
in  1754  under  the  royal  government.  Both  King's  College  and  Columbia 
College  received  state  appropriations. 

CHURCH    AND    STATE 

In  the  early  colonial  education  the  church  and  state  were  closely 
allied.  The  dominant  spirit  was  benevolence.  The  whole  emphasis  was 
upon  moral  elevation  and  the  support  of  religion.  Yet  the  colonial  gov- 
ernment held  it  a  sacred  duty  to  support  schools,  and  even  create  them 
if  necessary.  This  policy  was  more  marked  toward  higher  institutions  of 
learning  than  toward  more  elementary  institutions.  After  the  Declaration 
of  Independence  there  was  a  movement  in  favor  of  universities  "  created, 
controlled,   and   supported"   by  the  state.     There  was   a  demand   for  a 


46o  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Higher 

political  education,  "an  education  of  the  individual  as  a  sovereign  citi- 
zen." In  the  constitution  of  1776  Pennsylvania  provided  for  one  or 
more  universities,  and  in  the  same  year  North  Carolina  made  a  like  pro- 
vision. Many  other  states  followed  with  similar  constitutional  provi- 
sions or  special  legislation. 

Nearly  every  state  constitution  has  a  section  relating  to  the  encourage- 
ment of  higher  education.  Several  constitutions  have  provisions  recog- 
nizing certain  schools  as  state  universities,  while  twenty-four  states  have 
established  state  universities  by  state  laws. 

College  property,  in  some  cases  the  property  of  professors,  was  very 
early  exempted  from  taxation.  The  state  not  only  recognizes  the  neces- 
sity of  higher  education  for  the  elevation  of  its  subjects,  but  by  exemption 
from  taxation  it  encourages  private  and  denominational  schools  as  well  as 
state  schools.  There  is  now,  of  course,  a  wider  differentiation  of  state 
and  non-state  schools,  a  wider  separation  of  church  and  state  in  matters 
of  education. 

That  the  state  should  provide  higher  education  was  a  doctrine  held  by 
Washington,  Jefferson,  Madison,  Franklin,  Monroe,  and  later  Edward 
Everett  and  all  American  statesmen  of  the  first  order;  and  such  weighty 
authority  has  done  much  to  promote  public  higher  education.  The  belief 
of  Jefferson  that  the  university  is  as  much  a  public  trust  as  the  primary 
schools  is  one  that  is  finding  practical  acceptance  in  the  development  of 
state  institutions  in  the  West  and  Northwest. 

THE    ORDINANCE    OF    1 787 

From  an  educational  point  of  view  the  ordinance  of  1787  was  one  of 
the  most  important  documents  ever  penned.  This  ordinance  declares 
that  "religion,  morality,  and  knowledge  being  necessary  to  good  govern- 
ment and  happiness  of  mankind,  schools,  as  the  means  of  education,  shall 
forever  be  encouraged."  Following  the  spirit  of  this  declaration,  the  gov- 
ernment, by  contract  with  the  Ohio  Company,  reserved  two  townships  of 
land  for  the  support  of  Ohio  University  at  Athens.  Later  Ohio  received 
another  township,  which  was  used  to  endow  Miami  University.  Altho  no 
general  law  was  passed  on  this  subject,  the  precedent  of  the  ordinance  of 
1787  became  a  national  policy.  After  the  year  1800  each  state  admitted 
into  the  union,  except  three,  obtained  two  or  more  townships  of  land  for 
the  establishment  of  a  university. 

It  is  sometimes  said  that  the  educational  provision  of  the  great  ordi- 
nance refers  to  the  comrnon  schools  only.  This  idea  is  without  founda- 
tion. Both  the  prevailing  sentiment  of  the  time  in  favor  of  the  promotion 
by  public  aid  to  secondary  and  higher  institutions,  and  the  subsequent 
action  of  the  members  who  adopted  the  ordinance,  justify  this  statement. 
The  clause  in  the  northwestern  ordinance  was  substantially  copied  from 
the  constitution  of  Massachusetts,  adopted  in  1780,  in  which  chap,  v  is 


Department]  STATE  AID  TO  HIGHER  EDUCATION  4^1 

entitled  "  The  University  at  Cambridge  and  Encouragement  of  Literature, 
etc."  This  new  mandate  must  be  interpreted  by  the  evident  meaning  of 
the  old  one  from  which  it  was  copied.  A  few  days  after  the  adoption  of 
the  ordinance  of  1787  Congress  placed  its  own  interpretation  upon  it,  by 
making  an  appropriation  for  higher  education  in  the  territory  of  Ohio. 
Washington  regretted  the  habit  in  his  time  of  American  youths  going 
to  Europe  to  receive  their  college  training..  It  was  that  American  boys 
might  be  educated  at  home  that  he  gave  money  to  found  a  national  uni- 
versity, and  hoped  Congress  would  establish  it  and  adequately  support  it. 

JEFFERSON    AND    STATE    AID    TO    EDUCATION 

Jefferson  saw  very  clearly  the  necessity  for  public  higher  education  in 
the  United  States.  He  had  observed  that  never  in  the  history  of  the 
world  had  higher  education  been  successful  except  when  it  had  been 
established  and,  at  least  during  its  childhood  and  youth,  been  encouraged 
and  supported  by  all  the  forces  in  the  state.  He  saw  that  colleges  and 
universities  had  been  everywhere  established  and  mainly  supported  by  the 
church  during  that  long  period  when  the  church  and  the  state  came  to  be 
separated ;  higher  education,  unless  already  adequately  endowed  by  the 
church,  had  dwindled  wherever  it  had  not  been  taken  up  by  the  state.  It 
was  for  these  reasons  that  Jefferson  not  only  founded  the  University  of 
Virginia  and  provided  for  its  support  at  public  expense,  but  regarded  the 
service  he  had  thus"  rendered  as  one  of  such  importance  and  significance 
that  he  directed  the  fact  of  his  being  the  founder  of  the  University  of  Vir- 
ginia to  be  placed  on  his  tombstone,  where  it  may  be  seen  at  Monticello. 
Jefferson  was  prouder  of  the  fact  that  he  was  "father  of  the  University  of 
Virginia"  than  that  he  was  president  of  the  United  States. 

Before  1821  it  was  estimated  that  more  than  six  million  acres  of  land 
had  been  appropriated  by  Congress  to  the  purposes  of  higher  education. 

These  gifts  have  been  increased  by  the  Morrill  Act  of  1862,  by  the 
Hatch  Act  in  1889,  and  by  the  Supplemental  Morrill  Act  in  1890.  Thus 
no  state  has  been  admitted  to  the  union  since  the  adoption  of  the  con- 
stitution that  has  not  received  from  the  general  government  aid  forming 
the  basis  of  the  establishment  and  support  of  higher  education  in  substan- 
tial accordance  with  the  policy  which  existed  thruout  the  colonial  period. 

.      STATE    EDUCATION    IN    THE    WEST    AND    NORTHWEST 

Following  the  colonial  policy  and  the  principles  of  the  ordinance  of 
1787,  the  western  and  northwestern  states  have  developed  their  state  uni- 
versities very  rapidly  and  continuously.  The  fact  that  the  idea  of  state 
support  has  steadily  grown  is  sufficiently  shown  by  the  illustrations  given 
above.  There  is  another  fact  that  is  worthy  of  consideration,  namely,  the 
rapid  growth  in  attendance.     I  quote  the  following : 

During  the  years  from  1885  to  1895  in  the  eight  New  England  colleges  —  Amherst, 
Bowdoin,  Brown,  Dartmouth,  Harvard,  Williams,  Wesleyan,  Yale  —  the  increase  in  the 


462  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Higher 

number  of  students  was  20  per  cent.  In  the  eight  representative  colleges  of  the  north 
central  states  —  Beloit,  Carleton,  Cornell,  Hillsdale,  Iowa  College,  Lawrence,  Ripon,  St. 
John's  —  the  increase  during  the  same  period  was  14^  per  cent.;  in  the  eight  repre- 
sentative state  universities  of  California,  Illinois,  Kansas,  Michigan,  Minnesota,  Nebraska, 
and  Wisconsin  the  total  number  of  students  in  1885  was  4,230;  in  1895  the  number  was 
13.50O1  an  increase  in  ten  years  of  320  per  cent.  Thus  it  appears  that  the  rate  of  growth 
in  the  state  universities  has  been  sixteen  times  as  great  as  the  rate  of  growth  in  the  New 
England  colleges  and  universities,  and  twenty-two  times  as  great  as  the  rate  in  the  col- 
leges in  the  north  central  states. 

In  1900  these  same  eight  universities  have  more  than  18,000  students 
in  attendance. 

The  state  of  Michigan  has  been  a  leader  and  an  example  to  all  sur- 
rounding states.  The  management  has  been  excellent  and  the  legislature 
has  been  liberal.  In  thirty  years,  from  1867  to  1897,  the  state  appropria- 
tions to  the  university  have  amounted  to  ^3,018,004.  This  sum  does 
not  include  the  large  sums  given  to  the  agricultural  and  normal  schools. 
The  total  income  of  the  university  last  year  was  $533,524. 

California  has  given  in  the  aggregate  $1,901,702  to  her  state  university. 
The  total  income  for  1898-99  was  $485,175.  In  addition  to  the  direct 
appropriations,  the  state  of  California  in  the  early  days  gave  certain 
swamp  lands  for  the  creation  of  a  "  permanent  endowment  fund."  These 
lands  sold  for  $81 1,500.  The  income  in  twenty-three  years  has  amounted 
to  $1,150,000;  state  appropriation,  $1,901,500;  total,  $3,863,202.  Thus 
nearly  four  million  dollars  have  been  contributed  by  California  for  the 
foundation  and  income  of  her  state  university. 

The  World  Almanac  for  1900  gives  the  total  income  of  the  University 
of  Wisconsin  as  $426,663  ;  of  the  University  of  Illinois,  $379,424;  of  the 
University  of  Ohio,  $277,593;  o^  the  University  of  Minnesota,  $396,177; 
of  the  University  of  Missouri,  $176,821;  of  the  University  of  Iowa, 
$148,377  ;  of  the  University  of  Nebraska,  $287,000.  There  are  not  fewer 
than  forty-five  colleges  and  universities  supported  by  the  state. 

The  present  year  there  have  been  between  eighteen  and  nineteen 
thousand  students  in  the  eight  representative  state  universities.  Thus 
the  increase  in  the  past  five  years  in  the  attendance  in  these  institutions 
has  been  greater  than  the  total  number  in  them  fifteen  years  ago. 

It  thus  appears  that  the  policy  of  state  support  of  higher  education 
has  been  the  accepted  policy  for  centuries  in  Europe,  that  it  had. an  inde- 
pendent growth  in  America,  was  established  as  a  colonial  policy,  adopted 
by  Congress,  and  has  been  accepted  as  the  national  policy  of  the  United 
States. 


DISCUSSION 


President  James  K.  Powers  of  the  University  of  Alabama  said  in  substance 
that,  in  addition  to  the  aid  given  by  the  state  directly  to  state  institutions  for  higher  edu- 
cation, the  state  also  contributed  indirectly  to  denominational  and  private  institutions  in 


DepartmentJ 


STATE  AID  TO  HIGHER  EDUCATION 


463 


exempting  their  property  from  taxation.  In  many  cases  this  was  a  very  considerable 
sum.  He  further  said  that  there  was  another  point  at  which  the  state  touched  higher 
education,  namely,  in  the  partnership  that  existed  in  the  matter  of  conferring  degrees 
and  awarding  diplomas. 

No  institution  conferred  a  degree  except  by  virtue  of  a  charter  granted  by  the  state. 
For  this  reason  the  states  should  carefully  scrutinize  the  applications  for  charters  and 
supervise  the  courses  of  study  leading  to  degrees.  Diplomas  were  valueless  except  in  so 
far  as  they  represent  work,  culture ;  and  yet,  thruout  this  country,  except  in  a  few  states, 
degrees  were  conferred  by  institutions  that  had  neither  equipment  nor  endowment 
adequate  for  the  work.  They  were  in  many  cases  unable  to  support  faculties  capable 
of  giving  instruction  leading  to  the  degrees  conferred  by  them.  Of  the  480  colleges  listed 
by  Dr.  William  T.  Harris,  Commissioner  of  Education,  as  having  the  power  to  confer  the 
bachelor's  degree  upon  men,  an  examination  of  those  in  a  number  of  southern  states 
showed  that  if  the  power  to  confer  such  degrees  were  limited  to  those  institutions 
possessed  of  property  amounting  to  $100,000,  the  list  would  be  reduced  nearly  one-half. 

He  cited  the  board  of  regents  of  the  University  of  the  State  of  New  York,  an 
organization  more  than  100  years  old,  as  having  done  a  great  work  for  that  state  in  this 
matter.  No  institution  in  New  York  was  permitted  to  confer  the  bachelor's  degree  unless 
it  was  possessed  of  property  to  the  amount  of  $500,000. 

The  establishment  of  a  standard  of  $100,000  as  a  requisite  in  institutions  would 
surely  be  a  low  standard,  and  yet  it  would  be  far  better  than  the  present  chaotic  con- 
dition existing  in  most  of  the  states  of  the  union.  Bills  chartering  institutions  coming 
before  legislatures  are  oftentimes  considered  local  bills,  and  as  such  passed  as  a  matter 
of  courtesy  without  scrutiny.  These  bills  authorize  the  conferring  of  divers  and  sundry 
degrees.  Such  bills  before  passage  should  be  referred  to  some  careful  organization  that 
would  see  that  before  passage  the  institution  seeking  the  charter  possessed  equipment  in 
the  way  of  buildings,  museums,  laboratories,  and  libraries,  and  an  income  sufficient  to 
guarantee  the  employment  and  perpetuity  of  a  faculty.  In  this  way,  and  in  this  way 
only,  can  we  hope  to  make  college  degrees  worth  what  on  their  faces  they  represent. 

He  instanced  three  cases  of  offers  to  purchase  degrees  from  the  University  of 
Alabama  within  the  last  three  years.  One  came  from  London,  England,  and  was  in 
substance  as  follows  :  "  For  the  degree  of  doctor  of  philosophy  from  the  University  of 
Alabama  at  the  approaching  commencement  I  will  pay  to  any  interest  named  by  you 
the  sum  of  $500."  Another  came  from  Germany  and  was  similar  to  the  first,  couched 
in  almost  the  same  language,  except  that,  instead  of  fixing  the  sum  at  $500,  the  writer 
said  that  he  would  give  to  any  interest  named  any  sum  not  exceeding  $500-  The 
sitnilarity  of  the  language  used  indicates  that  these  parties  had  possibly  been  coached 
by  someone  familiar  with  methods  in  some  parts  of  this  country. 

English  universities  are  not  open  to  criticism  as  to  laxness  in  conferring  degrees. 
But  it  is  said  that  in  some  German  universities  an  American  can  get  a  doctor's  degree 
on  work  reckoned  as  inadequate  for  the  same  degree  for  a  German.  The  third  offer  was 
from  this  country,  and  offered  a  small  sum  for  the  degree  of  doctor  of  divinity,  stating 
that  he  could  get  it  for  much  less  from  another  institution  which  he  named.  These 
instances  were  merely  cited  to  show  that  there  was  necessity  for  vigorous  action  among 
the  colleges  and  universities  of  this  country  in  this  matter. 

Professor  Richard  Jones,  of  Vanderbilt  University. —  President  Powers  has 
spoken  of  the  desirability  of  some  control  over  the  granting  of  degrees.  In  the  state  of 
New  York  this  desirable  result  is  secured  thru  the  University  of  the  State  of  New  York, 
or  the  regents'  office.  The  university  has  control  of  all  higher  education  in  the  state, 
including  the  high  schools,  colleges,  law  schools,  medical  schools,  dental  schools,  busi- 
ness schools,  etc.  The  charters  for  all  these  institutions  are  granted,  not  by  the  legisla- 
ture ordinarily,  but  by  the  University  of   the  Stj^te  of  New  York.     The  university  was 


464  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Higher 

established  in  1787,  and  its  permanence  is  secured  by  constitutional  provisions.  The 
regents  are  elected  for  life  by  the  state  legislature  in  the  same  manner  as  United  States 
senators  are  elected.  It  seems  likely,  therefore,  that  this  method  of  state  control,  not 
only  over  the  granting  of  degrees,  but  over  higher  education  in  general,  will  be  per- 
manent. 

The  university  exercises  this  control«indirectly  rather  than  directly;  that  is  to  say, 
the  university  establishes  the  standard  for  the  degree  of  B.A.  in  the  state  of  New  York  by 
establishing  a  standard  for  admission  to  the  colleges,  namely,  a  four-years'  high-school 
course  or  its  equivalent.  The  university  also  determines  the  standard  for  admission  to 
the  high  schools.  Therefore,  without  directly  interfering  with  the  work  of  any  particu- 
lar institution,  the  university  does  in  fact  exercise  a  good  deal  of  influence  in  main- 
taining a  high  standard  for  the  degree  of  B.A,  Furthermore,  the  university  determines 
the  standard  for  admission  to  all  professional  schools,  which  is,  namely,  a  four-years' 
high-school  course  or  its  equivalent.  One  cannot  enter  the  law  schools  or  the  medical 
schools  of  the  state  of  New  York  without  first  taking  a  high-school  course. 

The  relations  between  the  University  of  the  State  of  New  York,  which  is  a  purely 
administrative  body  and  not  a  teaching  body,  and  the  colleges  of  the  state,  are  har- 
monious and  satisfactory.  The  colleges  co-operate  gladly  with  the  university  in  main- 
taining the  standard.  The  university  calls  together  the  presidents  of  the  colleges  and 
confers  with  them  respecting  proper  standards  of  admission  and  of  graduation.  In  this 
way  the  ordinances  of  the  university  are  a  legalized  expression  of  the  will  of  the  col- 
leges. Those  institutions  which  are  established  primarily  for  pecuniary  profit  some- 
times object  to  the  control  exercised  over  them,  but  the  endowed  institutions  doing  a 
high  grade  of  college  work  welcome  the  control  over  the  granting  of  degrees  which  is 
exercised  by  the  University  of  the  State  of  New  York. 

Professor  I.  W.  Howerth,  University  of  Chicago.—  There  is  one  thought  which 
has  occurred  to  me  during  the  progress  of  this  discussion  which  may  possibly  be  worth 
presenting,  and  that  is  that  the  final  justification  of  the  demand  for  state  aid  in  educa- 
tion is  not  to  be  found  in  the  nature  of  the  state,  but  in  the  character  of  the  education 
provided.  State  assistance  in  education  is  almost  an  inevitable  result  of  state  organiza- 
tion; for  at  the  very  inception  of  the  state  a  state  or  national  ideal  is  projected,  and  edu- 
cation is  seized  upon  as  an  obvious  means  of  realizing  that  ideal.  It  is  conceivable, 
however,  that  the  character  of  this  ideal,  which  becomes  the  educational  aim,  is  such  as  not 
to  warrant  the  demand  for  state  assistance  in  movement  toward  it  thru  the  work  of  the  schools. 
The  ideal  of  the  American  people,  for  instance,  is  democratic,  while  that  of  Germany  is 
imperialistic.  If,  now,  for  one  reason  or  another,  the  ideal  fostered  by  our  schools 
should  become  un-American,  assuming  the  correctness  of  our  present  ideal,  we  should  not 
be  justified  in  calling  on  the  state  to  help  us  along.  The  function  of  the  sect  in  matters 
of  education,  to  use  another  illustration,  is  diminishing,  because  we  are  outgrowing  the 
sectarian  ideal.  State  aid  to  sectarian  education  fails  to  find  justification  solely  because 
of  the  character  of  the  education  which  the  sect  provides.  It  is  conceivable  that  a  simi- 
lar situation  might  arise  with  regard  to  the  state. 

If,  then,  the  demand  for  state  aid  in  education  is  justified  only  by  the  character  of 
the  education  provided,  and  the  character  of  the  education  is  largely  determined  by  the 
state  or  national  aim,  the  important  influence  of  the  common  ideals  of  a  state  upon  the 
work  of  the  schools  may  be  clearly  perceived.  It  is  all-important  that  these  ideals  be 
correct. 

It  may  be  interesting  to  notice  in  this  connection  that,  while  state  and  national 
ideals  should  remotely  blend  into  one,  they  are  not  now,  and  have  not  been,  the  same. 
They  originate  at  different  points  of  departure  and  evolve,  in  the  case  of  civilized 
nations,  in  one  general  direction.  But  they  are  often  behind  the  real  requirements  of  the 
tinfie,     In  the  past,  for  iqstance,  the  struggle  for  existence  between  different  types  of 


Department]  AN  ETHNIC  VIEW  OF  HIGHER  EDUCATION  465 

states  has  been  so  severe  that  the  national  ideal  embodied  only  the  interests  of  the 
national  group.  Education  was  justified  in  fostering  an  intensely  national  spirit. 
Today,  however,  the  struggle  between  nations  has  been  greatly  modified.  A  different 
kind  of  education  is  therefore  needed.  Our  ideals  have  not  changed  pari  passu  with  the 
changes  brought  about  by  commercial,  social,  and  scientific  intercourse.  Much  of  what 
we  call  patriotism  in  our  schools  is  consequently  nothing  more  than  national  arrogance 
or  racial  hatred.  It  is  possible  that  the  ideals  we  strive  to  realize  thru  the  schools 
may  lag  so  far  behind  the  real  demands  of  the  times  that  a  demand  for  state  aid  to  com- 
mon-school education  would  find  no  better  basis  than  the  demand  of  a  religious  denomi- 
nation for  corporate  assistance  in  carrying  on  its  work.  The  danger,  of  course,  is 
remote,  but  the  point  of  what  I  have  been  trying  to  say  is  that  the  more  nearly  education 
fulfills  the  actual  requirements  of  the  state,  the  more  nearly  perfect  is  the  justification  of 
the  demand  for  state  assistance.  When  ideal  requirements  are  fulfilled,  we  should  talk, 
not  of  state  aid  in  education,  but  of  education  by  the  state. 


AN  ETHNIC  VIEW  OF  HIGHER  EDUCATION 

PROFESSOR    I.  W.  HOWERTH,  UNIVERSITY  OF  CHICAGO,  CHICAGO,  ILL. 

The  conviction  from  which  the  remarks  of  this  "paper  proceed  is  that 
the  value,  the  means,  and  the  methods  of  higher  education,  as  of  all 
education,  can  be  rightly  determined  only  by  constant  reference  to  its 
effect  upon  both  the  individual  and  the  race,  and  that  in  all  questions 
pertaining  to  this  subject  the  present  tendency  is  to  give  undue  con- 
sideration to  the  individual.  Suggested  improvements  of  the  course 
of  study,  discussion  of  the  expediency  and  limits  of  the  elective  system, 
and  attempts  to  solve  the  problem  of  articulating  higher  and  secondary 
education  reveal  the  fact  that  the  needs  and  interests  of  those  who  are  to 
be  benefited  immediately  by  college  and  university  training  are  the 
primary  objects  of  concern.  The  same  narrow  range  of  vision  is  betrayed 
in  much  of  the  current  discussion  of  such  questions  as,  "Does  a  college 
education  pay  ?"  On  the  one  hand  it  is  asserted,  for  instance,  that  the 
individual  profits  by  it ;  and,  on  the  other,  that  it  unfits  him  for  business  — 
as  if  these  were  conclusive  arguments.  But  such  problems  of  higher  edu- 
cation are  not  primarily  economic,  and  they  cannot  be  settled  by  com- 
parison of  income  and  outlay.  Socially  or  ethnically  considered,  a  college 
education  may  be  a  profitable  investment,  even  if  it  does  not  pay  in  dol- 
lars and  cents ;  and  if  it  unfits  one  for  business,  it  may  be  so  much  the 
worse  for  business.  No  educational  question  is  strictly  or  chiefly  indi- 
vidualistic. None  can  be  finally  settled  without  careful  consideration  of 
its  bearing  upon  the  interests  of  the  race.  Neglect  of  this  consideration 
is  sure  to  produce  error  and  confusion  in  educational  thought.  "  Most  of 
the  controversies  relative  to  this  great  question  of  education,"  says 
Fouillee,  "seem  to  me  to  be  due  to  the  fact  that  we  fail  to  reach  a  suffi- 
ciently general  point  of  view,  i.  e.,  the  national,  international,  or  even 
ethnical."  We  need,  therefore,  both  for  practical  and  theoretical  pur- 
poses, a  new  educational  orientation.     It  is  with  the  hope  of  contributing 


466  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Higher 

in  some  small  degree  to  this  orientation  that  I  invite  your  attention  to  an 
ethnic  view  of  higher  education. 

Before  considering  higher  education  specially,  we  must  glance  briefly 
at  education  in  general.  What  aspect  does  the  nature  and  function  of 
education  as  a  whole  present  when  considered  from  the  standpoint  of 
the  race  ? 

As  soon  as  we  contemplate  education  from  the  racial  or  ethnic  point 
of  view,  it  reveals  itself  as  fundamentally  a  process  of  social  transfor- 
mation. It  represents  the  latest  and,  potentially  if  not  actually,  the 
most  effective  factor  of  social  evolution.  While  it  deals  with  individuals, 
its  primary  object  is  the  progress  of  the  race  thru  the  improvement  of 
its  individual  members.  The  goal  of  education  is,  therefore,  not  a  single 
one,  as  is  sometimes  represented ;  it  is  double.  It  lies  in  the  individual 
and  in  the  race.  In  the  education  of  the  individual  the  goal  is  the  maxi- 
mum development  of  social  efficiency.  This  involves  the  application  of 
physiological  and  psychological  principles  to  the  development  of  mind 
and  body.  Hence  the  pedagogical  importance  of  physiology  and  experi- 
mental or  psycho-physical  psychology.  In  the  education  of  the  race  the 
goal  is  the  successive  realization  of  higher  and  higher  stages  of  humanity. 
"  Given  the  hereditary  merits  and  faults  of  a  race,"  the  problem  of  education 
becomes,  as  Guyau  rightly  stated  it,  "to  what  extent  can  we  by  education 
modify  the  existing  heritage  to  the  advantage  of  a  new  heritage  ?"  This 
implies  a  knowledge  of  the  means  and  methods  of  social  evolution,  the 
laws  and  causes  of  the  social  process.  Hence  the  importance  to  the 
educator  of  social  history  and  the  science  of  sociology.  Educational 
psychology  should  be  racial  as  well  as  individual.  The  essential  fact,  how- 
ever, is  that  education  —  elementary,  secondary,  and  higher — is  primarily 
a  social  or  ethnic  expedient  for  accelerating  progress.  All  its  problems 
are  therefore  social  problems. 

Another  fact  which,  from  this  point  of  view,  leaps  to  the  eye,  as  the 
French  say,  is  that,  contrary  to  the  hypothesis  upon  which  Rousseau  and  his 
followers  have  attempted  to  found  a  science  of  pedagogy,  education  is  not 
a  slavish  imitation  of  nature,  but  an  interference  with  so-called  natural 
laws.  Its  sole  raison  d^etre  is  the  inadequacy  of  nature's  methods.  It  is 
the  negation  of  laissez-faire  in  individual  and  social  evolution.  The  assist- 
ance it  has  rendered  nature  in  the  development  of  the  individual  is  per- 
fectly obvious,  but  its  possibility  as  a  social  factor  has  only  begun  to  be 
appreciated.  Down  to  the  present  time  it  has  acted  almost  wholly  as  a 
socially  unconscious  or  genetic  force  in  the  evolution  of  the  race.  To  be 
sure,  it  has  long  been  recognized  as  a  means  of  social  improvement,  but 
there  has  been  almost  no  attempt  to  use  it  scientifically  in  the  develop- 
ment of  a  people  as  it  is  now  used  in  the  development  of  a  person.  Plato 
and  the  Spartans  had  the  idea,  but  not  the  ideals  and  the  science.  Altho 
books  on  education  are  as  thick  —  and  with  regard  to  many  of  them  I 


Department]  AN  ETHNIC  VIEW  OF  HIGHER  EDUCATION  467 

might  add,  as  light  —  as  autumnal  leaves,  I  know  of  but  few  worth  mention- 
ing which  have  urged  its  ordered  application  as  a  national,  social,  or  eth- 
nic lever.  Its  purposive  use  has  not  been  consciously  directed  toward  a 
social  end ;  that  is  to  say,  educational  teleology  has  been  limited  to  the 
individual.  The  time  has  come,  however,  when  it  may  be  extended  to 
the  race.  "  Through  education,"  says  Dr.  Dewey,  "  society  can  formulate 
its  own  purposes,  can  organize  its  own  means  and  resources,  and  thus 
shape  itself  with  definiteness  and  economy  in  the  direction  in  which  it 
wishes  to  move." 

With  this  comprehensive  view  of  education  as  a  whole  from  the  ethnic 
standpoint,  we  may  now  turn  to  the  consideration  of  higher  education. 
The  first  question  that  confronts  us  is :  How  are  we  to  separate  it  from 
the  work  of  the  common  schools,  and  what  is  the  relation  between  them? 

In  the  first  place,  higher  education  is,  of  course,  a  continuation  of 
secondary  education,  as  the  latter  is  a  continuation  of  elementary.  They 
are  all  a  part  of  the  same  process.  And  yet  there  is  a  difference,  due  to 
the  necessary  division  of  labor,  between  the  function  of  higher  education 
and  the  function  of  the  common  schools,  which,  altho  it  may  not  justify 
an  entirely  separate  classification,  is  yet  sufficient  to  enable  us  to  draw  a 
pretty  firm  line  between  them.  When  we  consider  the  work  of  the 
common  schools,  we  find  that,  however  clearly  it  perceives  the  educational 
ends,  and  however  ambitious  it  may  be  to  realize  them,  it  is  chiefly 
limited  to  the  task  of  transmitting  from  one  generation  to  another  the 
mental,  moral,  and  physical  acquirements  of  the  race.  It  preserves  the 
racial  inheritance.  We  have  reached,  for  instance,  a  stage  of  civilization 
at  which  the  average  man  is  expected  to  be  able  to  read,  write,  and  cipher, 
to  possess  common  morality  and  a  certain  amount  of  knowledge  in 
regard  to  nature  and  man.  Elementary  and  secondary  education  is 
devoted  to  the  development  of  the  efficiency  represented  by  these  acquire- 
ments and  the  assimilation  of  this  knowledge.  It  has  little  time  or 
opportunity  for  doing  more  than  to  maintain  the  average  social  level. 
On  the  other  hand,  higher  education  begins  at  this  point  and  should  be 
expected  to  raise  it.  It  selects  a  comparatively  small  number  of  individ- 
uals, and  professes  to  elevate  their  intelligence  and  efficiency  to  a  higher 
power.  Moreover,  it  has  the  opportunity  to  add  new  increments  to  the 
general  stock  of  knowledge.  The  function  of  higher  education  is,  there- 
fore, especially  that  of  providing  the  scientific  and  personal  elements 
which  are  to  urge  the  race  onward  to  a  new  and  higher  stage  of  civiliza- 
tion. Elementary  and  secondary  education  is  chiefly  devoted,  on  account 
of  its  limitations,  to  the  preservation  of  the  social  status  quo.  To  higher 
education  is  given  a  superior  opportunity  of  raising  the  social  level.  The 
one  preserves  order,  the  other  secures  progress.  Elementary  and  second- 
ary education,  so  far  as  social  progress  is  concerned,  is  primarily  static; 
higher  education,  dynamic.     We  thus  see  that  there  is  a  certain  degree 


468  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Higher 

of  similarity  between  the  relation  of  higher  education  and  the  common 
schools  and  the  relation  of  imitation  and  eccentricity  or  genius  in  the 
social  world,  heredity  and  variation  in  the  biological  world,  and  the 
centripetal  and  centrifugal  forces  in  the  physical  world.  It  is  not  pre- 
tended, of  course,  that  the  parallelism  is  exact,  but  it  may  serve  to  throw 
into  stronger  relief  the  essentially  dynamic  function  of  higher  education. 

If  the  function  of  higher  education,  ethnically  considered,  is  above  all 
to  contribute  the  socially  progressive  elements,  then  we  may  judge  its 
present  efficiency  by  the  character  and  the  amount  of  this  contribution. 
The  criterion  cannot  be  successfully  applied,  however,  unless  we  know 
beforehand  what  kind  of  social  elements  are  progressive.  This  knowl- 
edge requires  some  conception  of  a  goal  toward  which  society  should  be 
directed,  as  well  as  an  acquaintance  with  the  methods  of  social  evolution. 
It  is  therefore  necessary  to  take  these  matters  into  consideration,  and  it 
may  be  helpful  to  begin  by  glancing  for  a  moment  at  the  nature  of  the 
evolutionary  process  in  general. 

Evolution,  like  education,  is  a  continuous  process,  but  it  may  be 
divided  into  natural  and  artificial  evolution.  As  a  wholly  natural  or 
subrational  process  it  takes  place  independently  of  human  volition,  and 
is  wholly  determined  by  the  adaptive  force  of  the  organism  and  the 
character  of  the  environment.  Given  an  organism,  biological  or  social  — 
that  is,  something  capable  of  adapting  itself — its  natural  evolution  con- 
sists in  its  continuous  adjustment  to  its  environment  \  or,  in  Spencerian 
phraseology,  the  adjustment  of  its  internal  relations  to  its  external  rela- 
tions. The  goal  of  natural  evolution,  that  is,  evolution  not  consciously 
directed,  is  perfect  adaptation  to  environment,  the  equilibrium  of  the 
forces  of  nature  and  the  forces  of  the  organism.  This  goal  has  been 
reached  in  the  biological  world  in  the  development  of  the  higher  animal 
forms,  and  in  the  social  world  in  certain  peoples  which  have  apparently 
reached  a  stationary  state.  Its  method  is  the  preservation,  perpetuation, 
and  improvement  of  such  variations  in  the  organism  as  tend  to  perfect 
its  adaptation  ;  that  is,  natural  selection.  Now,  in  such  evolution  pro- 
gressive elements  must  be,  first,  such  increments  of  force  as  may  be 
added  to  the  adaptive  power  of  the  organism,  the  vis  a  tergo,  which 
pushes  it  on  and  produces  its  variations ;  and,  second,  those  special 
variations  in  the  existing  type  which,  by  bringing  the  organism  one 
degree  nearer  perfection,  are,  so  to  speak,  seized  upon,  preserved,  and 
perpetuated  by  natural  selection.  The  variations,  we  say,  are  spontaneous. 
They  merely  happen  to  take  place.  They  are  also  innumerable,  and  the 
vast  majority  of  them  are  utterly  useless  to  progress  and  represent  pure 
waste  of  vital  force.  It  is  only  by  chance  that  some  of  them  serve  the 
purpose  of  nature.  Hence  it  is  that  natural  evolution,  biological  and 
social,  is  a  most  extravagant  and  unnecessarily  slow  process,  and  furnishes 
no  model  for  intelligent  action  in  physical,  moral,  or  mental  training,  or 


Department]  AN  ETHNIC  VIEW  OF  HIGHER  EDUCATION  469 

in  any  other  sphere  of  action.  Observe  now  the  difference  between 
natural  evolution  and  artificial  evolution,  in  which  higher  education 
plays  a  part. 

In  artificial  evolution  the  goal  is  no  longer  fixed  by  natural  circum- 
stances. It  is  predetermined  by  man  ;  it  is  ideal.  If  the  environment  is 
not  suitable  to  the  development  of  the  ideal  type,  the  environment  is 
changed.  This  is  all  that  cultivation  in  agriculture  and  horticulture 
amounts  to.  Again,  the  progressive  variations  of  type  are  not  left  to 
chance,  but  are  ideally  conceived,  and  effort  is  made  to  produce  them. 
This  is  illustrated  in  the  breeding  of  stock.  The  result  is  that  more  is 
accomplished  in  artificial  than  in  natural  evolution  by  the  same  expen- 
diture of  energy.  Waste  is  diminished,  the  ultimate  object  being  its  com- 
plete elimination.  Evolution  having  become  a  conscious  process,  it  is 
ruled  by  the  intellect.  The  laws  of  nature  are  not  disregarded  ;  they  are 
counteracted  or  overruled,  just  as  the  law  of  gravitation  is  overruled  in 
the  construction  of  an  Eiffel  Tower.  The  difference  between  artificial 
evolution  and  natural  evolution  is  the  difference  between  science  and 
empiricism,  between  intelligently  purposive  action  and  fortuity.  It  may 
be  described  in  a  single  word  —  economy. 

Now,  as  was  said  before,  social  evolution  down  to  the  present  time 
has  been  almost  entirely  a  natural  process.  Christian  philosophy,  poets, 
and  social  dreamers  have  projected  indistinct,  or  too  distinct,  goals  of 
social  development ;  but  none  of  them  has  been  made  the  basis  of  scien- 
tific attempts  at  social  improvement.  Social  environment  has  been 
changed,  but  not  with  the  conscious  purpose  of  molding  the  race  into 
any  definite  and  preconceived  form.  Special  energy  has  been  expended 
upon  the  development  of  innumerable  variations  of  types,  but  little 
attention  has  been  given  to  the  kind  of  type  that  would  serve  the  pur- 
pose of  natural  selection.  Many  are  called,  but  few  are  chosen.  Under 
the  influence  of  education  the  process  may  become  artificial.  When  this 
is  the  case,  the  number  of  progressive  elements  is  increased.  They  will 
then  be  as  follows :  first,  socially  purposive  modifications  of  the  social 
environment ;  second,  new  increments  of  social  adaptive  power,  or  racial 
virility ;  third,  new  increments  of  knowledge ;  and  fourth,  select  individual 
types  embodying  virility  and  knowledge,  and  which,  being  lifted  up  by 
higher  education,  will  draw  all  men  unto  them,  will  raise  the  social 
level. 

We  are  now  ready  to  apply  the  ethnic  test  to  higher  education.  What 
is  it  doing  toward  contributing  these  various  elements  ?  This,  of  course, 
cannot  be  described  within  the  limits  of  this  paper.  All  that  can  be  done 
is  to  offer  a  few  criticisms  in  regard  to  its  contribution  to  each  element. 

In  the  first  place,  then,  higher  education,  instead  of  encouraging  pur- 
posive changes  in  social  environment,  is  a  partisan  and  an  apologist  of 
the   present  order.     It  is  not  its  function,  of  course,  to  introduce  these 


47 o  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Higher 

changes  directly.  It  can  only  provide  the  knowledge  and  the  spirit,  and 
leave  the  initiative  to  scientific  legislation.  But  academic  atmosphere  is 
not  healthful  to  the  growth  of  this  knowledge  and  spirit.  Much  has  been 
said  about  liberty  of  thought  in  our  colleges  and  universities.  It  is  con- 
tended by  the  authorities  that  there  is  complete  liberty,  and  the  claim  is 
logical,  for  they  make  a  careful  distinction  between  liberty  and  license. 
Thought  is  free  so  long  as  it  is  sound,  and  the  authorities  have  their  own 
convictions  in  regard  to  what  constitutes  sound  thinking.  While  free- 
dom of  thought  is  doubtless  increasing  in  all  our  higher  institutions  of 
learning,  and  will  continue  to  increase  as  they  become  more  conscious 
of  their  social  function,  yet  it  is  probably  true  today  that  there  is  not  a 
college  or  university  in  the  country  that  would  long  tolerate  an  active  and 
formidable  advocate  of  serious  changes  in  the  present  social  order.  He 
would  be  required  to  go,  and  the  occasion  of  his  removal  would  not  be 
avowed  as  opposition  to  intellectual  liberty,  but  to  his  own  incapacity,  as 
evidenced  by  his  vagarious  opinions.  This,  to  the  educational  martyr,  is 
the  unkindest  cut  of  all.     It  is  his  sorrow's  crown  of  sorrow. 

Owing  partly  to  the  feeling  in  college  and  university  circles  that  one 
is  lucky  to  have  been  born  a  conservative,  there  has  been  developed  a 
sort  of  typical  academic  attitude  in  regard  to  almost  all  questions  of 
serious  social  importance.  In  political  parlance  this  attitude  is  called  a 
"straddle,"  but  the  euphemistic  phrase  is  "scientific  impartiality."  There 
is  a  certain  type  of  university  professor,  for  instance,  who  never  expresses 
his  own  opinion  ;  claims,  indeed,  that  he  has  none.  In  considering  a  given 
question,  he  devotes  himself  to  the  accumulation  of  evidence,  pro  and 
con  ;  and,  being  unable  to  determine  which  pile  is  the  larger,  he  stands  as 
immovable  as  the  traditional  donkey  between  two  stacks  of  hay.  He 
speaks  condescendingly  of  the  oi  ■koWoL  His  contempt  for  enthusiasm 
is  profound.  He  insincerely  professes  to  envy  the  man  who  can  arrive  at 
a  conclusion,  but  as  for  himself  he  sees  so  deeply  and  finds  so  much 
argument  on  both  sides  of  every  question  that  he  is  always  in  doubt. 
Like  Lowell's  candidate  in  the  Biglow  Papers,  his 

....  mind's  tu  fair  to  lose  its  balance 

And  say  which  party  hez  most  sense, 
There  may  be  folks  of  greater  taience 

That  can't  set  stiddier  on  the  fence. 

This  type  of  university  man  has  done  much  to  give  to  higher  education 
the  reputation  of  futility.  His  attitude  helps  to  explain  why  it  is  that  in 
the  popular  mind  it  is  sufficient  to  condemn  a  theory  or  an  argument  to 
describe  it  as  "merely  academic."  It  is  expected  that  academic  discus- 
sion is  likely  to  come  out  at  the  selfsame  door  wherein  it  went.  We 
recognize,  of  course,  that  higher  education  must  encourage  impartiality 
in  investigation  and  conservatism  in  social  proposals,  but  there  is  a  golden 
mean.      The   true  scientific  spirit,  which  is  so   badly  needed  in  every 


Department]  AN  ETHNIC  VIEW  OF  HIGHER  EDUCATION  471 

department  of  thought,  does  not  imply  absence  of  enthusiasm,  but  only 
the  restraint  of  sentiment  while  investigation  is  in  progress.  In  matters 
of  social  advancement,  higher  education  should  be  the  source  of  a  con- 
servative radicalism. 

In  regard  to  the  second  progressive  element  mentioned,  namely, 
increase  in  race  virility,  higher  education  may  claim  to  contribute  some- 
thing on  account  of  the  prominence  it  gives  athletics.  But  just  how  much 
good  the  selection  and  probable  overtraining  of  a  few  individuals  who 
need  physical  culture  least  is  going  to  do  the  race  it  is  somewhat  difificult 
to  estimate.  The  respect  engendered  for  physical  prowess  is  worth 
something,  and  the  shouting  of  the  otherwise  passive  spectators  at  the 
games  may  have  its  value  in  raising  the  average  of  physical  vigor.  It  is 
a  fair  criticism,  however,  to  say  that  the  method  would  not  commend 
itself  to  a  thoroly  self-conscious  race  as  the  best  means  of  promoting  its 
progress.  Few  colleges  and  universities,  with  all  their  interest  in  the 
subject,  are  really  conscious  of  the  social  value  of  athletics.  The  end 
and  aim  is  not  racial  culture,  but  the  winning  of  the  championship.  As 
to  other  methods  of  strengthening  the  human  stock,  they  are  not  so  much 
as  heard  of.  It  is  too  early  to  talk  of  a  scientific  stirpiculture,  but  higher 
education  might  do  much  toward  the  creation  of  a  sentiment  that  will 
finally  bring  into  operation  the  law  of  social  selection,  or  the  birth  of  the 
fittest.  But  this  is  not  in  its  consciousness.  So  far,  then,  as  contributing 
to  the  virility  of  the  race  is  concerned,  higher  education  falls  far  short  of 
its  opportunity. 

When  we  come  to  consider  the  increments  of  knowledge  provided  by 
higher  education,  they  are  so  numerous  and  important  that  it  may  seem 
in  this  respect  to  be  completely  fulfilling  its  function.  It  would  be  easy 
to  name  a*  long  list  of  academic  discoveries  which  have  proven  to  be 
invaluable.  There  are  two  criticisms,  however,  which  are  at  once  sug- 
'  gested  by  an  ethnic  view  of  the  subject.  In  the  first  place,  knowledge  is 
accumulated  without  regard  to  its  possible  social  utilization.  Much  of  it 
is,  therefore,  not  appreciably  dynamic.  All  knowledge  is  valuable,  but 
all  is  not  equally  valuable.  Higher  education  seems  to  proceed  on  the 
assumption  that  one  discovery  is  as  good  as  another.  An  illustration  of 
what  I  mean  may  be  found  in  the  doctors'  theses  of  our  various  universi- 
ties. Many  of  them  are  on  such  subjects  as  the  final  e  in  Chaucer,  or  the 
dative  case  in  Sallust,  which,  however  important  from  a  linguistic  stand- 
point, are  not  of  present  and  pressing  importance  to  the  race.  Some  of 
them  represent  toilsome  pursuit  of  insignificant  bits  of  knowledge  which, 
when  found,  are  about  as  valuable  to  society  as  the  individual  acquire- 
ment of  the  power  to  balance  a  straw  on  one's  nose.  In  the  second  place, 
higher  education  overemphasizes  the  importance  of  original  investiga- 
tion in  comparison  with  intellectual  organization  and  distribution.  Its 
rewards  are  for  the  investigator.     It  is  almost  as  much  as  a  scholar's 


472  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Higher 

reputation  is  worth  to  undertake  to  popularize  his  knowledge.  And  yet 
the  successful  distributor  of  knowledge  performs  a  vastly  more  important 
social  service  than  the  average  original  investigator.  Many  college  and 
university  professors  hold  their  positions,  not  because  they  are  teachers, 
but  because  they  have  hunted  down  some  more  or  less  important  bit  of 
knowledge.  This  is  why  some  of  the  worst  possible  teaching  may  be 
found  in  our  universities.  Some  of  us  know  by  painful  experience  that 
this  is  true.  These  two  defects  in  higher  education  an  ethnic  view  will 
tend  to  remedy. 

The  last  in  the  list  of  progressive  elements  which  were  mentioned  as 
rightfully  to  be  expected  from  higher  education  were  cultured  personali- 
ties specially  adapted  to  the  task  of  elevating  the  race  to  a  higher  plane 
of  civilization.  Here,  again,  much  might  be  said  in  regard  to  what  has 
been  done.  The  roll  of  names  of  college  men  who  have  helped  the  world 
forward  is  a  long  one.  But,  after  all,  this  contribution  has  been  largely 
unconscious  and  incidental.  These  personalities  have  been  developed 
primarily  for  themselves,  and  not  for  the  race.  Their  social  utility  was 
accidental.  They  were,  so  to  speak,  spontaneous  variations.  The  spirit 
of  higher  education  is  still  individualistic.  The  150,000  young  men  and 
young  women  now  in  our  higher  institutions  of  learning  are  being  trained, 
not  primarily  for  social  service,  but  for  success,  and  if  statistics  show  that 
the  majority  of  them  succeed,  higher  education  is  content.  But  success 
is  sometimes  the  very  opposite  of  social  service.  The  fact  that  so 
many  college  men  succeed  may  be  a  severe  reflection  on  our  colleges. 
It  may  indicate  that  their  students  are  trained  merely  to  exploit  their 
fellow-men.  The  race  is  not  interested  primarily  in  anyone's  success,  but 
in  the  manner  of  his  success.  Does  he  produce  healthful  commodities  ? 
Does  he  increase  wealth  or  illth  ?  Does  he  promote  life  or  death  ?  Does 
he  make  the  world  a  better  place  in  which  to  live  ?  These  are  the  ques- 
tions in  which  the  race  is  interested.  It  sanctions  the  exploitation  of 
nature,  but  it  condemns  the  exploitation  of  man. 

The  whole  criticism  of  higher  education  from  the  ethnic  point  of 
view  may  be  summed  up  in  a  very  few  words.  It  is  loosely  organized 
from  the  standpoint  of  social  economy.  It  is  too  conservative  in  every- 
thing but  religion.  It  grinds  out  knowledge  with  almost  contemptuous 
indifference  to  its  social  timeliness  and  use.  More  time  is  given,  for 
instance,  to  the  study  of  entomology  than  to  the  study  of  anthropology, 
to  the  study  of  insects  than  to  the  study  of  men.  Domestic  science  and 
sociology  are  of  less  importance  than  Latin  and  Greek.  It,  turns  out 
men  and  women  with  highly  trained  powers,  but  often  without  the  spirit 
to  use  these  powers  in  conscious  service  of  the  race.  It  is  significant  that 
the  church  is  expected  to  provide  this  spirit  by  conversion.  In  evolu- 
tionary terminology,  the  variations  emphasized  and  produced  by  higher 
education  are  socially  advantageous  only  when   they  happen   to  be  so. 


Department]  FUNCTION  OF  THE  LAND-GRANT  COLLEGE  473 

There  is  too  much  waste.  In  a  word,  higher  education  acts  uncon- 
sciously as  an  ethnic  force.  It  is  still  under  the  sway  of  natural  evolution. 
It  illustrates  the  economy  of  nature  and  not  the  economy  of  mind. 


THE  FUNCTION  OF  THE  LAND-GRANT  COLLEGE  IN 
AMERICAN  ED UCA  TION 

PRESIDENT     WILLIAM     M.     BEARDSHEAR,    IOWA     STATE     COLLEGE     OF     AGRI- 
CULTURE   AND    MECHANIC    ARTS,    AMES,    IOWA 

In  locating  the  apex  of  our  American  system  of  education  two  dia- 
metrically opposite  views  arise.  One  is  that  the  university  is  the  apex  and 
the  common  schools  the  foundation  ;  the  other,  that  the  university  is  the 
foundation  and  the  common  schools  the  apex.  This,  like  many  discus- 
sions of  great  questions,  is  chiefly  a  matter  of  relative  emphasis.  I  am 
inclined  to  emphasize  the  university  as  the  foundation  and  the  common 
schools  as  the  apex,  but  this  paper  is  interested  in  the  relative  location  in 
this  educational  column  of  science  and  technology  with  culture  and 
agriculture.  It  seems  incredible  that  the  first  general  conference  ever 
called  to  discuss  the  whole  subject  of  technological  education  met  in 
Chicago  only  in  1893,  and  that  the  Association  of  American  Colleges  and 
Experiment  Stations  has  had  but  thirteen  conventions.  The  degrees  of 
incredibility  strengthen  when  one  learns  in  that  association  that  the 
mechanic  arts  have  had  to  struggle  for  proper  recognition  in  programs 
and  topics,  and  that  a  man  like  General  Francis  A.  Walker  should  find  it 
necessary  to  say  as  late  as  1893,  regarding  the  relation  of  technological 
schools  to  universities,  that 

Unless  the  general  spirit  of  the  university  be  high,  manly,  and  devoid  of  snobbishness ; 
that  if  technological  students  are  to  come  habitually  in  contact  with  young  men  who 
regard  labor  as  degrading,  who  look  upon  the  rough  clothes  and  the  stained  fingers  of  a 
laboratory  and  the  workshop  as  badges  of  inferiority  in  character  and  social  standing, 
that  then  a  technical  school  will  derive  harm,  and  only  harm,  from  such  an  association. 

This  impression  deepens  when  you  think  that  only  about  thirty-five  years 
have  elapsed  since  the  first  classes  for  physics  in  colleges,  twenty-five 
years  since  the  beginning  of  meteorological  laboratories ;  that  industrial 
chemical  laboratories  are  just  beginning ;  while  for  certain  chairs,  as  that 
of  dairy  bacteriology,  we  must  train  a  man  on  the  spot.  The  incredibility 
grows  when  you  observe  in  the  bibliography  of  technological  education 
embodied  in  the  history  of  education  in  the  United  States  that,  with  slight 
exception,  topics  bearing  upon  agricultural,  technological,  and  industrial 
education  range  within  years  so  recent  as  1883  onward  to  the  present. 

In  most  of  the  sixty-four  colleges  or  departments  inaugurated  by  the 
act  of  Congress  of  1862  mechanic  arts  and  agriculture  have  been  insepa- 
rable. Whether  the  national  appropriation  has  gone  to  a  department  of 
the  university,  as  in  some  states,  or  gone  to  the  establishment  of  state 


474  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Higher 

colleges,  as  in  many  states,  it  is  confined  exclusively  to  the  branches 
specified  in  the  original  act,  and  the  executive  authorities  of  the  govern- 
ment have  thus  ruled  so  frequently  that  the  matter  of  the  direction  in 
which  the  funds  shall  be  used  is  permanently  settled.  The  demagogic 
period  of  fishing  for  votes  with  the  names  of  these  colleges  as  fly  baits  is 
pretty  well  past,  and  the  national  government  has  recently  given  a  classi- 
fication of  these  institutions  granting  the  liberality  and  privilege  of  each 
state  calling  its  land-grant  institution  or  institutions  by  whatever  names 
local  influences  may  have  determined. 

The  scope  of  study  prescribed  by  national  law  for  the  land-grant  col- 
lege in  America  is 

without  excluding  other  scientific  and  classical  studies,  and  including  military  tactics,  to 
teach  such  branches  of  learning  as  are  related  to  agriculture  and  mechanic  arts  ....  in 
order  to  promote  the  liberal  and  practical  education  of  the  industrial  classes  in  the 
several  pursuits  and  professions  of  life. 

The  function,  therefore,  of  the  land-grant  college  is  primarily  to  afford  a 
liberal  and  practical  education  to  the  industrial  classes.  All  forms  of 
education  are  evolutional,  and  begin  chiefly  with  the  material  side  of  ques- 
tions. The  advantages  of  secondary  education  have  been  denied  many 
of  the  youths  of  the  industrial  classes,  and  a  connecting  link  must  still  be 
made  from  the  shop  and  the  farm  with  the  more  advanced  courses  in  the 
land-grant  college.  This  necessitates  for  the  present  short  courses  of 
study  for  a  twofold  purpose  —  one,  to  give  practical  training  to  those  who 
wish  to  return  immediately  to  some  industry;  the  other,  to  furnish  a^train- 
ing  preparatory  for  entrance  to  advanced  instruction.  A  prominent  form 
of  utility  in  industrial  education  in  the  land-grant  colleges  arises  from  the 
experiment  station,  which  is  designated  in  the  national  law  as  "  a  depart- 
ment of  the  college."  The  function  of  the  experiment  station  is  to  deter- 
mine scientifically  the  many  problems  that  will  enable  the  farmer  to  make 
ten  acres  of  land  do  what  one  hundred  acres  used  to  do,  to  make  20-cent 
butter  of  the  same  materials  as  former  12 -cent  butter.  It  develops  the 
possibilities  of  a  better  soil,  a  richer  plant,  a  fuller  harvest,  and  a  fatter 
pocketbook ;  teaches  the  breeding  of  better  animals  and  more  profitable 
markets.  It  harmonizes  the  points  of  the  plow  and  the  pen.  It 
enriches  scientific  agriculture  by  the  improvement  of  plant,  animal,  fruit, 
and  cereal  already  cultivated,  and  promotes  this  calling  by  the  introduc- 
tion of  new  varieties.  This  experimentation  is  augmented  by  other 
departments  of  the  college,  independent  of  the  experiment  station,  in  the 
testing  of  clays  and  minerals,  in  disclosing  the  relative  merits  of  building 
materials,  in  elaborating  all  forms  of  scientific  engineering.  The  limita- 
tions of  research  and  experimentation  in  the  mechanic  arts  are  as  far-reach- 
ing as  the  application  of  mechanical  principles  to  the  material,  industrial, 
and  aesthetic  evolution  and  civilization  of  the  earth.  But  out  of  this  material 
and  utilitarian  side  of  education  in  the  land-grant  colleges  are  developed 


Department  J  FUNCTION  OF  THE  LAND-GRANT  COLLEGE  4?S 

advanced  courses  of  instruction  in  agriculture,  technology,  and  science 
that  afford  a  culture  of  profoundest  accuracy  and  catholic  scholarship. 
Just  as  the  courses  of  the  so-called  liberal  curricula  went  thru  similar  evolu- 
tions, thru  years  and  centuries  of  experience  of  human  affairs,  so  now,  out 
of  the  natural  affairs  of  the  earth  and  the  universe,  are  being  established 
standards  of  education  kindred  and  co-ordinate.  The  development  of 
the  four-year  agricultural  course  is  illustrative  of  this.  At  first  the  long 
course  had  a  great  amount  of  so-called  liberal  studies,  much  after  the  form 
of  the  old  classical  or  scientific  course,  with  a  little  sprinkling  of  agricul- 
ture to  give  it  the  name  "agricultural."  This  order  is  now  completely 
reversed.  The  best  type  of  an  agricultural  course  composes  itself  with 
branches  fundamental  and  formative  to  an  agricultural  ■education,  but 
wisely  does  not  make  this  so  exclusive  as  to  shut  out  liberal  studies. 

Of  the  other  great  branch  of  technological  education  of  this  country 
General  Francis  A.  Walker  well  said  : 

In  the  schools  of  applied  science  and  technology,  as  they  are  carried  on  today  in  the 
United  States,  involving  the  most  thorough  and  scholarly  study  of  principles  directed 
immediately  upon  the  useful  arts,  and  rising  in  their  higher  grades  into  original  investi- 
gation and  research,  is  to  be  found  almost  the  perfection  of  education  for  young  men. 

In  engineering  the  method  of  education  is  largely  creative  and  construct- 
ive, and  technological  studies  have  undergone  such  an  expansion  in  the 
past  twenty- five  years  that  it  requires  most  strenuous  provision  to  intelli- 
gently meet  their  demands.  Experience  is  showing  that  the  matter  of 
utility  in  the  education  of  the  land-grant  college  is  rapidly  drifting  to  its 
legitimate  sphere  of  the  experiment  station,  and  utility  as  a  chief  end  in 
technological  education  is  falling  into  the  same  concept  with  the  theories 
of  manual-training  departments  of  colleges  and  industrial  institutions  in 
the  first  half  of  our  century.  In  each  long  college  course  of  the  land- 
grant  college  a  certain  amount  of  purely  technical  study  should  be 
required.  In  addition  to  this  a  range  of  elective  studies  can  be  given, 
from  which  the  student  should  be  required  to  fill  out  enough  hours  for  a 
complete  course.  The  theory  is  that  a  young  agriculturist  or  industrial- 
ist must  aspire  to  a  liberal  education  that  will  make  him  the  peer  of  any 
educated  or  professional  man  in  any  calling  of  life.  Justin  S.  Morrill, 
the  father  of  the  land-grant  colleges  in  America,  evidently  had  this  con- 
ception in  the  inauguration  of  the  system.  When  asked  a  few  years 
before  his  death  regarding  the  scope  of  the  land-grant  college,  he  said : 

The  act  of  1862  was  intended  to  give  those  whose  lives  were  to  be  devoted  to  agri- 
culture or  the  mechanic  arts  or  other  industries,  embracing  much  the  largest  part  of  our 
population,  some  chance  to  obtain  a  liberal  and  practical  education.  I  inclose  a  quota- 
tion from  the  first  act  of  the  law  upon  the  subject,  which,  you  will  see,  did  not  proceed 
from  any  exclusive  idea,  but  indicated  the  leading  purpose  without  excluding  other 
classical  and  scientific  education.     You  will  see  that  it  is  very  broad  and  liberal. 

This  higher  stage  of  Mr.  Morrill's  conception  of  the  land-grant  college 
is  gradually,  yet  surely,  arriving.     As  in  agriculture  the  first  tendency  is 


476  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Higher 

to  misinterpret  what  is  practical,  so  in  the  engineering  and  technological 
studies  the  idea  of  getting  into  a  trade  quickly,  or  at  work  immediately,  is 
big  with  the  beginner ;  but  as  he  advances  in  his  work  he  sees  the  neces- 
sity of  greater  maturity;  that  it  is  not  he  who  first  enters  his  profession 
that  succeeds  best;  but  that  he  who  enters  best  prepared,  everything 
being  equal,  comes  out  first  in  the  end. 

There  are  two  great  purposes  back  of  the  questions  just  considered 
that  permeate  not  only  technological  and  industrial  instruction,  but  all 
education.  The  first  purpose  is  :  How  can  I  hold  my  own  in  my  trade 
and  calling  in  order  to  earn  my  own  bread  ?  and  the  second  purpose  is : 
How  much  of  leisure,  culture,  and  worth  can  be  secured  beyond  the  ques- 
tion of  a  mere  existence  ?  Excepting  a  few  wealthy  people,  I  presume  all 
who  thoughtfully  seek  a  higher  education  first  face  the  problem  of  bread 
and  a  substantial  living.  The  soundest  professional  man  must  be 
more  than  a  lawyer,  a  clergyman,  a  physician,  or  a  pedagog.  This  rule 
holds  good  in  a  chief  measure  with  the  mechanic,  agriculturist,  and 
industrialist.  While  the  foresight  of  Justin  Morrill  showed  wholesome 
philanthropy  in  providing  a  liberal  education  for  the  children  of  the 
industrial  classes,  yet  all  who  seek  a  completer  life  thru  education  are 
moved  in  large  measure  by  the  same  spirits,  not  excepting  the  literary 
colleges.  So  that,  when  one  speaks  of  the  trade  side  of  technological 
education,  it  is  not  such  a  radical  exception  to  all  forms  of  education  as 
it  would  at  first  appear.  John  Scott  Russell,  of  England,  very  frankly 
says  : 

What  I  call  technical  education  is  that  kind  of  training  which  will  make  the  new 
generation  of  Englishmen  excel  the  new  generation  of  foreigners  in  this  coming  rivalry 
of  race  and  nation.  The  English  live  ih  the  midst  of  an  energetic  rivalry  of  competing 
nations.  The  aim  of  our  national  life  should  be  to  do  the  work  of  the  world  better,  more 
ably,  more  honestly,  more  skillfully,  and  less  wastefully  than  the  skilled  men  of  other 
countries.  If  we  are  less  skilled  or  less  honest  than  others,  we  are  beaten  in  the  race  of 
life. 

Just  think,  gentlemen,  of  that  term  "wastefully"  in  American  indus- 
tries. Parts  of  New" England  and  old  Virginia,  the  mother  of  presidents, 
have  farmed  their  lands  to  death  instead  of  to  life  and  prosperity.  They 
worked  wastefully  —  forests  of  even  black  walnut,  ash,  oak,  and  pine  have 
been  burned  in  vast  heaps,  regardless  of  the  future,  to  get  a  few  dollars 
for  today.  They  wrought  with  a  waste  bordering  on  sinfulness.  What 
millions  of  dollars  in  money  and  good  time  have  been  thrown  away  on 
razor-back  swine,  slab-sided  cattle,  four-pound-fleeced  sheep,  and  on 
spavin-boned  and  rat-tailed  horses!  In  the  management  of  crops  and 
the  rearing  of  animals  man  in  America  has  been  driven  from  pillar  to 
post  by  the  necessities  of  nature,  rather  than  by  the  glad  joys  of  intelli- 
gence and  skill.  Upon  the  dumps  of  the  mines  in  our  western  states 
and  Lenitories  men  are  now  making  fortunes  out  of  the  refuse  of  other 
years.     Like  a  prodigal,  left  a  millionaire  one  year  and  becoming  a  tramp 


Department]  FUNCTION  OF  THE  LAND-GRANT  COLLEGE  Al'] 

the  next,  many  of  us  as  American  people  have  developed  the  industries 
of  this  country. 

Then  take  the  vast  fields  covered  by  that  term  "to  do  the  work  more 
skillfully"  —  the  waste  of  body,  the  fret  of  mind,  and  the  loss  of  billions 
would  feebly  serve  to  measure  the  consequences.  Then  that  other  term, 
"to  do  the  work  more  ably,"  is  full  of  a  hint  of  remedies;  and,  supreme 
above  all,  to  do  the  work  "more  honestly."  Sir  John  Russell  makes  his 
deductions  much  more  concrete  in  a  thrilling  candor  and  patriotism  when 
he  emphasizes  the  acme  of  industrial  education  for  his  countrymen  to  be 

That  which  shall  render  an  English  artilleryman  a  better  artilleryman  than  a  French- 
man ;  an  English  soldier  a  better  soldier  than  a  Prussian ;  an  English  locomotive 
builder  better  than  a  German ;  an  English  ship-builder  better  than  an  American ;  an 
English  silk  manufacturer  better  than  a  Lyons  silk  manufacturer ;  and  an  English  ribbon- 
maker  superior  to  a  Swiss  ribbon-maker. 

Herein  is  an  emphasis  as  strong  as  the  body  of  a  sound  Englishman. 
This  is  that  first  question  for  a  nation,  the  same  as  for  an  individual.  I 
do  not  like  Carlyle's  statement,  and  yet  it  is  full  of  truth,  that  the  prime 
question  between  two  individuals  at  meeting  is  "whether  I  can  first  kill 
you,  or  you  can  first  kill  me."  In  the  industrial  competition  of  nations 
this  is  still  a  prime  question  pointedly  put  by  this  Englishman  just  quoted. 
As  a  nation  we  are  feeling  it  in  the  crippling  of  our  merchant  marine ;  as 
a  nation  we  are  rejoicing  over  it  in  our  navy,  and  in  our  army  in  the  realiza- 
tion of  Walt  Whitman's  idea  of  a  complete  man  being  able  to  hit  the 
bull's  eye.  But  it  seems  to  me  that  question  has  a  broader  application  in 
Mr.  Russell's  phrase,  to  do  the  work  more  honestly,  in  training  our  youths 
to  the  utmost  skill,  according  to  their  several  capacities,  with  a  view,  not 
so  much  of  making  them  stronger,  better,  and  richer  than  a  fellow,  as  to 
reach  the  supreme  joy  of  the  greatest  development  of  their  own  hands 
and  character,  that  in  turn  they  may  make  richer,  abler,  nobler,  and  grander 
the  hands  and  hearts  of  their  fellow-men. 

Now  for  the  second  purpose,  which  has  to  do  with  the  higher  life  of 
man.  In  the  discussions  of  the  educational  values  of  the  various  branches, 
two  words  have  become  prominent :  disinterestedness  and  culture.  It  is 
claimed  that  a  student,  in  pursuing  a  course  of  study  like  the  classical, 
philosophical,  or  general  scientific,  is  free  from  the  bias  of  future  intent, 
and  will  therefore  come  to  a  more  thoro  acquaintance  with  the  subjects 
in  hand.  Much  of  this  requirement  seems  to  be  far-fetched.  The  mind 
grasps  truth  most  uniformly  in  an  effort  to  attach  it  to  some  other  truth. 
In  one  sense  there  is  no  such  thing  as  a  disinterested  study.  All  study 
should  be  with  a  view  to  securing  the  truth  about  some  one  thing.  The 
mere  search  and  love  of  learning  in  the  abstract  is  more  speculative  than 
real.  Even  admitting  a  personal  bias  in  the  pursuit  of  truth,  in  order  to 
apply  it  to  a  specific  end,  yet  whenever  an  individual  attaches  truth  to 
one  point  in  his  experience  he  is  in  admirable  condition   to  discover  its 


478  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Higher 

bearings  in  entirety.  If  we  judge  disinterestedness  as  we  do  an  animal, 
on  the  basis  of  one  hundred  points  as  perfection,  eighty  of  these  points 
would  go  to  integrity  and  the  other  twenty  to  minor  virtues. 

Channing  talks  about  the  "happiness  of  disinterested  sacrifices;" 
but  they  must  be  different  from  those  of  God  Almighty  that  made  the 
heavens  weep  .and  the  skies  dark  in  his  sympathetic  interest  with  the 
matchless  sacrifice  of  his  Son.  Somehow  nature  not  only  loves  the  num- 
ber five,  but  the  threes  and  trinities.  We  learn  that  even  the  north  star, 
the  unfailing  friend  of  our  fathers  amid  the  danger  of  the  wild  wood  and 
plain,  is  not  one,  but  three  stars  interlined  to  a  pleasing  magnanimity. 
In  education  I  have  been  waiting  to  hear  that  in  addition  to  the  inven- 
tion of  the  literae  divinae  or  divinities,  literae  humaniores  or  the  humani- 
ties, we  would  have  the  literae  naturae  or  nativities.  The  humanities  of 
the  old  liberal  education  have  grown  to  mostly  inclose  the  divinities. 
These  divinities  and  humanities  have  made  up  the  whole  solar  system  of 
education  which  we  never  want  to  be  less,  but  disturbances  have  indicated 
that  Neptune  still  remained  undiscovered.  These  nativities  are  the  Nep- 
tunes,  and  the  term  "disturbances,"  as  employed  with  the  ignorance  of 
man,  becomes,  in  the  knowledge  of  man,  the  phenomena  of  an  orderly  uni- 
verse ;  or  better,  the  divinities,  the  humanities,  and  the  nativities  are  inter- 
lined stars  so  situated  to  the  eye  and  the  understanding  of  man  that  they 
pass  their  light  by  each  other  in  a  combined  stream  of  the  eternal  pole 
star  of  truth.  Each  may  be  the  sun  and  the  center  of  a  great  solar  sys- 
tem, but  all  converge  for  the  culture  of  a  complete  race  of  man.  So  tha^t 
a  chief  function  of  the  land-grant  College  in  American  education  is  a 
marshaling  of  the  nativities  in  equal  rank  with  the  humanities  and 
divinities  in  human  culture. 

Regarding  the  educational  values  of  the  trinities,  the  humanities  bring 
to  man  the  art,  the  skill,  intellectuality,  and  beauty  of  Grecian  culture ;  a 
knowledge  of  law  and  government  from  the  Roman ;  and  the  revelation 
of  God  thru  human  inventions.  The  nativities  bring  to  the  student  at 
first  hand  the  surpassing  art  and  learning  of  matter,  the  plant,  and  the 
animal.  They  disclose  the  principles  of  matter,  the  exquisite  laws  of  the 
plant  and  animal  organism  in  technological  and  agricultural  education. 
A  student  takes  the  teleology  of  nature  and  adapts  great  systems  of 
science,  art,  and  philosophy  to  these.  The  discipline  of  exact  measure- 
ment by  the  vernier,  the  application  of  the  screw  in  measurements,  with 
its  various  modifications,  like  the  micrometer  screw  and  its  associations, 
with  that  of  the  revolving  mirror  and  other  recent  inventions,  made  dis- 
tinct epochs  in  the  progress  of  thought,  and  brought  the  units  of  light, 
heat,  electricity,  and  the  subtle  forces  of  nature  within  the  exactitudes  of 
mathematical  science,  and  to  the  wonderment  of  primal  philosophy. 
Minutiae  are  generally  monotonous,  but  the  minutiae  in  the  magnitudes 
of   the   natural  and    physical  sciences  and   technological  studies  bear  a 


Department]  FUNCTION  OF  THE  LAND-GRANT  COLLEGE  479 

constantly  thrilling  degree  of  interest.  The  possibility  of  a  man  to  discern 
and  measure  with  precision  the  one-millionth  of  a  second  of  time  brings 
him  upon  the  borderland  of  the  finite  and  the  infinite  in  thought. 

An  engineer  or  a  student  of  the  sciences  underlying  all  industrial 
training  must  employ  deduction  and  induction  with  a  critical  judgment 
of  truest  accuracy.  He  must  be,  not  only  a  skillful  practitioner,  but  an 
originator.  In  fact,  this  brings  an  educational  value  second  to  that  of  no 
form  of  mental  ingenuity  and  exercise.  Take  in  addition  to  this  the  pur- 
poses that  use  the  laws  of  heredity,  variety,  and  selection  in  plants  and 
animals  to  secure  perfection.  Observe  the  design  had  in  mind  in  the 
navigation  of  streams  and  oceans,  the  construction  of  bridges,  and  the 
invention  of  the  numberless  instruments  that  make  for  industry  and  civ- 
ilization. These  all  make  for  the  overcoming  of  the  hindrances  of  the 
material  world,  for  the  permanent  good  of  humanity,  the  rapid  evolution 
of  man,  and  the  perfection  of  the  globe. 


DEPARTMENT  OF  NORMAL  SCHOOLS 


SECRETARY'S   MINUTES 


F£RST  SESSION.  — Wednesday,  July  ii,  1900 

The  Department  of  Normal  Schools  met  in  the  Sunday-school  room  of  the  Second 
Presbyterian  Church,  Charleston,  S.  C,  at  3  :  30  p.  M.,  with  President  James  E.  Russell, 
of  New  York  city,  in  the  chair. 

The  president  of  the  department  made  a  short  introductory  address. 

President  Charles  D.  Mclverof  the  State  Normal  and  Industrial  College,  Greensboro, 
N.  C,  made  the  first  address  of  the  afternoon,  upon  the  subject,  "  Training  of  Teachers 
for  White  Schools." 

President  H.  B.  Frissell  of  the  Hampton  Normal  and  Agricultural  Institute,  Hamp- 
ton, Va.,  presented  a  paper  upon  the  subject,  "Training  of  Teachers  for  Negro  Schools." 

Discussion  was  opened  by  Hon.  G.  R.  Glenn,  state  commissioner  of  education, 
Atlanta,  Ga.  He  was  followed  by  Principal  G.  N.  Grisham  of  the  Lincoln  High  School, 
Kansas  City,  Mo.;  President  R.  R.  Wright  of  the  State  Industrial  College,  Savannah, 
Ga.;  and  President  Charles  D.  Mclver  of  the  State  Normal  and  Industrial  College, 
Greensboro,  N.  C.     President  James  E.  Russell  closed  the  discussion. 

Upon  motion,  the  president  appointed  the  following 

COMMITTEE  ON  NOMINATIONS 

John  R.  Kirk,  Kirksville,  Mo.  Charles  D.  Mclver,  Greensboro,  N.  C. 

J.  F.  Millspaugh,  Winona,  Minn. 

SECOND  SESSION.  — Friday,  July  13 

President  James  E.  Russell  called  the  meeting  to  order  at  3  :  30  P.  M. 
The  Committee  on  Nominations  submitted  the  following  report,  which  was  adopted, 
and  the  nominees  unanimously  elected  : 

For  President  —  Charles  D.  Mclver,  of  North  Carolina. 
For  Vice-President  —  Z.  X.  Snyder,  of  Colorado. 
For  Secretary  —  N.  A.  Harvey,  of  Illinois. 

The  president  explained  that  Professor  G.  W.  A.  Luckey,  University  of  Nebraska, 
Lincoln,  Neb.;  President  Livingston  C.  Lord,  Eastern  Illinois  State  Normal  School, 
Charleston,  111.;  and  Superintendent  Charles  B.  Gilbert,  City  Schools,  Newark,  N.  J.,  who 
were  on  the  program,  were  necessarily  absent. 

Upon  motion  of  A.  S.  Downing,  of  New  York,  the  subject  of  the  meeting,  "  The 
Training  of  Teachers  for  Secondary  Schools,"  was  recommended  to  the  president  of  the 
department  for  next  year  for  a  place  on  the  program.  The  secretary  was  requested  to 
report  this  action  to  the  newly  elected  president,  Charles  D.  Mclver. 

Adjourned. 

Charles  Bartlett  Dyke, 

Secretary. 

480 


Department]         TRAINING  OF  TEACHERS  FOR  WHITE  SCHOOLS  481 


PAPERS  AND  DISCUSSIONS 


.  TRAINING  OF  TEACHERS  FOR  WHITE  SCHOOLS 

PRESIDENT  CHARLES    D.    McIVER    OF    THE    STATE    NORMAL   AND    INDUSTRIAL 

college  of  north  carolina,  greensboro,  n.  c. 

[stenographic  report] 

We  in  the  South  are  yet  hardly  prepared  to  discuss  the  question  of 
normal  training  from  an  ideal  standpoint.  When  a  man  lacks  a  coat  and 
wears  ragged  clothes,  it  is  nearly  useless  to  consider  with  great  care  the 
style  of  shoe  that  will  best  suit  him.  The  truth  is  that  we  lack  schools, 
and  while  the  teacher  in  some  sections  can  study  his  profession  as  a  lawyer 
does  his,  he  cannot  do  so  here  in  the  South  ;  not  only  must  he  be  pre- 
pared himself  for  all  demands  arising  inside  the  schoolroom,  but  he  must 
be  an  educational  evangelist  among  his  people  outside.  There  are  cer- 
tain peculiar  conditions  to  be  met  with  here;  of  these  conditions  there 
are  four  to  which  I  wish  to  call  special  attention  :  (i)  three-fourths  of  the 
population  live  in  the  country;  (2)  30  per  cent,  are  unable  to  read  and 
write ;  (3)  the  country  is  sparsely  settled,  and  yet  the  presence  of  two 
races  makes  it  necessary  to  carry  on  two  sets  of  schools ;  (4)  four  decades 
of  widespread  poverty  are  behind  us.  So  extreme  has  this  poverty  been 
that  no  ordinary  tax  on  property  could  raise  enough  revenue  to  support 
properly  one  set  of  schools,  and  yet  we  are  called  upon  to  provide  two. 
This  is  the  chief  factor  in  our  condition — we  are  working  with  universal 
poverty  as  a  handicap.  In  the  North,  it  is  said,  the  foreign  element  is  the 
most  disturbing  element;  but  we  have  that  very  question  in  addition  to 
our  other  troubles.  Slavery,  followed  by  citizenship,  made  the  negroes, 
in  effect,* a  foreign  population.  For  the  troubles  arising  from  this  condi- 
tion of  slavery  the  negro  is  not  responsible ;  no  more  is  he  responsible 
for  any  troubles  flowing  from  the  gift  of  citizenship.  These  must  not  be 
laid  to  his  charge,  and  he  must  be  dealt  with  according  to  his  rights. 
Other  sections  complain  of  trouble  between  labor  and  capital  ;  we  have 
not  suffered  in  that  respect,  because  there  was  no  capital  here.  With 
capital,  if  mankind  remains  as  it  is,  we  may  expect  these  labor  troubles. 
So  surely  are  they  to  come  that  I  regard  them  as  genuine  signs  of  con- 
quest over  our  present  great  enemy — poverty.  I  am  glad  they  are  com- 
ing, not  because  I  like  strikes  and  lockouts,  or  that  selfishness  on  the  part 
of  capital  which  sometimes  is  responsible  for  strikes,  but  because  this 
problem  seems  to  be  common  to  all  communities  where  wealth  exists. 
We  have  not  lacked  the  spirit  of  education,  but  we  have  lacked  the  means 
of  carrying  into  effect  plans  which  we  were  willing  to  adopt.     Howevci 


4^2  National  educational  association  [Normal 

poor  we  have  been  and  are,  we  can  escape  our  present  ills  only  by  sacri- 
fices. Individuals  may  not  believe  it  best,  but  the  public  has  a  right  to 
demand  that  the  coming  generation  shall  be  educated.  No  people  has 
ever  become  impoverished  on  account  of  local  taxes  expended  by  the 
people  for  local  purposes.  At  present  the  day  schools  in  the  South  have 
very  few  more  days  of  session  than  the  Sunday  schools.  What,  then, 
should  a  normal  school  do?  Under  such  circumstances  a  normal  school 
will  fail  to  do  its  duty  if  the  teachers  trained  there  are  not  taught  the  needs 
of  their  people,  do  not  make  these  needs  plain  to  the  citizen,  and  indoc- 
trinate their  communities  with  higher  ideals.  Our  people  must  learn  that 
the  only  escape  from  our  present  condition  is  to  be  effected  by  self-reliance, 
and  by  wisely  using  our  own  resources.  If  half  the  territory  of  my  own 
state  could  be  thrown  away,  and  all  the  present  population  forced  into 
the  remaining  section,  it  would  be  materially  better  off.  We  are  land- 
poor.  There  is  need  of  better  supervision  of  schools.  The  arrangement 
now  generally  in  operation  is  to  have  one  poorly  paid  supervisor  in  each 
county.  The  sad  truth  is  that  the  salary  paid  is  so  small  that  the  office 
cannot  secure  a  competent  man  for  his  full  time.  It  would  be  better  to 
unite  several  counties  and  employ  fewer  men,  and  such  men  as  would 
carry  with  them  force  and  spirit  wherever  they  go.  Any  improvement  in 
our  system  must  include  improvement  in  all  parts  of  the  system.  Secure 
these  improvements,  provide  the  means,  and  then  the  normal  school  will 
do  its  proper  work.  In  the  meantime  it  must  aid  in  preparing  the  way 
for  its  work. 

THE  TRAINING  OF  NEGRO  TEACHERS 

PRESIDENT    H.  B.  FRISSELL  OF   THE    HAMPTON    NORMAL  AND  AGRICULTURAL 
INSTITUTE,  HAMPTON,  VA. 

The  question  might  naturally  be  asked :  Why  should  negro  teachers 
be  trained  differently  in  any  respect  from  white  teachers  ?  There  have 
been  those  who  have  agreed  that  there  ought  to  be  no  difference ;  that 
because  the  negro  has  a  mind  and  a  soul  as  a  white  man  has  is  sufficient 
reason  for  giving  him  exactly  the  same  training  as  would  be  given  any 
other  teacher.  This  was  the  thought  of  many  of  the  northern  educators 
who  first  came  into  the  South  to  teach  the  blacks.  The  college-bred 
man  with  his  classical  education  was  too  apt  to  be  their  ideal. 

Fortunately,  better  methods  of  training,  both  for  whites  and  blacks, 
have  been  developed  within  the  past  thirty  years,  and  much  more  regard 
is  had  than  formerly  to  a  man's  environment  and  heredity.  Men  have 
come  to  realize  that,  while  God  has  made  of  one  blood  all  the  nations  of 
the  earth,  he  has  also  made  differences  among  men  as  he  has  among 
plants  and  animals.  A  horticulturist  would  be  considered  insane  who 
should  give  the  same  treatment  to  a  tropical  plant  and  one  that  had  had 


Department]  TRAINING  OF  NEGRO  TEACHERS  483 

its  birth  on  the  rocky  shores  of  New  England,  even  tho  both  belonged  to 
the  same  genus.  As  we  come  to  study  different  races,  we  realize  that 
each  has  its  own  peculiarities.  The  German  is  said  to  be  phlegmatic,  the 
Frenchman  volatile,  the  Englishman  persistent,  and  the  Chinaman  non- 
progressive. If  we  expect  that  a  "cut-and-dried  "  course  of  treatment 
applied  to  these  differing  personalities  will  develop  the  same  sort  of 
character,  and  produce  the  best  possible  results,  we  shall  be  disappointed. 
While  we  realize  that  there  are  certain  qualities  that  are  common  to  all 
members  of  the  human  race,  yet  it  is  absurd  to  try  to  make  an  Anglo- 
Saxon  out  of  a  Latin.  The  black  and  white  and  yellow  races  have  cer- 
tain characteristics  which  we  are  bound  to  respect,  if  we  would  do  our 
best  work  with  them. 

We  have  heard  men  say  that  "the  only  good  Indian  is  a  dead  Indian," 
and,  working  on  this  principle,  they  have  endeavored  to  eliminate  all 
Indian  traits  in  their  education  of  the  red  man.  Some  of  our  colleges 
were  started  with  the  thought  of  making  white  men  of  the  Indians. 
They  have  never  succeeded.  Many  years  ago  a  long-headed  Indian  chief 
refused  the  offer  of  the  commissioner  of  education  in  Virginia  to  give  his 
son  a  collegiate  education  on  the  ground  that  it  would  not  fit  him  to 
endure  hunger,  to  kill  a  deer,  or  to  build  a  tepee-;  and  the  Indian  was 
right.  The  white  man's  collegiate  education  was  utterly  unfitted  for  the 
red  man's  son. 

What,  then,  are  the  characteristics  of  the  negro  that  require  us  to 
adapt  our  training  to  his  needs  ?  Shut  off  from  lines  of  commerce  in 
the  dark  continent  the  Africans  did  not  develop  along  the  same  lines 
as  did  their  European  brothers.  Subjected  to  the  enervating  influences 
of  a  tropical  climate,  there  was  but  little  growth  of  will-power  or  of  the 
work  habit.  Brought  to  this  country  as  slaves  and  kept  in  slavery  for 
two  hundred  and  fifty  years,  tho  they  were  instructed  in  many  of  the 
industries  of  the  whites  and  gained  much  from  the  contact  with  them, 
they  yet  had  but  little  opportunity  to  learn  the  meaning  of  responsibility, 
of  home  life,  or  of  the  duties  that  belong  to  citizenship.  They  have  not 
yet  come  to  a  point  where  they  can  compete  with  the  white  race  in  com- 
merce or  political  life.  Eighty  per  cent,  of  them  live  in  the  country  and 
ought  for  many  years  to  remain  there.  Removal  to  the  city  means  for 
them  increase  of  crime  and  disease,  for  they  are  shut  out  from  most  of 
the  occupations  that  are  open  to  other  races  and  are  forced  to  live 
crowded  together  in  the  worst  parts  of  the  city  where  rents  are  cheapest. 

While  opportunity  should  be  given  to  those  of  exceptional  ability  to 
engage  in  other  pursuits,  the  training  of  the  masses  of  the  blacks  should 
be  such  as  to  fit  them  for  the  care  of  the  soil.  The  great  majority  of  the 
race  in  the  South  live  in  a  condition  of  serfdom.  They  live  on  rented 
land,  under  the  lien  system  of  crops ;  their  labor  is  unintelligent,  and, 
therefore,  to  a  large  degree  unproductive.     So  long  as  they  remain  in 


484  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Normal 

this  condition  it  is  impossible  for  the  South,  which  is  almost  entirely 
dependent  upon  their  labor,  to  make  the  progress  that  it  ought.  While 
the  public-school  system,  to  which  the  southern  states  have  devoted  over 
one  hundred  million  dollars,  has  been  by  no  means  a  failure,  and  no 
man  can  tell  what  would  have  been  the  result  had  millions  of  slaves  been 
given  their  freedom  without  it,  it  has  nevertheless  failed  to  introduce  into 
its  curriculum  anything  which  bears  directly  upon  the  improvement  of 
the  home  and  the  soil.  While  the  countries  of  Europe  have  been  train- 
ing their  peasantry  in  agriculture  and  home  industries,  so  that  countries 
like  Norway  and  Sweden  have  been  transformed  within  the  last  thirty 
years,  the  rural  schools  of  the  South,  as  indeed  of  our  whole  country, 
have  been  entirely  given  up  to  the  literary  side  of  education.  The  results 
have  been  disastrous.  Both  boys  and  girls  have  left  school  feeling  that 
it  was  degrading  to  work  with  their  hands,  and  yet  they  were  unable  to 
find  work  of  a  different  sort.  The  word  "education"  has  become  associated 
in  their  minds  with  an  entirely  different  life  from  that  which  they  have 
been  living.  Any  training  which  makes  a  man  or  woman  dissatisfied  with 
the  occupations  which  are  open  to  them  is  of  doubtful  good.  Many 
southern  men,  seeing  these  results,  have  concluded  that  all  education  of 
the  blacks  is  a  failure.'  The  mistake  was  not  in  giving  them  education,  but 
in  giving  them  the  wrong  sort  of  education.  Where  teachers  have  been 
sent  out  from  agricultural  and  industrial  schools,  not  only  has  the  migra- 
tion to  the  cities  been  .stopped,  but  crime  has  decreased  and  citizenship 
has  improved.  There  came  to  the  island  of  St.  Helena,  not  many  miles 
from  this  city,  two  refined,  educated  women,  who  interested  themselves  in 
the  uplift  of  the  blacks.  They  found  the  people  superstitious  to  the  last 
degree,  and  still  practicing  many  of  their  African  rites.  They  could  not 
count  their  fingers,  did  not  know  how  to  open  a  book,  had  never  been 
away  from  the  island,  and  knew  of  no  city  but  Charleston.  The  huts  of 
two  rooms  had  the  earth  for  a  floor.  In  them  lived  as  many  of  these 
degraded  beings  as  could  be  crowded  together,  and  morality  was,  of 
course,  well-nigh  unknown.  A  normal  and  industrial  school  was  started 
on  the  island,  and  young  colored  men  and  women  went  out  from  it  into 
the  public  schools  which  were  started  there.  These  teachers  had  been 
trained  to  give  instruction  in  agriculture,  sewing,  and  the  care  of  the 
home,  as  well  as  in  books.  They  interested  the  people  in  buying  land 
and  securing  homes.  Thirty  years  passed  by.  A  gentleman  who  had 
known  these  negroes  before  this  school  was  established,  in  revisiting  the 
island,  said  the  people  did  not  seem  to  belong  to  the  same  race.  "  Con- 
tented and  prosperous,  the  negro  farmers,  well-clothed,  well-fed,  lived  in 
neat,  white  cottages  in  the  middle  of  their  own  well-tilled  fields,  where 
corn,  potatoes,  and  cotton  flourished."  The  merchants  on  the  island 
found  the  average  bad  debt  small,  and  two  constables  sufificed  for  six 
thousand   negroes.     In  the  year    1893   dreadful  floods  took  from  these 


department]  TRAINING  OP  NEGRO  TEACHERS  485 

people  nearly  everything  that  they  possessed,  but  in  spite  of  this  terrible 
calamity,  followed  by  years  of  drought  and  low-priced  cotton,  the  island 
presents  today  a  colony  of  patient,  hard-working  people  that  are  a  motiu- 
ment  to  what  teachers  properly  trained  for  their  work  can  accomplish. 
Tho  there  are  between  six  and  seven  thousand  blacks  and  only  thirty 
whites,  crime  is  unknown,  and  the  fear  of  it  never  enters  the  minds  of  the 
northern  and  southern  whites,  who  live  together  in  the  greatest  harmony. 
The  story  of  the  colored  people  of  the  island  of  St.  Helena  is  not  an  iso- 
lated one.  There  are  many  schools  in  the  South  that  can  show  like 
results  of  the  practical  training  of  teachers  of  the  colored  race. 

There  are  certain  matters  that  must  be  given  special  emphasis  in  the 
training  of  such  teachers. 

I.  So  far  as  possible,  race-prejudice  is  to  be  conquered.  We  some- 
times speak  as  tho  race-prejudice  exists  only  among  the  white  people  of 
the  United  States,  but  it  is  quite  as  strong  in  other  races.  The  colored 
people  distrust  the  white  man's  religion  as  well  as  his  politics.  A  promi- 
nent Hebrew  speaking  to  the  students  of  a  colored  school  in  the  South  — 
a  member  of  a  despised  race  to  members  of  another  despised  race  —  said 
that  the  two  things  that  they  must  struggle  against  as  oppressed  people 
were  race-prejudice  and  suspicion.  An  Indian  boy,  on  being  asked  what 
he  thought  of  white  men  before  coming  to  an  eastern  school,  said 
he  thought  they  were  devils.  In  her  essay,  delivered  on  graduating 
from  one  of  our  colored  schools,  a  speaker  declared  that  she  had  not 
wished  to  attend  that  school  because  it  was  controlled  by  white  people. 
The  mother  of  another  student,  when  told  of  certain  religious  truths 
taught  by  one  of  her  son's  teachers,  asked  whether  the  teacher  was  white 
or  black,  and,  when  told  that  she  was  white,  said  she  did  not  care  to  hear 
about  what  she  said,  for  if  she  was  white  she  could  not  possibly  have  any 
religion.  To  overcome  this  race-prejudice  in  the  minds  of  the  teachers 
of  negro  youth  means  much  in  a  land  where  whites  and  blacks  must  live 
side  by  side.  "  I  never  knew  the  other  side  before,"  said  a  colored  youth 
graduating  from  a  school  where  he  had  received  instruction  from  both 
northern  and  southern  white  teachers. 

That  this  race-prejudice  has  been  conquered  in  may  cases  is  proven  by 
numerous  examples.  When  colored  teachers  h&ve  gone  into  southern  com- 
munities and  have  sought  the  co-operation  of  southern  whites,  they  have 
almost  invariably  secured  it.  In  one  place,  where  a  teacher  was  anxious 
to  help  his  people  to  buy  land,  a  southern  man  not  only  sold  him  land  at 
reasonable  rates,  bijt  worked  with  him  most  patiently  to  get  the  negroes 
settled,  and  helped  them  to  buy  more  land,  giving  up  nearly  his  whole 
time  to  training  them  in  habits  of  thrift  and  industry.  A  prominent 
southern  banker  has  acted  as  treasurer  of  a  negro  school  and  issues 
appeals  for  its  assistance  from  his  counting-house.  A  prominent  south- 
ern lawyer  is  treasurer  of  another  negro  school,  and  helps  the  colored 


486  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [tformal 

man  at  the  head  of  the  institution,  who  has  received  industrial  training, 
to  get  contracts  for  work.  In  each  of  these  cases  the  teachers  had  been 
trained  to  expect  the  best  things  from  the  white  people,  and  race-preju- 
dice died  a  natural  death.  It  is  in  the  normal  schools  that  the  germs  of 
race-prejudice  should  be  destroyed. 

A  very  important  need  of  the  colored  race  is  the  creation  of  the  work 
habit.  Slavery  forced  the  black  man  to  labor,  and  the  revolt  agairlst  it 
that  accompanied  emancipation  was  to  be  expected.  An  enthusiasm  for 
manual  labor  is  of  vital  importance  in  the  education  of  teachers  of  the 
colored  race.  Manual  and  industrial  training,  therefore,  should  have  an 
important  place  in  the  curriculum  of  a  normal  course  for  colored  teachers. 
There  appeared  in  a  recent  number  of  the  Review  of  Reviews  an  article 
entitled  "  Learning  by  Doing,"  in  which  the  work  of  a  certain  school  was 
illustrated.  In  that  institution  the  whole  emphasis  is  placed  upon  doing. 
The  students  are  made  to  feel  that  the  workshop,  the  farm,  and  the 
kitchen  are  as  important  as  the  class-room.  Instead  of  making  the  indus- 
tries stepping-stones  to  the  school's  academic  department,  they  are  placed 
at  the  top,  and  before  a  boy  or  girl  is  allowed  to  begin  a  trade,  a  certain 
amount  of  academic  training  is  required.  It  is  especially  necessary  that 
the  relation  between  "  education  and  vocation  "  be  established  in  the  case 
of  the  negro.     General  Armstrong  once  said  : 

The  negro  is  more  successful  in  getting  knowledge  than  in  using  it.  To  him,  as  to 
all,  knowledge  comes  easily,  but  wisdom  slowly.  He  has  more  genius  than  gumption. 
Knowledge  is  power  only  as  it  is  digested,  assimilated.     His  mental  digestion  is  weak. 

Another  need  of  the  colored  race  frhich  its  teachers  ought  to  help  to 
meet  is  a  sense  of  responsibility.  Because  the  race  has  been  so  largely 
dependent  upon  others,  it  has  failed  to  develop  this  characteristic.  They 
came  out  of  slavery  a  race  of  children.  Instead  of  being  surprised  at  their 
mistakes,  we  should  wonder  that  they  did  so  well  when  thrown  suddenly 
upon  their  own  resources.  On  account  of  this  lack  of  a  feeling  of  per- 
sonal responsibility  there  is  an  imperative  need  for  the  right  sort  of  lead- 
ers among  them,  and  their  teachers  ought  to  be  their  leaders.  In  order 
to  develop  this  capacity  for  leadership  they  must  gain  the  power  of  self- 
government  and  learn  how  to  control  others  during  their  school  life. 
The  more  a  normal  school  can  be  made  co-operative,  therefore,  the  bet- 
ter. The  more  the  student  can  be  made  to  feel  a  sense  of  responsibility 
for  the  good  conduct  of  the  institution,  the  better  ;  and  the  more  he  is 
made  to  work  for  his  own  support  and  to  help  others,  the  better.  Self- 
government  and  self-support  ought  to  be  prominent  features  in  every 
colored  normal  school.  Nothing  should  be  given  that  the  student  can 
earn.  The  power  of  initiative  that  belongs  to  Mr.  Booker  Washington 
could  only  have  come  thru  a  training  which  placed  heavy  responsibility 
on  the  individual.  Not  only  did  he  work  his  own  way  thru  school,  but 
during  his  school   life   he   had   much  to  do  with  the  government  and 


Department]  TRAINING  OF  NEGRO  TEACHERS  48? 

instruction  of  his  fellow-students.  He  was  trained  in  an  institution  that 
was  a  sort  of  industrial  village,  where  he  had  a  taste  of  the  duties  and 
responsibilities  of  actual  life. 

Inasmuch  as  more  than  80  per  cent,  of  the  colored  people  live  in  the 
country,  it  is  essential  that  the  majority  of  their  teachers  be  interested  in 
the  soil  and  in  plant  and  animal  life.  Most  of  the  leading  institutions 
devoted  to  the  colored  race  teach  Latin  and  Greek.  Certainly  no  one 
would  wish  to  deprive  the  negro  of  classic  lore;  but  a  knowledge  of 
the  needs  of  the  soil,  a  love  for  nature  and  animals,  and  an  under- 
standing of  the  great  principles  that  underlie  all  life,  are  essential  to 
a  liberal  education.  A  knowledge  of  things  is  much  more  necessary 
for  any  man,  white  or  colored,  than  a  knowledge  of  words.  In  one 
southern  institution  for  colored  teachers  the  students  are  sent  into  the 
laboratory  for  three  months  before  they  are  allowed  to  use  books.  After 
they  perform  experiments  they  talk  about  them,  write  about  them,  and 
finally  are  allowed  to  read  about  them.  In  this  way  they  are  weaned 
from  their  idolatry  of  books,  and  come  to  understand  that  they  are  to  be 
used  only  as  tools. 

A  colored  normal  school  ought  really  to  be  a  school  for  civilization. 
The  negro  race  knew  little  of  home  life  during  slavery,  and  has  come 
but  slowly  to  the  true  idea  of  it  since  that  time.  The  church  has  been 
too  long  the  social  center  of  the  negro  race.  The  teacher  ought  to  be 
trained  in  matters  which  have  to  do  with  the  improvement  and  beautify- 
ing of  the  home.  Domestic  science  ought  to  enter  into  every  curricu- 
lum. Cooking  and  sewing  should  be  taught  to  every  girl  in  the  public 
schools  of  the  South.  Our  work  is  never  secure  till  it  terminates  in 
home  life,  which,  as  General  Armstrong  very  truly  said,  "  is  the  point  of 
departure  of  civilization."  Without  it  schools  and  churches  can  do  but 
little.  Many  heathen  may  be  converted  to  the  truth,  but  so  long  as  they 
live  like  savages,  no  matter  what  they  profess,  they  attain  only  a  low 
standard  of  morals  and  easily  backslide.  There  is  more  and  more  need 
of  giving  prominence  to  domestic  science  in  normal  courses  for  negro 
teachers,  because  they  belong  to  a  race  which  has  an  alarming  death-rate, 
which  seems  to  many  to  threaten  its  extinction.  Since  freedom,  the 
negroes  have  lived  on  poor  food  and  have  been  huddled  together  in  poor 
houses.  In  some  of  our  normal  schools  the  students  have  made  careful 
investigation  of  the  homes  of  the  colored  people  in  their  vicinity.  They 
have  studied  their  food  supply,  their  method  of  caring  for  their  children, 
and  their  domestic  arrangements,  endeavoring  to  bring  about  needed 
reforms.  They  have  tried  to  make  the  people  feel  the  need  of  fresh  air, 
of  personal  cleanliness  and  purity,  and  of  suitable  clothing.  In  some 
cases  they  have  taught  them  how  to  raise  and  prepare  wholesome  food  of 
a  kind  that  will  help  them  to  resist  the  diseases  to  which  they  are  liable. 
In  connection  with  this  work  in  domestic  science,  they  are  able  to  make 


488  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Normal 

sociological  studies  of  the  communities  in  which  they  live.  They  are 
taught  to  study  the  church  life,  the  schools,  the  industries,  the  local  gov- 
ernment ;  they  are  sent  out  to  care  for  those  of  their  own  race  in  the  jails 
and  poorhouses  ;  they  teach  in  the  Sunday  schools  ;  they  read  the  Bible 
and  sing  to  the  poor  and  aged  ;  and  they  mend  the  cabins  of  the  desti- 
tute. In  this  way  they  not  only  gain  a  knowledge  of  their  neighborhood, 
but  they  come  to  have  a  real  interest  in  helping  those  around  them. 
Teachers  who  confine  their  work  to  the  schoolroom  and  are  interested 
mostly  in  their  salaries  are  of  little  value  to  the  negro  race.  A  normal 
school  that  fails  to  create  a  generous  enthusiasm  for  helping  in  every 
possible  way  the  communities  into  which  its  students  go  is  of  very  little 
real  value.  The  teachers  of  the  negro  race  have  an  opportunity  such  as 
is  not  given  to  white  teachers.  They  stand  at  the  beginning  of  the  real 
life  of  their  people.  They  ought  to  influence  their  social,  industrial, 
and  religious,  as  well  as  their  intellectual,  life,  and  their  school  training 
should  prepare  them  to  do  this. 

In  order  that  young  people  may  learn  the  proper  relations  of  the 
sexes,  co-education  is  important.  It  is  not  enough  to  talk  to  students  of 
either  sex  as  to  what  their  relations  should  be  to  the  other.  They  must 
be  taught  by  actual  experience  to  respect  one  another,  and  right  relations 
must  be  established.  To  take  a  young  man  who  has  been  guilty  of 
ungentlemanly  conduct  away  from  a  table  in  a  school  dining-room,  where 
he  has  had  the  privilege  of  meeting  young  women,  and  place  him  at  a 
table  where  there  are  only  young  men,  means  more  than  a  year's  lectures 
on  morals  and  manners.  In  all  the  training  of  colored  teachers  it  is 
important  to  remember  how  limited  has  been  the  experience  of  the  race 
in  all  that  has  to  do  with  civilized  life.  As  Mr.  Charles  Dudley  Warner 
says,  in  a  recent  paper  read  before  the  American  Social  Science  Associa- 
tion : 

The  evolution  of  a  race,  distinguishing  it  from  the  formation  of  a  nation,  is  a  slow 
process.  We  recognize  a  race  by  certain  peculiar  traits,  and  by  characteristics  which 
slowly  change.  They  are  required  little  by  little  in  an  evolution  which,  historically,  it  is 
often  difficult  to  trace.  They  are  due  to  the  environment,  to  the  discipline  of  life,  and  to 
what  is  called  education.  These  work  together  to  make  what  is  called  character,  race- 
character,  and  it  is  this  which  is  transmitted  from  generation  to  generation.  It  is  this 
character,  quality,  habit,  the  result  of  a  slow  educational  process,  which  distinguishes  one 
race  from  another.  It  is  this  that  the  race  transmits,  and  not  the  more  or  less  accidental 
education  of  a  decade  or  an  era. 

When  we  come  to  understand,  then,  what  the  education  of  a  race  means, 
we  shall  understand  that  normal  training  for  an  undeveloped  race  like  the 
blacks  of  our  own  land  must  be  more  than  usually  comprehensive,  and 
will  be  successful  only  so  far  as  it  brings  them  in  contact  with  real  life. 
In  a  recent  number  of  the  Southern  Workman,  Mr.  Hugh  M.  Browne,  a 
colored  instructor  at  Hampton  Institute,  speaking  of  the  difference 
between  the  white  and  colored  races  of  this  country,  says  : 


DepartmentJ  TRAINING  OF  NEGRO  TEACHERS  489 

The  white  race  has  been  questioning  nature  for  centuries.  This  wonderful  civiliza- 
tion of  the  present  day  is  the  result  of  their  wrestling  with  nature  as  Jacob  wrestled  with 
the  angel.  I  read  only  a  few  days  ago  of  Edison  importuning  nature  for  three  years  and 
putting  to  her  6,600  questions  to  ascertain  one  fact.  The  history  of  the  negro  race  is 
well-nigh  destitute  of  such  talks  with  nature,  and  our  development  is  deficient  to  the 
extent  of  this  destitution. 

As  Mr.  Browne  says,  the  white  boy  in  his  home,  and  the  homes  of  his 
playmates,  gatheTs  a  most  abundant  stock  of  known  facts  with  which  he 
may  commence  his  investigation.  Of  these  the  colored  child  is  deprived. 
So  far  as  possible,  then,  the  normal  as  well  as  the  public  schools  for 
colored  children  should  give  an  all-around  training  which  will,  to  some 
extent  at  least,  make  up  for  defects  in  home  conditions. 

In  an  address  delivered  before  this  association  in  1872  General  Arm- 
strong said  : 

What  the  negro  needs  most  and  what  he  needs  at  once  is  an  elementary  and  indus- 
trial education.  The  race  will  succeed  or  fail  as  it  shall  devote  itself  with  energy  to 
agriculture  and  the  mechanic  arts,  or  avoid  those  pursuits ;  and  its  teachers  ought  to  be 
men  inspired  with  the  spirit  of  hard  work  and  acquainted  with  the  ways  that  lead  to 
material  success.  Power,  character,  manhood,  is  the  ultimate  end  of  education,  of  experi- 
ence, and  of  life. 

The  negro  race  needs  leaders  —  earnest,  practical  men  and  women  who 
shall  devote  their  lives  to  the  material,  intellectual,  and  spiritual  uplift 
of  their  people.  These  leaders  our  normal  schools  ought  to  develop. 
For  men  and  women  of  this  sort  there  never  was  a  more  important  field 
of  usefulness.  Their  work  will  receive  recognition  from  both  the  white 
and  black  people  of  our  land. 


DISCUSSION 


Hon.  G.  R.  Glenn,  state  commissioner  of  education,  Atlanta,  Ga.,  said  that  the 
ideal  of  normal  training  which  these  good  gentlemen  have  presented  shows  that  the 
normal  schools  are  not  doing  what  they  should  do.  The  normal  schools  have  not 
acquainted  their  graduates  with  the  real  conditions  in  which  the  people  live.  We  are 
not  yet  able  to  secure  from  the  normal  schools  teachers  who  can  command  the  situation. 
The  normal  schools  have  not  yet  reached  that  measure  of  growth  where  they  can  make 
men  see  all  that  can  be  developed  from  a  child.  Our  normal-trained  teachers  know 
books  enough,  but  put  in  the  face  of  a  'situation  they  cannot  meet  it.  We  want  as  a 
product  from  the  normal  schools,  for  both  white  and  colored  schools,  men  and  women  who 
can  command  the  situation  —  men  who  can  do  things  as  well  as  learn  them. 

The  part  of  the  brain  controlling  the  sense  of  touch  is  several  times  larger  than  that 
controlling  any  one  of  the  other  special  senses.  This  sense,  then,  should  receive  a  much 
larger  proportion  of  cultivation  than  each  of  the  other  senses.  The  child  should  be 
thrown  into  contact  with  things — -he  should  be  a  doer.  If  you  can  teach  these  people  as 
they  ought  to  be  taught  —  to  be  producers  —  we  shall  close  up  our  jails  and  prisons.  The 
marvel  is  that  these  colored  people  have  not  fallen  into  more  ditches  than  they  have. 
We  must  make  a  new  people  out  of  the  coming  generation.  If  education  will  not  solve 
this  problem,  then  there  is  no  solution  for  it. 


490  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Normal 

Principal  G.  N.  Grisham  of  the  Lincoln  High  School,  Kansas  City,  Mo.,  said  that 
our  colored  normal  schools  are  still  in  the  stage  of  giving  subject-matter  ;  they  have  not 
yet  reached  the  point  where  strong  professional  training  is  given.  He  believed  the  process 
of  educating  a  negro's  brain  is  not  different  from  the  process  of  educating  a  white  man's 
brain.     But  there  must  be  some  different  methods  because  of  different  environment. 

President  R.  R.  Wright  of  the  State  Industrial  College,  Savannah,  Ga.,  empha- 
sized the  disadvantages  of  the  dual  system  of  schools.  We  do  not 'get  proper  supervi- 
sion, and  it  isolates  the  colored  people.  A  white  teacher  can  visit  white  and  colored 
schools  alike,  can  profit  by  their  example  and  avoid  their  mistakes.  The  colored  teacher 
is  barred  the  privilege  of  visiting  the  white  school.  The  dual  system  also  prevents  the 
white  people  from  knowing  anything  of  our  social  life.  Under  this  condition  how  can  a 
county  superintendent  select  the  best  teachers  intellectually,  morally,  and  religiously  for 
the  teaching  of  our  children  ? 

President  Charles  D.  McIver,  in  reply  to  Hon.  G.  R.  Glenn's  argument  that 
teachers  are  not  properly  and  completely  qualified  in  the  normal  schools,  said  that  it  is 
not  the  function  of  the  normal  school  to  give  all  the  theory  and  experience  that  only  years 
of  active  teaching  can  give.  It  is  the  function  of  the  normal  school  to  give  teachers  the 
right  start  and  to  introduce  them  to  the  profession,  as  is  the  case  in  law  and  medical 
schools. 

President  James  E.  Russell  closed  the  discussion  by  showing  most  admirably  the 
difference  in  aim  between  the  normal  schools  of  the  South  and  those  of  the  North.  The 
South  needs  men  and  women  with  a  well-rounded  development,  teachers  with  initiative 
who  can  go  into  city  and  country  and  lift  the  people  to  a  higher  plane  of  living.  Too 
often,  in  the  North  and  West,  the  normal  schools  prepare  men  and  women  to  work  in  a 
great  machine,  a  great  system  of  schools  —  to  be  cogs  in  a  great  wheel.  In  the  South 
teachers  are  going  out  from  the  normal  schools  with  a  spirit  of  service  to  lift  mankind,  I 
assume,  said  he,  that  this  must  become  the  normal-school  aim  in  every  part  of  this  country. 


DEPARTMENT  OF  MANUAL  TRAINING 


SECRETARY'S  MINUTES 


FIRST  SESSION.— Wednesday,  July  11,1900 

The  meeting  was  called  to  order  in  Thompson  Auditorium  at  3  p.  m.  by  the  presi- 
dent, Charles  H.  Keyes,  of  Hartford,  Conn. 

The  president  delivered  an  address  on  "The  Relations  of  Manual  Training  to  Trade 
Education."  It  was  discussed  by  V.ice-President  Charles  A.  Bennett,  of  Bradley  Institute, 
Peoria,  111. ;  Secretary  L.  A.  Buchanan,  of  Stockton,  Cal. ;  and  Principal  B.  A.  Lenfest, 
of  Waltham,  Mass. 

A  letter  bearing  upon  the  subject  from  Charles  H.  Warner,  principal  of  the  Mechan- 
ics' Arts  High  School  of  Springfield,  Mass.,  was  read  by  the  president. 

It  was  determined  to  refer  the  subject  of  the  president's  address  to  a  committee,  to 
make  a  full  study  of  the  question  and  report  to  the  department  at  its  next  annual  meeting. 

Colonel  Francis  W.  Parker,  of  Chicago  Institute,  Chicago,  111.,  then  delivered 
an  address  on  "  Character,  Content,  and  Purpose  of  the  Course  in  Manual  Training  for 
Elementary  Schools."  The  discussion  of  this  address  was  opened  by  Mr.  Bennett,  who 
was  followed  by  Superintendent  W.  B.  Powell,  of  Washington,  D.  C. ;  Superintendent 
J.  H.  Van  Sickle,  of  Baltimore,  and  others. 

The  secretary  called  attention  to  the  excellent  and  comprehensive  exhibits,  illustra- 
tive of  the  two  leading  topics  of  the  program,  which  had  been  secured  by  the  president  of 
the  department,  with  the  active  support  and  co-operation  of  the  Charleston  Citizens'  Com- 
mittee. He  spoke  especially  of  the  exhibits  of  Porter  Military  Academy  of  Charleston ; 
of  Pratt  Institute,  Brooklyn ;  of  the  Teachers'  College  of  New  York ;  of  the  Gustaf  Lars- 
son  Training  School  of  Boston ;  of  the  Hartford  High  School ;  of  the  Millersville  (Pa.) 
Normal  School;  of  the  city  exhibits  of  Newark,  N.  J.;  Dayton,  O.;  Yonkers,  N.  Y.;  Pas- 
saic, N.  J.;  and  Stockton,  Cal.  These  exhibits  and  others  were  installed  in  the  large  hall 
just  back  of  the  Auditorium  stage,  and  were  open  to  visitors  at  all  hours  save  those  of  the 
general  morning  sessions  of  the  National  Educational  Association, 

The  president  then  appointed  the  following 

COMMITTEE  ON  NOMINATIONS 

Superintendent  J.  H.  Van  Sickle,  of  Baltimore,  Md.  Miss  Hattie  M.  Gower,  of  Los  Angeles,  Cal. 

Superintendent  W.  B.  Powell,  of  Washington,  D.  C. 

The  following  resolution  was  then  offered  by  the  secretary,  and,  on  motion,  unani- 
mously adopted : 

Whereas,  Great  interest  has  been  manifested  in  the  relation  of  manual  training  to  trade  instruction ; 

and 

Whereas,  It  has  been  suggested  that  trades  should  be  taught  at  public  expense;  be  it  therefore 
Resolved,  That  a  committee  of  five  be  appointed  by  the  president  to  investigate  the  subject  during  the 

coming  year  and  report  at  the  meeting  of  the  department  next  year. 

Adjourned. 

SECOND  SESSION.— Thursday,  July  12 

The  meeting  was  called  to  order  by  the  president,  and  the  Committee  on  Nomina- 
tions, thru  Chairman  Van  Sickle,  made  its  report,  recommending  for  officers  the  following  : 

491 


492  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION         [Manual  Training 

For  President —Cl\ar\e.s  A.  Bennett,  Bradley  Institute,  Peoria,  111. 

For  Vice-President — B.  A.  Lenfest,  Manual  Training  High  School,  Waltham,  Mass. 

For  Secretary — L.  A.  Buchanan,  Supervisor  of  Manual  Training,  Stockton,  Cal. 

Upon  motion,  the  persons  named  were  duly  elected  officers  for  the  ensuing  year. 

The  subject  for  the  afternoon,  "  The  Character,  Content,  and  Purpose  of  the  Course 
in  Manual  Training  for  High  Schools,"  was  presented  in  a  paper  by  Superintendent  J.  H. 
Van  Sickle,  of  Baltimore,  and  one  by  Principal  B.  A.  Lenfest,  of  Waltham,  Mass.  The 
general  discussion  was  opened  by  Miss  Hattie  F.  Gower,  of  California,  who  was  followed 
by  President  Bennett. 

Mr.  Bennett  was  followed  by  a  number  of  speakers,  after  which  the  officers-elect 
were  formally  installed,  and  President  Bennett  announced  as  the  Committee  to  Study  the 
Relations  of  Manual  Training  to  Trade  Education : 

Supervisor  Charles  H.  Keyes,  Hartford,  Conn.,  chairman. 
Superintendent  J.  H.  Van  Sickle,  Baltimore,  Md.  Principal  George  A.  Merrill,  San  Francisco,  Cal. 

Dr.  H.  H.  Belfield,  Chicago,  III.  Principal  Charles  F.  Warner,  Springfield,  Mass. 

The  department  then  adjourned  sine  die. 

L.  A.  Buchanan, 

Secretary. 


PAPERS  AND  DISCUSSIONS 


TEACHING  TRADES  IN  CONNECTION  WITH  THE  PUBIIC 

SCHOOLS 

CHARLES    F.  WARNER,    MECHANIC    ARTS    HIGH    SCHOOL,   SPRINGFIELD,   MASS. 

I  suppose  it  will  not  be  questioned  that  there  is  a  general  feeling 
thruout  the  country — at  least  in  the  foremost  educational  centers — that, 
if  possible,  manual-training  high  schools  should  do  something  to  meet 
the  growing  demand  for  education  in  the  trades.  There  certainly  can  be 
no  doubt  about  the  demand  for  this  teaching.  One  needs  only  to  ask 
his  next-door  neighbor,  if  he  be  a  manufacturer,  to  be  told  that  the  situa- 
tion in  industrial  quarters  is  alarming,  and  is  steadily  growing  worse.  The 
country  is  flooded  with  inferior  workmen  ;  but  the  skilled  mechanics  are 
few  in  number,  comparatively  speaking,  and  are,  for  the  most  part, 
advanced  in  years.  They  were  trained  under  the  apprentice  system  which, 
in  this  country,  is  practically  gone.  There  are  no  young  men  under 
training  to  take  their  places,  and  the  conditions  in  the  industries  are  such, 
at  present,  that  there  can  be  no  adequate  provision  for  supplying  the  need 
which  was  formerly  met  by  the  apprentice  system. 

I  will  pass  over  the  causes  which  have  brought  about  this  condition  of 
things,  but  they  are  not  far  to  seek.  It  is  sufficient  to  state  the  fact — 
and  I  think  it  cannot  be  doubted  —  that  the  promise  for  the  future  of  the 
better  order  of  handcrafts  in  this  country  is  nothing  short  of  alarming. 
More  than  a  hundred  manufacturers  have  confirmed  this  statement;  and 
they  go  farther  and  say  that,  so  far  as  they  are  able  to  see,  the  only  solu- 
tion is  to  be  found  in  the  education  of  youth.     To  one  who  has  not 


I 


Department]  TEACHING  TRADES  iN  PtJBLtC  SCHOOL  493 

looked  up  this  question  it  may  seem  a  little  strange  that  boys  cannot 
secure  employment  which  may  give  them  a  similar  teaching  to  that  which 
was  supplied  by  the  old  apprentice  system,  but  such  are  the  facts.  For- 
merly a  boy  was  bound  out  as  an  apprentice  for  a  terrri  of  years.  At  first 
he  could  earn  nothing  for  his  employer,  but  was  himself  the  gainer  in 
the  knowledge  and  practice  he  secured.  But  he  soon  acquired  sufficient 
skill  to  be  somewhat  of  a  producer  for  his  employer,  and,  being  still 
bound  as  an  apprentice,  he  was  in  this  way  compelled  to  return  at  least 
an  equivalent  for  what  his  employer  had  given  him.  In  recent  times, 
however,  as  soon  as  boys  are  able  to  earn  anything  for  the  corporation 
for  which  they  work,  they  are,  in  many  cases,  put  upon  piece  work,  with 
the  intention  of  keeping  them  there  indefinitely  for  the  profit  of  the 
corporation,  which  has  no  interest  in  allowing  the  boy  to  learn  other 
operations  and  thus  complete  his  trade.  In  other  cases  the  boys,  not 
being  bound  by  any  agreement,  leave  their  employers  as  soon  as  they 
are  able  to  earn  a  small  wage,  thus  resulting  in  a  clear  loss  to  the  first 
employers. 

This  is  an  incomplete  statement  of  the  two  principal  evils  of  the 
industrial  shop  education  of  recent  times,  which  has  come  to  be  recog- 
nized as  an  absolute  failure.  It  cannot  be  called  a  poor  system,  for  that 
would  imply  that  it  might  be  improved ;  it  is  simply  a  nuisance.  Scores 
of  manufacturers  have  told  me  that  they  wouldn't,  under  anyconsidera- 
tion,  have  a  boy  in  their  employ ;  but  they  are  looking  forward  to  the 
time  when  manual-training  schools  can  turn  out  graduates  who  are  really 
proficient  in  some  line  of  work,  and  able  and  willing  to  join  forces  with 
their  employers  as  producers. 

It  must  be  admitted,  of  course,  that  the  tremendous  development  of 
machinery  has  practically  destroyed  many  of  the  trades,  or  at  least  has 
reduced  the  number  of  expert  workmen  required  in  certain  lines  to  a 
comparatively  small  number.  This  is  true  of  cabinet-making,  carpen- 
try, shoemaking,  etc.  Machines  are  employed  for  probably  nineteen- 
twentieths  of  all  the  operations  which  were  once  among  the  handcrafts. 
The  men  or  women  who  control  these  machines,  altho  in  many  cases 
they  need  expert  training,  cannot  be  classified  among  those  whom  we 
expect  to  reach  by  our  courses  in  the  trades.  We  must  confine  ourselves 
to  those  who  are  to  work,  for  the  most  part,  by  hand  with  the  aid  of  tools, 
tho  not  altogether  without  machines.  With  this  limitation  as  to  what 
may  be  properly  called  trades,  it  will  be  seen  that  there  are  compara- 
tively few  which  can  be  taught.  This  disposes  at  once  of  one  argument 
which  has  been  urged  against  the  teaching  of  trades,  namely,  that  if  we 
teach  any  trades,  we  must  teach  all  of  the  hundreds  —  or  thousands,  it  may 
be — of  different  trades.  We  really  need  to  consider  only  the  compara- 
tively few  trades  which  are,  from  their  very  nature,  safe  from  annihilation 
by  machinery. 


494 


NA 710NAL  EDUCA  TIONAL  ASSOCIA  TION        [Manual  Training 


There  is  one  other  limiting  condition  which  ought  to  be  considered. 
Every  community  has  its  special  lines  of  work,  and  it  will  be  found  in 
practice  that  the  few  trades  which  will  never  be  supplanted  by  machinery 
can  be  cut  down  to  a  still  smaller  number.  In  Springfield  I  find  that  there 
are,  at  the  most,  five  for  which  there  is  any  reasonable  demand,  named  in 
the  order  of  importance  —  tool-making,  machine-shop  practice,  drafting, 
plumbing,  pattern-making.  We  shall  not  need  to  teach  all  the  existing 
trades,  but  only  such  as  each  community  demands. 

But  the  most  difficult  question  connected  with  this  whole  matter  is 
how  to  connect  instruction  in  the  trades  with  the  established  work  of 
manual-training  high  schools.  One  who  advocates  such  a  connection 
will  probably  be  stigmatized  as  a  deserter  from  the  ranks  of  true  educa- 
tional manual  training.  In  the  early  days  of  these  schools  we  used  to 
hear  much  said  by  our  opponents  on  this  very  subject  of  teaching  trades. 
Manual-training  schools  were  then  characterized  as  trade  schools,  and  as 
having  no  business  to  class  themselves  among  educational  forces.  But 
these  schools,  altho  they  have  been  favored  by  the  general  demand 
for  the  practical  in  education,  have  still  defended  themselves  on  the 
highest  educational  principles,  and  have  won  just  recognition  on  these 
grounds.  Now,  are  we  to  recede  from  this  position  of  educational 
manual  training  and  teach  merely  trades,  after  all?  This  is  the  ques- 
tion in  about  the  form  which  will  be  given  it  by  those  who  are  critics 
of  this  movement.  But  it  doesn't  seem  to  me  that  we  are  forced  to 
accept  such  a  dilemma.  It  is,  to  be  sure,  not  an  easy  matter  to  map  out 
a  course  in  one  or  more  trades  which  shall  correlate  with  the  essentials 
of  academic  high-school  studies  after  the  plan  of  the  ordinary  manual- 
training  high  schools ;  and  yet  I  believe  that  this  may  be  worked  out  in 
time.  Some  increase  in  the  length  of  school  time  will  have  to  be 
assumed,  I  think,  in  order  to  get  in  an  amount  of  practice  which  is  at  all 
comparable  with  that  which  was  formerly  given  under  the  apprentice  sys- 
tem ;  and  probably  it  will  be  many  years  before  we  shall  see  the  teaching 
of  trades  carried  to  the  perfection  which  was  possible  under  that  system 
in  its  best  days.  But  certainly,  if  boys  really  wish  to  learn  a  trade,  they 
must  be  willing  to  spend  double  the  amount  of  time  that  they  would  give 
to  ordinary  school  work. 

I  cannot  go  much  into  details,  but  I  will  call  your  attention  to  a  state- 
ment of  the  courses  of  instruction  as  outlined  for  the  Mechanics'  Arts  High 
School  of  Springfield.  I  refer  to  Special  Course  B,  which  approaches  as 
near  to  a  course  in  the  trades  as  we  have  yet  been  able  to  reach  in  our  day 
school.  You  will  notice  that  considerable  attention  is  given  thruout  that 
course  to  the  essentials  of  English,  mathematics,  science,  and  history;  and 
yet  an  unusual  amount  of  time  is  allotted  to  mechanic-arts  practice ;  and 
I  will  add  further  that,  in  my  judgment,  the  time  given  to  mechanical 
work  will    need    to  be    largely  increased,  without  infringing    upon   the 


Department]        HIGH-SCHOOL  COURSES  IN  MANUAL  TRAINING  495 

academic  work,  in  order  to  give  the  necessary  thoroness  to  the  teaching 
required  for  the  trades.  I  see  no  reason  why  students  of  a  trade  course, 
at  least  in  the  last  two  years  of  that  course,  should  not  work  eight  hours  a 
day.  In  our  Evening  School  of  Trades,  which  is  an  entirely  independent 
school,  we  give  no  academic  instruction;  it  is  simply  a  school  of  trades. 


CHARACTER,  CONTENT,  AND  PURPOSE  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL 
COURSES  JN  MANUAL   TRAINING 

B.  A.    LENFEST,    PRINCIPAL    OF    MANUAL    TRAINING    HIGH    SCHOOL, 
WALTHAM,    MASS. 

A  word  of  preface  as  to  the  ambiguity  of  the  term  "  manual  training  " 
seems  necessary,  in  order  that  we  may  narrow  the  subject  within  the  time 
limits  imposed  by  the  association. 

A  careful  scientific  analysis  of  the  work  classed  as  manual  training, 
both  from  the  historical  and  the  psychological  standpoint,  leads  to  the 
inclusion  of  not  only  the  mechanic  arts  or  shop-work,  and  drawing,  both 
free-hand  and  mechanical,  but  all  scientific  manipulation  in  the  labora- 
tory, whether  of  chemistry,  physics,  biology,  or  engineering.  The  black- 
smith shakes  hands  with  the  professor  of  chemistry  or  engineering,  and  each 
pledges  himself  to  labor  for  a  truer  perspective  and  for  a  more  sympathetic 
appreciation  on  the  part  of  the  public  of  the  content  of  manual  training. 

I  am  impelled  to  confine  the  discussion  to  manual  training  in  the 
popular,  tho  narrow,  sense,  as  including  free-hand  and  mechanical  draw- 
ing, working  in  wood  and  metal,  cooking,  dressmaking,  millinery  work, 
clay-molding,  printing,  and  so  on,  together  with  such  consideration  of 
academic  work  as  existing  or  proposed  courses  require.  This  separation 
is,  I  am  aware,  artificial.  The  historical  basis  of  secondary  manual- 
training  work,  so  far  as  this  country  is  concerned,  is  easily  traced  to  the 
mechanic  arts  school  of  the  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology  (now 
abolished).  It  was  a  close  copy  of  the  shops  of  the  Imperial  Technical 
School  under  Delia  Vos.  These  Russian  shops  at  Moscow  were  equipped 
solely  that  specialists  (engineering  students)  might,  by  actual  trial,  have 
some  appreciation  of  practical  processes  more  or  less  closely  interwoven 
with  the  theoretical  instruction  of  the  rest  of  the  school. 

Only  as  Dr.  Runkle  opened  the  Boston  school  in  1876  to  others  than 
students  in  engineering  courses  do  we  see  the  unfolding  of  manual  train- 
ing in  a  way  worthy  of  the  popular  support;  that  is,  as  a  thing  of  itself,  and 
no  longer  as  an  appendage  hanging  on,  as  best  it  may,  to  the  theoretical 
engineering  work.  In  1879  Dr.  Woodward  at  St.  Louis  elaborated  the 
secondary  school  of  manual  training. 

There  are  three  modifications  to  be  noticed  when  comparing  the  best 
of  our  present  secondary  schools  of  manual  training  with  the  old  Boston 


496  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION         [Manual  Training 

school  of  1876,  and  yet  one  is  surprised  that  the  difference  is  so  slight, 
for^he  twenty-four  years  have  shown  but  slight  change  from  the  plans 
of  Dr.  Runkle  and  others. 

Sweden,  thru  Salomon  and  our  own  Mr.  Larsson,  has  helped  us 
to  clearer  perception  of  the  value  of  interest  thru  the  useful  model. 
However,  as  far  as  my  observation  goes,  the  sloyd  system,  as  embodied 
in  the  Naas  models  or  in  the  Boston  sloyd  series,  is  not  as  well  adapted 
as  the  Russian  exercise  system  to  produce  skill  in  tool  manipulation  and 
careful  workmanship  in  the  high  school.  This  is  perhaps  the  reason 
why  sloyd  has  been  of  little  help  to  the  secondary  teacher  of  wood-work, 
and  less  to  metal-workers,  for  it  has  not  developed  beyond  wood-working. 
A  third  element,  only  in  its  infancy,  but  destined,  I  believe,  to  exert  a 
profound  influence  on  not  only  manual  training,  but  on  the  very  struc- 
ture of  society,  is  the  aesthetic  element.  We  gladly  welcome  as  a  fellow- 
worker  the  art  teacher;  indeed,  the  future  will  demand  that  the  artisan 
in  wood  or  metal  be  an  artist ;  and  echo  answers,  the  artist  must  be  an 
artisan. 

Naturally  enough,  "  as  art  is  long  and  time  is  fleeting,"  the  best 
development  of  artistic  models  and  models  of  art  is  seen  in  the  manual- 
training  high  school,  where  the  art  teacher  co-operates  with  each  shop- 
work  instructor  as  directed  by  the  more  than  academic  principal. 

There  is  a  crying  need  for  more  sympathetic  co-operation  between 
art  teachers  and  teachers  of  shop-work ;  too  often  professional  jealousy 
blocks  the  way  for  reform.  One  has  only  to  glance  at  the  ugly  models 
contained  in  the  collection  from  the  Moscow  school,  and  compare  them 
with  the  product  of  the  manual-training  high  school,  to  see  that  our 
modern  crusade  for  drawing  in  the  public  schools  is  bearing  fruit.  All 
honor  to  our  faithful  supervisors  of  drawing  for  that,  and,  while  the 
most  artistic  models  are  the  product  of  schools  where  art  departments 
co-operate  with  the  shops,  yet  it  is  not  hard  to  find  artistic  work  developed 
by  the  shop-work  teacher  possessed  with  a  keen  love  of  the  beautiful. 

But  what  do  we  find  in  looking  over  the  field  of  secondary  manual 
training?  It  falls  into  four  groups:  (i)  the  trade  work,  combined  with 
a  meager  amount  of  academic  studies ;  (2)  the  manual-training  depart- 
ment added  to  the  existing  departments  of  the  high  school,  all  under 
the  direction  of  a  classical  principal ;  (3)  the  manual-training  school 
independent  of  the  high  school,  but  relying  on  it  for  academic  instruc- 
tion ;  (4)  the  separate  manual-training  high  school.  There  are  two 
courses  involving  manual  training  offered  in  these  groups  (barring  the 
first),  called,  for  want  of  better  names,  {a)  the  technical  (or  scientific)  and 
{b)  the  general  course  ;  the  former  intended  to  satisfy  the  entrance  require- 
ments of  technical  schools,  and  the  latter  offered  as  a  preparation  for 
life-work. 

The  failure  of  trade  schools,  and  the  discredit  that  has  come  upon. 


Department]        HIGH-SCHOOL  COURSES  IN  MANUAL  TRAINING  497 

them,  are  I  believe,  due  to  a  neglect  of  the  founders  and  promoters  to 
recognize  that  the  boy  needs  liberalizing  studies,  especially  as  the  trade 
work  tends  to  machine  results.  The  skill  which  makes  our  machinery 
the  best  is  of  little  avail  without  the  power  of  adaptation  that  good 
courses  in  English  (in  the  broad  sense),  ethics,  civil  government,  and 
commercial  law  insure. 

There  is  a  growing  demand  on  the  part  of  the  public,  as  a  perusal 
of  current  literature  shows ;  on  the  part  of  the  engineering  profession,  as 
is  evident  from  the  unusual  interest  in  and  duration  of  the  discussion 
of  Mr.  Higgins'  paper  on  a  half-time  school,  read  before  the  American 
Society  of  Mechanical  Engineers ;  on  the  part  of  leading  educators,  as 
shown  by  Dr.  Button's  recently  published  book,  and  by  Dr.  Balliet's  latest 
reports,  that  there  must  be  more  attention  paid  to  education  for  vocation. 
In  short,  trade  schools,  at  the  public  expense,  are  to  come ;  else  we  may 
see  our  industries  crippled  and  the  country  flooded  by  English-  and 
German-made  goods.  Already  the  wisdom  of  the  German  system  of 
trade  instruction  is  apparent,  for  German  hardware  is  sold  in  markets 
once  open  only  for  English  goods  —  even  in  Birmingham  and  Sheffield, 
and  in  this  country.  It  appears  difficult  to  defend  the  commercial 
course  in  the  high  school  on  one  hand,  and  object  to  trade  instruction 
on  the  other,  without  becoming  ridiculous. 

Massachusetts  has  a  law  requiring  cities  in  that  state  of  20,000  inhabit- 
ants and  upward  to  offer  suitable  courses  in  manual  training  to  pupils  of 
high-school  age.  The  law,  not  having  a  penalty  attached,  is  violated  by  a 
few  cities,  such  as  Quincy  and  Newton  ;  but  most  of  the  cities  have  obeyed, 
and  it  is  here  that  we  find  the  most  extensive  illustration  of  the  second 
group,  i.  e.,  of  the  classical  high  school  with  a  manual-training  department. 
An  educator  in  one  of  these  cities  said  that  they  introduced  manual 
training  to  obey  this  law  and  to  give  the  subject  fair  trial.  One  or  two 
instructors  were  appointed,  and  the  department  was  put  under  the  direc- 
tion of  the  high-school  principal,  not  because-  he  knew  much  about  the 
subject,  but  perhaps  because  he  needed  to  learn.  This  method  of  making 
the  secondary  work  in  manual  training  a  department  of  the  classical  high 
school  is,  tho  the  most  popular  and  best  adapted  to  please  the  economical 
taxpayer  and  the  ambitious  high-school  principal,  a  poor  plan,  and  should 
be  put  away  with  other  childish  things  as  soon  as  public  opinion  will 
permit.  A  business  concern  will  not  prosper  unless  a  superintendent  or 
director  who  knows  his  business  thoroly  is  in  charge  ;  and  shall  we  any  the 
less  demand  that  the  studies  which  in  the  high  school  develop  character 
as  no  other  studies  do  be  not  placed  in  inexperienced  hands?  One  of 
our  brightest  department  teachers  of  manual  training,  in  a  discussion 
recently,  said  that  his  principal  left  him  to  his  own  devices,  frankly 
admitting  that  manual  training  was  out  of  the  principal's  line.  Would 
ttiat  more  classical  principals  were  thus  wise. 


498  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION        [Manual Training 

But  is  this  any  defense  of  the  plan  ?  In  what  should  a  director's 
duty  consist,  and  is  he  not  negligent  if  all  departments  of  his  school  have 
not  a  fair  and  proportionate  share  of  his  time  and  energies  ?  A  further 
objection  to  this  method  is  due  to  the  class  of  instructors  commonly 
chosen.  The  smaller  cities  and  larger  towns,  where  alone  this  plan  is 
developed,  have  but  little  to  pay  for  a  manual-training  director,  arid  the 
development  of  manual  training  is  hindered,  or  even  blocked,  by  super- 
annuated artisans,  half-trained  sloyd  teachers,  or  even,  in  some  cases,  by 
the  narrowly  trained  specialist  from  the  school  of  engineering.  I  fear 
that  the  grand  possibilities  of  motor  education  are  for  a  time  destined  to 
be  obscured  by  this  unfortunate  mistake. 

The  third  plan,  that  of  an  independent  director  of  manual  training, 
who  calls  on  the  high  school  for  academic  instruction,  is  to  my  thinking 
a  much  better  plan  for  the  small  city  than  the  departmental  scheme. 
The  director  is  apt  to  be  put  in  charge  of  all  manual  work,  and  can  thus 
plan  for  a  continuous,  progressive  scheme  of  instruction  covering  twelve 
or  thirteen  years  of  school  life.  He  is  a  more  valuable  man  than  the 
department  head,  and  the  city  can  afford  to  pay  him  more,  for  he  does 
double  duty.  Thus  the  work  is  sure  to  be  of  better  quality,  for  Garfield's 
definition  need  not  be  narrowed  to  Mark  Hopkins,  and  inspiration  is 
derived  from  many  a  humble  teacher. 

There  is  one  serious  difficulty  inherent  in  both  the  departmental  and 
the  separate-shop  plan.  The  best  results  are  not  to  be  reached  unless 
there  is  a  closer  relation  between  shop  and  recitation-room  than  we  find 
existent.  Wrapped  up  in  this  question  is  the  relation  of  technical  to 
general  courses.  But,  for  the  reason  that  the  most  progressive  work  is 
found  in  the  fourth  group,  let  further  discussion  pass  on  to  a  considera- 
tion of  that  plan. 

A  separate  manual-training  high  school  is  termed  a  luxury,  only  to  be 
tolerated  in  the  larger  cities,  and  not  uncommonly  comparisons  are 
drawn  going  to  show  how  much  more  it  costs  per  pupil  in  the  manual- 
training  high  school  than  in  the  classical  one  in  the  same  city.  While 
such  figures  are  probably  reliable,  it  must  be  remembered  that  a  new 
enterprise  needs  time  for  development ;  that  the  per-capita  cost  is  lessen- 
ing with  these  schools,  a-nd,  on  the  other  hand,  is  increasing  in  the  classical 
schools;  that  it  takes  more  to  train  a  technical  student  than  one  in  col- 
lege ;  that  the  education  offered  by  the  state  is  not  weighed  in  dollars  and 
cents,  but  is,  as  in  more  concrete  matters,  weighed  by  the  formula  that  the 
best  is  none  too  good.  Is  there  reason  to  believe  that  a  superior  education 
is  available  in  the  manual-training  high  school  ?  It  seems  to  me  there  is. 
An  examination  of  results  from  the  Elmira  Reformatory,  and  similar  insti- 
tutions offering  manual  training  as  a  corrective  and  reclaiming  agency ; 
the  fact  that  truants  and  bad  boys  sent  from  the  schools  of  Cambridge, 
Mass.,  to  their  manual-training  school  are  returned  reformed,  where  but  a 


Department]        HIGH-SCHOOL  COURSES  IN  MANUAL  TRAINING  499 

few  years  ago  they  went  to  the  reform  schools  direct ;  the  fact  that  boys, 
and  girls  too,  rejected  and  dismissed  from  classical  high  schools,  have,  to 
my  personal  knowledge,  done  more  and  better  work  in  manual-training 
high  schools  ;  finally,  the  fact  that  a  large  percentage  of  the  pupils,  some 
35  to  40  per  cent.,  leave  school  for  work  or  for  idleness  near  the  end  of 
the  grammar-school  course,  together  with  this  unexpected  fact  that  manual- 
training  high  schools,  when  introduced  in  cities  where  the  classical  high 
school  was  crowded  and  in  cramped  or  poor  buildings,  have  not  relieved 
this  burden  to  any  great  extent,  but  have  drawn  from  the  class  which 
leaves  school  in  the  grades ;  all  these  facts  go  to  show  that  there  is  a  value 
in  the  work  offered  in  such  a  school  not  to  be  found  elsewhere. 

With  the  objection  of  the  parent  or  pupil  that  the  average  high  school 
gives  little  of  value  to  help  in  the  coming  struggle  for  existence  I  have 
considerable  sympathy.  Nor  will  the  cry  for  mental  discipline  or  general 
culture  drown  the  demand  of  the  citizens  who  are  waking  up  to  the  need 
of  vocational  studies.  To  say  that  a  boy  or  girlis  out  of  place  in  a  public 
high  school  when  the  pupil  or  parent  desires  his  attendance  is  a  con- 
fession of  the  weakness  of  such  a  school,  which  the  public  is  bound  to 
investigate  sooner  or  later.  It  would  not  be  fair  to  dodge  the  objection 
made  that  a  separate  manual-training  high  school  deprives  many  scholars 
in  classical  high  schools  of  much  needed  training  in  the  shops.  This  is 
a  more  fancied  than  real  objection,  for  it  is  easy  to  offer  such  work  as  an 
elective  to  classical  scholars,  thus  combining  in  one  school  the  separate- 
shop  plan  and  the  separate  manual-training  high  school. 

There  is  much  to  be  said  in  favor  of  extending  the  work  of  the  shop 
to  all  pupils  of  high-school  age,  both  from  a  socialistic  and  an  ethical 
standpoint.  A  retrospective  glance  will  explain  to  the  investigator  why 
there  is  still  a  distaste  for  manual  work,  and  a  feeling  among  scholars 
that  the  classical  scholar  is  a  finer  creature.  We  find  that  the  slave  or 
serf  did  the  manual  work;  idleness  was  the  prerogative  of  the  lord  and 
master.  Even  we  read  of  the  Man  who  spake  as  never  man  spake,  that  on 
the  sabbath  day  Jesus  taught  in  the  synagogue  in  his  own  country,  so 
that  many  were  astonished,  saying :  "  Is  not  this  the  carpenter,  the  son 
of  Mary,  the  brother  of  James  and  John,  and  of  Judas  and  Simon?" 
Nineteen  hundred  years  have  not  been  sufficient  to  give  honor  to  our 
carpenters  nor  to  dignify  labor;  but  it  is  the  function  of  motor  educa- 
tion to  change  all  this,  not  at  the  expense  of  classical  education,  but  in 
co-operation  with  it. 

One  can  but  be  pessimistic  when  trusts  or  monopolies  on  one  hand, 
and  trades  unions  on  the  other,  threaten  the  very  national  perpetuity  and 
well-nigh  shake  our  belief  in  republican  institutions.  But  even  as  educa- 
tion was  the  bed-rock  of  the  republic,  an  extension  of  its  scope  to  include 
a  training  in  and  appreciation  of  the  manual  arts  will,  on  the  one  side, 
give   the   capitalist  of   the    next    generation  a  sympathy   never    before 


500  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCiATiON        IManual  Training 

attained ;  while  the  wage-earner,  thru  the  interrelation  of  manual  and 
liberal  studies,  will  put  himself  in  the  other's  place. 

I  believe  that  a  carefully  arranged  course  in  manual  arts  and  liberal 
studies  is  to  be  the  most  potent  weapon  available  to  break  down  the  bar- 
rier between  the  masses  and  the  classes,  and  insure  the  future  welfare  of 
the  republic. 

But  what  is  to  be  offered  in  this  secondary  school  for  manual  training, 
and  have  we  any  such  schools  in  operation  ?  is  asked. 

The  schools  having  the  broader  aims  in  view  can  be  counted  almost 
on  the  fingers  of  one  hand,  for  there  is  rubbish  to  be  cleared  away. 
There  is,  for  example,  a  too  common  custom  of  intrusting  the  manual- 
training  high  school  to  an  academic  principal  whose  knowledge  of  the 
shop-work  is  attained  by  exercise  at  the  family  wood -pile,  or  in  some 
such  way  as  the  historic  tramp  who  went  thru  Harvard  College  by  enter- 
ing one  door  and  suffering  ejectment  at  another.  The  school  is  fore- 
doomed to  failure,  unless  its  head  knows  both  sides,  and  can  as  well  don  the 
blue  jeans  and  direct  a  class  in  forging  or  in  machine-work  as  discuss  the 
problem  of  moral  freedom  or  the  question  of  duty  in  the  class  in  ethics. 

Again,  the  secondary  school  of  manual  training  is  too  dependent  on  the 
technical  school,  perhaps  as  much  so  as  the  classical  school  on  the  college. 

President  Patton  has  recently  written  of  the  approximation  of  the 
high-school  curriculum  to  college-entrance  requirements.  A  recogni- 
tion is  imperative  on  the  part  of  secondary  teachers  of  the  fact  that  the 
general  mental  discipline  which  fits  a  boy  for  college  is  the  best  mental 
discipline  also  to  qualify  for  the  work  of  life.  Leaving  the  classical  man 
the  task  of  answering,  we  should  in  technical  courses  deny  that  this  is 
true ;  a  subtraction  is  essential,  more  particularly  in  elementary  mathe- 
matics, and  much  enrichment  is  needed  in  science,  higher  mathematics, 
drawing,  and  English  studies. 

I  offer  a  course  of  study  for  boys  for  your  criticism,  not  that  it  is  the 
best  possible  arrangement,  but  because  it  will  be  easily  applicable  either 
to  a  manual-training  high  school  or  to  a  department  of  the  classical  high 
school.  The  limits  of  the  paper  forbid  any  extended  consideration  of  the 
course. 

FIRST  YEAR  SECOND    YEAR 

Subject  Hours  per  week        Subject  Hours  per  week 

English 4       English        \ 


French      ------         4  Economics 

Geometry     -         -         -         -         -         -    4  French 3 

Physiology,  physiography,  and  botany —  Algebra        -         -         -         -         -         -  4 

take  two,  one  half-year  each  -         -         3  Chemistry         -         -  -         -  4 

Drawing 4  Drawing 4 

Joinery,  carving,  wood-turning  -         -         8  Pattern  work  "I 


Molding  I  „ 

^^       Pipe-fitting     I 

Plumbing        J  — 

27 


Department]  MANUAL  TRAINING  FOR  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL  501 


THIRD    YEAR  FOURTH    YEAR 

Subject                                                   Hours  per  week        Subject  Hours  per  week 

English                   )  English  ) 

Civil  government  )  Ethics    ) 

German    ------  3       German    ------         3 

Trigonometry  with  surveying         -         -  3       Applied  mathematics  or  reviews    -         -    '4 

Physics     ------  4       Advanced  physics,  electricity,  and  me- 

Drawing 4           chanics          -----         3 

Smithing                     \  Drawing       -         -         -         -         -         -    4 

Sheet-metal  work      [■        -         -         -  8       Machine  work  -----         g 

Chipping  and  filing  )  — 

27 
The  manual-training  high  school  is  not  complete  without  a  course  for 
girls,  and  the  present  uncertainty  as  to  the  best  work  for  them,  together 
with  the  transitional  condition  of  the  whole  work,  would,  to  my  mind, 
call  for  a  committee  from  this  national  society,  which  should  report  at  a 
future  meeting  on  the  whole  matter.  Does  not  the  importance  of  the 
subject  warrant  more  attention  than  the  association  has  bestowed  on  it  ? 


MANUAL  TRAINING  FOR   THE  ORDINARY  HIGH  SCHOOL 

JAMES   H.  VAN   SICKLE,  SUPERINTENDENT   OF   SCHOOLS,  BALTIMORE,  MD. 

Ten  years  ago  manual  training  in  the  high  school  was  an  open 
question,  and  its  desirability  a  matter  of  debate.  Now  its  cost  is  con- 
sidered as  legitimate  an  item  of  public  expense  as  that  of  any  of  the 
traditional  subjects.  Some  of  the  questions  with  regard  to  high-school 
manual  training  now  are  :  What  shall  be  taught  ?  For  how  long  a  time  ? 
How  freely  shall  it  be  offered  (that  is,  in  every  school  or  only  in  special 
schools)?  Shall  it  extend  to  the  teaching  of  trades  ? 

Not  only  on  account  of  its  value  in  general  development  is  it  highly 
desirable  that  all  pupils  should  have  manual  training  thru  the  elementary 
grades,  but,  as  long  as  the  tendency  to  differentiate  high  schools  prevails, 
it  is  also  essential  to  bring  all  pupils  in  the  elementary  schools  into  con- 
tact with  the  greatest  possible  variety  of  activities,  including  that  which 
manual  training  furnishes,  so  that  by  the  time  they  are  ready  for  the 
high  school  they  may  know  in  what  direction  their  tastes  lie.  Otherwise 
the  choice  will  depend  upon  proximity  to  the  school,  rather  than  upon 
tastes  and  aptitudes. 

As  the  means  of  general  development  manual  training  should  be  one 
of  the  subjects  offered  in  every  high  school.  Experience  proves  that 
even  classical  pupils  will  gladly  devote  from  two  to  four  periods  a  week 
to  this  work  in  excess  of  the  regular  requirements.  They  are  the  better 
for  it,  physically  as  well  as  mentally.  I  have  not  attempted  to  say  what 
modifications,  if  any,  should  be  made  in  courses  of  well-equipped  manual- 
training  high  schools,  but  only  to  show  what  may  be  done  in  an  ordinary 


502 


NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION         [Manual  Training 


high  school.  The  course  here  outlined  assumes  that  the  boys  have 
already  had  bench-work  in  wood,  and  that  the  girls  have  taken  sewing  or 
cooking,  or  both,  but  have  not  had  bench-work.  This  they  are  to  take 
before  they  begin  carving.  The  course  occupies  not  to  exceed  four 
periods  per  week,  and  should  be  on  the  same  basis  as  other  unprepared 
subjects.  Drawing  is  not  mentioned,  as  it  is  presumed  already  to  form 
an  important  part  of  the  work  of  the  school.  It  must,  of  course,  precede 
every  kind  of  work  mentioned  in  the  outline. 

Printing,  a  subject  not  given  in  the  outline,  might  well  be  included 
on  account  of  its  historical  value,  in  addition  to  the  manual  element,  as 
well  as  on  account  of  its  helpfulness  in  English. 

The  outline  is  not  presented  as  ideal.  There  is  no  reason  why  other 
lines  of  work  may  not  be  substituted  for  some  of  those  given.  It  merely 
sets  forth  a  list  that  has  been  used  successfully. 

COURSE    IN    MANUAL   TRAINING    FOR    THE    ORDINARY    HIGH    SCHOOL 
TIME,   NOT    TO    EXCEED    FOUR    PERIODS    PER    WEEK 


Year 

Half 

I 

I' 

I 

2 

II 

I 

III 

I 

IV 

I» 

Boys 


Girls 


Turning  and  pattern-making. 

Turning  between  two  centers. 
Patterns  requiring  no  lathe-work. 

Turning  and  pattern-making. 

Face-plate  turning ;  chuck-turning 
and  mandrel-turning.  Patterns 
involving  turned  work. 

Molding  in  sand,  modeling  in  clay, 
and  casting  in  plaster. 

Pattern- making. 

Core-patterns  and  other  complex 
patterns  of  lathe. 

Relief-carving. 


Advanced  turning  and  carving. 


Bench-work. 

Similar  to  that  in  the  grades. 

Carving. 

Indenting  and  stamping,  and 
groove-carving. 

Modeling  in  clay  and  casting  plas- 
ter. 

Turning  and  carving. 

Turning  between  centers.  Chip- 
carving  and  flat  carving. 

Relief-carving. 

Girls  may  not  take  up  third-year 
work  unless  they  have  had  bench- 
work. 

Advanced  turning  and  carving. 


The  models  made  in  the  course  in  turning  are  afterward  used  in  pat- 
tern-making. This  saves  much  time.  It  saves  an  outlay  of  money  for 
lathes  and  space  for  the  pattern-makers.  The  pupils  make  patterns  for  a 
complete  lathe.  This  involves  all  the  elementary,  as  well  as  a  number  of 
the  more  difficult,  principles  of  pattern-making. 

In  the  course  of  carving  no  fixed  set  of  models  is  used.  The  different 
kinds  of  carving  are  taken  up  in  the  following  order :  indenting  and 
stamping,  groove-carving,  chip-carving,  flat  carving,  low  relief,  high 
relief,  and   carving   in  the  round.     Each  pupil   makes  his  own  design. 

I  Only  those  who  have  taken  I,  i,  may  take  I,  2, 

z  Turning  ornamental  work  and  carving  the  same.    Work  of  fourth  year  limited  to  those  who  have  had  a 
year's  work  in  manual  training. 


Department]  MANUAL  TRAINING  FOR  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL  503 

Of  course,  he  has  some  instruction  and  sees  some  examples.  He  then 
decides,  first,  what  he  will  make;  next,  its  size  and  shape;  then,  what 
parts  are  to  be  ornamented.  Knowing  the  size  of  the  space  to  be  orna- 
mented, he  proceeds  to  make  the- design,  and  later  to  work  it  out. 

The  casting  in  plaster  is  done  by  the  boys  by  making  molds  in  sand 
from  patterns  made  in  the  pattern-making  course,  and  by  the  girls  from 
objects  modeled  in  clay. 

In  high -school  work  there  need  hardly  ever  be  two  models  alike. 
The  course  should  depend,  not  upon  models,  but  upon  exercises.  The 
pupil  may  make  any  model  he  chooses,  provided  it  involves  the  exercise 
which  we  wish  him  to  learn. 

The  idea  is  not  entertained  that  such  a  course  in  manual  training  is 
equal  to  that  given  in  manual-training  high  schools.  It  furnishes,  how- 
ever, an  amount  that  will,  together  with  other  subjects  studied,  give  a 
fairly  well-balanced  development.  It  does  not  include  work  in  iron  with 
machines.  That  may  well  be  reserved  for  the  separate  manual-training 
high  school.  It  cannot  include  chipping  and  filing,  or  forging,  without 
giving  more  prominence  to  the  subject  than  its  importance,  merely  as  a 
factor  in  general  education,  warrants.  To  do  more  would  require  more 
time  than  can  be  had  in  connection  with  a  four-year  high-school  course 
which  includes  the  ordinary  subjects.  The  above  amount  is  gladly  taken 
in  excess  of  regular  work.  Such  work  can  be  carried  on  in  a  school  of 
400  or  500  pupils,  with  an  equipment  costing  not  to  exceed  $2,500.  If 
a  city  has  several  high  schools,  the  problem  is  simply  one  of  repetition. 
If  one  of  these  is  a  manual-training  high  school,  it  may  still  continue  to 
serve  the  purpose  for  which  it  was  established  by  educating  in  a  more 
strictly  technical  way  those  pupils  whose  tastes  lie  strongly  in  that  direc- 
tion. By  eliminating  pupils  not  possessing  special  tastes  in  technical 
lines  the  manual-training  high  school  would  be  able  to  advance  its  stand- 
ard and  reduce  the  time  usually  consumed  in  such  schools  by  at  least  a 
year,  thus  saving  the  time  of  the  pupil  and  giving  him  a  more  vigorous 
habit  of  work.  The  final  or  fourth  year,  possibly  part  of  the  third,  might 
then  be  devoted  to  such  work  as  is  given  in  the  early  years  of  institutes 
of  technology.  Then  any  boy  could,  in  his  home  city,  fit  himself  to 
enter,  with  advance  credits,  such  an  institution,  or  to  enter  at  once  upon  a 
remunerative  calling.  At  present  we  give  him  a  broad  foundation  from 
which  to  specialize,  but  there  we  leave  him.  If  he  can  get  a  chance  to 
do  just  a  little  more  for  himself,  his  services  will  be  in  demand.  I  am  in 
favor  of  this  higher  work,  but  the  opportunity  to  take  it  should  be  based 
upon  manifest  aptitude. 

From  a  social  point  of  view  the  making  of  manual  training  the  exclu- 
sive function  of  one  school,  classical  education  of  another,  and  com- 
mercial education  of  another,  is  open  to  criticism.  It  fosters  the  caste 
spirit.      It  is    undemocratic.      It  trains   up  a   generation   divided    into 


504  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION        [Manual Training 

groups  less  capable  than  former  generations  of  entering  into  sympathetic 
relations  outside  of  the  group.  It  fosters  in  those  not  manually  trained 
contempt  for  labor  with  the  hands. 

The  girl  who  has  learned  the  theory  and  practice  of  cooking,  and  who 
can  make  her  own  garments,  will  be  a  better  woman,  more  sympathetic, 
more  tolerant,  because  of  such  knowledge  and  skill.  From  a  social  stand- 
point all  should  have  equal  opportunities'  for  manual  training.  The  boy 
who  studies  Greek  and  who  is  going  to  college  has  as  much  need,  physio- 
logically and  psychologically,  of  this  training  as  has  the  boy  who  must 
early  earn  his  own  living,  and  society  is  equally  concerned  with  both 
cases.  Those  not  manually  trained  cannot  appreciate  the  thought  and 
skill  that  enter  into  the  material  things  contributing  to  our  comfort. 
On  the  frontier  there  are  no  class  distinctions.  It  is  possible  to  know 
one's  neighbor.  There  the  cowboy  and  the  millionaire  are  not  far  apart. 
To  know  is  to  sympathize  and  to  appreciate.  The  Rough  Riders  had 
not  all  the  arts  and  graces  of  social  circles,  but  they  knew  their  leaders. 
Wood  and  Roosevelt  knew  and  respected  them,  tho  in  many  particulars 
they  had  little  in  common.  The  nearer  we  get  to  the  centers  of  popula- 
tion, the  greater  is  the  distance  between  man  and  man.  It  is  greater  in 
Chicago  than  in  Denver,  greater  still  in  New  York,  still  greater  in  the 
crowded  cities  of  the  Old  World.  When  this  barrier  between  rich  and 
poor  becomes  high  the  result  is  misunderstanding  and  suffering.  When 
people  give  you  up  you  feel  like  giving  up  too.  The  rich  lose  as  much 
as  the  poor.  They  lose  the  finer  life  of  sympathy.  Personal  intercourse 
is  at  the  foundation  of  all  successful  charity  movements.  There  must  be 
direct  contact  with  problems  before  there  can  be  any  solution.  The  best 
architects  have  had  carpenter's  training.  Physicians  must  know  the  work 
in  the  hospitals.     Theological  students  are  now  sent  to  study  the  slums. 

Present  social  conditions  are  aptly  illustrated  in  the  following  para- 
graph from  the  pen  of  Edward  Everett  Hale  : 

A  strong  and  pathetic  article  in  the  London  Times,  some  thirty  years  ago,  repre- 
sented a  lady  of  high  social  rank  from  one  of  the  fashionable  squares  at  the  West  End 
of  London,  as  she  would  appear  at  the  day  of  judgment,  as  it  is  described  in  the  gospel 
of  Matthew.  It  depicted  her  as  bravely  replying  to  her  Judge  when  he  said  :  "  Inasmuch 
as  ye  did  it  not  to  one  of  the  least  of  these,  ye  did  it  not  to  me."  She  said  to  him  in 
reply  that  he  was  quite  mistaken  if  he  thought  she  had  ever  seen  such  people  as  he 
described.  She  explained  to  him  that  poor  people,  hungry  and  thirsty,  strangers,  naked 
or  sick,  did  not  live  in  the  part  of  London  she  lived  in.  She  explained  to  him  that  she 
neither  walked  nor  drove  in  the  region  of  the  Seven  Dials  or  Whitechapel.  She  told 
him  that  the  police  of  London  were  quite  too  well  regulated  to  {)ermit  sych  people  to 
show  themselves  as  beggars  in  Belgravia  or  Grosvenor  Square.  And  he  was  quite  wrong, 
she  said,  if  he  thought  she  had  refused  to  minister  to  them,  for  the  truth  was  that  she  had 
never  seen  any  of  them,  and  had  had  no  such  opportunity  as  he  supposed. 

The  separation  into  classes  has  gone  far.  The  public  school  should 
not  encourage  this  separation.     It  should  be  a  unifying  force. 


DEPARTMENT  OF  ART  EDUCATION 


SECRETARY'S   MINUTES 


FIRST  SESSION.— Wednesday,  July  ii,  1900 

The  meeting  was  opened  in  South  Carolina  Hall,  at  3 :  30  P.  M.,  with  the  president. 
Miss  Frances  E.  Ransom,  of  New  York,  in  the  chair. 

Miss  Azalea  Willis,  of  the  -Charleston  Art  Club,  received  the  Art  Department  with  an 
address  of  welcome,  which  was  responded  to  by  the  president  in  a  few  remarks  introdu- 
cing her  presidential  address. 

Colonel  Francis  W.  Parker  was  then  introduced,  and  gave  an  address  on  "Art  in 
Everything." 

Miss  Estelle  Potter,  of  Boston,  not  being  present,  Mr.  Fred  J.  Orr,  of  Athens,  Ga., 
read  his  paper  on  "  Picture  Study,  Its  Relation  to  Culture  and  General  Education,"  which 
was  discussed  by  Miss  Gertrude  M.  Edmund,  of  Lowell,  Mass.  The  discussion  was  then 
thrown  open  to  the  house,  and  Miss  Bonnie  Snow,  of  Minneapolis,  Minn.,  and  Mr.  Henry 
T,  Bailey,  of  Massachusetts,  took  part. 

The  following  committees  were  appointed  : 

COMMITTEE  ON  RESOLUTIONS 

Langdon  S.  Thompson,  of  New  Jersey.  Kenry  T.  Bailey,  of  Massachusetts. 

Fred  J.  Orr,  of  Georgia. 

COMMITTEE  ON  NOMINATIONS 

Miss  Gertrude  Edmund,  of  Massachusetts.  Mr.  James  M.  Stone,  of  Massachusetts. 

Miss  M.  A.  Woodmansee,  of  Ohio. 
Adjourned. 

SECOND  SESSION.— Thursday,  July  12 

The  second  session  met  in  the  South  Carolina  Hall,  at  3 :  30  P.  M.,  Miss  Ransom 
presiding. 

Miss  Bonnie  Snow,  of  Minneapolis,  read  the  first  paper  of  the  afternoon.  The 
subject  was,  "  Relative  Value  of  Pencil-Drawing  and  Water-Color  Work  in  Public  Art 
Instruction." 

A  short  discussion  followed,  in  which  Fred  J.  Orr  and  Henry  T.  Bailey  took  part. 

A  paper  on  "The  Relation  of  Nature  Study  to  Drawing  in  the  Public  Schools"  was 
then  given  by  James  M.  Stone,  of  Worcester,  Mass. 

A  short  discussion  followed,  in  which  several  took  part,  and  then  the  business  meet- 
ing followed. 

The  first  committee  to  report  was  the  Committee  of  Ten,  represented  by  the  chair- 
man, Langdon  6.  Thompson.  The  report  was  still  in  an  incomplete  state,  owing  to  the 
impracticability  of  convening  the  committee  and  of  procuring  necessary  funds  for 
expenses.  Mr.  Thompson  thought  another  year  would  enable  him  to  give  a  more  com- 
plete and  satisfactory  report,  and  asked  that  another  year  be  granted  before  giving  the 
full  report. 

A  motion  prevailed  to  extend  the  time  to  1901. 


5o6  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Art 

The  next  committee  to  report  was  the  Committee  on  Resolutions,  which  submitted 
the  following : 

Resolved,  (i)  That  the  hearty  thanks  of  the  Art  Department  of  the  National  Educational  Association 
are  due  to  the  Charleston  Art  Club  for  its  interest  in  the  work  of  the  department  and  its  preparation  for 
the  entertainment  of  visiting  members. 

(2)  Especially  are  thanks  due  to  Miss  Azalea  Willis  for  her  kind  welcome;  to  the  Misses  Alice  and 
Caroline  Smith,  and  to  Mrs.  Robertson,  for  the  decorations  of  the  hall;  and  to  Mr.  Pinckney,  of  the  Com- 
mittee on  Halls,  for  his  kind  attentions  and  preparations  for  the  convenience  of  the  department. 

(3)  That  the  secretary  express  the  most  cordial  thanks  of  the  department  to  Mrs.  Rogers  and  to  Mrs. 
Robertson  for  the  charming  reception  given  to  its  members  on  Wednesday  evening,  July  11  —  a  reception  which 
has  not  been  equaled  in  its  cordiality  and  good-fellowship  during  the  whole  history  of  the  department. 

(4)  That  the  appreciation  of  the  department  is  hereby  expressed  to  Miss  Ransom,  the  outgoing  presi- 
dent, for  her  untiring  efforts  to  arrange  a  helpful  and  inspiring  program  for  the  meeting. 

Henry  T.  Bailey, 
Fred  J.  Orr, 

Committee  on  Resolutions. 

The  election  of  officers  then  took  place.  The  Committee  on  Nominations  reported 
the  following : 

For  President — Miss  Bonnie  Snow,  of  Minneapolis,  Minn. 
For  Vice-President — Henry  T.  Bailey,  of  Boston,  Mass. 
For  Secretary — Fred  J.  Orr,  of  Athens,  Ga. 

The  report  was  unanimously  adopted,  and  the  meeting  adjourned  until  1901. 

M.    W.    WOODMANSEE, 

Secretary. 


PAPERS  AND  DISCUSSIONS 


ADDRESS  OF  WELCOME. 

MISS    AZALEA    HOWARD    WILLIS,    OF    THE    CHARLESTON    ART    CLUB 

Friends  from  the  North,  the  South,  the  East,  and  the  West,  on  behalf 
of  the  Charleston  Art  Club,  I  greet  you.  We  are  proud  to  meet  and 
to  know  SO  able  a  body  of  art  lovers  and  art  instructors  as  is  represented 
by  you,  the  members  of  the  Department  of  Art  Education  of  the  National 
Educational  Association. 

Charleston  opens  wide  her  gates  to  receive  you.  This  river-embraced, 
sea-swept  city  possesses  many  points  of  historic  interest,  and  there  are 
picturesque  nooks  and  corners  which  will  appeal  to  the  eye  artistic.  Go 
down  to  our  Battery  —  where  good  Charlestonians  go  when  they  die,  it  is 
said — when  the  moon  is  flooding  the  bay,  softening  the  stern  outlines  of 
Fort  Sumter  known  in  song  and  story;  see  how  the  forms  of  the  outlying 
cotton  islands  have  melted  into  the  sea  out  on  the  dim  horizon. 

The  old  buildings  and  the  churches,  the  quaint  narrow  streets,  the 
overhanging  balconies,  the  fragrant  shadowy  gardens,  are  all  transformed 
and  mellowed  by  the  wand  of  this  enchantress.  Truly  "she  poetizes 
everything!"  Look  at  the  tiled  roofs  of  bygone  days  when  the  sunshine 
falls  upon  them  and  converts  them  into  silver.  Watch  the  swaying  of 
a  palmetto  tree  —  the  emblem  of  our  state  —  and  listen  to  the  wind-melo- 
4i^s  thru  its  emeral4  fans.     Do  not  these  form  subjects  enough  to  stir 


Department]  PRESIDENTIAL  ADDRESS  50? 

one's  impulse  to  paint?  Alfred  Stevens  declares  that  "painting  is 
nature  seen  through  the  prism  of  an  emotion."  You  who  transfix  upon 
your  canvas  a  sunset  of  purple  and  gold,  or  the  soft  mystery  of  the  silver 
haze  of  a  gray  day,  can  understand  the  full  force  of  this.  No  great  and 
good  work  is  ever  achieved  unless  the  fibers  of  a  man's  being  are  moved 
to  their  very  depths. 

"The  hand  that  rounded  Peter's  dome, 
And  groined  the  aisles  of  Christian  Rome, 
Wrought  with  a  sad  sincerity  ; 
Himself  from  God  he  could  not  free ; 
He  builded  better  than  he  knew ; 
The  conscious  stone  to  beauty  grew." 

Altho  you  come  among  us  today,  many  for  the  first  time,  we  do  not 
think  of  you  as  strangers,  but  as  friends.  There  is  a  strong  bond  of 
sympathy  between  us  by  the  very  nature  of  our  work.  You  are  striving 
to  lift  the  thoughts  of  the  youth  of  our  land  to  an  appreciation  and  love 
of  the  good,  the  true,  and  the  beautiful.  You  are  teaching  them  the 
ennobling  and  uplifting  influences  of  art,  and  that  "a  thing  of  beauty  is 
a  joy  forever."  We,  in  a  modest  way,  are  pursuing  the  same  lines  in 
Charleston  by  the  precepts  of  our  art  teachers  and  the  semi-annual  exhi- 
bitions of  our  Art  Club.  We  can  clasp  hands  in  a  friendly  grasp,  in  full 
accord  each  with  the  other's  aims  and  aspirations. 

We  trust  that  your  visit  to  us  will  be  a  happy  one,  and  that  you  will 
never  regret  the  cry  that  sounded  at  Los  Angeles  one  year  ago :  "  On  to 
Charleston!"  The  days  spent  among  us,  we  hope,  will  in  after-years 
come  to  you  as  some  sweet  musical  strain,  or  the  delicate  fragrance  of 
some  loved  flower.  When  you  have  returned  to  your  respective  homes, 
after  your  sojourn  in  our  quiet  southern  city,  we  pray  you  to  paint  our 
portraits  to  hang  in  memory's  gallery  with  the  brush  of 

"  A  flattering  painter  who  made  it  his  care 
To  draw  men  as  they  ought  to  be,  not  as  they  are." 


RESPONSE  AND  PRESIDENTIAL  ADDRESS 

MISS    FRANCES    E.    RANSOM,    DIRECTOR    OF    DRAWING,    NEW    YORK    TRAINING 
SCHOOL    FOR    TEACHERS,  NEW   YORK    CITY 

Miss   Willis  of  the  Charleston  Art  Club,  Ladies  and  Gentlemen  : 

It  gives  me  the  greatest  pleasure  to  respond   to  the  cordial  welcome 

extended  to  us  by  Miss  Willis  on  behalf  of  the  Charleston  Art  Club. 

The  southerners  have  always  had  the  reputation  of  being  the  most 

hospitable  entertainers  in  the  world,  and  Charleston  has  lived  up  to  this 

reputation,  for  she  has  opened  wide  her  portals  and  bidden  us  enter  and 

enjoy  all  things  to  the  fullest  extent. 


5o8  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Art 

We  shall  take  great  pleasure  in  seeing  the  beauties  of  this  interest- 
ing city,  in  becoming  acquainted  with  its  people,  and  in  carrying  away 
pleasant  memories  and  inspiration  for  our  coming  year's  work. 

We  are  gathered  here  in  the  South  today  from  the  far  West,  the 
North,  and  the  East  —  gathered  together  to  listen  to  those  who  will 
give  us  the  most  advanced  thoughts  along  the  lines  of  art  instruction 
for  the  public  school. 

The  larger  part  of  the  membership  of  this  department  shifts  and 
changes  each  year,  depending  largely  upon  the  territory  in  which  the 
meeting  is  held.  This  is  more  or  less  true  of  every  department,  but 
decidedly  so  of  the  Art  Department,  because  of  so  many  local  associa- 
tions meeting  during  the  year  and  taking  in  certain  sections  of  the 
country.  For  instance,  the  East  has  the  Eastern  Drawing  Teachers' 
Association,  the  West  has  the  Western  Drawing  Teachers'  Association,  and 
the  South  has  several  of  these  gatherings  during  the  year. 

Yet  year  after  year,  when  this  department  holds  its  sessions,  we  dis- 
cuss the  question  asked  by  Herbert  Spencer  some  forty  years  ago  —  that 
old  question  which,  when  it  was  first  asked,  created  such  a  sensation, 
but  which,  as  time  goes  on,  we  take  as  a  matter  of  course,  and  use  as  a 
rudder  in  determining  the  drift  of  our  work — the  question:  What  knowl- 
edge is  of  most  worth  ? 

The  time  was  when  the  question  was  asked  of  us :  Should  art  instruc- 
tion have  any  place  in  our  public  schools  ?  Time  and  results  have  solved 
this  problem  of  self-preservation,  and  now  we  come  to  the  second  prin- 
ciple of  life  —  that  of  self-expansion,  and  the  question  becomes  :  What 
particular  knowledge  in  our  subject  is  of  most  worth  and  will  lead  to 
the  greatest  expansion  ? 

As  we  stand  on  the  threshold  of  1900  and  look  back  and  see  what 
has  been  accomplished  within  an  incredibly  short  time,  we  feel  great 
encouragement  to  look  forward  and  build  high  hopes  for  the  future. 

We  need  the  united  intelligence  and  experience  of  all  practical  edu- 
cators to  make  the  work  more  of  a  unified  whole.  And  to  be  practical 
workers  we  must  not  isolate  ourselves  from  educational  workers  in  other 
subjects,  since  the  same  educational  principles  govern  both,  and  we  should 
be  able  to  understand  our  work  in  relation  to  other  branches  if  we  would 
get  the  true  placing  of  our  own  in  the  life  of  the  individual. 

That  knowledge  is  of  most  worth  which  becomes  a  part  of  our  life. 
If  this  is  true,  then  it  becomes  necessary  to  eliminate  all  nonessentials; 
for  any  knowledge  not  applied  or  translated  into  life  weakens  the  acquisi- 
tive powers.  The  brain  power,  then,  should  be  given  only  to  those 
things  which  make  life  fuller  and  richer. 

There  is  no  subject  in  our  course  of  study  which  has  the  term  "fad" 
applied  to  it  so  often  as  that  of  drawing.  This  is  largely  due  to  the 
amount  of  experimenting   that  the  subject  has   undergone  in  order  to 


Department]  ART  IN  EVERYTHING  SOQ 

reach  its  present  stage.  There  is  still  much  experimenting  going  on, 
and  as  the  years  go  by  we  learn  to  keep  the  good  and  eliminate  the 
worthless.  But  as  long  as  there  is  growth  there  will  be  more  or  less 
experimenting.  We  have  swung  around  our  triangle  of  construction, 
representation,  and  decoration  again  and  again,  each  year  changing  the 
comparative  length  of  the  sides.  At  present  the  tendency  is  to  lengthen 
the  decorative,  or  space-art,  side,  at  the  expense  of  the  representative 
side,  while  construction,  which  for  some  lime  has  been  the  shortest  side, 
is  now  growing  in  importance  because  of  its  relation  to  the  space  arts. 

We  hope  to  get  some  light  on  the  proper  balancing  of  these  three 
sides  of  the  question  during  this  session  of  the  National  Educational 
Association. 

We,  as  Americans,  must  work  out  this  question  by  ourselves,  as  no 
other  country  has  ever  experimented  with  public  art  instruction ;  and  as 
we  are  the  only  people  who  have  dared  to  go  into  new  and  untried  fields, 
so  are  we  the  only  people  who  give  to  each  and  every  one  the  oppor- 
tunity of  developing  his  individuality  to  the  highest  possible  fulfillment. 

Art  is  an  expression  of  the  individual  —  of  his  thoughts,  his  hopes,  his 
ideals.  Our  work  is  fascinating,  and  at  times  such  as  to  lead  us  to  forget 
this  and  to  lose  ourselves  in  the  work  itself,  and  so  mistake  the  means 
for  the  end. 

But  we  are  always  brought  back  by  the  reflection  of  the  individual  in 
his  work  —  brought  back  to  the  fact  that  the  individual  is  always  greater 
than  his  work;  that  after  all  we  are  modeling  life,  not  clay,  and  in  the 
words  of  Kipling  we  cry : 

Lord  God  of  Hosts,  be  with  us  yet, 
Lest  we  forget,  lest  we  forget ! 


ART  IN  E VER Y THING 

PRESIDENT    FRANCIS    W.    PARKER,    CHICAGO    INSTITUTE,    CHICAGO,    ILL. 

Our  educational  problems  are  comparatively  new  ones,  Hitherto  we 
have  used  the  principles  and  methods  of  the  old  world.  Its  greatest 
problem  is  the  education  of  willing  and  obedient  subjects,  which  is 
necessarily  a  truncated  education.  The  subject  must  not  look  beyond 
the  necessities  of  fixed  forms  of  government,  and  therefore  the  principles 
and  methods  of  such  education  all  tend  toward  that  one  ideal.  The  para- 
mount duty  of  America  is  to  educate  its  children  into  the  highest  type  of 
citizenship.  Our  destination  is  either  self-government  or  anarchy.  We 
must  choose  between  them.  The  great  task  of  the  schools  is  to  decide 
whether  the  realization  o*f  self-government  is  possible.  "Put  into  the 
school  that  which  you  would  have  in  the  state,"  is  an  old  and  sound 
maxim.     It  has  been  rigidly  followed  with  comparative  success  by  rulers 


5 1  o  NA  TIONAL  ED  UCA  TIONAL  ASSOC! A  TION  [Art 

who  wish  to  maintain  a  fixed  form  of  government — 1  say  comparative 
success,  because  education  into  final  beliefs  has  sidetracks  toward  freedom. 

Our  American  educational  ideal  must  be  an  everlasting  evolution 
into  higher  life,  into  a  vigorously  growing  state  of  society,  into  the 
elimination  of  wrong  and  the  institution  of  righteousness.  In  place  of 
the  training  of  subjects,  as  is  the  case  in  the  Old  World,  we  have  the 
problem  of  the  education  of  the  citizen  for  sovereignty.  The  weakness  or 
strength  of  central  governments  is  found  in  police  or  armies  ;  in  America 
it  is  found  in  individual  character. 

We  had  no  other  way  at  first  than  to  take  the  means  and  methods  of 
aristocracies  to  guide  us  in  educating  a  democracy.  When  we  began 
there  were  no  fundamental  principles  and  worked-out  methods  for  the 
education  of  a  free  people.  We  took  by  necessity  that  which  mediaeval 
times  offered  us.  The  conflict  between  the  antipodal  ideas  is  now  on. 
We  have  been  accustomed  to  call  the  common  school  "  the  bulwark  of 
liberty,  the  foundation  of  a  free  government."  These  high-sounding 
phrases  have  been  to  us  little  more  than  glittering  generalities.  We 
have  made  a  slight  beginning  in  a  study  of  the  relations  of  the  school  to 
the  state. 

Sociology,  it  is  true,  is  vigorously  working  its  way  toward  a  science. 
Its  connection,  however,  with  elementary  education  is  exceedingly  slight. 
We  recognize  the  fact  that  "  the  child  of  today  is  the  citizen  of  tomor- 
row;" that  "the  school  is  society  shaping  itself."  Still,  the  learned 
sociologists  of  the  universities,  busy  in  a  discussion  of  the  present  state  of 
society,  have  not  reached  the  central  problem  —  the  education  of  the 
child  into  the  citizen.  The  bonds,  the  terrible  bonds,  of  tradition  are 
hard  to  break.  Tradition  makes  us  blind  to  the  real  situation.  We  do 
not  yet  clearly  see  that  the  guide  of  all  education  is  the  present  state  of 
society  and  its  needs.  We  must  put  into  the  school  that  which  we  would 
have  in  society.  A  wrong  interpretation  of  this  maxim  brings  disaster. 
For  instance,  elementary  training  for  a  trade  or  vocation  means  human 
predestination,  which  is  the  crippling  and  deforming  of  the  individual. 
Self-choice  is  the  essential  element  of  liberty. 

Only  that  to  which  the  whole  being  eagerly  and  cordially  and  perma- 
nently responds  should  be  chosen  as  the  ideal  in  education.  Character 
read  in  terms  of  true  citizenship  includes  and  comprehends  every  quality 
and  qualification  of  true  manhood.  Education  into  citizenship  demands 
self-choice  all  along  the  line;  demands  initiation,  creation,  imagination, 
and  reason;  it  determines  the  subjects  of  thought;  it  also  determines  the 
skill  in  expression  which  the  individual  must  acquire.  In  fact,  education 
into  citizenship  is  the  one  guide  in  making  courses  of  study  and  in  the 
adaptation  of  subjects  of  study  to  the  individuals. 

Vocation  is  the  fundamental  means  of  putting  personality  into  life. 
The  community-value  of  a  vocation  is  that  which  it  gives  to  society  for 


Department  J  ART  IN  E  VER  Y  THING  5 1 1 

its  good  and  growth.  The  personal  value  of  a  vocation  is  found  in  the 
best  one  can  do  for  all.  The  quality  of  needed- work  done  is  the  best  for 
both  society  and  the  individual.  Doing  the  best  demands  the  highest 
motive.  We  will  all  grant  that  one  of  the  fundamental  weaknesses  under 
which  society  suffers  is  careless,  shiftless,  and  indifferent  work  —  work 
that  falls  short  of  its  intentions.  A  valid  arraignment  may  be  made  in  a 
few  words.  It  is  difficult  to  state  the  worst  or  to  comprehend  the  bounda- 
ries of  shiftlessness.  Bad  cooking,  stomach-destroying,  liver-hardening 
comestibles  head  the  list.  More  human  beings  are  killed  or  doomed  to 
lives  of  hopeless  misery  thru  bad  cooking  than  thru  whisky.  To  be  sure, 
indigestible  food  does  its  work  more  quietly  than  alcohol,  but  its  very 
quietness  seems  to  be  its  greatest  source  of  peril.  There  is  no  good 
reason  why  the  fatal  effects  of  a  greasy  doughnut  should  not  be  shown  in 
pictured  text-books  by  the  side  of  the  evil  effects  of  alcoholic  intoxication. 

The  category  of  bad  work  is  a  long  one.  Build  a  house,  employ  an 
architect,  make  a  contract,  employ  a  superintendent  to  watch  the  con- 
tractor, watch  everything  yourself,  and  then  thank  God  if  the  first  heavy 
rain  does  not  penetrate  the  roof.  Put  the  health  of  your  family  into  the 
hands  of  a  plumber,  and  have  him  defy  all  the  laws  of  hygiene  and  sani- 
tation—  pipes  on  the  cold  side  of  the  house,  traps  that  leak,  filling  the 
house  with  deadly  sewer-gas.  These  are  the  common  experiences  — 
common  not  only  to  the  trades,  but  to  the  professions.  One  per  cent,  of 
the  lawyers  do  the  main  business  of  law.  The  ignorance  of  the  average 
physician  is  appalling.  We  search  the  world  for  ministers  to  establis];! 
genuine  life-saving  stations.  And  as  for  competent  teachers  —  it 
behooves  me  to  say  little.  If  you  need  a  first-class  teacher,  try  to  find 
one  !  Am  I  wrong  in  declaring  that  the  world  is  filled  with  incompe- 
tents, with  persons  who  have  never  learned  to  do  real,  genuine,  honest 
work?  You  may,  of  course,  point  to  the  many  exceptions  —  so  can  I; 
but  they  only  prove  the  rule. 

Who  is  responsible?  What  is  responsible?  Not  the  schools  alone. 
Such  an  indictment  would  be  terrible,  if  true;  but  it  is  not  entirely  true. 
There  are  other  causes.  But  this  is  true  :  the  common  school  is  the  one 
place  where  the  whole  people  can  engage  in  remedying  the  terrible 
evils  of  shiftlessness,  carelessness,  incomplete  work.  "The  home  has 
much  to  answer  for,"  you  say.  Yes ;  and  where  are  the  home-keepers 
Jirained  ?  "The  church  does  not  do  its  whole  duty  in  calling  attention 
to  the  divine  words,  'He  that  doeth  righteousness  is  righteous,'"  you 
say.  Yes  ;  but  where  are  most  of  the  Sunday-school  children  educated  ? 
Inefficient  work  is  immoral :  its  main  stimulus  is  money,  reward,  or  fame 
—  generally  money.  Genuine  work  must  have  a  high,  noble  incentive  — 
an  incentive  that  means  putting  something  really  good  into  human  life. 
Work  for  a  low  motive  is  always  drudgery.  The  best  work,  however 
difficult,  carries  with  it  enthusiasm,  exhilaration,  strong  interest.     It  is  a 


512  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Art 

truism  that  an  ideal  determines  everything  that  goes  into  its  realization. 
Most  of  the  children  in  the  schools  work  or  drudge  for  the  lowest 
motives  —  per  cents,  rewards,  promotions,  degrees.  They  are  thus  sys- 
tematically trained  into  selfishness.  Working  for  per  cents  and  degrees 
means,  generally,  short-cuts  to  the  goal — a  goal  that  is  worthless  in  itself. 
Millions  of  children  struggling  for  paltry  rewards  and  millions  of  men 
shortening  the  line  between  themselves  and  the  money  they  work  for! 
Is  one  the  cause  and  the  other  the  effect?  If  not,  what  relation  do  they 
bear  to  each  other? 

The  needs  of  the  school  are  the  needs  of  society ;  the  needs  of  the 
school  are  the  needs  of  the  individual.  The  human  body  is  the  product 
of  countless  generations  of  evolution.  Heredity  is  ancestral  environment 
begetting  ancestral  activities.  The  agents  of  expression  and  the  physical 
agents  of  perception  have  been  evolved  by  expression  and  perception. 
Shall  this  evolution  of  countless  generations  continue  moving  upward  to 
higher  planes,  or  shall  nerves  and  muscles  become  weakened  by  disuse  ? 
Shall  the  arm,  for  instance,  with  all  its  possibilities  of  development, 
remain  unused  in  expression  while  the  brain  is  stuffed  with  useless  words? 
The  physical  agents  —  nay,  the  whole  body — demands  expression  of  all 
kinds  and  that  continually  :  its  inner  growth  and  development  depend 
upon  all-sided  thought-manifestation.  Every  nerve-center,  ganglion,  and 
nerve  has  its  evolutionary  history  by  specific  activity.  These  agents  of 
thought-power  were  created  by  activity  for  activity.  Knowledge  cumu- 
lates and  culminates  in  expression.  The  manifestation  of  a  thought 
means  knowledge  changed  to  nutrition  ^ — knowledge  that  is  memory  and 
power  at  the  same  time.  Expression  focuses  brain,  mind,  and  motive. 
Motive  is  thought-direction.  Thought,  knowledge  unexpressed  is  stag- 
nant, incomplete,  useless.  It  is  safe  to  say  that  most  children  are  starved 
in  school  for  lack  of  knowledge  made  nutritious  by  expression. 

The  modes  of  expression — gesture,  voice,  speech,  music,  making, 
modeling,  painting,  drawing,  and  writing  — have  been  developed  by 
expression,  each  of  its  kind  and  in  its  kind.  The  co-ordination  of 
muscles,  the  growth  of  nerves,  are  the  physical  evolutions  thru  expres- 
sion. Each  mode  of  expression  has  its  special  and.  peculiar  function. 
In  its  reaction  upon  consciousness,  in  the  development  of  nerve-power, 
and  in  the  evolution  of  moral  qualities,  all  the  modes,  each  and  every 
mode  in  turn,  have  a  mutual  relation  to  all  the  others  —  in  unifying  and 
strengthening  mental  and  moral  power.  All  the  modes  of  expression  arfe 
one  in  developing  motive  and  morals,  in  reaction  of  thought,  and  in 
making  the  body  an  expression  of  the  will.  But  there  may  be  a  con- 
tinuous expression  of  thought  and  skill,  and  yet  little  or  no  education. 

Physiological  psychology  has  brought  us  some  great  truths  —  truths 
that  are  reconciled  to  the  soundest  common-sense.  I  know  of  no 
more  important  pedagogical  truth  than  this  :   the  quality  of  expression 


Department]  ART  IN  E  VER  Y THING  5  1 3 

determines  the  quality  of  growth  of  the  nerve-centers  used  in  expression. 
We  now  take  it  for  granted  that  mind-action  depends  upon  physical 
nerve-action ;  that  there  is  the  closest  relation  between  the  two.  Con- 
scious action  that  does  not  move  into  expression  is  retarded  and  weak- 
ened. Take  an  image  in  consciousness  for  the  initiatory;  that  image  has 
a  strong  tendency  to  move  outward,  manifest  itself  to  others.  The 
quality  of  the  image  determines  the  quality  of  the  nerve-action,  if  the 
image  is  expressed.  The  quality  of  the  expression  determines,  also,  the 
quality  of  the  physical  agent  in  expression.  Then  with  this  physical 
basis  of  nerves  we  have  the  expression  thru  physical  agents.  The  educa- 
tive value  of  thought  expressed  is  determined  by  the  motive  of  the 
expression.  The  higher  the  motive,  the  better  the  thought,  the  better  the 
nerve-action.  Education,  then,  from  first  to  last,  means  the  best  that  one 
can  do. 

Art  is  doing  the  best  under  the  highest  motive  of  which  the  doer  is 
capable.  Art  depends  upon  quality  of  thought  and  expression.  Like 
beauty  and  taste,  art  can  never  be  defined  except  from  a  personal  stand- 
point. It  is  entirely  a  personal  matter.  It  means  one's  selfhood ;  it 
reveals  one's  best  thought  and  emotions  to  others.  Art  is  best  doing  in 
every  way,  and  best  doing  depends  entirely  upon  motive.  The  best  may 
be  a  daub,  a  blotch,  a  shapeless  mass  of  clay,  a  discordant  cry,  but  it  is 
art  if  it  is  the  best.  When  that  best  is  felt  by  others,  when  it  reveals  the 
selfhood  of  the  artist,  when  it  tells  something  to  the  observer  of  the 
inner  nature  of  the  one  who  expresses  thought,  then  it  is  line  art.  All 
the  steps  up  to  fine  art  are  thru  art.     Fine  art  is  the  highest  plane  of  art. 

From  these  facts  we  may  get  some  sound  pedagogical  principles  : 

1.  Expression  should  always  be  educative  art. 

2.  All  the  modes  and  agents  of  expression  should  be  brought  into  the 
fullest  and  most  complete  action. 

3.  There  can  be  no  expression  without  thought  or  knowledge  behind 
it.  The  bare  technique  of  modes  of  expression  has  little  that  is  educative 
in  it.  The  real  education  springs  from  the  expression  of  growing 
thought,  which  has  its  sources  in  the  study  of  man  and  nature. 

4.  Expression  should  always  be  the  genuine  reflex  of  the  pupil's 
thought.  The  moment  it  ceases  to  be  this  genuine  reflex  it  degrades 
itself  into  mere  imitation. 

5.  Opportunities  of  expression  spring  from  a  close  and  careful  study 
of  man  and  nature.  All  knowledge  thus  gained  becomes  thru  expression 
nutrition,  and  each  mode  of  expression  has  its  particular  reacting 
function. 

6.  The  quality  of  expression  determines  its  educative  value.  Expres- 
sion is  educative  movement. 

The  results  of  education  are  all  found  in  the  growth  of  the  indi- 
vidual ;    in    the   growth    of    muscle,    brain,    mind,    and    motive.     The 


514  NA  TIONAL  ED  UCA  TtONAL  ASSOCIA  TlON  [Art 

expressed  product  is  the  one  means  by  which  this  growth  can  be  watched 
and  criticised. 

7.  Doing  the  best  always  arouses  enthusiasm,  earnestness,  and  courage 
on  the  part  of  the  doer.  It  stimulates  persistence  and  opens  a  vista  of 
better  things  before. 

PICTURE  STUDY— ITS  RELATION  TO  CULTURE  AND 
GENERAL  EDUCATION 

FRED  J.  ORR,  SUPERVISOR  OF  DRAWING,  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL,  ATHENS,  GA. 

As  I  have  thought  of  this  subject,  pictures  in  the  schoolroom  seem  to 
have  two  general  values,  namely,  cultural  and  technical ;  cultural,  as 
they  have  to  do  with  the  training  of  mind,  morals,  and  taste ;  and  tech- 
nical, as  they  may  aid  in  the  use  of  one  or  another  medium  of  pictorial 
expression. 

The  question  of  the  relation  of  picture  study  to  education  calls  into 
debate  the  province  of  art.  If  art  creations  have  no  higher  purpose  than 
to  chase  away  sadness,  as  Pericles  put  it ;  or  merely  to  give  pleasure,  as  a 
modern  German  expresses  it,  then  art  has  not  served  its  highest  calling, 
tho  it  may  perform  in  either  or  both  these  spheres  and  do  well. 

One  definition  of  a  work  of  art  is  that  it  is  "the  manifestation  of  some 
essential  or  salient  character,  consequently  some  important  idea,  clearer 
and  more  completely  than  is  attainable  from  real  objects."  This  means 
that  the  artist  must  possess  the  power  to  suppress  and  select  to  such  a 
degree  that  his  finished  work  presents  only  the  concentrated  essence  of 
the  matter  in  hand.  If  this  is  true,  we  may  arrive  quickly  at  the  conclu- 
sion that  a  work  of  art  is  always  a  medium  of  interpretation.  It  is  the 
distilled  product  of  a  master's  skill.  It  is  "man  added  to  nature;"  as 
in  the  case  of  Leonardo  — "  through  whose  soul,  as  through  a  clear  glass,  the 
bright  figures  of  Florentine  life,  only  made  a  little  mellower  and  more 
pensive  by  the  transit,  passed  on  to  the  opposite  wall."  Hence,  when  we 
come  before  the  canvas,  it  is  with  another's  eyes  that  we  behold.  And 
thru  this  borrowed  vision  we  may  see  beauty  as  a  "transformer  of  the 
crude  wealth  of  material  goods  into  things  of  spiritual  value." 

So,  a  master's  picture  may  be  an  interpretation  of  ideals  :  ideals  of 
intellectual  life ;  of  moral  life ;  of  beauty  and  the  sense  of  fitness ;  and 
of  all  these  combined.  The  art  of  the  Greeks  was  an  embodiment  in 
marble  of  the  ideal  of  physical  manhood  which,  for  four  hundred  years, 
they  had  endeavored  to  realize.  And  Lessing  states  that  "these  beautiful 
statues,  fashioned  from  beautiful  men,  reacted  upon  their  creators ;  and  the 
state  was  indebted  for  its  beautiful  men  to  its  beautiful  statues."  It  is  the 
reflex  influence  of  the  best  qualities  of  character  represented  in  art  that 
is  to  benefit  those  who  study  pictures;  and  the  benefit  will  come,  either 
in  giving  form  to  a  poorly  defined  ambition,  or  by  inspiring  a  desire  and 


Department]  PICTURE  STUDY  515 

love  for  higher  things,  which  did  not  exist  before.  The  "  pure  ideal " 
within  many  a  breast  dies  for  a  want  of  development.  And  I  believe  the 
lowest  and  poorest  can  be  made  to  look  upward  if  we  but  find  the  instru- 
ment which  is  strong  enough,  and  yet  simple  enough,  to  fix  the  gaze. 
A  picture  attracts  most  strongly  thru  the  simplicity  of  its  appeal.  The 
lesson  which  a  poet-artist  with  his  superior  insight  has  extracted  from 
nature  is  before  us  in  plain  and  beautiful  terms  —  easy  and  delightful  to 
understand.  Thus,  such  a  picture  as  Millet's  "Angelus,"  with  its  simple 
landscape  and  two  figures,  may  teach,  as  Drummond  says  of  it,  love,  work, 
and  worship ;  or  a  Bastien-Lepage  may  inspire  purpose  and  patriotism  by 
his  peasant  Joan  ;  or  a  Da  Vinci  may  show  us  in  a  single  face,  according 
to  Pater,  ten  thousand  experiences  and  all  modes  of  thought  and  life. 

And  so,  dormant  impulses  and  sleeping  activities  may  be  aroused  by 
a  revelation  of  what  is  worthy  and  what  is  worthless ;  we  may  discover, 
not  only  what  we  like,  but  what  is  worth  liking ;  taste  and  duty  may  be 
harmonized,  and  beauty  made  interpreter  of  goodness  and  truth. 

Concerning  the  technical  values  :  I  quote  from  Emerson  that  "  man 
is  only  half  himself,  the  other  half  is  his  expression."  And  most  fre- 
quently the  latter  half  is  painfully  unable  to  give  utterance  to  itself.  The 
separation  between  abilities  of  conception  and  perception,  and  those  of 
expression,  is  wide.     As  someone  has  said  : 

The  thought  that  most  thrills  our  existence  is  one 
Which,  before  we  can  frame  it  in  language,  is  gone. 

In  order  to  sharpen  the  tongue  or  make  facile  the  pen,  to  every  youth 
is  given,  for  study,  examples  of  masters  who  have  excelled  in  the  use  of 
written  and  spoken  language.  And,  to  appreciate  musical  composition 
and  harmony,  we  are  trained  to  repeat  the  melodies  of  a  Bach  or  Wagner. 
In  like  manner,  to  render  practical  the  powers  of  pictorial  expression,  the 
mind  must  be  saturated  with  the  excellencies  of  a  Raphael  and  an  Angelo, 
a  Rembrandt  and  a  Millet.  Ruskin  wrote  that  "the  more  extensive  your 
acquaintance  is  with  the  works  of  those  who  have  excelled,  the  more 
extensive  will  be  your  powers  of  invention ;  and,  what  may  appear  still 
more  like  a  paradox,  the  more  original  will  be  your  conception."  Wil- 
liam Morris  Hunt  has  said  practically  the  same  thing. 

Now,  intimacy  with  products  of  brush,  crayon,  or  pencil  can  in  no 
way  be  so  well  cultivated  as  by  the  effort  to  reproduce.  This  does  not 
mean  to  argue  for  one  moment  that  servile  copying  is  healthful.  The 
benefit  lies  in  the  study  of  methods,  and,  as  above,  the  borrowing  of 
another's  eyes  for  awhile  to  give  training  in  the  task  of  elimination  and 
selection.  To  see  what  another  has  done,  and  thereby  in  some  degree  to 
understand  the  range  of  possibilities,  and  the  manner  of  their  accom- 
plishment, is  of  immense  value  to  the  amateur. 

An  urchin  of  Phil  May's  or  Edith  Farmiloe's,  to  illustrate  vitality  in 
a  line  ;  a  reproduction  from  Gibson,  to  show  daftness  in  handling ;  a  study 


Sl6  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Art 

of  Ross  Turner  for  flowers  and  foliage  ;  of  Pennell  for  a  street  scene. 
Or  we  may  study  a  Millet  for  composition  ;  a  Rembrandt  for  light  and 
dark  effects  ;  the  Japanese  for  their  beautiful  arrangements  in  notan  ;  or 
a  Michael  Angelo  for  magnificent  lines.  And  so  the  student  finds  here 
a  bit  of  concentrated  expression,  as  it  were ;  there  an  effect  of  texture  ; 
in  this,  vivid  sun  effects  and  atmospheric  qualities  ;  in  that,  a  lesson  in 
perspective. 

Or,  again,  the  same  instruction  may  be  had  from  reproductions  in 
other  fields  of  art,  as :  to  gain  ideas  of  good  proportion  from  a  picture  of 
the  Parthenon ;  or  of  graceful  line  from  a  Gothic  arch,  or  from  a  Greek 
"  Victory  ;  "  or  of  space  arrangement  from  a  Venetian  facade  or  Giotto's 
Tower. 

Picture  study  is  therefore  valuable  in  placing  before  young  minds  the 
teachings  of  great  men  who  have  been  able  to  present  their  lessons  in 
simple  and  attractive  form,  easily  understood  and  gladly  studied.  Their 
delineations  of  great  themes  inspire  thought  and  a  desire  for  truth  ;  their 
outlines  of  figures  and  faces  shine  with  goodness  and  spirituality ;  and 
their  combinations  of  line  and  space,  shade  and  shadow,  satisfy  the  yearn- 
ing for  that  which  pleases  and  delights  the  eye. 

It  is  also  practical  in  the  union  of  the  beautiful  and  useful,  in  the 
combination  of  the  theory  and  practice  of  aesthetics,  and  in  exciting  a 
desire  to  create  as  well  as  to  copy. 

It  is  in  a  double  sense  cultural  and  educative. 


THE  RELATIVE  VALUE   OF  BRUSH  AND  PENCIL  AS 
MEDIUMS  OF  EXPRESSION 

MISS    BONNIE    SNOW,    SUPERVISOR    OF    DRAWING,    MINNEAPOLIS,    MINN. 

There  has  been  during  the  last  two  or  three  years  a  great  wave  of 
enthusiasm  for  the  use  of  the  brush  and  color,  which  has  swept  over  the 
educational  world  and  whose  influence  has  been  felt  in  nearly  every  city 
and  town  where  drawing  is  included  in  the  public-school  course  of  study. 
Teachers  and  pupils  alike  have  caught  the  infection.  The  school  exhibits 
displayed  in  educational  conventions  during  the  last  two  years  have  been 
almost  entirely  in  color.  Old  courses  of  study  have  been  neglected,  and 
many  principles  of  drawing  formerly  considered  fundamental  and  of 
great,  importance  have  received  recently  little  or  no  attention  because  of 
the  emphasis  given  to  the  new  medium.  No  one  can  doubt,  in  the  face 
of  such  overwhelming  evidence  as  to  the  delight  of  the  children  in  this 
new  work,  that  it  possesses  immense  educational  value.  No  one  who  has 
experienced  its  phenomenal  development,  its  influence  on  the  attitude  of 
the  children,  not  only  toward  their  work  in  drawing,  but  in  many  instances 


Department]  RELATIVE  VALUE  OF  BRUSH  AND  PENCIL  517 

toward  their  whole  school  life,  can  question  its  right  to  a  large  place  in 
the  adjustment  of  our  curriculum. 

However,  without  becoming  unduly  critical,  it  will  do  no  harm  to  take 
a  calm  and  retrospective  view  of  what  we  have  been  doing  for  the  last 
year  or  two,  with  a  view  of  determining  whether  or  not  we  have  been 
carried  too  far,  thru  our  love  for  color,  and  whether  we  have  held  fast 
that  which  is  good  in  our  effort  to  prove  all  things. 

The  Minneapolis  exhibit  of  pupils'  work  which  hangs  in  an  adjoining 
room  may  properly  be  considered  an  illustration  of  half  of  the  subject 
announced  —  the  value  of  the  brush  as  a  means  of  expression.  It  may 
also  be  taken  as  typical  of  the  character  of  work  resulting  from  this  wave 
of  enthusiasm  for  color  and  the  brush.  It  bears  witness  to  the  intense 
interest  taken  in  the  new  medium  by  children  and  teachers,  and  it  also 
stands  as  a  living  example  to  be  pointed  at  by  the  more  conservative  of 
our  friends  who  are  lifting  a  warning  voice  against  what  seems  to  them 
the  overwhelming  predominance  given  to  the  brush  as  a  tool  in  the  hands 
of  children,  and  who  loudly  regret  the  passing  of  the  pencil.  While  it 
is  possible,  and  very  likely  probable,  that  our  enthusiasm  for  color  has 
carried  us  too  far  away  from  the  standards,  the  methods,  and  the  instru- 
ments of  the  past,  we  must  remember  two  things : 

First,  to  fall  very  much  in  love  with  an  idea,  to  be  greatly  influenced 
by  it,  to  be  what  is  called  entirely  carried  away  with  it,  is  not  in  itself  a 
bad  thing;  it  is  a  very  good  thing,  even  if,  while  under  the  spell  and 
charm  of  this  idea,  we  are  not  always  as  coolly  judicial  as  when  the  fire  of 
enthusiasm  has  died  down.  Time,  tide,  and  the  resistless  influences  of 
passing  events  can  be  depended  upon  to  correct  extremes.  It  really  is 
better  to  have  loved  and  lost  than  never  to  have  loved  at  all ;  and,  if  we 
can  still  love  without  losing,  surely  'twere  a  consummation  devoutly  to 
be  wished. 

Second,  we  cannot  but  perceive  that  the  objections  to  the  too  exclusive 
use  of  the  brush  come  mainly  from  those  interested  in  the  publication  of 
drawing-books  and  from  the  manufacturers  of  pencils.  The  inference  is 
obvious.  We  do  not  say  that  the  objections  come  solely  from  these 
sources,  or  that  such  objections  are  not  without  foundation.  We  believe 
that  they  contain  something  more  than  the  elements  of  truth,  and  it  is 
the  purpose  of  this  discussion  to  look  at  both  sides  of  the  question,  to 
admit  the  weaknesses  and  omissions  of  the  work  of  the  last  year,  and  ear- 
nestly to  seek  for  that  which  will  strengthen  it  and  make  it  more  complete. 
We  must  remember,  however,  that  it  is  not  really  the  brush  or  the  pencil, 
water-color  or  charcoal,  pen  or  pastel,  which  is  of  the  slightest  conse- 
quence, except  as  they  concern  the  happiness  and  well-being,  the  useful- 
ness and  open-mindedness,  the  proper  culture  and  development,  of  that 
most  interesting  organism  in  the  created  world  —  the  little  child.  Let 
us  especially  remember,  then,  his  interests  and  desires  —  his  needs,  his 


5i8  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Art 

difficulties  and  dangers  —  and  be  sure  that  whatever  is  best  for  him  is  best 
for  the  course  of  study  which  he  shall  pursue,  is  best  for  his  community 
and  for  his  race. 

Scientific  people  tell  us  that  a  child  is  a  very  different  sort  of  human 
being  from  a  man.  He  has  a  very  different  nervous  organism,  and  he 
uses  very  different  sets  of  muscles.  We  know  that  he  requires  food  of  a 
very  different  nature ;  that  certain  faculties  of  his  mind,  as  well  as  func- 
tions of  his  body,  are  not  developed  in  early  life.  We  are  discovering 
that  certain  occupations  which  require  the  exercise  of  large  muscles  are 
better  for  him  than  those  which  force  the  action  or  growth  of  the  smaller 
and  finer  muscles.  For  instance,  he  may  throw  balls,  pound  nails,  model 
in  large  masses  of  clay,  or  write  on  a  blackboard  with  a  large  piece  of 
chalk,  employing  in  all  these  activities  the  larger  muscles  of  the  hand  and 
arm.  He  must  not  write  with  a  pen,  or  set  fine  stitches  with  a  cambric 
needle,  or  string  tiny  beads  upon  a  tiny  thread.  He  must  do  things  in  a 
large  way,  and  out  of  this  largeness  and  generosity  will  come  in  time  a 
love  of  beauty  in  a  more  finished  state,  the  desire  for  skill  and  perfection, 
attainable  when  the  proper  time  comes,  because  of  flexibility  in  mind  and 
muscles  which  have  not  become  deformed,  stiffened,  or  cramped  by  mis- 
directed effort.  There  is  a  time  for  all  things,  but  the  time  for  technical 
precision,  for  accuracy  of  form,  for  beauty  of  line  if  you  like,  is  not  in  the 
earlier  years.  We  all  admit  the  theory,  but  we  are  sometimes  unwill- 
ing to  stand  by  the  outward  and  visible  results  of  the  free  and  untram- 
meled  expression  of  little  children.  We  want  them  to  draw  better, 
forgetting  that  an  ounce  of  honest  and  heartfelt  expression  is  worth 
several  cartloads  of  accuracy  which  is  the  result  of  imitation,  or  which  lacks 
the  flame  or  fire  of  an  ardent  interest.  I  have  an  artist  friend,  a  man  of 
ability  and  sincerest  purpose,  trained  in  the  Old  World  schools,  an 
academician  ia  the  fullest  sense.  He  is  very  much  interested  in  art,  but 
he  has  not  an  intimate  knowledge  of  the  workings  of  the  child-mind. 
He  visits  our  school  exhibitions  annually,  and,  with  a  ludicrous  expres- 
sion of  interest,  mystery,  and  doubt,  gazes  at  the  marvelous  life-drawing 
of  the  youngest  pupils  in  the  illustration  to  some  such  idea  as  this : 

"  Forth  into  the  forest  straightway- 
All  alone  walked  Hiawatha." 

He  is  greatly  troubled  because  Hiawatha  is  so  much  bigger  than  the  trees, 
and  because,  tho  unmistakable  action  is  expressed  as  Hiawatha  walks  with 
decision  and  boldness,  the  length  of  his  forward  limb  is  out  of  all  propor- 
tion to  the  rest  of  his  anatomy.  My  friend  begins  to  criticise,  to  analyze. 
"But  what  of  that?"  we  say.  "Are  you  not  teaching  them  to  draw?"  he 
asks.  We  tell  him  we  hope  and  believe  that  we  are,  but  at  this  particular 
stage  we  are  doing  our  best  to  fill  him  with  a  desire  to  express,  and  we 
have  faith  that  as  a  natural  concomitant  to  this  desire  and  its  attempted 
expression  will  come,  not  only  the  willingness,  but  the  eagerness  for  more 


Departmeml  RELATIVE   VALUE  OF  BRUSH  AND  PENCIL  519 

accurate  knowledge  concerning  proportions  and  forms.  It  is  a  part  of 
the  teacher's  office  to  lead  children  to  become  dissatisfied  with  their  ideals, 
and  to  furnish  the  necessary  ways  and  means  for  more  definite  and  par- 
ticular study,  when  the  proper  time  comes. 

Drill  and  emphasis  upon  line  and  form  are  extremely  valuable  and 
absolutely  necessary  in  later  years,  and  it  is  here  that  the  pencil  has  a 
value  that  should  not  be  slighted  or  overlooked. 

It  has  not  been  our  experience,  however,  that  our  emphasis  of  the 
brush  and  color  has  detracted  from  the  average  of  accuracy  in  the  repre- 
sentation of  form,  proportion,  character,  or  growth.  Rather,  I  think,  has 
the  reverse  been  true.  The  nature-drawing  has  never  been  so  satisfactory 
as  since  the  introduction  of  color  as  a  medium.  We  have  tried  to  impress 
upon  the  children  the  truth  that  the  lesson  with  color  or  ink-wash  is  no 
less  a  drawing  lesson  because  of  the  fact  that  the  brush  is  used.  The 
people  who  insist  that  drawing  pure  and  simple  is  injured  by  the  too 
exclusive  use  of  the  brush  must  remember  that  nowhere  is  there  such 
refinement,  such  feeling,  such  absolute  truth  and  simplicity  of  line,  as 
^fith  the  Japanese,  and  with  them  the  brush  is  the  almost  universal  medium 
or  tool.  Probably  this  is  because  the  brush  most  readily  responds  to  the 
slightest  pressure  or  emotion  of  the  artist.  It  has  been  called  the  most 
sympathetic  medium,  recording  as  it  does  the  almost  unconscious  feeling 
experienced  by  the  worker.  That  medium  which  offers  the  least  resist- 
ance, which  places  the  slightest  barrier  between  the  child  and  his  expres- 
sion, seems  most  desirable. 

However,  it  is  extremely  convenient  and  necessary  to  know  how  to 
use  the  pencil,  particularly  in  a  utilitarian  sense.  The  carpenter  must 
needs  be  familiar  with  its  manipulations,  in  hastily  and  accurately  sketch- 
ing his  working  drawings  upon  a  pine  board.  The  illustrator  must  wield 
his  ready  pencil,  notebook  in  hand,  in  catching  a  likeness,  a  fleeting 
expression,  or  in  recording  an  important  arrangement  or  situation.  The 
traveler  or  the  cultivated  "tramp"  cannot  conveniently  be  burdened  with 
colors,  brushes,  and  palette.  The  dressmaker  makes  more  easily  a 
simple  sketch  with  pencil  giving  her  idea  of  the  proposed  "new  creation." 

That  the  pencil  is  a  convenient,  a  useful,  and  an  extremely  practical 
medium,  no  one  will  for  a  moment  question.  That  it  is  capable  also  of 
great  artistic  possibilities,  witness  the  sketch-books  and  studies  of  Raphael, 
of  Millet,  of  Sargent. 

Certainly  it  is  an  excellent  and  convenient  medium  for  use  in  schools, 
but  because  it  is  good  in  its  place,  and  because  it  is  convenient,  are  not 
sufficient  reasons  for  its  exclusive  use.  It  is  generally  found  that  the 
truth  lies  in  neither  extreme  of  a  proposition,  but  abides  in  the  vicinity  of 
a  point  half  way  between.  It  seems  to  me  that  the  question  for  debate 
should  be,  not.  The  brush  versus  the  pencil  as  a  medium  of  expression,  nor 
even.  In  what  grades  should  the  brush  be  used  ?  but  rather.  Under  what 


520  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Art 

circumstances  is  the  brush  more  fitting  than  pencil,  pen,  or  chalk  as  a 
medium  of  expression  ?  I  can  more  easily  discuss  this  form  of  the  ques- 
tion if  you  will  allow  me  to  refer  to  the  course  of  study  pursued  in  the 
schools  where  I  find  my  field  of  labor. 

In  Minneapolis,  altho  the  work  of  the  department  of  drawing  is  in 
many  ways  carefully  graded,  and  is  controlled  almost  entirely  by  means 
of  grade  teachers'  meetings,  still  it  is  true  that  to  a  large  extent  the  same 
subject-matter  is  presented  to  all  pupils.  They  do  the  same  things  at 
the  same  time  of  the  year  in  many  instances,  altho,  owing  to  the  importance 
of  relating  as  nearly  as  possible  the  drawing  lessons  to  the  other  studies, 
there  are  of  course  numerous  exceptions  to  this  rule.  But  in  the  fall,  for 
instance,  we  emphasize  first  the  landscape,  with  all  the  beauty  and  vivid- 
ness of  autumnal  coloring.  Never  is  the  sky  so  beautiful,  the  trees  so 
brilliant,  the  soft  brown  grass  with  patches  of  green  now  and  then  so 
attractive,  as  in  October's  bright  blue  weather.  What  medium  so  irresist- 
ible then  as  color,  from  the  youngest  artist  in  the  baby-room  to  the 
proud  and  haughty  senior  of  the  high  school  ?  Do  you  think  the  land- 
scape too  ambitious  a  subject  for  little  minds  and  little  fingers  ?  Try  it ! 
Children  draw  with  delight  and  vitality  —  and  therefore  with  success,  so  far 
as  results  are  concerned  —  those  things  in  which  they  are  greatly  interested. 

They  love  the 

"  Great  wide  wonderful  beautiful  world, 
With  the  wonderful  water  around    it  curled." 

It  is  big  and  beautiful  and  full  of  interesting  things ;  why  should  they 
not  express  it  ?  Who  so  appreciative  as  children  of  the  glory  of  the 
sunset,  the  beauty  of  the  rainbow! 

"  My  heart  leaps  up  when  I  behold 

A  rainbow  in  the  sky. 
So  was  it  when  my  life  began, 
So  is  it  now  I  am  a  man, 
So  be  it  when  I  shall  grow  old  — 

Or  let  me  die." 

They  can  be  taught  to  "drop  in"  a  cloud  effect,  to  notice  and  to 
express  the  harmony  existing  in  nature  between  the  local  color  of  the  sky 
and  that  of  the  water  beneath  it.  The  "  placid  lake  "  is  never  "  deeply 
blue"  when  under  a  leaden  sky.  Shall  they,  when  so  intensely  interested 
in  the  changing  color  of  the  season,  or  in  the  tender  green  of  returning 
spring,  be  restricted  to  the  colder,  less  responsive,  and  more  formal 
medium  suggested  by  the  pencil  and  its  kind  ?  No  one  would  say  so. 
But  even  when  interested  in  the  landscape,  we  need  not  miss  the  value 
of  the  pencil  in  its  proper  place,  for  we  are  quite  apt  to  say  to  the  older 
pupil :  "Take  your  pencil  and  make  a  line  composition,  using  this  charm- 
ing bit  of  landscape  as  a  motive.  Notice  the  curve  of  that  hill,  that 
interesting  m„ass  of  foliage  in  the  distance,  and  the  poetic  quality  of  the 
shore  lirje  of  tlje  lake."    A-ncJ  so  the  older  intellect  reduces,  as  it  were,  the 


DepartmentJ  RELATIVE  VALUE  OP  BRUSH  AND  PENCIL  52 1 

beauty  of  the  landscape  to  its  lowest  terms,  rendering  it  in  a  more  abstract 
form  without  loss  of  value.  But  the  young  child  depends  on  mass  and 
color  and  wholeness  for  his  expression,  and  hence  the  brush  is  the  better 
tool  for  him. 

In  the  representation  of  flowers,  grasses  and  plants,  insects  and  animal 
forms,  we  use  a  variety  of  mediums.  Sometimes,  when  the  shape  is 
strongly  characteristic,  as  in  the  heads  of  grasses,  the  forms  of  small 
insects,  etc.,  we  are  glad  to  employ  the  brush  and  ink,  making  what  chil- 
dren call  shadow-pictures  or  silhouettes.  This  work  is  valuable  because, 
color  being  eliminated  from  consideration,  the  child  has  nothing  from 
which  to  produce  beauty  except  the  representation  of  absolute  truthful- 
ness of  growth,  of  proportion,  and  of  characteristics.  A  spray  of  maple 
may,  if  properly  selected  and  truthfully  represented,  present  a  most 
interesting  arrangement  of  various  shapes  or  masses.  The  interest  of  the 
whole  is  lost  if  there  is  wrong  proportion,  faulty  growth,  or  undue  accen- 
tuation of  details.  Perhaps  there  would  be  danger  that  a  glow  of  color 
would  hide  faults  of  this  kind.  Therefore  it  is  unfortunate  to  work 
entirely  in  one  medium  in  any  grade.  Different  characteristics  suggest 
different  ways  of  expression.  A  certain  type  of  man  suggests  a  fine  subject 
for  modeling  or  sculpture.  Another  of  different  mold  would  better  be 
perpetuated  by  means  of  the  painted  portrait.  So  it  is  with  objects,  both 
animate  and  inanimate.  It  is  certainly  necessary  for  children,  at  the 
proper  stage  of  development,  to  come  to  a  definite  understanding  of  the 
principles  of  perspective.  Such  principles  can  best  be  presented  by 
means  of  objects  of  simple  form,  without  distracting  any  individual  variety 
of  detail.  Type-solids  are  good  for  such  studies.  It  would  seem  natural 
to  sketch  from  such  forms  in  pencil,  where  accuracy  and  precision  and 
something  of  mathematical  understanding  are  necessary.  No  one  would 
think  of  representing  such  things  in  color.  Again,  in  planning  a  design 
or  composition,  it  is  best  to  make  a  pencil  outline  as  a  study,  correcting 
and  changing  such  an  outline  until  the  requirements  are  reached.  But 
when  the  study  is  arranged,  how  natural  and  desirable  to  "  wash  in  "  the 
interesting  tones  of  color !  In  the  whole  world  of  industrial  art  the 
pencil  is  beyond  question  the  most  convenient  and  practical  tool.  With- 
out doubt  it  has  a  place  with  the  other  mediums  employed.  We  shall 
always  value  it  and  use  it,  but  its  artistic  value  is  admittedly  less 
than  the  artistic  value  of  the  brush,  and  tho  I  grant  that  we  must  not 
disregard  the  utilitarian  and  industrial  side  of  drawing,  I  do  insist  that 
the  greatest  value  of  that  branch  of  education  which  this  department 
represents,  nay,  more,  that  the  greatest  benefit  of  all  branches  of  education, 
lies  in  the  development  of  those  faculties  which  operate  most  directly 
upon  the  soul  of  man  ;  that  help  him  to  become  cultivated,  and  show  him 
how  best  and  most  completely  to  enjoy,  not  himself,  but  those  things 
outside  of  and  higher  than  himself. 


5ii  MatioNal  Educational  association  [Ari 

I  believe,  for  example,  that  the  studies  of  literature  and  art  are  of 
vastly  greater  value  than  the  study  of  arithmetic,  altho  I  would  not  deny 
the  necessity  of  some  study  of  the  last  named. 

It  seems  to  me  that  the  use  of  a  variety  of  different  materials  or  medi- 
ums under  proper  conditions  is  eminently  desirable.  One  likes  to  exercise 
one's  choice,  and  later  one's  judgment,  in  the  selection  of  the  study  and  the 
manner  in  which  its  character  and  "personnel"  shall  be  expressed.  The 
wider  the  acquaintance  with  various  mediums,  the  larger  will  be  the 
experience  and  the  greater  the  delight  on  the  part  of  the  children,  in 
choosing.  Acquaintance  with  a  variety  of  mediums  also  adds  greatly  to 
the  power  of  children  in  expression  generally.  "  We  grow,"  says  someone, 
"not  by  virtue  of  what  we  receive,  but  by  virtue  of  what  we  create  and  do." 

Mr.  William  I.  Crane,  in  the  March  number  of  the  Philistine,  had  a 
most  interesting  article  on  the  manual-training  idea.  He  calls  what  he 
has  written  "A  Plea  for  the  Education  of  the  Hand."  Among  other 
good  things  he  says  that  every  man's  value  to  society  is  exactly  propor- 
tioned, not  to  his  thinking  power,  but  to  his  expressional  power,  and 
he  shows  how  many  and  varied  are  the  forms  of  expression,  as  evinced 
in  the  world  about  us.  Napoleon  expressed  his  power  by  means  of 
gigantic  schemes  of  conquest,  Christopher  Wren  thru  magnificent  build- 
ings, Shakespeare  in  his  delineation  of  human  life  and  human  passions, 
Beethoven  in  sweet  symphonies.  And  common  people  and  common 
life  express  their  power,  or  its  limitation,  no  less  strikingly.  The  black- 
smith expresses  his  ability,  or  its  lack,  when  he  shoes  your  horse,  the  mer- 
chant when  he  operates  in  the  world  of  commerce,  the  lawyer  when  he 
pleads  your  cause.  The  expression  is  great  if  it  proceeds  from  a  great 
man ;  is  ignoble  if  the  man  is  ignoble.  Ruskin  has  the  same  thought 
when  he  says : 

A  man  may  hide  himself  from  you,  or  misrepresent  himself  to  you  in  every  other  way, 
but  he  cannot  in  his  work.  There  be  sure  you  have  him  to  the  utmost.  All  that  he  likes, 
all  that  he  sees,  all  that  he  can  do,  his  affection,  his  perseverance,  his  impatience,  his 
clumsiness,  clearness,  everything  is  there.  If  the  work  be  a  cobweb,  you  know  it  was 
made  by  a  spider ;  if  a  honey-comb,  by  a  bee  ;  a  wormcast  is  thrown  up  by  a  worm,  and  a 
nest  wreathed  by  a  bird.  A  house  is  built  by  a  man ;  worthily  if  he  is  worthy,  and 
ignobly  if  he  is  ignoble. 

There  is  more  than  a  suggestion  of  the  same  idea  in  Emerson  :  "  For 
all  men  live  by  truth  and  stand  in  need  of  expression.  In  love,  in  art,  in 
avarice,  in  politics,  in  labor,  in  games,  we  study  to  utter  our  painful 
secret.  The  man  is  only  half  himself,  the  other  half  is  his  expression." 
What  better  can  be  done  for  a  man  than  to  put  him  in  possession  of  him- 
self and  his  God-given  faculties?  If  he  thinks  and  feels,  he  is  bound  to 
express.  The  important  thing,  then,  is  that  he  thinks  and  feels — or, 
rather,  let  us  reverse  the  order  and  say  that  the  important  thing  is  that 
he  feels,  for  if  he  feels  rightly  it  really  doesn't  make  so  much  difference 
what  he  thinks,  nor  how  he  expresses  himself. 


Department]  RELATIVE  VALUE  OF  BRUSH  AND  PENCIL  523 

But  to  get  back  to  our  topic — the  relative  value  of  brush  and  pencil 
as  a  means  of  expression.  In  educational  assemblages  of  this  kind  it  is 
usually  settled,  I  believe,  that  everything  depends  upon  the  teacher ;  and, 
supposing  that  it  be  admitted  that  the  more  varied  and  interesting  be  the 
channels  and  the  mediums  of  expression,  the  stronger  and  more  com- 
plete becomes  the  development  of  the  child,  still  it  remains  with  the 
planner  of  the  course  of  study  to  see  that  the  proper  means  of  expression 
and  the  proper  exercises  are  presented  at  the  proper  time.  We  are  look- 
ing for  such  a  course.  We  are  looking  toward  such  an  end.  Many  sug- 
gestions come  from  many  sources.  From  the  things  that  are  known  we 
must  choose  those  that  seem  to  us  vital. 

The  Minneapolis  exhibit  is  lacking  in  exercises  along  industrial  and 
utilitarian  lines.  It  is  not  that  we  do  not  appreciate  our  lack,  or  that  we 
regard  as  unimportant  that  form  of  expression  that  will  be  useful  in  the 
trades  and  occupations.  But  we  have  felt  so  keenly  the  importance  of 
the  other  side;  we  have  believed  that,  somehow,  the  bread  and  butter 
would  be  procured ;  and  we  desired  so  much  to  influence  our  embryonic 
bread-winners,  that  there  should  be  something  in  their  lives  besides  bread 
and  butter. 

We  know  that  a  taste  for  the  beautiful  once  awakened  will  never  be 
silenced.  Do  you  think  that  the  sunset,  or  the  rainbow,  or  the  graceful 
head  of  waving  grass  will  ever  be  without  meaning  to  the  rough  child  of 
the  streets  who  has  once  been  made  to  feel  their  beauty,  and  to  create  for 
himself  something  of  that  beauty?  Let  us  cling,  then,  to  that  richness 
and  life  which  has  come  into  our  work,  avoiding  the  charge  of  extreme 
sentimentality  on  one  side,  and  the  graver  charge  of  strict  utilitarianism 
on  the  other.  I  myself  think  there  is  small  cause  for  alarm  in  the  infec- 
tion which  has  been  spread  abroad  in  the  land.  Rather,  I  think,  is  it  a 
matter  for  congratulation,  for  this  is  the  reward  for  him  who  would,  but 
for  this  new  acquaintance  with  nature  in  her  most  beautiful  dress,  dwell 
in  darkness — 

that  the  ideal  shall  be  real  to  thee,  and  the  impressions  of  the  actual  world  shall  fall 
like  summer  rain,  copious,  but  not  troublesome  to  thy  invulnerable  essence.  Thou  shalt 
have  the  whole  world  for  thy  park  and  manor,  the  sea  for  thy  bath  and  navigation, 
without  tax  and  without  envy ;  the  woods  and  the  rivers  thou  shalt  own,  and  thou  shalt 
possess  that  wherein  others  are  only  tenants  and  boarders. 

Thou  true  land-lord  !  Sea-lord !  Air-lord  !  Wherever  snow  falls,  or  water  flows,  or 
birds  fly,  wherever  the  blue  heaven  is  hung  with  clouds  or  sown  with  stars,  wherever  are 
forms  with  transparent  boundaries,  wherever  are  outlets  into  celestial  space,  wherever  is 
danger  and  awe,  and  love,  there  is  beauty,  plenteous  as  rain,  shed  for  thee,  and  though 
thou  shouldst  walk  the  world  over,  thou  shalt  not  be  able  to  find  a  condition  inopportune 
or  ignoble.' 

I  Emerson,  The  Poet. 


524  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Art 

TBE  RELATION    OF  NATURE   STUDY   TO   DRAWING   IN 
THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

JAMES    M.    STONE,    SUPERVISOR    OF    DRAWING,    WORCESTER,    MASS. 

The  I  shall  speak  to  you  from  the  point  of  view  of  the  artist  and 
drawing  teacher,  rather  than  from  that  of  the  scientist  or  psychologist, 
yet,  as  a  practical  teacher,  I  recognize  the  necessity  of  basing  all  our 
courses  on  sound  pedagogical  and  psychological  principles.  Some 
important  subdivisions  of  our  drawing  and  certain  interesting  features  of 
our  nature  study  will  not  be  touched  upon  at  all.  I  shall  confine  myself 
to  such  parts  of  the  two  subjects  as  are  related,  interdependent,  and 
mutually  helpful.  What  I  have  to  say  will  be  said  chiefly  in  the  spirit  of 
suggestion.  I  wish  to  tell  you  what  we  are  doing  in  the  Worcester 
schools,  to  point  out  some  of  the  things  we  are  emphasizing,  and  to  indi- 
cate what  we  may  reasonably  hope  to  accomplish.  We  have  carefully 
planned  courses  both  in  drawing  and  in  nature  study.  The  course  in 
drawing,  tho  intended  to  be  elastic,  is  quite  closely  followed  by  the 
teachers.  The  nature-study  course,  on  the  other  hand,  is  followed  rather 
in  spirit  than  according  to  the  letter.  The  teachers  would  gladly  do 
more  in  this  direction,  did  time  and  "  the  three  R's  "  permit.  Our  aims 
are  to  make  the  school  a  place  the  children  become  genuinely  fond  of, 
to  make  their  labor  a  labor  of  love,  to  elevate  school  life,  and  thus  to 
elevate  life  in  general. 

If  there  be  any  one  thing  upon  which  we,  as  teachers  of  drawing,  are 
well  agreed,  it  is  that  drawing  should  be  taught  as  a  language,  that  it 
should  be  made  an  integral  part  of  the  curriculum,  and  be  used  as  a 
means  of  expression.  Let  us  inquire  here  in  what  ways  nature-study 
drawing  aids  the  regular  school  drawing.  In  form  study  one  only  half 
knows  a  thing  until  it  has  been  drawn.  The  mind  has  a  far  clearer  per- 
ception of  form,  and  retains  it  longer,  after  representing  it  with  clay, 
pencil,  or  brush,  than  after  merely  looking  at  it.  Agassiz,  who  admitted 
to  his  classes  only  those  who  could  draw,  said  :  "A  lead  pencil  is  an 
excellent  microscope.  The  young  observer  will  not  see  the  peculiarities 
of  the  natural  object,  nor  its  graceful  beauty,  until  he  attempts  to  draw  it 
with  his  pencil."  Drawing  in  nature  study  is  the  means  of  recording 
observed  facts.  In  drawing,  the  pupil  finds  a  language  by  which  he  may 
express  these  facts,  by  which  he  may  suggest  the  variety  of  local  colors, 
the  beauties  of  light  and  shade,  the  grace  of  movement,  and  the  delicacy 
of  modeling.  His  attention  is  directed  to  the  polished  surface  of  the 
plum  with  the  bloom  upon  it,  the  fur  of  the  cat,  the  rough  texture  of  the 
squash,  the  delicate  petal  of  the  flower.  Each  requires  a  distinct  method 
of  treatment,  but  the  qualities  of  the  work  are  common  to  nature  study  and 
pictorial  drawing,  and  so  far  as  they  are  attained  in  drawing  from  nature 
the  benefit  to  each  is  equal.     Technical  skill  is  materially  strengthened 


Department]     NATURE  STUDY  AND  DRAlViNu  IN  Pl/BLJC  SCHOOLS        525 

by  the  constant  practice  of  nature-study  drawing.  In  order  that  the 
child  shall  reap  the  greatest  benefit  from  this  work,  he  must  acquire  such 
a  mastery,  he  must  by  intelligently  guided  practice  become  so  proficient, 
that  he  can  express  with  his  pencil  a  thought  embodying  form  with  the 
same  freedom  and  readiness  as  he  would  express  an  idea  in  a  written 
sentence.  And,  as  drawing  is  helped  by  the  study  of  nature,  so  in  turn 
nature  study  is  aided  by  drawing.  Drawing  in  nature  study  is  an 
interpretation,  a  translation  of  certain  facts,  aspects,  and  qualities  into 
another  language.  In  addition  to  being  a  means  of  expression,  it  adds 
an  important  pictorial  feature  to  the  work.  In  many  observations  of 
physics  and  biology  the  illustrations  form  the  most  important  part  of 
the  record.  Indeed,  it  would  be  impossible  to  make  a  complete  record 
without  the  illustrations. 

In  our  nature  study  we  do  not  try  to  make  excursions  to  the  stars,  we 
do  not  try  to  penetrate  the  unknown ;  but  the  teachers  are  advised  to 
take  desirable  examples  of  nature  just  as  they  find  them,  near  at  hand,  and 
do  the  best  they  can  with  them.  It  is  surprising  to  see  how  much  the  chil- 
dren will  discover,  even  those  living  in  the  most  densely  populated  parts 
of  the  city.  The  spring  is  the  season  for  preparing  the  tree,  bird,  and 
floral  calendars ;  for  gathering  frogs',  toads',  salamanders',  and  fishes' 
eggs,  for  observation  in  the  schoolroom  ;  and  it  is  the  time  to  observe  and 
draw  the  swelling  buds,  the  expanding  flowers,  and  the  growing  leaves. 
The  schoolroom  may  be  made  to  reflect  the  season  in  its  myriad  activities 
and  in  the  pulsations  of  its  new  life.  The  objects  collected  may  be 
arranged  in  their  proper  environment  for  development  and  observation. 
Some  of  the  interesting  details  of  early  spring  work  are  the  formation  of 
bird  clubs,  the  members  of  which  watch  for  the  new  arrivals,  interest 
themselves  in  the  protection  of  the  birds,  make  and  put  up  bird -houses, 
and  put  out  twine  and  cotton  for  the  birds  to  use  in  building  nests.  The 
most  favorable  season  for  studying  the  birds  immediately  follows,  when 
they  are  mating,  nest-building,  and  raising  their  families.  It  is  difficult 
to  get  wild  birds  as  models  to  draw  from.  When  tamed  or  caged,  it  is 
seldom  that  the  children  can  draw  from  them  to  advantage.  As  a 
result,  in  the  bird  study,  most  of  the  drawings  are  copied  from  col- 
ored prints.  This  is,  of  course,  unsatisfactory,  but  it  assists  in  interest- 
ing and  familiarizing  the  children  with  the  birds.  In  the  autumn, 
after  the  summer  visitors  have  left  us,  the  nests  are  gathered,  identified, 
and  drawn. 

In  connection  with  our  study  of  birds,  pretty  incidents  are  constantly 
occurring,  one  or  two  of  which  I  must  tell  you.  A  teacher  in  one  of  our 
suburban  schools  was  interested  in  birds,  and  so  the  children  became 
much  interested  also ;  and  for  three  successive  years  there  have  been  two 
birds'  nests  in  the  grounds,  not  more  than  twenty  feet  from  the  building. 
Last  June  a  family  of  young  robins  was  raised  on  a  rail  of  the  fence, 


526  kATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Art 

where  every  child  in  the  school  could  go  and  see  the  eggs  and  the  young 
birds  every  day.  Last  year  a  pair  of  vesper  sparrows  raised  a  family 
under  a  tuft  of  grass  close  beside  the  schoolhouse ;  the  year  before  a  pair 
of  chipping  'sparrows  raised  their  brood  on  a  little  rose  bush,  the  nest 
being  not  over  two  feet  from  the  ground ;  and  for  a  number  of  years  a 
pair  of  orioles  have  built  their  nest  and  brought  up  their  young  on  an 
elm  in  front  of  the  schoolhouse.  A  not  uncommon  scene,  in  the  case  of 
the  sparrows,  when  the  young  birds  were  still  in  the  nest,  was  the  children 
seated  in  groups  on  the  grass  and  tossing  crumbs  from  their  luncheons  to 
the  mother  bird,  who  would  fiy  to  and  from  the  nest,  feeding  her  hungry 
offspring. 

The  observation  and  drawing  of  the  germination  of  seeds,  such  as  the 
seeds  of  our  common  trees,  at  different  periods  of  their  development,  are  a 
pretty  exercise  for  children,  and  may  be  co'nveniently  begun  in  the  school- 
room. Dr.  Hodge,  of  Clark  University,  often  in  springtime  takes  a  bag 
of  chestnuts,  peach,  plum,  or  cherry  stones,  and  visits  a  number  of  schools, 
offering  the  seeds  to  such  scholars  as  will  promise  to  plant  them  and  care 
for  the  young  trees.  These  nuts  are  swelled  and  started  in  earth  put 
into  small  boxes  in  the  schoolroom,  where  they  are  watched  in  their 
growth  ;  notes  and  drawings  are  made  at  various  periods  of  their  develop- 
ment, until  they  reach  a  height  of  six  or  eight  inches,  when  they  are  taken 
home  by  the  children,  set  out,  and  taken  care  of.  Children  are  asked, 
when  eating  fruits,  to  save  the  seeds  and  plant  them,  each  child  being 
urged  to  choose  from  among  the  various  kinds  of  trees,  plants,  shrubs,  or 
vines  the  two  he  is  most  fond  of,  and  to  study  them  thru  the  year.  This 
study  consists  in  observing  the  tree,  plant,  or  vine  regularly,  making  notes 
and  drawings  at  various  periods,  especially  at  the  time  of  the  development 
of  the  leaves  and  flowers,  and  again  at  the  time  of  the  maturity  and  dis- 
tribution of  the  seeds.  Our  common  garden  plants,  annuals  and  biennials, 
are  studied  in  this  way,  until  the  children  become  familiar  with  their  ways 
of  life,  as  they  are  with  the  Mother  Goose  melodies.  In  some  of  our 
schools  the  pupils  have  been  interested  in  finding  all  our  native  shrubs 
and  setting  them  out  along  the  fence  on  one  side  of  the  school  yard,  on 
another  side  collecting  and  setting  out  all  our  native  vines,  on  a  third  side 
all  our  best  fruit  trees,  and  on  a  fourth  all  our  evergreens. 

If  typical  phenomena  are  selected  from  the  immediate  environment 
of  the  children,  they  may  be  set  to  work  watching  these  phenomena  and 
recording  their  observations  without  realizing  that  they  are  doing  any- 
thing but  enjoying  themselves.  Insects  that  pass  thru  a  metamorphic 
stage,  such  as  the  butterflies,  moths,  dragonflies,  and  beetles,  are  interest- 
ing to  children  if  their  life-stories  are  followed  to  the  end.  In  many 
schoolrooms  in  the  spring  and  early  summer  you  will  find  every  child  has 
a  small  bottle  on  his  desk  containing  a  little  branch  with  fresh  green  leaves 
and  young  caterpillars  feeding  on  them.     If  you  ask  the  children  what 


Department]     NATURE  STUDY  AND  DRAWING  IN  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS         527 

they  are  doing,  they  will  tell  you  they  are  studying  the  life-history  of  the 
tent  caterpillar,  and  if  you  ask  how  far  they  progressed,  they  will  refer  to 
their  notebooks  and  show  you  notes  and  sketches  illustrating  their  obser- 
vations up  to  date.  Or,  in  other  schoolrooms,  you  will  note  some  jars 
standing  on  the  window  sills,  and  partly  filled  with  water,  in  which  floats 
a  gelatinous  substance ;  and  if  you  ask  what  that  is,  you  are  told  it  is 
frogs'  spawn,  or  toads'  spawn,  or  fish  spawn,  as  the  case  may  be ;  and  if 
you  inquire  how  these  different  spawns  are  distinguished  the  one  from 
the  other,  your  attention  will  be  called  to  the  peculiar  forms  of  the 
substance  in  the  jars,  and  very  likely  a  boy  will  step  to  the  blackboard 
and  draw  a  sketch  of  a  mass  of  toads'  spawn  in  order  to  make  clear  its 
distinctive  characteristics.  I  think  you  will  agree  with  me  that  to  have 
the  real  fish  present  in  the  aquaria  is  a  vast  improvement  on  the  methods 
of  the  German  teacher  who  during  a  lesson  makes  a  drawing  of  a  fish  on 
the  board,  and  has  the  scholars  make  copies  of  his  drawing.  For  under 
our  system  the  children  are  able  to  examine  the  fish  for  themselves,  mak- 
ing their  own  notes  and  drawings  at  first  hand. 

The  classification  of  parts  of  plants  and  animals  according  to  similar- 
ity of  form,  character,  and  function,  and  the  study  of  these  in  groups, 
may  be  made  a  profitable  and  pleasant  part  of  the  nature-study  course. 
Some  of  the  things  to  be  thus  observed  are  oak  and  maple  leaves,  the 
various  kinds  of  grain,  garden  biennials,  spring  and  autumn  flowers, 
seeds,  the  teeth  of  carnivora,  eyes  and  claws  of  the  cat  family,  feet  of 
swimming  birds,  etc.  Drawings  can  and  should  be  made  from  nature  in 
most  cases.  In  all  these  studies  the  children  are  taught  that  the  draw- 
ings are  as  important  a  part  of  the  record  as  the  notes,  and  they  are  made 
in  the  same  spirit. 

One  of  the  charming  results  of  nature  study  is  the  familiarity  which 
children  acquire  with  the  many  kinds  of  animal  life  from  which  they  are 
apt  at  first  to  shrink.  For  instance,  do  you  suppose  the  little  girl  who 
has  seen  on  her  own  desk  and  on  her  companions'  desks  the  moth  pass 
thru  its  metamorphic  state,  from  the  egg  to  the  devouring  caterpillar, 
from  the  caterpillar  to  the  dormant  chrysalis,  and  from  the  chrysalis  to 
the  perfect  moth,  will  cringe,  shriek,  and  go  into  hysterics  if  a  caterpillar 
crawls  upon  her?  Oh,  no.  It  is  no  uncommon  thing  to  see  the  cater- 
pillars crawling  around  on  the  children,  who  pick  them  up  and  set  them 
on  their  branches,  and  make  no  more  ado  about  it  than  they  would  about 
picking  up  a  handkerchief  or  wiping  a  pen.     , 

This  familiarity,  the  interest  in  and  kindness  toward  the  life  about 
the  children,  we  believe,  cultivates  a  better  temper,  kindlier  feelings,  and 
a  gentler  spirit.  And  this  is  our  aim,  to  make  school  life  a  pleasure,  to 
cultivate  an  interest  in  the  beautiful  and  interesting  things  of  life,  and  by 
these  means  to  bury  the  unlovable  qualities  of  the  child  so  deep  that  they 
will  not  in  after-life  com?  to  the  surface, 


52  8  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Art 

In  our  design  work  the  children  are  taught  to  go  to  nature  for  every- 
thing, and  every  design  has  a  purpose.  Many  of  the  things  decorated 
are  common  things,  such  as  the  children  see  about  them  daily,  and  such 
as  have  pleasing  associations  connected  with  them.  In  ornament  and 
design  everything  depends  upon  the  spirit  in  which  the  decorator  goes  to 
nature.  He  may  treat  his  motif  in  such  a  way  as  to  be  quite  in  the  spirit 
of  nature  study;  and,  on  the  other  hand,  he  may  make  a  design  in  quite 
the  opposite  spirit.  A  design  from  nature  may  be  realistic  or  it  may  be 
decoratively  treated.  In  Egyptian  ornament  taken  from  plants  we  recog- 
nize the  perfect  individual  plant  and  where  it  grew.  The  floral  parts  of 
Gothic  ornament  which  were  taken  from  nature  were  copied  in  much  the 
same  spirit.  The  most  naturalistic  type  of  ornament  is  that  of  the 
Japanese.  They  start  quite  frankly  from  nature,  copying  natural  forms 
as  closely,  apparently,  as  their  skill  and  the  conditions  under  which  they 
work  will  admit.  Ornament  must  never  run  wild.  There  must  be  a 
manifest  restraint,  an  order,  even  in  the  midst  of  apparent  confusion, 
producing  restfulness  and  dignity.  In  good  ornament  everything  is 
inspired  by  nature,  but  it  is  compelled  into  ornamental  form,  and  is  made 
to  conform  to  the  necessities  of  decoration.  The  principle  of  selection 
must  be  adhered  to.  One  can  hardly  conceive  any  motif  which  is  not 
more  or  less  modified  by  considerations  altogether  apart  from  literal 
description  of  the  natural  forms.  In  all  applied  designs  there  is  some- 
thing, let  us  say,  not  contrary  to  nature,  but  non -natural.  The  perfect 
example  is  what  is  required  as  a  model ;  it  must  then  be  designed  into  its 
place,  conventionalized,  and  adapted  to  its  purpose.  In  this  process  the 
subject  or  example  loses  its  individuality.  Thus  decorative  design  is  the 
exact  opposite  of  nature  study.  But  in  the  lower  grades,  where  the 
decorative  work  consists  of  little  more  than  arranging  natural  forms  to 
produce  decorative  effects,  these  two  courses  need  not  conflict.  As  long 
as  the  student  aims  at  the  perfect  thing,  he  remains  in  harmony  with 
nature-study  principles ;  but  as  soon  as  he  acts  according  to  the  preroga- 
tive of  the  decorator,  selecting,  arranging,  and  adapting,  he  parts  com- 
pany with  nature-study  principles.  As  soon  as  the  scholars  in  the  higher 
grades  study  historical  ornament  and  the  principles  of  decoration,  they 
must  understand  that  they  go  to  nature  for  decorative  elements  in  a  dif- 
ferent spirit  from  that  of  nature  study.  It  is  the  function  of  the  teacher 
to  lead  the  child  to  nature  as  the  great  storehouse  of  material  for  his  use, 
and  to  show  him  how  to  use  it  in  diverse  ways  for  the  varied  purposes 
called  for  by  society. 

Education  in  color  we  regard  as  very  important.  Color  as  a  source 
of  enjoyment  opens  up  new  avenues  of  pleasure;  it  is  an  essential  ele- 
ment in  decoration,  and  is  an  important  feature  in  drawing  and  nature 
study.  The  aim  in  the  lower  grades  is  to  educate  and  refine  the  color 
perception.     In  the  higher  grades  the  theory  of  color  is  taken  up.     But 


Department]     NATURE  STUDY  AND  DRAWING  IN  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS         529 

everything  is  based  on  nature,  both  in  practical  work  and  color  theory. 
We  make  autumn  the  special  season  for.  taking  up  the  color  work.  The 
country  is  then  teeming  with  color,  and  nature  is  dressed  in  her  gayest 
attire.  The  analysis  of  the  colors  in  plants,  birds,  and  insects  is  then 
full  of  interest.  The  harmonies  based  on  the  relation  of  colors  to  each 
other,  or  the  order  in  which  they  occur  in  the  solar  spectrum,  form  an 
excellent  basis  for  a  scheme  of  study.  This,  with  some  knowledge  of 
principality,  and  the  light  and  dark  effect  in  design,  supplies  the  elemen- 
tary principles.  In  teaching  the  theory  of  color  the  drawing  teacher  finds 
himself  at  a  disadvantage,  because  there  are  no  fixed  standards  generally 
accepted  by  educators.  Artists  and  scientists  are  at  variance  as  to  the 
primary  colors.  Certain  French  painters  are  working  on  pseudo-scientific 
lines,  accepting  the  ray-of-light  theory,  but  it  is  too  early  to  predict 
whether  this  movement  is  destined  to  result  in  the  general  adoption  of 
the  scientific  theory  of  color.  It  seems  safe  to  assume,  however,  that  the 
color  teaching  in  the  public  schools  is  not  likely  to  be  affected  by  it  for  a 
long  time  to  come. 

While  we  aim  to  correlate  drawing  with  every  other  branch  of  study, 
a  specially  intimate  association  of  it  with  nature  study  seems  desirable. 
In  every  large  grammar  building  a  room  should  be  set  apart  for  the  pur- 
poses of  art  and  nature,  thus  enabling  the  teachers  to  have  departmental 
instruction  more  successfully  carried  on.  This  room  may  become  a  gen- 
eral receptacle  for  things  of  beauty  and  interesting  specimens  from 
nature.  All  drawing  material,  works  of  art,  potted  plants,  aquaria,  vivaria, 
and  breeding  cages,  etc.,  would  here  be  stored.  Such  a  room,  with  its 
collections,  would  furnish  a  vast  amount  of  material  for  the  drawing  as 
well  as  the  nature  study. 

In  this  work  of  drawing  we  have  a  variety  of  materials.  In  the  lower 
grades  the  pupils  use  clay,  drawing-pencils,  charcoal,  and  colored  pencils. 
In  the  higher  grades  water-colors  are  added  to  the  equipment.  For  the 
rendering  of  form,  clay  is  by  far  the  best  medium.  Many  things  can  be 
very  satisfactorily  represented  with  the  common  drawing-pencil  and 
colored  pencils.  Where  large  masses  of  color  are  required  water-color 
will  be  found  most  satisfactory. 

It  is  a  mistake  to  do  only  one  kind  of  art  work  in  a  school,  as  it  is 
also  to  try  to  do  all  kinds  of  work  with  one  kind  of  material.  In  New 
England,  during  the  last  few  years,  we  have  witnessed  some  amusing 
oscillations  of  the  fads ;  drawing  teachers  have  swung  swiftly  from  one 
extreme  to  another,  at  one  time  casting  aside  all  books,  whether  for 
teacher  or  pupils;  at  another  time  holding  high  carnival  in  water-color 
painting.  Just  now  some  of  the  drawing  teachers  are  recovering  from  a 
severe  attack  of  Japanese  notan.  The  prospect  ahead  is  serene,  and,  if 
the  faddists  present  nothing  very  alluring,  we  shall  have  an  opportunity 
to  devote  ourselves  to  the  highest  interests  of  the  children.     Many  have 


530  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Art 

already  discovered  their  errors,  and  have  adopted  the  broad  course  of 
making  drawing  correlate  with  every  study  possible,  vying  with  language 
itself.  We  in  Worcester  still  continue  to  teach  clay- modeling;  we  have 
not  thrown  away  our  type-solids ;  drawing-books  are  still  used  by  the 
children,  and  drawing  manuals  are  found  convenient  by  the  teachers ;  and 
we  still  find  the  lead-pencil  a  good  tool  with  which  to  draw. 

And  now,  in  conclusion,  let  me  quote  the  words  of  President  Hall  of 
Clark  University,  in  relation  to  nature  study.  "  Cast  out,"  he  says,  "  the 
things  you  hate  and  fear,  and  develop  the  things  you  love  and  are  inter- 
ested in."  I  would  that  we  might  respond  to  this  great  human  note.  I 
would  that  we  might  attack  these  subjects  in  a  real  joy-seeking,  fear- 
destroying  spirit,  teaching  the  children  to  love  and  protect  the  useful  and 
beautiful,  and  perhaps  destroy  the  noxious.  In  preparing  our  courses, 
let  nature  and  art  pervade  them.  The  great  diversity  of  life  to  be  found 
in  nature  appeals  to  the  young  with  all-absorbing  interest.  Let  us  recog- 
nize their  natural  interests,  let  us  enlist  their  finest  sympathies,  let  us 
cultivate  in  them  the  spirit  of  artistic  appreciation,  let  us  lead  them  to  an 
intelligent  discrimination  between  beauty  and  ugliness,  between  hateful 
things  and  things  lovable  ;  and  thus  we  shall  make  the  schoolhouse,  not 
only  a  place  of  learning,  but  also  a  place  where  the  very  finest  human 
interests  and  instincts  are  fostered.  The  awakening  of  the  child's  higher 
spiritual  powers,  the  opening  up  of  new  avenues  of  enjoyment,  the  wise 
development  of  the  sense-activities,  will  lead  to  enlarged  observation  of 
beauty  in  nature  and  in  art,  and  the  cultivation  of  better  possibilities  of 
usefulness  to  others. 


DEPARTMENT  OF  MUSIC  EDUCATION 


SECRETARY'S  MINUTES 


..       FIRST  SESSION.— Wednesday,  July  ii,  1900 

The  department  met  at  3 :  30  p.  M.  in  Circular  Congregational  Church,  with  Presi- 
dent Herbert  Griggs,  of  Denver,  Colo.,  in  the  chair. 

Corporal  David  Cross  sang  a  baritone  solo,  "  The  Palms,"  accompanied  by  the  First 
United  States  Artillery  band  under  the  leadership  of  Professor  Gustav  Koitzsch. 

A  paper  on  "  Common-Sense  as  an  Aid  to  th&  School-Music  Supervisor  "  was  read 
by  Sterrie  A.  Weaver,  Westfield,  Mass. 

Music  —  a  cornet  solo,  "  Because  " — by  Sergeant  M.  Sullivan. 

Mr.  Weaver's  paper  was  discussed  by  N.  Coe  Stewart,  of  Cleveland,  O.;  C.  H,  Cong- 
don,  of  Chicago,  111.;  Professor  Hansom,  of  Charleston,  S.  C;  B.  C.  Davis,  of  Atlanta, 
Ga.;  N.  L.  Glover,  of  Akron,  O.;  A.  J.  Gantvoort,  of  Cincinnati,  O.;  and  President 
Griggs. 

The  following  Committee  on  Nominations  was  appointed: 

Sterrie  A.  Weaver,  Westfield,  Mass.  A.  J.  Gantvoort,  Cincinnati,  O. 

Miss  Mae  E.  Schreiber,  Madison,  Wis. 
Adjourned. 

SECOND  SESSION.— Thursday,  July  12 

The  session  was  called  to  order  by  President  Griggs  at  3  :  30  p.  M. 

Miss  Annie  Hanley,  of  Charleston,  S.  C,  was  introduced,  who  sang  a  solo,  "  Asva," 
by  Rubinstein. 

C.  H.  Congdon,  of  Chicago,  111.,  read  a  paper  on  the  affirmative  of  the  question, 
"Should  Music  in  the  Public  Schools  be  Taught  from  the  Song  to  the  Exercise  ?  " 

Mr.  Waitt,  of  Charleston,  sang  a  baritone  solo. 

Superintendent  W.  B.  Powell,  of  Washington,  D.  C,  opened  the  discussion  of  Mr. 
Congdon's  paper,  supporting  the  affirmative.  Superintendent  Aaron  Gove,  of  Denver, 
Colo.,  followed  in  a  negative  argument.  C.  H.  Congdon,  A.  J.  Gantvoort,  William  B. 
Powell,  N.  Coe  Stewart,  and  B.  C.  Davis  joined  in  further  discussion. 

The  Committee  on  Nominations  submitted  a  report  recommending  the  election  of  the 
following  officers : 

For  President — A.  J.  Gantvoort,  Cincinnati,  O. 
For  Secretary  — "A.  W.  Gray,  New  York,  N.  Y. 

The  report  of  the  committee  was  adopted,  and  the  officers  named  declared  elected 
for  the  ensuing  year. 
Adjourned. 

H.  W.  Gray, 

Acting  Secretary. 


531 


532  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Music 


PAPERS  AND  DISCUSSIONS 


COMMON-SENSE  AS  AN  AID    TO    THE  SCHOOL-MUSIC 

SUPER  VISOR 

STERRIE    A.    WEAVER,    WESTFIELD    PUBLIC    SCHOOLS,    WESTFIELD,    MASS. 

Many  a  frog,  hard  pressed  for  breath,  and  perhaps  tired  of  swimming, 
has  been  lured  by  a  sunlit  stump  to  emerge  from  the  water  and,  squatting 
upon  the  projection,  voice  his  contentment  in  a  guttural  song.  Alas!  for 
the  enjoyment  of  that  frog.  The  small  boy  comes  along,  and,  recogniz- 
ing his  inalienable  right  and  pious  duty  to  throw  stones,  ejaculates,  "What 
a  shot !  "  and  proceeds  to  stone  the  frog.  It  is  useless  to  read  that  strange 
animal  called  a  boy  a  lecture  upon  the  crueltyof  stoning  frogs,  and  just 
as  useless  to  tell  the  frog  to  stone  the  boy.  But  the  frog  can  slide  off 
into  the  water  and  thus  shield  himself;  next  time  rising  to  the  surface  for 
breath  in  a  more  secluded  spot.  In  fact,  might  he  not  as  well  stay  under 
water  and  die  for  want  of  breath  as  to  come  to  the  surface  and  be  stoned 
to  death  ? 

A  certain  percentage  of  small  boys  grow  to  be  large  boys,  yet  the  irre- 
sistible impulse  to  throw  stones  when  they  get  a  good  shot  never  leaves 
them.  Perhaps  one  develops  into  a  first-rate  musician,  and,  plodding  the 
paths  of  his  professional  duties,  sees  a  good  shot  and  shies  a  stone.  Ever 
and  again  he  is  sure  to  find  a  capital  shot  in  someone  who  has  tired  of 
the  common  walks  of  life,  and  has  thought  to  arise  to  the  surface,  and  has 
secured  the  much-coveted  position  of  school-music  supervisor.  When 
such  a  school-music  supervisor  fails  to  get  results  from  his  work  he 
becomes  a  good  mark  for  the  musician's  sarcastic  criticism  or  out-and- 
out  attack. 

The  supervisor  who  is  thus  attacked,  and  cannot  defend  himself  by 
proving  the  accusations  of  his  enemies  false  and  undeserved,  would  display 
common-sense  to  slide  off  from  his  public  position  and  seek  seclusion  in 
the  private  walks  from  which  he  came.  The  disposition  of  so  many  school- 
music  supervisors  to  show  the  white  feather,  and  appeal  to  the  public  for 
sympathy  which  they  do  not  deserve,  exhibits  more  weakness  than  common- 
sense.  Seldom,  indeed,  is  the  attack  upon  their  lack  of  knowledge  of 
music,  but  upon  their  dearth  of  sense.  Would  thit  a  supervisor's  exchange 
might  be  set  up  where  they  might  barter  knowledge  of  music  for  a 
reasonable  amount  of  common-sense.  If  some  large  doses  of  the  emo- 
tional and  the  aesthetic  could  be  exchanged  for  the  power  to  reason  and 
employ  practical  common-sense,  the  results  from  school  music  might  be 
larger. 


Department]       COMMON-SENSE  IN  SCHOOL-MUSIC  SUPERVISION  5^3 

It  has  been  insinuated,  if  not  broadly  asserted,  that  some  supervisors 
have  no  more  sense  than  frogs.  If  the  insinuations  and  accusations  are 
unjust,  so  much  the  worse  for  their  author ;  if  true  and  well  deserved,  let 
the  guilty  members  of  the  profession  tremble.  Justice  and  right  will 
eventually  prevail.  The  senseless  manner  in  which  school  music  is 
handled  must  go  to  the  wall,  and  with  the  downfall  will  go  the  school- 
music  supervisors  who  are  wanting  in  common-sense.  If  music  is  so 
poorly  managed  that  it  brings  little  or  no  lasting  results,  the  methods,  or 
lack  of  methods,  must  and  will  be  supplanted.  The  school-music  super- 
visor who  hears  this  paper  and  has  not  in  mind  an  instance  of  one  or 
many  supervisors  held  in  the  clutch  of  some  baleful  influence  that  tends 
to  the  fattening  of  his  salary  at  the  expense  of  the  best  interests  of  the 
school  children  is  blissfully  ignorant  of  the  machinations  that  predomi- 
nate in  school-music  circles  today. 

The  battle  is  on,  and  tho  the  men  and  women  of  ability,-  fixedness  of 
purpose,  lion  hearts,  and  breadth  sufficient  to  lead  the  van  are  few  and 
far  between,  God  will  raise  up  more  of  this  sort,  and  school  music  will  be 
emancipated.  The  fight  for  every  vacancy  will  not  be  made  by  everyone 
who  hears  of  it.  Church  solo  singers,  pianists,  violinists,  and  orchestra 
leaders  will  discover  that  they  need  special  training  for  the  supervision  of 
school  music,  and  must  not  compete  without  the  necessary  preparation. 
Common-sense  will  prompt  those  within  the  circle,  who  mean  to  remain, 
to  change  their  course  and  apply  a  small  amount  of  this  scarce  com- 
modity to  their  teaching.  At  this  particular  moment,  could  you  have  the 
opportunity  of  talking  back,  someone  might  inquire :  "  What  do  you 
mean  by  all  this?  At  whom  are  you  hurling  these  remarks?"  They  are 
intended  for  whomsoever  they  fit. 

Let  us  inquire  into  the  reasonable  expectations  and  the  actual  results 
of  music  in  the  public  schools.  Hundreds  of  thousands  of  dollars  are 
paid  for  the  support  of  music  teaching  in  the  schools.  This  would  be 
cheerfully  done,  and  as  much  more  appropriated,  if  results  were  apparent. 
In  the  aggregate  the  amount  of  precious  time  devoted,  supposedly  to  the 
study  of  music,  is  something  appalling,  when  it  is  realized  that  it  gives  so 
little  in  return.  Compare  music  with  other  studies  :  Children  come  out 
from  their  school  lives  with  the  ability  to  read,  write,  and  figure ;  with  a 
knowledge  of  geography  more  or  less  extensive ;  and  to  these  are  added 
many  accomplishments.  When  90  per  cent,  will  prove  their  ability  in 
all  these  directions,  will  not  the  same  percentage  assure  you  that  they  can- 
not read  music  ?  Would  not  plain  common-sense  prompt  every  super- 
visor to  shudder  upon  discovering  that  the  results  in  his  special  line  were 
so  far  below  the  average  ?     It  is  something  fearful  to  contemplate. 

Full  well  I  realize  how  roughly  the  heavy  sleeper  must  be  shaken  if  he 
is  to  be  awakened.  In  fact,  the  majority  of  school-music  supervisors 
seem  to  be  in  a  sleep  so  deep  that  they  are  virtually  dead.    We  well  know 


534  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Music 

that  it  is  God's  prerogative  to  awaken  the  dead.  Our  hope  lies  in  arous- 
ing those  who  do  not  sleep  so  heavily.  If  the  men  and  women  who  make 
up  the  rank  and  file  of  school-music  supervisors  will  rub  their  eyes  and 
make  a  desperate  effort  to  arouse  and  take  an  honest  look  at  the  method 
which  they  employ,  or  realize  the  lack  of  method  in  what  they  do,  and  the 
utter  lack  of  results  from  their  work,  things  will  change.  The  shackles 
which  many  a  supervisor  has  allowed  some  undue  influence  to  bind  upon 
him  will  become  too  galling,  the  blanket  mortgages  will  become  irksome, 
and  the  profession  will  make  a  mighty  effort  to  emancipate  itself.  School 
music  will  sing  a  new  song ;  a  song  of  redemption  from  senseless  teach- 
ing. Wherever  music  is  taught  in  the  public  schools,  results,  and  mighty 
results,  can  be  obtained.  It  need  not  take  years  to  show  the  results  of 
common-sense  teaching.  When  common-sense  is  allowed  to  aid  the 
supervisor,  the  parents  —  even  the  children  —  will  display  enough  com- 
mon-sense to  recognize  a  change  for  the  better,  and  will  enter  upon  a 
new  era. 

Musicians  outside  the  ranks  of  school-music  supervisors  will  hail  the 
improvement  and  stop  throwing  stones  in  order  to  use  both  hands  in  con- 
gratulating the  supervisors  for  the  preparatory  work  done  in  the  school- 
room, thus  lightening  the  task  of  advance  teaching  along  all  lines.  Until 
such  time  as  the  general  run  of  school-music  supervisors  employ  com- 
mon-sense, music  will  languish.  The  only  substantial  hope  of  America 
ever  becoming  a  musical  nation  lies  in  educating  the  masses  thru  the 
public  schools. 

The  foregoing  arraignment  of  the  profession  is  based  upon  results 
actually  obtained.  To  leave  the  matter  in  this  way  is  simply  to  have 
uttered  words  of  bitterness  which  only  stir  up  strife.  The  very  heading 
of  this  paper  assumes  that  the  root  of  the  evil  is  a  lack  of  common-sense 
in  teaching  music  in  the  public  schools.  Its  author  begs  leave  to  show 
some  of  the  things  commonly  done  that  are  utterly  devoid  of  common- 
sense,  leaving  the  decision  with  you. 

Attention  is  first  called  to  the  senseless  use  of  books  and  charts. 
Does  any  teacher  need  to  be  told  that  the  chart  exercise,  or  song  from  the 
book,  loses  all  its  virtue  as  soon  as  sung  thru  a  few  times  ?  Is  it  any 
wonder  that  supervisors  meet  in  convention  and  discuss  the  problem  of 
how  to  keep  up  the  interest  of  the  singing  classes  ?  How  many  singing 
lessons  in  the  public-school  room  amount  to  more  than  a  number  of  pages 
which  are  sung  over  by  the  class  while  the  supervisor  sings  with  them  and 
for  them,  lugging  them  over  all  difficulties,  then  leaving  these  same  pages 
to  be  sung  daily  until  his  return  ?  Why  was  this  particular  lesson  given 
to  the  class  ?  Alas  !  simply  because  the  pages  designated  were  the  next 
in  regular  order  as  given  in  said  book.  If  the  lesson  be  given  from  a 
chart,  can  any  plausible  excuse  be  given  for  the  constant  use  of  a  pointer  to 
lead  the  class  along  ?     Are  the  children  learning  anything  but  to  lean 


Department]       COMMON-SENSE  IM  SCHOOL-MUSIC  SVPERVISIOM  535 

upon  the  strong,  never-failing  voice  of  the  teacher  and  the  point  of  that 
stick?     Is  it  not  combination  of  children's  voices  and  teachers'  brains  ? 

Oh!  that  a  huge  bonfire  might  be  made  of  the  thousands  of  sticks,  or 
pointers,  or  indexes — call  them  what  you  will  —  that  are  employed  in 
pointing  the  notes,  or  in  pounding  the  schoolroom  desks  to  keep  the 
time  for  the  class.  They  might  well  be  called  "  independence  killers." 
Is  it  a  good  principle  to  lug  rather  than  direct  ?  As  to  the  vital  interest 
of  the  class  in  the  lesson,  can  a  class  be  expected  to  have  a  keen  interest 
in  the  song  that  has  been  sung  until  it  is  worn  threadbare  ?  Where  the 
same  set  of  books  is  used  from  year  to  year  hundreds  of  children  come 
up  to  the  room  with  songs  all  stowed  away  in  their  memories.  How  long 
would  the  grade  teacher  be  able  to  hold  a  position  who  was  unable  to  give 
countless  illustrations  of  the  subject  in  hand  ?  How  about  the  supervisors, 
to  say  nothing  of  the  grade  teachers  under  their  charge  ?  How  many 
supervisors,  with  a  lofty  air  of  mock  modesty,  will  tell  us  they  "make  no 
pretensions  as  composers  ;  hence  they  never  write  exercises  for  their  classes, 
but  select  music  from  the  masters"?  Is  it  necessary  for  such  modest 
supervisors  to  explain  that  they  should  not  pretend  to  be  teachers  ? 
Nothing  in  connection  with  school  music  looks  so  utterly  ridiculous  as  to 
see  the  pious  way  in  which  supervisors  purchase  books  containing  rows  of 
figures  representing  the  notes  of  simple  exercises,  these  to  be  tranferred 
to  the  blackboards  for  daily  drill.  Think  of  a  grade  teacher  who  buys  a 
book  containing  mathematical  problems  like,  2  +  2  =  4,  3  +  3=6,  and 
uses  it  to  copy  from.  Would  not  a  grain  of  common-sense  suggest  to 
supervisors  that  they  prepare  themselves  so  well  that  their  minds  will  be 
storehouses  of  apt  illustration,  and  prompt  them  to  fit  the  grade  teachers 
to  write  correctly  and  rapidly? 

And  now  a  reference  to  the  subject  of  time.  Here  we  find  a  condi- 
tion of  long  standing,  which,  if  squarely  faced,  should  make  music  teach- 
ers, whether  in  or  out  of  school,  so  astounded  that  they  will  lose  their 
senses,  both  common  and  uncommon. 

Ask  a  hundred  music  teachers  the  greatest  difficulty  they  ever  met  in 
teaching  music,  and  they  will  all  tell  you,  "  The  time."  In  fact,  many  a 
music  teacher  will  tell  certain  pupils  that  they  have  no  natural  sense  of 
time  and  can  never  learn  to  keep  time. 

Shame  on  such  teachers  !  I  should  honestly  suppose  they  would  be 
afraid  to  go  to  bed  in  the  dark.  When  we  realize  the  indisputable  fact 
that  a  sense  of  time  is  as  natural  as  breath,  yet  admit  the  difficulty  of 
making  the  pupil  sense  the  notation,  thus  interpreting  the  meaning  of  the 
notes,  it  would  seem  as  tho  common-sense  would  get  a  hearing  and  com- 
mon-sense methods  of  teaching  time  would  prevail.  Nothing  stands  so 
squarely  across  the  pathway  of  every  music  pupil,  in  his  early  stages,  as 
the  enigma  of  time,  yet  the  methods  of  instruction  commonly  employed 
only  serve  to  make  utterly  dark  that  which  was  not  clear. 


536  MATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Music 

Nothing  in  connection  with  teaching  the  rudiments  of  music  so  much 
demands  a  common-sense  change  of  method  as  time-teaching.  The 
teacher  who  attempts  to  analyze  a  ten-year-old  boy  into  an  appreciation 
of  the  fact  that  two  eighth  notes  equal  a  quarter  ignores  the  fact  that  this 
same  boy  at  two  years  of  age  easily  imitated  the  motion  of  these  notes  as 
drummed  by  the  father  upon  the  child's  toy  drum.  The  supervisor  who 
employs  a  stick  to  point  the  notes,  or  to  pound  the  desk,  and  imagines 
that  the  children  are  learning  time,  is  easily  fooled.  Pupils  of  private 
teachers  are  being  finished  off,  prepared  to  fill  positions  as  performers  or 
teachers,  sent  out  to  battle  for  themselves,  with  ability  to  read  music  and 
to  execute,  but  having  been  distinctly  taught  that  they  have  one  weakness 
that  will  haunt  them  forever ;  that  is,  no  correct  time-sense.  Do  you 
know  of  such  cases  ?  I  do.  How  shocking  to  hear  an  ambitious  man  or 
woman,  who  has  spent  years  in  the  study  of  music,  tell  of  teachers  of 
national  repute  who  told  them  they  could  not  learn  to  keep  time ! 
Asylums  should  be  founded  for  musicians  who  are  constitutionally  weak 
in  time,  and  the  teachers  who  tell  their  pupils  such  twaddle  should  con- 
stitute the  first  class  to  enter  such  asylums. 

Tune  is  taught  by  imitation,  but  time  is  largely  taught  by  analysis. 
Why  not  teach  time  as  we  teach  tune  ?  One  learns  to  read  his  mother- 
tongue  by  grasping  the  endless  variety  of  groupings  of  letters  upon  the 
printed  pages,  and  all  learn  to  read. 

Musical  characters  are  always  to  be  read  in  groupings  which  are  gov- 
erned by  rhythmical  swing.  The  fingers  of  one  hand  will  count  the  sum 
total  of  the  different  groupings. 

Rhythmical  swing  is  as  natural  as  breath  ;  still  many  a  pupil  is  told  that 
he  cannot  learn  to  interpret  the  notation.  He  never  will  as  long  as  the 
interpretation  is  never  taught.  The  teacher  carries  the  pupil  over  all 
rough  places  and  mistakes  imitation  of  the  song  for  the  sensing  of  the 
printed  characters. 

With  an  honest  belief  that  all  the  matters  thus  far  touched  upon  are 
teeming  with  faults  that  forbid  the  rapid  growth  of  school  music,  I  leave 
them  to  touch  upon  a  stupendous  blunder  which  has  been  made,  is  being 
made,  and,  alas !  for  the  lack  of  common-sense  on  the  part  of  the  school- 
music  supervisors,  is  going  to  be  made  for  some  time  to  come.  In  the 
aggregate,  how  many  millions  of  lessons  in  sight-singing  have  been  given, 
not  one  of  which  gave  results  of  value  to  the  majority  of  the  class?  To 
expect  results  from  a  class  lesson  is  as  senseless  as  to  expect  the  Almighty 
to  controvert  his  unchangeable  laws  and  have  the  heavenly  bodies  pause 
in  their  orbits. 

It  is  God's  decree  that  everything  grows  by  individual  effort ;  yet 
school-music  supervisors  seem  to  think  that  God's  laws  will  be  suspended 
in  the  matter  of  teaching  school  children  to  sing.  The  few  who  have 
acknowledged  the  necessity  of  individual  singing  have  rendered  an  account 


Department]  MUSIC  TEACHING  IN  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS  537 

of  their  stewardship  by  making  pleas  like  the  following  :  "  No  time  during 
the  singing  period;"  "Children  never  have  sung  alone;"  "Children 
are  nervous  and  easily  frightened ; "  "  Large  boys  are  ugly  and  would 
refuse  to  sing  alone."  Some  supervisors  go  so  far  as  to  say  that  the 
ability  to  read  music  is  not  worth  the  cost;  that  it  is  of  more  importance 
that  children  should  develop  the  emotional,  should  study  the  artistic, 
should  learn  to  sing  with  deep  expression,  and  so  on. 

It  is  trying  to  listen  to  such  senseless  argument ;  yet  we  hope  that 
eventually  such  supervisors  may  be  awakened  from  their  deep  sleep,  or  be 
pronounced  dead  and  be  given  a  'speedy  burial.  Who  dare  affirm  that 
25  per  cent,  of  their  school  children,  after  nine  years  of  chorus  singing, 
can  read  ordinary,  plain  music  at  sight?  More  than  75  per  cent,  can 
learn  to  read  music  at  sight,  and  no  more  time  be  given  to  singing  than 
is  now  allotted  for  its  study.  This  is  no  fairy  tale,  for  it  is  being  demon- 
strated every  day  in  public  schools  where  individual  singing  is  compulsory. 

To  have  individual  singing  is  simply  to  apply  the  same  common- 
sense  to  music  that  is  applied  to  every  other  study.  The  old  complaint 
of  inability  to  keep  the  children  interested  will  lose  all  its  force,  and  the 
next  generation  will  rise  up  and  call  supervisors  of  school  music  blessed. 

The  masses  will  not,  as  formerly,  say,  "  Our  school-music  supervisor 
was  a  fine  musician,  but  we  did  not  learn  to  read  music;"  but  they  will 
say,  "  Our  supervisor  had  a  fund  of  common-sense  which  prompted  him 
to  give  his  pupils  a  thoro  rudimental  training,  and  we  learned  to  read 
music  when  in  the  schools." 

With  the  masses  able  to  read  music,  the  interest  in  music  will  be  a  vital 
part  of  life  in  America. 

SHOULD  MUSIC  IN   THE   PUBLIC  SCHOOLS  BE    TAUGHT 
FROM  THE  SONG    TO    THE  EXERCISE? 

C.    H.    CONGDON,    CHICAGO,    ILL. 

I  shall  not  attempt  to  prove  that  every  music  lesson  should  conform 
to  the  set  process  of  first  singing  a  song  by  rote  and  then  a  related  exer- 
cise by  note. 

The  philosophy  of  music  teaching  in  the  public  schools  is  not  usually 
presented  in  a  single  lesson.  It  takes  a  series  of  lessons  to  reveal  the 
object  for  which  we  are  working.  Lessons  are  oftentimes  only  fragmen- 
tary parts  of  a  complete  plan.  I  desire  to  prove  that  in  music,  song  is 
the  basis  of  the  child's  study.  It  first  arouses  his  interest,  and  then  fills 
his  mind  with  musical  forms  and  melodic  concepts,  which  are  the  neces- 
sary foundation  to  his  musical  growth. 

Sight-singing  is  largely  an  act  of  the  memory.  The  reader  discovers, 
thru  the  notation,  melodic  progressions  with  which  he  is  already 
familiar.     The    notes    suggest    to    the    mind    musical    concepts    already 


538  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Music 

acquired  thru  practice  and  experience.  These  concepts  must  primarily 
be  acquired  by  rote.  In  order  to  fill  the  mind  with  melodic  types  of  the 
most  desirable  quality,  the  learner  must  have  a  vital  experience  with  the 
highest  forms  of  melody.  After  a  rich  song  experience,  the  child  should 
be  brought  to  a  closer  observation  of  the  constructive  elements  of  melody. 
This  can  be  done  by  calling  his  attention  to  typical  forms  with  which  he 
has  already  had  an  unconscious  experience,  so  far  as  the  constructive  ele- 
ments are  concerned.  This  unconscious  song  experience  may  be  likened 
to  his  first  experiences  with  his  mother-tongue.  A  child  learns  to  talk 
before  he  can  begin  to  learn  to  read.  A  great  deal  of  the  knowledge 
acquired  by  children  thru  their  perceptive  faculties  remains  at  first  in 
the  subconsciousness,  and  later  on  this  knowledge  becomes  more  definite 
and  useful ;  but  many  of  these  subconscious  impressions  are  the  most 
firmly  fixed  in  the  memory.  While  practice  in  reading  simple  language 
prepares  the  child  for  the  more  difficult  exercises,  his  first  efforts  in  read- 
ing are  based  on  the  knowledge  of  language  he  has  already  acquired. 
This  knowledge  was  acquired  thru  vital  experience,  and  in  no  other 
way.  When  a  child  is  learning  to  talk  his  efforts  are  always  preceded 
and  inspired  by  thought  which  is  born  of  the  little  experiences  of  his 
daily  life.  Whatever  practice  or  drill  he  gets  is  always  directly  associated 
with  this  thought.  The  thought  and  the  experience  come  first,  and  the 
practice  comes  afterward,  and  is  based  on  the  thought  and  experience. 
Now,  every  successful  teacher  knows  that  this  principle  is  applied  in 
teaching  the  child  to  read.  The  words  or  phrases  requiring  special  drill 
are  always  selected  from  sentences  presenting  some  thought  in  which  the 
child  is  interested. 

The  philosophy  which  I  am  trying  to  uphold  cannot  be  narrowed 
down  to  a  single  lesson.  The  teacher  who  can  only  comprehend  pro- 
cesses as  such,  and  utterly  ignores  the  natural  laws  which  underlie  all  cor- 
rect schemes  of  education,  would  go  back  to  the  old  way  of  spelling  out 
words  and  requiring  children  to  read  meaningless  sentences  for  the  sake 
of  practice  ;  he  would  ask  the  pupil  to  study  outline  maps,  and  memorize 
the  names  and  location  of  rivers,  mountains,  and  cities,  regardless  of  their 
history  or  significance ;  he  would  require  the  learner  to  commit  to 
memory  rules  in  grammar  before  he  could  read  the  language  intelligently  ; 
he  would  have  the  student  of  manual  training  drive  nails  in  a  block  for 
practice  in  hitting  the  nail  on  the  head  ;  he  would  require  children  on 
Sundays  to  read  books  about  God  instead  of  allowing  them  to  commune 
directly  with  the  Creator  thru  his  marvelous  works  of  nature  ;  in  short, 
he  would  reverse  the  laws  of  nature  and  train  the  child  by  beginning  with 
abstract  principles  and  constructive  elements,  with  a  view  to  reaching  the 
desired  end  later  on. 

No  one  questions  this  philosophy  which  I  am  trying  to  present  as 
applied  to  language.    Descriptions  of  modern  school  readers  are  couched 


department]  MUSIC  TEACHING  IN  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS  539 

in  language  similar  to  the  following  :  "  Bright  conversations  and  noble 
poems  about  the  trees,  the  birds,  and  the  flowers  form  the  exercise  out  of 
which  the  pupil  is  led  to  discover  the  first  rules  of  language  and  to  appre- 
hend their  reasonableness." 

So  far  as  I  am  able  to  understand  the  new  education,  it  means 
the  renaissance  of  art,  music,  and  literature  for  the  children.  It  calls 
for  a  better  understanding  of  child  nature,  and  of  the  things  best 
suited  to  his  proper  development ;  it  means  freedom  from  dead  pro- 
cesses, and  the  emancipation  from  cut-and-dried  methods ;  it  is  the 
natural  growth  and  unfolding  of  the  child's  faculties  thru  wholesome 
effort  stimulated  by  a  vital  interest  in  the  things  that  influence  him  for 
good. 

The  first  thing  to  do  in  the  beginning  of  any  subject  is  to  arouse  an 
interest.  This  cannot  be  done  in  music  by  presenting  to  young  children 
theory  disassociated  from  song.  Such  a  course  kills  interest.  Often- 
times the  teacher,  and  not  the  subject  taught,  is  the  object  and  source  of 
interest  to  the  children  ;  and  it  matters  little  to  them  what  is  in  the  book, 
so  long  as  the  teacher,  with  her  strong  personality  and  power  to  interest 
and  control,  is  before  them.  It  is  of  great  importance,  however,  that  the 
children  be  inspired  with  a  love  for  music,  for  music's  sake,  and  that  they 
be  influenced  by  the  spirit  of  the  art  until  it  becomes  a  part  of  their  lives. 
This  can  be  done  only  thru  a  study  of  real  melody.  So  let  me  here  sum 
up  by  a  statement  what  I  have  already  said  :  A  child  must  think  and  have 
experience  before  he  can  talk  ;  he  must  be  able  to  talk  before  he  can 
learn  to  read  ;  and  when  he  begins  to  read  he  does  not  stop  talking. 
All  teaching  should  be  at  first  concrete ;  that  is  to  say,  it  should  be  object- 
teaching  ;  and  the  object  in  music  is  the  song.  This  is  in  accordance 
with  the  accepted  philosophy  of  modern  education.  All  up-to-date  pro- 
gressive teaching  is  based  on  this  principle.  A  child  who  acquires  a  lo/e 
for  singing  thru  efforts  dominated  by  the  true  spirit  of  song,  and  by 
studying  form  as  a  part  of  concrete  melody,  will  far  outstrip  the  one  who 
has  spent  his  time  delving  in  dry  technicalities,  for  the  sake  of  learning 
to  read  the  song  later  on. 

The  plan  of  leading  up  to  the  study  of  song  thru  many  graded  exer- 
cises, thus  using  cheap  tunes  as  stepping-stones  to  good  ones,  is  a  direct 
violation  of  the  principles  already  set  forth. 

A  great  many  people  have  a  wrong  conception  of  the  word  "drill." 
Of  course,  drill  means  reiteration.  The  drill  process  is  a  legitimate  one, 
but,  as  I  have  already  stated,  it  must  be  a  part  of  the  more  important 
thought  which  precedes  it.  Drill  exercises  should  not  be  a  divergence 
from  concrete  of  the  highest  order,  but  they  should  be  deduced  from 
such  melodies,  and  form  a  part  of  the  concrete  whole.  It  must  be  borne 
in  mind  that  there  are  two  kinds  of  drill  necessary  in  teaching  sight-read- 
ing.    The  first  I  have  already  described ;  that  is,  the  singling  out  of  one 


54C5  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Music 

or  more  of  the  constructive  elements  of  a  melody  that  is  being  studied, 
and  reiterating  it  for  the  purpose  of  fixing  it  in  the  mind.  The  second 
kind  of  drill  is  more  general.  It  means  the  general  practice  of  reading 
music  at  sight.  This  kind  of  drill  involves  the  use  of  simple  progressive 
melodies,  and  the  important  thing  to  be  looked  after  is  the  use  at  all  times 
of  the  very  best  that  can  be  selected  from  musical  literature.  I  claim,  there- 
fore, that  it  is  not  necessary,  as  a  rule,  to  use  large  numbers  of  common- 
place melodies  made  for  the  occasion,  so  long  as  there  is  an  abundance 
of  beautiful  tunes  written  by  the  great  song  writers  in  moments  of  inspi- 
ration. Such  tunes  form  the  ideal  stepping-stones  to  further  progress. 
Of  course,  there  are  a  great  many  things  that  require  drill  in  music. 
Style,  expression,  phrasing,  enunciation,  quality  of  tone,  and  many  other 
things,  require  the  careful  attention  of  the  teacher.  But  when  we  speak 
of  drill  work  in  public-school  music,  we  more  often  refer  to  the  processes 
that  develop  in  the  children  the  ability  to  read  music.  Now,  if  drill 
means  the  frequent  repetition  of  certain  musical  forms  for  the  purpose 
of  fixing  them  in  the  mind,  it  stands  to  reason  that  such  forms  should 
be  of  the  highest  quality  in  order  to  make  the  strongest  impression  upon 
the  mind  of  the  learner.  Furthermore,  drill  exercises  should  be  parts  of 
complete  melodies,  in  order  that  they  may  be  observed  in  their  true  rela- 
tion, and  that  the  melody  as  a  whole  may  give  the  learner  a  more  perfect 
conception  of  its  constructive  elements.  The  petal  of  a  rose  is  more 
easily  understood  if  it  is  presented  as  a  part  of  the  flower. 

Uninteresting  tunes  which  are  usually  called  sight-reading  exercises 
are  not,  as  a  rule,  made  for  practice  in  vocal  gymnastics,  because  the 
children  do  not  have  the  least  difficulty  in  performing  them,  so  far  as 
their  vocal  organs  are  concerned.  These  exercises  are  designed  for  drill 
in  the  elements  of  music,  to  fix  in  the  mind  of  the  child  these  musical 
concepts  which  are  necessary  before  sight-reading  is  possible ;  but  they 
defeat  the  objects  for  which  they  are  designed,  because  they  dull  the 
musical  sensibilities  of  the  child  by  requiring  him  to  grind  out  unin- 
spired tunes;  and  because  of  their  uninteresting  character  they  furnish  no 
aid  to  the  memory,  and  the  facts  usually  learned  in  this  manner  are  very 
soon  forgotten.  This  is  why  in  so  many  cases,  after  the  children  have 
passed  thru  several  years  of  this  so-called  drill  work,  they  seem  to  know 
so  little  about  music. 

Before  a  child  can  remember  what  he  studies,  he  must  be  moved  by 
the  spirit  and  truth  of  the  subject  that  demands  his  attention.  No  one 
can  deny  that  honest  drill  holds  an  important  place  in  education,  and 
that  wholesome  exercise  or  practice  in  the  thing  to  be  attained  is  not 
only  desirable,  but  necessary.  We  must  remember,  however,  that  the 
spelling-book  is  a  thing  of  the  past,  that  there  is  a  great  difference 
between  drawing  and  mechanical  drawing  in  the  public  schools.  Teach- 
ers are  beginning  to  learn   that  children  can  read  about  caterpillars  as 


Department]  MUSIC  TEACHING  IN  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS  541 

well  as  about  cats;  that  nature  is  not  graded  for  children;  on  the  con- 
trary, she  uses  her  most  sublime  effects  for  the  unfolding  of  the  immature 
mind. 

It  may  seem  like  honest  drill  to  solve  difficult  problems  in  mathe- 
matics, but  it  must  be  remembered  that  the  problems  that  give  the  best 
drill  are  based  on  actual  experiences  that  are  exceedingly  interesting  to 
the  student.  A  tune  that  does  not  possess  the  charm  of  inspiration  —  that 
subtle  quality  that  makes  melody  music  and  poetry  literature  —  cannot 
claim  the  interest  of  the  child  any  more  than  the  tedious  process  of 
adding  long  columns  of  figures  for  the  sake  of  accuracy  and  facility. 


DEPARTMENT  OF  BUSINESS  EDUCATION 


SECRETARY'S   MINUTES 


FIRST  SESSION.  — Thursday,  July  12,  1900 

In  the  absence  of  the  president  and  the  secretary  of  the  department,  the  meeting 
was  called  to  order  in  Irish  Volunteer  Hall  by  Professor  A.  L.  Stokes,  of  Charleston. 
Mr.  Allan  Davis,  of  Washington,  D.  C,  was  elected  acting  secretary. 

Addresses  of  welcome  were  delivered  by  Professor  A.  L.  Stokes,  on  behalf  of  the 
business  schools  of  the  South,  and  by  James  M.  Seignious,  of  Charleston,  on  behalf  of 
the  business-men  of  the  city.  A  response  was  made  by  Professor  D.  W.  Springer,  of 
Ann  Arbor,  Mich. 

A  paper  was  read  on  "  Content  and  Educational  Value  of  the  Curriculum  for  a 
Secondary  School  of  Commerce,"  by  Dr.  Cheesman  A.  Herrick,  department  of  commerce. 
Central  High  School,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Professor  Woodford  D.  Anderson,  of  the  University  of  South  Dakota,  read  a  paper 
on  the  subject,  "  Should  Our  Colleges  and  Universities  Educate  Men  Especially  for 
Business  ?  " 

William  E.  Doggett,  of  the  Commercial  High  School  of  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  read  a 
paper  on  the  "Commercial  High-School  Course."  Discussion  followed  by  Allan  Davis, 
of  Washington,  D.  C;  Edward  W.  Stitt, of  New  York;  and  D.  W.  Springer,  of  Michigan. 
A  paper  on  "  The  Advantages  and  Difficulties  of  Introducing  the  Commercial  Branches 
in  Grammar  and  High  Schools  "  was  presented  by  Dr.  H.  M.  Rowe,  of  Baltimore,  Md.; 
and  a  paper  on  "  Profitable  Publicity,"  by  President  Willard  J.  Wheeler  of  the  Business 
College  of  Birmingham,  Ala.,  which  was  discussed  by  Mr.  G.  M.  Smithdeal,  of  Rich- 
mond, Va. 

Adjourned. 

SECOND  SESSION.  — Friday,  July  13 

The  meeting  was  called  to  order  at  3  :  30  p.  m.  by  Acting  President  Stokes. 

Dr.  Edward  W.  Stitt,  of  New  York,  presented  a  paper  on  "  School  and  Business 
Arithmetic,"  and  Mr.  F.  L.  Haeberle,  of  the  Polytechnic  Institute  of  Brooklyn,  N,  Y.,  one 
on  "  Essentials  of  Modern  Business  Penmanship."  The  latter  paper  was  discussed  by  W. 
W.  Frye,  of  John  B.  Stetson  University,  DeLand,  Fla.,  and  others. 

The  following  officers  were  elected  for  the  ensuing  year : 

For  PresideKi  —  WiUiam  E.  Doggett,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 

For  Vice-President — Willard  J.  Wheeler,  Birmingham,  Ala. 

For  Secretary  —  Edward  W.  Stitt,  New  York,  N.  Y. 

The  department  adjourned. 

Allan  Davis, 

Acting  Secretary, 


542 


Department]  CURklCtJLUM  FOR  A  SCtiOOL  OF  COMMEkCF  543 


PAPERS  AND  DISCUSSIONS 


CONTENT  AND  EDUCATIONAL   VALUE  OF  THE  CURRICU- 
LUM FOR  A  SECONDARY  SCHOOL  OF  COMMERCE 

CHEESMAN    A.  HERRICK,  DIRECTOR,  COURSE    IN    COMMERCE,  CENTRAL    HIGH 
SCHOOL,  PHILADELPHIA,  PA. 

I.  In  the  United  States  at  present  we  are  confronted  with  a  new  educa- 
tional situation.  Progress  comes  from  the  successful  dealing  with  new 
situations,  and  we  ought  neither  to  lament  that  the  good  old  times  are 
no  more,  nor  to  decide  the  present  issues  of  our  educational  life  solely 
by  the  experiences  and  the  precepts  of  days  that  are  gone.  Certainly  I 
do  not  regret  that  the  commercial  idea  of  the  present  is  stamping  itself 
on  education,  no  more  than  I  regret  that  for  half  a  century  science  and 
industry  have  so  stamped  themselves  until  they  fairly  rank  with  the 
classics  and  literature  as  phases  of  educational  thought  and  activity. 
First  we  find  science  and  industry  influencing  education,  and  then  edu- 
cation contributing  to  the  advancement  of  science  and  industry. 

Scientific  and  industrial  education  have  won  their  battles  ;  we  need  not 
discuss  them ;  but  a  new  claimant  now  presents  itself  for  educational 
recognition  —  a  claimant  that  offers  a  new  vocation,  that  seeks  to  apply 
science  and  culture  to  another  set  of  social  activities.  Public  education  for 
business  life  —  and  I  use  the  terms  in  a  broad  sense,  meaning  both  educa- 
tion and  life — is  just  now  awaiting  the  statement  of  its  case.  What  are  the 
aims  of  education  for  commerce,  what  are  to  be  its  instruments,  and  how 
shall  the  instruments  be  so  utilized  as  to  realize  the  aims  ?  How  much  of 
the  old  shall  be  retained  in  what  we  propose  as  the  new? 

The  curriculum  of  the  secondary  commercial  school  is  the  cruxoi  this 
question  for  secondary  education,  and  the  secondary  school  as  a  whole  is 
the  boundary  line  of  the  contending  elements  in  the  situation.  It  seems 
to  be  fundamental  to  our  present  thought  that  higher  education  may  deal 
with  any  subject,  from  Arabic  to  electricity,  and  trade  and  commerce  are 
being  readily  admitted  into  the  sisterhood  of  college  and  university 
studies.  We  are  also  agreed  that  the  element  of  vocation  should  enter 
very  slightly,  if  at  all,  into  the  elementary  school.  But  we  are  not  at  one 
as  to  the  true  function  of  the  high  school  —  whether  it  should  do  one 
thing  or  many  things  ;  to  what  extent  it  should  recognize  future  voca- 
tion ;  how  it  should  articulate  with  the  education  that  is  below  it,  and 
with  that  which  is  above  it.  To  discuss  commercial  high  schools  rather 
adds  to  an  already  much-confused  question  ;  but  may  not  the  new 
element,  when  correlated  with  those  already  in  the  situation,  contribute 


544  M AVION AL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Business 

to  a  conclusion  that  will  be  as  universally  accepted  as  is  the  doctrine  of 
the  function  of  the  elementary  school,  or  of  higher  education? 

II.  Certain  principles  seem  fairly  evident.  There  is  no  best  scheme  of 
high-school  education,  commercial  or  otherwise,  either  for  all  people  at  any 
one  time  or  for  some  of  the  people  for  all  time.  No  one  can  hope  to  devise 
a  plan  of  studies  that  shall  be  universally  recognized  as  the  best.  We  are 
beyond  the  stage  when  psychology,  or  the  so-called  formal  training,  shall 
be  the  chief  factor  in  curricula.  Education  should  recognize  the  capaci- 
ties and  limitations  of  those  who  are  to  be  educated,  and  the  demands  of 
the  social  world  in  which  the  educated  shall  move ;  and  as  capacities,  oppor- 
tunities, and  demands  vary,  plans  of  study  must  also  vary.  A  secondary 
school  of  commerce  in  a  great  center  of  international  trade  needs  a  differ- 
ent curriculum  from  that  needed  by  one  in  an  interior  manufacturing  or 
mining  city;  just  as  one  in  such  a  city  should  not  be  made  the  rule  for  a 
school  in  a  town  in  which  the  business  is  largely  local  retail  trade.  But 
commercial  education  may  universally  set  for  itself  certain  ideals,  such  as 
the  cultivation  of  intellectual  power,  and,  what  is  quite  as  difficult,  the 
acquiring  of  the  ability  to  apply  one's  power  to  the  matter  in  hand.  We 
shall  agree  that  schemes  of  instruction,  while  they  may  train  powers,  do 
not  render  the  greatest  service  unless  they  make  sure  that  the  power 
trained  shall  be  turned  to  account.  We  know  that  judgment  in  one  set 
of  life's  relations  does  not  necessarily  mean  judgment  for  all  other  sets. 
Memory  and  imagination  may  be  stimulated  only  to  certain  ends.  If 
"sharpening  of  the  wits"  were  the  sole  end  of  our  instruction,  then  no 
better  instruments  could  be  devised  than  the  ancient  game  of  chess  or 
modern  whist.  Schools  of  commerce  everywhere  may  give  themselves 
to  the  cultivation  of  those  intellectual  powers  that  will  be  used.  Their 
training  will  have  the  double  service  of  making  the  subjects  of  instruc- 
tion more  practical,  and  the  practical  affairs  more  intellectual.  We  have 
long  had  two  inherited  educational  ideals  that  have  existed  side  by  side,  but 
have  not  intermingled  —  the  scholastic  and  the  apprenticeship  ideals.  The 
former  has  given  formal  culture  —  the  classical  school;  the  latter,  utilitarian- 
ism in  education  —  the  workshop.  But  already  the  old  division  of  studies 
into  educational  but  not  useful,  and  useful  but  not  educational,  is  fast 
disappearing.  The  useful  is  found  to  be  intellectual,  and  much  that  has 
hitherto  been  thought  to  be  educational  only  has  increasing  usefulness. 

Wherever  schools  of  commerce  are  established,  whatever  their  local 
problems,  their  supreme  aim  must  be  the  production  of  those  who  have 
the  ballast  of  integrity  of  purpose,  whose  ships  of  life  shall  be  ever  on  the 
even  keels  of  strict  morality.  More  than  a  hundred  years  ago  the  world 
was  startled  with  the  declaration  that  in  international  trade  both  sides 
might  be  gainers.  We  recognize  this  at  present  as  true  for  nations,  but 
hardly  so  for  individuals.  Gain  is  popularly  regarded  somehow  as  illicit; 
if  one  party  to  a  transaction  has  a  profit,  then  it  is  felt  that  the  other  must 


Department]  CURRICULUM  FOR  A  SCHOOL  OF  COMMERCE  545 

have  a  corresponding  loss.  A  generation  of  business-men  must  be 
trained  that  shall  see  in  business  neither  the  giving  nor  the  taking  of 
advantages,  but  instead  a  social  service  for  which  one  may  expect  com- 
pensation. Business  education  universally  must  be  moral  as  well  as 
intellectual ;  and  this  for  the  good  of  society  at  large,  and  the  welfare  of 
business  in  particular. 

Again,  commercial  high  schools  are  not  to  degenerate  into  the  for- 
malism of  mere  routine.  When  technical  work  is  introduced  there  is  the 
danger  of  all  finding  permanently  the  dead  level  of  the  technical.  May 
schools  of  commerce  be  saved  for  all  time  from  being  intellectual  nur- 
series, asylums,  infirmaries,  or  hospitals  !  Let  us  put  into  our  curricula 
subjects  of  difficulty,  and  get  out  of  them  a  ruggedness  of  training  that 
shall  stamp  our  work  as  of  superior  educational  value.  And  just  here 
please  remember  that  one's  training  in  a  subject  is  not  always  to  be 
measured  by  the  hours  he  dawdles  over  it.  Impossible  tasks  for  a  school 
of  commerce  might  give  slight  educational  return,  even  if  they  were  com- 
pleted. Education  comes  from  activity,  but  not  all  forms  of  activity 
contribute  equally  to  education.  In  the  light  of  some  of  those  general 
statements  let  us  regard  the  subjects  of  study  for  a  commercial  high  school. 

III.  I.  English  language  and  literature. —  English  subjects  in  themselves 
should  occupy  a  foremost  place  in  schools  of  commerce ;  and,  in  addition, 
accurate,  forceful,  and  graceful  expression,  oral  and  written,  should  be 
aimed  at  in  connection  with  all  other  subjects  studied.  As  a  minimum 
the  English  should  include  composition  writing,  with  attention  to  spelling, 
sentence  and  paragraph  formation,  more  extended  essays,  an  introduction 
to  the  history  of  English  (including  American)  literature,  critical  and 
interpretative  readings  of  the  masterpieces  of  the  English  language,  and  the 
best  English  translations  of  world-literatures  in  other  languages.  In  the 
earlier  years  the  compositions  should  be  brief  and  of  frequent  occurrence, 
to  be  followed  later  by  more  extended  essays.  Two  considerations  should 
be  regarded  :  the  correlation  of  English  with  other  subjects  of  study,  and 
reading  extensively,  in  class  and  out,  of  the  best  literature.  Once  for  all, 
let  us  settle  that  good  English  form  is  not  to  be  put  on  and  laid  off  as 
one's  garb,  a  particular  thing  for  certain  hours,  or  for  special  social  func- 
tions. Good  form,  to  be  of  value,  must  be  one's  stock  in  trade,  for  daily 
and  hourly  use.  Great  will  be  the  economy  of  both  teacher  and  taught, 
incalculable  will  be  the  gain,  if  we  shall  make  every  exercise  an  English 
exercise,  until  accurate  expression  becomes  habitual.  It  is  feasible  to  have 
English  and  history  taught  by  the  same  instructors.  Much  of  the  reading 
in  English  is  illustrative  of  historical  conditions,  and  history  is  in  part 
literary,  and  descriptive  of  the  background  for  literary  production.  Both 
English  and  history  gain  from  such  a  combination,  and  there  is  no  undoing 
of  results,  no  re-traversing  of  the  same  ground.  Too  often  the  arrange- 
ment of  subjects  in  curricula  makes  the  progress  of  the  pupil  like  the 


546  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [teusiness 

movements  of  an  army  that  advances  to  a  certain  point,  and  falls  back, 
only  again  to  advance  and  fall  back.  But' English  thru  other  subjects  is 
possible  elsewhere  than  in  history.  The  school  of  commerce  should 
train  for  fluent,  natural,  oral  expression,  either  in  single  sentences  or  in 
connected  discourse.  Business  does  not  need  elocutionists,  orators,  or 
debaters,  but  it  does  need  those  who  can  talk^ — and  to  train  men  to  talk, 
elegantly,  and  convincingly  to  the  matter  in  hand,  is  an  important  work 
in  the  com-mercial  school.  Above  all,  let  us  keep  boys  free  from  the 
notion  that  they  are  to  make  speeches,  that  they  are  to  conduct  contro- 
versies based  on  inadequate  information  ;  instead  they  should  be  led, 
naturally  and  informally,  to  present  information  acquired.  And  reading, 
reading,  reading  —  reading  of  great  works  in  school,  reading  of  great 
works  outside  of  school  for  report  —  is  second  in  value  to  no  task  which 
may  be  set.  The  best  of  our  mother-tongue,  and  the  best  foreign  trans- 
lations into  our  mother-tongue,  should  be  drawn  upon.  There  is  nothing 
in  the  nature  of  the  case  that  should  make  the  educational  value  of  litera- 
ture in  a  school  of  commerce  lower  than  is  its  value  in  other  schools. 
Indeed,  such  a  school  will  have  distinct  advantages  from  the  beginning, 
in  not  attempting  the  impossible. 

2.  Languages  other  than  English. — "  He  who  knows  one  language  only 
knows  none."  Somewhat  extended  study  should  be  made  of  at  least  two 
modern  tongues  in  addition  to  English,  Local  conditions,  local  demands, 
will  fix  what  languages  are  chosen.  In  Philadelphia  we  have  held  to  one 
year  of  Latin  grammar  as  introductory  language  study,  following  this  with 
German  and  French  or  Spanish.  Students  come  to  us  without  much 
notion  of  formal  grammar  ;  we  need  something  on  which  to  build,  and 
the  question  is  whether  the  grammar  drill  shall  be  in  Latin,  in  German, 
or  in  a  general  review  of  the  English  grammar.  The  latter  may  be  the 
proper  solution  of  our  difficulty,  such  study  to  be  supplemented  at  once 
with  the  German  grammar.  A  wave  of  popularity  has  set  toward  the 
disciplinary  value  of  modern  languages,  shown  in  recent  foreign  reports, 
and  in  the  expressions  of  our  own  language  associations.  Repeatedly  are 
we  favored  with  opinions,  based  on  observation  and  experience,  that  the 
educational  value  of  modern  languages  can  be  made  comparable  to  that 
of  the  ancient  languages.' 

Dr.  R.  P.  Scott  summed  up  a  discussion  before  the  London  Chamber 
of  Commerce  Conference  on  Commercial  Education  with  the  statement : 

There  seems  agreement  that  it  is  possible  to  have  a  modern  education  drawn  entirely 
upon  modern  lines,  out  of  which  can  be  got  the  same  discipline  of  mind  and  the  same 
discipline  of  conduct  that  can  be  got  out  of  the  old  classical  languages.  They  have  found 
that  true  in  Germany,  and  I  am  convinced  we  can  find  it  true  in  England,  if  only  we  can 
set  ourselves  to  work  out  the  different  types  of  secondary  education  that  this  nation  should 
have  at  its  command." 

1  London  Technical  Educational  Board,  Report  on  Commercial  Education,  p.  5. 

2  Proceedings,  p.  185. 


Department]  CURMICULUM  FOR  A  SCHOOL  OF  COMMERCE  547 

The  advantages  of  beginning  the  study  of  a  foreign  language  with  a 
living  and  not  a  dead  tongue  have  long  been  urged,  and  such  recom- 
mendations may  well  be  regarded,  even  by  those  who  aim  at  a  familiarity 
with  the  latter.  For  schools  of  commerce  modern  languages  should,  in 
my  judgment,  be  studied  as  living  languages,  that  is,  (as  far  as  practi- 
cable) thru  the  medium  of  oral  discourse,  thus  cultivating  the  ear  as 
well  as  the  eye.  In  German  schools  boys  ask  and  answer  questions  in 
the  language  studied,  and  English  and  French  visitors  are  surprised  to 
find  that  not  only  are  they  invited  to  speak  to  the  students  in  their  native 
tongue,  but  that  the  students  follow  them.'  Foreign-language  instruc- 
tion, to  be  of  value,  must  have  a  wider  outlook  than  business  correspond- 
ence, commercial  terms,  etc.  One  can  sympathize  with  the  expression 
of  Mr.  H.  W.  Eve  before  the  International  Congress  on  Technical  Edu- 
cation, in  London,  1897  :  "A  boy  who  can  turn  Lessing's  Laocoon  into 
good  English,  and  a  passage  of  Macaulay  into  passable  German,  will  not 
take  long  to  learn  how  to  'apologize  for  delay  in  the  execution  of  your 
esteemed  order."" 

To  summarize,  in  the  line  suggested  by  Rev.  C.  W,  Bourne  : 

{a)  A  living  language  should  be  learned  principally  thru  the  medium 
of  the  ear. 

(p)  A  mere  "courier"  knowledge  of  a  language  is  not  sufficient; 
coupled  with  this,  there  must  be  acquaintance  with  literature. 

{c)  Phonetics  of  the  language  studied  should  be  taught. 

{d)  Language  should  be  employed  as  the  instrument  of  conveying 
exact  thought.^ 

All  that  is  here  urged  is  with  recognition  of  the  claims  of  the  study 
of  the  classics.  A  fine  product  of  classical  culture,  on  the  same  page  in 
which  he  recognizes  its  value,  advocates  "a  definite  foundation  of  knowl- 
edge in  those  studies  that  are  closely  related  to  the  conditions  of  future 
life,"  and  goes  on  to  say : 

For  some  professions  there  is  admittedly  no  better  preparation  than  that  afforded  by 
the  classical  education  as  we  know  it  at  its  best.  But  for  a  youth  intended  for  commer- 
cial life,  would  it  not  almost  invariably  be  better  to  get  at  school  a  thorough  grounding 
in  French  artd  German,  in  history  and  literature,  in  the  elements  of  science  and  of  mathe- 
matics, and  in  some  forms  of  manual  exercise,  than  to  learn  a  little  Latin  and  Greek  at 
the  price  of  having  to  give  less  time  to  the  studies  which  are  at  least  an  equally  indis- 
pensable part  of  modern  culture  ?* 

3.  Mathematics.  —  Old  Plato  regretted  the  use  of  "the  noble  science" 
arithmetic  in  practical  affairs,  yet  from  Plato's  day  to  our  own  mathe- 
matics in  all  branches  have  become  more  and  more  matters  of  daily 
life.     A  commercial    high  school  will    get   pupils  grounded  in  general 

I  Magnus,  London  Chamber  of  Commerce  Conference,  Proceedings,  p.  5. 
a  Proceedings,  p.  185. 

3  London  Chamber  of  Commerce  Conference  on  Commercial  Education,  Proceedings,  p.  19. 

4  MicifABi.  E.  Saolek, 


548  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Business 

arithmetic,  and  it  should  aim  at  an  enlargement  of  the  number  copcept, 
thru  a  study  of  algebra,  to  be  followed  by  the  elements  of  geometry  and 
trigonometry  as  a  training  in  logical  reasoning,  and  as  furnishing  the 
principles  for  measurements.  The  concluding  subject  in  this  group  should 
be  mensuration  and  higher  commercial  arithmetic,  with  rigid  drill  in 
mental  arithmetic  —  a  course  that  can  be  made  of  great  practical  value  as 
well  as  an  important  factor  in  the  educational  process. 

4.  History.  —  At  least  four  courses  in  history  should  be  distributed 
thruout  the  years  of  the  curriculum  we  are  considering,  and  the  following 
are  suggested  :  {a)  general  history  to  800  A.  D.  (chiefly  Greek  and  Roman 
with  their  oriental  connections) ;  {f)  general  European  history  from  800 
A.  D.  (largely  English  with  its  continental  connections);  {c)  American; 
and  {d)  industrial  and  commercial  history  (chiefly  of  the  United  States, 
England,  and  Germany  since  1763).  In  the  teaching  of  history  in  any 
secondary  school  the  process  is  one  of  selection,  and  for  this  course  the 
selection  should  be  made  of  those  facts  that  illustrate  the  industrial, 
commercial,  and  social  aspects  of  the  life  of  the  peoples  studied.  The 
geographic  basis  should  be  duly  emphasized,  and  a  close  relation  estab- 
lished between  history,  science,  and  economics. 

5.  Science.  —  Recently  an  old-time  college  president  asked  a  young 
professor  of  biology  if  he  would  begin  his  teaching  of  zoology  with  some 
broad  principles  of  classification,  and  had  the  answer  that  the  subject 
would  be  begun  with  a  pail  of  clams.  Science  has  become  a  study  of 
things,  but  not  all  sorts  of  things  are  of  equal  value  for  scientific  study. 
Clams  may  be  made  very  interesting  for  the  time  being,  yet  I  can  well 
conceive  the  study  of  them  as  profitless  as  were  the  erstwhile  principles 
of  classification.  Mineralogy,  botany,  and  zoology  offer  rich  stores  that 
may  be  treated  as  the  raw  materials  of  commerce.  Where  natural  prod- 
ucts are  secured,  their  properties,  parts  of  them  that  are  used,  etc.,  etc., 
should  command  our  attention,  rather  than  systematic  science.  Such  a 
course  dealing  with  raw  materials  naturally  precedes  commercial  geog- 
raphy, which  deals  with  the  forces  of  nature  as  agents  in  production  of 
these,  and  the  manner  of  their  finding  their  way  into  the  world's  trade. 
Elementary  physics  and  chemistry  may  be  given  thru  a  study  of  the 
materials  of  industry  and  trade,  and  as  a  concluding  course  there  ought 
to  be  the  study  of  chemistry  applied  to  arts  and  industry.  Science  in  our 
curriculum  should  be  a  study  of  the  phenomena  of  everyday  life,  and  to 
this  end  the  laboratory  and  the  special  museum  are  indispensable. 

6.  Economics  and  political  science.  —  What  passes  as  phenomena  of  our 
political,  economic,  and  social  life  should  have  due  recognition  in  schools 
of  commerce,  which  does  not  mean  that  we  are  to  aim  at  the  production 
of  political  philosophers  or  sociologists.  Theories  and  abstractions  ought 
to  be  largely  avoided,  methods  being  historical  and  descriptive.  Local 
government,  with  industrial  organization  and  activity,  may  be  made  the 


DepartmentJ         SHOULD  COLLEGES  EDUCATE  FOR  BUSLNESS?  549 

point  of  contact,  and  then  from  the  community  out.  Problems  of  pro- 
duction, distribution,  exchange,  and  consumption  should  be  considered 
concretely.  Government,  too,  needs  treatment  as  a  real  thing.  Field 
work,  observation  and  report,  studies  of  special  trades  and  industries, 
etc.,  offer  opportunities  for  numerous  valuable  courses. 

7.  Studies  of  the  technique  of  business. —  Much  of  the  foregoing  is 
general,  and  it  now  remains  to  speak  of  the  subjects  more  special.  In 
no  sense  will  our  ideal  school  of  commerce  seek  to  turn  out  a  ready- 
made  business-man.  It  may  reasonably  aim  to  equip  a  young  man  to 
write  well ;  to  take  a  fair  dictation  in  shorthand  and  operate  that  instru- 
ment of  modern  commercial  and  literary  life,  the  typewriter;  to  familiarize 
him  with  current  business  paper  and  office  practice ;  to  ground  him  in  the 
principles  of  accounts ;  and  to  give  him  some  notion  of  the  legal  regula 
tions  for  business  transactions.  Not  an  ambitious  scheme,  but  if  well 
done,  and  well  backed  with  the  broader  subjects  that  have  to  do  with 
business  life,  we  shall  have  a  generation  of  men  who  will  be  happier  and 
more  successful  in  commercial  pursuits,  and  who  will  give  a  new  tone  to 
business  itself. 

IV.  The  curriculum  described,  it  will  be  observed,  is  at  once  general  and 
special.  It  is  the  writer's  confident  belief  that  the  study  of  English,  modern 
languages,  history,  science,  and  mathematics  in  a  school  of  commerce  can 
be  made  fairly  equal  in  educational  value  with  a  study  of  these  same  sub- 
jects in  other  groupings  or  arrangements.  Every  scheme  of  education 
may  be  liberal,  as  every  scheme  may  be  technical,  and  the  question  which 
business  education,  along  with  others,  must  consider  is :  Where  shall  the 
line  be  drawn,  how  shall  the  division  be  made  between  matters  that  have 
technical  value  and  those  that  have  cultural  value  ?  We  believe  that  mod- 
ern industrial  and  commercial  life  are  too  little  regarded  in  schemes  of 
higher  and  secondary  studies,  and  we  demand  that  courses  adjusted  to 
present  conditions  be  introduced  on  a  proper  basis  into  existing  schools, 
or  be  established  in  distinct  schools;  and  we  accompany  this  demand  with 
the  statement  that  what  we  wi^h  is  only  more  rational,  more  universal 
education. 


SHOULD    OUR    COLLEGES  AND    UNIVERSITIES  EDUCATE 
MEN  SPECIALLY  FOR  BUSINESS? 

WOODFORD    D.    ANDERSON,    DEPARTMENT     OF     COMMERCE,    UNIVERSITY     OF 
SOUTH    DAKOTA,    VERMILLION,    S.    D. 

The  subject  Jjefore  us  is  precise,  but  vague  ;  precise,  in  that  it  asks  a 
specific  question  about  our  colleges  and  universities ;  vague,  in  that  the 
education  necessary  to  fit  men  especially  for  business  is  indefinite.  Busi- 
ness education  is  a  very  indefinite  term.  It  is  used  to  represent  the 
education  received  in  a  three-,  six-,  or  nine-month  term   in   the  business 


SS*  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Business 

school.  It  is  used  also  to  represent  the  work  done  in  the  two,  three, 
or  four  years'  work  in  the  commercial  high  school.  It  is  used  also  to 
represent  the  work  done  in  the  four-year  courses  of  commerce  and 
administration,  such  as  we  find  established  at  the  Chicago  and  Wisconsin 
Universities. 

I  believe  our  colleges  and  universities  should  educate  men  for  business. 
I  believe  also  that  these  institutions  are  the  best  places  to  educate  men 
especially  for  business.  Some  things  said  in  this  address  may  indicate 
that  I  am  hostile  to  the  business  schools.  Such  is  not  the  case.  I  would 
raise  every  first-class  business  school  to  the  grade  of  a  college.  I  know 
of  no  class  of  educators  who  deserve  more  credit  than  commercial  teachers. 
They  have  taken  an  extreme — perhaps  a  narrow — position;  but  they 
have  given  many  young  men  the  rudiments  of  business,  and  have  helped 
them  into  good  positions.  Their  work  has  created  also  a  demand  for 
more  practical  education,  and  made  it  possible  for  our  colleges  and  uni- 
versities to  put  commercial  training  on  a  par  with  instruction  in  the  classics 
and  in  science. 

The  problem  before  us  now  resolves  itself  into  two  distinct  questions  : 
(i)  Should  yoting  men  receive  higher  commercial  education  ?  (2)  Should 
this  higher  education  be  given  in  colleges  and  universities  in  preference 
to  special  schools  ? 

Let  us  discuss  these  questions  separately.  If  we  attempt  to  reach  a 
conclusion  from  statements  made  by  men  who  ought  to  know,  we  find 
chaos.  If  we  endeavor  to  draw  a  conclusion  from  statistics,  we  find 
contradiction.  Mr.  John  Carlton  Jones,  in  the  Forum  for  November, 
1898,  gives  some  interesting  statistics  concerning  college  education.  He 
considers  signers  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  presidents,  vice- 
presidents,  members  of  the  cabinets,  etc.  He  finds  55  per  cent,  of  these 
to  be  college  graduates.  These  figures  prove  much  for  college  education, 
but  nothing  concerning  its  relation  to  business.  Dr.  H.  E.  Kratz  has  col- 
lected some  valuable  statistics.  His  figures  show  that  57  per  cent,  of 
successful  business-men  and  professional  men  are  college-trained,  while 
33  per  cent,  of  business-men  are  college  men.  It  is  not  denied  that  one- 
third  of  the  names  in  Appleton's  EncyclopcRdia  are  the  names  of  college 
graduates ;  but  these  are  not  business-men,  nor  were  business-men  given 
proper  representation  in  that  work.  These  figures  have  led  me  to  collect 
some  statistics.  Business-men  only  were  canvassed,  with  the  following 
results:  17  per  cent,  were  college  graduates,  26  per  cent,  were  college- 
trained,  52  per  cent,  were  graduates  of  business  schools,  and  76  per  cent- 
had  been  students  in  business  schools. 

When  we  consider  that  less  than  one  man  in  every  one  hundred  is  a 
college  man,  these  figures  indicate  that  the  college  education  increases  a 
business-man's  chance  of  success  in  the  ratio  of  25  to  i,  and  a  profes- 
sional man's  chances  of  success  in  the  ratio  of  50  to  i.     But  remember 


Department]         SHOULD  COLLEGES  EDUCATE  FOR  BUSINESS?  55 1 

that  we  have  seen  only  one  side  of  the  question.  Mr.  Carnegie  says  that 
the  boy  who  enters  the  office  at  an  early  age  has  too  much  the  start  of 
the  college  graduate,  and  will  seldom  be  overtaken  by  him.  Mr.  Henry 
Clews  says  that  he  does  not  employ  college  graduates,  because  they  think 
they  know  it  all,  and  are  seldom  willing  to  begin  at  the  bottom  and  apply 
their  whole  energies  to  their  work.  But  why  need  I  quote  these  men  ? 
Ask  the  business-men  of  your  own  city ;  and  many  of  them  will  advise 
the  boy  to  go  to  work,  and  not  to  take  the  college  training,  if  he  intends 
to  enter  business. 

There  is  an  old  Greek  maxim  which  says  :  "Teach  the  boy  what  the 
man  needs."  History  proves  the  wisdom  of  this  saying  when  it  records 
Farragut,  Hannibal,  Alexander,  and  Napoleon,  all  at  seven  years ;  Car- 
negie at  twelve ;  Wanamaker  at  fourteen  ;  Marshall  Field,  Peabody,  and 
Gould  at  seventeen ;  Rockefeller  at  nineteen  ;  and  a  thousand  other 
famous  men  as  beginning  their  business  or  profession  at  less  than 
twenty-one.  It  is  a  well-known  fact  that  the  financiers  who  have  made 
signal  successes  are  not  college  men.  When  I  speak  of  a  financier  I  do 
not  mean  a  meteor,  but  a  man  who  has  succeeded  and  who  can  succeed 
again  —  a  Vanderbilt  who  earned  his  wealth  by  work,  and  who  has 
increased  it  thru  several  generations  by  intelligent  direction ;  a  Gould 
who  has  manipulated  men  and  markets;  or  a  Rockefeller  who  has 
outorganized  and  outclassed  his  opponents. 

These  statistics  and  statements  seem  to  clash.  We  may  be  able  to 
profit  by  them  if  we  cannot  harmonize  them. 

Higher  education  —  college  and  university  education — has  a  direct 
effect  upon  a  very  small  portion  of  our  people ;  but  indirectly  it  affects 
every  man,  woman,  and  child  in  the  land. 

Herbert  Spencer  tells  us  that  the  function  of  education  is  to  prepare 
us  for  complete  living.  Education  does  not  perform  her  function.  In 
four  different  colleges  I  found  that  more  than  half  the  boys  who  entered 
returned  to  the  farm,  ^ore  than  one- fourth  of  them  engaged  in  busi- 
ness. Admitting  this  to  be  an  average,  if  the  function  of  education  is  to 
prepare  men  for  complete  living,  three-fourths  of  our  young  men  who 
enter  college  are  not  offered  education  at  all,  because  the  kind  of  instruc- 
tion offered  does  not  prepare  for  complete  living. 

We  should  have  higher  commercial  education  to  meet  the  just 
demands  of  the  times.  There  can  be  no  prosperity  without  material 
prosperity.  There  has  been  a  great  commercial  awakening ;  both  per- 
sonal and  national  competition  are  greater  than  they  have  ever  been. 
Wars  were  formerly  waged  for  plunder,  now  they  are  for  markets.  We 
are  closing  the  century  of  invention  and  entering  the  century  of  com- 
merce.    Hon.  Thomas  B.  Reed  says  : 

We  have  reached  the  era  of  the  business-man.  In  olden  times  fighters  were 
supreme.     When  the  rights  of  property,  rather  than  the  rights  of  might,  began  to  be 


552  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Business 

recognized,  the  lawyer  and  the  politician  held  sway,  and  nowhere  more  than  in  the 
United  States.  But  the  lawyer  and  the  politician  are  giving  way  to  another  class.  The 
business-men  are  possessing  the  earth. 

In  1888  France  and  Germany  exported  much  more  than  did  the 
United  States,  while  the  United  Kingdom  exported  twice  as  much  as  we 
did.  Ten  years  later  we  had  surpassed  both  France  and  Germany,  and 
were  nearly  equal  to  the  United  Kingdom.  During  those  ten  years  our 
exports  increased  50  per  cent.,  while  our  imports  increased  less  than  6 
per  cent. 

England,  by  natural  advantages,  controlled  the  commerce  of  the 
world.  We,  by  natural  resources  and  advantages,  have  taken  much  of  it 
from  her.  But  we  are  not  the  only  nation  in  the  struggle.  During  that 
same  period  Germany's  exports  increased  13  per  cent.,  while  her  imports 
increased  only  10  per  cent.  France's  exports  increased  10  per  cent., 
while  her  imports  decreased.  Holland  and  Belgium  added  33  per  cent, 
to  both  sides  of  their  account.  The  explanations  of  these  increases 
cannot  be  found  in  natural  resources  or  in  special  advantages.  The 
American  Artisan  gives  the  explanation  in  an  article  entitled  "  Germany's 
Secret,"  in  which  it  says  : 

There  is  not  a  doubt  that,  wherever  it  is  possible,  considerable  sums  should  be 
diverted  from  the  main  educational  channels  and  be  put  into  commercial  and  technical 
schools.  The  sudden  rise  of  Germany  as  an  industrial  nation  has  occasioned  general 
inquiry  as  to  the  cause  of  a  result  so  wholly  remarkable.  A  few  years  ago  the  English 
government  sent  a  technical  commission  to  Germany  to  study  and  report  upon  this 

question England  has  begun  to  learn  the  lesson  from  the  Germans.    The  dexterity 

of  the  German  artisan,  the  knowledge  and  industry  of  the  German  salesman  and  com- 
mercial traveler,  who  is  known  the  world  over,  ....  should  lead  to  the  inauguration  of 
a  series  of  technical  schools  which  should  enable  the  trained  artisan  of  our  land  to  grasp 
easily  the  richest  prize  in  the  world's  commercial  struggle. 

Upon  investigation  we  find  that  these  four  countries  —  Germany, 
France,  Belgium,  and  Holland  —  are  fairly  well  supplied  with  technical 
and  commercial  high  schools.  When  Antwerp  and  Leipzig  established 
their  commercial  schools  the  English  thought  they  were  theories ;  but 
they  have  learned  that  there  is  an  "art  of  commerce"  and  "a  philosophy 
of  commerce."  He  who  understands  these  sees  that  there  is  no  need  for 
dishonesty  and  double  dealing  in  trade. 

In  order  to  be  a  commercial  nation  we  must  produce  and  we  must 
distribute.  Our  technical  schools  and  journals  are  doing  much  to  help 
the  producer.  We  do  not  have  as  much  help  for  the  distributor.  Eco- 
nomics gives  the  laws  of  production,  preservation,  and  distribution  of 
wealth,  but  it  does  not  deal  with  the  machinery  of  commerce.  Commer- 
cial education  includes  both  the  science  and  mechanism  of  commerce. 
This  machinery  of  commerce  is  an  indispensable  part,  and  should  be 
understood  by  the  business-man  just  as  thoroly  as  any  other  part  of  his 
profession.    The  business-man's  profession,  did  I  say  ?    Yes ;  a  profession 


Department]         SHOULD  COLLEGES  EDUCATE  FOR  BUSINESS?  553 

is  "  an  occupation  that  properly  involves  a  liberal  education  or  its  equiva- 
lent, and  mental  rather  than  manual  labor." 

This  higher  commercial  education  makes  every  business-man  a  pro- 
fessional man,  while  competition  makes  every  professional  man  a  busi- 
ness-man.    Business  is  more  important  than  the  professions. 

The  business  school  prepares  a  man  for  bookkeeping,  stenography, 
or  routine  office  work.  The  commercial  high  schools  prepare  men  to  be 
business  managers  and  local  buyers  and  sellers.  The  higher  commercial 
schools  should  fit  men  to  be  financiers,  corporate  managers,  foreign 
agents,  and  consuls. 

Our  financiers  must  have  special  training  which  they  have  not  received 
heretofore.  Their  intimate  relation  to  all  departments  of  business  demands 
that  they  be  trained  side  by  side  with  the  business-man. 

Our  large  corporations  are  created  in  the  hands  of  managers  who  have 
large  experience.  The  corporations  are  built  up  so  slowly  that  the 
managers  understand  them  perfectly.  These  men  die,  and  others  must 
take  their  places.  The  new  managers  have  studied  the  structure  as  a 
whole,  but  may  not  understand  the  construction.  The  result  is  failure 
and  widespread  disaster.  It  makes  no  difference  whether  the  great  enter- 
prises are  conducted  by  corporations  or  by  the  government,  they  must 
have  these  managers.  The  only  proper  way  to  prepare  these  is  to  give 
them  a  thoro  commercial  education  and  special  office  training. 

No  intelligent  man  will  object  to  our  schools  preparing  men  for  for- 
eign agents.  We  need  superior  purchasers  and  salesmen  in  every  foreign 
country.  Where  we  once  bought  we  now  sell  the  same  articles.  Our 
productive  power  is  almost  unlimited.  Our  skill  is  unsurpassed.  Natural 
resources,  native  ability,  and  industrial  education  have  made  us  one  of 
the  greatest  manufacturing  nations.  Mr.  Mulhall,  the  British  statistician, 
says :  "  If  we  take  a  survey  of  mankind  in  ancient  and  modern  times,  as 
regards  the  physical,  mechanical,  and  intellectual  force  of  nations,  we  find 
nothing  to  compare  with  the  United  States."  It  is  estimated  that  the 
United  States  manufactures  over  one-half  as  much  as  all  Europe.  Our 
factories  are  increasing  rapidly.  It  will  not  be  very  long  before  we  manu- 
facture as  much  goods  as  all  Europe  does.  England  exports  63  per 
cent,  of  her  production.  The  United  States  exports  less  than  9  per  cent, 
of  her  production.  Our  exports  must  soon  be  ten  times  what  they  are  now. 
The  only  way  to  increase  them  is  to  find  new  markets  or  increase  the  sales 
in  old  ones.  The  technical  education  will  make  better  goods,  but  it 
remains  for  higher  commercial  education  to  produce  better  salesmen. 

Not  only  must  our  large  factories  have  agents  in  a  foreign  field,  but 
our  government  must  also  have  thoroly  equipped  agents.  If  it  is  pos- 
sible, our  consuls  and  ministers  should  be  as  superior  to  the  salesmen  as 
our  government  is  superior  to  the  factories.  Natural  ability  is  not  suffi- 
cient.    Political  servitude  does  not  prepare  for  diplomacy.     While  many  of 


554  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Business 

our  consuls  are  very  worthy  men,  the  majority  of  them  are  stupid  politi- 
cians. The  scope  of  their  work,  and  the  importance  of  their  decisions, 
demand  that  they  be  thoroly  educated  concerning  commercial  relations. 
Germany,  Belgium,  and  Austria  require  that  their  consuls  be  graduates  of 
their  commercial  schools.  We  must  give  our  consuls  a  similar  training  if 
we  would  compete  in  the  world's  markets. 

There  are  many  other  reasons  why  higher  commercial  education 
should  be  given ;  but  the  time  allowed  prohibits  the  mention  of  them. 

We  now  come  to  the  second  question :  Should  this  higher  education 
be  given  in  the  colleges  and  universities  in  preference  to  giving  it  in 
special  schools? 

If  the  course  is  to  be  planned  by  the  classical  or  scientific  professors ; 
if  the  additional  instruction  is  to  be  given  by  tutors  under  the  direction 
of  these  professors  ;  or  if  one  man  is  to  teach  all  the  additional  studies, 
commercial  education  will  be  a  farce.  Granting  the  course  to  be  organized 
under  the  direction  of  educated  business-men,  and  specialists  at  the  head 
of  each  department,  the  best  result  can  be  obtained  by  putting  it  into  the 
college.  Our  high  schools  graduate  many  girls  and  few  boys.  Our  colleges 
and  universities  graduate  more  men  than  women ;  but,  at  the  present  rate 
of  increase,  the  women  will  soon  be  greatly  in  the  majority.  Put  a  good 
commercial  course  into  the  college,  and  the  male  students  will  increase 
rapidly.  The  farmers  and  business-men  pay  most  of  the  taxes  and  support 
most  of  the  denominational  colleges.  They  surely  have  a  right  to  demand 
that  their  sons  shall  be  given  an  opportunity  to  educate  themselves  for 
business  in  the  schools  their  fathers  support.  The  business  student  must 
have  libraries  and  apparatus.  By  a  small  addition,  those  in  use  in  our 
colleges  will  satisfy  every  need,  thus  saving  a  large  expense.  Many 
subjects  necessary  for  a  business  education  are  already  taught  in  our 
colleges.  By  the  addition  of  a  few  departments,  we  shall  have  just  as 
strong  a  commercial  course  and  save  much  expense  for  instruction.  The 
business  student  will  be  broader  and  stronger  by  reason  of  his  associa- 
tion with  the  classical  and  scientific  students,  while  the  classical  and 
scientific  student  will  be  taught  a  wholesome  respect  for  his  commercial 
brother,  whom  he  shall  find  his  equal  and  often  his  superior. 

The  foreign  missionaries  seldom  get  credit  for  their  share  of  our  com- 
mercial development.  They  have  done  as  much  as  any  other  class  to 
stimulate  trade.  If  every  denominational  college  would  prepare  men 
especially  for  business,  we  should  soon  learn  that  business  and  religion 
may  go  hand  in  hand,  and  that  the  foreign  missionary  and  the  commer- 
cial salesman  ought  to  be  co-workers  in  the  advancement  of  civilization. 

Commercial  education  should  be  the  capstone  of  the  college.  In 
general  terms,  we  may  say  that  classical  education  teaches  how  to  think, 
to  theorize  ;  scientific  education  teaches  how  to  investigate  and  to  apply ; 
commercial  education  teaches  how  to  make  and  to  dispose  of. 


Department]  COMMERCIAL  HIGH-SCHOOL  COURSE  555 

This  kind  of  education  does  not  teach  a  young  man  that  he  is  too 
good  to  work,  but  that  he  is  made  to  work ;  and  work  is  God's  greatest 
blessing.  It  teaches  him  to  plan  and  to  execute  his  plans.  This  kind  of 
education  does  not  make  intellectual  imbeciles,  but  strong,  sturdy  men  of 
the  world.  It  combines  meditative  and  active  enjoyment.  It  unites 
trades,  business,  and  profession.     It  marries  art  and  industry. 

Inventions  have  intensified  man's  life  a  hundred  fold.  This  education 
will  increase  his  power  of  activity  a  thousand  fold.  Ability  is  very 
scarce.  It  has  never  commanded  so  great  a  compensation  as  it  does 
today.  When  colleges  and  universities  educate  men  especially  for  busi- 
ness, commercial  evils  will  disappear  and  prosperity  will  become  per- 
manent. 


THE  COMMERCIAL  HIGH-SCHOOL  COURSE 

WILLIAM    E.    DOGGETT,  COMMERCIAL    HIGH    SCHOOL,  BROOKLYN,  N.    Y. 

Within  a  few  years  much  attention  has  been  given  by  writers  on  edu- 
cational subjects,  by  prominent  teachers,  and  by  school  authorities  to  a 
phase  of  secondary  education  which,  before  the  publication  of  a  report 
of  the  United  States  Commissioner  of  Education  for  1896,  had  not  been 
held  worthy  of  much  consideration.  Since  the  report  referred  to,  con- 
taining Dr.  James'  exhaustive  report  on  schools  of  finance  and  econ- 
omy in  Europe,  various  commercial  courses  have  been  suggested  for 
high  schools,  and  the  plan  of  forming  a  distinctively  commercial  high 
school  has  been  approved  by  boards  of  education  of  several  cities.  Next 
to  securing  properly  qualified  instructors  for  the  commercial  high  schools 
is  the  necessity  of  a  proper  course  of  study. 

The  view  which  I  take  of  this  course  is  one  which  has  grown  upon 
me  during  the  fifteen  years  in  which  I  have  taught  the  commercial 
branches  in  a  commercial  high  school  in  the  business  center  of  the  union. 
It  is  based  on  the  belief  that  the  public-school  teacher  has  a  public  trust; 
that  he  is  a  servant  of  his  master,  the  public ;  that  it  is  his  duty  to  study 
the  interests  of  his  patrons  at  all  times,  to  investigate  the  conditions  and 
needs  of  the  community  in  which  he  lives,  and,  in  preparing  a  course  of 
study,  to  see  to  it  that  the  needs  of  the  many  receive  attention  first,  and 
the  wants  of  the  few  second. 

With  this  belief,  some  fourteen  years  ago,  I  began  a  series  of  observa- 
tions that  I  might  be  able  to  speak  intelligently  of  the  wants  of  the  boys 
who  were  intrusted  to  my  care. 

The  conditions  of  my  pupils  both  before  and  after  they  were  gradu- 
ated from  the  grammar  schools  were  carefully  studied.  I  made  myself 
familiar  with  their  home  surroundings,  their  aims,  their  ambitions,  and 
the  hopes  of  their  parents  for  them,  as  well  as  with  the  restrictions  and 
limitations  which  surrounded  many  of  them  because  of  their  social  and 


556  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Business 

financial  status.  I  followed  them  from  the  school  to  the  office,  the  sales- 
room, the  bank,  the  factory ;  and  I  learned  how  they  began,  what  they 
did,  and  how  they  succeeded  or  failed  to  advance.  I  talked  with  intelli- 
gent and  conscientious  employers  in  a  hundred  lines  of  commercial 
enterprises,  and  I  learned  what  they  prefer,  what  they  expect,  and  what  they 
demand  of  those  whom  they  employ.  At  our  alumni  reunions  we  have 
had  what  are  akin  to  experience  meetings,  at  which  each  graduate  may 
tell  of  his  success  or  advancement,  the  subjects  which  have  been  of  the 
greatest  advantage  to  him,  and  state  as  well  the  points  in  which  he  found 
himself  wanting  when  he  went  into  actual  business.  To  be  sure,  I  have 
no  personal  knowledge  of  conditions  except  as  they  exist  in  large  cities, 
but  I  think  my  conclusions,  with  some  modifications,  will  apply  to  all 
localities. 

The  commercial  high  school  is  an  experiment.  The  full  four-year 
course  has  never  been  worked  out  in  any  city,  so  far  as  I  know,  tho  there 
is  no  doubt  in  my  mind  as  to  its  ultimate  success.  In  some  of  our  cities 
a  three-year  course  has  been  in  existence  for  some  time.  In  some  other 
cities  a  four-year  commercial  course  has  been  in  operation  for  one  or  two 
years.  In  Brooklyn  a  commercial  high  school,  with  a  course  of  three 
years,  began  its  independent  existence  a  few  months  ago,  tho  for  all  prac- 
tical purposes  it  has  been  an  independent  commercial  school  for  five 
years.  The  private  commercial  schools  known  as  business  colleges  have 
been  in  operation  for  many  years  in  all  parts  of  this  country.  Their 
existence  shows  conclusively  that  they  were  necessary;  that  they  did 
something  which  the  public  schools  did  not  do ;  but,  because  very  many 
of  them  were  of  a  low  grade,  attracting  pupils  of  poor  mental  attainments 
and  scholastic  ability,  and  because  the  instructors  employed  were  of 
limited  education,  the  prominent  educators  of  the  country  have  ignored 
the  private  business  schools  of  high  grade,  and,  until  recently,  have 
believed  that  all  these  schools  were  wrong  from  a  pedagogical  point  of 
view.  There  is  no  question  in  my  mind  as  to  the  value  of  the  work  which 
the  better  business  colleges  have  been  doing.  The  commercial  high  school 
aims  to  do  many  things  that  the  business  colleges  did  not  try  to  do.  But, 
in  order  properly  to  fill  its  place  in  the  community  and  justify  its  exist- 
ence as  a  school  supported  by  public  taxation,  the  commercial  high  school 
must  teach  those  things  which  the  best  business  colleges  taught,  in  a 
manner  equally  thoro  and  practical.  Not  long  ago,  in  an  educational 
paper  of  some  standing,  I  noticed  the  statement  that  the  business  college 
was  merely  a  clerk  factory  to  turn  out  business  assistants,  but  that  the  aim 
of  the  high  school  was  to  turn  out  business-men.  I  suppose  the  writer 
should  have  said,  to  carry  out  his  thought,  successful  business-men.  This 
statement,  with  some  variation,  has  been  repeated  frequently  and  has  been 
made  a  great  deal  of.  But  to  me  it  is  an  expression  without  definite  mean- 
ing.    What  is  a  business-man  ?     Is  he  a  wholesale  or  retail  merchant  ? 


department j  COMMERCtAL  fflGH-SCHOOL  COURSE  557 

A  banker  ?  An  exporter  ?  A  railroad  manager  ?  A  manufacturer  ?  A 
clerk  ?  A  bookkeeper  ?  A  commercial  traveler  ?  It  seems  to  me  that 
anyone  who  is  engaged  in  any  occupation  arising  from  the  exchange  of 
commodities  is  essentially  a  business-man,  and  if  he  succeeds  he  is  a  suc- 
cessful business-man.  The  successful  business-man  owes  his  success 
sometimes  to  his  education,  but  more  often  to  his  tact  and  special 
knowledge  of  the  business  in  which  he  is  engaged.  All  that  the  com- 
mercial high  school  can  do  for  its  pupils  is  to  teach  them  to  use  the 
tools  of  business,  in  order  that  the  natural  gifts  in  a  business  way  which 
they  all  possess  in  some  measure  may  be  developed  and  their  value 
increased.  A  competent  business-man,  as  such,  cannot  be  made  in  a 
school.  Many  men  who  have  the  best  instruction  possible  do  not  suc- 
ceed in  business  because  so  many  things  besides  education  are  neces- 
sary to  insure  success.  Business  ability  is  frequently  inherited.  Some 
families  —  nay,  some  races  — seem  to  be  endowed  with  the  commercial 
instinct. 

What  is  a  commercial  education?  I  well  know  a  successful  bank 
president  and  financier  who  cannot  keep  a  simple  set  of  books ;  a  promi- 
nent business-man  of  my  acquaintance  received  all  the  business  training 
he  ever  had  as  a  journalist;  another,  in  the  classical  course  of  a  univer- 
sity; another  received  a  liberal  high-school  course;  another,  an  elemen- 
tary-school education;  and  another  —  a  most  successful  business-man 
—  had  no  school  education  at  all.  There  were  successful  business-men 
in  former  generations ;  there  are  splendid  business-men  today  who  never 
had  the  special  training  the  commercial  high-school  course  proposes  to 
give,  tho  some  of  them  have  had  the  advantages  of  a  business-college 
course.  It  seems  to  me,  therefore,  that  any  education  which  a  business- 
man has,  and  which  makes  him  a  better  business-man,  is  for  him  a  busi- 
ness education,  no  matter  whether  it  was  obtained  within  the  walls  of  a 
school  or  not. 

Now,  it  seems  to  me  there  is  nothing  mysterious  in  this  question,  and 
there  has  been  no  great  discovery  lately  as  to  what  constitutes  a  business 
education.  We  are  merely  beginning  to  realize  its  value  and  necessity 
today,  and  the  great  danger  of  failure  in  our  commercial  courses  lies  in 
our  desire  to  do  so  much  for  our  pupils  that  we  overestimate  the  value 
of  some  parts  of  the  courses  we  would  offer,  and  by  endeavoring  to  accom- 
plish too  much  fail  to  provide  a  sensible,  practical,  and  workable  curricu- 
lum. Our  laudable  desire  to  have  a  great  school  should  not  obscure  the 
need  of  having  a  good  school. 

Without  entering  into  specifications,  I  may  say  I  am  convinced  that 
some  of  the  commercial  courses  adopted  by  our  boards  of  education  the 
past  three  or  four  years  have  already  been  adjudged  failures,  so  far  as 
accomplishing  the  purpose  for  which  they  were  organized  is  concerned. 
A  business  education  such  as  our  secondary  schools  should  give  is  not 


55 8  MATiOMAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOClATiOM  [Business 

nearly  so  technical  as  many  are  wont  to  imagine,  and,  in  my  estimation, 
it  is  that  kind  of  education  which  develops  and  strengthens  the  mental 
faculties  which  are  used  in  business,  and  which  provide  that  general 
knowledge  which  is  useful  in  all  business,  and,  in  some  cases,  the  particu- 
lar kind  of  knowledge  useful  in  a  particular  business. 

I  have  no  sympathy  with  those  who  sneer  at  schools  which  only 
attempt  to  turn  out  good  clerks,  and  good  bookkeepers,  and  good  sten- 
ographers, for  nowadays  every  young  man  must  begin  in  a  subordinate 
place,  oftentimes  being  obliged  to  accept  the  first  opportunity  offered; 
and  unless  he  is  competent  to  do  well  that  which  he  is  first  given  to  do, 
he  is  handicapped  at  the  start.  I  have  had  this  deeply  impressed  upon 
my  mind  after  each  semi-annual  graduation  of  the  school  in  which  I  have 
the  honor  to  serve.  I  have  charge  of  what  may  be  called  our  employ- 
ment bureau  \  for  our  school  is  so  well  known  that  we  have  frequently 
more  calls  for  office  help  than  we  are  able  to  fill,  and  I  cannot  fail  to 
notice  the  disappointment  which  many  show  at  being  obliged  to  begin 
in  places  of  slight  responsibility. 

The  grammar-school  course,  in  cities  at  all  events,  is  defective  in 
thoroness  in  many  particulars ;  and  some  of  its  weak  points  should  be 
points  of  strength  in  business  education.  There  is  a  vast  number  in 
every  city  who,  because  of  their  circumstances,  cannot  spend  four  years, 
or  even  three,  in  a  secondary  school.  It  seems  to  me,  therefore,  that  the 
first  duty  of  the  public  commercial  high  school  is  to  extend  the  work  of 
the  elementary  school  where  needed,  to  strengthen  it  wherever  it  is  weak, 
and  to  provide  that  which  will  be  of  value  to  those  who  can  stay  but  a 
short  time  in  the  course.  Its  second  duty  is  to  take  care  of  the  needs  of 
those  who  can  stay  a  somewhat  longer  time ;  while  it  should  last  provide 
for  those  who  will  take  the  last  years. 

I  do  not  believe  that  it  is  the  function  of  the  public  secondary  school 
to  teach  the  philosophy  of  business  management,  nor  do  I  believe  it  is 
within  its  power  to  do  so.  The  course  of  study  of  a  public  commercial 
high  school  must  be  exceedingly  strong  in  those  subjects  which  the  99 
per  cent,  of  those  who  attend  will  require  (the  essentials),  and,  if  possible, 
strong  in  those  branches  which  will  be  wanted  by  the  i  per  cent,  who 
are  expected  to  become  bank  presidents,  railroad  managers,  consuls, 
promoters  of  vast  enterprises,  and  the  like. 

The  studies  of  the  course  may  be  grouped  as  follows  :  English  ;  mathe- 
matics ;  science ;  languages ;  history  and  civics ;  commercial  subjects 
taught  separately  as  such,  including  writing,  bookkeeping,  arithmetic, 
commercial  law,  stenography,  and  typewriting. 

The  study  to  which  I  assign  the  first  place  in  the  commercial  high- 
school  course  is  English,  by  which  I  mean  the  "art  of  expression"  in 
conversation  and  writing,  and  on  one's  feet  in  public.  Just  here  the 
work  of  the  elementary  school   may  be  supplemented  with  the  utmost 


Department]  COMMERCIAL  HIGH-SCHOOL  COURSE  559 

advantage  to  the  pupil,  for  spelling  must  be  taught  regularly  and  system- 
atically. The  work  of  composition  should  begin  at  once,  with  a  view 
of  teaching  the  boy  to  arrange  his  ideas  logically,  and  to  state  them  as 
concisely  as  is  consistent  with  clearness.  The  development  of  a  literary 
style  may  be  left  until  the  third  or  fourth  year  of  the  course.  Letter- 
writing  must  be  taught  as  a  part  of  the  curriculum,  and  I  would  devote 
one  hour  a  week  for  the  first  two  years  to  this  most  important  subject, 
giving  constant  attention  to  form,  punctuation,  spelling,  subject-matter, 
and  the  acquirement  of  a  good  business  style.  The  handwriting  of  many 
of  the  incoming  pupils  will  be  so  poor  that  penmanship,  i.  e.,  rapid  and 
legible  writing,  must  be  taught  as  a  special  study  to  most  of  the  pupils  for 
one  year  at  least,  and  legibility  and  neatness  in  all  written  exercises  must 
be  insisted  upon  by  every  teacher,  and  nothing  else  accepted.  The  book- 
keeping of  the  first  year  should  be  simple,  but  thoro;  the  most  careful 
attention  being  given  to  the  form  and  use  of  all  the  business  papers  which 
would  naturally  be  handled  if  the  transaction  used  as  the  basis  of  instruc- 
tion was  genuine.  The  principles  underlying  the  science  must  be  dwelt 
upon  with  painstaking  insistence,  and  presented  again  and  again  in  ways 
which  may  tax  the  ingenuity  of  the  instructor,  until  they  are  thoroly 
understood,  and  can  be  applied  correctly  and  without  hesitation.  At  the 
end  of  the  first  year  the  pupil  should  be  able  to  open,  conduct,  and  close 
intelligently  an  ordinary  set  of  books  requiring  a  knowledge  of  the  use 
of  the  day-book,  journal,  cash-book,  sales-book,  and  ledger.  He  must 
also  be  able  to  make  a  clear  statement  of  the  condition  of  the  business 
as  shown  by  his  ledger.  The  work  of  the  second  year  should  be  devel- 
oped in  a  natural  way  from  that  of  the  first,  the  examples  increasing  in 
difficulty,  the  pupil  being  compelled  to  rely  upon  himself  as  he  becomes 
able.  It  should  be  accompanied  with  a  thoro  course  in  business  practice 
and  office  routine.  In  the  third  and  fourth  years  the  more  difficult  and 
intricate  work  of  the  bookkeeper  should  be  undertaken,  and  the  duties  of  the 
accountant  and  auditor  may  be  studied.  The  study  of  commercial  arithme- 
tic should  be  taken  up  in  earnest  the  first  year.  And  here  again  the  work  of 
the  grammar  school  must  be  reviewed  and  augmented  by  drill  in  fractions 
and  daily  practice  in  addition.  The  work  in  arithmetic,  in  my  mind, 
should  consist  to  a  great  extent  in  the  mental  solution  of  examples,  with 
a  view  to  acquiring  that  facility  and  accuracy  which  is  demanded  in  busi- 
ness. The  man  of  affairs  meets  with  but  few  problems  such  as  the  arith- 
metic offers  —  that  is  to  say,  in  the  stated  form  in  which  the  pupil  finds 
them  in  the  text-book.  But  he  is  constantly  confronted  with  conditions 
which  demand  on  his  part  an  ability  to  apply  such  principles  and  rules  of 
arithmetic  as  will  fit  the  case.  This  should  be  borne  in  mind  continually 
by  the  instructor,  and  the  work  laid  out  so  as  to  conform  to  it.  The 
proper  use  of  the  text-book  is  to  supply  some  of  the  material  for  home 
work,  and  to  sav^  the  teacher  of  large  classes  from  the  danger  of  being 


56o  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Business 

swamped  in  preparing  and  solving  and  correcting  problems.  After  the 
first  year  the  work  in  bookkeeping  and  business  practice  will  provide 
opportunities  for  frequent  drill  in  commercial  arithmetic. 

Commercial  law  should  be  entered  upon,  not  with  a  view  to  teaching 
what  is  implied  by  the  title  of  the  book,  Every  Man  his  Own  Lawyer, 
but  to  give  the  pupil  such  a  general  knowledge  of  the  principles  which 
underlie  the  laws  of  business  as  every  intelligent  business-man  should 
have.  The  intensive  study  of  business  law  may  be  left  to  the  third  or 
fourth  year,  but  certain  divisions  of  the  subject  —  as,  for  example,  con- 
tracts, negotiable  paper,  agency,  partnership,  and  agreements  for  per- 
sonal services  —  should  form  an  important  part  of  the  work  of  the  second 
year.  The  application  of  the  laws  of  commercial  paper  should  be  one  of 
the  duties  of  every  teacher  whose  subject,  either  in  theory  or  in  practice, 
involves  the  use  of  any  piece  of  business  paper.  No  pupil  who  has  com- 
pleted the  second  year  should  be  unable  to  interpret  the  meaning  and 
scope  of  any  indorsement. 

Typewriting  is  practically  a  necessity  today  for  all  who  enter  upon  a 
business  career,  whether  phonography  is  used  in  connection  with  it  or 
not;  and  I  would  suggest  that  in  the  third  year  of  the  course  sufficient 
time  be  given  to  it  to  insure  a  fair  degree  of  speed.  As  a  means  of  fixing 
deeply  in  the  mind  of  the  pupil  the  correct  spelling  of  words,  the  proper 
use  of  the  marks  of  punctuation,  and  the  mechanical  form  of  letters,  I 
know  of  no  exercise  equal  to  practice  upon  the  typewriter. 

Phonography  or  shorthand  is,  to  my  mind,  a  study  entitled  to 
prominent  recognition,  not  only  because  of  its  utility,  but  also  because 
of  the  mental  discipline  which  it  gives  in  cultivating  and  strengthen- 
ing the  powers  of  attention,  observation,  and  discrimination.  I  suggest 
its  introduction  into  the  course  of  study  in  the  second  year,  and  at  the 
end  of  that  year  I  believe  the  pupil  should  have  acquired  a  complete 
mastery  of  the  principles  and  the  word-signs  of  the  system,  and  be  ready 
to  apply  them  without  hesitation.  He  should  be  able  also  to  take  from 
dictation  easy  new  matter  quite  readily.  The  distinction  between  a  mere 
writer  of  shorthand  and  a  competent  stenographer  should  be  kept  before 
the  pupil,  and  those  who  intend  to  begin  their  business  career  as  stenog- 
raphers should  be  constantly  reminded  of  the  need  for  acquiring  general 
culture  as  well  as  the  ability  to  perform  the  mechanical  work  of  the 
amanuensis.  The  work  of  the  second  year  in  stenography  should  be 
mainly  dictation  upon  various  lines,  with  a  view  to  acquiring  speed.  The 
notes  of  the  pupil  should  be  transcribed  by  him  upon  the  typewriter  as 
soon  as  he  has  acquired  sufficient  proficiency  to  manipulate  the  instru- 
ment. This  work  in  dictation  may  be  profitably  varied  by  the  pupils 
making  their  notes  directly  upon  the  machine. 

Free-hand  and  mechanical  drawing  should  be  taught  in  the  first  two 
years, 


Department]  COMMERCIAL  HIGH-SCHOOL  COURSE  561 

With  the  exception  of  English,  the  work  which  I  have  outlined  thus 
far  may  be  completed  by  the  end  of  the  third  year.  It  will  afford  an 
excellent  education  in  the  so-called  business  subjects,  and  the  pupil  who 
has  pursued  it  faithfully,  under  the  guidance  of  properly  qualified 
instructors,  will  have  a  good  equipment  with  which  to  begin  his  business 
life. 

I  will  now  refer  to  the  other  work  of  the  course  briefly,  hot  because  I 
consider  it  unimportant,  but  because  I  feel  assured  that  most  makers  of 
commercial  high-school  courses  will  give  it  all  the  preferment  to  which  it 
is  entitled. 

The  course  in  history  and  civics  should  include  general  history,  with 
American  history  and  government  as  a  part  of  the  work  of  the  second 
year ;  the  history  of  commerce  is  appropriate  for  the  work  of  the  third 
year;  while  economics,  political  science,  and  modern  and  industrial  his- 
tory may  constitute  the  work  of  the  fourth  year. 

The  course  in  mathematics  should  comprise  arithmetic,  algebra, 
and  geometry  in  the  first,  second,  and  third  years,  respectively. 

In  science,  physical  geography,  and  physiology  and  hygiene  should  be 
studied  the  first  year;  commercial  geography  and  physics,  the  second 
year;  chemistry  and  natural  science,  the  third  year;  industrial  chem- 
istry, and  the  study  of  raw  materials  and  manufactured  goods,  the  fourth 
year. 

From  the  department  of  languages  I  would  omit  all  but  the  modern 
tongues,  and  they  should  be  pursued  not  so  much  for  their  literary  and 
culture  value  as  for  their  possible  practical  utility.  The  value  of  the  work 
in  this  department  will  depend  very  largely  upon  the  ability  of  the 
teacher  and  his  comprehension  of  the  objects  to  be  attained.  I  would 
suggest  that  an  option  between  Spanish  and  German  be  permitted  on  enter- 
ing the  course,  and  that  a  choice  between  science  and  a  second  language 
be  allowed  in  the  second  year,  and  possibly  a  choice  between  science  and 
French  in  the  third  year.  In  the  third  and  fourth  years  in  which  any 
language  is  pursued  a  part  of  the  work  of  the  pupils  should  be  in  busi- 
ness correspondence  in  that  language. 

Limitation  of  time  now  imposes  upon  me  the  necessity  of  bringing 
these  suggestions  to  an  end,  tho  I  feel  that  I  have  only  touched  upon  the 
essentials  and  possibilities  of  my  subject.  In  conclusion,  permit  me  to 
say  that  I  believe  our  most  urgent  need  is  not  so  much  new  and  remodeled 
commercial  courses  as  new  and  remodeled  commercial  teachers. 

What  is  needed  in  each  of  our  great  cities  is  a  thoroly  American 
commercial  high  school,  based  on  American  needs,  and  adapted  to  Ameri- 
can ideas.  Not  that  I  would  fail  to  recognize  the  splendid  results  secured 
in  the  European  schools  of  commerce,  or  cast  to  the  winds  the  fruit  of 
their  experience  in  commercial  courses.  Far  from  it.  With  due  appre- 
ciation qf  what  they  have  accomplished,  let  u5  make  a  practical  use  of 


562  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Business 

what  is  adapted  for  our  particular  needs,  and,  benefiting  by  the  study  of 
these  illustrious  models,  build  up  in  this  country  schools  in  every  way 
their  equal,  and,  so  far  as  our  needs  are  concerned,  their  superior. 


THE  ADVANTAGES  AND  DIFEICULTIES  OF  INTRODUCING 
THE  COMMERCIAL  BRANCHES  IN  GRAMMAR  AND 
HIGH  SCHOOLS 

H.    M.    ROWE,    BALTIMORE,    MD. 

The  very  general  demand  for  training  in  commercial  branches  in 
grammar  and  high-school  courses  has  brought  with  it  some  perplexing 
problems  of  management  and  method  for  teachers  and  school  officers  to 
solve.  In  many  respects  the  conditions  are  so  unusual,  and  the  methods 
which  must  be  employed  to  secure  successful  results  are  so  different  from 
those  commonly  used  in  public-school  work,  that  there  has  been  some 
discouragement  and  disappointment. 

Many  instances  have  come  to  my  notice  in  recent  years  wherein  the 
results  obtained  from  instruction  in  bookkeeping  and  the  other  commer- 
cial branches  in  public  schools  have  been  unsatisfactory,  and  often  have 
amounted  to  failures.  A  careful  examination  into  the  conditions  that 
prevailed  has  satisfied  me  that  any  other  results  could  not  have  been 
expected.  Much  of  the  trouble  was  found  to  be  in  the  lack  of  experience 
on  the  part  of  the  principals  and  teachers  in  handling  this  work,  and  the 
lack  of  proper  facilities  and  equipment  which  should  have  been  provided 
for  it  by  the  school  authorities. 

The  conditions  are  different. — The  first  difficulty  is  to  impress  upon 
the  minds  of  those  who  are  responsible  for  the  management  of  public 
schools  that  the  commercial  branches  to  be  taught  successfully  must  be 
taught  differently  from  the  usual  public-school  branches.  Instruction 
in  some  of  these  branches,  especially  in  bookkeeping,  cannot  be  given 
with  the  best  results  by  the  strictly  class-drill  methods  in  which  a  recita- 
tion in  grammar  or  geography  may  be  conducted.  The  work  must  be 
more  individual,  and  more  attention  must  be  given  to  each  student 
and  his  work,  just  as  the  student  himself  must  give  more  attention  to  the 
details  and  technicalities  of  each  lesson.  The  better  class  of  business 
schools  have  solved  many  of  the  difficulties,  and  public-school  teachers 
would  profit  much  if  they  would  study  their  methods.  In  them  a  combi- 
nation of  class  and  private  instruction  has  been  followed  which  has  been 
demonstrated  to  be  the  best-adapted  for  this  work,  and  similar  results 
have  followed  wherever  this  method  has  been  used  in  public  schools. 

Professor  Kennedy's  "individual  instruction  system,"  in  operation  at 
Batavia,  N.  Y.,  in  which  two  teachers  are  assigned  to  one  room,  one  of 
whom  con4ucts  the  recitations  and  the  other  gives  individual  instruction, 


Department]  COMMERCIAL  BRANCHES  IN  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS  5^3 

would  work  well  in  the  commercial  branches.  Too  much  importance 
cannot  be  attached  to  the  value  of  the  individual  attention  of  the  teacher 
to  each  pupil.  While  class  recitations  will  produce  fairly  good  results 
in  the  subjects  of  correspondence,  commercial  law,  commercial  arithmetic, 
commercial  geography,  and  penmanship,  in  bookkeeping  the  importance 
of  details  necessitates  much  more  individual  work  on  the  part  of  the 
teacher. 

Another  difficulty  pertaining  to  courses  of  study  and  classification  is 
that  the  pupil  in  the  public  school  usually  has  to  take  care  of  many  more 
studies  in  a  given  time  than  the  student  in  a  private  commercial  school. 
For  this  reason  the  ordinary  classification  in  public  schools  will  not 
admit  of  periods  of  study  and  recitations  of  as  great  length  as  those  in 
business  schools.  If  possible,  the  periods  for  recitations  should  be 
lengthened,  and  in  the  subject  of  bookkeeping  two  consecutive  periods 
should  be  assigned. 

In  arranging  a  course  to  include  the  commercial  branches  better 
results  can  be  obtained  by  eliminating  as  many  as  possible  of  the  other 
branches  during  the  time  the  commercial  branches  are  given  special 
attention.  The  commercial  branches  are  not  easy  branches  to  master  by 
any  means,  A  pupil  cannot  drift  thru  his  course  of  study  and  recitations 
in  bookkeeping  as  he  can  in  geography,  or  even  arithmetic.  The 
moment  he  does  not  understand  what  he  is  doing  he  is  lost,  and  will 
soon  be  in  a  maze  of  difficulty  that  will  put  him  far  behind  his  class. 
There  is  absolutely  no  middle  ground  for  a  successful  student  in  book- 
keeping. A  single  error  will  disorganize  a  whole  set  of  books.  If  he 
doesn't  know  the  subject  thoroly,  he  is  an  utter  failure  in  it,  because 
absolute  accuracy  is  the  first  requisite  in  results,  and  is  the  main  test. 

Teachers  must  be  qualified. — Another  difficulty  is  the  employment  of 
incompetent  teachers  to  instruct  in  these  branches.  Rarely  is  the  subject 
of  bookkeeping,  for  instance,  given  sufficient  attention  in  the  normal 
courses  to  prepare  teachers  to  teach  it  intelligently.  An  adequate  knowl- 
edge of  bookkeeping  includes  a  technical  and  legal  knowledge  of  notes, 
drafts,  checks,  orders,  receipts,  bills ;  and,  in  fact,  all  the  vouchers  used  in 
business.  It  also  includes  an  acquaintance  with  methods  of  business  pro- 
cedure, the  requirements  of  modern  office  practice ;  a  knowledge  of  com- 
mercial law  in  so  far  as  it  relates  to  contracts,  corporations,  partnerships, 
agency,  etc.,  their  formation,  and  the  legal  responsibilities  of  the  parties 
thereto.  An  intelligent  teacher  of  bookkeeping  must  have  a  detailed, 
technical  knowledge  of  a  very  broad  subject. 

It  is  evident  that  the  ordinary  teacher,  as  he  is  found  in  the  grammar 
and  high  schools,  is  not  likely  to  be  well  fitted  to  teach  these  branches. 
In  many  instances  bookkeeping  is  taught  by  the  regular  teacher  of 
mathematics  or  English  or  the  sciences  —  men  and  women  who,  if  they 
had  no  better  knowledge  of  their  regularly  assigned  specialties,  would 


564  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [BuslriesS 

prove  utter  and  entire  failures.  Successful  results,  therefore,  cannot 
be  expected  unless  teachers  are  employed  who  are  proficient  and  quali- 
fied for  commercial  teaching.  Their  training  and  equipment  should  be 
on  an  equality  with  that  of  any  other  teacher  of  any  other  branch  in  the 
public-school  curriculum.  They  should  be  specialists.  A  teacher  can- 
not teach  bookkeeping  well  who  could  not  keep  a  set  of  books  well,  and 
yet  I  have  met  principals  and  superintendents  who  asserted  that  book- 
keeping was  a  very  simple  matter,  and  almost  anyone  could  teach  it. 
This  is  a  serious  mistake. 

Proper  facilities  must  be  supplied.  —  The  ordinary  furnishment  of  public 
schools  in  the  way  of  desks  and  appliances  is  entirely  unsuited  to  instruc- 
tion in  bookkeeping.  The  student  must  have  at  least  twice,  and  in  many 
instances  three  times,  the  space  supplied  on  the  usual  public-school  desk. 
An  arithmetic  lesson  may  be  prepared  with  a  tablet  on  one's  knee,  and 
the  recitation  may  be  conducted  from  the  blackboard ;  but  a  recitation  in 
bookkeeping  requires  plenty  of  desk  room,  and  there  should  be  one  room 
especially  furnished  and  equipped  for  recitation  and  individual  instruc- 
tion, if  satisfactory  results  are  to  be  expected.  Ample  accommodations 
for  the  blanks  and  stationery  should  be  provided,  and  where  trading 
between  students  is  conducted,  complete  office  equipments  are  required. 

Modern  bookkeeping  systems  must  be  used.  —  Business  methods  have 
been  revolutionized  in  the  last  quarter  of  a  century,  and  systems  of  book- 
keeping and  accounting,  to  say  nothing  of  office  practice  and  methods  of 
business  procedure,  have  been  revolutionized  with  them.  No  teacher 
would  attempt  to  teach  geography  from  a  text-book  published  in  i860, 
yet  the  officers  in  many  schools  continue  to  insist  upon  some  little  insig- 
nificant text-book,  whose  only  recommendation  is  its  cheapness,  and 
whose  only  claim  to  distinction  is  its  antiquity.  The  old  text-book  plan  is 
a  thing  of  the  past.  The  newer  methods  must  be  employed.  To  save  a 
few  pennies  it  is  not  unusual  to  supply  students  with  blank-books  and 
materials  of  such  flimsy  character  as  to  make  first-class  work  impos- 
sible. 

Boards  of  education  find  it  hard  to  realize  that  the  expense  necessary 
to  supply  an  adequate  outfit  of  books  and  stationery  for  the  student  in 
bookkeeping  must  cost  as  much  perhaps  as  all  the  books  used  by  the  stu- 
dents in  other  courses  in  a  year's  work.  In  fact,  the  expense  is  even  more 
sometimes  than  for  students  in  the  primary  grades. 

It  is  folly  to  attempt  to  teach  bookkeeping  unless  all  the  business 
papers  are  used.  They  are  as  much  a  part  of  the  material  equipment  for 
teaching  the  subject  as  the  ledger,  journal,  or  cash-book,  and  it  is  impos- 
sible to  give  the  student  a  practical  knowledge  of  accounts  unless  the 
records  are  made  from  the  business  papers.  The  use  of  business  papers 
and  a  technical  knowledge  of  their  preparation  in  connection  with  each 
transaction  will  be  of  vastly  more  practical  value  to  the  student  in  many 


Department]  COMMERCIAL  BRANCHES  IN  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS  565 

instances  than  a  knowledge  of  the  laws  of  debit  and  credit,  or  the  ability 
to  keep  a  cash-book,  sales-book,  journal,  or  ledger. 

I  trust  I  may  be  permitted  to  say  that  the  public  schools  were  formerly 
handicapped  in  their  introduction  of  the  commercial  branches  because  of 
their  inability  to  find  books  and  systems  that  were  adapted  to  their  wants. 
This  difficulty  no  longer  exists.  Several  publishing  houses  have  recog- 
nized their  wants  and  provided  systems  of  bookkeeping  and  appliances 
well  suited  and  especially  prepared  for  them. 

The  value  of  commercial  instruction  must  be  appreciated. —  Perhaps  the 
most  serious  of  the  difficulties  to  be  overcome  in  sucessfully  introducing 
the  commercial  branches  into  the  public  schools  lies  in  the  prejudice  of 
school  superintendents,  principals,  and  teachers  against  the  introduction 
of  this  work.  The  persistent,  and  in  many  instances  unaccountable, 
antagonism  which  has  been  displayed  by  those  in  authority  is  one  of  the 
unsolved  problems  in  our  educational  history.  Teachers  who  are  sublime 
examples  of  devotion  to  the  cause  of  education,  who  are  unceasing  in  their 
efforts  to  help  every  little  boy  and  girl  that  comes  under  their  charge,  and 
who  often  display  extraordinary  educational  intelligence,  for  some  reason 
are  found  to  be  unreasonably  opposed  to  the  introduction  of  the  com- 
mercial branches.  It  has  been  variously  ascribed  to  the  traditions  of 
college  and  university  training,  to  the  conservatism  of  our  educational 
system,  and  sometimes  to  laziness.  The  very  fact  that  the  obstacles  to 
which  I  have  called  attention  must  be  mastered  and  overcome  has  in  many 
instances  been  a  sufficient  reason  for  no  effort  at  all. 

The  advantages. —  Now  just  a  few  words  as  to  the  advantages  to  young 
people  from  the  introduction  of  the  commercial  branches.  I  am  a  great 
believer  in  higher  education.  I  advocate  all  that  is  best  in  all  education, 
with  plenty  of  it;  but  I  maintain  that  all  education,  when  considered  in 
relation  to  the  great  mass  of  the  people  of  our  country,  must  be  measured 
finally  by  the  single  test  of  usefulness  and  utility.  Our  boys  and  girls 
demand  to  be  educated  so  that,  first  of  all,  they  may  be  better  equipped 
to  earn  an  honest  living;  that  they  may  live  comfortable,  intelligent,  and 
respectable  lives,  and  take  their  places  as  productive  and  desirable  mem- 
bers of  society.  No  education  or  training  that  can  be  given  to  the  great 
majority  of  those  in  attendance  in  our  advanced  grammar  grades  and  high ' 
schools  can  be  more  useful  and  productive  than  that  derived  from  a  study 
of  the  commercial  branches.  The  intellectual  culture  which  is  so  highly 
esteemed  by  some  is  of  little  account  if  it  cannot  supply  itself,  or  be  sup- 
plied, with  the  richer  intellectual  foods  which  it  requires  to  feed  upon. 
We  do  not  look  for  luxuriant  growths  of  moral  development  in  the  thin 
soil  of  poverty,  and  the  basis  of  any  real  progress  of  the  race  toward 
higher  forms  of  civilization  will  be  found  in  the  material  prosperity  of  the 
individual  to  a  greater  extent  than  many  of  us  are  willing  to  admit. 
Therefore,  if  the  introduction  of  commercial  studies  into  grammar  and 


566  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Business 

high  schools  —  which  are  of  all  others  the  schools  of  the  people,  rich  and 
poor  alike  —  will  better  fit  them  for  life's  work,  it  should  be  done,  even  if 
othf r  less  important  branches  must  be  dropped ;  and  every  honorable 
teacher  must  feel  himself  bound  to  work  toward  that  end. 


-    SCHOOL  AND  BUSINESS  ARITHMETIC—  LIMITATIONS 
AND  IMPROVEMENTS 

EDWARD  W,  STITT,  PRINCIPAL    OF  PUBLIC    SCHOOL    NO.  89,  NEW  YORK,  N.  Y. 

In  common  with  most  teachers  who  have  endeavored  to  carry  out 
onerous  and  over-burdened  courses  of  study,  we  rejoice  that  the  modern 
movement  has  been  toward  the  elimination  of  much  of  the  old-fashioned 
arithmetic  which  formerly  wasted  so  many  hours  with  such  little  practical 
results.  The  days  of  mathematical  puzzles,  arithmetical  conundrums,  and 
various  forms  of  useless  number  mysteries  have  to  a  large  degree  disap- 
peared. May  they  never  again  hold  in  their  thraldom  those  teachers 
who,  like  Prometheus,  were  bound  to  the  rock  of  arithmetical  slavery ! 
Many  teachers  have  been  the  victims  of  a  relentless  Pandora,  who  came, 
not  with  a  box  of  evils  from  Jupiter,  but  with  a  long-drawn-out  course  of 
study,  which  included  too  many  topics  in  arithmetic  absolutely  unneces- 
sary for  the  average  business-man.  Alligation,  duodecimals,  equation  of 
payments,  compound  interest,  foreign  exchange,  and  other  such  subjects, 
have  either  been  wholly  eliminated  or  at  least  very  materially  reduced  in 
importance. 

It  is,  however,  a  matter  of  the  greatest  surprise  that  in  so  many  of  the 
important  cities  of  our  country  the  course  in  arithmetic  still  holds  firmly 
in  its  grasp  many  of  the  kinds  of  problems  which  modern  pedagogic 
leaders  have  denounced  as  being  unnecessary  to  young  students.  I  have 
made  a  careful  study  of  the  arithmetic  requirements  of  thirty  of  the  largest 
cities  in  this  country,  including  most  of  those  having  a  population  of  over 
one  hundred  thousand.  The  assigned  work  was  carefully  examined,  and  I 
discovered  that  in  many  cases  the  requirements  were  excessive.  More  is 
demanded  than  is  necessary  for  proper  business  preparation,  and  yet  the 
pupil  who  desires  to  continue  in  the  high  school  or  college  is  not  imbued 
with  the  proper  mathematical  spirit  by  this  additional  work. 

Most  careful  teachers  will  probably  admit  that  below  the  high  school 
the  following  subjects  are  unnecessary:  partial  payments,  compound 
partnership,  equation  of  payments,  compound  proportion,  true  discount, 
and  higher  mensuration.  The  following  table  will  show  the  relative  per- 
centage of  cities  in  which  the  above  subjects  are  not  simply  optional,  but 
actually  required : 

Compound  partnership  -     53  per  cent.       Higher  mensuration     -         -     40  per  cent. 

Partial  payments      -         -  47  per  cent.       True  discount  -         -  33  per  cent. 

Compound  proportion  -     43  per  cent.      Equation  of  payme.nts  •         -     30  per  cent. 


Department!  SCHOOL  AND  BUSINESS  ARITHMETIC  567 

When  the  percentage  of  what  may  be  called  nonessential  subjects 
varies  from  53  to  3.0,  a  radical  change  would  be  beneficial  if  it  should 
lead  to  minimum  requirements  more  nearly  in  accord  with  the  demands 
of  the  times. 

When  it  is  remembered  that  there  are  over  a  million  persons  actually 
engaged  in  business  in  this  country,  and  that  nearly  half  our  total  popu- 
lation over  the  age  of  ten  years  is  busy  in  some  mercantile  pursuit,  it 
will  be  admitted  that  careful  attention  should  be  paid  to  the  requirements 
which  business  occupations  demand,  and  that  proper  minimum  standards 
should  be  decided  upon  after  careful  deliberation.  Statistics  prove  that 
out  of  every  hundred  children  who  start  in  life  only  four  reach  the  high 
school,  two  the  college,  while  ninety-four  leave  at  various  ages  to  go  into 
some  form  of  business.  Urgent  efforts  should  therefore  be  made  to  prop- 
erly equip  this  largest  class  with  both  the  amount  and  the  kind  of  arith- 
metic needed. 

There  will  probably  be  considerable  discussion  as  to  what  may  be 
proper  minimum  requirements,  but  careful  consideration  of  the  previ- 
ously mentioned  courses  of  study  leads  me  to  the  following  conclusions : 

1.  All  unnecessary  work,  such  as  partnership  with  time,  equation  of 
accounts,  cube-root,  etc.,  should  have  no  place  in  the  course  of  study  of 
any  elementary  school. 

2.  Importance  of  drill  and  review  must  be  constantly  emphasized,  not 
only  for  the  pupil  who  is  to  enter  business,  but  also  for  the  pupil  who  is 
taught  arithmetic  as  a  basis  for  further  mathematical  knowledge. 

3.  The  mass  of  the  pupils,  however,  must  have  only  practical  work,  as 
they  need  their  arithmetic,  not  for  mathematical  development,  but  as  a 
means  of  earning  their  livelihood. 

4.  Simple  cases  under  denominate  numbers  of  the  practical  tables, 
and  easy  applications  of  percentage  and  proportion,  will  doubtless  include 
the  most  advanced  work  which  any  fair  minimum  course  will  require. 

5.  Text-books  are  to  be  used  with  caution.  They  can  be  made  help- 
ful or  harmful,  according  to  their  use  or  abuse. 

6.  Up  to  the  fourth  year  the  main  efforts  should  be  to  secure  rapidity 
and  accuracy  of  result,  and  the  work  should  be  confined  to  the  funda- 
mental rules  and  a  brief  course  in  fractions.  (No  fraction  should  be  of  a 
higher  denominator  than  12,  and  no  examples  should  be  given  in  7'ths 
or  ii'ths.)  This  plan  will  allow  the  child  to  become  very  familiar  with 
the  twenty-eight  different  fractions,  from  \  to  \^. 

A  relief  from  the  present  excessive  requirements  in  arithmetic  leading 
to  an  effort  to  prepare  for  proper  business  equipment  is  found  in  the 
establishment  of  commercial  high  schools,  the  latest  development  of 
the  school  system,  and  an  innovation  which  most  of  the  large  cities  of 
our  country  have  hastened  to  adopt.  The  trend  toward  the  movement 
is  also  shown  in  the  business  colleges,  which  have  been  so  very  successful 


568  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Business 

in  preparing  young  men  for  a  mercantile  career  that  they  have  an  estab- 
blished  place  in  the  educational  system  of  our  nation. 

In  the^e  schools  the  pupils  are  of  an  advanced  age,  and  their  apper- 
ceiving  power  is  sufficiently  developed  to  enable  them  to  grasp  such  sub- 
jects as  the  metric  system,  compound  partnership,  equation  of  accounts, 
and  so  forth,  which  were  formerly  allowed  to  harass  many  a  poor  boy  in 
the  elementary  schools,  who  would  never  make  use  of  any  such  branches 
of  arithmetic  in  the  course  of  his  whole  life.  By  the  time  the  average 
pupil  has  reached  his  fourteenth  year  he  is  probably  finishing  the  seventh 
year  of  school,  and  is  about  to  complete  the  final  term  of  his  grammar- 
school  work,  preparatory  to  entrance  to  a  high  school,  or  to  commence  a 
business  career. 

In  the  course  of  the  past  few  years  I  have  frequently  received  letters 
of  inquiry  from  the  parents  of  my  pupils,  stating  that  the  methods  which 
their  children  were  using  were  so  different  from  those  employed  by  them- 
selves that  they  could  render  them  no  efficient  help.  I  therefore  deter- 
mined to  discover  to  what  extent  business  practices  varied  from  those 
ordinarily  employed  in  school,  and  also  to  what  degree  our  curriculum 
might  be  reduced  by  limiting  the  instruction  to  those  subjects  which  the 
business-men  found  most  necessary. 

I  therefore  addressed  letters  of  inquiry  covering  the  above  points  to 
the  heads  of  the  representative  business  houses  in  New  York.  The  plan 
received  the  hearty  approval  of  a  number  of  our  merchant  princes,  bank 
presidents,  and  commissioners  of  the  board  of  education,  including  John 
Wanamaker,  R.  H.  Macy  &  Co.,  President  Miles  M.  O'Brien  of  the  board 
of  education,  Hon.  Joseph  J.  Little,  Commissioner  Joseph  J.  Kittel, 
president  of  the  Nineteenth  Ward  Bank,  and  Superintendent  John  Jasper. 
Their  cordial  indorsement  and  the  use  of  their  names  stamped  my  investi- 
gation as  being,  not  simply  theoretical,  but  eminently  practical. 

So  that  I  might  be  assisted  in  making  proper  generalizations  from 
the  replies,  and  also  that  I  might  succeed  in  reaching  a  larger  number  of 
various  lines  of  industry,  I  made  the  following  classification  of  occupa- 
tions : 


I. 

Wholesale  merchants. 

6. 

Professions. 

2. 

3- 
4- 

Retail  merchants. 

Manufacturers. 

Trades. 

7- 
8. 

9- 

Importers  and  exporters, 

Agents. 

Miscellaneous. 

5- 

Skilled  artisans. 

Each  of  the  above  classes  included  about  seven  subdivisions,  so  as  to 
embrace  about  sixty  different  business  interests.  The  letters  were  sent 
by  mail  to  the  number  of  six  hundred,  stamped  envelopes  being  inclosed 
for  replies.  Another  set  was  distributed  personally  thru  the  efforts  of 
the  teachers  and  scholars  of  my  school,  and  also  thru  the  kindness  of 
friends.     Additional  value  was  given  to  the  experiment  by  appreciative 


Department]  SCHOOL  AND  BUSINESS  ARITHMETIC  569 

words  published  in  the  New  York  Times,  Commercial  Advertiser,  Dry 
Goods  Review,  and  other  papers,  thereby  bringing  the  matter  to  the  favor- 
able notice  of  many  people.  Replies  were  received  from  many  sources, 
and  the  great  majority  of  the  fifty-seven  different  lines  of  business  was 
represented  in  the  responses. 

In  44  per  cent,  of  the  replies  the  writers  stated  that  there  was  abso- 
lutely no  need  for  any  arithmetic  beyoftd  the  fundamental  rules  and  com- 
mon and  decimal  fractions.  The  great  desiderata  were  accuracy  and 
speed,  and  strong  emphasis  was  laid  on  the  fact  that  the  pupils  should 
fully  understand  the  importance  and  logical  sequence  of  every  step  of 
the  processes  involved. 

I  have  classified  the  information  received  from  the  answers  under 
either  of  two  heads:  I,  "  Mechanical  Aids;"  II,  "  Processes  of  Solu- 
tion." 

Under  the  first  head  may  be  summarized  the  following  particulars : 

1.  Importance  of  decimal  points. 

2.  Necessity  for  legible  figures. 

3.  Accuracy  and  speed. 

4.  Use  of  interest  and  discount  tables  and  graded  schedules. 

5.  Use  of  cash  registers  and  arithmometers. 

6.  The  frequency  with  which  aliquot  parts  are  employed  shows  that 
such  fractions  as  -^,  \^,  W,  etc.,  are  seldom  used  in  business,  and  should 
therefore  receive  scant  attention  in  school. 

7.  Importance  of  "short-cuts." 

8.  Value  of  teaching  the  multiplication  table  thru  20X20. 

9.  Importance  of  familiarity  with  English  money. 

10.  Business  forms,  such  as  checks,  notes,  receipts,  statements,  and 
price-lists,  should  be  understood  by  all  pupils  of  the  seventh  year  and 
upward. 

11.  Constant  repetition  and  drill  in  the  use  of  the  four  fundamental 
rules. 

Under  the  second  heading  ("  Processes  of  Solution  ")  I  endeavored  to 
determine  the  differences  existing  between  the  schoolroom  practice  and 
that  of  the  outside  world.  I  was  surprised,  at  the  general  agreement 
between  the  two.  In  many  cases  the  writers  frankly  acknowledged  there 
was  no  difference  in  method.  In  others  there  were  radical  differences, 
and,  while  some  of  the  replies  received  have  not  yet  been  fully  analyzed, 
I  believe  I  have  summarized  below  the  chief  features  of  importance. 

I.  Interest  on  all  sums  for  any  periods  of  time  less  than  two  hundred 
days  should  be  solved  by  what  is  called  the  "bank  method,"  in  which 
the  principal  is  multiplied  by  the  number  of  days,  the  decimal  point 
removed  three  places,  and  the  product  divided  by  six.  Many  business- 
men, however,  prefer  the  "sixty-day  method,"  by  which  i  per  cent,  of 
the  principal  equals  the  interest  for  sixty  days  at  6  per  cent, 


570  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Business 

2.  In  many  lines  of  business  the  arithmetic  seems  to  be  of  a  kind  that 
to  a  large  degree  is  specialized,  and  does  not  admit  of  ready  reproduction 
for  class-room  work.  The  problems  received  were  often  very  technical, 
and  presented  such  difficulties  that  it  seems  hopeless  to  expect  adequate 
use  of  the  same  in  school.  The  most  we  can  hope  to  do  is  to  properly 
prepare  the  pupils  for  this  higher  work  by  impressing  upon  them  the 
importance  of  a  thoro  knowledge  of  fractions,  and  also  leading  them  to 
attain  the  power  to  "think  in  percentage." 

3.  Retail  merchants  in  all  branches  of  trade  seem  to  agree  that  all 
the  arithmetic  a  boy  needs  is  the  practical  ability  to  handle  quickly  and 
correctly  the  four  fundamental  rules. 

4.  Wholesale  merchants  and  most  of  the  manufacturers  are  of  the 
opinion  that  the  ability  to  calculate  interest  accurately  and  quickly,  and 
to  handle  trade  discounts  to  advantage,  constitutes  the  necessary  equip- 
ment, outside  of  the  fundamental  rules.  All  agree  that  the  time  spent  in 
what  is  called  the  "  problems  in  interest,"  finding  the  rate,  principal,  time, 
etc.,  is  wasted.  Almost  all  the  business  use  of  interest  is  in  what  is 
called  in  most  text-books  the  "  first  case,"  namely,  to  find  the  interest  or 
amount. 

5.  Mechanics  seem  to  have  very  few  methods  except  those  which  are 
now  usually  taught  in  most  of  our  good  schools.  The  greater  amount  of 
all  jobbing  is  calculated  approximately,  as  the  mechanic  has  figured  so 
often  in  his  special  line  on  certain  classes  of  work  that  he  reaches  the 
results  almost  intuitively.  It  would  seem  wise,  therefore,  to  greatly  enlarge 
the  plan  and  scope  of  approximation  in  our  school  work,  and  in  many 
of  our  problems  we  should  insist  that  prior  to  the  complete  solution  the 
child  shall  be  required  to  roughly  figure  the  approximate  result.  It  is 
only  in  the  larger  contracts  that  mechanics  do  real  figuring.  In  small 
jobs. they  rely  on  their  experience  to  strike  the  price  about  right,  or  else, 
if  they  have  miscalculated,  they  make  it  up  on  the  next  one. 

6.  The  answers  received  from  the  plasterers,  painters,  paperhangers, 
etc.,  were  somewhat  difficult  of  generalization,  and  in  a  paper  of  this 
limit  their  full  significance  cannot  be  indicated.  In  the  main  there  was 
harmony  with  our  best  school  methods,  but  in  many  cases  technical 
solutions  were  sent  to  me  which  would  be  of  considerable  value  in  busi- 
ness, but  would  not  be  desirable  as  part  of  our  regular  school  instruc- 
tion. 

Probably  the  greatest  drawback  to  successful  work  in  arithmetic  at 
the  present  time  in  our  elementary  schools  is  the  inaccuracy  of  the  chil- 
dren's work.  The  pupils  are  too  often  satisfied  if  their  method  of 
interpreting  the  problem  is  correct.  They  forget  that  accuracy  of  result 
is  really  the  basic  principle  of  this  science  of  quantity,  and  if  there  be  an 
error  in  calculation,  the  value  of  the  exercise  is  largely  vitiated. 

Nothing  is  more  discouraging  to   a  class  teacher  than,  after  having 


Department]  SCHOOL  AND  BUSINESS  ARITHMETIC  S?* 

carefully  and  inductively  led  up  to  a  new  process,  and  by  drawing  satis- 
factorily upon  the  pupil's  former  knowledge  to  have  gradually  brought 
him  to  a  comprehension  of  the  new,  when  she  proceeds  to  make  a  test 
to  determine  results,  to  discover  that  a  large  proportion  of  the  class  have 
glaring  errors  in  calculation.  One  of  the  principal  .reasons  for  the  want 
of  accuracy  is  the  lack  of  drill  in  the  fundamental  rules.  I  fear  th4t  in 
some  respects  the  overcrowded  curriculum  furnishes  the  reason  for  the 
want  of  thoroness  in  the  mechanical  equipment.  In  the  Middle  Ages 
arithmetic  was  made  the  first  of  the  "qu&drivium"  in  the  course  of  work 
followed,  and  in  what  we  call  the  modern  "trivium"  of  "the  three  R's" 
arithmetic  has  generally  been  put  last.  I  do  not  desire  to  urge  a  better 
place  for  this  subject,  tho  I  think  that  the  large  number  of  branches  taught 
in  most  schools  today  largely  prevents  proper  attention  to  this  very  impor- 
tant subject.  We  sometimes  seem  to  be  getting  away  from  the  proper 
twofold  function  of  arithmetic,  namely,  that  it  should  not  only  serve  as  a 
preparation  for  business  equipment,  but  also  as  an  educational  factor  of 
great  importance  in  mental  discipline.  The  elementary  schools  today  are 
putting  too  much  of  the  proper  training  in  arithmetic  upon  the  business 
schools  and  colleges,  and  upon  the  commercial  departments  of  our  high 
schools.  The  reduction  in  the  requirements  for  which  I  have  argued 
should  produce  as  a  corollary  increased  accuracy. 

Many  merchants  strongly  urge  the  importance  of  mental  arithmetic 
as  a  factor  of  business  success.  From  the  mere  artisan,  who  calculates 
the  area  of  a  roof  to  find  the  cost  of  tinning  or  painting  the  same,  to  the 
wealthy  Wall  street  broker  who  handles  Manhattan  "L"  stock  or  govern- 
ment bonds,  watches  the  change  on  the  ticker  from  114^  to  113^,  and 
calculates  at  once  the  amount  of  the  necessary  margin,  there  is  at  all 
times  and  in  all  lines  of  business  a  necessity  for  rapid  and  accurate  men- 
tal arithmetic.  I  deem  it  a  conservative  estimate  that  perhaps  60  per 
cent,  of  the  arithmetic  of  the  business  world  is  done  without  pen  or  pencil. 
A  subject  which  demands  such  an  important  place  in  the  world's  expe- 
rience requires  an  equally  prominent  place  in  the  school.  I  am,  there- 
fore, strongly  of  the  opinion  that  at  least  half  of  our  school  arithmetic 
should  be  mental  and  oral,  not  only  because  of  the  additional  training 
it  gives,  but  also  from  the  fact  that  so  many  more  problems  can  be  covered 
in  a  limited  time.  At  all  events,  oral  work  must  precede  written  work, 
and  be  the  apperceptive  basis  upon  which  we  build.  My  experience  as  a 
teacher  and  principal  leads  me  to  believe  that  when  mental  arithmetic  has 
been  neglected  by  a  teacher  there  is  a  corresponding  loss  in  the  mathe- 
matical ability  of  the  class. 

Careful  inquiry  among  a  large  number  of  teachers  and  a  tabulation  of 
results  of  many  tests  in  my  own  school  lead  me  to  state  that  50  per  cent, 
of  the  incorrect  results  are  directly  traceable  to  errors  in  the  fundamental 
rules.     So  glaring  has  this  weakness  become  that  from  time  to  time  I 


57^  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Business 

have  felt  compelled,  in  order  to  bring  pupils  to  a  full  l-ealization  of  the 
value  of  accuracy,  to  mark  examples  correct  or  incorrect  on  the  basis  of 
the  answer  alone,  without  giving  any  credit  for  correct  method  and  an 
incorrect  result.  By  repeated  warnings  and  punishments  of  the  above 
nature  I  am  beginning  to  get  in  the  higher  grades  the  proper  co-ordina- 
tion 5f  method  and  accuracy. 

I  think  very  many  of  our  courses  of  study  in  arithmetic  may  fairly 
be  objected  to  because  of  the  lack  of  variety  in  the  planning  of  the  work. 
In  many  of  the  cities  the  subject  of  common  fractions  is  finished  even  to 
the  most  complex  relations  before  decimals  are  taken  up.  In  others, 
denominate  numbers  are  taught  for  a  full  term,  and  the  poor  children 
hdi\Q.  ad  nauseam  diW  the  practical  applications  of  weights  and  measures. 
Possibly  the  next  term  percentage  may  be  the  center  of  attention.  It  is 
far  better  to  carry  on  several  topics  at  once,  and  therefore,  after  the  pre- 
liminary stages  of  fractions,  both  common  and  decimal  fractions  should 
be  taught  co-ordinately.  Very  soon  percentage  should  also  be  taught  as 
a  parallel  subject,  for  the  scholar  should  be  led  to  see  that  all  three  pro- 
cesses are  really  similar.  Not  only  will  pleasurable  variety  result,  but, 
what  is  more  important,  if  the  scholar  is  compelled  to  leave  school  at  an 
early  age,  he  may  have  acquired  the  fundamental  nature  of  a  large  part 
of  arithmetic.  If  the  above  method  is  followed,  each  process  should  be 
approached  in  such  a  way  that  the  child  need  only  grasp  the  main  out- 
lines, the  more  important  details  being  reserved  for  higher  grades. 

Perhaps  another  mistake,  very  commonly  made,  is  for  the  teacher  to 
assist  the  pupils  to  too  great  an  extent.  They  are  not  to  be  constantly 
taught  by  what  has  been  called  the  "pouring-in  process."  Occasionally 
the  teacher  should  rest  and  give  the  children  a  chance  to  assimilate  the 
instruction.  Frequent  reviews,  therefore,  become  necessary.  For  some 
reason,  however,  a  teacher  always  endeavors  to  finish  the  grade  require- 
ments in  arithmetic,  even  tho  the  science,  geography,  history,  and  lan- 
guage lessons  suffer  in  the  effort.  Perhaps  superintendents  and  principals 
themselves  are  at  fault  in  too  often  making  an  inspection  of  the  class  in 
arithmetic  alone,  and  allowing  that  to  be  taken  as  a  standard  for  the  other 
subjects.  The  teachers  are,  therefore,  often  in  the  habit  of  cramming 
their  boys  to  pass  the  arithmetic  examination,  and  the  higher  result,  the 
logical  training  of  the  mind,  suffers  in  proportion. 

Let  us  hope  that  the  dawn  of  the  coming  century  may  witness  a  new 
renaissance  in  arithmetic,  and  that,  with  better  methods,  more  intelligent 
teaching,  and  courses  of  study  more  fully  adapted  to  the  children's  future, 
there  may  be  a  wonderful  improvement  in  the  results,  so  that  time  may 
be  saved  for  other- branches,  and  yet  this  very  important  department  of 
school  work  may  justly  do  all  that  is  demanded  of  it,  first  in  the  practical 
duties  of  life,  and,  secondly,  as  the  natural  forerunner  of  higher  mathe- 
matics. 


Department]  ADVERTISING  OF  BUSINESS  COLLEGES  573 

PROFITABLE    PUBLICITY— A    STUDY    OF   ADVERTISING 
AS  APPLIED    TO  BUSINESS   COLLEGES 

WILLARD    J.    WHEELER,    PRESIDENT,    BIRMINGHAM    BUSINESS    COLLEGE, 
BIRMINGHAM,    ALA. 

The  necessity  for  advertising  any  business,  or  any  profession,  is  gen- 
erally recognized,  and  all  professional  men  and  all  business-men  adver- 
tise—  if  not  in  the  public  prints,  then  in  other  ways;  for  all  publicity,  or 
that  which  attracts  the  attention  of  the  public,  is  advertising.  Of  all  the 
institutions  of  learning,  the  business  college,  the  commercial  college,  the 
business  institute,  or  the  business  school,  whatever  it  may  be  called,  has, 
from  the  very  first,  been  the  most  liberal  of  all  the  school  advertisers,  and 
to  this  fact  is  largely  due  the  success  of  these  colleges;  for  by  this  means 
the  advantages  of  a  business  education  have  been  so  placed  before  the 
fathers  and  the  mothers  of  this  country  that  they  have  come  to  demand 
that  their  sons  and  their  daughters  shall  be  practically  educated ;  and  in 
comparatively  a  few  years  after  their  organization  we  find  these  schools 
in  every  city  of  importance  in  every  state  in  the  union. 

When  we  consider  the  difficulties  that  these  schools  have  met  and 
overcome  ;  the  sneers  of  the  educated ;  the  trouble  in  convincing  business- 
men of  the  fact  that  business-college  graduates  are  competent  book- 
keepers, stenographers,  and  office  men ;  the  fact  that  they  have  not  been 
endowed  by  church  or  state,  but  have  relied  entirely  upon  the  merit  of 
the  work  done,  we  can  but  felicitate  ourselves  at  what  has  already  been 
achieved. 

We  now  find  the  business  colleges  full  of  students  and  prosperous, 
the  educational  value  of  these  schools  more  generally  recognized,  and 
their  graduates  sought  by  business-men.  These  satisfactory  conditions 
exist  because  primarily  the  business  colleges,  as  a  whole,  have  given  the 
business  training  needed.  Yet  without  advertising,  to  bring  before  the 
people  the  advantages  of  these  colleges,  they  could  not  possibly  have 
attained  the  measure  of  success  which  they  have. 

A  business  college  is,  first  of  all,  an  educational  institution,  and  the 
greatest  care  should  be  taken  in  the  arrangement  of  the  course  of  study, 
and  in  the  selection  of  teachers;  but  having  secured  good  teachers,  and 
having  the  proper  curriculum,  the  progressive  business-college  man  natu- 
rally looks  for  the  best  means  of  informing  the  people  about  his  school. 
He  has,  in  fact,  all  kinds  of  advertising  schemes  placed  before  hnn,  and  it 
is  necessary  for  him  to  plan  carefully  his  advertising  and  to  keep  a  care- 
ful check  on  it,  or  else  he  will  find  that,  instead  of  increasing  his  business 
and  making  money,  he  is  losing  it. 

Altho  there  are  no  set  rules  that  can  be  given  to  insure  success 
as  an  advertiser,  there  are  some  few  principles  which,  if  adhered  to, 
should    bring    success,   and    generally  do.      There   are    many   kinds  of 


574  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Business 

advertising  which,  altho  largely  patronized,  do  not  return  lo  per  cent. 
of  the  amount  expended.  Among  the  most  popular  of  these  unprofit- 
able mediums  is  the  fake  newspaper,  which  makes  a  specialty  of  write- 
ups,  and  which  does  not  charge  one  cent,  so  they  say,  for  the  write-ups, 
but  the  length  and  strength  of  which,  nevertheless,  is  governed  by  the 
number  of  copies  of  the  papers  containing  the  write-ups  that  are  pur- 
chased. Of  all  the  forms  of  newspaper  advertising  this  is  the  poorest. 
Thousands  of  dollars  have  been  spent  by  business-men  and  business 
schools  for  this  form  of  advertising,  and  cents  have  not  been  returned 
where  dollars  have  been  spent.  This  kind  of  advertising  hardly  deserves 
the  name  of  newspaper  advertising,  for  oftentimes  these  papers  have  no 
subscribers,  the  circulation  being  simply  the  number  of  papers  that  are 
sent  out  by  those  who  have  been  induced  by  the  oily-tongued  solicitor  to 
have  write-ups  of  their  business.  And  yet  some  papers  which  are  sup- 
posed to  be  reputable  publications  send  out  prepared  notices,  lauding 
to  the  skies  institutions  of  which  they  really  know  nothing,  but  offering  to 
print  these  notices  as  editorial  matter  for  a  consideration.  School  adver- 
tisers have  been  caught  in  the  past,  and  probably  will  be  in  the  future,  by 
this  species  of  advertising,  for  the  average  man  is  only  too  ready  to 
believe  all  of  the  nice  things  that  cai\  be  said  concerning  him  and  his 
business  or  profession.  And  if  the  paper  very  liberally  offers  to  insert  a 
cut  of  himself  without  charge,  he  is  apt  to  think  that  he  is  a  very  fortunate 
fellow  indeed.  He  reads  the  honeyed  words  about  himself  and  his  school 
with  a  growing  sense  of  his  importance,  and  thinks  that  all  the  world 
reads  it  too ;  but,  poor  fellow,  he  is  sadly  mistaken.  Not  one  in  a  hun- 
dred more  than  glances  at  it,  and  the  chances  are  that  the  few  who  do  read 
it  say:  "That  is  a  good  puff;  I  wonder  what  it  cost."  An  occasional 
write-up  in  a  good  newspaper  may  pay,  but  there  are  so  many  other 
ways  of  spending  money  judiciously  that  even  such  write-ups  should  be 
few  and  far  between. 

Advertising  in  theater  programs,  church-entertainment  programs,  and, 
in  fact,  all  forms  of  program  advertising  is  a  poor  way  of  spending  good 
money.  This  form  of  advertising  would  be  all  right  if  purchased  at  the 
right  price,  but  the  price  charged  is  out  of  all  proportion  to  the  circula- 
tion. Occasionally  it  may  be  necessary  as  a  matter  of  policy  to  insert 
your  "ad"  in  a  church-social  program  or  a  program  of  a  charity  enter- 
tainment, but  make  no  mistake;  charge  the  expenditure  to  "charity" 
and  not  to  "advertising." 

Advertising  in  railroad  time-tables,  in  booklets  prepared  by  traveling 
advertising  solicitors  for  banks  and  trust  companies,  which  necessarily 
have  a  limited  circulation  and  do  not  contain  matter  of  sufficient  inter- 
est to  be  kept;  in  hotel  registers,  and  in  classified  business  list- cards, 
are  a  few  of  the  many  ways  of  injudiciously  spending  money  for  adver^ 
tising. 


Departmem]  ADVERTISING  OF  BUSINESS  COLLEGES  575 

No  one  can  say  just  what  methods  of  advertising  will  pay  every  time. 
We  must  all  make  some  experiments.  Some  kinds  of  advertising  will  pay 
in  certain  sections  of  the  country,  but  will  not  in  other  sections.  A  base- 
ball team  will  sometimes  prove  good  advertising  for  a  college,  but  if  there 
is  little  interest  in  baseball  in  the  section  of  the  country  where  the  college 
is  located,  it  will  prove  a  costly  experiment.  We  should  study  our  field, 
find  out  what  methods  pay,  and  drop  the  poor  ones. 

Advertising  in  newspapers  and  magazines  of  known  circulation  is  the 
very  best  means  that  the  school  advertiser  as  well  as  the  general  adver- 
tiser can  employ.  These  journals  go  directly  into  the  hands  of  the  people, 
and  the  advertisements,  if  properly  written  and  displayed,  are  sure  to  be 
read,  and  will  have  a  wonderful  influence  in  promoting  the  prosperity  of 
the  college.  The  size  of  the  "ad"  and  the  amount  of  the  advertising 
must  depend  upon  the  local  conditions,  and  the  amount  that  the  adver- 
tiser has  to  invest.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  reserve  a  certain  portion  of  the 
receipts  for  advertising ;  just  how  much,  each  advertiser  must  determine 
for  himself. 

Influential  daily  papers,  the  best  class  of  weekly  papers,  religious  jour- 
nals, and  farm  magazines  are  the  publications  that  are  best  adapted  to 
school  advertising.  To  this  list  should  be  added  the  magazines  of  national 
circulation,  if  the  college  conducts  a  correspondence  department. 

Be  careful  in  the  selection  of  your  mediums.  In  advertising  as  in 
everything  else  the  best  generally  costs  a  little  more,  tho  it  is  the"  cheap- 
est in  the  end.  Don't  advertise  in  a  paper  because  the  solicitor  or 
the  editor  whom  you  happen  to  know  is  a  good  fellow  and  a  good  "jol- 
lier." Look  upon  your  advertising  expenditure  as  an  investment,  not  as 
an  expense.  Find  out  the  amount  and  the  character  of  the  circulation. 
Buy  advertising  space  as  you  buy  anything  else.  Having  once  bought  it, 
change  your  "ads"  often,  make  them  attractive  by  cuts;  and,  if  judiciously 
placed,  results  will  be  sure  to  follow. 

Novelty  advertising,  or  the  sending  out  of  calendars,  rulers,  memo- 
randum books,  book-marks,  etc.,  is  a  very  good  adjunct  to  newspaper 
advertising,  but  can  easily  be  overdone.  If  sent  to  former  students,  as 
well  as  to  prospective  students,  these  novelties  are  appreciated,  and  help 
to  keep  up  an  interest  in  the  college  after  graduation. 

Personal  advertising  must  not  be  overlooked,  for  the  personal  influ- 
ence of  each  member  of  the  faculty  of  the  school  exerts  a  powerful 
influence  in  the  upbuilding  of  it.  The  proprietor  of  the  school  should 
take  an  active  interest  in  all  of  the  affairs  of  his  city,  and  become  well 
acquainted  with  the  business  and  professional  men.  He  should  also 
look  after  the  welfare  of  his  students  at  all  times,  and  be  ever  willing  to 
do  what  he  can  for  them,  both  before  and  after  graduation.  He  will 
thus  not  only  have  many  friends,  but  his  business  will  increase,  for  if  he 
takes  an  interest  in  others,  others  will   take  an  interest  in  him.     Above 


576  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Business 

all  other  forms  of  advertising  is  the  good  word  spoken  by  a  present  or 
former  student.  If  we  do  good  work  in  our  schoolrooms,  our  schools 
will  flourish,  but  they  will  flourish  much  the  more  if  we  do  good  work 
and  advertise. 

Before  commencing  any  newspaper  advertising,  or  advertising  of 
any  kind,  the  college  should  prepare  its  catalog,  and  map  out  carefully 
a  plan  of  following  up  inquiries.  The  catalog  of  a  school  should  be  a 
true  representative  of  the  school,  and  it  should  be  as  complete  as  pos- 
sible. It  should  be  typographically  perfect,  printed  on  good  paper,  well 
illustrated  and  bound.  It  pays  to  spend  time  in  the  preparation  of  a 
catalog  and  money  in  publishing  it.  The  school  is  judged  largely  by 
the  catalog  it  sends  out.  The  catalog,  altho  the  chief  factor  in  the 
securing  of  students,  must  be  supplemented  by  personal  letters,  booklets, 
leaflets,  and  pamphlets,  and  a  great  deal  of  attention  should  be  given  to 
the  preparation  of  this  matter.  Have  a  system  for  the  distribution  of 
your  advertising.  Keep  a  record  of  the  matter  sent  out,  and  of  the 
replies  received.  The  majority  of  advertisers  do  not  follow  up  their 
applications  as  they  should.  Never  drop  a  prospective  student  from  your 
list  until  he  has  enrolled  with  you  or  some  other  college. 

Every  college  should  avail  itself  of  the  privilege  afforded  by  the 
Manderson-Hainer  law,  and  publish  a  college  paper,  monthly  or  quar- 
terly. This  is  the  best-paying  of  all  the  advertising  mediums,  and  should 
not  be  neglected. 

Among  other  good  mediums  should  be  mentioned  attractive  cards  in 
the  street  cars,  and  also  an  occasional  use  of  embossed  signs  in  the  sur- 
rounding country. 

No  one  realizes  more  than  the  speaker  that  advertising  is  not  an 
exact  science.  Some  will  succeed  and  some  will  fail,  using  the  same 
mediums.  The  personality  of  the  man  enters  into  his  advertising.  The 
subject  of  advertising  is  a  great  study,  and  one  to  which  we  should  all 
give  attention.  No  one  man  knows  all  about  advertising,  and,  however 
much  a  man  may  know  about  the  subject,  what  he  does  not  know  would 
make  a  much  larger  book  than  what  he  knows. 

In  conclusion :  Have  a  good  school  to  advertise,  and  advertise  it ; 
and,  if  you  keep  everlastingly  at  it,  success  is  yours. 


ESSENTIALS  OF  MODERN  BUSINESS  PENMANSHIP 

F.    L.    HAEBERLE,    SHATTUCK    SCHOOL,    FARIBAULT,    MINN. 

A  business  educators'  conference  would  be  incomplete  without  the 
customary  topic  of  penmanship.  This  simply  goes  to  show  that  penman- 
ship is  a  living  and  important  question,  that  new  ideas  are  coming  to  the 
front,  so  that  it  cannot  be  settled  for  all  time.     The  style  of  writing  used 


Department!     ESSENTIALS  OF  MODERN  BUSINESS  PENMANSHIP  577 

twenty-five  years  ago  would  be  entirely  unsuitable  at  the  present  time  ;  like- 
wise the  methods  of  instruction  in  use  then  would  be  inadequate  today. 
We  are  told  that  there  is  no  progress,  no  advancement  in  penmanship ; 
yet,  if  we  compare  the  writing  of  a  quarter-century  ago  with  that  of  today, 
we  are  at  once  impressed  with  the  marvelous  advancement  made,  espe- 
cially in  speed.  Indeed,  I  am  safe  in  saying  that  in  no  other  of  the 
elementary  branches  has  there  been  greater  progress  made  than  in  pen- 
manship. There  is  a  marked  difference  between  the  writing  of  even  six 
years  ago  and  the  writing  of  today.  If  I  understand  the  object  of  this 
meeting,  it  is  to  discuss  ways  and  means  for  the  adjustment  of  this  useful 
art  to  the  needs  of  everyday  business  life. 

What  are  the  essentials  of  modern  business  penmanship  ?  The  first 
essential  I  wish  to  mention  is,  as  of  old,  legibility.  We  cannot  get  away 
from  this.  The  sole  object  of  writing  is  to  record  our  thoughts  in  such 
a  manner  as  to  recall  them  readily.  But  while  legibility  still  holds  the 
first  place  in  importance,  the  degree  of  legibility  has  undergone  a  marked 
change.  When  we  speak  of  legibility  now,  we  do  not  mean  absolutely 
accurate  and  painfully  drawn-out  letters,  but  merely  i;eadable  letters.' 
Every  letter  should  be  formed  accurately  enough  so  that  it  is  unlike  any 
other  letter.  Each  letter  in  the  alphabet  has  at  least  one  strong  mark 
which  sets  it  apart  from  every  other  letter.  Point  out  and  emphasize  that 
mark,  and  little  or  no  time  needs  to  be  devoted  to  form  study.  Take  a 
as  an  illustration.  The  only  other  character  which  resembles  it,  and 
which  causes  illegibility,  is  o.  The  cause  of  the  illegibility  is  in  the  omis- 
sion of  the  straight  downstroke.  If  we  show  the'  student  that  the  last 
part,  three  strokes,  in  a  are  merely  the  letter  /,  he  will  never  confuse  a 
and  0.  Point  out  in  a  few  words  that  part  which  gives  a  letter  its  individ- 
uality, and  use  the  writing  period  for  writing. 

The  student  should  spend  less  time  on  the  practice  of  letters,  and 
more  on  words  and  sentences.  The  difficult  part  in  writing  a  neat  page 
is  not  the  forming  but  the  connecting  of  letters.  I  know  that  a  great 
deal  of  time  is  wasted,  or  at  least  unwisely  spent,  in  repeating  a  letter 
again  and  again  after  a  legible  form  has  been  obtained.  Writing,  in 
order  to  be  valuable,  must  be  automatic.  The  muscles  must  act  inde- 
pendently of  conscious  volition.  This  can  be  accomplished  only  after 
much  practice.  If  the  time  is  spent  on  letters,  the  muscles  will  fail  to 
perform  the  work  automatically  when  new  turns  and  new  movements, 
which  are  sure  to  come  in  words  and  sentences,  are  met. 

Before  dismissing  this  topic  I  wish  to  call  attention  to  a  mistake 
which  is  frequently  made  by  the  teacher,  and  which  does  a  vast  amount 
of  harm.  Instead  of  using  and  developing  the  knowledge  and  skill  the 
student  possesses  when  he  enters  school,  he  is  frequently  required  to 
change  to  an  entirely  different  style.  I  admit  that  the  student  often 
comes  with  forms  unsuited  to  a  rapid  business  writing,  and  in  that  case 


578  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Business 

he  should  be  advised  to  change;  but  if  he  comes  with  letters  suitable  for 
all  practical  purposes,  he  should  not  be  required  to  change  merely  for  the 
sake  of  uniformity.  In  nearly  every  instance  the  teacher  gets  better 
results,  in  the  very  limited  time  the  student  comes  under  his  instruction, 
if  he  develops  that  which  the  student  already  possesses,  rather  than  in 
attempting  to  tear  it  down  and  build  up  something  entirely  new.  I 
know  there  is  a  great  temptation  for  the  teacher  to  have  every  student 
adopt  a  certain  style  of  letters,  honestly  believing  that  it  is  better  than  any- 
thing ever  before  written.  We  should  not  ask  every  student  to  adopt  the 
same  style  of  letters.  Let  the  requirement  be  legibility  and  ease  of  writing. 
The  point  I  wish  to  make  is  :  use  and  develop  that  which  the  student  has. 

The  second  essential  is  rapidity.  This  is  based  entirely  upon  the 
proper  movement.  In  business  writing  movement  is  perhaps  more 
important  than  form,  because  without  a  rapid  and  free  movement  writ- 
ing has  no  commercial  value.  Penmanship  has  passed  from  the  domain 
of  a  fine  art  to  a  useful  art ;  consequently  we  must  measure  its  value  and 
consider  its  merits  as  based  on  utility  only.  Most  people  write  legibly. 
The  student  that  comes  to  your  school  writes  legibly.  Your  janitor  can 
write  legibly,  yet  you  would  not  want  him  to  do  your  writing.  The  man 
who  works  on  the  road  for  a  dollar  a  day  can  write  legibly,  but  no  one 
will  employ  him  as  a  bookkeeper,  or  a  clerk,  or  in  any  capacity  where 
the  pen  is  used  to  any  great  extent.  His  writing  has  no  commercial 
value  —  it  lacks  movement,  it  lacks  the  selling  quality  of  writing.  If  we 
obtain  legibility  and  freedom  in  our  writing,  we  have  reached  the  goal 
toward  which  every  commercial  student  should  strive. 

Ease  of  writing,  which  is  usually  given  as  another  essential,  is  the 
outgrowth  of  a  free  movement ;  it  is  the  test  of  the  proper  movement. 
The  hand  becomes  tired  and  cramped  because  the  muscles  used  are  too 
small  and  too  weak.  To  write  with  a  free  and  vigorous  movement  is 
simply  to  write  with  a  set  of  muscles  capable  of  doing  the  work  quickly 
and  easily.  In  the  finger  movement  the  muscles  of  the  forearm  and  the 
hand  are  used ;  in  the  forearm  or  muscular  movement  the  muscles  of  the 
upper  arm  are  used.  It  is  not  my  purpose  to  condemn  finger  movement, 
because  it  is  indispensable  when  a  high  degree  of  accuracy  is  necessary, 
and  it  is  the  only  available  movement  which  a  child  can  use  when  begin- 
ning to  write.  But  pure  finger  movement  has  no  place  in  business 
writing.  Nature  never  intended  that  the  small  muscles  of  the  forearm 
and  of  the  hand  should  do  all  the  heavy  work,  because  we  find  a  set  of 
strong  muscles  in  the  upper  arm  which  are  admirably  adapted  for  that 
work.  The  true  test  of  the  forearm  movement  is  the  ability  to  slide  the 
hand  across  the  paper  while  writing,  without  stopping,  a  distance  of  not 
less  than  seven  inches.  The  sign  of  the  finger  movement  is  the  frequent 
change  of  position.  Instead  of  having  the  hand  gliding  on  the  finger- 
nails across  the  paper,  it  is  lifted  across.     Give  the  student  free  movement, 


Department]     ESSENTIALS  OF  MODERN  BUSINESS  PENMANSHIP  579 

and  he  has  mastered  the  art  of  business  writing.  Rapidity  and  ease 
of  writing  depend  upon  the  continuity  of  the  movement.  Not  that  it  is 
essential  to  write  a  long  word  or  several  words  without  lifting  the  pen, 
but  it  is  essential  to  have  the  ability  to  write  across  the  page  without 
changing  position.  In  this  age,  when  giant  intellects  are  straining  every 
nerve  to  annihilate  time  and  space,  nothing  less  than  this  winged-like 
movement  will  answer  for  modern  business  penmanship. 

Various  methods  have  been  employed  to  develop  this  much-prized 
muscular  movement.  I  have  no  sympathy  with  the  run-to-seed  movement 
theory.  Like  all  good  things,  this  has  been  abused.  The  greater  part  of 
the  practice  period  should  not  be  spent  on  intricate  and  meaningless 
movement  exercises.  As  a  great  deal  of  time  is  wasted  in  the  practice  of 
the  letters  alone,  so  likewise  in  the  practice  of  useless  movement  exercises. 
I  never  knew  a  student  who  could  not,  after  a  very  short  time,  use  this 
movement  in  words  and  sentences,  provided  wide  spacing  was  used.  Oval 
exercises  are  useful,  but  they  should  not  be  used  exclusively.  The  student 
should  be  taught,  as  far  as  possible,  along  the  line  of  the  work  which  is 
expected  of  him  in  actual  business  life.  Begiii  with  wide  spacing,  and 
the  proper  movement  is  used  immediately;  then  by  degrees  lessen  the 
distance  between  the  letters  until  the  correct  spacing  has  been  reached. 
Connected  letters  form  also  excellent  movement  exercises ;  indeed,  they 
should,  to  a  large  extent,  take  the  place  of  movement  exercises.  But  by 
far  the  greater  part  of  the  time  should  be  devoted  to  the  practice  of  words 
and  sentences. 

Do  not  develop  movement  without  applying  it.  The  ability  to  strike 
off  large  capitals  does  not  imply  the  ability  to  execute  small  writing 
equally  well.  Solid  page-writing,  letter-writing,  etc.,  should  be  the  test 
of  applied  movement,  rather  than  large  fantastic  capitals.  It  is  the 
steady  swing  across  the  paper  which  should  be  the  goal  of  every  teacher 
and  student.  The  ability  to  write  a  neat  page  is  not  the  result  of  prac- 
ticing single  letters,  nor  the  practice  of  many  movement  exercises,  but  it 
is  the  result  of  page-writing.  Most  students  upon  leaving  school  are 
deficient  in  this,  and,  as  their  writing  is  not  judged  by  a  few  words  only, 
but  by  the  letters  they  write,  special  efforts  should  be  made  by  student 
and  teacher  to  overcome  this  weakness. 

Another  essential  to  which  I  wish  to  call  attention  is  the  style  of  writ- 
ing. By  style  of  writing  we  understand  the  slant,  the  form,  the  spacing, 
and  whatever  may  affect  the  appearance  of  writing.  Whenever  our  edu- 
cational publications  give  any  space  to  the  subject  of  penmanship,  it  is 
always  pertaining  to  this  part,  as  if  it  were  the  all-important  part,  whereas 
it  is  subordinate,  and  entirely  dependent  upon  movement  and  form.  The 
style  of  writing  is  determined  by  the  movement  used  in  producing  it. 
The  typical  schoolboy  and  schoolgirl  hand  bears  the  stamp  of  finger 
movement  upon  it,  but  as  soon  as  a  different  movement  is  used  this 


58o  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Business 

juvenile  appearance  will  vanish.  Since  the  proper  movement  to  use  is 
the  forearm  movement,  and  since  the  style  of  writing  is  determined  by 
the  movement,  it  would  be  a  waste  of  time  to  go  into  a  minute  discus- 
sion. To  speak  of  the  merits  of  slant  and  vertical,  simplified,  running- 
hand,  or  any  other  style,  without  treating  it  from  the  standpoint  of  move- 
ment, is  threshing  empty  straw.  I  presume  we  all  agree  that  one  slant 
cannot  be  insisted  upon  for  all.  When  a  student  asks  me  which  I  prefer, 
or  which  he  should  use,  I  give  him  the  limits,  and  then  let  him  select  his 
own  slant.  These  limits  are  45°  and  90°.  Writing  at  an  angle  of  less 
than  45°  is  illegible,  while  above  90°  is  awkward,  slow,  and  unsuitable 
for  business  purposes. 

If  we  teach  the  proper  movement  and  position,  the  slant  will  take  care 
of  itself.  As  I  mentioned  before,  the  one  true  test  of  proper  movement 
is  the  ability  to  slide  the  hand  across  the  paper  a  distance  of  not  less  than 
seven  inches.  This  can  be  done  only  when  the  forearm  is  at  right- 
angles  to  the  line  of  writing.  Experience  proves  that  if  this  position  and 
movement  are  used,  ninety-nine  out  of  one  hundred  persons  will  write  a 
slant  hand' at  angles  varying  from  50°  to  80°,  and  even  90°. 

Vertical  writing  has  done  a  great  deal  to  improve  slant  writing.  We 
see  less  of  the  wild  and  reckless  writing  of  former  years.  Vertical  writ- 
ing, as  taught  and  practiced  by  nine-tenths  of  those  who  use  it,  is  more 
like  drawing  than  writing,  and  that  of  course  is  very  favorable  to  legi- 
bility. This  very  necessary  element  of  writing  has  found  its  way  into 
slant  writing  more  than  ever  before.  Let  us  take  the  best  from  vertical 
writing,  incorporate  it  into  slant,  and  the  results  will  be  a  more  perfect 
handwriting.  There  is  no  possibility  that  vertical  writing  will  crowd  out 
slant  writing.  It  is  praised  by  those  whose  vision  is  bounded  by  one 
essential,  legibility.  They  measure  the  value  of  writing  by  that  one 
standard.  Those  who  make  extravagant' claims  for  it  usually  know  very 
little  of  the  other  side. 

The  ideal  style  of  business  writing  is  that  which  combines  with  legi- 
bility the  greatest  degree  of  rapidity  and  ease.  Rapidity  is  retarded  by 
unnecessary  lines,  and  by  large  and  complicated  letters.  To  overcome 
this,  simplified  writing  has  been  brought  forward.  The  progress  during 
the  next  few  years  in  business  writing  must  be  along  the  line  of  simpli- 
fying the  present  style.  The  enthusiastic  advocate  of  simplified  writing 
sounds  its  praises  in  the  loudest  terms.  But,  as  it  is  written  at  present, 
the  simplified  is  too  simple,  too  brief.  A  beginner  would  not  write  it 
with  any  other  than  the  finger  movement.  The  most  abbreviated  of  the 
simplified  and  the  most  extended  of  the  old-time  slant  represent  two 
extremes  which  must  be  harmonized  to  reach  a  happy  medium. 

The  agency  which  determines  more  than  any  other  the  character  of 
our  writing  is  the  copy  which  is  placed  before  the  pupils  in  public  and 
private  schools.     We  have  copies  written   by  engravers  and  by  penmen. 


Department]     ESSENTIALS  OF  MODERN  BUSINESS  PENMANSHIP  581 

The  former  aim  at  accuracy  and  mechanical  perfection,  the  latter  write 
the  copies  in  conformity  with  the  ability  of  the  students  and  the  business 
requirements  of  modern  times.  Hand-engraved  copies  are,  at  the  best, 
but  stiff,  formal,  uninspiring,  and  frequently  impossible  patterns  to  fol- 
low; while  pen-written  or  photo-engraved  copies  are  inspiring — they  come 
down  to  the  student's  level.  One  of  the  most  hopeless  conditions  in  the 
public  school  is  the  hand-engraved  copy,  not  even  written  for  the 
engraver  by  a  practical  penman,  but  merely  put  together  by  a  mechanic. 
No  country  in  the  world  has  so  many  and  such  skillful  penmen  as  the 
United  States.  Why  is  this  not  recognized  ?  What  class  is  more  com- 
petent to  write  the  copies  and  arrange  the  work  than  the  penmen  them- 
selves ?  The  commercial  teachers,  and  especially  the  penmanship 
teachers,  should  take  more  interest  in  the  writing  done  in  the  public 
school.  With  an  earnest  desire  and  a  united  front  we  ought  to  revolu- 
tionize the  writing  in  the  United  States. 

The  national  characteristics  of  a  people  are,  in  a  large  measure, 
reflected  in  their  handwriting.  These  characteristics  are  indelibly 
engraved  in  their  chirography,  and  can  be  changed  only  when  the  habits, 
customs,  and  occupations  change.  Compare  the  handwriting  of  the 
Europeans  with  that  of  the  Americans,  and  the  difference  will  speak  vol- 
umes to  all  who  can  read.  On  the  one  side  you  have  the  set,  slow, 
cramped  writing  of  the  Europeans ;  on  the  other,  the  easy,  informal,  flow- 
ing, and  apparently  hasty  writing  of  the  American.  Our  writing  here 
betrays  the  unbounded  energy,  industry,  and  restlessness  so  characteristic 
of  the  people.*  Stand,  if  you  will,  on  the  Brooklyn  bridge,  and  watch  the 
restless  crowd  surging  to  and  fro  in  their  endeavor  to  reach  their  destina- 
tion as  quickly  as  possible;  and  you  wonder  no  more  why  our  writing 
is  so  different  from  that  of  other  people.  We  can  no  more  adopt  their 
handwriting  than  we  can  use  their  habits,  customs,  and  modes  of  living. 
Yet  this  is  what  we  are  from  time  to  time  asked  to  do.  We  must  continue 
in  our  own  style.  We  have  nothing  to  learn  in  writing  from  abroad.  To 
preserve  it  as  a  national  handwriting,  and  to  press  the  national  stamp 
deeper  upon  it  we  need  but  to  adhere  to  the  essentials  of  good  writing : 
legibility,  rapidity,  and  a  suitable  style.  We  lead  the  world  in  writing,  as 
we  do  in  commerce,  invention,  and  civilization. 


DEPARTMENT  OF  CHILD  STUDY 


SECRETARY'S  MINUTES 


FIRST  SESSION.  — Wednesday,  July  ii,  1900 

The  department  was  called  to  order  at  3 :  30  P.  M.  in  German  Artillery  Hall,  by 
Vice-President  Thomas  P.  Bailey,  Jr.,  of  Berkeley,  Cal.,  in  the  absence  of  the  president. 

In  the  absence  of  the  secretary  of  the  department,  Mrs.  Ida  M.  Lining  was  chosen 
acting  secretary. 

The  first  address  was  by  Dr.  Thomas  P.  Bailey,  Jr.,  associate  professor  of  education. 
University  of  California,  on  "Some  Difficulties  of  Child  Study." 

Miss  Marion  Brown,  principal  of  the  City  Normal  School,  New  Orleans,  La.,  read  a 
paper  on  "  Is  there  a  Nationality  Problem  in  Our  Schools  ?  " 

The  discussion  of  the  papers  presented  was  deferred  until  the  next  session,  and  the 
department  adjourned. 

SECOND  SESSION.— Thursday,  July  12 

The  session  opened  at  3  :  30  p.  m.,  Vice-President  Bailey  in  the  chair. 

The  minutes  of  the  preceding  meeting  were  read  and  approved. 

Superintendent  T.  B.  Hanby,  of  Georgetown,  S.  C,  presented  a  paper  on  "Some 
Practical  Results  of  Child  Study." 

Superintendent  H.  E.  Kratz,  of  Sioux  City,  la.,  was  under  appointment  to  present  a 
paper  on  "A  Study  in  Musical  Interpretation."  Mr.  Kratz  was  not  present,  but  his 
paper  had  been  sent  to  the  secretary  of  the  department. 

A  motion  prevailed  that  the  Executive  Committee  be  requested  to  include  the  paper 
in  the  published  proceedings. 

A  discussion  of  the  papers  read  then  followed. 

The  following  were  elected  officers  of  the  department  for  the  ensuing  year : 

President  —  Thomas  P.  Bailey,  Berkeley,  Cal. 
Vice-President —  Miss  Marion  Brown,  New  Orleans,  La. 
Secretary  —  Patterson  Wardlaw,  Columbia,  S.  C. 

The  department  adjourned.  j^^  Marshall  Lining, 

Acting  Secretary. 


PAPERS  AND  DISCUSSIONS 


SOME  DIFFICULTIES  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

THOMAS    P.  BAILEY,    ASSOCIATE    PROFESSOR    OF    EDUCATION,  UNIVERSITY    OF 
CALIFORNIA,  BERKELEY,  CAL. 

For  several  years  a  wave  of  child  study  has  been  rolling  over  the 
country.     It  has  stimulated  and  freshened  our  interest  in  the  children ; 

582 


Department]  SOME  DIFFICULTIES  OF  CHILD  STUDY  583 

it  has  left  behind  a  rich  deposit  of  new  ideas,  and  new  practical  methods 
based  upon  them.  Perhaps  the  wave  has  been  a  trifle  too  violent  at 
times,  and  has  taken  some  people  off  their  feet.  Now  that  it  has  settled 
into  a  steady  flow  we  need  to  ask  ourselves  how  we  may  best  make  child 
study  practically  useful. 

Without  a  theoretical  and  practical  knowledge  of  his  patient's  charac- 
ter a  physician  cannot  hope  to  help  a  man  to  health.  Without  a  sound 
and  intimate  knowledge  of  the  child's  character,  in  all  its  manifoldness 
and  unity,  the  teacher  cannot  intelligently  aid  his  young  friend  to  retain 
his  childlikeness,  to  put  away  childish  things,  to  have  and  to  hold  his 
heritage  as  son  of  man,  to  work  for  his  living  and  live  for  his  work. 

The  one  thing  needful  in  character  study  is  the  habit  of  continued 
and  continuous  observation.  There  can  be  but  few  scientific  investigators 
of  human  nature  or  artistic  painters  of  character,  but  there  may  be,  and 
must  be,  many  close  and  careful  observers  of  things  human  and  childlike. 
To  study  the  child  as  if  he  were  a  distinct  species  is  to  lose  the  advan- 
tages of  the  comparative  method  and  to  deprive  ourselves  of  the  growth 
in  grace  that  comes  to  us  from  sympathetic  intuition  born  of  our  love 
for  the  children.  Better  is  it  to  know  nothing  of  the  plant's  structure 
and  functions,  but  to  love  its  beauty  thru  a  heart-knowledge  thereof, 
than  to  lose  the  love  in  order  to  gain  the  knowledge.  Better  still  that 
love  and  knowledge  should  kiss  each  other.  The  habit  of  observation 
combines  insight  and  intuition.  It  may  become  a  pleasure;  it  must  be 
a  duty.  A  little  observation  every  day  is  vastly  better  than  a  great  heap 
of  notes  once  a  week.  Life  is  not  life  if  not  continuous,  and  child  study 
must  be  a  life-process.  "  Keep  at  it,"  is  the  first  canon  of  character 
study.  Study  yourself;  study  other  grown-ups;  study  character  thru 
literature  and  history;  study  the  children  at  home,  at  school,  everywhere; 
but  keep  at  it !  Observe  and  compare,  and  let  time  gradually  broaden 
and  deepen  your  knowledge  thru  love.  To  study  a  man  or  child  is  not 
to  stare.  There  must  be  no  impertinence,  not  even  with  oneself.  Let 
us  study  those  most  that  we  love  best ;  let  us  love  those  best  that  we 
study  most.  The  best  observers  are'not  the  starers-at,  but  the  storers-up. 
The  inner  character  is  seen  with  the  inner  eye.  The  outer  eye  is  often 
surpassed  by  the  eye  of  the  camera. 

The  best  test  of  the  value  of  our  child  study  is  in  its  practical  appli- 
cation. Do  we  know  people  better  ?  Then  we  should  be  able  to  deal 
with  them  more  tactfully.  Mere  observation  becomes  tedious.  The  best 
practical  result  is  the  ability  to  see  and  feel  more  delicately  and  truly 
without  looking,  without  consciously  trying  to  observe.  Only  "  Keep  at 
it !"  will  secure  this  result. 

The  "three-minute  toothache  cure"  sort  of  thing  is  not  for  character 
study.  As  in  prayer  you  strive  to  have  yourself  changed,  not  God,  so  in 
child  study  the  growth  of  grace  is  in  you,  not  in  psychological  laws. 


5 84  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Child  Study 

There  is  time  for  only  a  brief  mention  of  some  of  the  difficulties  of 
character  study.  The  chief  trouble  is  lack  of  patience  and  continuity. 
Then  there  are  the  dangers  of  haste  and  delay.  When  we  are  in  a  hurry 
we  mutilate  facts,  we  make  crude,  unconscious  generalizations,  we  distort 
perspective  by  noting  that  which  is  striking  and  failing  to  record  explana- 
tory circumstances  and  modifying  facts.  When  we  delay,  memory  plays 
us  false.  The  sharp  edge  of  the  facts  is  blunted.  Sleep  over  a  purpose, 
but  not  over  a  fact  to  be  recorded.  The  better  educated  you  are,  the 
greater  danger  that  your  "mechanical  memory"  may  play  you  false. 
The  worst  witnesses  are  the  philosophers  and  the  feeble-minded.  It  were 
well  for  some  people  did  they  shorten  their  prayers,  lengthen  their 
patience  and  perseverance,  sharpen  their  wits  and  their  pencils. 

Many  observers  jump  at  conclusions  before  they  can  walk  up  to  plain 
facts.  Don't  suppress  your  conclusions,  but  put  them  in  brackets  where 
they  can't  do  any  harm.  Use  question-marks  frequently  where  you  are 
not  exactly  sure  of  your  notes.  The  most  usual  fault  of  child-study  notes 
is  lack  of  detail.  Yet  character  shows  itself  ordinarily  in  small  things. 
The  great  acts  of  life  are  nodal  points  or  joints,  the  little  things  come 
between  the  points.  We  prize  Boswell's  Life  of  Johnston  because  of  its 
minute  details.  Note  the  commonplace;  the  extraordinary  will  note 
itself.  Habits,  instincts,  trends,  attitudes,  dispositions,  temperaments  — 
these  are  the  important  things  of  character.  And  we  find  them  in  the 
"light  of  common  day."  Let  us  remember  that  nothing  is  commonplace. 
The  child-study  vision  is  that  of  the  sheet  let  down.  ^ 

Another  difficulty  in  child  study  is  the  lack  of  wide  culture  in  the 
observer.  With  every  increase  of  culture  and  insight  comes  a  quicken- 
ing of  our  interest  in  the  eternal  humanly.  Mere  drudges,  pedagogical 
or  domestic,  are  apt  to  take  up  child  study  as  a  passing  fad  or  fancy. 
The  educated  man  or  woman  realizes  that  each  human  character  is  a 
microcosm,  the  highest  and  most  inclusive  product  of  evolution,  the 
grandest  and  most  dreadful  revelation  of  the  spirit  of  God. 

Last  of  the  difficulties  we  shall  consider  here  is  the  mania  for 
publication.  We  often  forget  that  the  things  of  character  are  the 
most  complex  and  difficult  that  science  can  study.  If  we  study  the 
children  quietly  and  reverently,  we  shall  do  better  for  them,  and  be 
better  for  our  study.  Shall  we  not  guard  the  child-heart  from  the  public 
gaze  ?  The  time  will  come  when  comparative  study,  guided  by  the  foun- 
dation principles  of  a  science  of  character,  will  render  soul  vivisection 
unnecessary.  Sentimentality  and  cold  irreverence  are  alike  the  enemies 
of  truth. 

Above  all,  let  us  not  lose  faith  in  this  quiet,  reverent  study  of  char- 
acter. It  must  be  right  to  know  better  what  man  is,  and  what  is  in  man. 
It  must  be  right  to  know  the  children  better,  that  we  may  love  them  and 
help  them  more. 


Department]         THE  NATIONALITY  PROBLEM  IN  OUR  SCHOOLS  585 

IS  THERE  A  NATIONALITY  PROBLEM  IN  OUR  SCHOOLS? 

MISS    MARION    BROWN,   PRINCIPAL    OF    CITY    NORMAL    SCHOOL, 
NEW    ORLEANS,    LA, 

The  history  of  a  man's  childhood  is  the  history  of  his  parents  and  environment. — 
Carlyle. 

For  the  thousands  of  children  of  foreign  parentage  that  now  consti- 
tute so  large  a  portion  of  our  population  the  strange  environment  is  so 
at  variance  with  previous  experience  and  traditions  that  their  parents  are 
no  longer  to'  be  depended  upon  for  safe  guidance ;  hence  our  American 
schools  must  prepare  these  children  for  the  new  conditions. 

A  glance  at  our  population  shows  that  every  nation  under  the  sun  has 
sent  representatives  in  numbers  proportionate  to  its  distance  from  our 
shores.  In  some  sections  we  find  colonies  have  made  their  home  with 
the  avowed  object  of  continuing  uninterrupted  their  national  customs  or 
religious  practices  in  this  land  whose  law  protects  all  who  do  not  break 
their  neighbors'  heads  or  too  frequently  decimate  their  hen-roosts. 

Every  town  has  its  German,  its  Italian,  or  its  Irish  colony.  In  the 
West  there  are  Scandinavian  villages ;  in  the  Southwest,  perfect  reproduc- 
tions of  old  Spain. 

The  census  of  1890  reports  32  per  cent,  of  our  entire  population  of 
foreign  parentage.  The  native-born  white  population  of  native  parents 
has  diminished  in  percentage,  swamped  by  the  foreign-born  influx.  From 
1 82 1  to  1890  nearly  15,500,000  of  foreign  emigrants  entered  this  country. 
From  1 88 1  to  1890  about  one-third  of  these  millions  entered  our  gates. 
The  effect  on  social  conditions  and  the  trend  of  our  national  life  is  as  yet 
discernible  on  only  a  few  lines. 

The  vote-necessity  of  the  politician  has  made  the  "foreign  vote"  a 
factor  in  practical  politics.  The  voter  whose  vote  has  been  so  openly  bid 
for  on  no  other  plea  than  that  of  former  citizenship  in  a  foreign  land 
must  have  some  acknowledgment  of  his  un-American  vote,  so  he  makes  a 
return  demand  in  the  name  of  his  foreign  nationality,  usually  on  the 
schools ;  for  there  it  is  only  children  who  are  affected ;  so  in  one  section 
German,  in  another  French  perhaps,  must  be  taught  thru  the  grades, 
nominally  for  culture  or  utilitarian  value,  in  reality  for  political  recognition. 

As  long  as  there  is  unused  territory  or  demand  for  cheap  labor,  the 
children  of  these  people  with  a  different  political  creed  and  national 
ideal  will  constitute  a  large  part  of  our  public-school  attendance. 

The  census  of  1890  shows  an  enormous  proportion  of  children  of 
foreign  parentage,  as  compared  with  the  number  of  foreign-born  adults. 
The  last  report  of  the  United  States  Commissioner  of  Education  states 
that,  out  of  our  population  of  nearly  73,000,000,  21,500,000  are  of  school 
age,  of  whom  over  15,000,000  are  enrolled  in  schools  and  88  per  cent, 
enrolled  in  the  public  schools. 


586  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Child Study 

In  each  nation  certain  strongly  marked  characteristics,  spiritualized 
and  intensified,  seem  to  constitute  the  national  ideal,  typified  in  the 
national  heroes.  Is  there  an  American  type  ?  It  seems  to  me  that,  if  we 
have  an  ideal,  it  is  the  Anglo-Saxon ;  the  Teutonic  elements,  strong, 
masterful,  land-hungry,  self-controlled,  imbued  with  a  spirit  of  independ- 
ence for  all ;  the  modicum  of  Celtic  strain  giving  a  fire  and  dash  that  a 
strenuous  pioneer  life  has  developed  into  push  and  hustle.  In  the  adult — 
the  law-making,  law-abiding  citizen,  always  ready  to  "pull  up  stakes"  for 
a  better  cause,  determined  that  he  and  his  neighbor  shall  be  mentally 
and  morally  free  agents,  unceasingly  energetic  and  progressive  till  nervous 
prostration  lays  him  low.  The  children  —  keen-eyed,  restless,  precocious, 
affectionate,  even  in  play  more  or  less  self-controlled,  ardent  admirers  of 
the  "success  that  succeeds,"  touchingly  eager  to  leap  into  the  arena  of 
life  to  become  "young  Napoleons  of  finance,"  youthful  Edisons,  or 
George  Washingtons. 

Today  the  American  of  pure  Anglo-Saxon  descent  is  rare,  probably 
most  numerous  in  the  interior  of  the  region  bounded  by  Mason* and 
Dixon's  line,  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  the  Mississippi  river.  Elsewhere 
"  Dutch  and  Danish,  French  and  Spanish,  mingle  and  vanish,  in  one  grand 
conglomeration,"  and  of  this  conglomeration  are  most  of  our  children. 
In  certain  districts  a  predominating  nationality  other  than  English  gives 
a  marked  tone  to  the  locality,  as  in  the  old  Spanish,  Dutch,  or  French 
settlements,  or  the  newer  western  towns  where  the  Teutonic  element  pre- 
dominates. Country  populations  are  more  homogeneous  than  those  of 
the  towns,  particularly  the  manufacturing  centers.  What  the  larger  cities 
—  New  York,  Chicago,  New  Orleans  —  present,  the  smaller  places  show  in 
miniature,  a  mixture  socially  and  ethnologically.  In  Boston,  out  of  1,230 
boys  in  the  Eliot  School,  602  were  born  in  Europe;  the  parents  of  1,117 
were  born  in  Europe;  only  16  could  find  that  one  of  their  four  grand- 
parents was  born  in  America.  In  the  Hancock  School,  of  2,542  girls 
over  40  per  cent,  were  born  in  foreign  countries,  and  over  38  per  cent, 
could  not  speak  English  when  they  began  school ;  the  fathers  of  only  98 
were  born  in  America.  Every  nation  of  Europe  was  represented,  includ- 
ing the  Turk.  One  school  in  New  York  city  reports  98  per  cent,  of  its 
pupils  unable  to  speak  English  on  entering.  Some  years  ago  an  emi- 
grant ship  unloaded  1,100  Italians  at  a  New  Orleans  wharf;  a  few  days 
later  250  children  from  this  influx,  unable  to  speak  a  word  of  English, 
were  admitted  into  the  nearest  public  school. 

Where  there  is  a  predominating  natiohality,  the  problems  of  discipline 
and  teaching  are  comparatively  easy;  with  several  nationalities  represented 
perplexities  are  unending,  and  where  the  nationality  mixture  in  the  indi- 
vidual is  considerable,  the  troubles  are  hydra-headed  and  Protean.  "The 
boy  eternal "  is,  in  certain  aspects,  the  same  kind  of  a  problem  the  world 
over,  but  when  international  complications  arise  in  his  individuality,  a 


Department]         THE  NATIONALITY  PROBLEM  IN  OUR  SCHOOLS  587 

French  grandmother,  or  Spanish  grandfather,  or  a  still  more  remote 
English  ancestor,  or  a  German  forefather,  or  a  canny  Scot  may  speak,  in 
season  or  out  of  season,  and  not  always  with  the  tongue  of  angels. 

A  schoolroom  where  the  Latin  race  predominates  is  always  noisier, 
and  more  pervaded  by  a  certain  indefinable  excitability,  more  subject  to 
unexpected  outbursts  of  feeling,  than  one  where  the  more  phlegmatic 
Teutonic  element  prevails.  Whether  it  be  heredity  or  the  home  influence 
of  parents  inheriting  the  effects  of  centuries  of  monarchical  rule,  there  is 
less  inherent  capacity  for  self-restraint,  greater  difficulty  in  successful 
appeal  to  a  desire  for  self-government — freedom  always  means  license. 
With  these  children  an  autocrat,  strong  and  unshakable  in  authority,  is 
the  most  successful  disciplinarian ;  when  there  is  added  power  to  lead 
to  knowledge  thru  pleasant  pathways,  there  is  created  an  unbounded 
adoration  that  means  blind  obedience  —  the  spirit  that  made  an  Auster- 
litz,  but  not  the  spirit  that  made  a  Manila  Bay.  Even  here  there  are 
definite  national  differences.  The  Spanish  child  evinces  a  strong  dislike 
to  exertion  in  any  form,  combined  with  frequent  unreasoning  obstinacy 
and  pride.  With  the  taste  and  talent  for  expression  for  which  the  French 
nation  is  justly  celebrated  there  is  a  quick  wit,  combined  with  a  curious 
lack  in  power  of  sustained  effort,  the  Romance  type  being  more  strongly 
marked  when  the  descent  is  traceable  to  the  south  of  France.  When 
mixed  with  the  firmer  English,  or  its  kindred  Celt,  the  Irish,  we  have  a 
pupil  that  is  the  delight  of  the  teacher's  heart  and  dire  destruction  to 
"perfect  order." 

Among  the  Italian  children  are  found  two  distinct  classes  :  the  chil- 
dren of  tradesmen  and  artisans,  a  thrifty,  law-abiding,  and  ambitious  class; 
and  the  children  of  the  slaves  of  the  padrone.  Of  the  latter  class  our 
schools  get  very  few,  save  where  there  is  a  well-enforced  compulsory  law. 
Ardent  lovers  of  beauty,  excellent  in  form,  quick  to  learn  a  new  tongue, 
keen  at  a  bargain,  loving  music  and  rhythm,  passionate,  revengeful,  proud 
to  shine,  easily  antagonized,  but  needing  to  feel  a  strong  hand  at  the 
helm. 

The  Irish  child  —  warm-hearted,  a  hard  fighter,  a  good  hater,  poetic, 
witty,  beguiling  of  tongue,  unsystematic  in  work,  mischievous  beyond  cal- 
culation, but  once  roused  to  effort  a  delight  to  the  teacher ;  when  balanced 
with  the  steadier  Anglo-Saxon,  the  best  material  in  our  schools ;  mixed 
with  the  German,  frequently  showing  a  difficult  combination  of  unex- 
pected fire  and  unreasoning  stubbornness ;  when  mixed  with  the  French, 
the  Celt  is  the  balance-wheel,  a  capable  and  interesting  type ;  combined 
with  Italian  or  Spanish,  the  traits  seldom  show  the  good  points  of  either 
type. 

The  various  branches  of  the  Teutonic  stock  show  a  marked  similarity  — 
steady,  quiet,  slow  to  grasp,  but  tenaciously  retentive ;  tardy  in  develop- 
ing, but  "the  old  reliable"  when  hard  work  is  on  hand;  a  fine  illustration 


588  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Child  Study 

of  the  hare  and  the  tortoise,  well  controlled  at  home ;  and  capable  of 
great  self-restraint;  when  mixed  with  the  kindred  English,  our  steadiest 
and  most  hopeful  material. 

Whether  due  to  heredity  or  environment,  the  fact  yet  remains  that  we 
may  as  well  make  up  our  minds  that  certain  traditions  will  have  to  go 
when  we  deal  with  children  of  foreign  descent.  The  time-honored  rule 
to  close  a  sentence  with  the  downward  inflection  receives  a  death-blow  in 
the  clearly  pronounced  sentences  of  a  child  of  French  extraction ;  to  the 
end  of  the  chapter  there  is  always  a  more  or  less  pronounced  rising 
inflection.  Most  Italian  children  seem  to  read  with  a  sing-song  —  an 
indication  of  the  rhythm  that  is  their  birthright ;  it  is  said  that  the  Ameri- 
can has  little  or  no  rhythm  in  his  soul.  Thru  de,  de,  ze,  ze,  za,  te,  te, 
der  the  nationality  of  the  struggling  reader  is  betrayed  thru  the  grades  till 
the  exists  in  the  reader  and  is  a  factor  in  schoolroom  utterances,  tho  play 
and  out-of-school  distractions  weaken  its  force.  Principals  may  admon- 
ish, supervisors  may  report,  teachers  may  worry,  but  from  kindergarten  to 
college  the  scars  remain. 

At  home  these  children  hear  a  foreign  tongue.  Untaught  therein, 
they  know  it  only  colloquially,  soon  come  to  despise  it  as  a  useless  lingo, 
and,  unless  the  parental  wrath  is  heavy-handed,  at  ten  or  twelve  refuse  to 
speak  anything  but  English  —  that  "goes"  everywhere.  In  dealing  with 
these  children  we  find  that  the  parent  who  can  speak  American,  but  is 
unable  to  write  in  any  but  the  native  tongue,  is,  in  the  estima- 
tion of  the  children,  many  degrees  above  the  parent  who  speaks  only 
the  native  tongue,  but  considerably  below  one  who  is  master  of  both 
arts.  Some  time  ago  a  little  Italian  whose  mother  spoke  no  English 
referred  to  her  as  a  Dago.  Had  a  schoolmate  used  the  same  term  to 
him,  war  would  have  been  instantly  declared.  This  knowledge  on  the 
part  of  these  children  of  foreign  extraction  has  brought  about  a  feeling 
that  the  foreign  parent  is  not  as  capable  of  dealing  with  American  condi- 
tions as  his  children,  so  parental  authority  has  become  seriously  weakened, 
and  a  generation  of  young  foreign  "toughs"  is  growing  up. 

The  children  of  foreign  extraction  come  from  three  classes  of  parents  : 
First,  those  who  were  fairly  well  placed  in  their  own  land,  but  have  emi- 
grated only  to  remain  long  enough  to  accumulate  a  competence.  While 
here  they  conform  to  our  laws  and  customs  in  so  far  as  they  consider 
advisable,  but  always  with  a  reservation  in  favor  of  the  fatherland  ;  the 
mother-tongue  is  the  speech  in  the  home,  the  children  grow  up  with  a 
divided  allegiance  and  a  more  or  less  defective  English.  A  second  class 
have  left  a  land  where  their  fortunes,  social  or  political,  were  at  lowest 
ebb.  They  must  perforce  make  America  their  home  ;  their  children  have 
brighter  prospects  in  the  new  land,  for  which  the  parents  intend  they 
shall  be  prepared  to  the  best  of  the  child's  ability.  A  third  class  are  the 
flotsam  and  jetsam  of  society  which  a  paternal  government  has  unloaded 


Department]        TH£  NATIONALITY  PROBLEM  IN  OXlR  SCHOOLS  589 

on  an  unsuspecting  friend.  The  product  of  generations  of  poor  living, 
of  hopeless  penury,  they  have  been  assisted  to  relieve  a  teeming  land  of 
their  burdensome  presence.  Mostly  unskilled  laborers,  possessing  little 
energy  physical  or  mental,  usually  hovering  just  above  or  falling  back 
into  the  tramp  or  petty  criminal  class,  their  children  frequently  defective 
physically  and  morally,  they  and  their  children  are  the  greatest  problems 
we  have.  The  descendants  of  each  class  have  not  infrequently  married 
with  another  nationality,  and  the  mixed  descent  complicates  the  prob- 
lem. The  second  generation  is  American-born,  but,  from  the  influence 
of  the  home,  not  yet  thoroly  United  States  in  sentiment.  Time  alone 
can  tell  what  the  third  generation  will  be.  If  it  takes  three  generations 
to  make  a  gentleman,  it  certainly  will  take  three  generations  to  make  an 
American  citizen  —  I  have  not  said  eWifr/ that  usually  takes  three  years 
and  an  accommodating  magistrate. 

I  propound  no  new  proposition ;  the  facts  herein  stated  are  well 
known  to  this  audience ;  my  purpose  is  to  call  attention  to  a  phase  of 
child  study  which  my  own  experience  has  led  me  to  believe  is  the  master- 
key  to  the  labyrinth  of  many  a  little  soul. 

Growing  up  in  probably  the  most  cosmopolitan  city  in  this  country, 
educated  in  public  schools  where  almost  every  European  nationality  had 
at  some  time  its  representatives,  the  first  years  of  my  teaching  in  a  dis- 
trict thoroly  foreign  in  speech  and  custom,  the  study  of  those  varied 
nationalities  and  their  mixtures  became  a  necessity  and  an  interesting 
investigation ;  later  in  the  high  school  the  same  elements,  and  conse- 
quently similar  problems,  presented  themselves.  Now  these  young  people 
have  come  into  the  training  school,  and  again  the  problem  crops  up 
what  to  do  to  make  them  capable  in  their  turn  of  handling  this  ever- 
growing puzzle. 

As  a  people  we  have  solved  so  many  problems  that  we  consider  our- 
selves perfectly  capable  of  settling  anything  under  the  sun ;  and,  not 
satisfied  with  the  economic  and  political  questions  thrust  upon  us  by  the 
strangers  within  our  gates,  we  have  taken  unto  ourselves  several  millions 
of  new  riddles.  Today  the  Normal  Department  is  discussing  the  training 
of  teachers  for  the  schools  of  Cuba  and  Porto  Rico ;  that  means,  added 
to  the  usual  child  study,  the  study  of  a  curiously  mixed  people — the  pure 
Spanish  type,  the  Spanish  mixed  with  Indian,  with  pure  negro,  and  with 
every  tinge  and  grade  between  ;  the  Caucasian  enervated  by  centuries  of 
tropical  climate  and  social  dominance,  having  as  its  national  proverb : 
"God  first,  diversion  next,  and  work  for  donkeys." 

With  the  opening  of  this  twentieth  century  the  American  eagle  extends 
its  wings  over  as  great  an  extent  of  territory  as  its  Roman  prototype.  The 
Roman  empire  was  a  collection  of  national  units  held  together  by  a  strong 
centralized  power;  while  claiming  the  privileges  of  ^' Romanus  sum,'"  the 
individual  retained  his  language  and  national  life  untouched  by  the  political 


590  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Child Study 

rule  of  the  seven-hilled  city.  With  us  the  aggregation  of  nationali- 
ties is  in  the  community,  in  the  individual,  making  temperament,  that 
combination  of  spiritual  and  mental  qualities — character.  In  youth,  and 
often  thruout  life,  the  individual  is  a  ferment  of  conflicting  tendencies, 
the  possibilities  for  good  or  evil  intensified  or  counteracted  by  the 
ancestral  heritage.  As  Rome  brought  order,  peace,  and  personal  freedom 
to  the  various  nationalities  in  her  borders,  so  today  must  the  teacher 
endeavor  for  each  of  the  ethical  microcosms  that  we  call  American  chil- 
dren ;  bring  them  to  the  Anglo-Saxon  standard,  train  them  to  self- 
control  that  means  freedom,  the  love  of  country  that  foreshadows  the 
brotherhood  of  man,  the  developing  personality  that  can  take  only  justice 
and  right  as  it  standard,  a  consummation  possible  only  thru  knowledge  of 
the  mazes  of  inherited  tendencies,  by  sympathy  with  the  soul  struggling 
in  shackles  of  ancestral  bondage.  And,  if  the  teacher  be  the  inheritor  of 
the  nations  of  the  earth — what  then  ? 


A  STUDY  IN  MUSICAL  INTERPRETATION 

H.  E.  KRATZ,  SUPERINTENDENT    OF    SCHOOLS,  SIOUX  CITY,  lA. 

[an  abstract] 

The  chief  purpose  of  this  paper  is  to  present  a  simple  investigation, 
made  in  one  of  our  high-school  classes  in  English,  in  regard  to  the  sen- 
sations or  emotions  aroused  by  music,  and  to  point  out  its  advantages  as 
an  exercise  in  English. 

It  was  hoped  that  such  an  investigation  would  tend  to  lead  the  stu- 
dents into  a  deeper  appreciation  of  that  which  is  best  in  music,  to  culti- 
vate in  them  a  love  for  the  beautiful,  to  enrich  their  emotional  life,  to 
develop  the  habit  of  introspection,  and  thus  reveal  to  themselves  their 
inner  life,  and  in  consequence  help  to  mold  and  shape  right  character. 

The  students  were  instructed  to  listen  to  the  playing  of  three  selec- 
tions on  the  piano,  the  titles  of  which  were  not  given  them,  make  notes  of 
each  selection  as  to  what  they  would  regard  an  appropriate  title,  its  gen- 
eral character,  what  it  suggested,  and  what  feelings  or  emotions  it  aroused. 
Later  they  were  to  write  out,  as  an  English  exercise,  their  impressions. 

The  selections  played  were  "The  Alpine  Storm,"  by  Kunkel ;  "jCradle 
Song,"  by  Heller;  and  "The  Harlequin,"  by  Chaminade.  These,  as  the 
titles  indicate,  are  widely  different  in  character  and  present  striking  con- 
trasts. The  mad  pranks  of  "  The  Harlequin  "  were  most  clearly  set  forth, 
as  sixty  out  of  seventy-one  correctly  interpreted  it.  The  "  Cradle  Song  " 
was  most  difficult  to  interpret,  because  the  ideas  the  author  intended  to 
convey  were  not  so  well  marked.  To  meditate,  to  muse,  to  be  soothed, 
to  hear  a  lullaby,  is  to  open  the  heart  to  many  varying  emotions. 


Department]  STUDY  IN  MUSICAL  INTERPRETATION  59 1 

The  papers  disclosed  generally  that  the  girls  possessed  natural  views 
on  musical  matters,  understood  their  inner  selves  better,  discriminated 
more  closely  in  their  attempts  to  portray  their  feelings,  than  the  boys. 

They  were  also  asked  to  describe  their  sensations  when  listening  to 
music.  Their  replies  indicate  that  a  very  wide  range  of  feelings,  sensa- 
tions, and  emotions  were  aroused.  Some  wanted  to  dance,  while  others 
felt  nervous.  Some  felt  their  muscles  twitching,  while  others  were  in  a 
happy  mood.  Some  were  thrilled  by  patriotic  music  and  were  eager  to 
do  some  great  deed,  while  others  wanted  to  run  a  race,  etc. 

Forty-one  stated  that  they  found  it  difficult  to  express  their  impres- 
sions aroused  by  the  music.  While  the  emotions  are  expressed  with 
difficulty,  and  we  often  say  they  are  top  deep  for  words,  yet,  if  we  more 
frequently  came  face  to  face  with  our  inner  self,  if  we  cultivated  a  closer 
acquaintance  with  these  emotions,  vague  longings,  unconscious  yearnings 
of  our  souls,  we  should  be  better  able  to  clothe  our  emotions  with  words, 
and  also  accomplish  that  which  is  of  much  greater  value  —  shape  our  own 
characters  more  intelligently. 


DEPARTMENT  OF  SCIENCE  INSTRUCTION 


SECRETARY'S  MINUTES 


FIRST  SESSION.— Thursday,  July  12,1900 

The  department  was  called  to  order  at  3  :  30  p.  m.  in  the  College  of  Charleston  by 
Acting  President  C.  B.  Wilson. 

On  motion,  N.  A.  Harvey  was  elected  secretary  pro  tempore. 

On  motion,  a  Committee  on  Nominations  was  appointed  as  follows  : 

Eugpne  W.  Lyttle,  of  New  York.  L.  Dwight  Arms,  of  New  York. 

William  C.  A.  Hammel,  of  Maryland. 

The  following  program  was  rendered  : 

President's  address,  "  How  can  Advanced  Science  in  the  College  and  University  and 
Nature  Study  in  the  Graded  Schools  be  Rendered  More  Mutually  Helpful  ?"  by  President 
C.  B.  Wilson,  of  Westfield,  Mass. 

"Nature  Study  for  the  Graded  Schools,"  by  Miss  Katherine  Dolbear,  high  school, 
Holyoke,  Mass. 

After  discussion  the  department  adjourned. 

SECOND  SESSION.— Friday,  July  13 

Meeting  called  to  order  by  Mr.  Charles  Newell  Cobb,  of  Albany,  N.  Y.  The  Com- 
mittee on  Nominations  presented  the  following  report : 

For  President — N.  A.  Harvey,  West  Superior,  Wis. 

For  Vice-President  —  Charles  B.  Wilson,  Westfield,  Mass. 

For  Secretary — Charles  Newell  Cobb,  Albany,  N.  Y. 

The  report  was  adopted  and  the  secretary  instructed  to  cast  the  ballot  of  the  section 
for  the  persons  nominated. 

Resolutions  were  adopted  extending  the  thanks  of  the  department  to  the  College  of 
Charleston  for  the  use  of  its  building ;  to  the  local  committee  for  its  very  efificient 
arrangements  for  the  meeting ;  and  to  the  local  press  for  its  very  full  reports  of  the  pro- 
ceedings of  the  section. 

The  section  adjourned.  j^_  ^    Harvey 

Acting  Secretary. 


PAPERS  AND  DISCUSSIONS 


HOW  CAN  ADVANCED  SCIENCE  IN  THE  COLLEGE  AND 
UNIVERSITY  AND  NA  TURE  WORK  IN  THE  GRADED 
SCHOOLS  BE  RENDERED  MORE  MUTUALL  Y  HELPFUL  ? 

CHARLES    B.   WILSON,  STATE    NORMAL    SCHOOL,  WESTFIELD,  MASS. 

The  question  for  our  consideration  this   afternoon  evidently  implies 
that  the  existing  relations  between  advanced  science  and  nature  work  are 

592 


Department]  RELATION  OF  ADVANCED  SCIENCE  TO  NATURE  WORK      593 

not  quite  what  they  should  be,  that  they  are  capable  of  being  improved, 
and  that  such  improvement  ought  to  be  forthcoming.  Before  we  can 
intelligently  discuss  any  method  of  improvement,  however,  we  must  first 
decide  wherein  the  present  relations  are  at  fault,  and  what  are  some  of 
the  chief  causes  which  have  brought  about  this  family  discord. 

The  present  paper  will  be  confined  to  these  preliminary  questions, 
leaving  to  those  who  follow  the  discussion  of  means  and  methods. 

First,  then,  is  there  any  real  lack  of  harmony  between  these  two  kin- 
dred divisions  of  science  teaching  ?  I  answer  without  hesitation.  Yes ;  and 
the  differences  are  greater  than  is  commonly  supposed— ; so  great,  in  fact, 
that  they  are  a  serious  obstacle  to  any  true  progress.  Ask  the  college  pro- 
fessor what  he  thinks  of  the  nature  work  in  our  graded  schools,  and  altho 
his  inbred  courtesy  may  restrain  the  sneer  or  the  smile,  yet  his  love  for 
the  truth  will  compel  him  to  reply,  as  many  of  them  do,  that  he  would 
prefer  to  have  his  students  receive  no  training  at  all  rather  than  the  one 
which  they  get  in  the  graded  schools. 

He  feels  somehow  that  this  nature  work  is  mere  child's  play,  and  he 
considers  it  worse  than  useless,  because  it  inculcates  into  the  child's  mind 
wrong  principles,  unscientific  methods,  and  inaccurate  data  at  the  very 
period  when  that  mind  is  most  plastic  and  most  receptive  for  such  things. 
And  when  error  has  once  gained  possession  of  the  field,  especially  if  it  be 
backed  by  some  published  authority,  and  is  easier  to  understand  or 
pleasanter  to  believe  than  the  scientific  truth,  it  is  sure  to  persist  long 
after  it  has  been  thoroly  disproven. 

The  college  professor  is  not  altogether  wrong  in  this  position  which 
he  has  taken,  for  I  can  testify  out  of  my  own  personal  experience,  both  in 
college  and,  since  then,  in  an  institution  which  requires  for  admission 
practically  the  same  grade  of  work  as  the  college,  that  many  of  the  pupils 
seem  to  retain  of  their  preparatory  work  in  science  only  a  loose  and  inac- 
curate method  of  working  and  a  meager  stock  of  facts,  unscientifically 
arranged,  many  of  which  were  long  ago  proven  to  be  false.  It  is  the 
same  old  story :  error  remains  long  after  the  truth  has  been  forgotten. 
Let  me  give  you  one  or  two  up-to-date  illustrations  selected  at  random 
from  our  entrance  examinations  held  a  fortnight  ago.  In  physiology  the 
candidate  was  required  to  — 

Write  upon  any  one  of  the  following  topics,  in  accordance  with  a  plan  of  your  own, 
carefully  selecting  four  or  five  points  for  treatment  before  you  begin  to  write. 

The  topic  selected  was  the  brain,  and  the  following  is  the  verbatim 
treatment  of  it  by  a  high-school  graduate  from  a  large  Massachusetts  city  : 

The  cranium  extends  from  the  upper  part  of  the  eye  to  the  back  of  the  neck.  Situ- 
ated in  the  cranium  is  the  brain.  Brain  is  of  the  greatest  help  to  mankind.  A  person 
possesses  a  good  brain  when  he  can  remember  events  readily.  The  hair  serves  as  a  pro- 
tection to  the  brain.  It  is  pretty  well  developed  in  adults,  while  in  infants  it  is  not,  so  the 
throbbing  of  the  brain  is  distinctly  heard.     One  of  the  greatest  mistakes  one  makes  is  to 


594  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Science 

overcrowd  or  tax  the  brain.     There  is  a  certain  limit  to  everything,  and  when  one  finds 
that  he  is  overtaxing  the  brain  he  should  cease  and  thus  prevent  what  might  be  serious. 

Well,  she  "ceased"  at  that  point,  and,  whatever  else  may  be  said,  she 
certainly  followed  the  instructions  to  the  letter  and  was  entirely  original 
in  her  treatment. 

Again,  in  physics  the  questions  were  asked  :  "  In  what  important  respect 
does  the  behavior  of  water  in  passing  from  the  liquid  to  the  solid  state 
differ  from  that  of  most  substances?"  and:  "What  important  practical 
results  follow  from  the  fact  that  water  behaves  as  it  does  ?" 

In  answer  tb  the  first  of  these  questions  another  graduate  of  a  city 
high  school  writes:  "Water  in  passing  from  a  liquid  to  a  solid  state 
changes  its  form  and  keeps  the  same  color,  and  can  be  melted  back  again 
to  its  original  form." 

She  neglects  to  state,  however,  in  which  of  these  respects  it  is  peculiar. 
In  answer  to  the  second  question  the  same  girl  writes  :  "Water  behaving 
in  this  manner  is  of  great  importance.  It  can  be  melted  easily  when 
needed." 

As  a  second  important  practical  result  another  girl  adds :  "  When  a 
body  of  water  freezes  in  an  inclosed  vessel  it  bursts  the  vessel  when  it 
thaws."  A  third  states  that  "  Water^ expands  and  contracts  evenly.  Other- 
wise it  could  not  be  used  in  steam-cars,  or  in  the  ventilating  of  houses 
and  rooms." 

In  physical  geography  one  of  the  optional  topics  was  :  "  The  atmos- 
phere, its  variations  in  weight  and  in  watery  vapor,  and  what  causes  them  ; 
some  of  its  regular  or  uniform  movements." 

This  is  one  of  the  answers  received : 

Atmosphere  weighs  fifteen  pounds  to  the  square  inch.  The  weight  varies;  it  is 
sometimes  high  and  sometimes  low.  The  watery  vapor  varies  from  fog  to  hailstones 
caused  by  different  changes  in  the  temperature.  Some  of  its  regular  movements  are  the 
seasons,  and  day  and  night. 

Of  course  such  pupils  as  these  were  rare  exceptions,  but  they  were 
graduates  in  good  and  regular  standing  from  city  high  schools,  and  the 
answers  which  they  presented  were  the  combined  result  of  their  nature 
work  in  the  graded  schools  and  their  science  course  in  the  high  school. 
When  the  college  professor  meets  with  similar  products  of  the  same  science 
courses,  as  he  surely  must,  he  cannot  be  censured  if  he  claims  that  there 
is  something  radically  wrong  in  the  method  of  teaching. 

But  the  professor  is  at  fault  when,  as  a  result,  he  prefers  to  abolish 
the  nature  work  altogether.  That  is  no  kind  of  a  remedy  for  the  evil. 
It  may  bring  to  him  students  whose  minds  are  free  from  error  and  inac- 
curacy, but  at  the  same  time  those  very  powers  of  the  intellect  which  he 
most  wishes  to  employ  will  be  so  dwarfed  and  stunted  thru  disuse  that 
they  never  can  attain  to  anything  like  their  full  stature  of  perfection. 


Department]    RELATION  OF  ADVANCED  SCIENCE  TO  NATURE  WORK    595 

As  well  might  we  of  the  normal  schools  advocate  the  abolition  of  pen- 
manship in  the  common  schools  because  the  majority  of  our  pupils  still 
come  to  us  with  the  old  slant  writing  instead  of  the  vertical.  No  !  If  the 
nature  work  and  the  advanced  science  do  not  harmonize,  then  change  the 
one  or  the  other,  or  possibly  both,  but  do  not  abolish  either. 

On  the  other  hand,  ask  the  teacher  of  nature  work  in  the  lower  schools 
what  she  thinks  of  the  advanced  science  in  the  college  and  the  university, 
and  she  will  tell  you  at  once  that  it  is  far  beyond  her  comprehension. 
She  looks  upon  it  as  something  very  much  to  be  desired  under  favorable 
circumstances,  but  also  as  something  of  no  immediate  benefit  in  her 
present  occupation.  She  can  easily  acquire  the  fundamental  facts  and 
principles  which  she  uses  in  her  everyday  teaching,  but  this  advanced 
research  is  so  intricate  in  its  arrangement  and  so  full  of  bewildering  tech- 
nicalities as  to  be  entirely  beyond  her  grasp,  to  say  nothing  of  its  being 
incomprehensible  to  the  children. 

Consequently,  it  seems  to  her  like  a  mere  waste  of  time  to  undertake 
any  of  it.  There  is  much  that  can  be  said  in  favor  of  such  a  position. 
Without  disparaging  in  the  least  the  charm  of  the  characteristic  accuracy 
of  scientific  description,  it  is  safe  to  say  that  much  of  the  advanced  work 
is  pretty  thoroly  concealed  beneath  a  thick  covering  of  technicality. 
Very  few  scientists  possess  the  rare  faculty,  like  Agassiz  and  Darwin,  of 
expressing  the  most  profound  truths  in  language  so  clear  and  simple  that 
even  "he  who  runs  may  read."  And  no  teacher  can  be  blamed  if  she 
finds  much  of  this  advanced  work  wholly  uninviting  and  very  difficult  to 
understand. 

But  to  conclude,  in  consequence,  that  it  is  of  no  immediate  benefit  in 
her  teaching  is  a  grievous  blunder.  As  well  might  one  argue  against  a 
bank  account  as  something  requiring  long  and  strenuous  labor  for  its 
possession,  and  something  of  no  immediate  benefit  in  everyday  life.  We 
are  not  to  be  caught  by  any  such  a  specious  argument,  for  we  realize  too 
well  that  a  bank  account,  however  small  it  may  be,  is  a  fund  upon  which 
we  can  fall  back  in  time  of  need,  and  from  which  we  can  draw  a  continu- 
ous revenue  for  present  use.  Every  teacher  should  have  such  a  fund  of 
knowledge  over  and  above  what  she  uses  in  her  teaching.  And  it  is  sure 
to  make  itself  apparent  in  more  ways  than  one.  You  need  not  remain 
long  in  a  schoolroom  before  it  is  abundantly  manifest  whether  the 
teacher  is  working  up  to  the  ragged  edge  of  her  knowledge  or  not. 
If  she  is,  there  is  the  constant  danger  of  making  a  misstep  and  falling 
over  —  in  fact,  this  is  sure  to  happen  sooner  or  later.  But  if  she  pos- 
sesses a  consciousness  of  reserve  strength,  she  will  show  an  ease  of  manner 
and  a  command  of  circumstances  which  is  most  delightful,  and  which 
insures  success  from  the  very  start.  The  teacher  who  would  succeed  with 
her  nature  work  must  know  something  of  advanced  science,  and  the 
greater  her  reserve  fund  of  such  knowledge,  the  larger  will  be  her  working 


596  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Science 

income,  the  more  pleasing  her  appearance  while  teaching,  and  the  easier 
and  more  complete  her  success. 

I  trust  that  you  will  agree  that  I  have  stated  the  case  fairly  and  impar- 
tially. Fortunately  we  can  already  find  numerous  exceptions :  advanced 
scientists  who  are  generously  devoting  their  superior  knowledge  to  the 
betterment  of  the  common-school  nature  work ;  and,  on  the  other  hand, 
many  a  humble  teacher  who  gives  freely  of  her  precious  vacation  time  at 
the  college  or  university  summer  school,  in  order  that  she  may  become 
the  better  prepared  to  teach  the  coming  year.  But  these  are  as  yet  only 
exceptions,  and  the  attitude  which  they  exhibit  toward  scientific  progress 
simply  emphasizes  the  lack  of  a  kindred  spirit  elsewhere.  Admitting, 
therefore,  that  the  relations  between  these  two  sister-divisions  of  science 
are  not  as  conducive  to  real  progress  as  they  should  be,  let  us  look  for  the 
causes.  We  must  diagnose  the  disease  before  we  can  make  any  rational 
suggestions  as  to  a  tonic  or  a  remedy. 

The  first  cause  is  the  one  which  it  seems  to  me  will  be  the  hardest  to 
eradicate,  because  it  has  such  a  deep  hold  upon  our  human  natures. 
Starting  away  back  in  the  days  of  Cain,  it  has  been  handed  down  faith- 
fully from  generation  to  generation  ever  since.  It  may  be  called  innate 
selfishness,  and  in  science  teaching  it  manifests  itself  in  considering  our 
own  pet  subject  as  the  center  of  the  educational  system,  around  which  all 
the  other  members  should  revolve,  and  to  which  they  must  be  subservient. 
This  same  selfishness  .is  cropping  out  continually  in  our  daily  lives,  and 
we  may  gain  valuable  suggestions  from  our  experience  with  it  there.  If 
there  is  one  thing  more  than  another  which  characterizes  these  closing 
years  of  the  century,  it  is  the  great  principle  of  concentration  —  concen- 
tration in  labor,  in  capital,  in  manufactures,  in  political  and  national 
supremacy;  and  even  in  population,  for  the  census  returns  show  that  the 
country  is  moving  slowly,  but  steadily,  toward  the  cities.  Whether  the 
resultant  unions  and  combinations  are  to  uplift  or  degrade  humanity  in 
the  coming  century  depends,  I  believe,  upon  a  single  issue.  So  long 
as  everyone  works  for  self,  and  self  alone,  all  combination  must  fail  mis- 
erably. But  success  is  insured  the  moment  each  man  honestly  endeavors 
to  secure  the  greatest  good  for  the  greatest  number,  himself  included. 
We  find  the  same  concentration  in  our  school  curriculum.  Year  after 
year  witnesses  the  addition  of  new  courses  of  study,  and  often  of 
entire  new  departments.  If  anyone  of  these  courses  is  to  achieve  a 
lasting  success,  it  must  work  not  for  self-aggrandizement  only,  yielding 
compulsory  assistance  and  begrudging  even  that,  but  it  must  stand  ready 
at  all  times  to  lend  a  helping  hand,  especially  to  fellow-courses  in  the 
same  department.  The  first  thing  for  each  of  us  to  do,  therefore,  if  we 
would  really  better  the  existing  relation  between  science  and  nature 
study,  is  to  learn  that  neither  our  own  pet  science  nor  any  other  single 
subject  can  ever  become  the  center  of  our  educational  system.     It  is  far 


Department]    RELATION  OF  ADVANCED  SCIENCE  TO  NATURE  WORK    597 

broader  than  that.  In  the  words  of  Dr.  Hodge :  "  Human  life  itself, 
human  character,  human  power  to  do,  human  happiness,  must  form  the 
main  trunk."  And  our  special  studies,  however  much  we  may  fondle  and 
admire  them,  can  never  be  anything  but  the  branches  and  roots  of  this 
main  trunk,  of  no  use  except  as  they  make  life  the  better  worth  living. 
Just  as  soon  as  we  comprehend  this  truth  and  begin  to  put  it  in  practice 
we  shall  find  all  relations  improving. 

Another  cause  for  disagreement  lies  in  the  fact  that  we  regard  the 
lower  schools  as  a  fitting  course  for  college. 

We  could  not  make  a  more  serious  mistake.  The  college  can  never 
stand  as  a  goal  for  common-school  education,  but  is  itself  only  another 
and  a  higher  means  toward  the  one  common  end  of  all  instruction,  the 
formation  and  uplifting  of  human  character. 

This  is  the  noblest  end  in  the  whole  world  and  is  well  worthy  of  our 
best  efforts.  With  such  an  end  in  view,  if  we  find  that  the  work  done  in 
the  lower  schools  is  not  at  the  same  time  the  best  preparation  for  college, 
then  the  sooner  the  college  requirements  are  changed  the  better.  This 
mistaken  idea  of  fitting  for  college  instead  of  fitting  for  life  leads  to  all 
sorts  of  other  blunders.  In  seeking  to  determine  the  requirements  for 
college  entrance  the  quantity  of  work  done  has  been  receiving  too  much 
attention.  There  may  be  studies  in  which  the  amount  of  ground  covered 
should  be  a  primary  requisite,  but  science  is  not  one  of  them.  The  field 
covered  by  any  science  is  practically  boundless  and  includes  enough  to 
occupy  a  student  for  several  lifetimes.  No  one  can  hope  to  obtain  more 
than  a  fragment  of  this  knowledge  during  the  years  spent  in  the  common 
schools.  How  foolish,  then,  to  quibble  over  the  size  of  that  fragment, 
as  tho  that  were  of  first  importance ! 

Let  us  learn  wisdom  from  our  geological  friends.  One  of  them 
stands  before  a  whole  mountain  of  rock,  of  which  he  wishes  to  secure  a 
sample  for  subsequent  analysis.  Is  his  first  thought  to  measure  and  figure 
and  plan  in  order  to  determine  where  he  can  secure  the  largest  frag- 
ment, or  how  he  can  obtain  one  of  a  given  size  ?  By  no  means ;  he 
looks  first  at  the  quality,  and  not  the  quantity ;  a,nd  so  long  as  the  frag- 
ment is  large  enough  to  furnish  sufficient  material  for  analysis,  he  cares 
very  little  about  its  actual  size.  But  he  does  search  long  and  carefully, 
and,  if  he  be  a  true  geologist,  he  takes  every  precaution  to  secure  a 
fragment  that  will  fairly  represent  in  quality  the  entire  mass.  And 
the  sooner  we  do  the  same  thing  in  our  science  teaching,  the  sooner 
we  shall  be  ready  to  consider  ways  and  means  of  establishing  more  com- 
plete harmony. 

Another  great  mistake  is  the  supposition  that  true  science  cannot  be 
taught  in  the  common  schools  because  the  pupils  are  not  mature  enough 
to  think.  Is  this  process  of  thinking,  then,  something  that  comes  only 
with  maturity,  like  the  right  of  franchise  ?     Or  is  it  something  which 


598  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Science 

suddenly  bursts  upon  us  full-fledged,  like  a  mushroom  growing  in  a  single 
night  ?  No  one  thinks  of  hesitating  to  employ  the  child's  perception, 
imagination,  and  memory.  But  the  deepest  reasoners  in  psychology  tell 
us  that  no  one  of  these  three  faculties  can  be  employed  without  bringing 
into  use  also  the  fourth,  reason. 

At  all  events,  it  is  a  little  singular  that  the  first  three  faculties  should 
not  merely  be  capable  of  action,  but  should  demand  frequent  exercise  in 
order  to  develop  properly,  while  the  fourth  is  to  lie  dormant  thru  more 
than  half  the  period  of  development.  Is  it  not  rather  like  every  other 
power  we  possess,  bodily  or  mental,  weak  and  in  constant  need  of  direc- 
tion during  its  incipient  stages,  but  developing  slowly  and  steadily  under 
proper  exercise  to  full  maturity?  Indeed,  I  think  you  will  agree  that  we 
may  go  a  step  farther  and  say  that,  unless  it  is  thus  developed  by  exer- 
cise during  childhood,  it  can  never  attain  its  full  stature  at  maturity,  but 
must  always  remain  stunted  and  dwarfed.  It  is  true  that  many  of  our 
common-school  pupils  do  not  think,  but  it  is  by  no  means  because  they 
cannot,  but  rather  because  their  thinking  powers  have  become  degen- 
erated thru  disuse,  or  have  been  smothered  beneath  incessant  memory 
work.  The  experience  of  every  teacher  shows  that  even  very  young 
scholars  can  and  do  think.  They  have  been  known  on  occasions  to  think 
too  much,  and  their  thoughts  are  always  remarkably  clear  and  straight- 
forward. The  child  has  not  yet  acquired  the  art  of  shamming,  of  evading 
the  truth,  or  of  dodging  the  issue,  which  stands  us  older  people  in  such 
good  stead.  Consequently  the  frontal  lobes  of  the  child's  brain  are  in 
the  best  possible  condition  to  do  good,  clean  work. 

Where  can  you  find  purer  or  more  elevating  concepts  than  those  of 
childhood  ?  The  child's  mind  has  not  been  tarnished  and  corrupted  thru 
contact  with  the  world  as  ours  has  been.  And  if  any  among  us  are  to 
think  God's  thoughts  after  him  as  we  study  the  wonderful  beauty  and 
design  in  nature,  surely  the  child  has  an  equal  chance  with  the  philoso- 
pher and  the  scientist. 

A  fourth  cause  is  to  be  found  in  the  immature  condition  of  nature 
work  at  the  present  time.  In  other  departments  we  have' come  to  recog- 
nize that  the  younger  and  more  undeveloped  the  pupil,  the  greater 
the  knowledge  and  skill  required  on  the  part  of  the  teacher.  In  most 
places  kindergarten  teachers  now  command  a  higher  salary  than  those  in 
primary  grades. 

There  is  no  question  that  this  is  the  correct  principle,  and  it  ought  to 
be  carried  farther,  as  it  surely  will  be  in  the  near  future.  But  it  has  taken 
us  a  long  while  to  reach  this  sensible  conclusion,  and  in  our  science 
teaching  we  can  as  yet  find  no  trace  of  such  an  advance.  We  are  still 
fifty  years  behind  the  times  in  this  particular ;  for  the  primary  teacher 
is  considered  capable  of  presenting  her  nature  work  acceptably,  when 
she  herself  has  received  only  the  merest  rudiments  of  an  education  in 


Department]    RELATION  OF  ADVANCED  SCIENCE  TO  NATURE  WORK    599 

such  matters.  It  is  practically  a  repetition  of  that  old  state  of  affairs 
when  a  teacher  who  had  proved  incompetent  in  the  higher  grades  was 
still  considered  capable  of  teaching  a  primary  school.  That  fallacy  has 
long  been  dead,  and  the  sooner  we  get  rid  of  this  successor  to  it  in  our 
nature  work,  the  quicker  we  can  devise  means  to  bring  that  work  into 
harmony  with  advanced  science,  where  thoro  and  exhaustive  prepara- 
tion is  always  demanded.  If  nature  work  is  to  be  presented  scientifi- 
cally in  even  the  primary  schools,  and  in  such  a  way  as  to  lead  up 
naturally  to  the  advanced  science  of  the  college,  there  must  be  behind  it 
just  as  full  and  accurate  a  knowledge,  and  just  as  thoro  a  preparation, 
as  is  demanded  for  other  studies.  The  teacher  must  at  least  be  able  to 
use  ordinary  reference-books  in  science  intelligently;  but  how  few  of  them 
are  capable  at  present  of  doing  so?  Try  to  imagine,  if  you  can,  a 
teacher  attempting  to  present  geography  or  arithmetic  or  language  upon 
such  a  fragmentary  knowledge  as  she  possesses  of  science.  Is  it  any 
wonder  that  the  advanced  scientist  is  inclined  to  look  askance  at  such 
nature  work  ? 

And  finally  we  come  to  the  matter  of  text-books  and  nature-study 
outlines,  and  here  the  error  is  on  the  part  of  the  advanced  scientist.  He 
is  so  busy  with  his  special  department  and  so  wrapped  up  in  the  problems 
of  original  investigation  that  he  can  waste  no  time  on  the  common 
schools.  Indeed,  he  usually  considers  them  beneath  his  notice;  his 
efforts  are  for  the  college  student,  or  at  least  for  use  in  the  fitting 
schools.  Hence  all  science  helps  and  outlines  for  graded  schools  are  left 
to  authors  of  inferior  knowledge.  Sometimes  such  authors  possess  superior 
ability,  but  this  can  never  fully  atone  for  deficiency  or  inaccuracy  of  infor- 
mation. Usually  the  ability  is  as  inferior  as  the  knowledge,  so  that  the 
common  product  of  the  two  is  a  book  that  fairly  bristles  with  errors  on 
every  page,  and  often  lacks  even  a  logical  arrangement. 

The  crying  need  of  the  present  is  for  the  specialist,  the  original 
thinker,  to  give  us  the  benefit  of  his  advanced  knowledge  in  the  way  of 
correct  facts,  scientific  principles,  and,  best  of  all,  practical  methods  of 
obtaining  and  using  material.  Then  let  the  science  teacher  give  us  the 
results  of  his  long  training  and  experience  as  to  the  best  methods  of 
presenting  such  facts  and  data.  There  have  already  been  some  attempts 
in  this  direction.  Men  like  Professors  Bailey  and  Comstock  and  Weed 
and  Tarr  have  each  contributed  earnest  efforts  toward  the  improvement 
of  our  common-school  nature  work. 

But  the  state  of  New  York  has  the  credit  of  taking  the  initiative  in  an 
extended  and  thoroly  planned  movement.  At  the  instigation  and  under 
the  leadership  of  some  of  the  professors  of  Cornell  University,  a  nature- 
study  bureau  has  been  established  in  connection  with  the  College  of 
Agriculture.  From  this  bureau  bulletins  and  quarterlies  are  issued 
regularly,  and  their  influence  is  felt  in  many  of  the  adjacent  states. 


6oo  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Science 

This  is  a  step  in  the  right  direction,  and  is  worthy  of  emulation  by 
every  college  and  university  thruout  our  land.  When  these  higher  insti- 
tutions become  thus  educational  centers  for  the  science  teaching  of  our 
common  schools,  there  will  certainly  be  far  less  disagreement  between 
the  two. 


NATURE  STUDY  FOR  THE  GRADED  SCHOOLS 

MISS    KATHERINE    E.    DOLBEAR,    HIGH    SCHOOL,    HOLYOKE,    MASS. 

Nature  study  as  a  subject  is  a  comparatively  recent  addition  to  the 
school  curriculum,  and  as  yet  has  not  been  satisfactorily  introduced  in 
most  places.  Is  it  worth  spending  so  much  time  and  thought  upon,  or 
may  it  be  eliminated  from  the  program  ? 

Dr.  Hall,  of  Clark  University,  has  said,  "  Nature  in  its  broad  concep- 
tion includes  the  fundamental  subject-matter  of  all  education,"  and  that 
"  Elementary  education  which  does  not  include  nature  study  is  not 
truly  elementary  education." 

If  nature  study  is  fundamental  and  essential,  why  have  so  many 
attempts  to  introduce  it  failed  ?  Can  it  be  lack  of  interest  on  the  part  of 
the  children,  or  lack  of  aim  and  method  on  the  part  of  the  teacher,  or 
possibly  scarcity  of  necessary  materials  ? 

What  is  the  character  of  most  of  the  nature  work  at  present  ?  Classi- 
fication and  structure  —  the  study  of  dead  things.  It  is  easier  to  work 
with  dead  grasshoppers  than  with  live  ones,  but  is  it  more  or  less  interest- 
ing and  profitable  to  the  child  ?  What  does  he  want  to  know  about  the 
grasshopper  —  how  many  wings  and  legs  it  has,  or  what  it  can  do  ?  It 
makes  little  difference  to  him  whether  it  has  six  legs  or  six  wheels,  if  it 
will  only  go ;  and  if  it  won't  go  his  interest  disappears.  He  is  interested 
in  living  things,  but  when  life  is  gone  a  mere  mechanism  is  left  —  about 
as  inviting  as  a  broken  toy.  If  he  shows  disinclination  to  listen  and  to 
talk  on  this  subject,  shall  we  say  he  is  not  interested  in  nature  study  and 
that  nature  study  is  a  failure,  or  shall  we  conclude  that  the  mistake  is 
in  the  subject-matter  which  we  are  trying  to  present  ? 

Perhaps  we  are  expecting  of  the  child  something  which  his  mind  is 
not  yet  mature  enough  to  comprehend.  We  learn  from  psychology  and 
experience  that  logical  methods  are  not  necessarily  pedagogical.  The 
pedagogical  conforms  to  the  natural  growth  of  the  child's  mind,  while  the 
logical  is  a  consecutive  arrangement  of  facts  made  by  an  adult  mind. 

A  child  may  commit  to  memory  many  facts,  but  if  he  is  unable  to 
make  any  application  of  them,  he  has  not  been  educated  by  the  process. 

Biologists  tell  us  that  the  possibilities  of  a  child  depend  upon  nervous 
structure  and  its  degree  of  maturity  more  than  upon  anything  else. 
Whether  it  pleases  us  or  not,  we  must  accept  this  and  base  our  pedagogy 
upon  it. 


Department]  NATURE  STUDY  FOR  THE  GRADED  SCHOOLS  60 1 

We  must  HO  more  forget  to  consider  man's  animal  ancestry,  and  to 
allow  for  it  in  supplying  suitable  foods  for  his  mind  during  its  various 
stages  of  development,  than  to  supply  suitable  foods  for  his  body  during 
its  growth.  The  child  naturally  turns  to  the  same  things  which  were 
of  utmost  importance  and  interest  to  his  ancestors — that  is,  to  the  study 
of  living  things. 

If  we  can  find  out  what  is  of  interest  to  the  child  and  present  it  in  a 
way  which  appeals  to  him,  he  will  become  educated;  but  if  we  decide 
upon  something  which  we  think  he  ought  to  be  interested  in,  and  insist 
upon  his  listening  to  our  talks  and  handling  the  materials  of  an  object- 
lesson  which  he  does  not  care  for,  his  time  is  largely  wasted  and  he  has 
gained  little  from  our  efforts.  Work  done  in  the  absence  of  interest  has 
little  or  no  value  educationally. 

Supposing  the  subject  in  hand  is  simple  and  interesting  to  most  of 
the  pupils,  and  the  teacher  has  made  a  great  effort  to  present  it  in  a 
pedagogical  way,  and  still  a  few  fail  to  become  interested  and  pay  atten- 
tion. Is  the  teacher  to  blame,  or  the  pupils,  or  the  method  ?  The 
teacher  has  made  careful  preparation  and  is  presenting  the  subject  with 
the  utmost  simplicity.  The  pupil  may  be  bright  in  other  lessons,  and 
yet  utterly  fail  in  this.  Is  he  stupid,  or  is  he  not  making  an  effort,  or  is 
he  insufficiently  developed,  so  he  cannot  grasp  this  special  work  ? 

If  brain-structure  is  normal  and  sufficiently  developed,  it  will  not  be 
necessary  for  him  to  make  an  effort  to  be  interested.  His  interest  will  be 
spontaneous.  If  it  is  hot,  shall  he  be  nagged  and  made  to  appear  ridicu- 
lous before  his  companions  ?  Will  that  hasten  development  of  the 
nervous  system  or  right  the  structure  ?  If  not,  it  is  useless  and  will  tend 
to  harm  rather  than  to  help  him.  He  should  be  let  alone  ;  and  if  the 
difficulty  is  on  account  of  lack  of  development,  time  and  growth  will  cor- 
rect that ;  if  the  trouble  is  lack  of  properly  nourished  brain-tissue,  the 
teacher  is  helpless,  and  no  amount  of  effort  on  her  part  or  on  the  part  of 
the  pupil  can  make  up  for  the  deficiency.  This  proposition  is  applicable 
to  all  departments  of  education. 

Nature  will  not  be  tampered  with.  If  we  learn  what  her  aims  are  and 
make  the  conditions  right  for  her  work,  we  are  doing  the  best  we  can, 
and  progress  and  education  will  go  on  at  maximum  speed ;  if  we  try  to 
go  against  her  plans,  progress  will  be  slow  at  least. 

What  are  nature's  aims  and  methods  ?  Perhaps  the  first  iS  that  the  human 
being  shall  be  a  good  animal  —  the  very  highest  animal  because  possess- 
ing the  power  of  reason ;  that  he  shall  have  control  of  all  other  life  on 
account  of  his  great  power  of  reason  ;  that  he  shall  be  a  moral  being  — 
able  to  judge  wisely.  This  power,  however,  develops  late,  so  that  a  child 
of  a  dozen  years  can  neither  be  called  moral  nor  immoral,  but  rather 
unmoral.  He  does  as  he  is  told,  and  knows  right  and  wrong  because  he 
has  been  informed,  and  not  from  his  own  reason  and  thought. 


602  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Science 

How  would  nature  have  her  animals  taught  ?  The  lowfer  animals  have 
a  power  of  instinct,  which  is  almost  entirely  wanting  in  man.  That  is 
innate,  and  the  only  other  way  knimals  come  to  have  intelligence  and 
education  is  thru  experience.  Man  is  able  to  learn  from  the  experiences 
of  other  men  ;  this  is  the  highest  kind  of  learning.  It  is  lacking  in 
animals,  and  largely  so  in  young  children. 

A  child  is  told  that  the  stove  is  hot  and  will  burn,  but  is  that  infor- 
mation sufficient  to  keep  him  from  putttng  his  hand  upon  it?  When 
he  has  once  been  burned  he  knows,  and  will  then  remember,  perhaps 
saying,  "'Tove  hot,  burn  baby,"  each  time  he  goes  near  it  for  a  week. 
That  is  education  —  nature's  own  method. 

To  perceive  things  with  the  child's  own  senses  is  to  learn  —  to  become 
educated.  Until  he  enters  school  his  education  is  largely  of  this  kind,  and 
then  what  a  change  ! 

In  the  schools,  as  they  exist  at  present,  it  is  hard  to  do  such  work  in 
a  way  which  will  satisfy  both  Mother  Nature  and  the  superintendent. 
Sometimes  very  effective  work  makes  little  or  no  show,  and  the  time 
might  seem,  to  an  outsider,  to  have  been  wasted,  while  really  it  has  laid  a 
strong  foundation  for  all  later  life. 

The  ideal  nature  study  for  primary  children  is  field  work.  With 
large  grades  it  is  often  difficult  to  do  satisfactory  work  for  the  first  few 
times.  Pupils  are  inclined  to  think  field  work  means  a  picnic,  or  some 
kind  of  a  Fourth  of  July  celebration.  A  few  words,  before  starting,  con- 
cerning the  reason  for  going,  what  to  look  for,  and  the  possibility  of 
going  often,  if  they  are  able  to  learn  in  that  way,  gives  a  motive  power 
for  good  behavior. 

At  first  the  study  should  be  of  all  nature — nature  as  a  whole  rather 
than  in  parts;  the  relation  and  interdependence  of  all  nature — how  the 
plants  help  the  animals  by  furnishing  food  and  shelter,  and  how  the 
animals  help  the  plants  by  scattering  seeds.  If  the  children  are  free, 
they  will  make  suggestions  which  the  teacher  can  use  as  a  basis  for  work. 
As  far  as  possible  the  work  should  be  along  the  lines  which  the  children 
inquire  about.  In  this  way  there  is  less  danger  of  going  beyond  their 
interests  and  more  chance  of  keeping  spontaneity  in  the  foreground. 
Whatever  tends  to  lessen  spontaneity  tends  to  retard  education.  It 
should  rather  be  encouraged  along  every  line  of  work. 

On  their  walks  the  children  will  find  new  flowers,  and  will  be  almost 
sure  to  ask  what  their  names  are.  A  local  or  common  name  should  be 
given,  not  a  scientific  one,  as  the  name  is  given  only  so  that  the  child 
may  speak  of  what  he  has  found  and  know  it  another  time.  Attention 
may  be  called  to  the  kind  of  a  place  in  which  the  plant  grows  —  that  it 
likes  plenty  of  sunshine,  or  a  shady  spot,  or  a  very  wet  place.  The  chil- 
dren can  also  watch  and  see  what  kinds  of  animals  like  the  different 
flowers.     What  do  the  honey-bees  like  ?  the  butterflies  ?  the  bumblebees  ? 


Department]  NATURE  STUDY  FOR  THE  GRADED  SCHOOLS  603 

For  the  little  children  considerable  time  should  be  spent  in  getting 
acquainted  with  the  domestic  animals,  so  that  they  can  appreciate  the 
value  of  such  animals  to  man,  and  also  so  that  they  can  know  what  to  do 
to  keep  animals  well  and  strong  and  happy.  Teaching  of  this  sort  should 
be  positive  rather  than  negative — that  is,  about  what  to  do  rather  than 
what  not  to  do. 

If  a  wild  animal  can  be  comfortably  caged  and  tamed  by  the  children, 
the  result  will  be  interesting  and  instructive.  It  has  been  stated  that 
animals  which  have  been  tamed  and  domesticated  find  life  much  easier 
than  those  which  are  at  times  short  of  food,  overcome  with  cold,  and  con- 
tinually obliged  to  fight  for  their  existence.  The  process  of  taming  is  of 
native  interest  to  children,  and  can  be  easily  done  with  squirrels,  bats, 
rabbits,  and  birds.  Personally  I  do  not  like  caged  animals,  but  it  seems 
to  be  the  only  way  of  bringing  such  work  into  the  school ;  and,  if  it 
educates  the  child  and  does  not  injure  the  animal,  it  is  justifiable. 

It  seems  as  if  the  song  of  a  caged  bird  is  never  so  sweet  as  that  of  a 

woodland  bird,  where  the  song  rises  from  the  midst  of  blossoms   and 

floats  on  the  fragrant  air.     I  must  still  agree  with  Emerson,  in  his  "  Each 

and  All": 

I  thought  the  sparrow's  note  from  heaven, 

Singing  at  dawn  on  the  alder  bough ; 
I  brought  him  home  in  his  nest,  at  even. 

He  sings  the  song,  but  it  pleases  not  now ; 
For  I  did  not  bring  home  the  river  and  sky: 
He  sang  to  my  ear  —  they  sang  to  my  eye. 

A  pretty  study  for  little  children  is  the  study  of  baby  animals,  their 
cradles,  and  how  they  are  cared  for  by  their  mothers.  Nearly  all  children 
like  baby  animals  or  baby  plants.  One  little  friend  used  to  beg  each 
evening  to  go  to  the  paw-paw  tree  to  see  how  the  baby  paw-paws  were 
growing,  and  then  to  the  holly  tree  to  watch  the  soft,  pale  baby  leaves 
unfold.  Children  often  climb  into  a  hay-loft  and  stay  a  long  time  by  an 
old  cat  and  its  kittens. 

Myths  should  be  used  in  connection  with  the  nature  work,  not  in 
extreme,  nor  to  give  the  child  wrong  impressions  of  life,  but  to  allow 
his  imagination  to  develop  naturally  and  normally.  Plants  and  animals 
are  endowed  with  the  same  qualities  as  human  beings  by  the  child.  Shall 
we  tell  him  that  plants  cannot  feel,  and  that  his  pets  cannot  reason ;  or 
shaU  we  let  him  think  of  them  in  his  childish  way,  which  will  gradually 
change  to  a  wholesome  understanding  of  the  comparative  sensibilities  of 
all  life  ?  To  rush  him  by  the  age  of  myth  and  past  the  childish  view 
of  life  is  to  dwarf  his  soul.  He  is  not  yet  ready  for  fine  discrimination 
and  classification. 

There  are  numberless  nature  studies  which  are  of  interest  for  inter- 
mediate grades.  One  of  the  most  successful  spring  subjects  for  these 
grades  is  toads  or  frogs.     The  eggs  can  be  collected  into  a  jar  or  pail  by 


6o4  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Science 

the  children  when  out  for  field  work.  At  school  they  should  be  trans- 
ferred to  a  shallow  dish  with  large  air  surface.  The  pupils  can  watch  the 
development  day  by  day,  until  the  tail  has  been  absorbed  and  the  legs  have 
grown  strong  enough  so  they  want  to  jump  away.  During  the  tadpole 
stage  pond  scum  proves  to  be  a  suitable  and  easily  obtainable  food. 
The  great  work  done  by  toads  for  man  is  one  of  the  valuable  lessons  of 
nature.  Nearly  every  child  who  lives  out  from  the  heart  of  a  large  city 
can  watch  toads  and  see  what  they  eat,  when,  how  much,  and  how  they 
get  it.  The  older  pupils  should  have  notebooks  and  keep  written  up  their 
observations  and  discoveries  about  the  toad.  Comparison  of  notebooks 
might  be  made,  so  that  each  pupil  could  get  information  from  every  other 
one. 

After  making  careful  study  of  several  forms  of  life,  it  would  be  profit- 
able to  have  a  debate  on  :  Which  is  of  more  use  to  man,  a  robin  or  a  toad  ? 
instead  of  that  which  has  so  often  been  debated  :  Was  Washington  or 
Lincoln  the  greater  man  ? 

Turtles,  tortoises,  and  terrapins  have  a  sort  of  fascination  for  children. 
They  have  not  been  observed  as  thoroly  as  the  toad,  so  there  is  much 
to  be  learned,  and  the  child  can  add  to  the  world's  scientific  information. 

The  work  of  the  bat  is  not  altogether  understood  or  appreciated.  What 
is  he  doing  when  he  flits  about  at  dusk  ?  What  does  he  eat — bacon? 
Why  does  he  dive  down  so  near  to  the  heads  of  observers  ?  Has  he 
an  innate  longing  to  get  under  a  hat  ? 

A  bat  was  kept  at  school  for  three  months,  and  became  tame  enough 
to  be  handled  and  fed  by  the  children.  He  ate  little  bits  of  meat  and 
drank  water  somewhat  as  a  cat  does.  In  the  daytime  he  preferred  to 
hang  up  and  sleep,  but  at  dusk  became  restless,  and  was  sometimes 
allowed  to  fly  about  the  room. 

Another  study  upon  which  children  are  willing  to  spend  considerable 
time  is  about  bees.  A  beehive  was  fixed  in  one  window  of  the  school- 
room, so  that  the  pupils  could  look  into  it  and  watch  the  various  occupa- 
tions of  the  busy  little  creature.  When  out  of  doors  the  pupil  can  get 
some  idea  of  its  work  among  the  flowers  by  following  it  for  a  few  minutes 
and  noting  whether  it  selects  one  kind  of  flower  and  visits  that  species 
only,  or  whether  it  visits  each  flower  in  turn  regardless  of  genus  and 
species.  What  does  the  bee  get  from  the  flower,  and  what  does  it  do  for 
the  flower  ?  Notice  how  clumsily  it  moves  when  its  pockets  are  full  of 
pollen  !  When  it  returns  to  the  hive,  what  does  it  do  with  the  pollen  and 
nectar? 

When  pupils  are  old  enough  to  understand  what  is  meant  by  the 
division  of  labor,  they  will  find  bee  study  of  still  greater  interest.  Sev- 
eral times  the  bees  came  into  the  schoolroom,  but  no  one  was  stung,  and 
they  were  soon  gently  driven  out.  During  the  cold  weather,  when  they 
were  fed  on  syrup,  they  became  friendly  enough  so  that  I  could  take 


Department]  NATURE  STUDY  FOR  THE  GRADED  SCHOOLS  605 

them  out  from  the  hive  and  allow  them  to  walk  over  my  hands  and  sip 
up  the  drops  of  syrup  placed  there  for  them. 

Some  of  the  schools  in  Worcester,  Mass.,  are  doing  commendable 
work  along  these  lines.  All  the  schools  unite  in  taking  the  bird-nest 
census  for  the  city.  It  is  so  divided  that  each  school  has  a  certain  dis- 
trict upon  which  to  work.  No  nests  are  collected  until  the  census  has  been 
taken;  which  is  done  in  the  fall.  The  children  draw  maps  of  the  district 
they  are  to  work  upon,  and  add  circles  wherever  there  are  nests,  marking 
in  r  for  robin,  o  for  oriole,  s  for  song  sparrow,  etc.  English  sparrows  are 
not  recognized  as  having  a  right  either  to  live  there  or  to  be  counted  as  a 
part  of  the  bird  population.  All  others  are  welcomed  and  encouraged  to 
build,  bird-houses  and  food  being  offered  as  an  inducement.  If  a  nest  is 
found  which  is  not  common,  it  is  visited  by  all  the  pupils,  and  a  decision 
made  as  to  what  kind  it  is.  When  all  the  district  maps  are  done,  a  large 
one  is  made  showing  the  nests  of  the  whole  city.  This  is  compared  with 
the  census  of  the  preceding  year  in  order  to  ascertain  whether  or  not  the 
population  is  increasing.  During  the  last  few  years  the  population  of 
songbirds  has  increased  rapidly. 

An  interesting  feature  of  the  Upsala  Street  School  is  the  school 
garden.  Veget^les  are  raised  and  sold.  The  money  received  is  spent 
for  fertilizer  for  enriching  the  ground.  Children  are  also  given  seeds  to 
plant  at  home.  Each  child  tries  to  raise  the  best  plant.  Exhibits  are 
held  and  awards  offered  for  the  best,  specimens.  In  this  way  pupils  learn 
what  conditions  are  necessary  for  growth,  what  plants  need  in  the  way  of 
food  and  drink,  and  also  protection  from  insect  pests.  Watching  over 
and  caring  for  the  plant,  seeing  the  leaves  unfold  and  the  fruit  develop 
from  the  blossom,  cannot  fail  to  appeal  *to  the  child,  who  feels  that  it  is 
his  own  plant,  and  that  its  success  or  failure  depends  largely  upon  his 
care. 

Nature  study  should  be  of  moral  as  well  as  mental  value.  We  have 
said  that  the  young  child  is  not  a  moral,  but  an  unmoral  being.  As  the 
moral  nature  slowly  and  gradually  develops,  it  should  be  guided  in  the 
right  direction.  In  the  country  nature  study  should  be  taught  with  the 
aim  of  making  the  children  more  content  with  their  surroundings  and 
appreciative  of  the  beauty  which  abounds. 

The  happiness  which  children  get  from  contact  with  and  study  of 
nature  makes  the  study  worth  while  if  there  were  no  educational  value 
in  it. 

Rough  boys  should  be  encouraged  to  tame  animals.  Birds  and  but- 
terflies can  do  a  great  deal  toward  taming  the  boy.  He  will  take  pride 
in  getting  the  little  bird  to  eat  seeds  from  his  fingers,  or  in  having  the  deli- 
cate butterfly  suck  up  drops  of  syrup  from  his  hand. 

For  children  ten  or  a  dozen  years  of  age  the  study  of  reproduction  of 
plants  and  animals  is  interesting.     The  morning  glory  may  be  used  as  a 


6o6  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Science 

typical  plant  and  the  fish  as  a  typical  animal.  Fish  eggs  can  be  gotten 
at  any  hatchery,  and,  if  kept  in  running  water  three  or  four  days,  will  hatch, 
much  to  the  delight  of  the  children.  The  gelatinous  substance  is  so  trans- 
parent that  each  part  can  be  seen.  Two  classes  were  given  fish  eggs  to 
observe.  One  class  averaged  eleven  years,  the  other  seventeen.  The 
younger  had  only  their  eyes  to  depend  on,  while  the  older  had  micro- 
scopes. The  observations  and  drawings  of  the  younger  class  were  quite 
as  accurate  as  those  of  the  older,  and  the  class'  was  fairly  alive  with 
enthusiasm.  Some  spoke  right  out  when  the  little  fish  snapped  his 
tail  and  broke  thru  the  gelatinous  wall. 

In  the  older  grammar  grades  there  is  much  to  be  observed  about 
insects  injurious  to  vegetation  and  also  their  parasitic  enemies;  in  plant 
physiology  the  consideration  of  starch-making  to  plant  and  animal  life ; 
of  variation  in  plants ;  something  about  weeds,  and  the  struggle  for 
existence  of  all  life. 

Our  subject  is  biological  nature  studies,  but  a  school  curriculum 
should  include  the  physical  sciences  also. 

Physics  has  often  proved  a  failure  in  grammar  grades  on  account  of 
the  way  it  has  been  presented.  When  approached  from  the  mathematical 
standpoint  and  great  accuracy  demanded,  natural  interest  is  lost ;  but  if 
mechanical  toys  are  used,  and  simple,  interesting  experiments  performed 
and  explained,  great  principles  are  taught,  and  the  child  is  amused,  inter- 
ested, and  educated. 

Chemical  principles  may  also  be  introduced,  if  presented  in  an  ele- 
mentary way. 

Miss  Proctor's  little  book  called  Stories  from  Starland  is  a  good 
example  of  the  way  in  which  astronomy  may  be  made  interesting  and 
profitable  in  the  graded  schools. 

In  all  nature  work  there  should  be  freedom  of  thought  and  expres- 
sion. 

What  may  the  university  justly  expect  from  the  graded-school  pupils? 
(i)  Natural  interest  preserved;  (2)  keen  senses;  (3)  a  clear  conception  of 
the  general  relation  and  interdependence  of  all  nature ;  (4)  recognition 
of  many  local  plants  and  animals,  and  more  or  less  information  regard- 
ing their  work  in  the  world ;  (5)  an  intelligent  understanding  of  the 
simple  fundamental  laws  of  physics  and  chemistry;  (6)  original  thought 
and  expression. 

What  may  the  graded  schools  justly  expect  from  the  universities  ? 
A  series  of  accurate,  brief,  live  books.  Not  a  long,  technical  treatise 
on  some  detailed  microscopic  structure  of  the  plant  or  animal,  but  a 
carefully  written  account  of  it  as  a  whole,  where,  and  when  it  is  to  be 
found,  the  varying  conditions  which  affect  it,  how  to  care  for  and  study 
it,  its  feeding  and  other  habits,  and  its  useful  or  destructive  qualities; 
how  man  can  protect  it,  or  protect  himself  against  it. 


Department]  NATURE  STUDY  FOR  THE  GRADED  SCHOOLS  607 

The  grade  teacher  of  today  is  too  busy  to  wade  thru  pages  of  uni- 
versity technicalities  with  the  hope  of  finding  a  morsel  of  information. 
There  are  so  many  new  subjects  to  prepare,  so  many  cases  of  discipline 
to  be  skillfully  treated,  so  much  paper-correcting  which  cannot  be 
entirely  neglected ;  and  all  these  things  take  time  and  vitality. 

Cannot  the  university  give  us  some  books  which  will  be  an  inspira- 
tion to  pupils  and  teachers  alike,  to  open  their  eyes  to  the  common 
things  about,  the  wonder  and  beauty  of  the  abundance  of  life  in  the 
meadows,  fields,  brooks,  and  ponds  ? 

Many  text-books  have  recently  been  made  which  give  unreliable 
information  in  quite  an  interesting  way,  and  many  others  which  give 
reliable  information  in  a  lifeless  way.  Is  it  impossible  to  make  simple, 
accurate  books  which  are  full  of  life  and  able  to  impart  that  life  to  the 
young  naturalist  ? 

In  high-school  text-books  we  find  the  same  holds  true  in  most  cases. 
The  reliable  ones  presuppose  too  much  maturity  on  the  part  of  the  pupils. 
Some  university  professors  do  not  seem  to  have  any  idea  of  what  a  six- 
teen-year-old boy  is,  what  he  can  do,  or  what  he  needs.  They  seem  to 
be  afraid  of  simplicity. 

I  have  a  whole  table  full  of  biology  text-books  for  high-school 
work,  and  there  is  not  one  among  them  which  I  can  use.  The  anatomi- 
cal way  in  which  the  subjects  are  presented  is  entirely  out  of  place. 
Many  of  the  text-books  of  today  are  not  far  in  advance  of  those  made 
•thirty  years  ago. 

In  one  book,  published  in  1869,  the  study  of  mammals  begins  thus: 

The  class  mammalia  is  definable  as  those  which  have  two  occipital  condyles,  with  a 
well-ossified  basi-occipital ;  which  have  each  ramus  of  the  mandible  composed  of  a  single 
piece  of  bone,  and  articulated  with  the  squamosal  element  of  the  skull ;  and  which 
possess  mammae  and  non-nucleated  red  blood  corpuscles. 

In  a  text-book  published  in  the  spring  of  1900  we  find  the  very 
beginning  reads  thus : 

The  grasshopper  belongs  to  an  order  of  insects  called  orthoptera.  In  this  group  of 
insects  there  is  an  incomplete  metamorphosis  during  development,  so  that  the  general 
form  of  the  young  resembles  the  adult.  The  anterior  and  posterior  pairs  of  wings  are 
unequal.     The  jaws  are  adapted  for  biting. 

,TMs  is  the  first  paragraph  for  a  beginner  of  the  study  of  zoology. 
He  has  never  heard  of  orthoptera,  and  has  no  idea  what  incomplete 
metamorphosis  is  like.  The  words  "anterior"  and  "posterior"  are  new  to 
him,  and  he  will  most  likely  decide  that  he  does  not  like  the  study  of 
zoology  very  well.        t 

There  is  a  little  good  material  to  be  had.  Professor  Weed  has  written 
some  good  simple  books  on  insect  life.  Dr.  Hodge  has  written  a  pam- 
phlet on  The  Common  Toad,  which  is  very  helpful  ;  and  the  agricultural 
department  of  Cornell  University  is  making  an  attempt  to  furnish  suitable 


6o8  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Science 

suggestions  to  teachers  on  nature  study,  in  the  form  of  a  series  of  pam- 
phlets. Since  there  is  such  scarcity  of  material  which  treats  of  nature  study 
properly,  shall  we  give  up  the  study  ?  No ;  let  us  press  onward,  get  the 
children  interested  in  the  life  about  them,  so  that  they  will  spend  their 
spare  time  wandering  about  in  the  fields  and  woods,  finding  new  things, 
making  careful  observations  ;  then  expressing  well  what  they  have  learned. 

In  nature  study  children  will  always  come  to  us  with  questions  which 
we  cannot  answer,  and  specimens  which  we  do  not  recognize.  Above  all 
things  let  us  be  truthful  with  the  child,  and,  if  we  do  not  know,  say  so> 
offering  to  help  him  find  out,  or  telling  him,  if  we  can,  where  he  may  get 
the  desired  information.  It  may  be  that  this  is  impossible ;  in  that  case 
he  should  write  what  he  can  "find  put  about  the  specimen,  and  have  his 
notes  saved  for  the  use  of  other  pupils  who  may  want  the  information. 

It  is  often  hard  to  see  any  immediate  result  of  nature  study.  If,  after 
a  year's  work,  the  children  have  learned  to  see  more  on  their  walks,  and 
love  and  respect  animal  and  plant  life,  that  is  enough.  The  great  result 
will  show  in  the  life  he  leads  in  later  years.  We  can  never  know  just  how 
much  the  birds  and  flowers,  the  woods  and  bright  blue  skies,  have  done 
to  make  him  gentle  and  patient,  yet  strong  and  manly. 


DEPARTMENT  OF  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATION 


SECRETARY'S    MINUTES 


FIRST  SESSION.— Thursday,  July  12,  1900 

The  department  was  called  to  order  at  3 :  30  P.  M.,  at  the  Charleston  Light  Dragoon 
Hall. 

A  telegram  from  President  Edward  E.  Barthell,  announcing  his  inability  to  attend, 
was  read.  In  his  absence,  upon  motion  of  Mr.  Israel  H.  Peres,  William  George  Bruce  was 
elected  chairman,  and  was  also  requested  to  act  as  secretary. 

Mr.  C.  H.  Parsons,  of  Des  Moines,  la.,  read  a  paper  upon  "Schoolhouse  Archi- 
tecture." 

Mr.  Israel  H.  Peres,  of  Memphis,  Tenn.,  then  read  a  paper  on  "School-Administra- 
tion Problems  in  the  South." 

This  was  followed  by  a  paper  on  "The  Relation  of  Board  and  Teacher,"  by  Dr. 
W.  A.  Hunt,  of  Northfield,  Minn.,  president  of  the  Minnesota  Association  of  School 
Boards. 

" School-Board  Organization"  was  the  next  paper,  which  was  read  by  Hon.  Willis 
S.  Ellis,  of  Anderson,  Ind. 

The  chair  then  appointed  a  nominating  committee,  consisting  of : 

Israel  H.  Peres,  of  Memphis,  Tenn.  James  A.  Foshay,  of  Los  Angeles,  Cal. 

C.  H.  Parsons,  of  Des  Moines,  la. 

The  discussions  were  led  by  Messrs.  Francis  S.  Coolidge,  Boston,  Mass.;  Willis  S. 
Ellis,  Anderson,  Ind.;  and  F.  S.  Venable,  Asheville,  N.  C. 

The  chair  then  called  up  the  report  of  the  Committee  on  Nominations,  which  was 
as  follows : 

For  President — W.  S.  Ellis,  Anderson,  Ind. 
'Pot  First  Vice-President — Israel  H.  Peres,  Memphis,  Tenn. 
For  Second  Vice-President  —  John  Ogren,  Charleston,  S.  C. 
'  For  Third  Vice-President  — \f.  A.  Hunt,  Northfield,  Minn. 
Vox  Fourth  Vice-President — Graham  H.  Harris,  Chicago,  111. 
For  Fifth  Vice-President — R.  L.  Yeager,  Kansas  City,  Mo. 
For  Secretary — William  George  Bruce,  Milwaukee,  Wis. 

Pot  Executive  Committee  —  Francis  L.  Coolidge,  Boston,  Mass.;  C.  H.  Parsons,  Des  Moines,  la.  j 
J.  M.  Brown,  Northfield,  Minn. ;  F.  S.  Venable,  Asheville,  N.  C. ;  E.  E.  Barthell,  Esq.,  Nashville,  Tenn. 

The  report  was  adopted  unanimously. 

W.  S.  Ellis,  the  newly  elected  president,  was  then  introduced.  After  thanking  the 
department  for  the  honor  conferred  upon  him,  he  spoke  of  the  usefulness  of  national 
gatherings  of  school-board  members,  promising  at  the  same  time  his  best  endeavors  for 
the  continued  growth  of  this  movement. 

The  chair  then,  in  the  name  of  the  department,  extended  thanks  to  the  citizens  of 
Charleston  for  their  generous  hospitality.  He  also  extended  thanks  to  the  retiring 
officers,  and  declared  Ihe  meeting  adjourned. 

Wm.  Geo.  Bruce, 

Secretary. 

609 


6io  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION 


[School 


PAPERS  AND  DISCUSSIONS 


SCHOOLHOUSE   ARCHITECTURE 

C.    H.    PARSONS,    DES    MOINES,  lA. 

In  addressing  you  today,  I  am  conscious  of  the  fact  that  you  represent 
the  controlling  power  of  the  public-school  system  of  the  great  American 
republic,  and  my  desire  is  so  to  impress  upon  your  minds  the  impor- 
tance of  this  subject  that  words  from  me  may  become  actions  by  you. 
It  is  easy  to  come  here  and  present  any  of  the  subjects  assigned  in  an 
interesting  and  entertaining  way;  it  is  another  thing  to  present  a  subject 
in  such  a  way  that  it  is  adopted  as  a  policy  and  made  a  line  of  action  by 
one's  audience;  the  first  calls  for  entertainment ;  the  last  for  the  awaken- 
ing of  the  mind  to  a  danger  and  the  presentation  of  a  remedy.  My 
desire  is  to  be  able  to  accomplish  the  last-named  result. 

The  other  day,  as  I  was  glancing  over  the  official  bulletin,  the  thought 
occurred  to  me  that  this  entire  National  Educational  Association,  and 
each  one  of  its  many  departments,  was  more  or  less  interested  in  this 
subject  of  "Schoolhouse  Architecture,"  and  that  all  that  is  needed  to 
deepen  that  interest  is  to  have  its  true  relation  to  the  success  of  the  work 
in  all  educational  lines  properly  understood. 

My  theme  is  "Schoolhouse  Architecture;  or,  The  Home  of  the 
School."  "Architecture  is  the  art  of  building,  and  includes  two  elements, 
theory  and  practice."  Theory  treats  of  the  ideal;  practice  deals  with  the 
possible.  These  two  elements  should  always  be  in  harmony,  but,  in  fact, 
are  more  often  found  in  discord,  owing  to  conditions  over  which  the 
architect  has  no  control. 

In  architecture,  theory  should  be  the  master,  and  practice  should 
make  theory  possible;  but  in  the  preparation  of  the  home  of  the  school, 
practice  has  overruled  theory  and  become  enthroned  as  master,  until 
today  we  see  built  all  over  our  land  schoolhouses,  reputed  to  be  modern, 
that  violate  in  both  conception  and  construction  every  known  principle 
of  correct  schoolhouse  sanitation.  By  schoolhouse  sanitation  I  mean 
everything  in  the  construction  of  the  school  building  that  has  a  bearing 
on  the  health  of  the  child. 

This  subject  of  sanitation  divides  itself  into  the  following  heads: 
stairways,  water-closets,  lighting,  heating,  and  ventilation. 

In  taking  up  the  consideration  of  the  subject  of  stairways,  I  have  been 
surprised  during  the  last  few  years  in  finding  that  many  of  the  recent  and 
most  expensive  buildings  in  this  country  have  been  constructed  with 
stairways  that  are  steep  and  difficult  of  ascent.      I  have  entered  some 


Administration] 


SCHOOLHOUSE  ARCHITECTURE  6li 


buildings  in  which  this  becomes  painfully  apparent  as  you  are  passing  up 
the  vestibule  steps  to  the  main  corridors.  No  stairway  should  exceed 
six  inches  in  rise  and  should  approach  five  and  a  half  inches  as  nearly 
as  possible. 

All  high-school  work  and  grammar-grade  work  should  be  located  in 
the  first  story  of  all  school  buildings.  The  reason  for  this  becomes 
apparent  when  we'  remember  that  during  these  years  the  schoolgirl 
reaches  one  of  the  most  critical  periods  of  her  whole  life,  when  in  many 
instances  she  is  compelled  to  drop  out  of  her  school  as  the  result  of  fail- 
ing health  caused  by  too  much  stair-climbing. 

Where  the  high  school  is  placed  on  the  second  story  and  the  water- 
closets  in  the  basement,  it  means  a  stair-climbing  of  from  twenty-five  to 
thirty  feet,  and  twenty-five  feet  always  from  the  outside  yard. 

I  have  often  had  the  question  asked  me  :  "Would  you  put  the  high- 
school  grades  below  and  make  the  little  children  climb  to  the  second 
story?"  My  answer  is:  Put  the  high-school  and  grammar  grades  and 
the  first  and  second  primary  grades  on  the  lower  floors,  and  let  the 
intermediate  grades  do  the  stair-climbing ;  for,  as  a  usual  thing,  if  in 
good  health,  they  are  at  that  age  climbing  everything  that  is  climbable 
anyway. 

The  second  sanitary  point  is  water-closets.  I  desire  to  make  a  broad 
statement  in  connection  with  this  subject,  and  that  is,  that  every  school 
building  of  two  rooms  and  over  should  have  inside  water  or  dry  closets. 
I  will  assign  two  reasons  for  this  :  the  first  is  physical  health  and  comfort; 
the  second  is  the  moral  welfare  of  the  child.  The  outdoor  water-closet 
will  never  receive  such  frequent  inspection  as  will  prevent  its  becoming 
an  unsightly  thing  and  a  source  of  immoral  teachings. 

Our  next  sanitary  point  is  lighting.  The  correct  principle  of  lighting 
is  one  that  more  than  any  other  is  constantly  and  willfully  violated  in 
the  construction  of  our  school  buildings.  Introducing  the  light  entirely 
from  the  left  of  the  pupil  is  the  correct  and  only  correct  way  to  light  a 
room.  In  large  rooms  it  presents  a  problem,  because  light  will  only  carry 
so  far,  and  when  it  comes  to  a  schoolroom  forty-five  feet  wide,  it  requires 
a  ceiling  thirty  feet  high  in  order  to  properly  light  it.  When  you  have 
reached  a  ceiling  of  this  height,  in  many  cases  the  acoustics  of  the  room 
will  be  a  failure,  but  I  am  happy  to  say  to  you  today  that  modern  science 
has  solved  this  difficulty.  The  modern  prism  placed  in  the  top  or  bottom 
section  of  the  schoolhouse  window  will  transmit  the  light  perfectly  to 
almost  any  distance,  and  leave  the  ceiling  a  natural  and  normal  height. 
In  other  cases  the  placing  of  an  angled  skylight  so  that  the  light  will 
reach  every  part  of  the  room  will  accomplish  the  same  result. 

A  correctly  lighted  room  will  have : 

I.  All  of  the  light  massed  in  one  sheet  on  the  left  side  of  the  pupil, 
or  from  above,  and  all  introduced  into  the  room  from  one  direction. 


6l2  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [School 

2.  It  will  not  have  too  small  a  quantity  of  light. 

3.  It  will  not  have  too  much  light. 

4.  The  light  will  not  be  too  near  the  floor. 

5.  No  seat  will  be  too  far  from  the  light. 

6.  No  smooth,  glossy  surface  will  be  used  on  side-walls  so  as  to  pro- 
duce glaring  effects. 

A  building  may  be  defective  in  any  or  all  of  these  points.  If  it  is, 
it  is  constantly  injuring  the  eyesight  of  your  children. 

Our  last  sanitary  point  is  ventilation  and  heating.  The  teacher  has 
often  been  the  means  of  introducing  a  basin,  a  cake  of  soap,  and  a  towel 
into  the  modern  course  of  study,  in  order  that  the  faces  and  hands  of 
some  of  the  dirtier  children  may  present  a  better  appearance ;  for,  as  one 
teacher  remarked  to  me  recently,  "It  is  impossible  for  me  to  love  a  dirty 
child."  Yet  possibly,  while  she  has  cleaned  the  face  and  hands,  all  of 
the  body  is  in  the  same  condition,  and  all  the  pores  are  constantly  breath- 
ing and  vitiating  the  air  for  the  other  children  and  herself. 

This  is  only  one  of  many  reasons  for  the  necessity  for  thoro  ventila- 
tion. The  strongest  reason,  to  my  mind,  is  the  danger  from  disease.  We 
see  increasing,  year  after  year,  the  number  of  consumptives  in  our 
country.  I  have  no  doubt  that,  if  it  were  possible  to  trace  this  disease 
to  its  origin  in  each  case,  we  should  find  that  the  majority  of  them  were 
the  result  of  weakened  and  diseased  lung  power  as  the  result  of  breath- 
ing day  after  day  foul  and  vitiated  air  in  our  schoolrooms. 

Proper  heating  of  the  room  is  impossible  without,  at  the  same 
time,  ventilating  the  room,  so  when  we  consider  one  we  should  consider 
both. 

A  correct  and  accepted  medical  and  scientific  definition  of  good 
health  is  "pure  blood  flowing  thru  a  healthy  organism."  Three  things 
enter  into  the  composition  of  blood,  namely :  the  food  we  eat,  the  water 
we  drink,  and  the  air  we  breathe. 

The  large  cities  of  the  country  spend  millions  and  millions  of  dollars 
for  the  purpose  of  siecuring  pure  water  supplies  for  their  citizens.  Con- 
gress, state  legislatures,  and  city  councils  pass  laws,  statutes,  and  ordi- 
nances to  prevent  the  adulteration  of  food,  and  to  protect  the  inhabitants 
of  the  country  from  improper  and  injurious  food  products.  Let  the 
water  supply  of  any  city  in  the  country  become  contaminated,  and  there 
is  a  commotion  created  very  quickly  by  the  daily  press,  the  board  of 
health,  and  the  physicians  of  the  city,  in  order  to  protect  the  lives  of  the 
people.  The  contaminated  water  supply  and  poisonous  food  may  be 
more  swift  in  their  results  in  the  destruction  of  life  than  the  foul  air  we 
breathe,  but  it  is  none  the  less  certain.  If  we  would  have  our  children 
enjoy  proper  health,  we  must  not  only  protect  the  stomach  from  trans- 
mitting poison  to  the  system,  but  we  must  also  exercise  the  same  care 
with  regard  to  the  lungs. 


Administration]  SCHOOLHOVSE  ARCHITECTURE  '    613 

Some  legislatures  of  the  country  require  by  law  that  every  schoolroom 
erected  and  in  existence  within  the  confines  of  the  state  shall  be  properly 
heated  and  ventilated. 

The  schoolroom  that  is  properly  heated  and  ventilated  must  have  the 
following  requirements  : 

1.  It  must  have  a  mild,  agreeable  atmosphere  in  all  kinds  of  weather. 

2.  It  must  maintain  a  uniform  degree  of  heat  in  all  the  various  parts 
of  the  room. 

3.  It  must  have  a  constant  supply  of  pure,  fresh  air  entering  the  room 
in  such  quantities  that  no  person  in  the  room  will  have  to  breathe  the 
same  air  twice. 

4.  The  foul  and  impure  air  must  be  carried  out  of  the  room  as  rapidly 
as  it  becomes  contaminated. 

5.  The  supply  and  exhaust  must  be  so  regulated  that  it  has  in  itself 
power  to  produce  these  results,  no  matter  what  may  be  the  conditions  of 
the  atmosphere  outside. 

6.  These  results  must  be  produced  in  such  a  way  as  not  to  cause  drafts. 

7.  This  change  of  air  must  be  accomplished  without  opening  the 
windows. 

8.  The  heating  and  ventilation  should  be  so  arranged  that  they  are 
under  the  control  of  the  teacher,  if  not  automatic. 

9.  The  warm  air  should  be  introduced  at  the  ceiling  line,  or  at  least 
above  the  blackboard  line. 

10.  The  foul  air  should  be  exhausted  at  the  floor  line,  so  as  to  prevent 
the  accumulation  of  cold  air  on  the  floors. 

If  the  heating  and  ventilation  of  a  school  building  is  producing 
these  results,  it  is  at  the  same  time  preserving  the  health  of  the  children ; 
if  it  is  defective  in  any  or  all  of  these  points,  it  is  constantly  destroying 
energy  and  vitality,  and  will  eventually  break  down  health. 

Every  building  presents  to  the  experienced  architect  three  distinct 
problems : 

1.  The  building  from  the  point  of  business. 

2.  The  building  from  the  point  of  construction. 

3.  The  building  from  the  point  of  beauty. 

Treating  of  these  in  the  order  in  which  they  are  given,  we  find  — 

1.  That  every  building  is  the  outgrowth  of  a  business  demand. 

2.  That  it  should  be  so  constructed  that  those  called  upon  to  transact 
business  within  its  walls  will  feel  that  life  and  health  are  fully  cared  for 
in  its  construction;  this  comprehends  not  only  strength  of  materials,  but 
application  of  principles  of  sanitation. 

3.  That  art  has  combined  with  the  two  former  points  to  produce  a 
harmonious  whole  that  is  pleasing  to  the  eye. 

Let  me  illustrate  this  last  thought  for  you  by  giving  you  a  word- 
painting  of  an  ideal  schoolhouse  : 


6i4  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [School 

It  is  so  arranged  that  in  the  schoolrooms  the  teacher  has  full  and  easy 
command  of  all  pupils,  both  in  recitation  and  study ;  she  has  a  full  view 
of  all  entrances ;  and  ready  at  hand  are  receptacles  and  closets  for  all  the 
necessary  conveniences  for  the  conduct  of  the  school.  Each  schoolroom, 
all  cloakrooms,  halls,  stairways,  and  entrances  are  so  arranged  and 
grouped  that  the  principal  in  command  of  the  building  has  at  all  times 
full  control  of  all  moving  columns  of  children ;  all  parts  of  the  building 
are  so  perfectly  heated  that  on  the  coldest  and  warmest  days  alike  the 
greatest  attainable  comfort  is  produced ;  the  ventilation  is  so  ample  that 
each  child  is  constantly  supplied  with  a  flow  of  fresh  air  drawn  from  the 
limitless  quantity  without,  and  at  the  same  time  the  air  which  has  been 
vitiated  within  the  building  is  removed ;  each  room  is  so  perfectly  lighted 
that  the  most  delicate  eyes  are  not  injured  by  the  work  assigned ;  the 
entire  building  presents  a  harmonious  whole ;  it  combines  the  materials 
that  nature  has  placed  ready  at  hand  in  such  an  artistic  way  that  the 
minds  of  both  pupil  and  teacher  are  being  constantly  elevated  and 
refined. 

This  ideal  schoolhouse  of  mine  partakes  of  the  local  coloring  of  the 
community  in  which  it  is  built ;  it  is  the  production  of  the  citizens  of 
that  community;  it  is  the  home  of  their  school,  and  under  the  guiding 
hand  of  the  skillful  architect  it  becomes  the  best  expression  of  their 
thought. 

This  ideal  schoolhouse  is  the  theory;  but  what  of  the  practice  ?  In 
many  sections  today,  and  in  some  of  the  best  buildings  too,  the  business  of 
the  school  is  sacrificed  for  architectural  effect;  in  very  many  the  principles 
of  sanitation  are  violated,  at  least  in  part,  and  treated  by  both  board  and 
architect  as  matters  of  minor  detail.  Thus  buildings  are  erected  in 
which  the  health  of  the  occupants  is  constantly  being  injured. 

The  existence  of  this  condition  of  affairs  is  the  outgrowth  of  a  lack  of 
knowledge  on  the  part  of  the  boards  of  education,  school-teachers,  and 
architects.  Sometimes  the  mistakes  are  traceable  to  one  of  these  three 
and  sometimes  to  all,  but  the  most  active  agent  in  ruining  modern  school- 
houses  is  that  thing  known  among  architects  as  "competition." 

I  can  best  make  clear  the  meaning  of  the  last  statement  by  a  few  illus- 
trations drawn  from  our  experience.  In  a  competition  last  spring  for  a 
good  school  building  there  were  present  and  showing  plans  seven  archi- 
tects. Six  were  engaged  in  general  practice ;  we  alone,  having  made  the 
study  of  school  architecture  our  life-work,  stood  for  the  correct  principles 
of  sanitation,  and  as  a  result  we  were  dropped  among  the  first,  with  the 
statement  that  it  was  hardly  possible  that  one  architect  knew  more  than 
six.  A  few  weeks  after  that  I  had  the  pleasure  of  seeing  the  successful 
plans.  The  main  study-room  was  to  be  lighted  from  three  sides — front, 
right,  and  rear.  Every  pupil  in  that  room  will  be  constantly  facing  the 
light.     Other  sanitary  principles  were  as  badly  violated. 


Administration]  SCHOOLHOUSE  ARCHITECTURE  615 

At  another  point  I  was  successfully  carrying  the  board  to  the  policy 
of  the  main  high-school  study-room  on  the  ground  floor,  when  the  city 
superintendent  of  schools  interfered  on  the  ground  that  he  had  always 
had  his  high-school  room  on  the  second  floor,  and  thought  it  was  the  best 
place  for  it ;  and  I  was  defeated.  On  seeing  the  successful  plans  after- 
ward, I  found  that  the  architect  had  violated  every  known  principle  of 
schoolhouse  construction. 

These  illustrations  could  be  multiplied  without  limit,  but  these  will 
show  you  the  results  of  competition  ;  and  these  are  not  exceptions,  but  the 
rule.  The  reason  why  competition  increases  the  number  of  poor  school- 
houses  is  because  in  a  competition  there  is  no  opportunity  or  time  for 
educating  a  school  board  up  to  correct  principles,  and  for  demonstrating 
them  so  that  they  can  be  thoroly  understood.  In  a  majority  of  cases  the 
question  of  plans  is  decided  by  some  detail  that  appears  to  the  architect 
to  be  the  important  thing ;  and  as  he  dwells  on  this  and  magnifies  it  in  his 
presentation  to  the  board,  it  finally  becomes  the  whole  schoolhouse  to 
them,  and  the  broad  principles  of  arrangement,  sanitation,  and  art  blended 
into  a  harmonious  whole  is  completely  lost  sight  of  in  the  special  pleading 
for  minor  details. 

I  am  not  impeaching  the  honesty  of  any  architect  in  this,  neither  am  I 
complaining  of  injustice  on  the  part  of  the  school  board,  for  both  are 
acting  up  to  all  the  knowledge  they  have.  lam  simply  showing  the  diffi- 
culties in  the  way  of  the  realization  of  the  ideal  school  building  as  the 
result  of  competition. 

The  architect,  to  make  a  success  of  schoolhouse  construction,  must 
have  a  broad  experience  in  both  theory  and  practice ;  he  must  have  met 
many  schoolmen  and  talked  and  studied  with  them  over  the  needs  of  the 
school;  he  must  be  conversant  with  the  different  methods  of  conducting 
schools;  he  must  not  only  be  a  student  of  all  the  present  conditions,  but 
he  must  be  thoroly  conversant  with  all  the  indications  that  point  to  the 
development  of  the  modern  school  in  the  near  future;  that  is,  the  success- 
ful school  building  of  today  must  anticipate  the  needs  of  tomorrow.  He 
must  have  a  thoro  knowledge  of  the  laws  of  light,  and  understand  heat- 
ing and  ventilation,  and  the  handling  of  currents  of  air ;  for  he  will  have 
to  assist  and  advise  boards  in  deciding  between  many  and  various  sys- 
tems, and  so-called  systems,  of  heating  and  ventilation.  It  is  not  enough 
for  an  architect  simply  to  be  able  to  make  a  statement  on  any  given 
point ;  he  must  be  able  to  prove  all  statements,  and  give  authority  fbr  all 
positions  taken,  and  then  with  this  knowledge,  in  order  to  make  a  success 
of  his  work,  he  must  have  the  full  confidence  of  the  board  with  which  he 
does  business  —  the  same  confidence  that  a  client  reposes  in  his  lawyer,  or 
the  patient  in  his  doctor.  The  architect,  without  both  this  personal 
equipment  and  confidence  of  his  clients,  will,  in  a  degree  at  least,  make  a 
failure  of  his  school  building.     But  the  law  has  placed  the  handling  of 


6l6  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION 


[School 


all  these  problems  in  the  hands  of  the  school  boards  of  the  country ;  they 
are  the  jury  that  weighs  the  evidence,  and  in  most  states  the  court  of 
last  resort ;  their  decisions  are  final  and  conclusive  in  determining  what 
the  schoolhouse  shall  be,  and  here  the  problem  becomes  most  complex. 
The  membership  of  these  boards  is  usually  made  up  from  among  the 
best  business-men  of  each  community.  They  are  busy  men,  men  of  affairs, 
and  they  can  devote  only  a  limited  portion  of  time  to  the  consideration 
of  these  questions.  They  have  no  previous  experience  from  which  to 
draw,  for  it  rarely  falls  to  the  lot  of  one  board  to  build  more  than  one 
school  building,  since  by  the  time  the  community  needs  another  the  per- 
sonnel of  the  old  board  has  been  changed,  so  that  it  is  a  new  board  that 
has  to  face  and  solve  the  problems.  It  is  too  much  to  ask  these  men,  that 
are  giving  freely  of  their  time  for  the  good  of  the  schools",  to  spend  days 
in  the  study  of  these  problems. 

At  this  point,  when  we  discover  that  our  school  boards  are  not 
equipped  for  this  work,  owing  to  our  political  system  which  is  producing 
a  constant  change,  we  naturally  turn  to  look  for  an  adviser  for  the  board, 
who  has  given  this  question  enough  study  to  be  able  to  advise  against 
mistakes;  and  in  this  way  we  turn  to  the  school-teacher,  principal,  or 
superintendent,  according  to  the  size  of  the  school ;  but  again  we  are 
doomed  to  disappointment ;  for  we  find  that  the  school  worker  is  devoid  of 
definite  and  satisfactory  knowledge  on  these  lines,  and  frequently,  in  place 
of  knowledge,  has  some  prejudices  that  only  tend  still  further  to  com- 
plicate the  solution  of  the  problem. 

I  have  now  called  your  attention  to  the  ideal  schoolhouse.  I  have 
stated  that  but  few  of  the  many  buildings  erected  annually  approach 
this  condition.  I  have  shown  the  disease  and  traced  up  its  cause,  show- 
ing it  to  be  the  general  lack  of  knowledge  or  agreement  on  the  part 
of  the  three  interested  parties  in  the  construction  of  each  schoolhouse 
—  the  board,  the  teacher,  and  the  architect ;  and  now  that  the  diffi- 
culties have  been  made  to  appear,  I  desire  to  turn  your  attention  to  a 
suggested  cure. 

First,  I  desire  to  suggest  that  at  all  county  institutes  a  course  of 
instruction  be  given  to  school-teachers  on  the  principles  of  schoolhous.e 
sanitation,  in  which  the  injury  to  health  caused  by  their  violation  will  be 
brought  plainly  and  fully  to  view ;  that  in  connection  with  these  institutes, 
and  the  examination  of  teachers  that  follows,  a  rigid  examination  be 
required  of  all  candidates  for  certificates  on  these  lines,  not  at  first  as 
a  necessity  to  the  securing  of  a  certificate,  but  as  a  means  of  ascertaining 
the  information  possessed  by  the  teacher.  The  county  superintendent 
then,  having  before  him  the  knowledge  possessed  by  each  teacher,  can 
follow  this  up  with  instruction  at  future  meetings  and  in  correspondence, 
so  as  to  build  up  the  weak  places.  Using  this  method  of  instruction  for 
the  education  of  teachers,  it  will  be  only  a  short  time  until  a  knowledge 


Administration]  SCHOOLHOUSE  ARCHITECTURE  617 

of  schoolhouse  sanitation  can  be  made  a  requirement  for  the  granting  of 
a  certificate,  and  then  every  board  can  have  a  competent  adviser. 

Secondly,  I  suggest  that  the  course  of  study  in  our  common  schools 
embrace  instruction  along  the  lines  of  schoolhouse  sanitation,  thus  pre- 
paring future  generations  for  their  duties  in  these  lines,  and  equipping 
them  with  a  fund  of  knowledge  for  positions  on  the  boards  of  education 
of  the  future.  In  order  to  make  this  practical,  a  brief  text-book  would 
have  to  be  prepared,  covering  the  points  that  every  citizen  should  know, 
and  this  instruction  would  not  only  be  of  benefit  to  the  generations  of  the 
future  in  the  construction  of  school  buildings,  but  would  be  of  aid  in  their 
homes  and  of  general  benefit  thruout  life.  This  instruction  would 
naturally  follow  in  close  connection  with  the  study  of  physiology  and 
hygiene. 

In  our  state  of  Iowa  the  child  is  required  to  learn  the  injury  caused 
by  the  use  of  alcoholic  liquors  in  order  to  promote  temperance ;  in  the 
same  way  our  children  should  be  instructed  in  these  other  .health-giving 
principles,  in  order  to  preserve  life. 

Thirdly,  each  state  should  pass  laws  .requiring  that  every  schoolhouse 
should  measure  up  to  a  certain  sanitary  standard.  This  can  be  accojn- 
plished  by  state  and  local  boards  of  health  together  with  state  teachers' 
associations  petitioning  their  state  legislature  to  pass  such  a  law;  and 
these  petitions  would  be  respected.  The  state  now  requires  that  the  child 
should  be  educated  so  as  to  make  a  good  and  safe  citizen,  and  it  has  now 
only  to  go  a  step  farther  and  require  that  the  community  in  which  he  is 
educated  supply  him  with  such  a  perfectly  constructed  school  building 
that  the  receiving  of  this  education  does  not  in  any  way  mar  his  future 
usefulness  as  a  citizen  by  injuring  his  health ;  for  a  sound  mind  can  exist 
only  in  a  sound  body. 

Fourthly,  the  people  and  taxpayers  should  be  taught  that  it  is  easier 
and  cheaper  to  prevent  disease  than  it  is  to  cure  it.  This  can  be  accom- 
plished by  those  interested  in  the  school  in  each  community  working 
thru  the  local  press,  and  by  the  teacher  agitating  these  subjects  at  "  mothers' 
meetings." 

Fifthly,  boards  of  education  in  the  erection  of  new  buildings  should 
exercise  the  utmost  care  in  the  selection  of  an  architect  who  has  had 
special  experience  in  the  designing  and  construction  of  school  buildings. 

In  the  dawning  of  a  new  century,  as  our  country  is  assuming  its  posi- 
tion among  the  nations  of  the  world  as  a  great  world-power,  with  its 
dependencies  in  the  isles  of  the  sea  and  far  tropical  climes,  with  our 
public-school  system  extended  to  meet  this  expansion,  it  becomes  neces- 
sary for  us  to  provide  such  perfectly  constructed  school  buildings  that  our 
fchildren  —  the  coming  generation  in  whose  hands  will  be  intrusted  the 
affairs  of  life  —  will  be  able  to  meet  the  problems  of  the  future,  not  only 
with  enlightened  minds,  but  with  bodies  both  strong  and  vigorous.     To 


6i8  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION 


[School 


you  and  those  whom  you  represent  here  today  has  been  intrusted  the 
work  of  caring  and  providing  for  the  education  of  the  children  of  a 
mighty  nation.  May  you  be  given  both  knowledge  and  wisdom  so  as 
to  meet  all  of  these  problems  in  a  wise  and  understanding  way  ! 


SCHOOL   ADMINISTRATION   PROBLEMS    IN    THE    SOUTH 

ISRAEL  H.  PERES,  EX-PRESIDENT  OF  BOARD  OF  EDUCATION,  MEMPHIS,  TENN. 

Immediately  it  is  well  to  impress  upon  the  mind  of  our  country  that 
school-administration  problems  in  the  South  do  not  materially  differ  from 
those  in  other  parts  of  the  United  States,  the  exception  being  the  problem 
of  the  education  of  the  negro.  It  must  be  borne  in  mind,  and  constantly, 
that  school  systems  are  not  ready-made  in  heaven  and  dropped  down 
among  us  for  our  use;  they  are  a  growth  and  evolution  from  the  primi- 
tive to  the  more  and  more  complex,  each  phase  keeping  step  with  the 
advance  in  arts  and  sciences,  and  with  the  advance  in  the  general  social 
growth.  The  influence  of  climate,  topography,  psychic  and  industrial 
conditions,  and  the  secondary  influences  accompanying  these,  are  to  be 
considered  in  arriving  at  correct  conclusions  on  the  subject.  Certain  it 
is  that  every  school  system  is  a  product  of  the  community  in  which  it 
exists,  and  is  formed  by  the  average  conscience,  wealth,  and  intelligence 
of  the  community. 

School  boards. — The  school  board,  committee,  or  directory  is  the  first 
proposition.  At  a  meeting  of  a  certain  school  board,  which  was  dis- 
cussing a  question  touching  matters  educational,  one  of  the  members, 
with  a  ludicrous  show  of  pride,  stated  that  he  was  not  an  educator  in  any 
way,  shape,  manner,  or  form,  and  if  the  people  elected  him  for  that  pur- 
pose they  made  a  mistake. 

It  is  an  unfortunate  fact  that  persons  of  this  caliber  are  considered 
eligible  for  places  on  school  boards.  With  the  board  —  and  when  I  say 
board  I  mean  everybody  charged  with  the  duties  of  carrying  on  the  man- 
agement of  the  public  schools  —  lies  the  progress  or  regress  of  the  system. 
Men  should  be  placed  on  the  board  who  have  at  least  one  line  of  vision 
outside  of  the  perspective  of  their  own  peculiar  business  in  life.  They 
should  be  educated  and  cultured  men  ;  and  a  degree  from  a  first-class  col- 
lege or  university  should  not  be  a  badge  of  disgrace,  but  rather  a  prima 
facie  index  of  capacity  to  do  the  work  required  of  a  board. 

A  board  should  select  teachers,  text-books,  and  superintendents,  and 
should  be  composed  of  men  of  sufficient  mental  and  moral  make-up  to 
make  selections  intelligently,  without  political  compulsion  or  sentimental 
constraint.  If  the  board  exists  simply  to  dole  out  places,  provide  funds, 
and  furnish  buildings,  and  look  pleasant,  the  community  can  well  exi^ 
without  it,  and  a  mayor  and  board  of  aldermen  or  city  fathers  can  as  well 
exercise  its  functions. 


Administration!         SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATION  IN  THE  SOUTH  619 

In  the  South  the  problem  is  the  selection  of  men  suited  for  school- 
board  work,  but,  as  above  intimated,  the  problem  is  not  peculiar  to  the 
South.  The  North,  East,  and  West  have  gone  and  are  going  thru  the 
same  throes.  The  South  is  behindhand  somewhat,  not  because  she  lacks 
material,  but  she  has  not  reached  that  point  in  the  specialization  of 
industries  where  men  are  more  and  more  forced  into  particular  lines  of 
work.  In  a  word,  she  is  agricultural  at  present  rather  than  manufac- 
turing. 

In  a  republican  form  of  government  it  is  nearly  impossible  to  keep 
any  of  its  agencies  free  from  politics.  Politics  in  the  school  board  is 
more  an  annoyance  than  an  evil.  There  is  generally  a  concert  of  action, 
notwithstanding  political  difference,  in  questions  affecting  the  public  good  ; 
yet  it  is  well  to  have  the  board  as  decently  free  from  politics  as  is  possible. 
The  ordinary  pot-house  politician  who  wields  the  destinies  of  a  board  is 
not  generally  a  man  of  education  or  culture,  tho  this  may  not  prevent 
him  from  being  a  genial  gentleman ;  and  if  the  community  is  educated  to 
that  point  where  it  will  brook  no  interference  by  the  local  bosses  in  school 
matters,  then  the  standard  of  the  school  board  and  its  scholarship  will  bs 
raised,  and  it  will  become  what  its  name  indicates,  and  not  merely  a  set 
of  perfunctory  ministerial  officers. 

Another  remedy  would  be  to  cut  off  all  salary  and  compensation  of 
members,  and  insist  that  the  members  select  teachers,  superintendents,  and 
other  employes  on  a  system  of  merit,  and  not  on  a  system  of  "  pull."  Men 
should  be  put  upon  the  school  boards  thruout  the  South  who  are  educated, 
and  who  are  not  abashed  at  the  idea  that  they  are  educated ;  men  who  are 
living  in  the  present,  and  whose  best  thoughts  are  not  always  attuned  to 
the  sounds  of  a  rapidly  receding  past.  We  need  men  who  are  interested 
in  education  for  its  own  sake ;  men  who  can  perceive  the  inestimable 
benefit  coming  from  education  to  the  community ;  men  who  take  interest 
in  live  educational  topics  and  who  are  able  to  distinguish  a  blue-back 
speller  from  a  Loomis  trigonometry. 

Money.  —  Here  again  the  industrial  status  wields  the  greatest  influence. 
The  wea^hy  sections  of  the  country  are  not  so  much  hampered  in  this 
respect  as  the  South.  All  over  the  country  the  people  are  less  adverse  to 
paying  a  school  tax  than  any  other.  The  management  of  the  funds  is  a 
more  difficult  problem  than  getting  them.  Ornate  buildings  are  com- 
mendable, but  plain  buildings,  comfortable  and  sanitary,  with  plenty  of 
room,  air,  and  light,  and  more  money  for  teachers'  salaries,  are  much 
more  commendable. 

More  buildings  are  needed,  so  that  too  many  children  are  not  crowded 
in  one  room;  and  more  teachers  are  needed,  so  that  one  teacher  shall 
have  an  average  of  twenty  or  twenty-five  children  in  a  room,  instead  of 
fifty  or  sixty,  as  the  case  now  is ;  the  advantage  of  such  a  condition  is  too 
obvious  for  detail,  especially  before  this  audience.     All  this  consumes 


620  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION 


[School 


cash,  'and  after  every  tax  is  laid  which  makes  for  the  protection  of  the 
community,  the  next  highest  tax  should  be  for  the  schools. 

Text-books. — The  South  is  now  being  made  the  new  battleground  for  the 
uniform  text-book  idea.  The  uniform  text-book  system  is  contrary  to  the 
policy  of  the  state  and  the  community.  It  is  a  step  toward  regimentation 
and  centralization ;  it  eliminates  the  board,  teachers,  and  superintendents. 
In  every  social  unit  it  is  a  fact  that  where  there  is  a  military  government, 
based  upon  regimentation,  the  same  system  obtains  in  the  home,  in  the 
administrative,  in  the  ecclesiastical,  and  in  the  educational  departments. 
This  is  foreign  to  the  principle  upon  which  a  free  public  school  should  be 
based.  In  our  respective  communities  boards  should  be  given  the  utmost 
latitude  in  the  selection  of  text-books  and  the  management  of  schools. 
It  is  no  answer  to  say  that  boards  of  education  may  not  know  what  to  do. 
In  many  cases  this  is  true,  but  the  people  can  easily  select  men  of  mental 
training  to  carry  on  the  schools  in  a  satisfactory  manner.  The  utmost 
and  freest  competition  exists  as  to  supplying  the  school  children  with  text- 
books. The  fittest  survive  in  that  line,  as  in  any  other  department  of  com- 
merce. Inasmuch  as  the  people  of  every  community  elect  their  directo- 
ries and  boards,  they  should  be  given  full  power,  so  that  if  anything  goes 
amiss  they  may  be  held  responsible  to  the  people  who  elected  them.  It  is 
not  a  salutary  measure  for  the  central  power  of  the  state  to  interfere  with 
local  methods  of  education.  Neither  from  an  educational  standpoint  nor 
from  a  standpoint  of  saving  money,  in  the  states  where  it  has  been  tried, 
is  the  uniform  text-book  system  a  success.  It  is  a  well-known  fact  that 
the  elective  courses  in  all  colleges  and  universities  in  the  land  are  being 
widened  day  by  day,  and  required  studies  are  becoming  diminished. 
This  is  simply  individualism  in  educational  methods.  The  uniform  text- 
book is  like  compulsory  insurance,  and  like  all  other  state-aiding  schemes. 
*The  insistence  of  uniformity  has  been  well  illustrated  by  a  French 
minister  of  education  who  once  boasted  that  at  a  given  hour  all  the  boys 
in  France  were  saying  the  same  lesson  at  the  same  time,  and  out  of  the 
same  text-books;  and  reminds  one  also  of  the  revolutionary  regulations 
in  France,  one  of  which  was  that  upon  a  certain  appointed  feti  mothers 
at  a  specified  time  were  to  regard  their  children  with  tender  eyes. 

The  children  are  entitled  to  the  best  text-books  that  the  market  affords, 
and  these  can  be  obtained  only  by  a  full  and  free  competition  in  the  open 
market.  Every  first-class  teacher,  every  first-class  superintendent,  and  any 
man  who  knows  anything  about  the  science  of  education  and  the  art  of 
text-books,  and  who  is  willing  to  take  notice  of  the  strictly  commercial 
strain  running  thru  the  uniform  text-book  system,  has  condemned  it, 
and  will  condemn  it,  and  should  use  every  effort  to  keep  it  from  finding 
a  lodgment  in  his  state. 

"Teachers. — The  power  of  successfully  teaching  lies  almost  wholly  in 
the  personal  magnetism  and  individuality  of  the  teacher.     Knowledge  is 


Administration]       SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATION  IN  THE  SOUTH  621 

necessary,  but  skill,  tact,  and  temperament,  and  power  of  imparting  that 
knowledge,  are  just  as  important,  and  without  them  the  knowledge  will 
be  well-nigh  useless.  As  with  the  textbook,  so  with  the  teacher:  the 
children  are  entitled  to  the  best  the  market  affords  in  full  and  free  com- 
petition, and  the  selection  of  teachers  should  not  be  hampered  by  genea- 
logical or  geographical  lines.  Teachers  should  be  selected  who  are  fitted 
by  previous  training  or  previous  experience  for  the  position,  and  if  there 
should  be  a  vacancy  and  an  application  therefor  come  from  a  person  with 
speaking  credentials  as  to  competency,  the  applicant  should  be  selected, 
no  matter  from  what  part  of  the  country  he  hails.  Professionally  trained 
teachers  should  always  be  employed,  and  the  demand  for  the  profession- 
ally trained  teacher  grows  with  the  growth  and  development  of  the  school 
system. 

The  time  will  come  when  in  our  high  schools  in  the  South  each 
department  of  study  will  be  presided  over  by  a  teacher  professionally 
trained  and  experienced  in  that  particular  study,  and  we  shall  not  have 
the  farce,  or  rather  the  educational  disadvantage  and  detriment  to  the 
pupil,  of  having  one  teacher  spend  thirty  minutes  on  a  Latin  lesson,  and 
then  rush  frantically  across  the  hall  to  teach  geometry  for  fifteen  minutes, 
and  then  breathlessly  turn  his  attention  to  thirty  minutes  of  Greek 
instruction.  We  understand  that  the  school  system  is  a  growth  ;  we 
understand  that  the  school  has  developed  from  the  primitive,  step  by 
step,  to  the  more  complex ;  but,  understanding  these  things,  we  do  not 
positively  take  hold  of  the  situation  and  decide  that  the  management  be 
carried  on  in  a  way  determined  by  nlodern  method.  We  are  too  con- 
tent to  leave  conditions  as  they  are.  We  still  take  young  ladies  just  gradu- 
ated frcHii  the  high  school  and  make  teachers  of  them,  before  they  have 
the  experience  and  the  mature  intellect  so  absolutely  necessary  for  so 
difficult  a  position.  It  is  true  that  they  are  put  thru  a  course  of  quasi 
training,  under  a  system  known  as  aid-teaching,  but  this  does  not  meet 
all  the  requirements  of  the  present  day.  No  person  should  be  elected 
to  the  position  of  a  teacher  in  the  public  schools  of  the  South  until  he 
or  she  has  had  a  normal-school  training.  If  we  cannot  get  trained 
teachers  from  our  own  section  of  the  country,  let  us  get  them  from  some- 
where where  they  are  trained  in  normal  schools.  The  South  has  first-class 
normal  schools  and  educational  facilities,  and  it  should  be  the  duty  of 
men  and  women  who  intend  to  teach,  and  apply  for  positions  in  the 
public  schools,  to  attend  these  normal  schools  in  the  South  or  somewhere 
else.  They  should  not  have  the  assurance  to  insist  on  being  teachers 
unless  they  are  trained  for  that  position.  A  person  has  no  more  right  to 
practice  the  profession  of  teaching  without  previous  training  and  study 
than  to  practice  law  or  medicine,  or  any  other  profession.  The  high- 
school  courses  in  the  South  have  by  no  means  as  yet  reached  the  highest 
standard ;    and   unless  one  be  a  born  teacher,  he  is  not  competent   to 


62  2  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [School 

teach  immediately  after  graduation  from  one  of  those  high  schools,  and  it 
should  not  be  expected  that  he  is  to  be  given  a  place  simply  because  he 
has  graduated.  The  old  system  is  a  waste  of  time,  work,  and  energy,  and 
is  a  positive  detriment  to  the  pupil,  altho  the  best  attainable  until  we  reach 
the  normal  stage. 

But  while  I  insist  on  high-class  ability  and  thoro  training  for  the  pro- 
fession of  teacher  in  the  public  schools  of  the  South,  I  do  likewise  insist, 
on  behalf  of  those  teachers,  that  they  be  paid  higher,  much  higher, 
salaries  than  they  are  being  paid  for  the  strenuous  and  immense  amount 
of  work  that  they  do.  Competent  service  can  be  obtained  only  at  a 
competent  price,  and  there  is  no  profession  that  gives  more  for  what  it 
gets  than  that  of  teacher.  The  average  annual  pay  for  public-school 
teachers  in  the  South  ranges  from  $82  to  $275  for  males,  and  from  $76  to 
$238  for  females,  the  lowest  being  in  North  Carolina  and  the  highest  being 
in  Texas.  So,  then,  the  teacher  problem  resolves  itself  into  an  awaken- 
ing on  the  part  of  the  public  to  a  demand  for  trained  teachers  and  a 
willingness  on  the  part  of  the  public  to  pay  higher  salaries  to  obtain 
them ;  and  the  fact  may  as  well  be  remembered,  and  put  down  as  abso- 
lutely indisputable,  that  first-class  teachers  will  not  give  their  services  for 
third-  and  fourth-class  pay. 

Superintendent. — After  all,  the  life-blood  of  the  school  system  is  the 
superintendent.  He  is  the  mainspring.  He  is  the  fountain.  From  him 
come  energy,  aptitude,  ambition,  progress,  life,  and  success  ;  or  from  him 
emanate  a  dull  conservatism  and  provincialism,  content  simply  to  be  pushed 
along  by  the  general  growth,  development,  and  environment.  The  super- 
intendent, most  of  all,  should  be  a  man  of  liberal  and  broad  education  ; 
a  man  of  letters,  of  mental  strength  and  power;  a  man  of  the  present  and 
not  of  the  past ;  and  he  should  be  a  man  who  is  willing  to,  and  does,  take 
an  interest  in  educational  matters,  and  who  will  make  a  study  of  the 
science  of  teaching  and  education ;  and  no  man  should  be  elected  to  be  a 
superintendent  of  any  system  of  schools  who  is  not  competent  from  every 
point  of  view  suggested. 

He  should  have  the  hearty  co-operation  of  his  board,  and  his  posi- 
tion, so  far  as  it  is  concerned,  should  depend  upon  his  fitness  there- 
for, and  not  upon  personal  predilection  and  maudlin  sentimentality. 
He  should  be  a  man  of  sufficient  skill,  capacity,  and  personality  to  con- 
strain a  board's  favorable  decision  upon  any  recommendation  that  he 
may  make.  He  should  be  relieved  of  all  matters  not  pertaining  to  educa- 
tion per  se.  He  should  not  be  worried  about  funds,  buildings,  grounds, 
furniture,  or  any  other  matter  which  can  be  attended  to  by  a  ministe- 
rial officer  or  employ^.  If  he  is  a  man  of  superior  ability,  he  should  be 
given  absolute  sway  as  to  teachers,  text-books,  and  discipline ;  and  if 
he  is  a  man  of  but  average  ability,  the  community  should  see  to  it  that 
the  board  with  which  he  is  associated  is  composed  of  men  who  know 


Administration]         SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATION  IN  THE  SOUTH  623 

something  at  least  of  educational  matters,  so  that  the  superintendent 
can  take  some  pride  and  pleasure  in  conferring  with  them  upon  such 
subjects,  and  who  can  give  an  intelligent  revisory  decision.  But,  finally, 
each  community  has  a  superintendent  of  public  schools  of  a  caliber  and 
mental  equipment  which  it  demands  and  pays  for,  and  the  community  must 
cast  the  blame  on  none  but  itself  if  the  schools  make  no  material  progress. 

Curriculum. — Along  with  the  intense  specialization  of  industry  comes 
the  specialization  in  educational  courses.  The  best  curricula  of  today 
are  made  up  of  four  general- departments,  to  wit :  first,  the  classic,  which 
is  a  preparation  for  a  collegiate  course,  ending  in  the  bachelor  of  arts 
degree ;  second,  the  scientific,  which  is  a  preparation  for  a  collegiate 
course,  ending  in  a  bachelor  of  science  degree;  third,  a  course  considered 
the  best  preparation  for  a  business  career;  and  fourth,  a  course  including 
manual  training,  whereby  a  preparation  is  made  for  the  mechanic  arts 
and  professions.  Given  a  good  superintendent,  the  curriculum  becomes 
a  pleasure  and  not  a  problem.  He  can  map  out  an  up-to-date  course. 
An  imperative  demand  is,  however,  that  in  any  course  the  pupil  be  not 
given  too  many  studies  at  once.  The  most  pitiable  sight  on  a  street-car 
in  any  of  the  larger  cities  of  the  South  is  to  see  a  child  some  ten  or  twelve 
years  old  loaded  down  with  a  book  for  each  year  of  its  life.  It  is  forced 
to  study  a  portion  of  each  one  of  those  books  for  a  succeeding  day's  reci- 
tation. Children's  work  should  be  so  arranged  that  they  would  not  be 
compelled  or  required  to  have  more  than  one  or  two  studies  to  prepare 
at  night.  The  schoolroom  is  the  place  for  preparation  and  instruction. 
Curricula  should  also  be  substantial.  That  is,  they  should  not  be  clogged 
with  matters  or  studies  which  do  not  make  for  the  solid  foundation  upon 
which  to  build  a  future  cultured  mind.     Fad  and  fancy  should  be  omitted. 

There  should  be  a  concerted  effort  on  the  part  of  the  superintendent 
and  faculty  of  the  southern  schools  to  advance  their  curricula,  and  espe- 
cially their  high-school  courses,  to  that  point  where  the  average  graduate 
from  such  high -school  course  will  be  able  to  stand  the  entrance  examina- 
tion for  admission  to  the  colleges  and  universities  of  the  land.  At  present 
this  is  not  a  fact,  except  in  a  few  cities,  and  in  some  cities  there  seems  to 
be  a  religious  horror  of  such  a  state  in  educational  progress. 

Inasmuch  as  the  South  is  gradually  approaching  that  point  in  her 
economic  status  where  the  agricultural  is  giving  way  to  the  manufacturing 
phase,  the  necessity  for  manual-training  schools  to  prepare  southern 
children  for  the  walks  in  life  attendant  upon  such  conditions  is  patent. 
School  officers  in  the  South  have  been  asking  for  manual-training  schools 
for  the  last  ten  or  fifteen  years,  but  the  sense  of  the  community  has  not 
yet  been  awakened  to  the  necessity  for  their  presence,  and  I  doubt  very 
seriously  that  this  sense  will  be  awakened  until  population  becomes  denser, 
wealth  greater,  and  pecuniary  loss  stares  them  in  the  face.  It  is  a  difficult 
thing  for  men  to  take  time  by  the  forelock,  and   none  the  less  difficult  is 


624  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [School 

it  for  a  community.     Experience  is  a  good  teacher,  everybody  knows,  but 
everyone  thinks  that  experience  is  a  good  teacher  for  everybody  else. 

One  word  about  the  course  which  is  supposed  to  prepare  a  man  for  a 
business  career.  It  might  seem  that  in  separating  the  two  courses  I  have 
followed  the  popular  misconception  that  the  business-man  need  not  be 
educated  like  the  professional  man.  This  is  a  grave  mistake.  The  most 
successful  business-men  in  the  world  have  been  those  who  are  educated 
men,  and  the  world  has  progressed  so  far  on  this  point  that  in  some  of 
the  eastern  reports  it  has  been  decided  that  a -college  education  is  a  neces- 
sity for  which  an  infant's  estate  or  his  guardian  or  parent  is  liable  upon  a 
contract  therefor ;  and  the  law  is  simply  a  concrete  embodiment  of  the 
entire  opinion  of  the  community. 

The  negro. — I  doubt  very  seriously  if  any  set  of  men  in  the  world 
could  have  dealt  so  valiantly  and  successfully  with  negro  education  as  has 
been  done  in  the  South.  When  the  social  and  economic  condition  of  the 
negro  in  the  South  is  taken  into  consideration,  and  when  it  is  further 
remembered  that  at  the  close  of  the  war  the  white  man  in  the  South  was 
heart-broken  and  pecuniarily  paralyzed,  and  when  it  seemed  that  adversity 
had  settled  down  upon  him  never  again  to  be  lifted,  and  when  in  the  face 
of  all  this  there  was  lodged  upon  him  the  charge  of  the  black  man,  the 
slave  labor  which  he  owned  and  which  was  his  economic  curse,  to  be  taken 
care  of  and  lifted  from  ignorance  and  superstition  and  sloth  —  when  all 
these  things  have  been  taken  into  consideration,  the  progress  that  the 
South  has  made  with  the  negro  problem  as  to  education  is  simply  a  marvel. 
It  must  be  remembered  that  the  best  way  to  solve  the  negro  problem  in 
the  South  is  to  let  the  South  alone,  and  if  there  are  any  suggestions  to  be 
offered  to  it,  let  them  be  offered  in  lovingkindness. 

The  burden  of  taxation  in  the  South  is  borne  almost  wholly  by  the 
white  man,  and  part  of  the  proceeds  of  this  taxation  is  given  up  to  the 
education  of  the  black  man ;  and  this  must  be  remembered.  If  there  i? 
any  part  of  the  school  population  in  the  South  for  whom  there  should  be 
manual  training,  more  than  the  higher  branches  of  learning,  it  is  the 
colored  pupil  \  and  if  he  will  turn  his  attention  to  the  learning  of  the 
mechanic  and  agricultural  arts,  he  will  be  more  content  than  if  he  apply 
himself  to  the  acquisition  of  an  education  which  necessarily,  notwithstand- 
ing all  the  moral  denial  of  the  question,  makes  him  forever  discontented 
with  his  lot.  Intensive  education  can  never  break  the  biologic,  moral, 
and  social  barriers  which  limit  his  position  in  this  country's  economy. 
In  the  vast  majority  of  cases  the  time,  energy,  and  money  expended  fall 
short  of  the  object  to  be  attained,  namely,  the  improvement  of  the  race. 
His  salvation  lies  in  the  highest  form  of  education,  and  that  is  preparation 
for  that  business  by  which  he  is  to  make  his  living.  His  best  fields  are 
agriculture  and  the  mechanic  trades.  This  is  nearer  the  solution  than 
Latin,  Greek,  mathematics,  and  philosophical  vagaries. 


I 


Administration]         THE  SCHOOL  BOARD  AND  THE  TEACHERS  625 

There  is  no  point  of  view  from  which  progress  in  education  in  the 
South  has  not  been  made,  and  there  are  no  words  of  praise  nor  any  state- 
ment to  be  made  to  actually  picture  the  moral  strength  and  worth  which 
have  carried  on  this  intrepid  conduct.  The  concrete  results  shown  in  the 
statistical  reports  all  over  the  South  are  more  eloquent  than  any  well- 
rounded  phrases  or  periods  which  can  be  gathered  together  in  a  paper  of 
this  description.  The  other  sections  of  the  country  would  do  well  to 
study  closely  and  sincerely  what  the  South  has  done  for  the  black  man, 
so  far  as  his  education  is  concerned,  before  making  unwarranted  or  use- 
less criticism  upon  it. 

I  do  not  claim  for  this  paper  elaboration  or  analysis.  I  have  simply 
written  out  with  '"prentice  hand"  suggestions  concerning  some  of  those 
needs  in  the  southern  schools  which  I  consider  vital,  and  from  the  dis- 
cussion of  which  by  the  master-hands  in  educational  matters  much  can  be 
learned. 

The  outlook  for  the  coming  years  is  bright  and  full  of  promise.  The 
common-school  systems  of  the  South,  as  well  as  the  other  portions  of  the 
country,  meet  approximately  the  demand  for  the  everyday  pursuits  in 
which  most  men  spend  their  lives.  Normal  schools  are  growing  from 
which  we  shall  get  trained  teachers;  the  old-time  curricula  are  giving  way 
to  the  new ;  trained  and  skilled  specialists  will  appear  in  each  department ; 
the  standing  of  the  colleges  of  the  country  is  becoming  higher  and  higher 
each  year ;  and  as  the  standard  of  those  institutions  is  raised,  so  will  be 
the  standard  of  the  common  and  the  high  schooL 

It  has  been  said  that  no  soldier  is  more  intrepid  or  braver  than  the 
American  soldier.  I  attribute  this  to  the  form  of  government  of  his 
country,  and  the  lessons  of  obedience,  morality,  and  patriotism  which  are 
instilled  in  his  youthful  mind  in  his  school  days;  and  these  lessons  are 
the  crowning  glory  of  the  common-school  system  of  the  United  States. 


THE  RELATIONS  OF  THE  SCHOOL  BOARD  AND  THE 

TEACHERS 

DR.  W.   A.    HUNT,    EX-PRESIDENT    OF    THE    MINNESOTA    ASSOCIATION    OF 
SCHOOL    BOARDS,  NORTHFIELD,  MINN. 

The  primary  aim  of  the  public-school  system  is  to  train  and  educate 
the  youth  of  the  nation  toward  the  highest  morality  and  the  best  citizen- 
ship. Education  alone  carries  with  it  no  certain  guarantee  of  future  use- 
fulness, but  when  coupled  with  good  morals  and  good  sense  is  the  most 
efficient  agency  the  state  can  use  for  the  promotion  of  the  common  good. 
The  accomplishment  of  this  end  by  these  agencies  not  only  insures  the 
future  welfare  of  the  state  by  an  increase  in  the  intelligent  and  moral 
forces,  but  at  the  same  time  tends  to  reduce  crime  and  all  those  condi- 
tions which   lead  to  deterioration  and  decay.     So  that  free  education, 


626  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION 


[School 


described  by  Bishop  Spalding  as  "  a  people's  deliberate  effort  to  form  a 
nobler  race  of  men,"  becomes  largely  a  matter  of  self-protection  and 
self-preservation  to  the  state,  as  well  as  an  agency  for  the  general  eleva- 
tion of  mankind.  On  these  grounds,  the  state  has  assumed  the  duty  and 
claimed  the  right  to  educate  its  youth,  to  train  them  into  useful  and 
upright  citizens ;  and  on  these  grounds  the  great  expense  and  care  which 
the  public-school  system  requires  to  maintain  it  are  fully  justified. 

Authority  to  supervise  and  means  to  provide  for  this  most  important 
undertaking  are  intrusted  by  the  people  to  boards  of  education.  Few 
offices  in  the  gift  of  the  people  carry  with  them  such  responsibilities  or 
such  possibilities  for  great  good. 

"  To  them  are  intrusted  the  duty  of  directing  public  education  along  the  most 
approved  and  progressive  lines,  and,  what  is  of  no  less  moment,  the  performance  of  this 
task  in  such  a  manner  that  the  interests  of  the  public  may  be  judiciously  and  faithfully 
observed.  On  the  one  hand,  these  boards  are  held  to  account  for  the  state  of  public 
education  in  their  respective  localities ;  on  the  other,  they  are  responsible  to  the  people 
for  the  wise  and  efficient  employment  of  vast  sums.  It  is  in  their  power  to  make  or 
unmake  the  public  school.  They  may  blight  it  by  a  niggardly,  bigoted,  or  unwise  policy, 
or  they  may  by  a  broad  and  liberal  policy  raise  it  to  a  high  degree  of  efficiency  and  place 
it  in  a  position  to  do  incalculable  good." 

It  is  of  prime  importance,  therefore,  to  secure  for  these  positions  only 
capable  and  intelligent  men  and  women,  who  are  willing  at  times,  if  need 
be,  to  sacrifice  their  own  interests  for  the  advancement  of  such  an  end. 
From  the  best  citizenship  only  of  a  community  should  be  chosen  those 
who  are  to  manage  and  supervise  a  school  system.  Being  responsible  to 
the  district  for  the  character  of  the  work  done  and  the  results  accom- 
plished in  the  school,  as  well  as  for  the  wise  expenditure  of  the  school 
fund,  each  member  of  a  school  board  is  in  duty  bound  to  have  general 
oversight  of  everything  pertaining  to  the  school.  The  responsibility 
placed  upon  him  does  not,  however,  require  that  he  should  be  a  profes- 
sional architect  or  builder,  should  a  new  school  building  be  needed. 
But  it  does  expect  that  in  transferring  this  work  to  the  practical  builder 
the  school-board  member  shall  be  competent  to  pass  intelligent  judgment 
upon  and  procure  for  the  district  healthful  and  pleasantly  located 
grounds,  a  building  adequately  planned  and  adapted  to  its  particular 
needs,  with  equipment  and  furnishings  appropriate  to  those  needs,  and 
with  satisfactory  hygienic  and  sanitary  arrangements.  Nor  does  the 
authority  given  him  by  the  people  contemplate  his  acting  as  engineer  or 
janitor  of  the  building,  but  expects  him  to  transmit  to  competent  and 
trustworthy  employes  the  care  and  protection  of  the  building  and  school 
property.  Nor,  again,  is  it  expected  that  a  school  director  shall  be  a  pro- 
fessional educator,  or  possess  such  a  knowledge  of  educational  subjects 
and  methods  as  to  enable  him  to  conduct  personally  the  school  work 
proper ;  but  it  is  presumed  that  he  will  delegate  these  duties  to  those 
especially  fitted  and  trained  for  such  work.     Thus  the  field   of  work  of 


Administration]        THE  SCHOOL  BOARD  AND  THE  TEACHERS  627 

the  school  board  is  mainly  one  of  legislation,  with  a  corps  of  skilled 
laborers  to  execute  and  carry  out  the  general  wishes  and  ideas  of  the 
supervising  board.  To  be  able  to  pass  intelligent  judgment  on  the 
efficiency  of  and  the  results  accomplished  by  the  various  employes  of  the 
board  demands  much  study,  thought,  and  time.  Especially  does  this 
apply  to  the  professional  or  educational  lines  of  work,  in  which  the  aver- 
age school-board  member  is  less  informed. 

The  attitude  of  the  school  board,  when  considered  in  relation  to  the 
teaching  force,  is  of  the  greatest  consequence  to  the  welfare  of  the  school. 
The  superintendent  chosen  to  manage  and  direct  the  local  school  system 
should  be  selected  with  the  greatest  care.  His  duties  and  privileges,  and 
his  relation  to  the  board  and  to  his  fellow-teachers,  should  be  clearly 
defined  and  well  understood.  How  much  liberty  he  is  to  enjoy  in  carry- 
ing out  his  preferred  plans  and  methods  of  developing  and  perfecting 
the  school  system  is  a  matter  for  the  board  to  decide.  Of  late  it  has 
been  advocated  by  many  prominent  educators  that  the  selection  and  dis- 
missal of  teachers,  the  choice  of  text-books  and  courses  of  instruction, 
and  similar  duties,  should  devolve  entirely  upon  the  superintendent,  the 
board  withdrawing  fully  from  any  participation  in  these  duties ;  that  the 
superintendent,  being  wholly  responsible  to  the  board  for  results,  should 
have  the  right  to  surround  himself  with  only  such  assistants  as  would  in 
his  judgment  best  and  most  helpfully  co-operate  with  him  in  securing 
desired  results ;  that  he  have  the  power  to  use  such  means  and  introduce 
or  continue  such  methods  as  will  best  tend  to  the  same  end ;  that  perfect 
freedom  and  power  to  develop  and  execute  the  school  work  should  be 
fully  transferred  to  him ;  that  his  opinion  and  choice  on  all  matters  con- 
cerning the  school  work  should  prevail  and  be  final.  The  board  has  the 
legal  right  thus  to  transfer  to  the  superintendent  all  these  particular 
duties,  but  whether  its  relation  to  the  people  and  to  the  taxpayers,  as  well 
as  to  the  child  whose  interests  are  mainly  in  question,  will  warrant  the 
shifting  of  responsibility  so  fully,  must  be  decided  by  each  board.  The 
conditions  maybe  so  varied  and  the  points-'of  view  so  numerous  that  each 
board  is  justified  by  law  and  reason  in  deciding  for  itself  how  much  lib- 
erty it  shall  give  to  the  superintendent.  With  a  thoroly  competent  super- 
intendent a  board  can  safely  and  for  the  best  interests  of  the  school  give 
him  full  power  as  regards  selection  and  dismissal  of  teachers,  choice 
of  text-books,  courses  of  study,  and  all  other  school  work ;  but  in  giving 
him  this  large  liberty  the  board  should  always  fix  conditions  under  which 
such  authority  is  to  be  exercised,  and  should  also  retain  the  power 
within  itself  to  withdraw  or  modify  the  conditions  at  any  time.  Like 
school  boards,  but  perhaps  less  so,  all  superintendents  are  not  "magnifi- 
cently capacitated  for  their  high  calling."  A  board  should  not  fully 
abdicate  its  power  to  a  superintendent  found  deficient  in  certain  qualifi- 
cations and  await  bad  results  or  failure  before  intervening.     The  general 


628  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [School 

policy  of  the  board,  based  as  it  is  on  local  needs  and  conditions,  and  often 
limited  by  the  funds  at  its  disposal,  must  at  times  negative  the  well-meant 
and  ambitious  desires  of  the  superintendent,  even  tho  they  may  be  right 
in  general  theory.  So  that,  however  superior  the  qualifications  of  the 
superintendent,  or  however  inferior  those  of  the  board,  it  is  undoubtedly 
best  that  in  every  phase  of  school-board  duty  the  veto  power  should, 
whether  used  or  not,  remain  with  the  board.  This  removes  the  sting 
from  the  "one-man  power,"  and  prevents  the  board  being  placed  in  the 
position  of  simply  a  "committee  to  register  the  will  of  an  educational 
dictator."  It  allows  the  board,  if  it  wishes,  to  give  without  reserve  into 
the  hands  of  its  educational  expert  the  full  details  of  the  school  work,  or 
to  step  in,  should  occasion  demand,  and  curtail  and  modify  the  authority 
formerly  delegated ;  or  it  allows  the  board  to  reserve  and  share  with  the 
superintendent  some  of  the  responsibilities. 

As  to  choice  of  teachers,  the  selection  should  devolve  primarily 
upon  the  superintendent.  He  is  best  fitted,  by  training  and  experience, 
to  know  the  qualification  of  the  efficient  and  capable  teacher.  He  is 
responsible  to  the  board  for  the  success  of  the  schools,  and  should  be 
allowed  the  right,  so  far  as  possible,  to  choose  his  subordinates. 

"  He  has  more  at  stake  than  any  member  of  the  school  board.  To  him  success  is  a 
vital  matter :  it  means  success  or  failure  in  his  life-work,  while  to  the  member  of  the 
board,  however  public-spirited,  the  schools  are  but  an  incidental  interest." 

A  superintendent's  powers  should  at  least  be  coextensive  with  his 
responsibilities.  No  board  can  fairly  hold  to  strict  account  for  bad  results 
or  failure  a  superintendent  upon  whom  it  has  thrust  incompetent  and 
refractory  teachers,  or  whom  it  has  denied  sufficient  facilities  to  conduct 
the  school  work  to  his  own  satisfaction.  In  the  first  case,  more  freedom 
should  be  given  the  superintendent  in  choosing  his  assistants,  or  in  that 
much  the  board  should  shoulder  the  responsibility ;  in  the  second, 
the  blame,  if  any,  falls  on  the  board,  or  possibly  upon  the  district,  for  not 
providing  funds  sufficient  to  meet  the  requirements.  Should  the  superin- 
tendent be  plainly  wrong,  or  show  conscious  or  unconscious  favoritism  in 
choice  of  a  teacher,  the  board  can  use  its  ultimate  authority  to  correct  and 
overrule  such  recommendation.  To  follow  this  course  and  allow  the 
superintendent  to  nominate  the  teachers  would  benefit  many  a  school. 

As  to  the  text-books  used,  the  superintendent's  choice  should  prevail; 
as  to  courses  of  study,  the  superintendent  should  act  as  adviser  to  the 
board.  It  is  one  of  the  duties  of  a  school  board  to  decide  what  shall  be 
taught  in  the  school.  Whether  a  high  school  shall  provide  a  course  pre- 
paratory to  college  or  university;  whether  it  shall  furnish  a  business 
course ;  whether  its  curricula  shall  cover  one,  two,  or  four  years,  and  what 
shall  comprise  them  —  all  these  questions,  and  others,  must  ultimately  be 
decided  by  the  board,  not  by  the  superintendent.  It  is  his  province  to 
advise  the  board  as  to  the  desirability  of  such  courses  or  changes  in  them, 


Administration]         THE  SCHOOL  BOARD  AND  THE  TEACHERS  629 

and  to  say  how  the  work  shall  be  done  in  these  lines,  and  what  methods 
shall  be  used  by  the  teachers. 

"A  good  superintendent  cannot  make  a  good  school.  The  securing 
of  good  teachers  is  the  vital  part  of  the  whole  matter."  Above  and 
beyond  all  material  forces  of  school  government  and  administration, 
efficiency  and  progress  depend,  in  greatest  measure,  upon  the  teacher.  A 
good  teacher  is  truly  said  to  be  the  school.  Whatever  may  be  the  environ- 
ment provided  by  the  board  for  the  pupil,  the  chief  factor  in  molding 
character  and  preparing  for  future  usefulness  and  good  is  the  capable, 
conscientious  teacher  whose  personal  qualities,  character,  education,  and 
professional  skill  are  the  best. 

It  being  for  the  best  interests  of  the  school  to  secure  and  retain  good 
teachers,  the  salaries  offered  should  be  the  highest  possible,  consistent 
with  a  wise  economy  of  public  funds.  "The  board  that  gets  cheap  teach- 
ers, because  they  are  cheap,  will  always  be  the  guardian  of  poor  schools," 
The  board  that  supplies  its  teaching  force  largely  from  home  sources, 
unless  conscientiously  careful  to  eliminate  all  influences  which  might  tend 
toward  the  selection  of  a  weak  teacher,  such  as  friendship,  political  influ- 
ences, charitable  motives,  and  the  like,  is  more  liable  to  lower  the  efficiency 
of  the  school  than  the  board  which  gets  the  best  only,  from  whatever  source, 
home  talent  of  course  not  barred. 

New  and  better  methods  of  instruction  are  yearly  being  presented, 
requiring  increased  demands  upon  the  time  and  purse  of  the  progressive 
teacher  who  endeavors  to  keep  in  touch  with  the  latest  and  best.  The 
expense  necessary  in  attending  teachers'  conventions,  visiting  other  schools, 
subscribing  for  educational  journals  and  books,  adds  much  to  a  teacher's 
value  to  a  district,  and  it  is  a  simple  matter  of  justice  to  the  teacher  that 
the  compensation  should  at  times  be  readjusted  to  render  recognition  of 
increased  worth  and  efficiency.  Such  appreciation  and  encouragement 
will  tend  to  retain  the  best,  and  so  the  continuity  of  the  school  work  can 
be  maintained  and  made  more  productive  by  infrequent  changes  in  the 
teaching  force.  Good  teachers  will  naturally  command  the  best  salaries, 
and  smaller  cities  are  often  unable  to  meet  the  salaries  paid  by  the  larger, 
thus  losing,  frequently,  their  best  teachers.  This,  of  course,  is  the  teach- 
er's merited  good  fortune,  and  no  board  unable  to  offer  equal  induce- 
ments should  stand  in  the  way  of  the  teacher's  betterment.  Even  if  under 
contract,  it  is  often  better  to  release  the  fortunate  teacher,  provided  the 
position  can  be  filled  satisfactorily.  Release,  however,  should  rarely  be 
asked,  or  granted,  during  the  continuation  of  the  school  year.  As  to 
contracts,  it  is  said  that  they  are  oftener  broken  by  teachers  than  by  school 
boards.  The  remedy  in  either  case  is  the  observance  of  ordinary  busi- 
ness principles  by  both  parties,  with  a  willingness  to  appreciate  the  posi- 
tion each  side  is  placed  in,  and  a  disposition  to  be  fair  and  obliging.  A 
teacher  under  contract  should  secure  release  before  engaging  elsewhere. 


630  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [School 

and  no  board  should  knowingly  engage  or  tempt  a  teacher  by  better  offers 
who  is  already  under  contract  with  another  board,  but  should  confer  for 
her  release  with  the  board  under  which  she  is  serving.  It  is  a  right  of  a 
teacher,  and,  in  fact,  a  duty  she  owes  to  herself,  to  seek  and  secure  posi- 
tions of  greater  usefulness  and  offering  better  compensation  or  more  con- 
genial labor,  and  few  boards  will  oppose  such  advancement  if  release  is 
asked  in  time  to  allow  replacing  without  material  injury  to  the  school. 

The  tenure  of  office  of  the  teacher  should  depend  on  the  quality  of 
work  done  and  her  harmonious  working  with  the  superintendent.  A  good 
teacher  should  receive  occasional  assurances  of  appreciation  that  will  lead 
her  to  know  that  her  position  is  not  in  jeopardy  as  long  as  the  character 
of  her  work  remains  satisfactory.  Dismissals  should  only  be  for  good 
causes,  and,  under  certain  circumstances,  only  after  opportunity  is  given 
for  improvement  or  defense.  It  should  be  done  with  as  little  publicity  as 
possible,  for  the  good  of  both  parties.  A  fair  and  impartial  hearing 
should  be  accorded  the  teacher,  and  the  decision  should  be  based  upon 
the  best  interests  of  the  school. 

The  relation  of  the  board  to  the  teachers'  school  work  touches  only 
at  points  most  frequently  brought  to  the  board's  attention  by  the  super- 
intendent, and  consists  in  providing  faccilities  for  the  daily  work.  A 
good  teacher  may  be  able  to  do  good  work  without  liberal  equipment  of 
school  supplies,  but  it  is  poor  economy  to  expect  or  pay  teachers  to  work 
with  inferior  or  inadequate  tools.  A  teacher  should  not  be  overworked. 
The  number  of  classes  and  size  of  the  classes  should  be  kept  down  to  a 
point  insuring  efficiency  of  personal  work  with  each  pupil.  The  tendency 
to  reduce  the  average  number  of  pupils  assigned  to  a  teacher  is  a  good 
one  and  will  enable  the  teacher  to  do  better  individual  work. 

It  has  been  said  that  "  teachers  should  receive  the  warmest  support  of 
the  school  board  and  feel  that  the  board  is  ready  to  sustain  them  in 
every  honest  endeavor  to  improve  the  schools ; "  that  "  the  board  should 
be  first  to  recognize  and  reward  successful  effort  and  last  to  criticise." 
These  are  but  due  courtesies  which  a  board  should  at  all  times  extend  to 
the  teacher.  The  obligation  of  the  board  to  the  teacher  does  not  end 
when  the  contracts  are  signed.  The  meritorious  teacher  is  entitled  to 
more  recognition  and  approval  of  good  work  done  than  is  indicated  in 
her  regular  pay-day  check.  A  teacher  should  have,  and  know  that  she 
has,  the  moral  support  of  the  board.  Frequent  visiting  of  the  school- 
room by  the'  member  will  be  a  mutual  help.  One  man  working  for 
another  will  always  do  better  work  if  he  knows  his  labor  is  to  be  fre- 
quently inspected.  If  he  is  a  conscientious  worker,  he  will  be  glad  to 
know  that  honest  and  faithful  labor  will  not  go  unnoticed  by  the 
employer.  If  he  is  a  shirk,  or  negligent,  the  knowledge  that  his  work  is 
to  be  inspected  and  measured  up  will  be  an  incentive  to  better  and  more 
careful  effort.     Lack  of  inspection  and  holding  to  strict  account  of  the 


Administration]  SCHOOL-BOARD  ORGANIZATION  63 1 

employed  in  public  affairs  is  the  cause  of  much  waste  of  public  funds. 
Close  school  inspection,  too,  by  the  board  will  prove  both  a  matter  of 
justice  and  encouragement  to  the  good  superintendent  or  teacher  and  a 
spur  to  the  negligent,  and  so  is  a  means  of  improvement  in  school  work. 
How  can  the  board  support  or  criticise  intelligently  without  personal 
familiarity  with  the  workings  of  the  school,  which  can  only  come  from 
frequent  visitations  and  a  careful  study  of  conditions  ? 

The  progressive  teacher  is  always  quick  to  adopt  better  ways  and 
methods.  The  good  superintendent  frequently  has  new  ideas  to  adopt. 
The  board  should  value  this  spirit  of  progress  in  them,  and,  if  asked  to 
indorse  some  desirable  innovation,  should  fully  inform  itself  about  it 
before  refusing  aid,  and  should  not  fail  to  support  it  if  practicable. 
Many  a  successful  and  faithful  superintendent  and  teacher  has  lost  favor 
with  the  board,  and  even  jeopardized  his  position,  by  too  ardently  advo- 
cating some  needed  reform  or  advanced  method  which  the  board  has 
failed  carefully  to  investigate  and  see  the  advantage  of.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  financial  limitations  of  the  district  often  prevent  the  adoption 
of  desirable  innovations,  and  a  wise  superintendent  or  teacher  will  post- 
pone urging  the  needed  outlay. 

There  is  a  unity  of  purpose  in  the  duties  of  board,  superintendent, 
and  teachers ;  the  end  sought  by  each  is  the  same.  The  people  provide 
definite  funds  and  delegate  authority  to  the  school  board  to  establish  a 
uniform  system  of  schools  for  the  betterment  of  future  citizenship.  The 
board  invests  part  of  the  funds  in  providing  and  equipping  school 
buildings  ;  the  remaining  part  secures  the  teaching  force.  To  the  super- 
intendent are  assigned  the  care  and  management  of  the  local  educational 
system  in  its  entirety;  to  the  teacher,  the  final,  personal  duties  of  moral 
and  intellectual  development  of  the  child.  The  board,  superintendent, 
and  teacher  are  but  servants  of  the  people  to  bring  about  the  one  result. 
The  superintendent  fits  in  as  a  co-ordinating  force  between  the  board 
and  the  teacher.  He  is  an  adviser,  and  often  a  leader,  to  the  board,  and 
a  guide  and  leader  to  the  teacher.  When  harmony  and  full  co-operation 
exist  among  these  three,  under  the  skillful  guidance  of  the  superintendent, 
the  best  results  can  be  returned  to  the  people  by  the  board.  When 
board,  superintendent,  and  teachers  work  industriously,  honestly,  and 
intelligently  together  for  the  character-building  and  intellectual  develop- 
ment of  the  pupil,  and  frankly  and  fully  confer  with  each  other  as  to  the 
best  means  and  measures,  each  will  recognize  the  others'  rights  and 
respect  them,  and  a  successful  school  will  be  the  result. 


SCHOOL-BOARD  ORGANIZATION 

W.    S.    ELLIS,    PRESIDENT    OF    BOARD    OF    EDUCATION,    ANDERSON,    IND. 

The  subject  of  this  paper  is  somewhat  indefinite  in  its  nature,  and  as 
the  limitations  of  the  discussion  are  not    suggested,  I  take  it  I  am  at 


632  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [School 

liberty  to  say  what  I  choose,  looking  at  the  school  board,  as  I  shall,  briefly, 
from  an  educational  and  business  view. 

It  is  now  generally  admitted  that  the  school  has  made  more  progress 
from  mere  empiricism  to  real  scientific  principles  in  the  method  of  its 
work  than  has  the  state,  the  family,  or  the  church.  School  work  has  made 
such  advance  that  we  do  not  now,  as  formerly,  look  to  see  which  of  many 
evils  needs  attention  most,  but  rather  where  we  can  find  a  defect  to  be 
remedied.  The  professional  preparation  of  teachers  and  the  active  work 
in  the  schoolroom  have  been  brought  to  an  advanced  stage,  and  one  of  the 
duties  now  is  to  make  all  the  factors  in  school  work  equally  efificient. 
One  of  these  factors  is  the  school  board.  If  you  were  to  ask  what 
part  of  the  machinery  of  our  schools  of  today  is  weakest,  I  should 
unhesitatingly  answer,  the  school  board.  The  work  of  school  boards  has 
not  kept  pace  with  other  lines  of  work,  and  this  is  due  perhaps,  to  some 
extent  at  least,  to  their  orf^anization,  including  in  that  term  their  creation 
under  the  law  controlling  them.  Of  course,  if  we  had  ideal  men  on 
boards,  little  or  nothing  need  be  said  about  organization,  but  unfortu- 
nately we  are  not  always  so  blessed.  A  word  by  way  of  digression  as  to  the 
question  of  fitness..  A  school  board  should  be  a  help  and  not  a  hin- 
drance in  the  legitimate  work  of  schools,  and  that  school  board  whose 
members  are  chosen  from  any  other  consideration  than  fitness  for  the 
place  will  retard  as  much  as  help  the  progress  of  the  schools.  The 
school  board  needs  men  who  are  not  merely  prominent  in  a  business  or 
professional  way,  but  who  have  above  all  else  a  correct  conception  of  the 
objects  and  needs  of  primary  education.  It  is  axiomatic  that  he  who  has 
not  a  clear  idea  of  what  is  to  be  done  will  not  use  the  most  intelligence 
in  the  selection  of  means  to  accomplish  it.  The  first  step  to  be  taken 
in  giving  a  town  or  city  good  schools  is  a  wise  selection  of  the  school 
board.  I  mention  this  fact  for  the  reason  that  sooner  or  later  we  shall 
all  have  an  opportunity  of  showing  our  judgment  in  the  selection  of  our 
successors. 

The  school  board  should  be  not  merely  a  passive  adjunct  to  the 
school,  but  an  active,  working  force,  doing  something  more  than  mere 
formal  routine  work  of  passing  on  what  is  brought  to  its  attention. 

In  order  that  a  school  board  may  be  a  good  working  body,  and  do 
what  it  is  created  for,  I  think  it  is  necessary  — 

I.  That  the  members  be  appointed  and  not  elected.  If  they  are 
elected,  it  places  the  position  on  a  level  politically  with  other  offices  and 
brings  it  directly  into  politics.  Politics  is  an  evil  in  school  work,  and, 
like  all  others,  it  tends  to  generalize  itself;  and  whenever  and  wherever 
political  or  other  foreign  influence  dominates  the  election  of  school  boards, 
such  influence  is  carried  into  the  schools  immediately,  to  their  irrepa- 
rable injury.  In  perhaps  two-thirds  of  our  American  cities  the  election 
of  members  of  school  boards  is  determined  by  political  or  some  other 


Administration]  SCHOOL-BOARD  ORGANIZATION  633 

influence  which  has  not  in  view  the  highest  good  of  the  school.  In  many 
places  the  position  is  handed  out  from  the  political  pie-counter  as  a  means 
of  preserving  the  equilibrium  of  political  conditions,  and  in  many 
instances  at  the  dictation  of  the  ward  heeler.  In  American  government 
the  state  is  dominated  by  politics,  and  as  the  school  is  a  creature  of  the 
state,  it  is  difificult  at  best  to  keep  the  school  free  from  political  control. 
Politics  is  a  stranger  to  modesty,  and  tries  to  control  everything,  and 
sometimes  almost  succeeds.  Its  presence  is  nowhere  so  baleful  as  in  the 
schools,  as  its  purposes  are  totally  adverse.  I  am  not  decrying  politics, 
but  trying  to  make  the  point  that  the  school  is  one  of  the  great  institu- 
tions of  soffiety,  with  its  own  inherent  law  by  which  it  is  to  be  controlled, 
and  that  law  is  not  the  law  of  politics.  I  know  of  great  educational  insti- 
tutions—  universities  and  colleges  —  that  are  owned,  operated,  and  con- 
trolled by  the  political  boss.  When  I  use  the  word  "  great"  I  mean  great 
in  possibilities.  America  can  never  lay  claim  to  first  rank  in  educational 
work  until  she  removes  the  last  vestige  of  the  work  of  the  politician  from 
her  schools  in  their  control  and  management.  There  are  many  reasons 
in  favor  of  the  appointment  gf  members  of  boards  which  will  suggest 
themselves  and  need  not  be  here  stated. 

2.  The  number  of  members  should  be  small.  I  understand  that  in 
various  cities  of  our  country  the  number  of  members  is  twenty-five  and 
even  greater.  I  think  the  number  should  not  be  less  than  three  nor  more 
than  five.  A  school  system  should  be  managed  on  business  principles, 
and  three  men  can  do  the  work  better  than  twenty,  as  the  former  number 
can  meet  and  talk  about  school  matters  in  an  informal  way  and  accom- 
plish results  much  easier  than  an  unwieldy  body.  The  ideas  of  a  few 
control  even  in  a  large  body,  and,  if  so,  others  are  useless,  and  even  in 
the  way. 

3.  Each  member  of  the  board  should  represent  the  entire  corporation 
and  not  merely  one  ward.  Ward  representation  is  in  my  judgment  the 
worst  feature  found  in  the  school  boards  of  today.  Under  this  system 
is  afforded  a  better  field  for  political  interference.  The  members  of 
the  board  do  not  feel  the  full  force  of  public  sentiment  on  questions  that 
arise.  There  is  a  greater  opportunity  to  dodge  and  shirk  responsibility, 
as  the  members  from  one  ward  can  shift  blame  to  someone  else.  This 
system  invites  a  rivalry  among  members  in  the  way  of  securing  places  for, 
or  dispensing  favors  to,  their  respective  wards. 

4.  There  should  be  a  uniform  system  thruout  the  state.  Emerson 
has  said :  "  There  is  the  best  way  of  doing  everything,  even  to  the  boiling 
of  an  t.gg."  There  is  but  one  best  way,  and  the  entire  state  is  entitled  to 
its  benefits.  I  take  it  that  the  argument  in  favor  of  uniformity  in  all  mat- 
ters of  administration  thruout  the  state,  and,  if  it  were  possible,  thruout 
the  United  States,  is  so  patent  that  it  need  not  be  mentioned  in  this 
paper. 


634  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Schoo 

It  is  needless  to  say  that  in  my  own  state  of  Indiana  we  do  not  always 
have  the  best  possible  men  on  school  boards,  and  yet  we  think  our  system 
is  most  favorable  to  the  selection  of  competent  men  and  for  the  highest 
sort  of  work  by  the  boards.  We  have  the  four  conditions  I  have  dis- 
cussed, viz.,  the  appointive  system,  small  boards,  entire  representation, 
and  uniformity  thruout  the  state.  Our  statute  is  as  follows  (sec.  4439,  R. 
S.,  1 881):  "The  common  council  of  each  city  and  the  board  of  trustees  of 
each  incorporated  town  of  this  state  shall,  at  their  first  regular  meeting  in 
the  month  of  June,  elect  three  sch'ool  trustees,  who  shall  hold  their  office 
one,  two,  and  three  years,  respectively,  and  annually  thereafter  shall  elect 
one  school  trustee,  who  shall  hold  his  ofifice  for  three  years.  Said  trustees 
shall  constitute  the  school  board  of  the  city  or  town."  This  is  followed  by 
a  provision  for  giving  bond,  organization  of  board,  filling  vacancies,  and 
compensation  for  services.  The  following  sections  provide  in  substance 
that  these  boards  shall  receive  and  pay  out  all  special  school  and  tuition 
revenues  apportioned  to  their  respective  corporations,  keeping  separate 
accounts  for  each  fund,  and  for  filing  with  the  county  auditor  complete 
reports  on  same  at  stated  times;  that  such  boards  shall  have  charge  of  edu- 
cational affairs  generally,  with  power  to  build  and  equip  schoolhouses, 
levy  taxes,  provide  courses  of  study,  select  teachers  and  superintendents, 
and  so  on.  Some  of  the  beneficial  results  of  this  system,  and  of  which 
we  are  modestly  proud  in  our  state,  are  : 

1.  It  has  in  a  degree  removed  the  school  from  political  control. 

2.  It  has  resulted  in  the  employment  of  teachers  on  the  basis  of  pro- 
fessional qualifications,  independent  of  politics,  religion,  or  friendship. 

3.  It  has  thereby  led  to  a  higher  standard  of  professional  qualifica- 
tion among  teachers,  and  filled  our  state  normal  school  and  other  like 
institutions  to  overflowing. 

4.  It  gives  us  a  more  economic  school  administration,  as  well  as  a 
more  judicious  expenditure    f  school  revenue. 

5.  Above  all,  it  has  resulted  in  a  fine  school  spirit  among  the  people, 
which  is  the  best  safeguard  against  ill-advised  action  by  the  boards. 

Let  me  give  you  one  concrete  illustration.  A  few  weeks  ago  a  political 
conspiracy  was  hatched  in  one  of  the  leading  cities  of  my  state  against  the 
superintendent  of  schools.  He  was  removed  ;  and  instantly  public  opinion 
was  aroused,  indignation  was  expressed  on  every  hand,  regardless  of 
party,  and  public  septiment  compelled  that  board  to  re-employ  the  man 
dismissed. 

This  is,  in  the  briefest  possible  statement,  my  conception  of  the  condi- 
tions and  the  organization  of  the  school  board  that  will  make  it  a  potent 
factor  in  bringing  about  the  highest  sort  of  school  work.  I  know  of 
no  other  system  under  which  the  school  can  to  such  an  extent  bring  to 
its  aid  that  most  helpful  influence,  intelligent  public  sentiment,  and  by 
which  the  school  shall  work  out  its  highest  destiny. 


LIBRARY  DEPARTMENT 


SECRETARY'S  MINUTES 


FIRST  SESSION.— Wednesday,  July  ii,  1900 

The  Library  Department  of  the  National  Educational  Association  met  in  the  German 
Fusileers'  Hall,  Charleston,  S.  C,  at  2 :  30  p.  M.,  and  was  called  to  order  by  President 
Sherman  Williams,  of  Glens  Falls,  N.  Y. 

Rev.  Dr.  C.  S.  Vedder,  pastor  of  the  Huguenot  Church,  Charleston,  in  a  few  well- 
chosen  words  extended  a  kindly  greeting  to  the  strangers  on  behalf  of  the  city  of 
Charleston.     President  Williams  responded. 

The  first  paper  was  presented  by  Miss  Mae  E.  Schreiber,  supervisor  of  the  public-school 
library  system,  Madison,  Wis.,  on  "  How  to  Direct  Children's  Reading."  The  paper  was 
discussed  by  H.  L.  Elmendorf,  Buffalo,  N.  Y.;  Sherman  Williams,  Glens  Falls,  N.  Y.; 
William  Beer,  New  Orleans,  La.;  O.  H.  Bakeless,  Carlisle,  Pa.;  and  Miss  M.  E.  Ahem, 
Chicago,  111. 

A  Committee  on  Nominations  was  appointed  by  the  president,  as  follows : 

H.  L.  Elmendorf,  of  New  York.  Miss  Ellen  Fitz  Simons,  of  South  Carolina. 

Miss  M.  E.  Ahern,  of  Illinois, 

A  Committee  on  Resolutions,  as  follows  : 

O.  H.  Bakeless,  of  Pennsylvania.  William  Beer,  of  Louisiana. 

Mrs.  Alice  A,  Palmer,  of  South  Carolina. 

SECOND  SESSION.— Friday,  July  3 

The  meeting  was  called  to  order  at  3 130  Friday  afternoon,  July  13,  in  German 
Fusileers'  Hall,  by  President  Williams,  who  then  introduced  Mr.  William  M.  Slaton, 
principal  of  the  Boys'  High  School,  Atlanta,  Ga. 

Mr.  Slaton,  on  behalf  of  the  ladies  of  the  Industrial  Association  of  the  Seaboard  Air 
Line  District,  presented  to  the  Library  Department  a  beautiful  silk  flag,  with  an  appropri- 
ate address. 

The  flag  was  accepted  by  President  Williams  on  behalf  of  the  department. 

Mr.  H.  L.  Elmendorf,  superintendent  of  the  public  library,  Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  next  read 
a  paper  on  "  The  Greater  School ;  or.  The  School  plus  the  Library,  Greater  than  Either." 

The  paper  was  discussed  by  President  Williams,  of  Glens  Falls,  N.  Y.;  Mr.  Halleck, 
of  Louisville,  Ky.;  Mr.  Metcalf,  of  Boston,  Mass.;  Mr.  Slaton,  of  Atlanta,  Ga.;  Miss 
Fitz  Simons,  of  Charleston,  S.  C;  and  Mr.  Bakeless,  of  Carlisle,  Pa. 

Mrs.  Eugene  B.  Heard,  of  Middleton,  Ga.,  library  commissioner  of  Georgia  and 
superintendent  of  traveling  libraries  of  the  Seaboard  Air  Line  system,  read  a  paper  on 
"The  Free  Traveling  Library,  an  Aid  to  Education,  and  a  Factor  in  National  Life." 

The  paper  was  discussed  by  Mr.  Elmendorf,  Mr.  Glenn,  state  superintendent  of  public 
instruction  of  Georgia;  Miss  Harrison,  editor  of  the  Southern  Journal  of  Education; 
Mrs.  Coleman,  of  South  Carolina ;  Mr.  Metcalf,  of  Boston  ;  and  President  Williams. 

Mr.  Elmendorf  moved  that  the  thanks  of  the  department  be  extended  to  President 
Williams  for  his  untiring  efforts  during  the  year  for  the  success  of  the  meeting.  Unani- 
mously carried. 

63s 


636  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Library 

The  Committee  on  Nominations  reported  the  .following  names,  which  were  unani- 
mously adopted  : 

For  President— 'S.o\t&x\.  C.  Metcalf,  of  Boston. 

Yox  Vice-President —  Dr.  Jerome  H.  Raymond,  president  of  State  University  of  West  Virginia, 

For  Secretary  —  Miss  Mary  Eileen  Ahern,  editor  of  Public  Libraries,  Chicago. 

The  Committee  on  Resolutions  reported  as  follows  : 

Whereas,  Tlie  Library  Department  of  the  National  Educational  Association  aims  to  awaken  a  wide- 
spread interest  on  the  part  of  teachers  and  school  people  in  the  right  use  of  the  public  library,  and  emphasize 
the  right  use  of  good  literature  by  the  pupils ; 

Resolved^  by  the  Library  Department  of  the  National  Education  Association, 

That  the  papers  and  proceedings  of  its  meetings,  so  far  as  practicable,  be  published  and  disseminated 
again  this  year  as  was  recommended  by  the  Committee  on  Resolutions  of  last  year. 

That  a  brief  summary  of  the  work  of  the  department,  with  its  aims  and  recommendations  for  the  year,  be 
prepared  by  the  secretary  and  presented  to  the  various  educational  journals  for  publication, 

■  That  a  committee  be  appointed  to  prepare  and  publish  for  distribution  a  leaflet  containing  lists  of  aids 
and  guides  to  teachers  in  the  choice  of  books. 

O,  H,  Bakeless,  Chairman, 

Wm.  Beer, 

Mrs.  Alice  A.  Palmer, 

Committee. 

On  motion,  a  committee,  consisting  of  H.  L.  Elmendorf,  Buffalo,  N,  Y.;  Mae  E. 
Schreiber,  Madison,  Wis.;  William  Beer,  New  Orleans,  La.,  was  appointed  to  prepare  a 
list  of  books  to  aid  teachers  in  the  choice  of  a  library  calculated  to  lead  the  reading  by 
pupils  along  the  proper  lines. 

President  Williams  introduced  Mr,  Metcalf,  president-elect,  who,  after  a  few  words, 
declared  the  meeting  adjourned. 

Mary  Eileen  Ahern, 

Secretary. 


PAPERS  AND  DISCUSSIONS 


HOW  TO  DIRECT  CHILDREN  IN  THEIR  READING 

MISS     MAE      E.     SCHREIBER,    LIBRARIAN,    STATE      DEPARTMENT      OF      PUBLIC 
INSTRUCTION,  MADISON,  WIS. 

The  study  of  literature  is  not  the  study  of  the  history  of  literature, 
with  an  occasional  poem  or  fragment  of  prose  thrown  in.  To  fill  the 
mind  with  the  biographies  of  authors,  and  to  memorize  the  list  of  books 
they  have  written,  is  not  to  study  literature.  Instead  of  reading  about 
authors  and  studying  a  text-book  on  literature,  the  student  must  come 
into  direct  contact  with  literature  and  read  for  himself.  The  frequent 
practice  in  teaching  literature  has  been  to  take  a  few  pieces  of  literature, 
and  to  spend  much  time  in  analyzing  each  one ;  the  meaning  of  every 
word  is  studied,  and  its  derivation  traced;  figures  are  pointed  out  and 
named,  historical  facts  verified,  accuracy  of  scientific  facts  tested,  every 
illusion  traced  until,  in  this  process  of  vivisection,  the  real  life  has  been 
lost.  Literature  is  the  expression  of  the  soul  of  humanity,  of  the  whole 
range  of  human  experiences ;  and  the  study  of  literature  should  consist 
in  the  interpretation  of  the  experiences,  the  thoughts,  the  feelings,  and 
the  aspirations  of  the  race.     Dr.  J,  W.  Stearns  says : 


Department]  HOW  TO  DIRECT  CHILDREN'S  READING  637 

Interpretation  should  consist  in  such  things  as  the  artistic  presentation  of  character 
types,  the  setting  forth  of  the  play  of  circumstances  in  molding  character,  the  unfolding 
of  the  consequences  of  actions  and  the  might  of  destiny,  the  manifestations  of  the  spiritual 
meaning  of  material  things  revealing  the  charm  of  beauty  in  things  common,  touching 
into  life  the  springs  of  noble  emotions  in  us,  filling  us  with  a  sense  of  the  deeper  mean- 
ings of  life,  and  enlarging  our  sympathies. 

Poetry. —  If  literature  is  an  expression  of  life,  the  study  of  literature 
should  consist  in  the  interpretation  of  life.  Poetry  portrays  the  emo- 
tional side  of  life.  It  breathes  the  joys,  hopes,  fears,  sorrows,  strivings, 
and  aspirations  of  humanity.  It  gives  us  the  divine  fire  of  genius, 
teaches  us  the  love  of  the  beautiful,  swings  us  into  the  world  of  imagina- 
tion, and  entourages  us  to  do  and  to  be.  A  poem  is  a  work  of  art  to 
be  admired  and  enjoyed  and  felt.  Music,  beauty,  imagination,  passion, 
insight,  inspiration,  and  faith  are  the  essential  characteristics  of  poetry ; 
and  these  are  what  should  be  studied. 

Read  the  poetry  to  the  pupils  so  as  to  bring  out  the  music,  and  let 
them  read  it  that  way.  They  will  soon  find  that  music  is  varied  :  some- 
times smooth  and  flowing,  again  rough  and  broken;  sometimes  light  and 
quick,  again  heavy  and  slow-moving.  Analyzing  a  number  of  poems  by 
a  single  poet,  they  will  find  that  there  is  a  sameness  about  his  way  of  sing- 
ing ;  that  Tennyson's  music  is  varied,  polished,  and  exquisite ;  that 
Bryant's  music  is  deep,  full,  and  resounding ;  that  Riley's  is  dainty  and 
light.  Comparisons  of  different  poets  will  lead  to  a  better  understanding 
of  each  one. 

Ask  the  pupils  to  select  the  most  beautiful  pictures  and  read  them  to  the 
class.  Ask  them  to  see  these  pictures  as  they  are  read,  and  encourage 
them  to  admire.  Let  them  gather  together  and  compare  the  beautiful 
pictures  painted  by  the  poets,  and  they  will  find  that  Scott's  pictures  are 
highly  colored;  that  Tennyson  gives  us  exquisite  landscapes  and  beauti- 
ful pen-portraits ;  that  Byron  paints  nature  in  her  grandeur ;  that 
Lowell's  pictures  are  full  of  life  and  beauty.  A  careful  study  of  how 
these  pictures  are  painted  will  bring  out  that  some  are  in  detail,  some  in 
broad  strokes,  some  clearly  outlined,  and  some  only  suggested. 

Call  for  the  passages  the  pupils  like  best,  and  nearly  always  they  will 
select  those  expressing  passion,  inspiration,  insight,  truth,  and  faith. 
They  select  them  because  they  appreciate  them  to  some  degree.  As  they 
read  more  and  more,  they  will  come  to  recognize,  name,  and  understand 
these  characteristics,  and  to  see  that  they  differ  in  different  poets.  Do 
not  expect  learned  discussions.  Get  them  to  give  themselves  up  to  these 
influences.  They  will  read  Shelley  and  Milton,  and  exercise  their  imagi- 
nation. They  will  learn  that  some  poets  look  deep  into  the  human  heart 
and  see  beyond  the  symbol,  the  essence — and  that  is  insight.  They  will 
learn  to  look  for  the  poet's  faith  in  God  and  humanity. 

For  instance,  take  the  little  poem  "One,  Two,  Three!"  by  H.  C. 
Bunner : 


638  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Library 

It  was  an  old,  old,  old  lady 

And  a  boy  who  was  half-past  three ; 
And  the  way  that  they  played  together 

Was  beautiful  to  see. 

She  couldn't  go  running  and  jumping, 

And  the  boy,  no  more  could  he, 
For  he  was  a  thin  little  fellow, 

With  a  thin,  little,  twisted  knee.  * 

They  sat  in  the  yellow  sunlight, 

Out  under  the  maple  tree ; 
And  the  game  that  they  played  I'll  tell  you. 

Just  as  it  was  told  to  me. 

It  was  Hide-and-Go-Seek  they  were  playing, 
Though  you'd  never  have  known  it  to  be  — 

With  an  old,  old,  old,  old  lady 
And  a  boy  with  a  twisted  knee. 

The  boy  would  bend  his  face  down  ^ 

On  his  one  little  sound  right  knee, 
And  he'd  guess  where  she  was  hiding, 

In  guesses  One,  Two,  Three  ! 

"  You  are  in  the  china-closet ! " 

He  would  cry  and  laugh  with  glee. 
It  wasn't  the  china-closet ; 

But  he  still  had  Two  and  Three. 

"  You  are  up  in  papa's  big  bedroom, 

In  the  chest  with  the  queer  old  key!" 
And  she  said :  "  You  are  warm  and  warmer; 
But  you  are  not  quite  right,"  said  she. 

"  It  can't  be  the  little  cupboard, 

Where  mama's  things  used  to  be  ; 
So  it  must  be  the  clothes-press,  Gran'ma  ! " 
And  he  found  her  with  his  Three. 

Then  she  covered  her  face  with  her  fingers. 

That  were  wrinkled  and  white  and  wee, 
And  she  guessed  where  the  boy  was  hiding. 

With  a  One  and  a  Two  and  a  Three. 

And  they  never  had  stirred  from  their  places, 

Right  under^the  maple  tree  — 
This  old,  old,  old,  old  lady, 

And  the  boy  with  the  lame  little  knee  — 

This  dear,  dear,  dear  old  lady. 

And  the  boy  who  was  half-past  three. 

Read  the  poem  to  the  children  so  theymay  enjoy  it  as  a  whole.  Read 
again,  and  ask  them  to  describe  the  pictures  they  see. 

"  An  old  lady  and  a  thin  little  boy  with  a  twisted  knee  sitting  in  the 
yellow  sunlight  out  under  the  maple  tree."  "  The  old  lady's  fingers  were 
wrinkled    and  white   and   wee."     "  They  are    playing   hide-and-go-seek 


Department]  HOW  TO  DIRECT  CHILDREN'S  READING  639 

without  stirring  from  under  the  tree."  More  minute  descriptions  of  the 
woman  and  boy  may  be  called  for. 

Ask  them  what  they  like  in  the  poem,  what  they  think  of  the  poem- 
This  will  often  bring  out  what  they  feel.  For  instance,  these  questions  on 
this  poem  have  often  brought  out  the  following  statements :  "  I  like  it 
because  it  sings  so;"  "Because  we  like  to  have  old  folks  play  with  us;" 
"  It  makes  me  feel  sorry  for  the  little  boy."  And  one  little  boy,  in  talk- 
ing about  the  poem,  said  that  "where  mama's  things  used  to  be"  must 
mean  that  the  mama  had  gone  away  to  heaven,  as  his  mama  had. 

The  novel. —  Hamilton  Mabie  says  : 

The  novel  is  contemporaneous  with  a  new  and  deepening  consciousness  of  human  rela- 
tionship and  obligation.  Today  we  feel  more  distinctly  than  ever  before  the  pervasive 
influence  of  other  lives  upon  our  lives.  We  are  weighted  down  as  never  before  by  a 
sense  of  our  incalculable  obligations  to  our  fellows.  We  no  longer  think  of  ourselves  as 
alone,  but  always  in  the  thick  of  relationships  of  every  kind  and  quality ;  in  the  solitude 
of  our  own  souls  we  are  conscious  of  the  whole  conscious,  suffering  world  about  us. 

Fiction  portrays  life  on  the  social  side  as  no  other  form  of  literature 
does.  Social  conditions,  standards,  forces,  and  conventions  are  revealed, 
and  the  problem  of  the  individual  life  is  worked  out  with  full  recognition 
of  countless  social  influences. 

The  special  aims  in  studying  fiction  are :  to  enjoy  the  story;  to  pic- 
ture life  portrayed;  to  judge  character  portrayed;  to  trace  character 
development. 

Read  for  things  that  go  to  make  up  the  life  of  any  community: 
descriptions  of  the  environment ;  characters  as  types ;  appearance  and 
dress;  food;  homes  and  surroundings;  amusements,  holidays,  and  festi- 
vals; religion  —  faith,  modes  of  worship,  and  superstitions;  occupations 
—  fine  and  useful  arts ;  education  ;  government  and  laws ;  modes  of  travel ; 
language ;  and  peculiar  customs. 

Illustration  : 

Mary  Mapes  Dodge,  Hans  Brinker;  or.  The  Silver  Skates. 

This  is  a  vivid  description  of  life  in  Holland.  It  teaches  a  lesson  of  courage  and 
nobility  of  character.     It  is  a  portrayal  of  life  in  Holland. 

Environment. —  General  description  of  Holland,  pp.  29-38,  105,  106;  Amsterdam, 
pp.  95-101 ;  Harlem,  pp.  142-57  ;  Leyden,  pp.  211-17. 

Characters  as  types.  —  GxtltX  Brinker,  Hans  Brinker,  Dame  Brinker,  Hilda  van  deck, 
Rychie  Kornes,  Katrinka,  Annie  Bouman,  Peter  van  Holp,  Carl  Schummel,  Jacob  Foot, 
Dr.  Boekman,  pp.  43,  44,  131,  375-7  ;  Dutch  character,  pp.  53,  68,  98  ;  Gretel's  character, 
pp.  27,  63,  134-8,  294,  377 ;  Hans'  character,  pp.  27,  42,  48,  53,  54,  63,  72,  306,  337,  354, 
362. 

Appearance  and  dress. —  Pp.  43,  44,  57,  131,  162-4,  186,  310,  342,  343. 

Homes. —  All  classes,  pp.  132,  224-6,  231-4. 

Amusements. —  Skating,  pp.  43,  44,  162-5,  342-56;  festival  of  St.  Nicholas,  pp. 
82-93. 

Food. —  Pp.  116,  180,  181,  186,  225.  «, 

Some  curious  customs. — "  Aanspreeker,"  p.  139;  at  birth  of  a  child,  pp.  140,  14I; 
reverence  for  the  stork,  p.  241. 


640  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Library 

After  you  have  read  one  or  more  stories  with  the  children,  showing 
them  how  to  read  the  story  so  as  to  get  life,  character,  or  character 
development,  as  the  case  may  be,  they  may  select  other  stories,  and  read 
them  in  the  same  way. 

Essays. —  The  intellectual  side  of  life  is  expressed  in  essays  and  prose 
composition.  The  special  aims  in  reading  essays  are :  (i)  to  get  the 
author's  thought ;  (2)  to  think  with  the  author  by  seeing  relations  ;  (3)  to 
knit  the  knowledge  gained  to  what  is  already  known. 

The  first  step  is  to  get  the  general  idea  of  the  composition.  Then  the 
parts  upon  which  the  general  idea  is  based  ;  if  description,  the  things 
which  go  to  make  up  the  picture ;  if  narrative,  the  events  which  form  the 
narration  ;  if  argumentative,  the  points  on  which  the  author  has  based  his 
argument,  etc.  In  seeing  the  relation  of  these  parts  to  each  other  -and  to 
the  general  idea — discriminating,  comparing,  judging  —  the  pupil  is 
thinking  with  the  author. 

The  student  has  been  using  the  knowledge  he  already  has  to  interpret 
the  new  knowledge,  but  he  ought  consciously  to  bring  up  what  he  already 
knows  on  the  subject,  gained  thru  experience  or  previous  reading.  For 
instance,  he  has  just  read  Carlyle's  idea  of  a  great  man ;  he  compares  it 
with  Emerson's  idea  as  gained  in  previous  reading,  also  with  Lowell's 
idea.  These  ideas,  together  with  his  own  knowledge  and  his  experience 
of  great  men,  constitute  his  body  of  knowledge  of  great  men,  which  he 
will  use  in  gaining  new  knowledge  on  the  subject,  which  new  knowledge 
will  in  turn  be  compared  with  the  old. 

Illustration : 

THE    MEN    TO    MAKE    A    STATE 

The  men,  to  make  a  state,  must  be  intelligent  men.  I  do  not  mean  that  they  must 
know  that  two  and  two  make  four ;  or,  that  six  per  cent,  a  year  is  half  per  cent,  a  month. 
I  take  a  wider  and  a  higher  range.  I  limit  myself  to  no  mere  utilitarian  intelligence. 
This  has  its  place.  And  this  will  come  almost  unsought.  The  contact  of  the  rough  and 
rugged  world  will  force  men  to  it  in  self-defense.  The  lust  of  worldly  gain  will  drag 
men  to  it  for  self-aggrandizement.  But  men  so  made  will  never  make  a  state.  The 
intelligence  which  that  demands  will  take  a  wider  and  a  higher  range.  Its  study  will 
be  man.  It  will  make  history  its  cheap  experience.  It  will  read  hearts.  It  will  know 
men.  It  will  first  know  itself.  What  else  can  govern  men  ?  Who  else  can  know  the 
men  to  govern  men  ?  .  .  .  . 

The  men,  to  make  a  state,  must  be  honest  men.  I  do  not  mean  men  that  would 
never  steal.  I  do  not  mean  men  that  would  scorn  to  cheat  in  making  change.  I  mean 
men  with  a  single  yaf<?.  I  mean  men  with  a  single  eye.  I  mean  men  with  a  single  tongue. 
I  mean  men  that  consider  always  what  is  right;  and  do  it  at  whatever  cost 

The  men,  to  make  a  state,  must  be  brave  men.  I  do  not  mean  the  men  that  pick  a 
quarrel.  I  do  not  mean  the  men  that  carry  dirks.  I  do  not  mean  the  men  that  call 
themselves  hard  names ;  as  Bouncers,  Killers,  and  the  like.  I  mean  the  men  that  walk 
with  open  face  and  unprotected  breast.  I  mean  the  men  that  do,  and  do  not  talk.  I 
mean  the  men  that  dare  to  stand  alone.  \  mean  the  men  that  are  today  where  they  were 
yesterday,  and  will  be  there  tomorrow.  1  mean  the  men  that  can  stand  still  and  take  the 
storm.     I  mean  the  men  that  are  afraid  to  kill,  but  not  afraid  to  die 


Department]  HOW  TO  DIRECT  CHILDREN'S  READING  641 

The  men,  to  make  a  state,  must  be  religious  men.  States  are  from  God.  States  are 
dependent  upon  God.  States  are  accountable  to  God.  To  leave  God  out  of  state  is  to 
be  atheists.  I  do  not  mean  that  men  must  cant.  I  do  not  mean  that  men  must  wear 
long  faces.     I  do  not  mean  that  men  must  talk  of   conscience,  while  they  take    your 

spoons I  speak  of  men  who  feel  and  own  a  God.     I  speak  of  men  who  feel  and 

own  their  sins.  I  speak  of  men  who  think  the  cross  no  shame.  I  speak  of  men  who 
have  it  in  their  heart  as  well  as  on  their  brow 

The  men,  to  make  a  state,  are  made  by  faith.  A  man  that  has  no  faith  is  so  much 
flesh.  His  heart  a  muscle  ;  nothing  more.  He  has  no  past,  for  reverence ;  no  future,  for 
reliance.  He  lives.  So  does  a  clam.  Both  die.  Such  men  can  never  make  a  state. 
There  must  ht  faith,  which  furnishes  the  fulcrum  Archimedes  could  not  find,  for  the  long 
lever  that  should  move  the  world.  There  must  be  faith  to  look  through  clouds  and  storms 
up  to  the  sun  that  shines  as  cheerily  on  high  as  on  creation's  morn.  There  must  be  faith 
that  can  lay  hold  on  heaven,  and  let  the  earth  swing  from  beneath  it,  if  God  will 

The  men,  to  make  a  state,  are  themselves  made  by  obedience.  Obedience  is  the 
health  of  human  hearts  ;  obedience  to  God ;  obedience  to  father  and  to  mother,  who  are, 
to  children,  in  the  place  of  God ;  obedience  to  teachers  and  to  masters,  who  are  in  the 
place  of  father  and  of  mother ;  obedience  to  spiritual  pastors,  who  are  God's  ministers ; 
and  to  the  powers  that  be,  which  are  ordained  of  God.  Obedience  is  but  self-govern- 
ment in  action ;  and  he  can  never  govern  men  who  does  not  govern  himself.  Only  such 
men  can  make  a  state. —  G.  W.  Doane. 

ANALYSIS 
To  get  the  author's  thought. 

1 .  General  idea  —  the  kind  of  men  to  make  a  state  must  be  intelligent,  honest,  brave, 
religious.     They  must  be  made  by  faith,  self-denial,  and  obedience. 

2.  What  the  author  means  by  intelligent,  honest,  brave,  religious,  faith,  self-denial, 
obedience. 

To  relate  to  the  ideas  already  in  the  child's  mind. 

1.  The  child  has  interpreted  the  author  by  means  of  what  he  already  knows  of  these 
characteristics. 

2.  The  child  should  compare  his  judgments  with  the  author's. 

3.  Select  great  statesmen  and  see  if  they  have  excelled  in  these  characteristics. 

4.  Have  statesmen  failed  because  of  lack  of  these  characteristics  ? 
To  arouse  interest  in  further  reading. 

What  are  the  duties  of  a  statesman  which  should  call  for  these  characteristics  ? 

Superintendent  James  M.  Greenwood  has  said : 

If  literature  be  the  life  of  the  people,  it  should  also  prepare  for  that  kind  of  life  in 
which  the  child  is  forced  to  live,  immediately  after  passing  out  of  school.  While  there 
may  be  room  for  discussion  as  to  the  style  in  which  thought  should  be  expressed,  it  is 
beyond  dispute  that  the  clearest  writers,  those  who  use  the  language  to  express  unmis- 
takably what  they  mean,  those  who  deal  with  subjects  that  are  nearest  to  the  daily  life  of 
the  people  themselves,  ought  to  become  a  part  of  the  mental  furnishing  of  each  high- 
school  pupil. 

So  far  as  possible  pupils  should  be  guided  in  their  choice  of  reading 
thru  their  interests.  Lists  of  books  which  are  in  the  library  should  be 
ma(fe  out  in  the  various  lines  of  reading,  from  which  the  pupils  may 
select  the  books  they  wish  to  read.  It  is  not  necessary  that  all  the  pupils 
in  a  class  read  the  same  book,  or  books  on  the  same  subject,  nor  is  it 
necessary  that  a  pupil  read  a  book  from  cover  to  cover.  Many  times 
only  a  portion  of  a  book  will  appeal  to  a  pupil,  or  be  of  value  to  him.    This 


642  NA7V0NAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOC lATJ ON  [Library 

is  especially  so  in  science  books,  books  of  poetry,  and  books  where  a 
part  meets  some  interest  started  in  the  regular  school  work ;  as,  a  part  of 
a  book  of  history  which  relates  to  a  topic  in  the  history  lesson.  The 
teacher  cannot  guide  the  pupils'  reading  unless  she  makes  a  careful 
study  of  their  interests  and  needs.  She  must  lead  them  from  the  interests 
of  today  to  higher  and  wider  interests,  and  utilize  at  every  step  interests 
gained  in  other  lines  of  work.  She  must  take  advantage  of  new  interests 
closely  related  to  old  interests,  or  those  naturally  growing  out  of  old 
interests  ;  interests  created  by  the  pupil's  environment,  as  Indian  relics  in 
Wisconsin ;  interests  in  current  events  coming  to  his  notice,  as  a  circus 
in  town,  the  Spanish-American  war,  the  celebration  of  Washington's 
birthday,  etc.;  interests  created  by  the  author's  interests,  as  reading  a  book 
because  another  says  it  is  good.  Make  the  pupil's  present  interests  the  basis 
which  shall  determine  his  present  line  of  reading.  If  he  is  interested  in 
fiction  only,  then  give  him  a  list  of  fiction  from  which  he  may  select  a 
book  to  read.  By  questioning,  by  directing  his  attention,  or  by  arousing 
his  curiosity,  he  may  be  made  interested  in  some  character,  place,  fact,  or 
event  in  the  book,  and  this  interest  may  be  made  the  basis  for  future 
reading.  Thus  a  pupil  reading  Ivanhoe  may  be  led  to  read  English 
history  by  arousing  an  interest  in  Richard  the  Lion-Hearted.  Again,  a 
pupil  who  has  read  a  story  of  Holland  may  be  led  to  read  a  book  of 
travel  in  Holland,  because  of  interest  aroused  in  the  manners  and  customs 
of  that  country.  If  the  pupil's  present  interest  is  in  history,  science,  or 
other  lines  of  work,  a  similar  plan  may  be  pursued.  The  work  will  have 
to  be  largely  individual. 

The  work  in  reading  should  be  definite  and  clear.  The  student's 
judgments  should  be  based  upon  facts  he  can  point  out.  It  is  not 
enough  that  he  says  the  music  is  smooth  and  flowing.  He  must  recite  or 
read  the  portions  he  considers  smooth  and  flowing,  and  tell  what  makes 
them  so.  If  he  calls  a  poem  imaginative,  he  must  prove  his  statement 
by  selecting  the  imaginative  portions.  The  judgments  should  be  his  own, 
and  based  upon  hrs  own  reading.  As  the  student  progresses,  the  read- 
ing may  become  more  and  more  intensive,  but  it  should  never  degenerate 
into  parsing  and  analyzing.  The  reports  should  be  oral.  The  recitation 
ought  to  be  an  exchange  of  impressions  and  feelings,  a  talking  over  of 
what  has  been  found  enjoyable,  good,  beautiful,  and  helpful.  The  pupil 
makes  his  report  as  a  contribution  to  the  whole,  and  stands  ready  to 
answer  questions  by  his  classmates  and  teachers,  to  discuss  with  them 
what  he  has  found,  and  to  compare  his  judgments  with  theirs.  Thus  all 
take  part  in  the  recitation,  and  attention  is  secured.  By  questioning,  by 
directing  the  attention  to  what  is  essential,  and  by  directing  discussion, 
the  pupil  should  be  led  into  the  right  way  of  reading.  Remember  that 
in  all  this  work  the  teacher  must  know,  as  far  as  possible,  what  is  in 
the  pupil's   mind  —  for  the  pupil   can  understand  and  feel  only  by  the 


Department]  THE  GREATER  SCHOOL  '  643 

assistance  of  what  he  has  already  experienced,  felt,  and  learned.  He  can 
assimilate  new  ideas  only  by  means  of  his  present  ones.  Every  new 
relation  of  the  idea  helps  to  correct,  make  clear,  and  extend  the  meaning. 
Instead  of  trying  to  get  the  whole  meaning  in  its  one  relation,  it  is  often 
better  to  read  on,  getting  at  truth  in  different  relations,  and  deepening 
and  enriching  experience  at  the  same  time. 

It  is  impossible  for  a  student  at  any  one  time  of  his  life  to  compre- 
hend the  whole  of  a  piece  of  literature,  no  matter  how  much  time  is 
spent  in  studying  it. 

THE    GREATER    SCHOOL;     OR,    THE   SCHOOL   PLUS    THE 
LLBRARY  GREATER  THAN  EITHER 

H.     L.    ELMENDORF,    SUPERINTENDENT    OF    THE    BUFFALO    PUBLIC     LIBRARY, 

BUFFALO,  N.  Y. 

The  object  of  our  compulsory,  tax-supported  system  of  education  is 
to  make  good  citizens.  The  good  citizen  is,  without  doubt,  the  happy 
and  intelligent  man  ;  and  no  less  an  authority  than  President  Eliot  asserts 
that  lifelong  happiness  and  increasing  intelligence  are  best  assured  by 
the  formation  in  early  youth  of  the  taste  for  good  books.  Indeed,  he 
explicitly  says  that  "  schooling  which  results  in  this  taste  for  good 
reading,"  however  unsystematic  or  eccentric  the  schooling  may  have 
been,  has  achieved  a  main  end  of  democratic  education ;  and  that 
schooling  which  does  not  result  in  implanting  this  permanent  taste  has 
failed." 

For  many  years  educators  have  seen  this  fact  more  or  less  clearly,  and 
school  libraries  have  been  somewhat  generally  used  as  a  means  toward 
supplementing  text-book  learning  with  the  broader  wisdom  of  general 
books,  but  the  institution  of  the  greater  school  by  the  federation  of 
the  public  school  and  the  public  library  is  a  much  longer  step  toward 
true  democratic  education. 

Nearly  all  school  libraries  have  been  made  up  of  supplementary  read- 
ing and  reference-books  for  the  children  of  the  higher  grades,  small 
attention  being  paid  to  the  little  folk.  Statistics  show,  however,  that  a 
large  majority  of  children  leave  the  public  school  before  they  are  twelve 
years  old.  If  our  schooling  fails  unless  we  teach  the  love  of  good  read- 
ing to  all,  it  is  evident  that  a  more  far-reaching  plan  must  be  found,  and 
attractive,  wholesome  books  must  be  furnished,  not  only  for  the  few  who 
persist  to  the  higher  grades,  but  for  all,  even  the  youngest.  This  enlarge- 
ment of  the  scope  of  the  school  library  might,  no  doubt,  be  easily  accom- 
plished, but  if  the  books  are  supplied  by  the  school  authorities,  the  children 
are  cut  off  from  the  books  at  the  same  time  that  they  are  cut  off  from 
school.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  public  library  steps  in  and  puts  such 
books  as  the  children  will  love  right  under  the  teacher's  hand ;  if  she 


644  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Library 

tells  the  children  that  these  books  are  a  part  of  a  great  collection  in 
the  public  library,  where  as  citizens  they  have  not  only  welcome,  but 
right;  if  she  teaches  them  that,  tho  school  days  are  soon  over,  reading 
days  need  never  end,  our  means  for  the  education  of  good  citizens,  of 
happy  men  and  women,  is  complete. 

When  the  Buffalo  library  was  made  free,  in  1897,  under  contract  with 
the  city  for  its  liberal  support,  plans  for  co-operation  with  the  public 
schools  were  at  once  considered.  The  old  library,  altho  it  was  sup- 
ported only  by  private  endowment  and  subscription,  by  means  of  one 
thousand  free  school  tickets  had  reached  out  into  the  schools  in  a 
very  public-spirited,  tho  very  inadequate,  way.  In  the  reorganization, 
under  the  contract  before  referred  to,  it  was  provided  that  the  schools 
should  be  represented  in  the  board  of  control  of  the  library  by  making 
their  executive  officer,  the  city  superintendent  of  education,  ex  officio  a 
member  of  the  board  of  directors  of  the  public  library.  The  counsel  and 
support  of  the  state  superintendent  of  public  instruction,  Hon.  Charles  R. 
Skinner,  were  also  of  great  assistance  in  planning  the  new  work.  The 
official  sanction  of  these  school  authorities  was  regarded  as  the  first 
essential,  and  was  readily  secured. 

As  the  proposed  plan  was  both  radical  and  expensive,  it  was  deter- 
mined by  the  directors  of  the  library  to  make  the  experiment  with  ten 
schools  only,  the  ten  to  be  selected  by  the  superintendent  of  schools  and 
the  librarian,  from  among  those  whose  principals  were  willing  to  accept 
the  scheme.  All  the  school  principals  in  the  city  were  invited  to  a  meet- 
ing, at  which  the  scheme  was  thoroly  explained,  and  they  were  given 
ample  opportunity  to  understand  and  discuss  it.  The  outlines  of  the 
plan  were  afterward  embodied  in  a  circular  letter,  which  was  sent  to  each 
principal,  and  two  weeks  were  given  in  which  to  consider  it  and  to 
decide,  in  consultation  with  the  class  teachers,  whether  application 
should  be  made  for  the  installation-  of  class-room  libraries  under  the 
plan. 

The  scheme  presented  to  the  principals  was,  briefly,  as  follows  :  Each 
school  selected  was  to  deliver  to  the  public  library,  reserving  purely  ref- 
erence-books, all  its  school  library  ;  these  books  were  to  be  examined, 
and  those  thought  fit  for  the  purpose  graded  and  returned  to  the 
different  class-rooms  of  the  schools,  together  with  enough  books  added 
by  the  public  library  to  make  the  number  of  books  in  each  room  equal 
the  number  of  children. 

In  response  to  the  first  invitation  twenty-four  principals  applied  for 
the  libraries,  and  the  selection  of  ten  schools  was  a  difficult  matter.  The 
distance  of  the  school  from  the  public  library,  the  character  of  the  dis- 
trict in  which  it  was  located,  and  the  possession  by  both  principals  and 
teachers  of  such  an  intelligent  sympathy  with  the  idea  as  to  give  the 
experiment  a  fair  test,  were  all  considered  in  making  the  selection. 


Department]  THE  GREATER  SCHOOL  64s 

The  old  school  libraries  had  been  the  accumulation  of  years,  partly 
by  gifts,  but  mostly  by  purchases  made  with  city  and  state  appropriations 
for  the  purpose,  which  amounted  for  each  school,  according  to  its  size,  to 
from  fifteen  to  forty  dollars  a  year.  The  entire  collection  as  gathered 
at  the  public  library  was  a  very  miscellaneous  lot.  There  were  some 
excellent  books,  many  of  them,  however,  worn  to  tatters.  There  were 
many  others  which  were  useless,  or  worse  than  useless,  for  children  — 
Dr.  Johnson's  and  Lord  Bacon's  works  in  diamond  type,  Bible  stories  in 
hieroglyphics,  old  guide-books,  directories,  patent-office  and  other  gov- 
ernment reports,  and  a  considerable  sprinkling  of  novels  of  a  kind  that 
suggested  that  the  literary  appetite  of  the  purchaser  had  been  con- 
sulted rather  than  the  wants  of  the  children.  The  trail  of  the  wily 
subscription-book  agents  was  much  in  evidence.  The  librarian's  heart 
is  hardened  by  experience  to  resist  the  charm  and  persistence  and 
influence  of  these  suave  gentlemen,  for  he  knows  that  their  wares  are 
seldom  or  never  the  best  books,  and  only  the  best  is  good  enough  for 
children.  Altogether  the  character  of  the  books  returned  seemed  to 
show  a  plain  need  that  selection  and  purchase  should  be  in  the  hands  of 
a  single-headed  institution  like  the  public  library,  which  could  be  held 
responsible,  rather  than  a  composite  body  of  principals  and  teachers. 

After  careful  sifting,  only  about  20  per  cent,  of  the  school  library 
books  were  thought  fit  to  be  returned,  and  more  than  five  thousand  vol- 
umes were  added  by  the  public  library.  These  books  were  selected  with 
the  greatest  care,  in  the  effort  to  include  only  the  best.  Not  only  were 
the  literary  contents  scrutinized,  but  the  editions,  in  order  that  the  text 
might  be  pure,  and  the  type,  illustrations,  and  binding  be  beautiful. 
They  were  bought,  too,  with  the  closest  economy  as  to  price.  It  is  in  all 
these  things  that  the  expert  knowledge  of  the  librarian  is  of  service.  If 
to  the  librarian's  expert  knowledge  of  the  book  the  teacher  will  add  her 
expert  knowledge  of  the  child,  the  combination  should  surely  bring 
about  the  ideal,  "the  best  reading  for  the  largest  number  at  the  least  cost." 

The  list,  as  finally  made  up,  was  submitted  to  State  Superintendent 
Skinner  and  City  Superintendent  H.  P.  Emerson,  and  received  their 
approval.  With  their  approval  also  the  state  funds  appropriated  for 
school  libraries  were  devoted  to  the  purchase  of  purely  reference-books, 
to  be  the  property  of  the  schools,  thus  making  it  possible  for  each 
school  gradually  to  build  up  a  good  school  reference  library,  relying 
entirely  upon  the  public  library  for  miscellaneous  books. 

The  most  difficult  problem  was  the  assignment  of  the  proper  books 
to  the  proper  grades  in  the  various  schools.  Many  errors  were  made  at 
the  start,  especially  in  giving  children  books  too  old  for  them.  Two  full 
years  of  constant  observation  and  experiment  have  served  to  correct 
some  mistakes  and  to  emphasize  the  fact  that  no  definite  rule  for  grade 
and  age  can  be  made.     Each  particular  sthool,  each  separate  class,  must 


646  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  ILibrafjr 

be  studied  with  the  teacher's  help,  before  intelligent  assignment  of  books 
can  be  made.  For  example,  a  class  of  children  from  a  poor  com- 
munity where  books  are  scarce,  or  one  of  foreign  parentage,  will  require 
simpler  books  than  one  of  equal  age  and  equal  school  grade  from  a  com- 
munity where  books  abound  in  the  homes.  This  fact  greatly  lessens  the 
value  of  printed  graded  lists,  which  can  only  show  safe  books  and  assign 
them  to  approximate  ages. 

For  keeping  track  of  the  books  the  simplest  possible  system  of  charg- 
ing was  devised  to  be  kept  by  the  teacher.  An  alphabetic  list  of  the 
books  by  their  titles,  with  spaces  for  the  names  of  the  pupils  drawing 
them  and  for  the  date  of  drawing  and  date  of  return,  was  sent  with  the 
books.  All  the  compilation  of  statistics  from  these  records  was  made 
each  month  by  assistants  from  the  library.  The  library  requires  these 
statistics  for  the  very  simple  reason  that  appropriations  of  money  are 
dependent  upon  demonstrable  results  ;  and  definite  figures,  obtained  from 
trustworthy  records  of  use,  are  the  only  results  which  can  be  shown. 

Not  only  was  the  work  of  the  teachers  made  as  light  as  possible,  but 
the  responsibility  also.  Rules  for  the  use  of  the  books  were  of  the 
teacher's  making.  Each  teacher  was  given  to  understand  that  the  books 
were  for  use,  and  for  use  in  the  way  she  thought  best,  except  that  they 
were  not  to  be  used  as  rewards  or  punishments ;  that  they  might  be 
read  in  school,  in  the  class,  by  the  teacher,  or  taken  home,  but  that  the 
child  should  no  more  be  deprived  of  his  library  book  on  account  of 
some  breach  of  discipline  than  of  his  text-book  for  a  similar  reason. 
The  bad  boy  needs  the  good  book  most.  Reasonable  care  of  the  books 
was  required,  but  no  more  than  of  school  property,  and  if  loss  or  damage 
occurred,  there  was  no  money  liability  for  the  teacher. 

The  experiment  was  successful  from  the  start.  It  pleased  principals, 
teachers,  and  children  alike,  and,  while  the  success  varied  with  the  inter- 
est and  ability  of  the  teachers,  none  wished  to  return  to  the  old  way. 
The  usefulness  of  the  books  is  in  no  way  confined  to  the  children  who 
attend  school.  The  public  library  in  this  way  gains  a  welcome  where  it 
was  unknown,  or  little  understood.  The  contact  of  teachers  and  children 
in  this  unofficial  way  is  good  for  both,  and  many  most  interesting  and 
even  touching  stories  of  the  effect  of  the  books  in  the  homes  are  told  by 
the  teachers. 

Twelve  schools  have  since  been  added,  making  twenty-two  in  all,  with 
359  class-room  libraries.  The  number  of  volumes  sent  out  in  September, 
1899,  at  the  commencement  of  the  school  year,  was  15,248.  During 
the  year  additions  and  changes  were  made  to  the  number  of  5,005,  mak- 
ing a  total  of  20,253  volumes.  The  libraries  are  changed  once  during 
the  year  by  shifting  from  room  to  room,  or  from  school  to  school,  differ- 
ent libraries  of  the  same  grade.  Assistants  from  the  public  library  visit 
each   class-room   twice  each   month,  and   the   number  of  additions  and 


Department] 


THE  GREATER  SCHOOL 


647 


changes  gives  some  idea  of  the  flexibility  of  the  list.  The  circulation  for 
home  use  from  September  i,  1899,  to  June  i,  1900,  was  169,193.  A  table 
follows  showing  the  circulation  by  months  and  the  classification  of  the 
books  drawn  : 

SCHOOL    CIRCULATION SEPTEMBER,   1899,    TO    MAY,   1900 


1 

B 
0 

[3 
0 

u 

B 
V 

■3 

I 

0! 

a 
I 

2 
2 

3 

i 

1; 

> 

H 

0. 
2 

B 

September,  1899 

2 

I 

139 

815 

171 

37 

1,563 

905 

498 

351 

6,991 

11,473 

October,         " 

13 

232 

2,050 

408 

6q 

4.31° 

1,726 

1,016 

673 

16,510 

27,007 

November,     " 

8 

iBq 

1.953 

354 

61 

4.287 

1,707 

1,020 

610 

16,088 

26,277 

December,      " 

4 

113 

1,398 

221 

50 

2,697 

1,106 

691 

413 

10,626 

17.319 

January,       1900 
February,       " 

4 

98 

1,261 

236 

48 

2,926 

1,049 

663 

423 

10,333 

17,041 

S 

2 

82 

1,137 

228 

48 

2,411 

954 

646 

405 

9,451 

15-367 

March,           " 

S 

135 

1,630 

28s 

69 

3,551 

1,242 

908 

619 

13,708 

22,150 

April,              " 

112 

1,280 

237 

45 

2,985 

.934 

675 

461 

10,540 

17,269 

May,               " 

I 

68 

i>iS5 

236 

30 

2,678 

806 

588 

386 

9.342 

15.290 

Total 

38 

3 

1,168 

12,679 

2.376 

457 

27,408 

10,429 

6,705 

4.341 

103,589 

169,193 

Thus  far,  less  than  half  of  the  schools  in  the  city  have  been  reached, 
and  the  story  is  not  told  as  if  we  had  already  attained,  but  criticism  and 
discussion  are  invited  that  present  methods  may  be  improved,  or  better 
ones  suggested. 

The  growth  of  the  work  has  been  as  rapid  as  the  supply  of  money  and 
of  trained,  intelligent  workers  would  permit.  Neither  library  assistants 
nor  teachers  could  safely  go  too  fast.  The  ideal,  however,  is  the  closest 
federation  of  the  two  institutions ;  that  federation  to  work  toward  the 
development  of  each  individual  child  along  the  line  of  his  own  strongest 
inclination  and  greatest  ability. 


DISCUSSION 

Reuben  Post  Halleck,  Louisville,  Ky.  —  I  wish  it  were  possible  in  Louisville  to 
do  some  of  the  things  which  the  Buffalo  library  and  other  libraries  are  doing  for  their 
students.  I  trust  it  will  not  be  long  before  these  privileges  are  ours,  and  1  hope,  while 
our  progress  is  slow,  that  it  will  be  sure.  President  Eliot's  maxim  ought  to  be  every 
pupil's  motto.  Pupils  who  go  out  from  the  public  schools  and  do  not  know  what  to  do 
with  their  time  are  a  personal  disgrace  to  their  teachers.  A  reading,  thinking  student 
will  not  feel  bored,  no  matter  what  his  surroundings  may  be.  If  pupils  are  taught  to 
love  to  read,  it  will  not  be  long  before  the  dawn  of  better  things. 

H.  L.  Elmendorf.  —  The  work  of  the  Buffalo  library  for  the  schools  in  general  has 
been  a  recent  movement.  While  the  library  was  opened  in  1837  and  was  very  public- 
spirited,  its  privileges  were  given  only  to  its  best  pupils  until  a  very  recent  period. 

R.  C.  Metcalf,  Boston,  Mass.  —  For  many  years  I  have  felt  that  a  school  library 
was  a  necessity,  and  I  have  acted  on  this  theory  since  1879,  and  my  object  is  to  teach 
children  to  love  to  read.  Sets  rather  than  single  books  will  do  this.  In  my  work  in 
1879  I  set  aside  one  hour  e^ch  week  for  a  discussion  of  the  works  of  certain  authors,  and 


648  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Library 

in  this  way  acquainted  the  pupils  with  Scott,  Dickens,  Thackeray,  and  others.  It  was  of 
incalculable  value  to  the  poor  children  who  had  no  books  in  their  homes,  and  they  were 
the  ones  who  became  the  most  deeply  interested  and  received  the  most  help.  From  these 
books  they  learned  good  English.  They  learned  to  think.  They  learned  to  discriminate. 
Much  of  the  good  to  be  obtained  depends  upon  the  culture  of  the  teacher  and  his  knowl- 
edge of  literature.  He  cannot  give  out  to  pupils  what  he  does  not  himself  possess.  In 
the  large  majority  of  »chools  there  is  still  lacking  on  the  part  of  the  teacher  an  apprecia- 
tion of  good  literature. 

William  M.  Slaton,  Atlanta,  Ga.  —  I  have  been  much  interested  in  listening  to 
these  finely  prepared  papers,  but  what  I  would  like  to  get  from  this  meeting  is  some 
specific  methods  of  how  to  do  the  work  which  is  here  pointed  out  as  being  so  necessary. 
We  are  very  much  hampered  in  our  work  in  Atlanta  by  a  lack  of  knowledge  of  the  plans 
and  work  of  our  public  library,  and  I  should  like  to  have  some  methods  pointed  out  for 
the  instruction  of  the  teachers,  so  that  they  may  know  how  to  lead  the  pupils  to  use  the 
library  independently.  It  is  as  much  a  part  of  the  high-school  work  to  teach  students 
how  to  use  books  as  it  is  to  teach  them  what  they  contain.  Teachers,  as  a  class,  do  not 
understand  this,  and  at  present  we  must  look  to  the  library  for  most  of  the  culture  that 
comes  from  the  use  of  books. 

Miss  Ellen  Fitz  Simons,  Charleston,  S.  C. — Our  library  is  a  subscription  library, 
and  it  is  not  possible  to  help  the  schools  as  much  as  I  should  like,  but  so  far  as  I  can 
I  make  the  material  accessible  to  those  who  do  use  the  library  by  means  of  bulletins  and 
lists  and  other  plans  for  calling  attention  to  the  books  which  we  have  on  the  various 
topics  of  interest. 

Miss  M.  E.  Ahern,  of  Chicago.  —  There  is  no  active  co-operation  between  the  public 
library  and  the  public  schools  of  Chicago.  There  is  some  provision  for  such  co-operation, 
but  for  the  most  part  it  is  a  dead-letter  law. 

In  Cleveland  there  is  the  most  hearty  and  active  co-operation  between  the  public 
libraries  and  the  public  schools.  Many  of  the  public  schools  are  used  as  branch  stations 
of  the  public  library,  and  the  young  people  of  Cleveland  are  thoroly  interested  in  and 
helped  by  the  public  library  and  its  work. 

The  same  is  true  of  the  public  library  of  Toledo.  This  library  prepares  graded  lists 
of  the  works  on  its  shelves,  and  sends  them  to  the  different  grades  in  the  city  schools,  to 
bring  the  children  to  use  more  freely  the  children's  room.  The  plan  works  very  success- 
fully. 

Milwaukee  also  is  proverbial  for  the  fine  work  that  is  being  done  there  in  connec- 
tion with  the  public  schools.  There  are  many  other  cities  thru  the  western  country  where 
there  is  an  active,  live  co-operation  between  the  public  libraries  and  the  public  schools. 


THE  FREE    TRAVELING  LIBRARY:  AN  AID    TO   EDUCA- 
TION AND  A  FACTOR  IN  THE  NATIONAL   LIFE 

MRS.    EUGENE    B.    HEARD,    MIDDLETON,    GA. 

This  paper  will  doubtless  savor  of  provincialism.  It  could  not  be 
otherwise  and  speak  the  truth  as  to  conditions  that  exist  in  the  South.  It 
is  intended  to  deal  plainly  with  the  social  and  educational  problems  that 
confront  our  people,  and  to  offer  a  remedy  that  will  mitigate,  if  it  cannot 
altogether  remove,  the  evil. 

To  those  reared  in  the  centers  of  wealth,  where  for  more  than  a 
century  philanthropy  has  provided  public  and  permanent  libraries,  the 


Department] 


THE  FREE  TRAVELING  LIBRARY  649 


necessity  for  similar  or  equivalent  institutions  in  the  rural  districts  is  not 
apparent.  Perhaps  it  would  be  a  better  form  of  statement  to  say  that 
the  fact  that  these  districts  have  not  these  advantages  does  not  occur  to 
those  more  favorably  situated.  It  may  be  laid  down  as  a  safe  proposition 
that  all  enterprises  that  have  for  their  object  the  betterment  of  mankind 
spring  from  a  conscious  necessity.  My  own  recognition  of  the  need  of 
free  libraries  in  the  rural  districts  is  not  of  recent  date ;  but  the  facilities 
to  put  them  into  practical  operation  in  those  sections  of  the  South  traversed 
by  the  Seaboard  Air  Line  Railway  were  furnished  less  than  three  years  ago. 
The  world  has  advanced  to  the  point  where  the  value,  and  even  the 
necessity,  of  books  is  generally  recognized.  The  advantages  of  free 
libraries  is  appreciated  mainly  by  those  who  could  not  otherwise  have 
access  to  them.  The  value  of  a  free  traveling  library  is  greater  because  it 
represents  the  product  of  the  number  of  libraries  multiplied  by  the  num- 
ber of  places  served.  To  illustrate :  The  system  of  the  Seaboard  free 
traveling  libraries  which  I  have  in  charge  consists  of  2,000  volumes. 
These  are  subdivided  into  thirty  cabinets  or  smaller  libraries.  In  this 
subdivision  variety  and  harmonious  classification  are  duly  observed. 
Under  this  system  thirty  communities  are  served  at  the  same  time.  These 
cabinets,  if  allowed  to  remain  three  months  in  each  place,  would  serve  in 
the  course  of  seven  and  one-half  years  thirty  communities  with  every 
volume  of  the  2,000  for  three  months.  That  the  usefulness  of  the  travel- 
ing library  is  increased  thirty-fold  is  proven  by  the  logic  of  figures. 

Undoubtedly  it  would  be  better  to  have  a  standing  library  of  2,000 
volumes  in  each  community,  but  thiswould  require  thirty  times  as  much 
money,  and  to  get  this  now  is  impossible.  And  yet  to  have  the  books 
pass  over  the  circuit  every  few  years  will  of  itself  beget  a  keener  apprecia- 
tion on  the  part  of  the  people  to  be  benefited. 

For  more  than  seven  years  I  have  studied  the  subject  of  rural  libraries. 
Long  before  the  work  reached  practical  and  effective  materialization  my 
mind  had  been  full  of  plans  and  theories  by  which  the  people  of  these 
isolated  districts  might  have  these  advantages.  The  first  scheme  to  which 
I  directed  my  efforts  was  to  establish  a  small  library  in  one  community, 
and  pass  it  to  the  next  as  soon  as  it  had  been  utilized,  and  so  on  until  the 
circuit  was  completed.  This  necessarily  limited  the  sphere  of  work  to 
those  places  of  ray  personal  acquaintance  and  even  to  those  of  my  immedi- 
ate vicinity.     This  was  better  than  no  library. 

But  for  a  work  of  this  character  to  be  effective  and  to  accomplish  its 
greatest  usefulness  it  is  necessary  to  attach  it  to  some  active,  working 
organization,  the  very  nature  of  which  will  give  vitality  and  constancy  to 
the  library.  Those  enterprises  that  have  their  inspiration  in  patriotism 
and  whose  only  working  capital  is  enthusiasm  are  liable  to  periods  of 
desuetude  as  well  as  times  of  activity.  Those  enterprises  founded  on 
business  principles  for  the  purpose  of  profit  gather  additional  strength 


650  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Library 

as  they  progress,  and  will  continue  as  long  as  the  restless  ambition  of 
men  and  their  unchanging  love  of  money  shall  dominate  the  forces  of 
the  world. 

Therefore,  when  nearly  three  years  ago  the  Seaboard  Air  Line  Rail- 
way Co.  opened  the  way  for  a  coalition  of  our  plans  and  purposes,  the 
ideal  combination  was  reached  and  the  pathway  to  successful  work  became 
clear.  This  effort  on  the  part  of  the  railway  was  more  than  generosity; 
it  was  more  than  business  sagacity;  it  was  more  than  philanthropy;  it  was 
the  highest  order  of  statesmanship.  In  no  other  way  could  the  library 
movement  have  been  so  conspicuously  presented.  The  world  loves  con- 
trast. It  loves  novelty.  Here  were  both.  The  novelty  of  a  gigantic 
corporation,  heretofore  supposed  to  be  soulless  and  altogether  selfish, 
stepping  out  and  with  an  extended  hand  offering  light  and  pleasure  and 
prosperity  to  the  working  common  people,  attracted  their  attention.  It 
did  more.  It  established  confidence,  declared  a  reciprocity  of  interests, 
and  cleared  the  way  for  a  better  understanding  between  capital  and  labor. 

And  now  I  come  to  discuss,  I  hope  in  an  orderly  way,  the  three  great 
questions  that  control  the  library  work.  Every  lateral  issue  falls  wifhin 
one  or  the  other  of  these  questions. 

I.  Is  the  free  traveling  library  a  necessity? 

That  it  is  a  luxury  to  the  poor  need  not  be  argued.  That  it  is  an 
advantage  does  not  admit  of  question.  But  is  it  such  a  necessity  that  our 
people  cannot  afford  to  do  without  it? 

I  would  not  knowingly  offend  any  man  or  woman  or  child.  Above  all, 
I  would  not  slander  this  southland.  Born  on  its  soil,  reared  among  its 
people,  the  graves  of  my  dead  rest  in  its  bosom,  the  feet  of  all  my  living 
tread  its  pathways,  all  my  joys  and  my  sorrows  and  my  hopes  are 
inseparably  connected  with  my  country's  destiny.  As  dear  to  me  as 
Mecca  to  the  followers  of  Mohammed  is  this  southland,  and  with  all  its 
faults  I  will  love  it  forever.  But  I  should  be  untrue  to  myself  and  to  my 
people's  best  interest,  were  I  not  to  say  that  there  exist  thruout  all  these 
southern  states,  in  greater  or  less  degree  according  to  locality  and  previ- 
ous advantages,  conditions  of  direful  and  calamitous  lack  of  necessary 
knowledge.  There  are  exceptions,  and  brilliant  exceptions.  That  the 
South  has  furnished  to  this  republic  the  bravest  of  men  has  been  demon- 
strated on  every  battlefield  where  its  flag  has  been  carried.  That  she  has 
furnished  more  than  her  share  of  great  orators  and  statesmen  has  been 
proven  in  the  highest  forum  of  the  union.  Nevertheless,  among  the 
masses  of  the  common  people  the  facilities  of  broader  education  have  not 
existed. 

These  people  are  not  to  be  blamed.  In  proportion  to  their  oppor- 
tunities they  are  the  worthiest  of  citizens.  For  forty  years  the  South  has 
suffered  from  misfortunes,  from  mistakes,  and  from  uncontrollable  con- 
ditions.    In  no  way  have  these  disasters  wrought  more  deeply  than  in 


DepartmentJ  THE  FREE  TRAVELING  LIBRARY  65 1 

educational  matters.  Men  now  fifty  years  of  age  were  deprived  of  school 
advantages  by  reason  of  the  Civil  War.  Men  of  forty  years,  on  account  of 
the  fearful  distress  and  poverty  following  as  a  result  of  that  war,  were  com- 
pelled to  labor  unceasingly  during  their  youth.  The  high  schools  and 
colleges  in  the  South  are  mainly  the  product  of  the  last  thirty  years.  The 
reasons  for  all  this  need  not  be  detailed.  The  calamitous  conditions 
exist.  The  truth  is  not  overstated  when  I  declare  to  you  that  in  these 
so-called  times  of  plenty  and  prosperity  and  hope  there  is  no  abundance 
sufficient  to  soothe  the  troubled  hearts  of  thousands  of  our  countrymen. 
There  is  no  prosperity  universal  enough  to  lighten  the  burdens  of 
tens  of  thousands  of  toiling  men  and  women.  There  is  no  hope  divine 
enough  to  illume  the  darkened  homes  of  millions  of  our  people.  Upon 
them  the  sun  rises  in  pity  and  goes  down  in  compassion.  These  people 
are  not  mendicants.  They  are  workers,  but  workers  under  disadvantages. 
They  need  only  opportunity  and  light.  To  withhold  the  one  and  deny 
the  other  is  nothing  short  of  national  disaster.  I  am  not  speaking  of 
children  within  the  school  age,  but  of  men  and  women  between  the  ages 
of  eighteen  and  fifty,  whose  education  was  impossible  for  the  reasons 
given.  The  public-school  system  is  gradually  being  perfected,  and  as 
rapidly -as  financial  prudence  justifies.  The  children  will  be  taken  care 
of,  tho  in  a  limited  way.  But  to  reach  and  help  these  grown  people  is  the 
question  of  the  hour.  They  are  already  bowed  down  with  the  burdens  of 
life.  They  deserve  help.  They  are  the  stay  of  the  country.  They  would 
scorn  direct  charity.  The  pride  of  the  common  people  is  great.  Yet 
today  they  stand  enslaved  by  circumstances,  and  their  clanking  chains 
may  yet  beat  the  death  march  to  this  republic. 

To  reach  the  public  heart  effectively  and  without  offense  is  the  art  of 
arts.  These  people  need  and  desire  that  knowledge  that  will  enable 
them  to  work  intelligently  and  successfully.  There  is  but  one  way  to 
reach  this  class.  It  is  thru  the  free  library  and  thru  the  medium  of 
their  children.  No  other  method  can  be  so  effective.  No  other  plan 
can  be  so  graciously  presented.  There  can  be  no  doubt,  there  can  be 
no  challenge,  that  this  work  is  a  necessity. 

2.  Is  the  free  traveling  library  practical? 

The  best  answer  to  this  question  is  found  in  the  opinions  of  those  who 
have  received  its  benefits.  From  the  towns  where  these  libraries  have 
been  placed  come  scores  of  letters  expressing  the  people's  appreciation. 
The  libraries  are  but  the  forerunners  of  other  enterprises.  Wherever  the 
libraries  have  been  placed,  village  improvements,  societies,  reading  circles, 
mothers'  clubs,  rest  halls,  and  other  associations  for  the  betterment  of  the 
people's  condition  have  been  established  and  successfully  operated. 
Heretofore  the  plan  has  been  to  appoint  a  librarian  in  each  of  these 
towns,  holding  him  responsible  for  the  good  care  and  safe  return  of  the 
books.     The  popularity  of  the  library  depends  largely  on  the  tact  of  the 


652  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Library 

librarian.  A  poor  librarian  can  destroy  the  effects  of  a  library  in  a  short 
time. 

We  are  now  developing  a  plan  which  will  undoubtedly  increase  the 
usefulness  of  the  work.  It  is  the  purpose  of  the  management  to  place 
these  libraries  in  the  district  schools,  along  the  lines  of  the  Seaboard  Air 
Line  Railway.  This  will  give  the  teachers  and  pupils  everyday  access  to 
all  the  books.  The  teachers  will  be  made  the  librarians.  These  are  gen- 
erally well-educated  young  men  and  women,  who  will  enter  into  the  plan 
with  pleasure  and  enthusiasm.  Thru  the  pupils  these  books  will  be 
carried  into  the  homes  of  the  people,  and  thus  reach  the  class  that  most 
needs  the  library.  Therefore,  with  the  railroad  as  a  partner,  representing 
live,  active,  and  vigilant  work,  with  the  public  schools  a  co-partner  fur- 
nishing the  medium  of  easy  and  safe  distribution,  the  benefits  desired 
cannot  fail.  There  is  nothing  visionary  or  intangible  in  these  plans  to 
operate  the  free  traveling  library.  It  is  a  plain,  business-like  manner  of 
politely  and  delicately  conferring  a  benefit  that  requires  simply  common- 
sense  in  its  management. 

3.  Is  it  worth  the  effort  ? 

This  question  cannot  be  answered  as  yet.  I  can  but  declare  my  faith 
in  its  results  and  give  persevering  work  to  the  cause.  It  is  a  nlaxim  of 
law  that  for  every  wrong  there  is  a  remedy.  And  for  every  necessity 
there  is  resource  for  relief.  We  have  shown  that  the  necessity  exists  for 
a  broader  and  more  general  culture  among  the  masses  of  the  people.  It 
is  needed  to  meet  conditions  as  well  as  competition.  It  is  needed  to 
intelligently  solve  ever-recurring  social  and  moral,  financial  and  political, 
problems. 

There  was  a  time  when  men  of  comparatively  limited  opportunities 
achieved  success  and  won  the  prizes  of  life.  That  time  has  passed.  He 
who  would  keep  abreast  of  the  dawning  century  needs  a  trained  head, 
skillful  hands,  and  a  courageous  heart.  Georgia  has  been  an  organized 
state  for  more  than  a  century.  During  that  time  she  has  given  to  the 
world  its  best  illustrations  of  manhood  and  womanhood  in  many  of  the 
vocations  of  life;  yet  within  her  mountain  depths  for  ages  has  slept  a 
wealth  of  gems  whose  golden  faces  never  caught  the  sunlight's  sparkle 
until  a  stranger's  skillful  hand  set  in  motion  wondrous  machinery  that 
coined  Georgia's  wealth  for  foreign  coffers. 

To  read  the  simpler  books  on  agriculture,  on  mechanics,  and  the 
practical  sciences  incites  to  deeper  inquiry.  Mental  activity  once  begun 
gathers  strength  with  momentum.  Research  once  started  furnishes  limit- 
less power.  Ask  the  men  who  have  achieved  greatness  —  those  who  have 
from  the  humblest  walks  of  life  reached  and  kept  the  highest  niche  of 
fame — where  and  how  they  began  their  upward  strides,  and  nine  out  of 
ten  will  tell  you  :  "From  the  inspiration  of  some  good  book." 

If  the  judicious  selection   and  distribution   of   these    free  traveling 


Department]  THE  FREE  TRAVELING  LIBRARY  653 

libraries  contribute  so  materially  to  individual  usefulness  and  happiness, 
what  of  its  effect  upon  the  nation's  life  ?  This  republic  is  not  yet  a 
finished  fabric.  Robust  and  buoyant  and  hopeful  as  it  stands,  the  day 
of  governmental  experiment  has  not  passed.  All  statesmanship  is  not 
concentered  in  the  president  and  his  cabinet,  nor  in  Congress ;  nor  is 
judicial  interpretation  infallible.  The  masses  of  the  people  are  after  all 
the  sovereign  of  this  republic.  In  the  homes  of  the  common  people  rests 
the  ark  of  the  covenant  of  this  country's  safety.  To  complete  the  pur- 
poses of  the  fathers,  to  make  our  country's  the  world's  best  form  of  govern- 
ment, the  patriotism  and  wisdom  of  its  people  must  contribute. 

Patriotism  is  generated  at  the  hearthstones  of  virtuous  homes.  It  is 
first  borne  into  the  human  heart  on  the  soft  strains  of  a  mother's  lullaby. 
It  gathers  strength  amid  the  laughter  of  happy  children.  It  grows  strong 
beneath  the  shade  of  ancestral  trees,  and  beside  the  rippling  waters  where 
our  fathers  dwelt.  It  catches  perfume  from  the  flowers  planted  upon  the 
graves  of  our  dead.  It  becomes  stronger  yet  when  the  glorious  legends 
and  traditions  of  our  country  are  learned,  and  it  reaches  perfection  when 
one  first  looks  upon  his  national  flag.  To  uplift,  to  brighten  the  homes 
of  our  people  is  the  law  of  the  nation,  is  the  opportunity  of  philanthropy 
and  the  statesmanship  of  Christianity. 

Wisdom  is  the  product  of  experience  acting  upon  a  trained  intellect. 
Patriotism,  however  intense,  does  not  fully  equip  the  citizen.  The  library, 
whether  it  be  book  or  magazine  or  newspaper,  is  the  school  of  the  adult. 
The  capacity  to  distinguish  the  right  from  the  wrong,  the  wise  from  the 
unwise,  is  as  essential  as  power  to  do  the  right  and  wise.  Knowledge  is 
power,  and  without  it  patriotism  and  virtue  are  powerless.  In  every  crisis  of 
the  world's  history  it  has  been  the  man  of  trained  intelligence  who  has 
performed  the  duties  of  the  hour.  Education  is  cheaper  than  arsenals, 
stronger  than  fortresses,  and  the  teacher  is  more  powerful  to  protect  than 
the  policeman.  The  primary  purpose  of  this  free  traveling  library 
undertaking  is  to  elevate  the  people  of  the  more  isolated  rural  districts, 
and  to  enlarge  their  opportunities  for  usefulness  and  happiness.  The 
rights  of  these  people  can  no  more  be  disregarded  than  their  necessities 
can  be  overlooked.  They  have  fought  from  the  ranks  in  the  times  of 
battle.  They  have  paid  with  their  toil  the  exactions  of  government  in 
times  of  peace.  They  have  furnished  the  new  blood  and  brawn  and 
brain  that  drive  the  machinery  of  national  progress.  In  the  sweet 
breath  of  the  country  is  found  the  oxygen  of  mental  and  moral  activity. 
Build  strong  and  guard  safely  the  homes  of  the  common  people,  and  in 
the  pure  atmosphere  of  their  patriotism  and  virtue,  communism  and 
anarchy  shall  gasp  and  die,  and  the  republic  shall  live  proudly  on. 
Build  strong  and  guard  safely  the  homes  of  the  common  people,  and  not 
all  the  armies  that  camp  upon  the  land,  nor  all  the  navies  that  ride  upon 
the  sea,  can  ever  furl  this  union's  flag. 


6S4  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Library 

I  cannot  close  this  paper  without  giving  public  utterance  to  my  own 
and  the  public  appreciation  of  the  efforts  of  the  Seaboard  Air  Line  Rail- 
way Co.,  and  particularly  of  its  general  manager,  Mr.  E.  St.  John,  to 
establish  and  foster  the  library  movement.  Every  facility  within  the 
limit  of  sound  business  methods  has  been  cheerfully  given.  It  is  their 
pride  as  well  as  ours.  Nor  can  I  express  my  sense  of  our  obligation  to 
Mr.  Andrew  Carnegie  for  his  gifts  and  kindly  interest  in  the  welfare  of  our 
library  and  our  people  more  fittingly  than  by  quoting  the  words  of  Mr. 
George  C.  Grogan,  of  Elberton,  Ga.,  before  the  convention  of  the  Indus- 
trial Association  at  Southern  Pines.     Mr.  Grogan  said  : 

It  is  well  known  that  Mr.  Andrew  Carnegie,  of  New  York,  has  given  ;?2,000  to  be 
expended  in  books  for  this  library.  To  one  of  Mr.  Carnegie's  wealth  the  gift  of  this  sum 
may  be  considered  trifling;  but  when  we  consider  the  sentiment  that  inspired  it  this 
donation  becomes  invaluable.  Especially  does  the  judiciousness  of  this  gift  commend 
itself  when  we  remember  that  Mr.  Carnegie  has  said  that  he  mainly  owes  his  own  success 
in  life  to  the  kindness  of  a  gentleman  who  loaned  him  good  books.  The  reason  and 
inspiration  of  this  gift  are  found  in  his  own  experience. 

Born  and  reared  as  I  was  in  the  section  most  to  be  benefited  by  this 
library,  having  suffered  many  of  the  hardships  and  privations  in 
common  with  the  people  of  our  once  desolated  southland,  my  first  recol- 
lections are  clustered  close  to  where  the  booming  cannons  and  smoking 
homes  told  of  Sherman's  march  thru  Georgia  to  the  sea.  Bred  into 
the  belief  that  all  our  ills  and  misfortunes  should  be  laid  at  the  door  of 
the  North,  I  declare  to  this  audience,  composed  as  it  is  of  both  sections, 
that  this  modest  gift  of  a  northern  man,  inspired  by  a  desire  to  help  the 
struggling  masses  of  the  common  people,  has  done  more  to  efface  the  last 
vestige  of  sectional  rancor  than  all  the  pacific  messages  of  presidents  or 
all  the  resolutions  of  amnesty  ever  passed  by  Congress. 


DISCUSSION 


PREsmENT  Williams. —  It  is  the  province  of  the  state  to  provide  aid  for  the  proper 
advancement  of  its  people.  If  a  state  is  justified  in  teaching  its  people  how  to  read,  it  is  justified 
in  providing  reading  material  for  these  same  people.  Where  they  cannot  provide  themselves 
with  good  literature  it  must  give  them  free  access  to  it  as  the  means  of  self-preservation 

H.  L.  Elmendorf. —  If  this  movement  deserves  commendation  for  no  other  reason, 
the  fact  that  it  gives  food  for  thought  to  the  women  of  the  rural  districts  would  be  a 
strong  argument  in  its  favor.  One  of  the  greatest  causes  of  the  number  of  people  con- 
fined in  our  insane  asylums  is  the  monotonous  life  of  the  women  in  the  rural  districts.  It 
is  very  fitting,  therefore,  that  women  should  be  the  foremost  workers  in  this  movement» 
which  is  doing  so  much  for  womankind  today.  It  has  awakened  the  public  conscience 
everywhere.  Women  have  undertaken  to  secure  the  means  of  further  bettering  the  con- 
dition of  the  rural  districts. 

There  is  no  limit  to  the  good  which  the  traveling  library  has  done  in  New  York  state. 
In  Buffalo  the  library  considers  it  part  of  its  duty  to  supply  those  persons  who  cannot 
come  to  the  library — those  in  hospitals,  jails,  engine  houses,  fire  departments,  street-car 


Department]  THE  FREE  TRAVELING  LIBRARY  655 

barns,  and  other  places  where  people  are  assembled  —  with  small  traveling  libraries,  which 
are  doing  a  splendid  work  for  the  people  of  the  state. 

State  Superintendent  G.  R.  Glenn,  of  Georgia. — The  state  should  provide  facili- 
ties by  which  the  child  can  use  what  he  learns  in  the  school.  It  is  a  hard  problem  in  our 
southern  states  to  provide  the  schools  which  we  have  with  the  money  to  make  our  teach- 
ing effective,  and  it  is  out  of  the  question  for  the  state  to  provide  traveling  libraries,  so 
we  must  depend  on  the  railroad  agencies  or  any  other  organization  that  will  come  to  our 
relief.  But  to  the  women  of  our  state  belongs  the  credit  of  starting  this  movement  and 
keeping  it  up.  I  look,  therefore,  to  the  partnership  of  women  in  all  movements  in  the 
uplifting  of  mankind.  Women's  clubs  are  doing  a  noble  work  in  arousing  thought 
among  our  people,  and  in  giving  help  which  will  make  their  work  more  effective. 

Miss  Harrison. — ^One  unacquainted  with  the  conditions  in  our  southern  states,  even 
in  Georgia,  is  unable  to  get  an  adequate  idea  of  the  conditions.  These  traveling  libraries 
bring  the  only  hint  of  a  higher  and  a  better  life  which  many  of  our  people  receive.  There 
are  5,000  schools  in  the  state  of  Georgia,  and  only  ninety-eight  libraries  all  told.  One 
child  in  500  has  the  use  of  these  books. 

Mrs.  Coleman,  of  South  Carolina. — The  inspiration  of  this  traveling-library  move- 
ment in  this  section  of  the  country  was  first  given  by  Mrs.  Heard,  of  Georgia,  and  I  want 
to  testify  that  the  beautiful  sentiments  given  in  her  paper  this  afternoon  are  the  principles 
which  guide  and  govern  her  work  in  these  southern  communities. 

Mr.  R.  C.  Metcalf. — These  theories  and  plans  of  library  work  which  we  have 
listened  to  this  afternoon  are  all  very  edifying,  but  the  library  work  for  children  should  be 
largely  in  the  hands  of  the  public  schools.  Despite  however  much  care  that  may  be 
given,  there  is  much  viciousness  in  the  material  of  public  libraries,  and  I  am  no  believer 
in  turning  children  loose  among  books  without  a  wise  counselor  to  guide,  and  this  must 
be  furnished  by  the  public  schools. 

President  Williams. — We  must  not  forget  that  the  best  part  of  our  education  is 
what  one  gives  himself,  and  this  self-education  comes  largely  from  a  contact  with  books. 
Traveling  libraries  lead  to  public  libraries,  and  while  some  of  our  speakers  seem  to  think 
that  poverty  stands  in  the  way  of  the  library  movement  in  their  community,  I  have  always 
thought  that  if  people  believe  a  thing  ought  to  be  done,  it  will  be  done.  No  state  is  so 
poor  that  it  cannot  get  what  the  people  want,  and  the  magnificent  work  of  the  women  of 
the  South  will  ere  long  lead  the  men,  the  lawmakers,  to  adjust  matters  so  that  these 
wants,  so  aptly  set  forth,  will  be  met. 


DEPARTMENT  OF  EDUCATION  OF  THE  DEAF, 
BLIND,  AND  FEEBLE-MINDED 


SECRETARY'S  MINUTES 


FIRST  SESSION.— Wednesday,  July  ii,  1900 

EDUCATION   OF    THE    DEAF 

The  department  was  called  to  order  at  3 :  30  P.  M.  in  St.  Andrew's  Lutheran  Sunday 
School  building,  Charleston,  with  Miss  McCowen,  Chicago,  111.,  vice-president  of  the 
Subdepartment  for  the  Deaf,  in  the  chair. 

Prayer  was  offered  by  Rev.  J.  A.  B.  Scherer,  pastor  of  St.  Andrew's  Lutheran 
Church. 

In  the  absence  of  the  secretary,  Mr.  E.  A.  Gruver,  of  New  York  city,  was  elected  to 
act  in  that  capacity. 

The  president,  Mr.  Warring  Wilkinson,  superintendent  of  the  In.stitution  for  the 
Deaf,  Berkeley,  Cal.,  being  absent.  Dr.  J.  C.  Gordon,  superintendent  of  the  Institution  for 
the  Deaf,  Jacksonville,  III.,  made  the  opening  address. 

Papers  were  read  on  the  following  topics  : 

1.  "The  Growth  and  Development  of  the  Southern  Schools  for  the  Deaf,"  by  J.  R.  Dobyns,  superin- 
tendent of  the  Institution  for  the  Deaf,  Jackson,  Miss. 

Discussion  by  Superintendent  N.  F.  Walker  of  the  Institution  for  the  Deaf,  Spartanburg,  S.  C. 

2.  "The  State  of  the  Case,"  by  Miss  Mary  S.  Garrett,  principal  of  the  Home  for  the  Training  in 
Speech  of  Deaf  Children  before  they  are  of  School  Age,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

3.  "  Recent  Changes  of  Method  in  the  Pennsylvania  Institution  for  the  Deaf,"  by  Dr.  A.  L.  E.  Crouter, 
superintendent  of  the  Pennsylvania  Institution  for  the  Deaf,  Mt.  Airy,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

4.  "  Statistics  of  Speech-Teaching  in  Schools  for  the  Deaf  in  the  United  States,"  by  Frank  W.  Booth, 
general  secretary  of  the  American  Association  to  Promote  the  Teaching  of  Speech  to  the  Deaf,  Mt.  Airy, 
Philadelphia,  Pa. 

5.  "  Day  Schools  for  the  Deaf,  the  Logical  Outcome  of  Educational  Progress,"  by  Mrs.  Marion  Foster 
Washbume,  of  the  Chicago  Institute  of  Education,  Chicago,  111, 

Discussion  by  James  A.  Foshay,  superintendent  of  schools,  Los  Angeles,  Cal. 

In  the  school  exhibit,  which  was  held  in  the  same  building,  this  deparment  was 
represented  by  the  McCowen  Oral  School  for  Young  Deaf  Children,  Chicago,  111.,  with 
photographs  of  the  school  and  its  surroundings;  the  Volta  Bureau,  Hon.  John  Hitz,  super- 
intendent, with  pamphlets  and  literature  concerning  the  deaf,  and  an  exhibit  of  the  work 
in  language  in  the  Chinese  School,  and  by  a  display  of  language  charts ;  Miss  Garrett 
and  several  pupils  from  her  school,  by  an  exhibition  of  work  in  speech  and  speech- 
reading;  and  by  Superintendent  N.  F.  Walker  and  Miss  Nettie  Rodgers,  a  graduate  of 
the  South  Carolina  School,  who  gave  an  exhibition  of  conversational  speech  and  lip- 
reading. 

The  meeting  adjourned  at  6 :  45  o'clock,  to  convene  in  business  session  in  the  parlors 
of  the  Charleston  Hotel  at  8:30  P.  M. 

BUSINESS  MEETING 

The  business  meeting  of  the  sixteenth  section  of  the  National  Educational  Associa- 
tion was  called  to  order  in  the  parlors  of  the  Charleston  Hotel,  headquarters  of  the 
association,  at  8 :  30  P.  M.,  Wednesday,  July  11,  1900. 

656 


DefectivesJ  SECRETARY'S  MINUTES  657 

In  the  absence  of  Dr.  Warring  Wilkinson,  Berkeley,  Cal.,  president  of  the  Depart- 
ment for  the  Deaf,  Blind,  and  Feeble-Minded,  Dr.  J.  C.  Gordon,  Jacksonville,  111.,  was 
unanimously  chosen  president  pro  tempore;  and  in  the  absence  of  the  secretary,  Dr.  E.  A. 
Fay,  Washington,  D.  C,  Mr.  E.  A.  Gruver,  of  New  York,  was  chosen  secretary  pro 
tempore. 

The  question  of  the  reorganization  of  the  department  was  discussed,  and,  on  motion, 
it  was  voted  to  unite  the  three  sections  of  the  deparment,  heretofore  known  as  the  Section 
for  the  Deaf,  the  Section  for  the  Blind,  and  the  Section  for  the  Feeble-Minded,  so  that 
they  will  work  as  one  section,  with  common  officers  and  a  common  program. 

The  following  officers  were  elected  for  the  ensuing  year  : 

President — Miss  Mary  McCowen,  Chicago,  III. 
Vice-President  —  Mr,  E.  R.  Johnstone,  Vineland,  N.  J. 
Secretary  —  Mr.  E.  A.  Gruver,  New  York  city. 

A  committee  on  organization,  with  Mr.  E.  E.  Allen,  of  Overbrook,  Pa.,  as  chairman, 
was  appointed  to  report  on  by-laws  at  the  next  annual  meeting,  and  an  executive  com- 
mittee, with  Miss  McCowen  as  chairman,  to  prepare  the  program  for  190 1. 

Adjourned. 

SECOND  SESSION.— Thursday,  July  12 

EDUCATION   OF  THE    BLIND 

The  department  met  at  3  :  30  P.  m.,  Vice-President  Edward  E.  Allen,  principal  of  the 
Pennsylvania  School,  in  the  chair;  W.  L,  Walker,  of  Cedar  Springs,  S.  C,  acting 
secretary. 

After  briefly  setting  forth  the  object  of  the  meetings,  the  chairman  called  for  the 
following  papers,  which  were  read  : 

1.  "A  Sketch  of  the  Conception  Entertained  by  the  Better  Professional  Thought  of  the  Day  Concerning 
the  Function  of  Schools  for  the  Blind,"  by  Superintendent  Dudley  Williams,  Academy  for  the  Blind,  Macon, 
Ga. 

2.  "  The  Higher  Education  of  the  Blind,"  by  John  E.  Swearingen,  Institution  for  the  Deaf  and  Blind, 
Cedar  Springs,  S,  C. 

3.  "  Ethics  of  Child  Culture,"  by  Miss  Sara  Whalen,  St\»te  School  for  the  Blind,  Ogden,  Utah, 

A  short  discussion  followed  the  reading  of  the  papers,  consisting  mainly  of  questions 
put  by  the  audience  and  answered  by  Superintendent  N.  F,  Walker  of  the  Cedar  Springs 
(S.  C.)  Institution,  and  by  the  chairman.    » 

Adjourned. 

THIRD  SESSION.— Friday,  July  13 

EDUCATION   OF   THE   FEEBLE-MINDED 

The  department  was  called  to  order  at  3 :  30  p.  M.  by  Vice-President  Margaret  Ban- 
croft, principal  of  the  Haddonfield  (N.  J.)  Training  School ;  Dr,  Bailey,  of  Philadelphia, 
acting  secretary.  Miss  Bancroft  delivered  an  opening  address,  summing  up  the  work  of 
the  past  and  forecasting  the  needs  of  the  future. 

"The  Treatment  of  Defectives  in  the  Public  Schools"  was  the  subject  of  an  address 
by  Colonel  Francis  W.  Parker,  principal  of  the  Chicago  Institute. 

A  paper  on  "The  Training  of  the  Feeble-Minded  in  Institutions"  was  read  by  Dr. 
E.  R.  Johnstone,  principal  of  the  Training  School  for  Feeble-Minded,  Vineland,  N.  J. 

Among  those  who  participated  in  the  discussion,  Mrs.  Marion  Foster  Washburne 
elaborated  Miss  Bancroft's  suggestion  of  classes  for  the  higher  grades  of  feeble-minded 
children  in  charge  of  specially  qualified  teachers  in  the  public  schools. 

The  section  adjourned  to  examine  the  industrial  exhibit  of  the  work  of  feeble'-minded 
children,  the  most  extensive  and  elaborate  being  from  the  Haddonfield  Training  School. 

Adjourned. 

E.  A.  Gruver, 

General  Secretary, 


658  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Education of 


PAPERS  AND  DISCUSSIONS 


THE  GROWTH  AND  DEVELOPMENT  OF  SOUTHERN 
SCHOOLS  FOR  THE  DEAF 

SUPERINTENDENT    J.    R.    DOBYNS,    INSTITUTION    FOR    THE    DEAF, 
JACKSON,    MISS. 

I  have  included  in  the  list  of  southern  state  schools  for  the  education 
of  the  deaf  the  following,  viz.:  Kentucky,  established  in  1823;  Virginia, 
in  1839;  Tennessee  and  North  Carolina,  in  1845;  Georgia,  in  1846; 
South  Carolina,  in  1849;  Louisiana,  in  1832;  Mississippi,  in  1854; 
Texas,  in  1857;  Alabama,  in  1858;  Arkansas,  in  1868;  West  Virginia,  in 
1870;  Florida,  in  1885.  While  this  proves  to  be  the  "unlucky  number 
thirteen,"  we  can  remember  that  the  original  number  of  states  was  the 
same. 

In  considering  this  subject  we  must  bear  in  mind,  as  we  always  do 
when  considering  the  growth  of  anything  in  the  South,  that  a  terrible 
civil  war  devastated  this  section  of  the  country.  Some  of  these  institu- 
tions, after  they  had  been  established,  were  wiped  off  the  face  of  the  earth, 
and  their  second  struggle  for  existence  was  harder  than  the  first.  While 
those  of  the  North  and  West  have  been  built  out  of  the  abundance  of  the 
people,  those  of  the  South  hav«  been  provided  for  out  of  the  poverty  of 
the  citizens. 

Growth. — Their  growth  has  kept  pace  with  the  increase  in  population  ; 
their  development  has  been,  like  other  schools  for  the  deaf,  as  remarkable 
as  the  age  in  which  we  live.  They  opened  originally  with  a  total  attend- 
ance of  ninety  — an  average  of  seven.  The  enrollment  last  year  was  2,623. 
They  began  with  one  teacher  in  each  school.  To  carry  on  the  work  last 
year  required  244  instructors.  Their  aggregate  original  annual  appro- 
priations for  support  were  $84,000.  They  expended  for  the  same  purpose 
during  the  last  fiscal  year  $431,004.  The  original  value  of  their  build- 
ings and  grounds  was  $48,144.  The  present  value  is  $1,977,500.  They 
were  opened  in  various  kinds  of  buildings ;  some  were  in  rented  buildings 
and  some  in  family  dwellings.  Georgia  and  Texas  inaugurated  their 
work  in  log  cabins  which  belonged  to  them.  The  buildings  of  the 
former  are  now  worth  $85,000  ;  of  the  latter,  $300,000.  From  the  mean, 
uncomfortable,  and  inadequate  quarters  in  which  they  were  started,  all 
except  two  have  grown  into  imposing,  comfortable,  and  ample  brick  and 
stone  buildings.  From  humble  suppliants  at  the  feet  of  legislatures,  beg- 
ging for  recognition  and  pleading  for  support,  they  have  grown  to  that 
stature  which  commands  recognition  and  demands  support. 


Defectives]  SOUTHERN  SCHOOLS  FOR  THE  DEAF  659 

Development. — From  small  classes  formed  to  cultivate  the  power  to 
express  thought  in  the  sign  and  written  languages  they  have  developed  into 
great  schools  for  the  upbuilding  of  the  physical,  intellectual,  and  moral 
manhood  of  the  deaf.  The  best  illustration  of  their  development  is  found 
in  the  number  and  character  of  various  branches  of  instruction  in  the  educa- 
tion of  the  deaf,  most  of  which  are  taught  in  the  southern  schools.  Those 
of  the  handiwork  are  as  follows,  viz.:  baking,  barbering,  basket-making, 
blacksmithing,  bookbinding,  bricklaying,  broom-making,  cabinet-mak- 
ing, calcimining,  carpentry,  chalk-engraving,  cementing,  chair-making, 
cooking,  coopery,  dressmaking,  embroidery,  engineering,  fancywork, 
farming,  floriculture,  gardening,  glazing,  harness-repairing,  house-work, 
horticulture,  ironing,  knitting,  manual  training,  mattress-making,  mil- 
linery, painting,  paperhanging,  plastering,  plate-engraving,  photography, 
printing,  sewing,  shoemaking,  sloyd,  stone-laying,  tailoring,  typewriting, 
Venetian  iron-work,  weaving,  wood-carving,  wood-working,  and  the  use 
of  tools. 

The  intellectual  and  aesthetic  natures  of  the  pupils  are  provided  for 
by  their  instruction  in  reading,  history,  mathematics,  science,  philosophy, 
literature,  governmental  science,  speech  and  speech-reading,  art,  paint- 
ing, decorating,  engraving,  and  modeling. 

The  high  moral  characters  of  officers  and  teachers  employed  in  these 
schools,  and  the  systematic  instruction  given,  show  the  development  along 
the  spiritual  line.  So  thoro  has  been  the  development  in  all  directions 
that  the  deaf  of  the  South  today  stand  in  need  of  nothing  to  place  them 
upon  a  level  with  the  hearing  men  and  women  except  ephphatha.  When 
we  remember  that  our  Savior  performed  a  miracle  to  enable  a  man  to 
speak,  is  it  wonderful  that  the  world  looks  with  awe  upon  the  develop- 
ments in  the  education  of  the  deaf  ? 

The  useful,  intellectual,  and  moral  qualities  of  the  graduates  of  these 
schools  afford  a  general  proof  of  the  broadest  development. 

The  time  allowed  to  this  paper  would  not  be  sufficient  for  naming 
the  long  list  of  bright  pupils  whose  gratifying  progress  has  been  the 
inspiration  of  teachers  and  the  life  of  our  schools.  The  records  here  and 
there  are  illuminated  with  the  names  of  pupils  whose  accomplishments 
are  so  brilliant  that  their  products  are  worthy  to  be  classed  with  those  of 
the  masters.  Their  embroideries  fascinate ;  their  portraits  speak ;  their 
paintings  re-create ;  their  models  breathe.  It  is  not  necessary  for  me  to 
repeat  here  the  long  list  of  men  and  women,  the  products  of  these  schools, 
whose  consistent  Christian  lives  have  been  so  conspicuous  as  to  make 
them  bright  and  shining  lights.  Shall  not  the  influences  for  good  thus 
set  in  motion  be  reckoned  as  the  measure  of  this  development  ? 

From  statistics  which  I  had  already  gathered  before  undertaking  the 
preparation  of  this  paper  I  am  satisfied  that  those  who  have  gone  out 
from  these  schools  within  the  last  thirty  years  are  now  making,  in  dollars 


siEjoi  pueif) 


(uMo^nedjo^) 


'^■vfi  CO    «    <>  f<^  tx  -*  < 
P4    <4-  tN.  I -     -   ■ 


■  tN.  t^CO  00    lO  •<*-  < 


w    O  00   t^  M   '^  t*.  ( 


MOD  SBX3X 


W    0>  fO  M    C*    W 


o  ■*»o  ■*  «  W  M 


BPUOIJ 


■♦  N  «  lo  w  m  t 


biui3jj^  '^ 


1  «  lO  ro  «   « 


■*vO 


tslONvO    ^M    COM 


§H    ^^^ 


g'S. 


SBSUBJfiy 


NO  00  00    '4-  «    N    N 


OHO  ♦ 


nvo  \o  o  00  « 


BUIEqE[Y 


4  \o  »o\o  en  CO  f  « 


fooo  in  M  vo 


•  H  &> 


SEX3J_ 


»  ■«*■  M  «     M     W 


>  vO   On  ■*  lO  ( 


O  t!-  moo    0»  O  ■<f*  •*  O  00  VO 


iddississi}^ 


VI  m  ovo  •*  c 


fo  mco  ovvo  fo  •*  < 


EUBisinoq 


•*  O   ■*  (^  « 


«  o  ■»^  «  N  « 


Bni[oiE3  •§ 


Ov  ■*  m  ^  m 


o  o  N  m  t^ 
6  N  t^  «  O 

o  o  t^  o  ■* 


Cl3iO»Q 


(qSpiBH) 
BU![0JB3  '^ 


sasssnnsx 


o> «  t«oo  >o  B  ■♦  > 


t^  t^vO    M    CO 


t^  M  00    M  \0    m  < 


■*\o  ooo 
\o  t^  »n  M 
O  m  o  O 


etniSji^ 


jC^Dniua^i 


t^  lO  N  00    t^  H 


00  mv>  000 


omt^«Ovm»n«oc<OQ>o 
o NO  miH  Qoaoo  o  ^ 

H  o  •♦oo  >o  CO 


O    OVO 

5  oS- 

(J  o  tC 


fO  O    CO  «    O    N    »A\0 


i    o 


S  OJO 


C   M„ 


e.5'3  3 


JS"3£>2 


i  o 

00  b 

00  V 

M  ^ 


3      •   4J^      ■    U 


n3  2 


B.t 


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e  c"5  a 


2Sfa-eSfaQ<:  "g£ 


-  „  B  o 

a  «  j;  «> 


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S  M  :  c 


MB  :;3.^ 

■  m'o  a "  i: 

C   C   S  3   3   C 

o;=Xi  »!-=  — 


5rJ'nJ?  V  =  =-0_ 


8   X   X   3   O 


Defectives] 


THE  STATE  OF  THE  CASE  66 1 


and  cents,  annually  more  than  the  legislatures  of  the  states  appropriate  to 
maintain  the  schools.  I  have  very  carefully  compiled,  from  the  "  Tabular 
Statements  of  American  Schools  for  the  Deaf,"  as  published  in  the  Annals, 
the  preceding  statistical  table  covering  the  period  from  1870  to  1899 
inclusive.  I  have  divided  this  table  into  decades,  so  that  by  looking  back- 
ward we  may  have  an  idea  of  what  is  forward.  I  beg  to  assure  you  that 
whatever  I  have  left  unsaid  may  be  read  between  the  lines  of  this  table. 

I  wish  to  acknowledge  my  indebtedness  to  the  American  Annals  of  the 
Deaf,  to  the  Histories  of  American  Schools  of  the  Deaf,  iSiy-iSgj,  published 
by  the  Volta  Bureau,  and  to  the  various  superintendents  of  southern  schools. 


THE  STATE  OF  THE  CASE 

MARY     S.     GARRETT,     PRINCIPAL     OF     HOME    FOR     THE    TRAINING    OF    DEAF 
CHILDREN,  PHILADELPHIA,  PA. 

When  Ericsson  invented  the  screw  propeller  for  steam  navigation,  the 
whole  board  of  the  British  Admiralty,  first  lord  and  all,  "demonstrated" 
that  it  would  be  impossible  to  steer  a  vessel  propelled  by  a  screw  applied 
at  the  stern.  We  can  easily  imagine  the  discouragements  that  the  young 
engineer  must  have  had  in  the  course  of  his  work  on  his  experiment. 

This  same  kind  of  discouragement  has  been  the  portion  of  all  those 
who  have  claimed  and  endeavored  to  show  how  nearly'so-called  defective 
children  can  be  made  to  be  like  normal  children,  provided  the  same 
opportunities  for  all-around  development  are  given  them  that  are  or 
should  be  the  portion  of  every  normal  child.  Only  the  minority  of  the 
parents  and  teachers  of  these  children  realize  what  they  can  be  trained 
to  be,  and  how  to  do  it ;  so  that  the  present  state  of  the  case  is  that, 
instead  of  adding  to  their  opportunities  for  development,  the  majority 
of  these  children,  altho  they  lack  one  sense,  are  actually  given  less  than 
normal  children  are  given.  Of  schools  for  the  deaf  there  are  many,  but 
of  opportunities  such  as  hearing  children  have  in  infancy  and  early  youth 
there  are  conspicuously  few.  We  have  some  examples  of  parents  of  these 
children  who,  by  taking  it  for  granted  that  they  can  do  what  normal  chil- 
dren can  do,  kindly  and  firmly  guide  them  to  this  end ;  who  do  not 
deceive  themselves  with  the  idea  that  it  is  kindness  to  their  afflicted 
charges  to  allow  them  to  be  selfish,  self-indulgent,  and  helpless;  and  who, 
by  proper  training,  have  brought  them  to  be  cultivated,  happy,  useful, 
and  symmetrical  in  their  characters. 

I  have  for  many  years  taken  the  ground  that  all  deaf  children  who  are 
not  imbecile  can  be  thus  trained.  But,  "  You  can't  do  it,"  has  been  the 
expression  which  I  have  heard  more  than  any  other.  I  might  have  been 
discouraged  and  have  believed  this,  had  it  not  been  for  the  work  of  a  few 
mothers  with  their  deaf  children  which  convinced  me  that  all  the  other 
little  ones  need  is  merely  the  opportunities  which  normal  children  have. 


662 


NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION 


[Education  of 


The  opportunity  is  nothing  mysterious  or  peculiar;  it  is  merely  that,  just 
as  the  little  hearing  baby  is  taught  thru  its  ear  almost  from  birth,  the 
little  deaf  child  should  get  the  same  repetition  of  this  natural,  everyday 
language  thru  its  eye,  and  gradually  be  led  to  communicate  thru  speech 
just  as  the  hearing  child  does,  and  should  have  no  more  manual  signs 
made  to  it  than  the  hearing  child  has.  The  little  deaf  child  should  in 
every  way  have  part  and  parcel  in  the  home  life  and  responsibilities.  It 
will  not  do  to  have  any  more  interruptions  in  the  deaf  child's  opportuni- 
ties than  in  the  hearing  child's,  nor  is  it  possible  to  get  the  results  with- 
out strictly  using  all  the  means.  Unfortunately  the  majority  of  the 
parents  of  deaf  children  are  blind  to  their  possibilities,  and  are  so  bound 
by  the  tradition  that  they  cannot  do  things  that  the  children  rarely  have 
the  proper  opportunities  given  them.  No  one  has  a  right  to  say  what 
such  children  can  or  cannot  do  who  has  not  given  them  these  all-around 
chances  from  birth  to  learn  thru  the  eye  what  hearing  children  learn  thru 
the  ear  in  infancy  and  early  youth.  Any  little  deaf  child  who  is  not 
imbecile  can  be  trained  to  oral  speech  and  educated  thru  it  with  hearing 
children,  provided  its  parents,  friends,  and  teachers  give  it  the  opportu- 
nities which  are  its  birthright. 

A  clever  charity  worker  said  in  an  address  in  Philadelphia  some  time 
ago  something  like  this :  "No  institution  should  exist  which  does  not 
work  for  the  final  result  of  making  itself  unnecessary."  Altho  my  sister 
and  I  founded  in  Pennsylvania  eight  years  ago  a  Home  for  the  Training 
in  Speech  of  Deaf  Children  before  they  are  of  School  Age,  and  altho  we 
desire  that  such  homes  should  be  founded  in  every  state,  we  hope  that 
the  day  is  not  far  distant  when  such  schools  will  have  outlived  their  use- 
fulness. We  trust  that  every  parent  of  a  defective  child,  and  all  the 
friends  and  relatives,  and  those  who  come  in  contact  with  such  children, 
will  realize  that  the  strict  application  of  the  principles  above  referred  to 
will  never  fail  to  bring  the  results. 

We  try  to  make  our  cottages  as  nearly  as  possible  like  the  ideal  home, 
but  the  conditions  cannot  be  quite  as  favorable  for  an  afflicted  child  as  if 
it  were  in  its  own  home,  surrounded  only  by  the  influences  of  and  con- 
tact with  normal  people,  provided  every  one  of  those  normal  people  intel- 
ligently realizes  that  the  child  must  be  given  every  opportunity.  At  the 
same  time,  we  are  steadily  realizing  that  by  getting  these  little  children 
at  as  early  an  age  as  possible,  and  surrounding  them  with  the  conditions 
which  lead  them  to  the  acquirement  and  use  of  articulate  speech,  we  can 
prepare  them  to  return  to  their  homes  and  hold  their  own  in  schools  for 
hearing  children,  and  be  educated  with  them. 

We  are  working  with  sixty-two  children,  most  of  whom  are  deaf-born, 
and  all  of  whom  came  to  us  without  speech  or  language.  Among  these 
about  eight  find  articulation  quite  difficult,  as  they  accomplish  correct 
articulation  more  slowly  than  the  other  children  ;  but  there  are  none  who 


Defectives]       CHANGED  METHODS  OF  DEAF-MUTE  INSTRUCTION  663 

do  not  advance  rapidly  in  lip-reading.  The  remedy  for  the  eight  is,  of 
course,  a  little  longer  training. 

Of  the  eleven  members  of  our  first  class  with  whom  we  opened  eight 
years  ago,  six  are  already  in  schools  with  hearing  children ;  three  more 
will  go  in  September;  one  was  removed  by  her  parents  nearly  two  years 
ago ;  and  the  tenth  would  have  been  ready  to  go  if  she  had  not  also  been 
removed  for  fourteen  months  by  her  parents.  Of  the  three  who  will  go  in 
September,  one  would  have  gone  two  years  ago  but  that  her  mother  removed 
her  and  kept  her  two  years  out  of  school;  and  another  is  one  of  the  cases 
in  which  articulation  is  especially  difficult,  and  she  required  a  longer  time. 

All  our  little  ones  receive  manual  training  according  to  their  ages, 
and  one  of  our  boys  from  the  first  class  went  from  us  to  an  industrial 
school  for  hearing  boys,  and  is  reported  as  doing  splendid  work  in  the 
shops  as  well  as  the  classes,  and  is,  therefore,  learning  his  trade,  ds  he 
will  certainly  have  to  ply  it,  among  hearing  people. 

Many  of  our  little  ones  have  no  homes,  or  no  suitable  homes,  waiting 
for  them  when  they  are  ready  to  leave  us,  and  part  of  our  work  is  to  find 
such  homes  for  them  when  they  are  prepared  to  attend  schools  with  hear- 
ing children. 

No  deaf-born  child  who  has  completed  with  us  his  preparatory  course 
of  learning  articulate  speech,  speech-reading,  and  language  has  failed  to 
hold  his  own  with  hearing  children.  Several  children  have  been  removed 
whose  parents  were  unwilling  to  allow  them  the  all-year-round  uninter- 
rupted opportunity  for  learning  speech  and  language,  which  is  as  abso- 
lutely indispensable  for  deaf  children  at  as  early  an  age  as  possible  as  it 
is  for  hearing  children,  as  a  preparation  for  their  school  education. 

I  do  not  think  our  duty  to  such  children  is  accomplished  until  every 
one  is  given  this  opportunity  by  those  who  are  responsible  for  his  exist- 
ence. This  leads  to  the  burning  question  of  the  right  of  parents  who  are 
thus  afflicted  to  bring  other  afflicted  people  into  the  world,  and  it  seems 
to  me  that  our  whole  duty  to  our  kind  requires  legislation  which  will  pre- 
vent the  marriage  of  persons  who  are  liable  to  transmit  defects  to  their 
offspring. 

CHANGES  OF  METHOD  IN  THE  PENNSYLVANIA  INSTITU- 
TION FOR  THE  DEAF  AND  DUMB 

A.  L.  E.  CROUTER,    SUPERINTENDENT,    INSTITUTION    FOR    THE    DEAF,  MOUNT 

AIRV,    PA. 

In  1870,  influenced  by  the  movement  in  favor  of  some  recognition  of 
the  merits  of  speech-teaching  consequent  upon  the  establishment  of  oral 
schools  for  the  education  of  the  deaf  in  Massachusetts  and  in  New  York, 
and  by  the  report  of  a  visit  to  European  oral  schools  by  Dr.  Edward  M. 
Gallaudet  wherein  the  introduction  of  articulation-teaching  in  all  Ameri- 
can schools  for  the  deaf  was  strenuously  urged,  the  management  of  the 


664 


NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION 


[Education  of 


Pennsylvania  Institution  for  the  Deaf  and  Dumb  introduced  articulation- 
teaching  for  such  pupils  as  might  be  able  to  profit  by  it,  thus  recogniz- 
ing the  desirability  for  teaching  speech  to  its  pupils,  at  least  as  an 
accomplishment,  and  changing  the  school  from  a  sign-language  school 
into  what  is  popularly  known  as  a  combined-system  school. 

The  sign-language  method,  the  method  of  De  I'Epee,  Sicard,  and  their 
successors  in  France  and  in  America,  pervaded  every  department  of  the 
institution  during  the  period  from  1820  to  1870.  So  easy  of  acquisition,  so 
all-absorbing  of  the  mental  faculties,  so  enchanting  to  its  users,  teachers 
and  pupils  alike,  it  had  become  the  one  easy  and  acceptable  means  of 
communication  and  instruction  thruout  the  school,  and  any  step  limiting 
its  use  or  weakening  its  functions  in  connection  with  school  work  or  social 
intercourse  was  received  with  many  and  great  apprehensions.  Signs  for 
words,  for  ideas,  for  persons  and  places,  in  schoolroom  and  lecture-room 
work,  had,  in  the  course  of  fifty  years,  become  so  imbedded  in  the  thought 
and  practice  of  the  school  that  they  were  regarded  as  the  sine  qua  nori  of 
all  successful  effort. 

Under  such  conditions  the  outlook  for  successful  speech-  or  articula- 
tion-teaching was  far  from  encouraging,  when,  in  1870,  the  first  attempts 
at  such  work  in  the  institution  were  made.  The  method  introduced,  one 
still  pursued  in  many  combined-system  schools,  provided  from  thirty  to 
forty-five  minutes'  daily  instruction  in  speech,  or  articulation,  and  lip- 
reading  ;  the  various  classes,  in  whole  or  in  part,  going  in  turn  to  the 
instructor  charged  with  the  duty  of  teaching  speech  to  the  whole  school. 
At  best  the  instruction  thus  afforded  amounted  to  little  more  than  a  cer- 
tain sort  of  vocal  drill,  tiring  alike  to  both  teacher  and  pupils.  In  no 
sense  could  it  be  regarded  as  instruction  by  oral  methods. 

Recognizing  these  unfavorable  conditions,  the  authorities  of  the 
school  in  1881  resolved  to  introduce  separate  oral  instruction,  at  least 
for  a  portion  of  the  pupils.  This  was  eleven  years  after  the  introduction 
of  articulation-teaching  under  combined-system  methods.  The  experi- 
ence of  these  eleveh  years  was  sufficiently  convincing  of  the  great  diffi- 
culty, if  not  utter  impossibility,  of  securing  good  speech  and  good 
lip-reading  with  only  thirty  or  forty-five  minutes'  daily  instruction,  the 
remainder  of  the  time  being  given  to  instruction  under  very  different 
and  antagonistic  methods. 

The  next  step  was  the  establishment,  at  some  distance  from  the  main 
school,  of  a  separate  oral  department  for  a  portion  of  the  pupils.  This 
department,  conducted  at  first  as  a  day  school,  at  the  end  of  its  fifth 
year  contained  ninety  pupils  and  nine  teachers.  In  1885  it  was  changed 
from  a  day  to  a  boarding  school. 

This  important  step  was  taken  very  advisedly.  No  class  of  defectives 
require  for  their  development  more  specialized  methods  of  training  or 
more  wholesome  environing  influences  than  the  deaf.     The  managers  of 


Defectives]       CHANGED  METHODS  OF  DEAF-MUTE  INSTRUCTION  665 

the  institution,  recognizing  the  many  advantages  of  home  environment 
in  the  education  of  normal  children,  were  fully  sensible  of  the  many 
arguments  since  then  so  widely  exploited  in  furthering  the  interests  of 
day  schools  for  the  deaf.  They,  however,  felt  with  Dr.  Nathan  Oppenheim 
that,  while  "a  household  is  primarily  designed  for  the  needs,  comforts, 
and  pleasures  of  normal  persons,  it  can  only  with  difficulty  subordinate 
its  natural  usefulness  to  the  needs  of  abnormal  children,"  and,  realizing 
the  serious  harm  that  would  be  certain  to  result  in  the  education  of  deaf 
children  should  there  be  failure  to  appreciate,  to  the  fullest  extent,  the 
great  differences  between  normal  and  defective  children,  were  led,  very 
wisely,  to  decide  in  favor  of  the  boarding  rather  than  the  day-school 
system  for  this  department.  In  our  experience  under  the  day-school 
plan  it  was  found  very  difficult  to  control  attendance,  to  enforce  dis- 
cipline, or  to  secure  satisfactory  and  helpful  and  healthful  home  influ- 
ences. With  the  change  to  a  boarding  school,  all  these  unfavoring 
conditions  were  remedied,  and  the  work  of  the  department  almost 
immediately  assumed  a  higher  and  better  tone. 

The  work  of  the  institution  was  prosecuted  at  this  period  (1883-88)  in 
the  following  manner :  in  the  main  school  in  manual  or  sign-language 
classes  with  instruction  in  articulation  in  half-  and  three-quarter-hour 
periods  to  a  portion  of  the  pupils;  in  two  oral  classes,  formed  in  1883- 
84,  in  the  same  department,  and  from  which  signs  and  spelling  as  means 
of  instruction  were  excluded;  and  in  oral  classes  in  the  separate  oral 
department.  Instruction  was  continued  under  this  classification  for  five 
years,  the  orally  taught  classes  slowly  increasing  in  number  each  year. 
The  articulation  classes  grew  smaller,  their  speech-work  in  comparison 
less  and  less  satisfactory,  until  the  year  1888,  when  articulation-teaching 
of  this  character  ceased  altogether.  Since  then  the  work  of  the  school 
has  been  practically  confined  to  two  methods  only,  the  oral  and  the 
manual.    Intermittent  speech-work  has  been  banished  from  the  curriculum. 

Comparative  tests  of  the  results  under  the  two  methods  were  con- 
ducted for  a  period  of  five  years  (1888  to  1892  inclusive),  grade  for 
grade,  class  for  class.  The  examinations,  based  on  the  work  pursued  in 
the  manual  department,  were  taken  alike  by  the  pupils  of  both  depart- 
ments, and  in  no  one  instance  were  orally  taught  pupils,  of  equal  grade, 
found  inferior  to  manually  taught  piipils;  in  many  respects  their  work 
was  superior.  In  the  language  tests  their  work  was  almost  invariably 
superior;  in  statement  of  facts,  as  in  history  or  geography,  they  also 
frequently  excelled.  The  results  of  these  tests  were  remarkable.  They 
proved  conclusively  that  the  congenital  deaf,  the  adventitious  deaf,  and 
the  semi-deaf — in  fact,  all  deaf  children  of  good  health  and  good  mental 
powers  —  may  be  successfully  taught  by  oral  methods  alone. 

Upon  the  transfer  of  the  institution  to  Mount  Airy  in  1892,  the  sepa- 
ration of  the  oral  from  the  manual  department  was  made  complete  by 


666 


NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION 


[Education  of 


merging  the  two  oral  classes  of  the  manual  department  into  classes  hitherto 
taught  in  the  separate  oral  department.  The  merging  of  the  pupils  of 
these  two  classes  with  pupils  similarly  instructed,  but  without  sign-envi- 
ronment, brought  to  light  some  interesting  contrasts.  It  was  found  in  the 
case  of  the  former  that  their  speech  and.^peech  habits  were  not  so  good  nor 
so  firmly  fixed ;  that  their  lip-reading  was  not  so  reliable ;  and  that  their 
attainments  were  not  in  general  so  high.  This  was  true  class  for  class 
and  pupil  for  pupil,  and  whether  deaf-born,  semi-deaf,  or  semi-mute. 
When  closely  compared  with  pupils  who  had  enjoyed  complete  separate 
oral  instruction,  it  was  clearly  shown  that  their  years  of  sign-environment 
had  told  upon  them  for  the  worse. 

The  injurious  effect  of  sign-environment  upon  pupils  orally  taught 
received  further  demonstration  in  our  experience  at  Mount  Airy,  when, 
on  account  of  the  greatly  increased  number  of  pupils  under  oral  instruc- 
tion, we  were  compelled  to  associate  intermediate  oral  classes  with  manual 
classes  in  the  same  hall.  The  work  of  the  pupils  of  these  classes,  in  so 
far  as  their  speech  and  lip-reading  were  concerned,  greatly  deteriorated, 
emphasizing  in  marked  degree  the  statement  already  made  that  speech 
methods  and  sign  or  manual  methods  do  not  and  cannot  combine  to  the 
advantage  of  pupils  instructed  under  what  are  known  as  combined- 
system  methods. 

Prior  to  the  year  1892  the  growth  of  the  oral  department  during  the 
ten  years  of  its  existence  was  slow.  With  the  removal  of  the  school  in 
that  year  to  Mount  Airy,  and  with  the  passage  of  an  act  by  the  legisla- 
ture, in  the  session  of  1893,  requiring  all  new  pupils  received  into  the 
school  to  be  placed  under  oral  instruction,  and  to  be  maintained  under  oral 
methods  of  instruction  until  it  was  plainly  shown  that  they  could  not  be 
benefited  by  it,  the  oral  department  has  rapidly  increased.  The  following 
comparative  table  gives  the  yearly  increase  from  1881  to  1899  inclusive: 


Department 

'81 

319 
36 

355 

'82 

317 
52 

369 

'83 

297 
66 

363 

'84 

332 
69 

401 

'85 
337 

424 

'86 

337 
96 

433 

'87 

340 
96 

436 

'88 

313 
120 

433 

•89 

315 
120 

435 

V 

312 
120 

432 

'91 

312 
125 

437 

'92 

274 
170 

444 

'93 

200 
260 

460 

'94 

176 
304 

480 

'95 

152 
350 

502 

'96 

121 
390 

5" 

'97 

416 
509 

'98 

66 
440 

506 

'99 

Manual 

Oral 

48 
452 

Total 

500 

From  this  statement  it  will  be  seen  that  in  1881,  when  the  separate 
oral  department  was  established,  the  manual  department  contained  very 
nearly  90  per  cent,  of  the  total  attendance,  and  the  oral  department  a 
little  over  10  per  cent.;  that  at  the  beginning  of  the  competitive  examina- 
tions, in  1888,  the  manual  department  contained  over  72  per  cent,  of  the 
total  attendance,  and  the  oral  department  less  than  28  per  cent.;  whereas 
in  1899,  completely  reversing  their  relative  positions,  the  oral  depart- 
ment contained  over  90  per  cent,  of  the  total  attendance,  and  the  manual 
department    less    thari    10    per  cent.     Thus   had    the  oral   method  in  3. 


defectives]       CHANGED  METHODS  OP  DEAF-MUTE  INSTRUCTION  667 

competitive  trial  of  nineteen  years,  1881  to  1899  inclusive,  forced  itself 
to  the  front  by  sheer  force  of  merit. 

During  this  long  period  of  trial,  extending  over  almost  twenty  years, 
there  were  cases  of  apparent  oral  failure  ;  and  in  such  instances  the 
authorities  of  the  school  always  stood  ready  to  transfer  to  the  manual 
department,  in  the  hope  that  its  supposed  superior  merits,  as  a  means  of 
instruction,  might  do  for  such  pupils  what  the  oral  method  seemed  inca- 
pable of  accomplishing.  I  have  some  striking  statistics  to  submit  on  this 
point :  From  188 1,  when  separate  oral  instruction  was  introduced,  to  1899, 
there  were  received  into  the  school  1,130  pupils,  of  whom  671  were  placed 
under  oral  instruction  and  459  under  manual.  Of  these  671  oral  pupils 
71  failed  to  make  satisfactory  progress  under  that  form  of  instruction, 
and  were  transferred  to  the  manual  department  for  instruction  under 
manual  methods.  In  other  words,  of  the  large  number  of  pupils  orally 
taught  during  this  period,  but  10^  per  cent,  were  regarded  as  failures. 
But  were  these  failures  owing  to  the  method  of  instruction  pursued,  or 
were  they  rather  the  result  of  inferior  mental  powers  on  the  part  of  the 
pupils  themselves  ?  Their  history  under  manual  instruction  must  answer 
the  question.  And  when  I  say  that  of  these  seventy-one  pupils  transferred 
from  the  oral  to  the  manual  department  during  these  nineteen  years,  but 
three,  less  than  5  per  cent.,  attained  even  average  success  under  manual 
methods,  it  seems  to  me  the  answer  that  it  was  not  the  method,  but  the 
mental  condition  of  the  pupils,  that  was  at  fault,  is  at  once  conclusive 
and  complete. 

But  let  me  apply  this  failure  test  to  the  work  of  the  oral  department 
when  it  was  more  fully  organized,  say  from  1892  to  1899  inclusive. 
During  this  period  there  were  received  into  the  institution  516  pupils,  of 
whom  493  were  placed  under  oral  instruction  and  23  under  manual.  Under 
oral  instruction,  but  20  of  these  pupils  have  been  regarded  as  failures, 
and  transferred  from  the  oral  department  to  the  manual.  That  is,  in  a 
period  of  eight  years,  with  a  total  of  493  pupils  placed  under  oral  instruc- 
tion, the  percentage  of  failure  is  not  quite  45^  ;  and  today,  with  a  total 
of  500  pupils  under  instruction,  452  orally  and  48  manually,  there  are  but 
14  oral  failures  in  the  school  —  under  3  per  cent,  of  the  total  attendance. 

With  such  experiences  as  these,  covering  a  period  of  almost  twenty 
years,  I  am  forced  to  conclude  that  "when  a  deaf  child  cannot  be  edu- 
cated by  the  application  of  proper  oral  methods,  it  is  useless  to  hope  for 
any  marked  success  under  any  method."  And  after  a  most  careful  com- 
parative examination  of  the  relative  merits  of  oral  and  manual  methods 
of  teaching  the  deaf,  extending  over  this  long  period,  and  including 
almost  every  phase  and  variety  of  such  methods  of  instruction,  I  fully 
believe  that  proper  oral  methods  —  by  which  I  mean  the  use  of  speech 
and  speech-reading,  writing,  pictures,  and  the  free  use  of  books  —  are  fully 
adequate  to  the  best  education  of  the  deaf. 


668 


NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION 


[Education  of 


Sl'ATISTICS  OF  SPEECH- TEACHING  IN  SCHOOLS  FOR  THE 
DEAF  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES 

FRANK  W.  BOOTH,  GENERAL  SECRETARY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  ASSOCIATION 
TO  PROMOTE  THE  TEACHING  OF  SPEECH  TO  THE  DEAF,  MOUNT  AIRY, 
PHILADELPHIA,  PA. 

Speech- teaching  in  America  upon  its  present  permanent  basis  dates 
back  for  its  beginning  to  1867,  when  the  Chelmsford,  Mass.,  school  was 
started  by  Harriet  B.  Rogers.  From  that  year  and  from  that  school  the 
movement  has  grown  rapidly,  but  it  was  not  until  seventeen  years  had 
passed,  or  until  the  year  1884,  that  statistics  of  speech-teaching  were  col- 
lected and  given  us.  In  that  year,  in  response  to  a  request  of  the 
first  Convention  of  Articulation  Teachers,  meeting  in  New  York,  the 
American  Annals  of  the  ZP^o/"  incorporated  a  column  in  its  annual  statis- 
tical tables  giving  the  number  of  pupils  "taught  speech  "  in  the  several 
schools  in  the  country,  which  column  has  been  retained  in  the  annual 
tables  published  up  to  this  time.  In  1892,  in  response  to  a  request  of 
the  American  Association  to  Promote  the  Teaching  of  Speech  to  the 
Deaf,  the  Annals  introduced  still  another  column  showing  the  number  of 
pupils  in  the  schools  "taught  wholly  by  the  oral  method."  This  column 
has  also  been  retained  up  to  the  present  time  (with  a  change,  however,  in 
its  title,  made  in  1896,  so  that  it  now  reads:  "taught  wholly  or  chiefly  by 
the  oral  method").  The  footings  of  the  Annals  tables  for  the  years 
1884,  1892,  1893,  and  1899  are  shown  in  the  following  table,  together 
with  computed  percentages  based  upon  the  footings.  Returns  as  to 
pupils  "taught  wholly  or  chiefly  by  the  auricular  method"  are  also  given 
in  the  table  : 


STATISTICS     OF     SPEECH-TEACHING     IN     SCHOOLS    FOR    THE     DEAF     IN     THE 

UNITED    STATES 

(Compiled  from  the  American  Annals  of  the  Deaf) 


V 

a 

Number 

OF  Pupils 

Percentage  of  Pupils 

>:•  V 

b  u-o 

b  u 

K  U-O 

>." 

>," 

:? 

%. 

i^-g 

ISe 

2  >>'° 

.C  J2    0 

i.g-H 

•0 

g. 

Z 

MIC  » 

i-J 

M 

i^6 

u 

■3  " 

ac 

6t«  0 

ex 

tutc  u 

> 

fS& 

eS 

tS 

J^e 

H-SS 

tS 

e5"-gg 

hIs 

1884 

61 

7,482 

2,041 

27.2 

1892 

80 

7,940 

3.924 

i,S8i 

49.4 

19.9 

i«93 

79 

8,304 

4,485 

2,056 

80 

54-0 

24.7 

0.96 

1899 

112 

10,087 

6,236 

4,089 

128 

61.8 

40.5 

1.27 

•The  words  "or  chiefly"  were  added  to  the  designation  of  this  column  in  i8 


Defectives] 


STATISTICS  OF  SPEECH-TEACHING 


669 


In  the  year  1886  the  Annals  added  a  column  to  its  tables  showing 
the  number  of  articulation  teachers  employed  in  the  schools  for  the  deaf 
in  America.  For  purpose  of  comparison,  and  to  show  percentages  of 
increase  in  contrast,  the  footings  of  1886  and  1899  are  presented  so  far 
as  they  show  the  total  number  of  pupils  in  the  schools,  the  number  taught 
speech,  and  the  number  of  articulation  teachers  : 

STATISTICS     OF     SPEECH-TEACHING     IN     SCHOOLS     FOR     THE    DEAF    IN    THE 

UNITED    STATES 

(Compiled  from  the  American  Annals  of  the  Deaf) 


Total  pupils 

Taught  speech 

Articulation  teachers 


1886 


8.050' 

2,484 

134 


iSgg 


10,087' 
6,236 
561 


Increase  in  thir- 
teen years 


2,037 

3,752 

427 


Percentage  of  in- 
crease in  thir- 
teen years 


23-3 

151. 0 

318.6 


In  thirteen  years  the  figures  thus  show  an  increase  of  23  per  cent,  in 
pupilage  —  a  fair  growth,. keeping  up  probably  with  the  normal  increase 
in  population  of  the  country.  This  growth  is  accompanied,  however, 
with  the  extraordinary  increase  in  the  same  time  of  151  per  cent,  in  the 
number  of  pupils  taught  speech,  and  with  the  still  more  extraordinary 
increase  of  318  per  cent,  in  the  number  of  articulation  teachers.  The 
inquiry  may  arise :  Why  the  very  much  greater  percentage  of  increase 
in  the  number  of  teachers  teaching  speech  in  comparison  with  the 
percentage  of  increase  of  pupils  taught  speech?  The  explanation  is: 
There  has  taken  place  a  great  change,  not  only  in  the  quantity  of 
speech-work  done,  but  also  in  its  character,  the  old  "half-hour"  speech 
classes  having  largely  given  way  to  the  "all-day"  classes,  thus  requiring 
a  much  larger  number  of  teachers  to  instruct  the  same  or  any  given 
number  of  pupils. 

As  time  goes  on,  changes  in  methods  are  inevitable ;  and  in  the  case 
of  a  versatile  people,  such  as  is  found  in  this  country,  a  variety  of  meth- 
ods prevailing  and  practiced  is  also  inevitable.  To  meet  these  condi- 
tions, and  to  cover  them  statistically,  an  inquiry  has  within  the  past  two 
years  been  instituted  by  Dr.  Alexander  Graham  Bell,  the  lines  of  which 
follow  and  conform  to  the  several  varieties  of  methods  actually  in  use  in 
the  various  schools  of  the  country  at  the  present  time.  The  inquiry  in 
its  several  lines  aims  to  show:  (i)  the  number  of  pupils  in  the  schools; 
(2)  the  number  taught  by  speech  and  speech-reading,  without  being 
taught  at  all  by  the  sign-language  or  manual  alphabet ;  (3)  the  number 
taught  by  speech  and  speech-reading,  together  with  a  manual  alphabet, 
without  being  taught  at  all  by  the  sign-language ;  (4)  the  number  taught 


'  The  figures  for  1886  indicate  the  number  of  pupils  in  attendance  during  the  year.    The  figures  for  1899 
indicate  the  number  of  pupils  present  on  a  specified  day  (November  10), 


670 


NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION 


[Education  of 


by  speech  and  speech-reading,  and  also  taught  by  the  sign-language  and 
manual  alphabet ;  (5)  the  number  taught  speech  and  speech-reading  as 
an  accomplishment,  but  speech  not  used  as  a  means  of  instruction.  The 
returns  covering  the  above  lines  of  inquiry  have  been  made  up  for  the 
two  years  1899  and  1900,  and  have  been  published  by  Dr.  Bell  in  the 
Association  Review.  For  purpose  of  comparison  the  footings  of  Dr.  Bell's 
tables  of  returns  for  the  two  years  are  presented  in  the  table  below : 


STATISTICS     OF     SPEECH-TEACHING     IN     SCHOOLS 

UNITED    STATES 


FOR     THE     DEAF    IN    THE 


(Compiled  from  the  Association  Review) 


a 

a 

1 

1 

s 

9 

Number  of  Pupils 

Percentage  of  Pupils 

Taught  by  speech  and 
speech-reading 

Taught   speech 
and  speech- 
reading 

Taught  by  speech  and 
speech-reading 

Taught  speech 
and  speech- 
reading 

^  c 
a  a 

0  0 

Taught  also  by 
manual  spelling 

«  i 

•a  S 

•s 

2  c 

.5    4) 

—  at 

s,s 

«  at 

—  c 
a  a 

ST 
B  c 

0   0 

Taught  also  by 
manual  spelling 

"  6 
•0  2 

■Sgc 

a 

V 

> 

•It 

0  ot 
(5 

H 

B 

C   « 
MM 

0  tx 

"  «  u 
H 

•s 

ll 

2  s 

1899 
1900 

86' 
i09» 

9,349 
9,786 

2,496 

2,757 

1,549 
1,643 

972 

995 

535 
582 

478 
430 

26.7 
28.2 

16.5 
16.8 

10.4 
10.2 

5-7 
5-9 

5.1 
4.4 

An  interesting  series  of  tables  recently  published  by  Dr.  J.  C.  Gordon, 
of  the  Illinois  Institution,  shows  the  amount  and  the  character  of  the 
speech-teaching  as  practiced  in  the  schools  in  the  several  geographical 
divisions  of  the  country.  The  tables  show  that  in  the  entire  United 
States  43  per  cent,  of  the  deaf  children  in  school  are  taught  by  oral 
methods  exclusively,  18  per  cent,  by  "mixed"  or  "combined"  methods, 
and  30  per  cent,  by  "sign"  or  "manual"  methods  exclusively;  in  the 
New  England  states  61  per  cent,  are  taught  by  oral  methods  exclusively, 
31  per  cent,  by  "mixed"  or  "combined"  methods,  and  8  per  cent,  by 
"sign"  or  "manual"  methods  exclusively ;  in  the  middle  states  61  per 
cent,  are  taught  by  oral  methods  exclusively,  27  per  cent,  by  "mixed"  or 
"combined"  methods,  and  12  per  cent,  by  "sign"  or  "manual"  methods 
exclusively;  in  the  central  and  western  states  41  per  cent,  are  taught  by 
oral  methods  exclusively,  17  per  cent,  by  "mixed"  or  "combined" 
methods,  and  42  per  cent,  by  "sign"  or  "manual"  methods  exclusively; 
in  the  southern  states  24  per  cent,  are  taught  by  oral  methods  exclusively, 
7  percent,  by  "mixed"  or  "combined"  methods,  and  69  per  cent,  by 
"sign"  or  "manual"  methods  exclusively. 

J  Fifteen  schools  did  not  report.  2  Six  schools  did  not  report. 


Defectives]  HIGHER  EDUCATION  OF  THE  BLIND  671 

THE  HIGHER  EDUCATION  OF  THE  BLIND  ' 

JOHN    E.    SWEARINGEN,    INSTITUTION    FOR    THE     DEAF     AND     BLIND,     CEDAR 

SPRINGS,    S.    C. 

[an  abstract] 

Ours  is  an  intellectual  age.  Thought  now  dominates  the  world  of 
man  almost  as  effectually  as  light  and  heat  control  the  world  of  plant  and 
animal  life,  and  the  nation,  the  class,  or  the  individual  that  does  not  feel 
and  recognize  its  power  can  never  be  anything  more  than  "a  hewer  of 
wood  and  a  drawer  of  water."  The  dominion  of  brain  has  superseded 
the  dominion  of  brawn,  and  today  he  that  possesses  a  ready  and  well- 
trained  mind  has  within  him  a  power  that  supplies  or  creates  resources 
for  the  satisfaction  of  all  his  wants.  Hence,  the  school  and  the  college 
have  become  essential  factors  in  our  civilization,  for  in  all  countries  the 
problem  of  life  has  largely  been  resolved  into  the  problem  of  education. 
Even  our  marked  industrial  progress  is  directly  attributable  to  this  subtle 
intellectual  force.  A  people's  advancement  is  measured  by  its  enlighten- 
ment, and  the  recognition  of  this  fact  has  made  education  one  of  the  most 
important  functions  of  the  modern  state.  Knowledge,  therefore,  is  no 
longer  the  possession  of  the  favored  few,  for  its  acquisition  has  been 
rendered  compulsory  by  the  exigencies  of  life,  and  in  many  com- 
munities by  the  additional  force  of  strict  legal  enactments. 

This  tendency  toward  the  widespread  dissemination  of  truth  is  uni- 
versal in  its  scope,  not  only  embracing  every  nationality,  but  also  includ- 
ing every  class  and  almost  every  individual.  The  spirit  that  has  organized 
our  common-school  system  has  not  neglected  those  who  by  reason  of 
physical  infirmity  are  shut  out  from  its  advantages.  The  blind  youth  of 
the  country  are  being  trained  in  forty-two  special  schools,  where  the 
appliances  and  methods  of  instruction  are  better  adapted  to  their  peculiar 
needs ;  and  in  them  these  pupils  are  learning  that  life  is  not  all  shadow, 
even  tho  the  eye  perceives  nothing  of  the  wonderful  effects  of  light  and 
color,  nothing  of  the  beauty  and  grace  of  form  and  movement,  nothing 
of  the  grandeur  and  sublimity  of  the  works  of  man  and  nature.  These 
two-score  institutions  have  done,  and  are  still  doing,  much  to  encourage 
and  uplift  the  blind,  and  the  practical  philanthropy  that  established  them 
brought  a  greater  blessing  than  vision  to  the  hundreds  that  have  learned 
in  them  the  joys  of  knowledge,  the  beauty  of  truth,  the  power  of  thought, 
the  love  or  independence,  the  dignity  of  labor,  and  the  obligation  of 
work. 

Higher  education  is  becoming  more  and  more  a  necessity  for  all 
classes,  in  consequence  of  the  continually  increasing  demand  that  com- 
petition is  making  on  skill  and  training.  The  specialist  now  controls 
every  department  of  industry,  and  whether  the  workman  toils  in  the  shop, 
the  laboratory,  or  the  library,  he  must  bring  to  his  task  all  the  power  and 


672  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Education  of 

efficiency  of  which  he  is  capable  before  he  can  make  sure  of  success.  This 
tendency  affects  the  blind  most  vitally,  since  it  requires  that  thoroness, 
accuracy,  and  mastery  of  details  which  are  gained  only  after  months  and 
years  of  unwearied  application.  The  man  that  lacks  these  traits  cannot 
perform  excellent  work  of  any  kind,  and  this  is  essentially  true  of  the 
realm  of  thought,  where  the  blind  find  their  greatest  opportunities  to  win 
their  greatest  triumphs. 

Possibly  the  greatest  obstacle  in  the  way  of  higher  education  of  the 
blind  lies  in  their  own  diffidence,  irresolution,  and  lack  of  energy.  When 
the  available  text-books  in  embossed  type  were  much  fewer  than  at 
present,  the  more  ambitious  and  determined  spirits  mastered  the  curricu- 
lum of  some  of  our  best  colleges,  and  these  students  uniformly  assert 
that  they  were  not  specially  handicapped  or  overworked.  Now  that  many 
text-books  may  be  had,  the  blind  youth  that  wishes  a  degree  has  only  to 
make  a  considerable  outlay  in  these  to  bring  under  his  fingers  geometric 
and  trigonometric  diagrams,  the  classics  of  different  languages,  and  sci- 
entific laws  and  formulae.  The  supply  of  such  books  is  inadequate,  but 
this  deficiency  can  be  made  up  by  studying  with  classmates.  If  the  blind 
student  brings  to  this  joint  work  alertness,  discrimination,  interest,  power 
of  analysis,  appreciation,  and  the  desire  to  give  as  well  as  to  receive 
assistance,  his  lack  of  sight  will  be  a  help  rather  than  a  hindrance.  It 
will  enable  him  to  work  with  several  instead  of  one  pair  of  eyes,  to  view 
each  subject  from  the  standpoint  of  others  as  well  as  from  his  own,  to 
perceive  aspects  and  relations  that  would  have  escaped  his  attention,  to 
learn  the  sympathy  that  worth  always  gives  to  merit,  and  with  all  this  to 
know  the  deep  pleasures  afforded  by  the  friendship  of  those  whose  aims 
and  ideals  are  the  products  and  acme  of  all  that  springs  from  "knowledge, 
virtue,  refinement,  and  religion."  The  blind  boy  or  girl  that  ]ias  this 
spirit  needs  nothing  besides  except  the  preparation  that  is  demanded  of 
all,  and  if  this  is  assured,  his  high  resolve  must  certainly  bear  him  to 
success. 

But  this  is  the  end  rather  than  the  beginning  of  a  college  course. 
Men  who  have  never  been  forced  to  do  without  eyes  measure  those  who 
have  by  an  altogether  false  standard.  They  seem  to  forget  that,  tho  sight 
may  be  one  of  our  most  valuable  possessions,  it  is  still  only  a  means  of 
conveying  impressions  to  the  mind.  Professors  and  students  alike  are  too 
ready  to  discredit  the  ability  of  the  blind,  and  to  discourage  their  efforts  the 
moment  they  present  themselves  for  entrance  examination.  This  spirit  of 
questioning  and  discouragement  is  by  no  means  stimulating  to  the  blind ; 
but  it  must  be  met  and  conquered  before  their  higher  education  can  be 
realized.  When  once  met  it  becomes  equally  as  strong  a  help  in  attaining 
this  end  in  each  individual  case. 

If  this  be  the  attitude  of  scholarship,  observation,  and  experience,  it 
is  hardly  to  be  expected  that  untutored  classmates  are  more  credulous. 


Defectives]  HIGHER  EDUCATION  OF  THE  BLIND  673 

The  translations  of  Horace  and  Cicero  from  memory  or  oral  reading,  the 
writing  of  modern-language  dictations,  the  mental  solving  of  complex 
mathematical  problems,  and  the  ability  to  get  by  hearing  what  others  get 
by  sight,  are  novelties  that  they  are  always  ready  to  test.  This  interest  is 
the  blind  student's  opportunity.  If  properly  employed,  it  will  crystallize 
into  an  abiding  spirit  of  helpfulness  that  is  of  inestimable  value.  His 
competency  to  do  the  work  that  he  has  undertaken  must  be  recognized 
both  by  instructors  and  classmates,  but  the  former  can  be  gained  all  the 
more  easily  if  the  latter  be  used  to  secure  it. 

The  conditions  that  make  this  possible  are  thoro  preparation  and 
the  disposition  to  return  favors.  Without  the  one,  any  student  is  a  drag 
to  the  class;  and  without  the  other,  the  blind  student  forfeits  his  right  to 
expect  what  he  stands  in  absolute  need  of.  The  attitude  of  doubt  that 
many  hold  toward  the  higher  education  of  the  blind  is  partly  due  to 
the  ill-advised  course  pursued  by  some  that  cannot  see.  Praised  and 
petted  at  home  for  doing  things  that  are  required  of  others,  the  blind  boy 
and  girl  not  infrequently  forms  an  exaggerated  opinion  of  his  own 
powers,  and  expects  from  strangers  that  partiality  which  is  shown  by  his 
immediate  home  circle.  Ignorant  of  his  weakness,  and  oftentimes  unac- 
quainted with  real  work,  he  enters  college,  learns  too  late  .his  own  defi- 
ciency, fails,  and  goes  back  to  friends  to  soothe  his  vanity  by  joining  in 
his  denunciation  of  the  hostility  and  narrow-mindedness  of  mankind. 
Companions  with  sight  who  meet  the  same  difficulty  go  back  to  their  books, 
master  them,  and  soon  qualify  themselves  for  what  they  wish  to  do ;  but 
the  blind  youth  folds  his  hands,  and  the  college  community  attributes  to 
the  lack  of  sight  what  is  a  direct  consequence  of  the  want  of  application, 
energy,  and  determination.  A  few  such  instances  give  rise  to  the  opinion 
that  blindness  and  incompetency  are  synonymous;  thus  the  failure  of 
one  reacts  on  all.  To  remove  this  obstacle  is  the  mission  of  the  special 
schools  for  the  blind,  and  the  management  of  these  should  see  that  no 
graduate  attempts  a  college  course  unless  he  possesses  the  preparation 
that  insures  at  least  a  successful  beginning. 

The  written  work  that  a  college  course  requires  is  not  so  burdensome 
as  might  at  first  be  supposed.  With  the  typewriter  the  blind  student  can 
readily  do  any  writing  that  is  necessary,  and  anything  that  requires  special 
thought  and  revision  can  be  written  with  a  stilus  and  tablet.  A  knowl- 
edge of  some  system  of  point-writing  is  invaluable,  and  where  no  type- 
writer is  accessible  college-mates  are  more  than  willing  to  copy  from  dic- 
tation any  written  exercise  that  is  imposed.  In  every  instance  with  which 
I  am  acquainted  the  blind  student  had  no  difficulty  in  doing  all  the 
writing  he  wished,  and  if  experience  is  any  indication,  we  may  expect 
that  no  student  without  sight  need  anticipate  difficulty  on  that  account. 
Oral  exercises  are  sometimes  substituted  without  loss,  but  this  cannot 
remove  the  necessity  for  written  work,  altho  the  thoroness,  alertness,  and 


674  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Education of 

penetration  it  demands  are  no  small  part  of  education.  Copying  in 
"Braille"  or  "New  York  point"  should  be  reduced  to  a  minimum,  since 
the  time  thus  spent  results  only  in  placing  the  blind  student  on  an 
equality  with  seeing  classmates,  and  is  therefore  a  tax  on  strength  and 
endurance  that  has  no  great  practical  benefit. 

What,  then,  is  the  conclusion  of  the  matter  ?  That  the  higher  educa- 
tion of  the  blind  is  both  needful  and  practical  will  be  readily  admitted, 
but  that  this  is  not  recognized  by  the  general  educator  is  equally  as  true. 
The  question  must  be  worked  out  by  the  blind  themselves,  and  its  solu- 
tion depends  less  on  dollars  and  cents  than  upon  the  spirit  actuating 
those  who  have  a  desire  for  education  and  the  will  to  satisfy  it.  The  480 
colleges  of  the  country  afford  ample  opportunity  to  all,  and  the  drag- 
chain  prejudice  that  has  hitherto  held  down  the  blind  can  be  destroyed 
only  by  the  unrestricted  mingling  of  sighted  and  sightless  in  the  college 
class-room.  That  we  are  in  some  measure  handicapped  is  not  to  be 
denied,  but  that  we  are  able  to  overcome  this  limitation  by  work  is  also 
evident  to  every  thinking  mind.  Let  college  authorities  everywhere  give 
to  blind  students  the  same  welcome  and  encouragement  they  give  to 
others,  the  same  duties  and  the  same  privileges;  and  they  will  find  these 
too  are  capable  of  making  worthy  use  of  their  advantages. 


THE  CLAIMS  OF  THE  FEEBLE-MINDED 

MARGARET    BANCROFT,    PRINCIPAL    OF    THE    HADDONFIELD    TRAINING 
SCHOOL,    HADDONFIELD,    N.    J. 

[an  abstract] 

The  memorable  events  of  the  passing  week,  the  crowded  sessions,  the 
learned  papers  and  discussions,  all  these  have  shown  rapid  strides  in 
educational  purpose  and  technique ;  and,  as  applied  to  the  vast  army  of 
normal  children,  would  seemingly  show  that  the  race  is  always  to  the 
%wift  and  the  victory  to  the  strong.  But  in  the  quiet  of  this  gathering 
at  the  fag  end  of  this  great  convention  we  surely  must  not  lose  sight  of 
the  paramount  claims  on  our  attention  and  sympathy  of  the  less  richly 
endowed  little  ones  who  in  this  age  of  progress  toward  perfection  have 
too  often  received  but  little  share  of  the  advantages  so  freely  accorded 
to  their  more  fortunate  brothers  and  sisters. 

The  first  step  in  satisfying  the  claims  of  mentally  deficient  children  is 
to  see  that  training  schools  are  established  in  every  state,  and  day  schools, 
with  facilities  for  the  special  training  of  backward  children,  in  every  city. 
Some  may  ask:  "Cannot  these  children  be  trained  in  their  own  homes  or 
with  other  children?"  I  answer,  "No;"  for  the  conditions  in  which 
such  boys  and  girls  are  placed  are  such  as  to  make  suitable  training  an 
impossibility.     In   dealing  with   such    children    every  cause    and    effect 


Defectives]  CLAIMS  OF  THE  FEEBLE-MINDED  675 

should  be  carefully  studied  by  the  skilled  practitioner  and  the  student  in 
psychic  phenomena,  in  order  to  remove,  if  possible,  the  bodily  obstruc- 
tion, whatever  it  may  be,  which  impairs  or  prevents  the  normal  working 
of  the  mind. 

Backward  and  mentally  deficient  children  need  specially  trained 
teachers,  and  also  a  human  environment  adapted  to  their  peculiar  needs. 
They  must  be  under  the  care  and  influence  of  those  who  can  comprehend 
with  sympathetic  intelligence  their  peculiar  phases  of  mind  —  phases  at 
once  complicated,  delicate,  and  sensitive  in  the  extreme.  Therefore  to 
place  them  in  the  care  of  teachers  not  especially  trained,  or  in  classes 
with  normal  children,  is  a  procedure  as  unintelligent  as  it  is  unkind.  We 
must  surround  them  by  the  persons,  the  objects,  and  the  scenery  which 
will  develop  their  limited  powers  as  fully  as  such  favorable  conditions 
alone  can  make  possible.  This  can  be  done  only  by  providing  state  and 
private  schools  in  which  the  selection  of  teachers,  of  methods,  and  of 
appliances  shall  be  made  with  intelligent  reference  to  the  special  needs 
of  such  children. 

Let  me  say  one  word  in  regard  to  the  proper  teachers  for  these  chil- 
dren. Knowledge  of  psychology  ^ives  an  insight  into  the  work  which  will 
be  highly  beneficial,  and  we  do  not  speak  disparagingly  of  it ;  but  given 
two  teachers,  otherwise  well  qualified,  that  one  will  be  the  more  successful 
who  is  possessed  of  a  motherly  instinct  and  a  sympathetic  nature.  Should 
you  add  to  essential  characteristics  a  suitable  practical  training  and  a 
working  knowledge  of  psychology,  you  have  the  perfect  teacher  for 
mentally  deficient  children.  Take  away  the  sympathetic  nature  and  the 
mother-love,  and  substitute  merely  the  cool,  calculating,  scientifically 
trained  teacher,  and  place  such  a  teacher  over  these  children,  and  you 
will  have  no  satisfactory  results.  We  want  common -sense  brought  to 
bear  in  this  matter.  Therefore  I  would  urge  the  establishment  of  train- 
ing classes  for  teachers  for  mentally  deficient  children.  These  classes 
should  be  attached  to  good  schools  for  such  children,  where  teachers  in 
training  would  get  a  practical  knowledge  by  daily  experience.  In  this 
way  efificiency  would  be  secured,  the  teacher  getting  at  the  same  time  a 
practical  and  a  psychological  training. 

In  view  of  these  considerations  may  I  be  permitted  to  urge  that  a 
representative  from  our  work  be  placed  upon  your  committee  which  at 
present  represents  secondary  schools  and  high  schools,  but  which  has  at 
present  no  members  representing  the  interests  of  the  blind,  the  deaf,  or 
the  mentally  deficient  ?  We  need  the  mentality  which  may  accrue  from 
this  union,  and  you  need  the  practical  knowledge  which  we  shall  be  able 
to  bring  to  your  meetings.  There  is  every  reason  to  feel  that  such  a 
representation  would  result  in  benefit  to  all  concerned.  We  urge  the 
appointing  of  a  delegate  from  schools  for  mentally  deficient  children  and 
one  representing  the  interests  of  backward  children ;  and  that  the  papers 


676  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Education of 

and  discussions  in  these  meetings  be  reported  and  printed  in  our  maga- 
zine; thus  giving  to  the  teachers  in  our  institutions  the  benefit  of  your 
advanced  knowledge. 

I  desire  to  call  attention  to  the  needs  of  the  southern  states  and  to 
express  the  hope  that  this  association  will  use  its  influence  to  secure  the 
establishment  of  state  schools  of  this  kind  in  the  South.  We  have  on  an 
average  one  mentally  deficient  child  to  every  five  hundred  in  the  popula- 
tion, and  practically  no  provision  in  the  South  for  their  training.  I  also 
call  the  attention  of  the  public  to  our  private  schools  for  neurotic  chil- 
dren. I  see  no  reason  why  these  schools,  which  are  doing  good  work  in 
this  line,  should  not  receive  endowments  as  do  our  colleges  and  universities. 

In  the  well-conducted  private  school  where  individual  work  is  done  in 
the  class  a  better  knowledge  can  be  obtained  as  to  real  results  than  in  any 
other  way.  If  these  private  schools  should  receive  from  time  to  time 
small  endowments,  they  would  be  enabled  to  pursue  a  course  of  scientific 
work  which  would  be  impossible  in  our  larger  institutions.  One  of  these 
schools,  with  an  average  attendance  of  less  than  twenty-five  children, 
spends  annually,  in  caring  for  and  training  them,  $23,000.  With  such  an 
expense  as  this  you  can  readily  see  that  the  school  could  not  afford  the 
additional  cost  of  extra  scientific  experiments.  I  have  no  doubt  that  other 
private  schools  could  send  a  similar  report,  and  that  they  all  desire  to 
invite  inquiry  and  inspection.  For  my  own  part  I  would  urge  that  the 
private  schools  should  be  open  to  state  inspection. 

Like  Cato,  who  always  finished  every  speech  with  the  words,  "  Carthage 
must  be  destroyed,"  I  shall  always,  in  pleading  for  the  mentally  deficient 
child,  strongly  urge  that  such  children  be  unsexed.  For  this  there  are  two 
reasons  :  first,  that  there  should  be  no  possibility  of  such  children's  propa- 
gating their  kind ;  secondly,  for  humane  reasons.  This  idea,  given  out 
two  years  ago,  received  thoughtful  consideration  and  resulted  in  good. 
I  hope  that  the  next  two  years  will  see  some  state,  if  not  states,  sufficiently 
advanced  in  civilization  and  humanity  to  pass  a  state  law  requiring  the 
unsexing  of  all  those  unfitted  to  propagate  their  kind.  This  law  should 
apply  to  all  cases  of  pronounced  mental,  physical,  and  moral  deficiency. 
In  this  way  the  action  of  the  state  will  radically  remove  a  great  part  of 
the  underlying  cause  of  degeneracy. 

For  the  same  end,  the  thoughtful  and  highly  enlightened  members  of 
this  great  educational  association,  as  they  return  to  their  respective  fields 
of  labor,  must  use  their  influence  in  making  the  teachers  in  our  schools  see 
to  it  that  students  under  their  care,  from  kindergarten  to  college,  should 
be  taught  the  laws  governing  physical  and  moral  development,  so  clearly, 
so  positively,  that  each  boy  and  girl,  as  body  and  mind  advance  to 
maturity,  may  see  it  to  be  their  sacred  obligation  to  prepare  themselves 
to  perpetuate  physical  and  mental  soundness.  This  will  do  away  with 
impurity  of  thought  and  action. 


Defectives]  TRAINING  OF  THE  FEEBLE-MINDED  677 

Since  I  last  spoke  before  this  association  I  have  been  more  than 
gratified  to  find  that  the  terms  "idiot"  and  "imbecile"  are  gradually 
being  dropped;  "mentally  deficient"  and  "backward"  are  the  words 
substituted.  Chicago  employs  the  term  "  neurotic,"  which,  thus  far,  is 
the  best  name  for  the  class  of  children  in  which  we  are  interested.  In 
the  work  we  are  called  to  do  as  educators  we  find  that  all  our  pupils, 
even  those  regarded  as  normal,  are  more  or  less  deficient  in  some  mental 
or  physical  feature  or  endowment ;  and  I  wish  that,  as  applied  to  the  class 
of  pupils  in  which  our  department  of  the  association  is  especially  interested, 
the  term  "defective"  might  be  dropped.  Unless  you  make  a  division 
which  will  place  all  who  are  not  absolutely  perfect,  physically,  mentally, 
and  morally,  on  the  "  defective  "  list,  you  have  no  right  to  make  any  division. 
We  therefore  respectfully  request  that,  in  the  future,  this  department  be 
known  as  the  department  for  the  blind,  deaf,  and  neurotic. 

The  new  theory  of  evolution  puts  forth  the  idea  that  the  fittest  are 
responsible  for  the  rest.  Shall  not  we,  who,  we  trust,  are  fittest,  feel 
our  sacred  responsibility  in  having  intrusted  to  our  care  these  weaker 
little  ones  who  have  come  into  this  great  world  imperfectly  fitted  to  carry 
life's  heavy  burden  ?  The  normal  child  can,  to  a  great  extent,  manage 
his  own  education;  and  yet  it  would  seem  that  almost  all  our  educational 
thinking  looks  to  the  care  and  development  of  the  mentally  sound  and 
capable.  While  recognizing  the  importance  and  the  wisdom  of  giving 
our  best  efforts  in  good  measure  to  the  training  of  the  large  body  of  our 
youth  who  are  mentally  strong,  I  would  most  earnestly  solicit  for  the  less 
fortunate  a  measure  of  thought  and  effort  commensurate  with  their 
urgent  needs. 


ON  THE  TRAINING  OF  THE  FEEBLE-MINDED 

E,     R.     JOHNSTONE,     PRINCIPAL     OF     NEW   JERSEY     TRAINING     SCHOOL     FOR 
FEEBLE-MINDED,    VINELAND,    N.    J. 

In  considering  the  care  and  training  of  the  feeble-minded  today  I  shall 
have  time  to  touch  but  lightly  upon  one  of  the  greatest,  if  not  the  greatest, 
of  the  sociological  problems  of  the  world. 

The  term  "  feeble-minded  "  is  used  to  include  all  degrees  of  defect,  from 
the  speechless,  helpless,  profound  idiot  up  to  the  child  but  slightly  below 
normal  and  often  differing  from  normal  only  in  that  he  lacks  what  is 
usually  called  good  common-sense.  Most  specialists,  for  convenience, 
recognize  three  divisions  :  the  idiotic  or  lowest  grade,  the  imbecile  or 
middle  grade,  and  the  feeble-minded  or  highest  grade.  While  theroreti- 
cally  these  classes  are  distinct,  in  practice  no  line  can  be  drawn,  and 
children  often  pass  from  one  grade  to  another  in  the  course  of  training* 

Ten  per  cent,  of  public-school  children  are  defective  to  such  an  extent 
that  the  attention  of  a  specialist  should  be  given  them.     There  is  hardly 


678  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Education of 

a  primary  school  in  the  country  which  does  not  contain  its  backward  child, 
who  is  so  far  backward  that  the  public-school  system  does  not  reach  him  ; 
and  he  drifts  from  class  to  class  year  after  year.  Occasionally  he  is  pro- 
riaoted,  only  because  the  teacher  can  do  no  more  for  him,  and  finally, 
unfit  for  the  buffets  of  the  world,  he  is  turned  into  it  to  sink  into  more 
hopeless  dependence. 

The  census  of  1890  gave  more  than  95,000  feeble-minded  and  idiotic 
persons  in  the  United  States.  Ohio  had  more  than  8,200  ;  Indiana,  5,500  ; 
Michigan,  3,200;  New  Jersey,  3,600;  and  so  on  thru  the  states,  the  pro- 
portion being  about  the  same  in  all.  These  figures  probably  fall  far  short 
of  the  facts,  for  it  is  hard  to  get  accurate  statistics,  because  parents  are 
sensitive  and  are  unwilling  to  believe,  and  even  more  unwilling  to  admit, 
that  their  children  are  feeble-minded.  Now,  altho  the  most  prolific  cause 
of  feeble-mindedness  is  degeneracy,  there  are  many  other  causes. 

We  find  among  our  institution  records  many  instances  of  children 
being  born  feeble-minded  because  of  some  accident  just  at  the  time  of 
birth,  or  because  of  unusaal  disease  on  the  part  of  the  mother.  Some 
became  feeble-minded  shortly  after  birth  because  of  fever  or  other  ill- 
ness which  the  sensitive  brain  could  not  withstand. 

In  the  feeble-mindedness  caused  by  degeneracy  our  chief  work  must  be 
preventive.  Many,  if  not  most,  of  the  insane,  epileptic,  criminals,  paupers, 
vagrants,  and  prostitutes,  and  some  of  the  blind,  deaf,  and  consumptives, 
are  degenerates.  Their  offspring  do  not  of  necessity  exhibit  the  same 
form  of  degeneracy  as  they  do,  but  most  of  them  partake  of  that  form 
called  feeble-mindedness.  Therefore,  right  here,  preventive  measures 
must  be  used.  No  longer  should  any  degenerate  be  permitted  to  repro- 
duce his  kind. 

Provision  is  now  made  in  the  special  institutions  of  the  country  for 
less  than  10,000  of  the  host  of  feeble-minded.  Most  of  the  remaining 
86,oDo,  and  over,  are  in  the  hospitals  for  the  insane,  the  poor-farms,  the 
orphans'  homes,  or  running  at  large  in  the  village  or  the  slums  of  the 
great  cities.     Chicago  alone  has  more  than  2,500. 

The  feeble-minded  child  comes  to  us  for  training  in  all  forms  of  mental, 
moral,  and  physical  asymmetry.  His  powers  may  equal  those  oi  the 
normal  child  of  ten,  or  they  may  be  no  better  than  those  of  a  babe  a  few 
months  old.  His  acts  are  purposeless  or  immature.  His  attention, 
imagination,  memory,  and  observation  are  often  almost  wanting.  His 
will  is  weak,  and  his  judgment  is  at  fault.  His  ideas  of  propriety  are 
often  lacking  and  his  conception  of  common  morality  erroneous.  Physi- 
cally he  is  usually  deficient.  His  features  are  sometimes  repulsive,  often 
out  of  proportion.  The  eye  wanders  restlessly  or  stares  insensibly. 
The  weak,  flabby,  unreliable  hand,  the  unsteady  gait,  the  open  mouth, 
the  automatic  movements  of  the  limbs,  are  all  conspicuous  signs  of  his 
feebleness.      This  being,   this   creature   representing  the    sum   of   man's 


Defectives]  TRAINING  OF  THE  FEEBLE-MINDED  679 

infirmities,  is  one  of  God's  children.  In  the  Middle  Ages  he  was  thought 
to  be  possessed  with  evil  spirits.  The  Greeks  carried  him  to  the  mountains 
and  left  him  to  perish.  Even  until  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century  he 
was  supposed  to  be  beyond  human  help,  and  so  was  neglected  by  teacher 
and  physician ;  and  even  the  church  considered  him  a  child  of  the  devil. 
But  we  in  the  nineteenth  century  are  learning  better.  We  are  coming 
to  recognize  him  as  one  of  those  of  whom  Christ  said  :  "Inasmuch  as  ye 
have  done  it  unto  one  of  the  least  of  these,  my  brethren,  ye  have  done 
it  unto  me." 

Beginning  with  the  attempt  by  the  celebrated  French  physician  Itart 
to  train  the  "  Savage  of  Averyon,"  about  the  year  1880,  the  work  has  been 
carried  on  nobly  and  tirelessly  up  to  the  present  time. 

Each  step  in  the  training  of  the  feeble-minded  must  be  reduced  to  its 
simplest  form.  The  progress  made  by  a  normal  child  in  one  month 
often  requires  a. year  to  accomplish  by  the  feeble-minded  child,  and 
many  of  the  things  the  normal  child  learns  from  no  other  teacher  than 
nature  and  his  own  exuberant  spirits  we  must  teach  our  child.  He  must 
learn  to  walk  and  run  and  play,  laugh,  shout,  and  sing.  These  are  all 
brain-producers.  The  weak  body,  the  weak  mind,  and  the  weak  moral 
sense  go  hand  in  hand.  Strengthen  the  one  and  the  others  are  made 
stronger.  Of  all  the  forms  of  physical  exercise  play  properly  guided  is 
undoubtedly  the  most  valuable.  As  most  feeble-minded  children  play, 
but  little,  their  efforts  must  constantly  be  encouraged.  The  child  who 
makes  a  success  of  play,  that  is,  who  gets  out  of  it  the  highest  mental, 
moral,  and  physical  training,  is  carrying  an  ideal  to  completion  with  all 
the  force  at  his  command.  He  is  increasing  his  gray  matter.  The 
trainer  must  be  with  his  children  at  play  as  well  as  at  work.  This  is  a 
field  for  training  too  much  neglected  in  the  public  school.  The  great 
ethical  effects  of  playing  fair  on  the  playground,  upon  living  fair  in 
the  future,  is  too  often  lost  because  of  the  absence  of  the  moral  force  of 
a  good  teacher  at  play-time.  Special  gymnastic  exercises  must  have  a 
place  in  our  curriculum,  but  they  should  ever  be  secondary  to  play. 

By  combining  music  with  games  the  wandering  attention  of  the 
feeble-minded  child,  so  hard  to  find  and  keep,  is  more  easily  held.  Music 
itself  is  a  very  important  branch. 

The  sensory  cells  of  a  child's  brain  are  developed  in  patches,  which 
intercommunicate  by  means  of  nerve-filaments.  As  each  patch  increases 
in  size  and  strength,  it  increases,  strengthens,  and  correlates  all  adjacent 
patches.  All  knowledge  of  the  external  world  comes  thru  one  or  more 
of  the  special  senses. 

Therefore  our  child's  eye  must  be  taught  to  see,  his  ear  to  hear,  his 
'nose  to  smell,  his  tongue  to  taste,  and  his  hand  to  feel ;  and  thus  we  shall 
increase  the  potency  of  his  brain.  The  educational  value  of  the  work- 
bench has  long  been  appreciated  in  the  schools  for  the  defectives. 


68o  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Education of 

Our  industrial  departments  are  our  laboratories.  In  the  summer  time 
we  substitute  the  garden,  the  rake,  and  the  shovel  for  the  work-bench, 
hammer,  or  needle. 

In  the  study  of  the  so-called  "ordinary  school  branches"  the  work 
among  the  feeble-minded  is  one  of  the  simplest.  Arithmetic  is  prac- 
tically limited  to  the  four  fundamentals.  Grammar  consists  of  simple 
language  lessons  intended  to  give  correct  forms  of  expression.  Geogra- 
phy begins  with  the  roads,  fields,  woods,  springs,  etc.,  found  in  the 
immediate  neighborhood,  and  learned  by  actual  contact.  History  con- 
sists of  stories.  In  reading  the  child  begins  with  the  things  he  under- 
stands.    Seguin  reports  a  case  as  follows  :  "  When  will  R be  taught 

to  read  ?  When  his  senses  will  have  conveyed  to  his  mind  enough  correct 
objective  impressions.  His  store  of  ideas,  of  names,  qualities,  and  actions 
is  yet  too  small.  But  when  he  will  be  put  in  the  possession  of  the  art  of 
reading  he  shall  not  be  exposed  by  an  imbecile  teacher  to  read  what  he 
does  not  understand,  because  for  a  long  time  he  will  be  taught  to  read 
only  what  he  will  have  written,  and  write  only  what  his  mind  shall  dictate 
to  his  hand." 

One  thing  more  :  I  must  emphasize  a  point  which  has  to  a  great  extent 
hampered  the  growth^mental,  moral,  and  physical — of  humanity.  It 
is  this :  teachers  and  trainers  almost  universally  call  attention  to  the 
evil  rather  than  to  the  good ;  to  the  failures  rather  than  to  the  successes 
of  their  children.  Down  thru  thd  centuries  this  prevailed  until  Christ 
said,  "Thou  shalt,"  and  so,  like  a  ray  of  sunshine  across  the  storm  clouds 
of  depression,  he  started  the  loving  gospel  of  encouragement  rather  than 
the  discouraging  "Thou  shalt  not"  of  former  days.  As  Christian  men 
and  women  we  must  follow  his  teaching.  We  have  fallen  into  the  old 
ways,  and  must  rise  to  the  needs  of  our  children.  We  must  rather  com- 
mend them  for  their  good  actions  than  blame  them  for  their  bad  ones. 
We  must  raise  our  pupils  by  making  them  conscious  of  their  strength 
and  power,  and  not  force  them  lower  by  fastening  around  their  necks 
the  millstones  of  failure.  The  loving,  trusting,  impressionable  souls  of 
these  school  children  of  the  country  are  in  the  hands  of  us,  their  teachers. 
To  them  we  seem  very  near  to  God.  We  must  walk  circumspectly,  for 
God  holds  each  of  us  responsible  for  whatsoever  we  do  unto  them. 


DEPARTMENT  OF  INDIAN  EDUCATION 


SECRETARY'S  MINUTES 


FIRST  SESSION.— Thursday,  July  5,1900 

The  session  of  this  department  opened  at  Freundschaftsbund  Hall  at  10  A.M.;  Dr. 
J.  G.  Bulloch,  Cheyenne  Agency,  S.  D.,  in  the  chair.  After  prayer  by  Rev.  Charles  S. 
Vedder,  and  a  vocal  solo  by  Miss  Quigley,  addresses  of  welcome  were  made  by  Henry  P. 
Archer,  superintendent  of  city  schools,  Charleston,  and  W.  K.  Tate,  principal  of  the 
Memminger  Normal  School  of  Charleston.  Responses  were  given  by  Rev.  H.  B.  Frissell, 
Hampton  Normal  and  Agricultural  Institute,  Hampton,  Va.;  Professor  O.  H.  Bakeless, 
Carlisle  Indian  School,  Carlisle,  Pa.;  and  Miss  Estelle  Reel,  superintendent  of  Indian 
schools,  Washington,  D.  C. 

The  program  of  the  department  for  the  several  days  was  as  follows : 

SECOND  SESSION.— Friday,  July  6,  10  a.  m. 

Prayer— Rev,  E.  O.  Watson,  pastor  of  Bethel  M.  E.  Church. 
Piano  solo  —  Professor  Saul,  of  Charleston. 

Address  — "  What  is  the  Relation  of  the  Indian  of  the  Present  Decade  to  the  Indian  of  the  Future? "  Dr. 
H.  B.  Frissell,  principal  of  Hampton  Institute,  Hampton,  Va, 

Discussion — C.  D.  Rakestraw,  supervisor  of  Indian  schools,  and  F.  F.  Avery,  Crow  Creek,  S.  D. 
Paper  — "  Sanitary  Conditions,"  Dr.  J.  G.  Bulloch,  Cheyenne  Agency,  S.  D. 

THIRD  SESSION.— Monday,  July  9,  10  a.  m. 

Prayer — Rev,  H,  B.  Frissell,  Hampton,  Va. 

Piano  solo  —  Professor  Saul,  of  Charleston. 

Address  —  '"The  Training  of  Teachers  for  Indian  Schools,"  Professor  Charles  Bartlett  Dyke,  Hampton 
Institute,  Hampton,  Va. 

Paper  — "  The  Proper  Relation  between  Literary  and  Industrial  Education  in  Indian  Schools,"  A.  J. 
Standing,  assistant  superintendent,  Carlisle  Indian  School,  Carlisle,  Pa. 

Paper  —  "The  Health  of  the  Indian,"  Dr.  C,  C,  Wainwright,  San  Jacinto,  Cal, 

Paper  —  "  The  Teaching  of  Trades  to  the  Indian,"  F.  K.  Rogers,  Hampton  Institute,  Va. 

Paper  —  "The  Training  of  the  Indian  Girl  as  the  Uplifter  of  the  Home,"  Miss  Josephine  E.  Richards, 
Hampton,  Va. 

FOURTH  SESSION.— Monday,  July  9,2  p,  m. 

Address  —  Colonel  Francis  W.  Parker,  Chicago  Institute,  Chicago,  111. 
Paper  — "  Kindergarten,"  Miss  Mary  Griffith  Richards,  Haskell  Institute,  Kansas, 
Paper  — "  More  Systematic  Training  along  Industrial  Lines,"  Miss  Kate  E,  Hunt,  Haskell  Institute, 
Kansas, 

Paper  —  "  Kindergarten  Methods,"  Miss  Blanche  Finley,  Hampton  Institute,  Va. 

FIFTH  SESSION.— Tuesday,  July  10,  10  a.  m. 

Prayer  —  Rev,  T,  A.  Reed,  of  Charleston. 

Piano  solo  —  Professor  Saul. 

Address  —  Dr.  J.  M.  Green,  president  of  State  Normal  School,  Trtnton,  N.  J. 

Address  —  President  W.  M.  Beardshear,  Ames  Agricultural  College,  Iowa. 

Discussion  — "  Rapid  Progress  in  Literary  Work  of  Indian  Children  Who  Have  Had  Industrial  Train- 
ing," Professor  O.  H.  Bakeless,  Carlisle,  Pa. 

Paper — "Practical  Methods  in  Indian  Education,"  John  H.  Seger,  superintendent  of  Seger  School, 
Colony,  Okla. 

681 


682  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Indian 

SIXTH  SESSION.— Wednesday,  July  ii,  io  a.m. 

Paper — "  More  Systemastic  Training  along  Industrial  Lines,"  Mrs.  Cora  M,  Dunn,  superintendent  of 
Rainy  Mountain  School,  Okla. 

Paper — "The  Teaching  of  English  in  the  Indian  Schools,"  Miss  M.  J.  Sherman,  Hampton  Institute,  Va. 
Paper. —  "  The  Outlook  for  the  New  Indian,"  Mrs.  Jessie  W.  Cook,  Carlisle,  Pa. 

SEVENTH  SESSION.— Thursday,  July  12,  10  a.  m. 

Paper  —  "The  Field  Matron's  Work,"  Mrs.  Lida  W.  Quimby,  Tacoma,  Wash. 

Paper  —  "  Domestic  Science,"  Mrs.  Lillie  McCoy,  Washington,  D.  C. 

Paper  —  "  Dry-Weather  Farming,"  John  Seger,  superintendent  of  Seger  School,  Colony,  Okla. 

Closing  address  —  Miss  Estelle  Reel,  superintendent  of  Indian  schools,  Washington,  D.  C. 

George  H.  Benjamin, 

Acting  Secretary. 


PAPERS   AND   DISCUSSIONS 


THE  INDIAN  PROBIEM 

REV.    H.  B.  FRISSELL,    PRINCIPAL    OF    HAMPTON    NORMAL    AND    INDUSTRIAL 

institute,  hampton,  va. 
[stenographic  report] 

I  realize  that  in  speaking  to  the  audience  gathered  here  I  am 
addressing  many  who  know  much  more  of  the  Indian  problem  than  I  do 
—  men  and  women  who  have  devoted  their  lives  to  its  solution,  whose 
daily  contact  with  the  red  man  in  his  own  home  has  given  them  oppor- 
tunities of  understanding  him  and  his  needs  such  as  are  not  possible  to 
us  who  live  at  a  distance  and  gain  much  of  our  knowledge  at  second 
hand  or  from  occasional  visits  to  the  Indian's  home.  And  yet  there  are 
some  advantages  in  viewing  objects  at  a  distance.  Those  of  us  who  have 
to  do  with  eastern  schools  are  watching  with  sympathetic  interest  the 
work  which  the  great  body  of  western  Indian  workers  are  accomplishing, 
realizing  to  some  extent  the  great  difficulties  under  which  you  labor, 
rejoicing  in  your  successes,  and  modestly  forming  opinions  as  to  the  things 
that  need  still  to  be  done  before  our  brethren  in  red  shall  attain  to  the 
full  stature  of  American  citizenship.  Allow  me  to  thank  you  and  our 
superintendent  of  Indian  schools  for  the  opportunity  of  saying  a  few 
words  to  you  on  the  problem  to  the  solution  of  which  many  of  you  have 
given  your  lives. 

I  am  grateful,  too,  for  the  privilege  of  speaking  of  this  subject  before  an 
audience  composed  largely  of  southern  men  and  women,  who  are  struggling 
with  the  greatest  race  problem  which  this  or  any  other  country  has  had  to 
meet;  for,  while  the  Indian  and  negro  problems  are  very  unlike,  yet  they 
have  many  things  in  common.  The  western  reservation  resembles  to 
some  extent  the  southern  plantation,  and  I  believe  that  those  of  us  who 
have  to  do  with  the  education  and  civilization  of  Indians  can  learn  many 


I 


Department]  THE  INDIAN  PROBLEM  683 

things  from  the  dealings  of  our  southern  friends  wrth  the  plantation 
negro.  While  we  all  rejoice  in  the  fact  that  slavery  is  a  thing  of  the 
past,  yet  I  firmly  believe  that  under  the  most  favorable  conditions  it  was 
a  much  more  successful  school  for  the  training  of  a  barbarous  race  than 
is  the  reservation.  Slavery  brought  the  colored  man  into  close  contact 
with  his  white  brother,  training  him  in  habits  of  work,  giving  him  a 
knowledge  of  the  white  man's  language  and  religion.  Never,  I  believe, 
in  the  history  of  our  civilization  has  a  great  mass  of  barbarous  people 
advanced  so  rapidly  as  have  the  blacks  on  this  continent  in  the  last  three 
hundred  years.  On  almost  all  the  southern  plantations,  and  in  the  cities 
also,  negro  mechanics  were  bred,  as  well  as  excellent  blacksmiths,  good 
carpenters,  and  house-builders  capable  of  executing  plans  of  high  archi- 
tectural merit.  The  negro  was  taught  to  work,  to  be  an  agriculturist,  a 
mechanic,  a  material  producer  of  something  useful.  We  can  hardly  claim 
such  results  from  our  reservation  system.  It  separates  the  Indian  from 
the  white  man,  it  pauperizes  him  by  giving  him  rations,  and  while  of  late 
years  instruction  in  agriculture  and  industrial  pursuits  has  been  given, 
yet  we  have  been  slow  to  realize  that  the  opportunity  and  disposition  to 
labor  make  the  basis  of  all  our  civilization. 

The  Indian^ s  point  of  view. — In  order  to  understand  the  difificulties 
that  we,  as  Indian  workers,  have  had  to  meet,  it  will  be  necessary  to  con- 
sider the  attitude  in  which  the  Indian  and  the  white  man  have  stood  to 
one  another.  The  Indian  in  his  wild  state  was  a  natural  aristocrat.  He 
looked  with  contempt  upon  the  white  man,  considering  him  as  belonging 
to  an  altogether  lower  order  of  creation.  Like  the  men  who  came  to 
England  with  the  Conqueror,  whose  names  were  written  in  the  Doomsday 
Book  entitling  them  to  land  and  to  lives  of  luxury  while  others  labored, 
so,  I  believe,  the  Indian  considered  himself  a  superior  being  whose 
ownership  of  land  gave  him  the  right  to  live  without  labor,  which,  how- 
ever, it  was  quite  proper  and  fit  that  we  poor  white  people  should  per- 
form. He  also  despised  the  white  man  as  a  soldier.  He  did  not  believe 
in  his  courage  or  in  his  ability  to  contend  with  him.  One  who  has  had 
long  years  of  dealing  with  the  Indian  told  me  of  the  remarks  that  were 
made  by  the  Sioux  at  the  time  of  the  Custer  massacre.  They  spoke  of 
the  whites  as  children  unfit  to  bear  arms.  They  also  had  a  contempt  for 
white  morality,  and  not  without  reason.  Their  treaties  had  been  broken ; 
the  white  men  they  were  accustomed  to  see  about  the  reservations  twenty 
years  ago  were  not  of  such  a  character  as  to  command  respect  for  them- 
selves or  the  civilization  which  they  represented.  Not  only  did  they 
despise  the  white  man,  but  they  hated  him  as  well.  The  race  prejudice 
which  is  so  strong  in  the  white  race  is  vastly  stronger,  I  believe,  in 
the  Indian  race.  The  children  from  their  earliest  infancy  are  taught  to 
hate  the  white  man.  He  represents  to  them  all  that  is  bad.  It  is  not 
strange,  then,  that  progress  in  the  education  of  Indian  children  by  white 


684 


NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION 


[Indian 


people  was  slow,  nor  that  those  who  have  gone  back  from  our  Indian 
schools  to  the  West  have  had  a  hard  fight.  They  have  had  to  struggle 
against  a  race  prejudice  which  had  behind  it  the  sanction  of  religion  and 
was  bound  up  with  all  the  tribal  customs  of  the  people.  It  is  a  cause  for 
thankfulness  that  they  have  done  as  well  as  they  have.  Many  a  brave 
fight  has  been  fought  by  those  students  who  have  gone  out  from  our 
schools,  and  the  progress  of  the  last  thirty  years  is  largely  due  to  the 
influence  they  have  exerted.  Many  of  them  have  failed,  as  was  to  be 
expected.  They  have  been  exposed  to  the  sneers  of  the  whites,  who  are 
not  always  glad  to  have  intelligence  and  business  ability  increase  too 
rapidly  among  the  Indians.  Little  has  been  said  of  their  struggles  to  do 
right,  or  of  their  successes,  but  their  failures  have  been  made  known  to 
the  whole  country. 

Annihilation  of  the  Indian  is  still  much  more  popular  with  a  large 
portion  of  the  people  of  this  country  than  is  assimilation.  When  you 
talk  with  a  white  man  on  the  borders  of  a  reservation  about  the 
education  and  uplift  of  the  Indian,  you  are  quite  likely  to  meet  with 
the  sort  of  sympathy  which  General  Whittlesey  met  with  in  one  of  his 
visits  to  the  Crows  of  Montana.  The  rough  westerner  who  drove  the 
stage-coach  said  to  him  :  "  Are  you  one  of  them  that  is  trying  to  tame 
these  Indians  ?  Well,  I'll  tell  you  how  I  tame  'em.  There's  a  well  in 
my  backyard ;  there  ain't  no  water  in  it,  but  there's  seven  tame  Indians 
in  it." 

It  is  because  the  Indian  problem  is  so  much  the  problem  of  educat- 
ing the  white  man  and  lifting  him  out  of  his  barbarism  that  it  is  so  dis- 
couraging. Some  years  since  a  company  of  legislators  visited  an  Indian 
school  on  the  sabbath.  In  his  address  to  the  school  one  of  these  law- 
makers said  :  "The  Bible  tells  us  that  it  is  right  to  lift  an  ox  or  an  ass 
out  of  a  ditch  on  the  sabbath  day,  and  I  reckon  that  is  what  the  principal 
of  this  school  is  trying  to  do  for  us." 

What  long  years  of  struggle  it  has  taken  to  make  the  average 
American  citizen  believe  that  there  are  any  possibilities  in  his  red 
brother !  There  are  few  things  more  significant  as  to  the  attitude  of 
the  ordinary  well-dressed  American  citizen  than  to  hear  his  remarks 
in  visiting  a  class  of  Indian  boys  and  girls ;  he  speaks  of  them  as 
tho  they  were  "dumb  driven  cattle."  "Are  you  civilized?"  was  the 
question  put  by  a  visitor  to  an  intelligent  Sioux  boy.  "  No,"  said  he ; 
"are  you  ?" 

When  we  are  asked,  then,  why  it  is  that  it  takes  so  long  to  civilize 
250,000  Indians,  one  answer  certainly  is  that  we  have  had  to  wait  to  civilize 
white  men  about  them.  The  education  of  the  white  and  red  races  has 
had  to  go  on  together,  and  I  for  one  believe  that  God  has  left  this  red 
race  with  us  that  he  might  teach  us  some  lessons  in  righteousness,  in 
truth,  in  love,  and  in  self-sacrifice. 


department]  THE  INDIAN  PROBLEM  685 

Many  of  the  men  in  Washington  look  upon  those  who  come  there  to 
plead  the  cause  of  the  Indian  as  wild  fanatics,  who  take  time  which  ought 
to  be  devoted  to  the  discussion  of  the  currency,  the  tariff,  or  the  river  and 
harbor  bill.  And  yet  y€ar  after  year  they  have  been  obliged  to  take  the 
time  to  discuss  questions  concerning  the  homes  and  lands  and  schools  of 
native  Americans.  I  believe  that  no  part  of  the  education  of  our  law- 
makers at  Washington  has  been  more  wholesome  and  helpful  to  them  or  to 
the  country  than  those  discussions.  If  there  is  to  come  to  us  as  a  nation 
any  good  out  of  what  seems  to  many  a  public  calamity  in  the  expansion 
of  our  rule  over  the  islands  of  the  sea,  I  believe  it  will  be  not  so  much 
because  of  our  added  commerce  and  increased  wealth  as  because  we  shall 
be  obliged  to  consider  more  and  more  what  the  relation  of  the  wise  ought 
to  be  toward  the  ignorant  —  what  duties  the  civilized  owe  to  the  uncivil- 
ized. We  shall  be  obliged  to  learn  that  we,  who  are  strong,  ought  to 
bear  the  infirmities  of  the  weak. 

What  has  been  gained. — What,  then,  has  been  gained  by  these  years 
of  struggle  ?  A  lifelong  friend  of  the  Indian  took  me  aside  in  Boston 
the  other  day  and  said  to  me :  "You  know  how  some  of  us  here  in  Boston 
have  been  exposed  to  the  gibes  and  sneers  of  those  who  think  that  it  is 
vain  to  try  to  uplift  the  Indian,  and  that  there  is  no  profit  in  all  this 
work.  Tell  me,  are  you  losing  heart  ?  How  does  it  seem  to  you  ?  Is  it 
really  worth  while  ? "  I  am  sure  that  all  of  you  who  are  before  me 
tonight  feel  that  this  work  which  you  are  doing  is  really  worth  while. 
You  do  not  need  to  be  told  of  the  improved  sentiment  at  Washington,  or 
of  the  advance  of  appropriations  for  Indian  schools  from  $20,000  in  1876 
to  $2,936,080  in  1899.  Nor  need  I  dwell  upon  the  vast  improvement  there 
has  been  in  honest  dealing  on  the  part  of  the  government.  Dr.  Edward 
Everett  Hale  once  told  at  Mohonk  of  an  interview  with  Charles  Sumner  in 
Washington,  in  the  year  1865,  when  he  said  to  him  :  "Look  here,  Sumner, 
you  have  got  these  colored  people  free,  and  there  seems  to  be  a  chance 
that  you  will  get  an  amendment  to  the  constitution  thru.  Why  don't  you 
take  care  of  the  Indians  now  ?  "  Dr.  Hale  said  that  he  paused  for  a  whole 
minute  before  replying,  adding  that  it  was  the  only  time  that  he  ever  saw 
him  look  thoroly  dejected.  Then  he  said :  "  Hale,  I  don't  think  you 
know  what  you  ask."  I  said  I  guessed  1  knew  what  I  asked.  "I 
don't  think  you  do,"  he  answered  ;  "Hale,  the  whole  Indian  system  in 
this  country  is  so  rotten  that  anybody  who  takes  hold  of  it  has  to  tear  it 
all  up  from  the  roots  and  turn  it  all  bottom-side  up.  There  isn't  a  thing 
in  it  which  is  right,  and  everything  has  got  to  be  torn  up  and  planted 
over  again  before  it  will  live."  But,  as  Dr.  Hale  went  on  to  say,  it  has 
been  torn  up  by  the  roots,  and  things  have  been  turned  over  and  over 
again.  What  Charles  Sumner  said  of  the  Indian  service  in  1865  could 
not  be  said  with  truth  today.  Altho  there  still  remains  much  land  to 
be  possessed,  altho  our  senators  and  representatives  are  not  yet  all  saints, 


686 


NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION 


[Indian 


Still  there  is  an  earnest  endeavor  on  the  part  of  the  majority  of  them  to 
give  the  Indian  his  rights.  We  have  had  at  the  head  of  the  Indian  Office 
for  years  men  who  have  labored  diligently  and  honestly  for  the  uplifting 
of  the  Indian.  The  whole  tone  of  the  Indian  service  at  Washington  has 
undergone  a  change  within  the  last  thirty  years  for  which  we  have  reason 
to  be  thankful. 

My  opportunities  for  observation  in  the  field  have  been  limited  com- 
pared with  yours,  but  I  have  seen  great  improvement  there  also  in  the 
twenty  years  since  I  have  had  to  do  with  Indian  affairs.  Tho  it  is  still 
true  that  the  agent  is  sometimes  much  more  the  agent  of  cattlemen,  land- 
grabbers,  and  lumber  trusts  than  of  the  Indian,  and  while  it  must  be  con- 
fessed that  the  rights  of  the  Indian  have  been  sacrificed  to  the  supposed 
necessity  of  pushing  war  measures  and  expanding  our  territory,  there  is 
yet  no  reason  to  doubt  that  there  has  been,  and  still  is,  a  great  movement 
forward.  There  are  many  good  agents  in  the  field  ;  our  Indian  inspectors 
are,  for  the  most  part,  intelligent  men,  who  have  thoro  knowledge  of  their 
work,  and  the  superintendents  and  teachers  of  the  Indian  schools  are  a 
fine  body  of  men  and  women.  Here  civil-service  reform  has  had  fair 
play,  and  most  of  these  people  have  been  chosen,  not  to  pay  political 
debts,  nor  thru  the  influence  of  senators  or  representatives,  but  because  of 
their  ability  to  teach  and  their  interest  in  their  work. 

Progress  has  been  made. —  I  believe  it  is  fair  to  say  that  what  we  call 
the  state  has  made  progress  in  its  Indian  work.  I  wish  that  I  could  say 
as  much  for  the  church.  It  is  not  worth  while  to  discuss  here  the  oft- 
argued  question  of  government  aid  for  mission  schools;  I  think  there 
has  been  a  distinct  loss  in  power  since  such  men  as  Bishop  Whipple,  Dr. 
Strieby,  and  others  went  to  Washington  to  advocate  just  measures  of 
legislation.  They  were  an  education  to  the  church  as  well  as  to  the  state. 
I  feel  that  the  Indian  cause  needs  the  help  of  every  possible  influence  for 
good,  whether  it  comes  thru  Catholic  priest  or  Protestant  layman. 
I  do  not  believe  in  the  infallibility  of  the  pope  or  of  the  General  Assem- 
bly. The  work  of  both  needs  inspection  and  supervision  by  the  people ; 
but  I  wish  both  might  have  every  possible  chance  to  work  for  the  poor 
and  ignorant  of  every  race.  It  may  have  been  wise  to  withdraw  govern- 
ment aid  from  sectarian  schools.  It  certainly  was  not  wise  for  the 
churches  to  withdraw  their  help  from  the  Indians,  nor  to  feel  that  the 
government  could  do  the  work  of  the  church.  I  am  much  more  in 
sympathy  with  a  Catholic  who  fights  for  appropriations  and  keeps  up  his 
own  contributions  than  with  a  Protestant  who  gives  up  appropriations 
and  withdraws  his  support.  When,  in  response  to  the  cry  of  separation 
of  church  and  state,  the  Protestant  churches  gave  up  their  government 
appropriations,  there  was  a  distinct  promise  on  their  part  that  private 
beneficence  should  take  the  place  of  government  help ;  that  the  Indian 
should  in  no  wise  be  neglected.     The  promise  has  not  been  kept.     Just 


Department]  THE  INDIAN  PROBLEM  687 

at  the  time  when  the  Indian  needed  most  the  help  of  faithful  Christian 
missionaries  in  the  passage  from  barbarism  to  civilization,  church  aid  was 
largely  withdrawn.  The  work  of  such  men  as  Bishop  Hare  and  Bishop 
Whipple,  the  Riggses  and  the  Williamsons,  was  much  curtailed.  The 
Unitarians  gave  up  the  work  among  the  Crows ;  the  Friends  relinquished 
White  Institute,  where  excellent  work  was  done.  The  failure  on  some 
reservations  of  the  land-in-severalty  bill  was  distinctly  traceable  to  this 
cause. 

The  wonderful  progress  of  the  last  twenty  years  among  the  Indians 
is  largely  due  to  the  work  which  the  early  missionaries  performed.  The 
Minnesota  massacre  of  1862,  where  500  whites,  with  women  and  chil- 
dren, were  slaughtered  in  retaliation  for  real  or  fancied  wrongs, 
resulted  in  the  defeat  of  2,000  warriors,  of  whom  thirty-nine  were  hanged 
and  over  three  hundred  held  for  three  years  in  jail.  It  was  the  beginning 
of  the  advance  of  the  great  Sioux  nation.  From  the  work  of  a  few  mis- 
sionaries among  those  imprisoned  men,  who  for  the  first  time  listened  to 
the  gospel,  grew  seven  churches  and  an  impulse  which  created  among 
the  Sioux  universal  respect  for  the  representatives  of  Christianity  and  a 
confidence  in  their  teaching  which  has  gone  far  toward  making  possible 
their  progress  in  later  years.  These  Indians  and  their  friends  were  all 
finally  assigned  to  Devil's  Lake,  Sisseton,  Santee,  and  Flandreau  agencies, 
in  Dakota,  with  plenty  of  land,  but  no  food  except  what  they  could  earn 
by  their  own  labor.  Fortunately,  they  were  long  kept  under  good  and 
permanent  agents,  who  saw  that  they  were  provided  with  seeds,  imple- 
ments, etc.,  and  who  wisely  assisted  them  in  cultivating  and,  in  some 
cases,  selling  their  land.  The  result  is  that  they,  3,500  in  number,  are 
today  self-supporting  and  the  most  progressive  of  all  the  Sioux.  The 
eight  hundred  Santees,  descendants  of  those  who  thirty-two  years  ago 
were  condemned  to  death,  and  who  were  so  hated  by  the  whites  of  Min- 
nesota that  they  threatened  to  hang  the  missionaries  who  taught  them 
while  in  prison,  are  now  homesteaded,  Christianized  American  citizens 
and  voters. 

Give  the  Indian  in  general  such  treatment  as  this  handful  of  desper- 
ate Sioux  warriors  received,  aftd  the  trouble  is  over.  The  past  century 
has  been  one  of  blundering  rather  than  of  dishonor,  and  from  the  first  it 
has  been  a  question  of  men  rather  than  of  measures.  Personal  contact 
has  been  the  mainspring  of  all  Indian  progress  in  this  country.  It  is  the 
secret  of  the  wonderful  success  of  Major  Pratt,  Rev.  Dr.  Williamson  and 
his  sons,  and  the  Riggses  of  Dakota,  of  Archdeacon  Kirby  in  British 
America,  of  Mr.  Duncan's  great  work  in  Alaska ;  and  it  is  the  vital  point 
in  all  uplifting  work.  The  touch  of  the  noble  lives  which  are  being  spent 
in  the  service  of  the  red  man  is  better  than  any  spoken  word.  The  first 
step  with  the  Indian  is  to  gain  his  confidence ;  and  no  man,  saint  or  sinner, 
who  ever  trusted  an  Indian  has  found  his  confidence  misplaced.     More 


688 


NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION 


[Indian 


than  a  hundred  thousand  Indians  are  today  challenging  American  Chris- 
tianity to  do  its  best  for  them,  and  I  am  glad  to  say  here  that  not  a  few 
of  their  own  people  have  come  to  the  front  and  are  now  holding  the 
remoter  outposts  as  teachers  and  catechists,  setting  such  examples  of 
decent  living  as  make  them  leaders  in  progress  and  types  of  what  all 
Indians  with  a  fair  chance  may  become.  The  Christian  church  should 
take  no  backward  step. 

Tribal  system  weakened. —  Let  me  speak  briefly  of  the  improvement 
among  the  Indians  in  the  matter  of  land,  homes,  and  schools.  Altho  the 
land-in-severalty  bill  has  not  effected  in  some  cases  what  was  hoped  for  it, 
there  is  no  doubt  of  the  valuable  results  that  have  been  brought  about 
thru  the  allotment  of  land  to  individual  Indians.  The  hold  of  the  tribal 
system  has  been  gradually  weakened,  and  the  rude  shacks  with  their  stacks 
of  hay  and  grain  make  it  clear,  even  to  the  superficial  observer,  that  the 
Indian's  roving  days  are  over.  Altho  it  is  undoubtedly  true  that  some  of 
the  reservations  have  been  opened  to  the  whites  before  the  Indians  were 
ready  for  it,  and  altho  the  onset  of  the  lower  element  of  whites  upon 
the  Indian  lands  has  resulted,  in  many  instances,  in  the  demoralization 
of  the  Indian,  yet  it  is  only  thru  this  hard  process  that  he  is  to  come 
to  stronger  manhood.  There  is  no  question  that  the  giving  up  of  the 
agent,  the  letting  in  of  whisky,  the  leasing  of  the  Indians'  land  to  the 
white  man,  have  usually  resulted  in  a  temporary  backward  movement ; 
yet  even  in  the  worst  of  these  cases,  among  such  tribes  as  the  Omahas 
and  the  Winnebagoes,  where  drunkenness  and  licentiousness  have  held 
alarming  sway,  there  is  evidence  of  a  consciousness  on  their  part  of  their 
degraded  condition  and  a  reaching  out  toward  better  things.  In  the 
case  of  the  Sioux  Indians,  where  the  agents  have  been  retained  while  the 
allotment  was  going  on,  and  where  there  was  more  help  from  mission- 
aries, the  change  has  come  without  such  dreadful  demoralization. 

Occasionally  visits  to  the  agencies  along  the  Missouri  river  have 
made  clear  the  vast  improvement  that  is  going  on.  Twenty  years  ago 
citizens'  clothing  was  the  exception ;  now  it  is  the  rule.  The  coat  has 
replaced  the  blanket,  leggings  are  giving  way  to  trousers,  and  the  curious 
bond  that  comes  from  wearing  the  same  style  of  garments  is  felt.  It  is  like 
speaking  the  same  language,  and  results  at  once  in  increased  friendli- 
ness. Citizens  of  Pierre,  Chamberlain,  and  other  towns  near  the  reserva- 
tions, who  are  certainly  not  likely  to  be  prejudiced  in  favor  of  their 
Indian  neighbors,  spoke  to  me  of  the  changes  for  the  better  among  the 
Indians  in  the  last  few  years,  especially  of  their  civilized  appearance,  and 
of  their  straightforward  business  dealings.  The  vices  of  civilization,  as 
represented  by  whisky  and  gambling,  stand  always  between  the  Indian 
and  progress,  but  in  spite  of  this  the  contact  at  Crow  Creek,  Lower 
Brule,  and  elsewhere  with  white  settlers  has  been  invaluable.  The  uni- 
versal testimony  is  :  "  The  more  of  it  the  better."    There  has  been  marked 


Department]  THE  INDIAN  PROBLEM  689 

improvement  in  the  quality  of  white  frontiersmen.  The  "scum"  of 
twenty  years  ago  is  giving  place  to  a  class  of  good  citizens.  The  Indian 
can  learn  much  from  them,  and  they  will,  I  believe,  do  him  substantial 
good  as  they  gradually  surround  him.  Rough  and  careless  at  first  they 
certainly  are,  but  the  better  element  soon  takes  hold.  Courts  are  estab- 
lished, and  there  is  a  fair  show  all  around. 

Reservation  life  dying. —  These  changing  conditions,  however,  have 
their  dangers.  Agents  and  thoughtful  men  are  anxious.  Reservation 
life  is  dead  or  dying.  It  must  go.  The  time  is  ripe,  not  for  destruction, 
however,  but  for  development,  and  the  old  life,  the  old  system,  must  be 
used  only  as  a  foundation  for  the  new,  and  to  this  end  ought  to  be  care- 
fully studied.  Among  the  15,000  Sioux  the  encampments  are,  for  the 
most  part,  broken  up,  and  the  people  settled  chiefly  on  the  river  bottoms, 
where  they  can  get  wood  and  water.  In  certain  parts  of  Dakota  the  Indians 
have  covered  the  land  as  far  as  the  eye  can  reach  with  farms  of  from  one  to 
thirty  acres,  all  protected  by  wire  fences,  each  with  its  log  hut,  and  beside 
it  one  or  two  summer  tepees,  as  graceful  as  the  other  is  ugly  and  crude. 
Many  of  the  farmers  are  shareholders  in  reaping  machines,  and  I  was  much 
impressed  by  seeing  a  returned  Hampton  student  driving  a  self-binder 
around  his  own  wheat  fields.  Generally  the  men  are  in  the  fields,  the 
women  either  with  them  or  at  work  about  the  house.  The  old  relation 
of  brave  and  squaw  is  passing  away  before  the  influence  of  homestead 
life,  just  as  the  tepee  must  vanish  before  the  mud-roofed  log  hut,  which 
represents  the  first  forward  (if  well-nigh  fatal)  step  in  civilization.  Untidy 
and  ill-ventilated  as  it  is,  it  fixes  its  owner,  putting  an  end  to  his 
nomadic  life,  making  possible  the  use  of  chairs,  tables,  and  dishes,  and 
the  development  of  a  home  attachment.  The  fact  that  these  houses 
have  but  one  room  is  not  so  dangerous  to  morality  as  one  would  sup- 
pose, but  only  because  the  Indian  is  not  grossly  sensuous.  Christian 
teaching  is,  of  course,  on  the  side  of  soap  and  water,  and  it  is  curious  to 
notice  how  largely  the  use  of  these  articles  is  affected  by  the  proximity 
of  church  and  schoolhouse.  A  missionary  visitor  demands  and  is 
acknowledged  to  have  a  right  to  a  chair,  a  bed,  clean  dishes,  and  soap 
and  towels. 

What  remains  to  be  done. —  What  are  the  things  that  remain  to  be 
accomplished  ?  In  the  first  place,  it  is  important  to  remember  that  in 
dealing  with  these  Indians  we  are  dealing  with  people  of  very  various 
degrees  of  development,  and  methods  of  work  which  are  applicable  to 
one  tribe  are  not  at  all  applicable  to  others.  This  has  been  especially 
true  of  the  land-in-severalty  bill.  While  no  one  can  doubt  the  value  of 
this  bill,  it  is  very  doubtful  whether  all  tribes  are  equally  ready  to  take 
their  own  part  in  life's  struggle.  Instead  of  making  them  independent, 
'it  has,  in  some  cases,  really  made  them  paupers.  Not  only  ought  regard 
to  be  had   to  the  progress  of  the  Indian,  but  to  the  condition  of  the 


^9° 


NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION 


[Indian 


country  in  which  he  lives.  As  Mr.  Grinnell  says  in  his  recent  book,  The 
Indians  of  Today:  "To  force  allotments  on  a  tribe  living  in  a  region 
where  the  average  yearly  rainfall  is  only  a  foot  or  fifteen  inches  may  be 
a  real  hardship,  even  though  on  the  pretense  that  the  acres  given  them 
are  grazing  lands.  Each  receives  twice  as  much  as  if  it  were  farming 
land.  In  a  very  large  number  of  cases  these  so-called  grazing  lands  pro- 
duce nothing,  not  even  enough  vegetation  to  keep  a  single  cow.  Some- 
times they  are  without  water,  even  without  access  to  water."  To  insist 
that  the  Indians  become  self-supporting  on  such  land  is  to  ask  what  is 
impossible.  Mr.  Grinnell  instances  the  Oneida  Indians  as  showing  how 
the  Allotment  Act,  when  applied  to  a  race  that  has  had  contact  with 
whites  for  three  hundred  years,  is  most  helpful,  while  in  the  case  of  the 
Apaches,  who  speak  only  their  own  tongue  and  inhabit  a  desert,  it  is 
disastrous.  How  harmful  the  allotment  bill  has  been  in  certain  cases  as 
regards  the  introduction  of  liquor,  the  failure  of  the  parents  to  send  their 
children  to  school,  and  in  the  matter  of  idleness,  resulting  from  the 
leasing  of  land,  we  all  know.  We  are  obliged  to  remember  that  the 
Indians  are,  for  the  most  part,  children ;  that  they  have  the  weaknesses  of 
children ;  and  that,  while  we  are  to  help  them  toward  manhood  as  rapidly 
as  possible,  they  will  not  attain  to  it  in  a  day,  nor  in  a  single  generation. 
While  wisdom  must  be  shown  in  the  passage  from  barbarism  to  civiliza- 
tion, it  is  important  that  both  agents  and  Indians  understand  that  the 
reservation  is  a  temporary  expedient  ;  that,  while  it  may  be  necessary  for 
those  who  are  unable  to  care  for  themselves,  the  government  and  all 
who  have  to  do  with  its  schools  are  striving  to  fit  the  young  Indians  for 
the  fuller,  freer  life  of  citizenship.  In  order  to  do  this,  discontent  with 
the  reservation  system  must  be  produced.  It  is  sometimes  said  of  the 
schools  off  the  reservation  that  when  their  students  return  they  are 
not  willing  to  live  as  their  parents  did.  It  is  much  to  be  hoped  that 
their  school  life  will  bring  about  just  this  result.  If  school  life,  either 
in  the  East  or  in  the  West,  makes  students  unwilling  to  meet  the  diffi- 
culties of  the  situation,  it  is  open  to  criticism,  but  a  wholesome  dis- 
content is  a  most  hopeful  sign. 

A  good  sign. — The  petition  of  the  Lower  Brule  Sioux,  asking  that 
their  annuity  of  rations  and  clothing  be  stopped,  and  that  they  be  allowed 
to  sell  a  portion  of  their  land  and  purchase  cattle  with  the  proceeds,  is  a 
move  in  the  right  direction.  The  sooner  the  ration  system  can  be  stopped 
the  better.  No  student  goes  back  from  school  who  does  not  feel  the  degra- 
dation of  it.  While  the  beef-killing,  with  its  brutalizing  influence,  has 
been  discontinued  on  some  of  the  reservations,  on  others  it  still  remains, 
and  the  biweekly  pilgrimage  from  the  distant  parts  of  the  reservation  to  the 
agency  still  continues.  By  this  means  regular  work  on  the  farm  and  the 
raising  of  crops  and  of  animals  is  prevented,  while  the  old  roving  habit, 
which  is  so  opposed  to  all  progress  in  civilization,  is  cultivated. 


Department]  THE  INDIAN  PROBLEM  69 1 

In  spite  of  all  that  has  been  done  toward  the  education  of  the  Indian, 
it  is  estimated  that  only  about  one-half  of  the  Indian  youths  of  school 
age  are  receiving  instruction.  This  is  a  poor  showing.  There  ought  to 
be  school  accommodation  for  every  Indian  child.  The  sooner  we  come 
to  compulsory  education  for  every  child  in  this  country  the  better.  To 
give  citizenship  to  people  without  requiring  their  education  is  the 
greatest  unwisdom.  The  system  of  day  schools  so  successfully  started 
and  carried  on  by  Major  Wright  on  the  Pine  Ridge  reservation  and  by 
others  in  the  Indian  country,  which  makes  the  school  the  center  for 
improvement  in  home  life  and  agriculture,  and  gives  the  agent  a  hold  on 
Indian  families'  in  remote  parts  of  the  reservation,  is  of  the  greatest 
value.  More  use  ought  to  be -made  of  the  common  day  school  in  the 
uplifting  of  the  community.  The  introduction  of  cooking  and  sewing, 
as  well  as  some  simple  lessons  in  harvesting  and  the  use  of  garden  tools, 
together  with  instruction  in  the  common  English  branches,  would  make 
these  schools  a  great  power  for  good  on  the  reservation. 

The  reservation  boarding  schools,  with  their  gardens  and  farms,  are 
most  useful.  Just  as  far  as  possible  there  ought  to  be  built  up  about 
these  schools  mills  for  the  grinding  of  wheat  and  small  manufactories  for 
the  construction  of  articles  used  on  the  reservations,  where  the  Indians 
may  become  familiar  with  the  usages  of  civilized  life.  It  is  a  shame  that 
so  large  a  part  of  the  Indians'  supplies  should  be  bought  elsewhere,  when 
the  Indians  need  so  much  the  training  and  the  work  which  might  be  used  in 
their  production.  The  non-reservation  schools,  both  eastern  and  western, 
ought  to  have  close  relations  with  one  another  and  with  the  reservation 
schools.  They  ought  to  develop  certain  special  lines  of  work  and  instruc- 
tion that  the  Indians  need.  If  one  devote  itself  to  agriculture  especially, 
then  another  could  make  a  specialty  of  business  methods,  others  of  cer- 
tain trades,  and  still  others  of  normal  training.  Instead  of  struggling 
with  one  another  for  pupils,  as  has  sometimes  happened,  they  should  be 
thoroly  in  harmony  with  one  another.  Each  of  these  schools  ought  to 
be  a  sort  of  experiment  station  in  Indian  education,  demonstrating  what 
can  be  done  along  special  lines.  We  are  all  indebted  to  Major  Pratt  for 
the  success  which  has  attended  the  pushing  of  the  outing  system.  Each 
Indian  institution,  in  addition  to  the  regular  work  which  it  has  to  do, 
should  try  to  develop  some  specialty,  which  should  be  of  value  to  all. 
As  a  rule,  it  seems  to  me  that  we  in  the  East  ought  to  do  advanced 
work,  admitting  only  those  who  have  passed  thru  the  western  schools, 
and  not  competing  for  a  lower  grade  of  pupils.  Coming  east  ought  to 
be  considered  a  reward  of  merit  for  good  work  in  western  institutions. 

Many  difficulties. — I  have  been  impressed  with  the  difficulties  under 
which  the  heads  of  government  Indian  schools  have  labored  because  of 
their  inability  to  control  the  appointment  of  their  subordinates.  As  long 
as  teachers  are  appointed  in  Washington  and  the  head  of  the  school  has 


69 i  NATIONAL  EDUCATiONAL  ASSOCIATION  Ilndian 

little  or  no  voice  in  the  matter,  so  long  will  the  schools  lack  harmony. 
No  superintendent  can  really  be  held  responsible  for  the  management  of 
his  school  until  he  has  a  controlling  influence.  We  all  believe  in  the 
reform  brought  about  by  the  civil  service  in  the  taking  out  from  the 
hands  of  politicians  the  appointments  of  superintendent  and  teachers. 
But  if  civil-service  reform  rules  stand  in  the  way  of  the  appointment  of 
teachers  by  the  head  of  a  school,  they  should  be  modified  to  correct  this  abuse. 

The  main  object  of  the  education  of  the  Indian  should  be  to  make 
him  self-supporting,  and,  as  Mr.  Grinnell  says:  "An  aim  quite  as  impor- 
tant as  this,  indeed  included  in  it,  is  to  make  the  Indians  less  unlike  us 
than  they  are.  They  exist  as  an  element  of  our  population  ;  they  are 
Americans,  and  they  should  be  put  in  a  position  to  develop  into  a  con- 
stituent part  of  our  new  race,  just  as  the  immigrants  from  a  dozen  foreign 
lands  have  developed  into  good,  useful  citizens  of  these  United  States." 
These  two  problems  —  as  to  how  the  Indian  can  be  made  self-supporting 
and  thus  gain  the  self-respect  and  independence  which  are  impossible 
without  it,  and  how  he  can  be  made  one  with  the  white  race  of  the  land  — 
should  be  continually  before  the  mind  of  every  Indian  worker.  We  ought 
to  rejoice  in  the  coming  of  the  railroad,  of  trade,  of  every  influence  that 
helps  to  make  the  Indian  one  of  us.  While  each  race  has  its  own  pecu- 
liarities, and  while,  as  Mr.  Leupp,  in  a  recent  article  in  the  Southern 
Workman,  declares,  it  is  "improvement,  not  transformation,"  of  the 
Indian  that  is  needed;  while  we  are  to  realize  that  the  Indian  can  never 
be  an  Anglo-Saxon  ;  while  we  are  to  develop  the  noble  qualities  which  the 
Indian  possesses,  we  must  also  realize  that  it  is  not  good  for  any  indi- 
vidual or  race  to  be  alone. 

In  closing  I  wish  to  extend  my  congratulations  to  those  who  are 
laboring  for  the  advancement  of  the  Indian  because  of  the  success  that 
has  attended  their  efforts.  I  believe  with  Bishop  Whipple  that  Indian 
workers  are  the  best-paid  workers  in  the  world,  and  that  no  missionary 
work  promises  swifter  or  more  satisfactory  returns  than  that  among  the 
red  men  of  this  land. 


THE  PROPER   RELATION  BETWEEN  LITERARY  AND 
INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION  IN  INDIAN  SCHOOLS 

A.    J.    STANDING,    ASSISTANT    SUPERINTENDENT,    CARLISLE    INDIAN    SCHOOL, 

CARLISLE,    PA. 

[an  abstract] 
The  purpose  of  education  is  primarily  to  qualify  for  self-support  and 
the  general  work  and  business  of  life  in  all  ways.  The  Indians  of  today, 
being  for  the  most  part  only  about  one  generation  removed  from  the 
nomadic  state,  and  having  had  to  undergo  within  this  brief  period  a  com- 
plete change  in  mode  of   life,  have  no  accumulated   knowledge  of  the 


Department]  LITERARY  AND  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION  OF  INDIANS      693 

requirements  of  civilized  life  or  how  to  obtain  a  living  in  any  of  the  great 
variety  of  avenues  that  present  themselves  to  the  white  boy  or  girl,  whose 
parents  for  generations,  perhaps,  have  followed  some  special  vocation, 
with  which  the  children  of  the  family  from  their  earliest  years  become 
familiar,  and,  when  old  enough,  engage  in  for  the  purpose  of  self-support. 
They  are,  therefore,  at  a  peculiar  disadvantage  in  the  struggle  for  bread 
and  home,  except  in  so  far  as  they  are  cared  for  by  the  government.  This 
special  care,  however,  is  intended,  and  properly  so,  to  be  but  temporary, 
and  the  government  has  for  many  years  been  following  various  plans 
intending  to  lead  the  Indian  to  self-support  and  independence,  with  the 
design  of  ending  the  need  for  the  special  care  and  guardianship  that  is 
now  assumed  to  be  necessary. 

Wonderfully  handicapped  by  a  multiplicity  of  tongues  and  a  life  gen- 
erally beyond  the  limit  of  settlements,  and  consequent  teaching  by  obser- 
vation, the  Indian  made  but  slow  progress  in  the  way  the  government 
desired  he  should  go,  until  the  day  of  Indian  schools  was  inaugurated. 
The  early  results  obtained  in  these  schools  seemed  so  full  of  promise  for 
the  future  that  education  in  schools  has  become  the  main  policy  and  hope 
of  the  nation  for  Indian  civilization.    ^ 

The  conditions  presented  by  the  Indians  of  today,  which  call  for  a 
special  class  of  schools  for  them,  are  that  nearly  all  of  those  who  attend 
will,  in  the  battle  of  life,  have  to  support  themselves  by  manual  labor  of 
some  kind.  A  very  large  proportion  also  have  had  nothing  in  the  shape 
of  home  training,  while  all  must  be  instructed  in  the  English  language  to 
such  an  extent  that  it  shall  be  their  language  for  the  future,  so  learned  as 
never  to  be  forgotten.  It  is  easy  to  see,  therefore,  that  the  needs  of  the 
Indian  are  not  met  by  the  ordinary  district  school,  nor  by  the  ordinary 
boarding  school  or  academy;  that  to  civilize,  educate,  and  train  the 
Indian  industrially  something  more  than  either  of  these  is  needed.  The 
effort  to  meet  this  need  has  evolved  the  system  of  Indian  schools  as  they 
now  exist,  comprising  all  grades,  from  the  reservation  day  school  to  the 
most  complete  of  the  system  as  represented  by  the  manifold  interests  and 
pursuits  of  Carlisle. 

The  experience  so  far  gained  has  shown  that  self-support,  the  prime 
object  of  Indian  schools,  has  been  attained  in  the  proportion  in  which 
they  properly  combine  industrial  training  with  literary  education.  The 
latter,  while  desirable  for  all,  will  furnish  bread  to  the  few  only,  but  the 
competent  laborer,  male  or  female,  is  in  a  position  of  comparative  inde- 
pendence on  the  question  of  subsistence. 

The  aim,  then,  of  Indian  education  should  be  that  during  the  receptive 
and  formative  period  of  life  every  young  Indian  should  receive  such 
industrial  education  as  will  place  him  clearly  beyond  the  ranks  of  the 
incapable  —  among  the  competent  working  and  producing  classes.  To 
do  this,  rational  industrial  education   is  a  necessity,  and   so   much   of 


694  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Indian 

the  school  period  of  life  as  may  be  needed  should  be  devoted  to  its 
attainment.  Any  Indian  school,  of  whatever  class,  that  fails  to  give  this 
or  makes  it  a  secondary  consideration  is  failing  of  its  chief  end  and 
object.  Care  should  be  taken  everywhere  and  at  all  times  to  honor  the 
worker,  of  whatever  degree,  and  by  no  means  admit  that  a  farmer  or 
mechanic  is  not  as  worthy  of  respect  as  a  teacher  or  clerk. 

My  experience  with  the  administration  of  Indian  schools  has  been 
that  vastly  more  thought  and  attention  has  been  bestowed  on  the  literary 
course  of  study  to  be  pursued,  which  publishers'  text-books  shall  be  used, 
and  what  particular  method  of  writing  shall  be  taught,  than  upon  the 
industrial  education  that  can  and  should  be  given  to  every  Indian  child 
of  suitable  physique. 

I  should  like  to  see  the  force  and  equipment  for  teaching  the  various 
industrial  occupations  in  Indian  schools  as  well  organized  and  as  com- 
plete as  now  is  the  case  with  the  department  of  literary  training.  This 
should  embrace  all  the  household  occupations  of  the  school,  so  con- 
ducted as  to  convey  the  idea  that  the  time  so  spent  was  just  as  profitably 
spent  as  in  the  schoolroom.  The  same  general  idea  should  be  carried  to 
all  the  outdoor  interests  and  occupations  of  the  school,  the  farm,  the  stock, 
the  trades.  Give  them  an  equal  place  with  the  schoolroom,  not  a  second- 
ary one,  and  how  much  more  popular  such  interests  would  become  !  It  is 
the  nature  of  the  young  to  enjoy  physical  effort,  so  that  it  does  not  become 
drudgery. 

I  will  admit  that  in  practice  education  in  industries  is  not  applicable 
to  all  schools  alike,  but  the  principle  is ;  and  that  of  itself  is  vastly  impor- 
tant. There  are,  however,  but  few  schools  where  some  really  good  prac- 
tical work  cannot  be  done  along  some  productive  line,  selected  as  the 
specialty  of  the  school  by  reason  of  its  location  or  condition  —  as  garden- 
ing, or  fruit  culture,  or  farming  —  on  such  a  moderate  scale  that  it  shall  be 
thoroly  instructive  as  well  as  productive. 

I  do  not  wish  to  be  understood  as  recommeading  an  attempt  to  carry 
on  a  multiplicity  of  industries,  such  as  Carlisle  and  some  other  large 
schools  have  in  operation,  in  places  where  they  would  be  out  of  place ;  but 
in  every  school,  large  or  small,  I  would  implant  the  idea  that  those  who 
have  ability  to  produce  with  their  hands  the  necessaries  of  life  are  as 
worthy,  as  honorable,  and  as  successful  as  those  who  do  the  same  thing 
by  their  ability  to  teach  or  to  practice  a  profession. 

The  prime  need  in  industrial  education  is  intelligent  agriculture, 
which  includes  also  gardening  and  fruit  culture,  dairying,  care  of  stock, 
etc.  We  have  the  promise  of  the  One  who  changes  not  that  "  so  long  as 
the  world  endures  seed-time  and  harvest  shall  not  fail."  Here,  then,  is 
supplied  the  prime  necessity  of  life,  the  means  to  live. 

It  is  not  my  purpose  to  particularize  as  to  methods  by  which  industrial 
education  should  be  pursued  in  Indian  schools,  but  to  urge  that  it  be 


Department]  LITERARY  AND  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION  OF  INDIANS      695 

given  its  rightful  place  and  due  consideration  ;  that  as  much  care,  thought, 
and  talent  be  expended  on  the  proper  industrial  equipment  and  methods 
as  is  now  the  case  on  the  schoolroom  work  and  appliances.  But  few 
among  the  Indians  now  in  school  will  be  able  to  live  by  their  literary 
attainments  exclusively;  the  many  will  depend  on  their  hands  ;  therefore, 
let  the  main  effort  be  in  the  direction  that  is  going  to  be  of  the  greatest 
good  to  the  greatest  number.  I  make  the  assertion  that  the  competent 
manual  worker  will  be  more  likely  to  develop  into  an  independent,  self- 
supporting  person  than  the  one  who  is  teaching  or  clerking  for  a  living, 
depending  on  the  pleasure  or  needs  of  others  for  the  salary  on  which  he 
or  she  lives.  A  bushel  of  wheat  or  corn  has  its  cash  value ;  so  has  fat 
stock,  the  shoeing  of  a  horse,  the  building  of  a  house,  or  skilled  labor  in 
any  direction ;  and  the  Indian  who  has  grain  or  stock  to  sell  or  skill  in 
the  occupations  mentioned  will  not  be  apt  to  want  for  bread. 

I  offer  just  one  incident  in  illustration  of  my  position.  It  is  an  axiom 
of  the  Carlisle  school  that  every  pupil  roust  have  some  practice  in  agricul- 
tural pursuits ;  this  is  obtained  in  part  on  the  school  farms,  but  mainly 
under  the  outing  system.  A  boy  who  had  been  several  years  at  school 
returned  to  his  home.  His  father  and  neighbors  had  bought  a  self- 
binding  reaper.  The  agent  was  to  come  on  a  certain  day  and  set  the 
machine  up,  and  show  the  Indians  how  to  work  it.  He  did  not  come. 
The  boy,  having  used  a  similar  machine  during  his  school  life  at  Carlisle, 
put  this  one  together  and  cut  the  crop.  The  agent  came  and  asked  who 
had  done  the  work.  The  Indian  told  him  his  son  had  set  up  the  reaper 
and  started  it.  "Well,"  said  the  agent,  "I  am  paying  men  $4  a  day  for 
just  that  work,  and  would  as  soon  pay  your  son  as  anybody." 

Let  us  therefore  give  the  chief  place  in  our  Indian  schools  to  those 
pursuits  which  will  give  to  the  many  manual  skill  and  ability  needed  for 
self-support;  which  will  be  in  about  the  proportion  of  ninety-nine 
manual  workers  to  one  lawyer  or  doctor. 

It  requires  no  gift  of  prophecy  to  foretell  that  if  such  a  policy  in 
Indian  education  be  adopted  and  continued,  combined  with  the  Carlisle 
outing  system,  the  day  will  not  be  far  distant  when  the  government  can 
justly  say  to  the  Indian:  "You  are  no  longer  incompetent;  you  are  able, 
you  are  skilled,  you  have  the  opportunity ;  henceforth  make  your  own 
living,  take  care  of  yourselves ;  the  duties  of  national  guardianship  have 
been  performed ;  such  care  is  no  longer  necessary  for  you ;  you  are 
citizens  of  the  republic;  enjoy  your  liberty,  your  homes,  your  property; 
vote,  hold  office,  do  your  best ;  and  Uncle  Sam  will  be  proud  of  his  red 
children." 


696 


NATIONAL  EbUCATiONAL  ASSOCIAt/ON 


[tnciian 


THE  HEALTH  OE  THE  INDIAN 

DR.  C.  C.  WAINWRIGHT,  SAN  JACINTO,  CAL. 
[an  abstractI 
Dr.  Wainwright  said  that  upon  the  health  of  the  Indian  rests  the 
whole  superstructure  of  Indian  education.  To  give  him  greater  power 
of  resistance,  to  unfetter  him  from  his  deteriorating  habits,  to  force  him 
above  the  half-civilized  life  to  which  he  has  been  subdued,  to  utilize  the 
material  we  have  so  that  a  generation  will  come  forth  in  a  higher  scale  of 
evolution,  are  tasks  to  which  we  must  apply  ourselves  even  more  assidu- 
ously the  coming  year  because  of  the  many  encouragements  in  the  past. 
Does  the  Indians'  health  average  good?  Do  they  as  a  race  compare 
favorably  in  health  and  vigor  with  their  white  neighbors  ?  Does  the 
Indian  child  grow  up  with  a  promise  of  longevity?  are  questions  direct 
and  important.  If  we  begin  among  the  Indians  where  they  live  and 
move,  divest  the  whole  subject  of  any  sentirhent,  arrange  systematic  work 
for  every  able  bodied  adult,  compel  him  to  labor  for  his  own  benefit, 
thiis  establishing  the  habit  of  a  perfect  industry  among  the  American 
Indians,  we  shall  strike  from  them  the  fetters  that  bind  them  to  so  many 
degenerating,  debasing,  and  slavish  customs.  They  and  their  children 
will  be  regenerated  mentally,  morally,  and  physically.  I  desire  to  empha- 
size the  possible  blessings  that  will  come  to  these  people  and  their  chil- 
dren thru  systematic  manual  labor.  Work  purifies  the  blood  and  is 
preventive  of  disease.  All  else  that  is  uplifting  and  beneficial  will  follow 
habits  of  industry. 


THE  TRAINING  OE  TEACHERS  FOR  INDIAN  SCHOOLS 

CHARLES  BARTLETT  DYKE,   HAMPTON  NORMAL    AND    INDUSTRIAL   INSTITUTE, 

HAMPTON,    VA. 

[an  abstract] 

The  teacher  is  the  maker  and  protector  of  our  American  civilization, 
and  with  him  rests  the  future  of  the  American  Indian.  In  common  with 
all  other  teachers,  he  must  possess  the  spirit  of  service.  All  else  falls  into 
insignificance  compared  with  this  first  essential.  This  spirit  of  service 
cannot  be  a  general,  diffused,  vague  sort  of  thing.  It  must  be  definite, 
concrete  devotion  to  the  uplifting  of  a  race.  It  is  thru  wise  religious 
training,  thru  constant  suggestion,  thru  the  inspiration  of  the  ideals 
already  attained  by  "returned  students,"  that  these  natural  impulses  are 
to  be  converted  into  a  sustained  spirit  of  service. 

The  second  essential  of  the  Indian  teacher  is  fellowship  with  the 
world.  Not  until  a  white  man  has  seen  something  of  the  inner  life  of 
other  races  does  he  realize  the  vastness  of  his  birthright.     What  he  is 


Department]         TRAINING  OF  TEACHERS  FOR  INDIAN  SCHOOLS  697 

born  into  the  Indian  child  must  acquire,  if  he  is  to  survive  on  the  face  of 
the  earth.  The  teachers  of  the  Indian  child  must,  then,  feel  their  fellow- 
ship with  all  humanity. 

It  is  common  to  hear  of  the  folly  of  attempting  to  make  an  Indian 
into  a  white  man,  and  there  is  truth  in  the  assertion  ;  but  the  Indian 
should  live  in  and  become  a  part  of  the  white  man's  civilization.  The 
general  atmosphere  of  civilization  breathed  into  the  life  of  the  Indian  for 
generations  must  conduce  to  this  fellowship  with  the  world,  but  more 
important  is  the  conscious  training  given  thru  certain  subjects  of  study. 
Especially  is  this  true  of  every  kind  of  trade  work.  The  ability  to  supply 
to  the  public  what  the  public  needs  establishes  a  bond  of  sympathy,  and 
the  Indian  wheelwright  or  mason  or  electrician  becomes  an  integral  part 
of  humanity  with  the  satisfaction  of  humanity's  wants,  while  the  Indian 
girl  rises  into  a  new  sphere  of  life  with  her  successful  production  of  the 
food  and  clothing  of  civilization. 

Hon.  William  T.  Harris  emphasizes  the  necessity  of  language  as  the 
instrument  which  "makes  possible  human  social  organization.  The  most 
practical  knowledge  of  all,  it  will  be  admitted,  is  a  knowledge  of  human 
nature — a  knowledge  that  enables  one  to  combine  with  his  fellow-men 
and  to  share  with  them  the  physical  and  spiritual  wealth  of  the  race." 

Again,  the  Indian  teacher  should  go  into  his  work  with  some  absorb- 
ing interest  of  his  own  —  some  hobby,  some  fad,  if  you  will — for  the 
inspiration  of  a  teacher  is  his  own  interest. 

The  lack  of  professional  training  I  regard  as  the  greatest  weakness 
among  Indian  teachers.  If  the  teacher  of  white  children  needs  to  know 
the'  principles  and  aims  of  education,  how  much  more  does  the  Indian 
teacher  need  to  know  them  who  is  to  enter  upon  a  much  more  difficult 
work ! 

But  the  professional  training  of  the  Indian  teachers  should  include 
more  than  a  knowledge  of  the  principles  and  aims  of  education.  You 
and  I  are  born  with  an  economic  sense.  That  sense  of  money-making,  of 
getting  on  in  the  world,  has  found  deep  root  in  all  Americans.  The 
Indian  is  without  this  economic  sense.  He  must  be  taught  to  seize  upon 
existing  conditions  and  to  use  them  to  his  own  advantage.  The  Indian 
teacher  must  be  the  center  of  social  and  economic  progress. 

Next  comes  practice-teaching,  under  careful  supervision,  with  a  maxi- 
mum of  responsibility.  I  wish  to  place  the  emphasis  on  these  two  points  : 
careful  supervision  and  responsibility.  In  the  judgment  of  the  Committee 
on  Normal  Schools  at  the  Los  Angeles  meeting  last  year,  practice-teaching, 
under  careful  supervision,  ranks  as  the  most  valuable  course  in  the  pro- 
fessional training  of  teachers.  While  actual  teaching  contributes  much 
to  the  theory  of  education,  it  also  gives  training  in  the  application  of 
knowledge.  It  is  usually  more  difficult  to  apply  knowledge  than  it  is  to 
acquire   it,  but  since  practice  in  teaching  does  both,  it  is  an  especially 


698 


NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION 


[Indian 


valuable  line  of  work.  To  assume  the  responsibility  of  a  schoolroom  is 
a  powerful  force  in  the  development  of  a  teacher.  Familiarity  with  pro- 
grams, with  good  text-books,  and  with  all  the  minor  details  of  the 
schoolroom  is  no  slight  aid ;  but  responsibility  transforms  the  careless, 
impertinent,  sullen,  impatient  student  into  the  careful,  polite,  cheerful, 
self-controlled  teacher.  One  of  our  Indian  girls  last  year,  who  was 
notorious  for  her  sulkiness,  met  her  Waterloo  in  the  practice  room,  where 
she  was  obliged  to  deal  with  her  exact  facsimile.  What  should  she  do 
with  Susie  ?  If  Susie  made  a  mistake  she  would  not  read  again.  She 
would  just  stand  still  and  look  as  if  she  did  not  see  or  hear  anybody  in 
the  world.  The  foresight,  the  quick  encouragement,  the  determined  will 
necessary  in  dealing  with  Susie,  the  delight  of  success,  actually  changed 
this  girl's  entire  demeanor,  and  the  responsibility  thrown  upon  her 
developed  an  undreamed-of  strength  which  will  make  her  a  most  valuable 
teacher  of  her  race. 

But  let  us  not  think  for  a  moment  that  practice-teaching  alone  is 
sufficient.  Practice-teaching  establishes  right  habits  of  the  teaching  art. 
Leaders  in  education,  as  in  any  sphere  of  human  activity,  must  have  right 
habits  of  work,  but  they  must  also  be  masters  of  themselves  and  capable 
of  directing  their  own  powers  at  will.  This  is  to  be  attained  only  thru  a 
knowledge  of  the  principles  of  society  and  education. 

To  summarize :  In  my  opinion  the  function  of  the  teacher  of  Indian 
schools  is  one  on  which  the  very  lives  of  his  pupils  depend.  It  is  the 
substitution  of  civilization  for  barbarism.  That  teacher  alone  can  effect 
this  work  who  goes  into  it  with  a  spirit  of  service,  with  a  conscious  substitu- 
tion of  the  ideals  of  civilization  for  those  of  barbarism.  This  demands 
wisely  chosen  subject-matter,  a  knowledge  of  society  and  of  the  laws  of 
mind.  It  demands  enthusiasm  guided  by  the  principles  of  psychology 
and  sociology,  and  it  involves  the  application  of  these  principles  under 
sufxervision.  Teachers  with  this  training  will  bring  their  pupils  into  a 
fellowship  with  the  civilized  world,  and  the  Indian  will  then  become  a 
valuable  American  citizen. 


THE  TEACHING  OF  TRADES  TO  THE  INDIAN 


F.    K. 


ROGERS,    HAMPTON    NORMAL    AND    INDUSTRIAL    INSTITUTE, 
HAMPTON,  VA. 


[an  abstract] 

My  first  experience  with  Indians  was  in  the  late  summer  of  1897,  when 

I  met  a  score  or  more  who  had   just  arrived   at   Hampton.     When  these 

Indians  arrived,  many  of  them  were  not  more  than  once  removed  from 

barbarism  and  had  been  transported  from  1,500  to  2,000  miles,  in  order 


Department]  TEACHING  OF  TRADES  TO  THE  INDIAN  69^ 

that  they  might  complete  their  education  by  industrial  training  at  Hamp- 
ton. One  question  that  bothered  me  was  :  Has  the  Indian  the  mental 
capacity  for  the  complicated  problems  associated  with  the  trades?  This 
has  been  solved  to  my  entire  satisfaction  in  the  affirmative. 

I  have  reached  the  point  where  I  feel  that  genius  should  be  recognized 
in  red,  black,  or  white,  but  that  the  diverting  of  an  Indian  from  his  natural 
bent  is  not  to  be  done  without  serious  consideration  and  especially  good 
reasons.  An  interesting  incident  connected  with  this  thought  comes  to 
my  mind.  A  young  Papago  arrived  at  Hampton  a  year  ago,  and,  when 
questioned  as  to  what  he  wanted  to  do  there,  surprised  us  by  saying  that 
he  wished  to  learn  the  machinist's  trade.  This  from  a  Papago  seemed 
so  incongruous  that  we  questioned  him  thoroly,  thinking  his  desire 
might  be  only  a  passing  one,  which  had  been  aroused,  perhaps,  by  visit- 
ing the  machine  shops  before  being  questioned  by  us.  However,  he 
stood  persistently  by  his  first  choice,  saying  that  in  some  parts  of  his 
country  there  were  silver  mines,  and  that  he  had  seen  some  of  the  mining 
machinery  and  knew  that  they  sometimes  needed  men  to  set  it  up  and 
run  it.  He  thought  he  could  find  good  employment  at  least  as  a  helper. 
He  was  allowed  to  spend  two  days  a  week  in  the  machine  shop,  and  has 
shown  that  he  has  the  necessary  qualification  for  a  very  good  machinist, 
and  he  is  anxious  to  keep  on.  The  machinist's  trade  can  be  grasped  only 
by  one  of  considerable  mental  ability,  and  he  must  have  much  good 
judgment  in  tracing  out  cause  and  effect.'  It  seems  to  me  that  what  this 
particular  boy  must  have  in  order  to  be  most  useful  is  not  so  much  ability 
to  do  the  delicate  handwork  necessary  to  build  machinery  as  ability  to 
size  up  the  general  assemblage  of  parts,  to  know  how  things  go  together 
and  how  to  repair  broken   pieces. 

Except  in  a  few  cases,  Hampton  does  not  believe  in  the  machinist's 
trade  for  Indians,  but  rather  emphasizes  those  industries  which  may  be  of 
use  in  smaller  communities,  and  that  relate  more  directly  to  their  own 
home  life,  as,for  instance,  house-building,  wheelwrighting,  blacksmithing, 
shoe-  and  harness-making.  We  feel  more  and  m.ore,  too,  that  in  many 
cases  a  part  of  several  trades  is  more  beneficial  than  one.  Thus  house- 
building should  have  as  a  foundation  carpentry,  but  allied  with  it  should 
be  some  knowledge  of  painting,  plastering,  bricklaying,  and  enough  tin- 
smithing  to  enable  one  to  do  flashing,  gutter,  and  spout  work. 

Wheelwrighting,  blacksmithing,  and  a  little  painting  would  go  well 
together,  and  shoe-  and  harness-making  are  also  closely  connected.  With 
all  of  these  trades  there  should  be  incorporated  as  much  of  agriculture  as 
it  is  possible  to  give. 

Blacksmithing  seems  to  be  as  popular  a  trade  as  any,  and  one  in  which 
the  Indian  seems  to  excel.  It  is  considerable  of  a  revelation  to  see  one 
toiling  away,  blowing  his  own  fire,  and  striking  the  red-hot  iron,  with  the 
perspiration  rolling  from  his  head  in  streams. 


700 


MATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION 


[Indian 


The  Indian  boy  does  very  well  in  mechanical  drawing,  which  should 
be  taught  in  connection  with  all  trades  when  the  plan  of  one's  work  can 
be  expressed  on  paper.  For  instance,  such  trades  as  the  machinist's, 
carpentry,  wheelwrighting,  and  bricklaying  should  include  mechanical 
drawing,  but  printing  would  not  especially  need  it.  Painters,  tailors, 
shoe-  and  harness-makers  should  be  taught  free-hand  drawing. 

The  one  thing  more  than  all  others  to  be  considered  in  teaching  a 
trade  to  Indians  is  power  of  adaptability.  Teaching  a  full  trade  for  the 
sake  of  its  industrial  value  alone  does  not  appeal  to  many  people  who 
know  the  Indian's  home  life  and  the  difficulty  he  will  have  among  his 
own  people  of  making  a  livelihood.  In  most  cases  it  seems  to  me  that 
the  trade,  after  all,  is  only  of  secondary  importance,  and  the  real  thing 
to  be  gained  is  the  feeling  of  power  which  comes  with  the  accomplishment 
of  any  difficult  task.  Let  us  look  for  a  minute  at  the  blacksmith's  trade 
for  the  Indian.  (I  have  mentioned  before  in  this  paper  that  it  is  as 
popular  as  any  we  teach.) 

I  do  not  feel  that  the  utilitarian  accomplishments  of  bending,  upset- 
ting, and  welding,  while  they  are  of  inestimable  value,  are  the  only  good 
things  the  boy  has  gotten  out  of  the  practice  at  the  forge,  but  that  along 
with  all  these  processes  in  the  thousand  and  one  modifications  and 
applications  comes  a  mental  stimulus,  a  power  of  concentration  and 
adaptability,  which  leads  to  healthier  activities  and  growth.  The  same 
thing  is  true  of  any  trade  or  occupation ;  but  as  the  boy's  own  inclina- 
tion and  love  for  a  particular  kind  of  skill  must  be  acknowledged  to 
a  certain  extent  in  the  selection  of  a  handicraft  for  him,  it  follows  that 
there  will  be  a  general  diversity  of  trades  among  the  boys  from  any 
reservation. 

Character-building  is,  after  all,  the  keynote  in  any  kind  of  education. 
It  may  seem  to  be  entirely  submerged  at  times,  but,  be  it  classical  or 
industrial,  the  outcome  is  not  a  mere  bunch  of  facts  gleaned  from  the 
fields  of  literature  and  labor,  but,  along  with  such,  a  large  measure  of 
power  and  possibility.  Many  times  to  all  of  us  has  come  the  stereotyped 
expression  that  the  Indian's  education  is  all  a  mistake,  and  that  it  simply 
in  the  end  makes  less  of  a  man  of  him  than  he  would  have  been  had  he 
grown  up  in  the  old  way.  This  may  be  true  in  some  instances,  and  it 
may  seem  true  in  many  more,  taking  the  present  time  into  considera- 
tion, but  the  thing  to  be  considered  is  that  this  is,  after  all,  only  the 
seed-time;  the  harvest  is  not  yet,  tho  I  think  we  begin  to  see  signs  of  its 
approach. 

If  I  thought  we  were  making  carpenters,  blacksmiths,  and  wheelwrights 
of  the  Indians,  and  that  they  got  out  of  the  trades  only  the  cold,  hard 
facts  which  provide  a  means  of  livelihood,  I  should  feel  that  we  were 
doing  a  progressive  work.  What  I  do  believe  is  that  the  power  that 
comes  with  reading  and  writing,  welding  and  planing,  cooking  and  sewing, 


Department]  TRAINING  OF  THE  INDIAN  GIRL  701 

is  upbuilding  to  any  race,  causing  it  to  grow  until  its  influence  is  felt  as 
a  factor  in  the  common  good  of  mankind.  In  these  days  the  lack  of 
such  power  will  surely  send  a  race  to  the  wall. 


THE  TRAINING  OF  THE  INDIAN  GIRL  AS  THE  UPLIFTER 

OF  THE  HOME 

MISS    JOSEPHINE    E.    RICHARDS,    HAMPTON    NORMAL    AND    INDUSTRIAL 
INSTITUTE,    HAMPTON,    VA. 

[an  abstract] 

Miss  Alice  Fletcher  once  told  of  a  visit  she  paid  to  Sitting  Bull,  and 
the  plea  he  made,  in  view  of  the  changed  conditions,  for  the  women  of 
his  race. 

**  Take  pity  on  my  women,"  said  he,  "  for  they  have  no  future.  The 
young  men  can  be  like  the  white  men  —  till  the  soil,  supply  the  food  and 
clothing;  they  will  take  the  work  out  of  the  hands  of  the  women,  and 
the  women,  to  whom  we  have  owed  everything  in  the  past,  will  be  stripped 
of  all  which  gave  them  power  and  position  among  the  people.  Give  a 
future  to  my  women." 

We  are  surely  working  along  the  line  of  the  old  chief's  appeal  when 
we  consider  how  the  Indian  woman,  as  she  ceases  to  set  up  the  tepee, 
can  become  the  true  uplifter  of  the  home. 

Let  us  consider  some  of  the  crying  needs  oi  the  Indian  home  of  the 
present  day,  and  also  the  training  which  will  best  fit  the  Indian  girls  in 
our  schools  to  meet  those  needs. 

Let  us  note  first  the  lack  of  system  in  the  domestic  arrangements  of 
the  household,  of  promptness  and  orderliness.  I  think  those  of  us  who 
have  firm  faith  in  many  native  virtues  of  the  Indian  would  hesitate  to 
claim  punctuality  and  dispatch  as  among  thein.  The  reason  may  not  be 
far  to  seek ;  for,  after  all,  one  does  not  have  to  go  back  a  very  long  way 
in  his  history  to  get  quite  beyond  clocks  and  bells,  and  all  the  civil- 
ized appliances  for  keeping  the  Anglo-Saxon  "up  to  the  minute,"  and 
enabling  a  great  community  of  busy  workers  to  act  in  unison.  But  what 
a  transformation  it  would  effect  in  the  hogan  of  the  Southwest  and  the 
shack  of  the  Northwest,  not  to  mention  certain  frame  houses  of  some  of 
the  more  well-to-do,  if  there  were  regular  hours,  and  those  early  ones, 
for  rising  and  retiring ;  if  meals  were  prepared  and  cleared  away  at  set 
times;  if  beds  were  put  in  order  the  first  thing  in  the  morning;  if 
Monday  were  washing  day,  Tuesday  ironing  day,  and  so  on  thru  the 
weekly  calendar  of  a  thrifty  household  !  Illustrative  of  the  axiom  that 
"order  is  heaven's  first  law,"  I  recall  an  address  of  Bishop  Hare's  to  a 
company  of  Indian  students,  in  which  he  drew  a  most  practical  lesson 
from  the  command  to  the  disciples  to  make  the  multitude  sit  down  by 


702 


NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION 


LIndia 


hundreds  and  fifties,  as  he  carried  the  principle  even  into  the  cabin 
cupboards  and  charged  the  girls  to  see  that  the  dishes  there  were 
arranged  in  orderly  fashion  —  plates  in  one  pile,  saucers  in  another. 

Most  closely  linked  to  orderliness  is  cleanliness.  We  remember 
reading  a  graphic  and  appalling  description  of  the  minutiae  of  house- 
cleaning  operations  by  a  young  Indian  field  matron  and  her  assistant 
in  a  neighboring  cabin,  where  the  cellar  for  keeping  supplies  was  a  hole 
under  one  of  the  beds,  and  where  other  things  were  on  a  similar  plane  of 
untidiness.  A  recent  letter  from  the  teacher  of  a  camp  school  speaks  of 
her  little  pupils  as  "so  bright,  quick,  ambitious  to  learn,  but  oh  !  so 
dirty."  A  running  stream  furnishes  a  bath-tub  in  summer,  but  in  winter 
a  bath  is  an  unheard-of  luxury,  and  a  change  of  clothes  once  a  week  or 
once  a  month  is  not  to  be  thought  of.  It  is  quite  true  that  on  many 
reservations  a  crusade  against  dirt  must  be  waged  against  great  odds, 
even  by  the  most  willing-hearted.  The  scarcity  of  water,  the  clouds  of 
prairie  dust,  the  stream  of  unkempt  visitors,  the  constant  presence  of 
four-footed  hangers-on  —  these  are  anything  but  helpful  to  the  young 
housekeeper.  In  some  favored  sections  these  difficulties  do  not  exist ; 
in  not  a  few  instances  they  are  bravely  overcome ;  but  the  question  is  an 
intensely  practical  one :  What  sort  of  training  will  best  prepare  our  girls 
to  fight  these  obstacles  in  their  own  homes,  or  in  the  homes  of  Indians 
among  whom  they  may  be  working  ? 

It  is  not  enough  to  teach  these  girls  how  to  sweep  and  scrub  and 
wash  and  iron ;  we  must  strive  so  to  get  them  in  the  habit  of  being  neat 
in  person  and  surroundings  that  they  really  cannot  be  comfortable  other- 
wise. Perhaps  nothing  does  this  more  effectually  than  the  "outing 
system,"  when  the  home  to  which  the  pupil  is  sent  is  of  the  right  sort. 
The "  living  week  after  week  in  a  quiet,  refined,  well-ordered  household 
is  of  inestimable  value  in  fostering  a  "noble  discontent"  with  dirt  and 
disorder. 

In  addition  to  this  we  have  found  a  housekeeping  cottage  to  be  a  very 
helpful  adjunct  to  the  training  in  dormitories,  cooking  classes,  laundry, 
etc.,  during  the  school  year.  A  member  of  the  faculty  was  accompanied 
on  a  trip  to  the  West  one  summer  by  a  friend.  The  latter,  struck  with 
the  dearth  of  cooking  utensils  in  the  log  cabins  they  visited,  remarked  : 
"  Why  don't  you  build  a  cottage  at  Hampton,  put  into  it  a  stove,  kettle, 
frying-pan,  one  or  two  spoons,  and  a  very  few  dishes,  and  teach  the  girls 
to  keep  house  with  only  such  appliances?"  The  suggestion  was  acted 
upon.  A  tiny,  three-roomed  cottage  (built  when  we  brought  on  married 
couples)  was  fitted  up  for  classes  in  housekeeping.  Its  equipment  was 
somewhat  more  ample  than  the  above,  but  there  was  no  patent  egg-beater, 
there  was  not  even  a  rolling-pin  until  an  Indian  boy  made  one  in  the 
shop.  The  screen  in  the  little  parlor  was  the  handiwork  of  a  girl  who 
had   learned  to  use  tools,  and   the  lounge  was  a  small  iron  bedstead, 


Department]  TRAINING   OF  THE  INDIAN  GIRL  703 

with  mattress  and  cushions  covered  with  blue  denim.  Four  days  in  the 
week  a  squad  of  three  girls  went  out  to  the  cottage  with  the  lady  in 
charge,  after  school,  and  prepared  their  evening  meal.  Milk  and  flour 
were  furnished  them ;  also  fifty  cents  a  week,  afterward  increased  tp 
sixty,  with  which  other  supplies  were  purchased.  Careful  forethought 
and  economy  were  thus  cultivated.  The  menus  were  written  down  in 
a  blank  book,  and  accounts  were  strictly  kept.  The  girls  learned  to 
make  bread  and  biscuit,  and  to  prepare  many  simple  dishes,  sometimes 
even  to  make  their  own  butter.  They  were  taught  to  utilize  odds 
and  ends,  also  how  to  scrimp  a  little  here  if  they  wished  to  launch  out 
there.  The  table  was  neatly  spread  with  a  white  table-cloth  and  nap- 
kins, and  sometimes  decorated  with  flowers.  Once  a  week  the  custom 
was  to  invite  another  teacher  to  take  tea  with  them,  and  then  one  -girl 
must  act  as  hostess  and  another  do  the  necessary  waiting.  The  whole 
spirit  of  the  thing  was  wonderfully  sug<gestive  of  a  little  bit  of  home 
set  down  in  the  midst  of  the  great  school.  When  Mrs.  Dorchester,  wife 
of  the  then  superintendent  of  Indian  schools,  visited  Hampton,  she  gave 
her  cordial  approval  of  the  scheme.  It  seemed  that  she  had  felt  the 
need  of  something  similar  in  the  western  schools,  and  had  pleaded  for  a 
small  house  adjoining  the  main  buildings,  where  girls  could  be  so 
trained.  Now,  she  said,  she  felt  she  could  urge  it  the  more  strongly,  since 
she  had  actually  seen  her  "  model  cottage."  This  work  has  now  been 
merged  in  that  of  the  Abby  May  Home,  where  the  girls  in  the  advanced 
course  have  lived  together  as  a  small  family,  and  where  pupils  from  the 
middle  class  have  gone  to  prepare  meals;  and  in  that  of  the  domestic- 
science  building,  with  its  courses  in  sewing,  cooking,  sloyd,  and  dairying, 
and  also  its  model  dining-room  and  bedroom,  the  latter  with  all  its  fur- 
niture, except  the  bed  and  the  mirror,  made  by  the  girls. 

The  hygienic  value  of  cleanliness  cannot  be  too  strongly  impressed 
upon  future  home-makers,  and  this  naturally  broadens  out  into  ideas  of 
ventilation,  drainage,  and  the  prevention  of  tuberculosis  by  car's  and 
sanitary  precautions.  Where  girls  leave  school  before  they  have  taken 
up  a  text-book  on  physiology  and  hygiene,  it  seems  most  desirable  that 
simple  oral  lessons  be  given  them  along  these  lines.  Wholesome  food 
also,  as  has  been  so  often  said,  is  a  subject  in  which  they  need  instruc- 
tion, especially  in  regard  to  the  addition  of  milk,  cereals,  and  vegetables 
to  their  bill  of  fare. 

A  love  for  house  decorations  has  to  be  cultivated  rather  than  implanted 
in  the  Indian.  One  evening  the  past  winter  a  company  of  Indian  boys 
and  girls  met  with  some  of  their  teachers  to  discuss  the  question  :  "  How 
can  we  improve  our  homes?"  Besides  taking  up  more  important 
matters,  the  raising  of  flowers  was  touched  upon,  and  the  choice  of 
pictures.  Just  here  comes  in  the  desirability  of  some  means  of  earning  a 
little  money  when  at  home,  a  need  which  seems  admirably  met  by  the 


704 


NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION 


[Indian 


lace-making  introduced  by  Miss  Carter,  since  two  or  three  dollars  even 
will  provide  a  few  yards  of  scrim  for  the  windows,  pretty  denim  for  a 
table-cover,  and  seeds  for  the  garden  or  window  box.  If  a  taste  for 
reading  has  been  duly  fostered  at  school  —  and  this  surely  is  far  truer 
education  than  the  mere  recitation  of  allotted  lessons  in  history  and 
geography  —  then  with  the  proceeds  of  her  toil  in  odd  moments  she  can 
subscribe  for  some  magazine,  which  will  be  a  welcome  guest  every  month. 
All  possible  encouragement,  we  believe,  should  also  be  given  to  the 
beautiful  native  industries,  in  order  that  the  beadwork,  pottery,  and 
basket-weaving  of  her  grandmother  may  not  be  lost  arts  to  the  Indian 
girl  of  the  period.  Here,  too,  is  a  means,  not  only  for  cultivating  a  taste 
for  what  is  really  artistic  in  itself,  but,  thru  its  commercial  value,  of  help- 
ing to  make  the  home  comfortable  and  attractive.  But  "  home  is  not 
merely  four  square  walls."  Back  of  "the  outward  and  visible  signs"  of 
order  and  purity  we  want  the  "  inward,  spiritual  grace,"  the  atmosphere 
of  uprightness  and  goodness,  which  the  children  of  the  household  will 
drink  in  as  plants  the  sunshine.  Of  course,  the  very  corner-stone  of 
such  a  happy  family  life  must  be  the  mutual  love  and  respect  of  its 
united  head.  And  just  here,  it  seems  to  me,  not  a  few  young  educated 
Indians  make  shipwreck,  tho  the  mistake  is  not  confined  surely  to  our 
brothers  and  sisters  in  red.  I  have  wondered  whether,  as  teachers,  we 
did  as  much  as  we  might  to  inspire  them  with  high  and  sacred  ideals  of 
all  that  pertains  to  home,  and  with  the  need  of  earnest  thought  in  the 
choice  of  a  life-companion. 

Is  there  not  sometimes  danger  that,  while  thus  striving  to  steer  clear  of 
the  Scylla,  we  fall  upon  Charybdis,  and  send  our  girls  out  into  life's  battle 
without  due  training  how  to  meet  one  of  its  most  fateful  issues  ?  May 
not  even  a  few  quiet  talks  during  their  last  year  from  someone  in  the 
school,  or  from  some  sweet,  wise  woman  who  has  a  home  of  her  own 
outside,  which  the  girls  themselves  would  recognize  as  ideal,  do  much  to 
fortify^them  in  this  direction  ? 

There  is  another  point  which  may  need  to  be  guarded.  We  are  proud 
and  happy  when  we  hear  that  one  of  our  girls  has  received  an  appoint- 
ment as  employ^  or  teacher  in  a  government  school,  and  is  useful  and 
self-supporting.  Perhaps,  when  the  young  teacher  goes  home  for  her 
vacation  with  fresh,  pretty  clothes,  and  money  in  her  purse,  and  talks  of 
her  pupils,  her  methods,  her  hopes  of  promotion,  some  former  school- 
mate, now  tied  hand  and  foot  by  her  duties  to  her  husband  and  children, 
looks  wistfully  at  her  friend's  career,  and  feels  as  if  she  alone  were  realiz- 
ing the  visions  of  uplifting  their  race,  which  they  used  to  share  while  their 
hearts  were  thrilled  by  earnest  commencement  speakers.  Perhaps  her 
own  life  seems  to  her  rather  a  failure.  But  if  her  humble  home  is  an 
object-lesson  to  all  who  enter  it,  if  gentleness  and  kindliness  reign 
there,  if  the  boys  and  girls  after  they  grow  up  are  trained  in  Christian 


Department]  KINDERGARTEN  WORK  AMONG  INDIANS  7 05 

citizenship  and  taught  by  example  to  "lend  a  hand"  to  all  around  them 
who  need  help,  who  shall  say  that  her  mission  is  not  even  more  heaven- 
sent than  her  friend's  ? 


KINDERGARTEN  WORK  AMONG  THE  INDIANS 

MISS     BLANCHE     FINLEY,    HAMPTON    NORMAL    AND    INDUSTRIAL     INSTITUTE, 

HAMPTON,    VA. 

[an  abstract] 

The  Indian  kindergarten  might  correctly  be  called  an  awakening 
school,  for  much  that  is  gained  from  the  home  life  by  the  child  ibf  the 
developed  races  is  missed  by  a  great  majority  of  the  Indian  children. 
Often  our  Indian  children  of  five  or  six  years  are  unable  to  enunciate 
clearly  enough  to  be  understood  —  frequently  unable  to  speak  —  a  word  of 
English.  They  possess  little,  if  any,  of  the  creative  spirit.  We  find  it 
wise,  therefore,  to  admit  children  at  a  younger  age  than  is  desirable,  as  a 
rule,  in  other  races. 

During  the  first  year  we  give,  as  nearly  as  possible,  what  the  child 
would  get  in  a  well-ordered  home.  The  year's  work  centers  around  our 
large  family  of  dolls,  who  must  be  frequently  washed  and  dressed,  whose 
house  and  beds  demand  regular  care. 

On  Monday  the  miniature  wash-tubs  and  boards  are  brought  into  play. 
The  dolls'  clothes  and  bedding  and  a  number  of  lunch  napkins  are  rubbed 
and  rinsed  and  hung  on  lines  across  the  window.  The  next  morning 
they  are  sprinkled,  ironed,  and  folded  away  in  the  trunk  made  for  them 
by  the  older  children.  The  aim  is  not  infant  prodigies  in  the  art  of 
laundry  work,  but  the  cultivation  of  a  work  spirit  in  the  most  unrestrained, 
happy  way. 

No  attempt  is  made  to  teach  color,  form,  and  number  with  the  first 
three  or  four  kindergarten  gifts  that  are  used.  The  bright  balls,  are  used 
as  balls  to  be  freely  rolled  and  tossed  and  swung;  all  that  is  learned  of 
form  and  color  is  by  observation.  The  blocks  of  the  third  and  fourth 
gifts,  both  enlarged  and  of  regular  size,  are  used  for  free  and  suggested 
building — most  suggested  at  first ;  for  instance,  making  a  chair  by  nail- 
ing an  oblong  piece  of  soft  wood  to  a  cube.  These  constructive  exer- 
cises take  the  place  of  the  more  formal  occupations  of  card  sewing, 
weaving,  paper-folding,  and  parquetry,  and  particularly  in  the  furniture 
supply  much-needed  toys. 

The  sand  table,  with  its  tools  and  dishes,  has  a  place  in  each  day's 
progress. 

Teaching  of  songs  is  not  paramount ;  those  of  few  and  simple  words 
are  occasionally  taught.  Stories  and  pictures  are  used  most  freely.  The 
sense  games  and  finger  plays  and  rhythmic  games  of  skipping,  hopping, 


7o6  NATIOMAL  educational  association  [Indian 

running,  etc.,  to  piano  music,  have  been  found  of  special  value  in  the 
development  of  the  Indian  child. 

By  the  second  year  in  kindergarten  the  child  is  ready  for  little  house- 
keeping duties,  which  take  the  place  to  some  extent,  tho  not  entirely,  of 
the  doll  work.  Each  little  one  has  a  chair  to  dust,  or  plants  to  water,  or 
a  room  in  the  doll-house  to  care  for,  or  similar  work.  The  duties  are 
assigned  for  two  weeks  perhaps,  and  then  changes  are  made. 

These  children  make  doll  sheets  and  blankets,  cotton  scrap-books, 
assorting  forms,  sizes,  and  colors.  A  great  deal  of  nailing  and  gardening 
is  among  the  occupations  given.  Creative  and  skill  games  are  added 
to  the  sense  and  rhythmic  games. 

The  older  or  third-year  children  are  well  prepared  to  do  more  pro- 
gressive sewing,  basket-weaving,  braiding  lamp-mats,  nailing  prepared 
pieces  of  Vvood  into  more  elaborate  doll  furniture,  making  seed-boxes, 
bird  houses,  and  little  wagons.  Nor  has  domestic  work  lost  its  value  and 
interest  for  these  children.  Wash  day  is  greeted  with  the  enthusiasm  of 
the  first  year,  and  much  pride  is  taken  in  doing  alone  the  "hard"  house- 
keeping duties.  The  gardening  has  become  quite  scientific,  and  now  we 
can  water  and  rake,  raising  and  selling  vegetables  enough  to  buy  tools. 
Thus  the  child  gets  a  fair  start  in  accuracy,  responsibility,  ambition,  and 
ideas;  and  the  primary  school  comes  fresh  and  full  of  interest  to  meet 
the  demands  of  growth. 

Our  child  knows  nothing  of  the  geometrical  side  of  the  gifts;  he  has 
not  known  the  tablets,  sticks,  and  rings,  but  he  has  watched  the  work  of 
the  sun,  wind,  and  rain  in  his  garden.  He  knows  where  the  grasshopper 
and  cricket  live ;  he  has  seen  the  birds  build  and  brood  in  the  bird-house 
of  his  own  making  ;  and  he  listens  eagerly  for  the  morning  song.  He  has, 
in  short,  some  of  the  knowledge  of  "The  Barefoot  Boy,"  and  he  goes  to 
work  with  a  will  and  independence.  It  is  the  fair,  true  start  that  gives 
the  child  of  any  race  the  surest  chance  of  reaching  the  goal  —  this  goal 
being  self-support  and  independence. 


SANITARY  CONDITIONS  AMONG  THE  INDIANS 

DR.  J.  G.   BULLOCH,  CHEYENNE  AGENCY,  S.   D. 

[an  abstract] 
The  best  sanitary  conditions  should  be  maintained.  By  enforcing 
absolute  cleanliness  in  every  department,  less  sickness  will  reward  the 
management.  Diphtheria,  measles,  and  like  diseases  should  be  avoided, 
especially  since  defective  sight  and  hearing,  weak  lungs,  and  other  ills 
result,  often  following  the  child  so  afflicted  thru  life  and  sending  him  to 
an  early  grave.  More  precaution  should  be  taken  on  reservations  and  at 
schools-  against  letting  refuse  drain  into  the  drinking  water.     Too  much 


department]         PRACTICAL  METHODS  IN  INDIAN  EDUCATIOM  7°? 

attention  cannot  be  given  to  the  subject  of  pure  water  for  drinking 
purposes. 

Careful  attention  should  be  given  to  the  care  of  vaults,  stables,  and 
all  outhouses,  which  should  be  renovated  frequently,  and  whitewashed 
inside  and  out,  at  least  once  a  year.  Rain-water  and  drinking-water 
tanks  should  be  cleaned  at  least  once  annually.  The  lakes  and  ponds 
near  should  receive  careful  attention  ;  in  a  word,  everything  with  which 
the  child  comes  in  contact  should  be  kept  scrupulously  clean. 

All  floors  should  be  sprinkled  before  being  swept,  since  diseases  are 
often  transmitted  by  the  flying  dust.  Weekly  baths  and  good  drainage 
should  be  enforced.  After  illness  in  a  school  or  home  the  room  where 
the  patient  lay  should  be  thoroly  disinfected,  blankets  washed,  pillows 
and  mattresses  sunned,  furniture  washed,  and  sulphur  burned  in  the  room. 

One  great  cause  of  sickness  among  the  camp  Indians  is  the  keeping 
of  provisions  in  the  tepees.  Visiting  Indians  often  prove  fertile  sources 
of  infection,  and  a  certificate  of  health  should  be  given  by  the  agent  and 
physician  to  all  Indians  who  wish  to  visit  another  reservation.  No  agent 
should  allow  visitors  on  any  reserve  who  have  not  brought  such  a  health 
certificate. 

Severe  cases  of  scrofula  and  cases  of  tuberculosis  should  be  isolated  at 
schools,  and  Indians  so  afflicted  should  not  be  permitted  to  live  with  the 
healthy  Indians.  The  aged  and  infirm  should  be  carefully  looked  after 
on  each  reservation. 


PRACTICAL  METHODS  IN  INDIAN  EDUCATION 

MR.    JOHN    SEGER,    SUPERINTENDENT    OF    SEGER    COLONY    SCHOOL, 
COLONY,    OKLA. 

In  my  opinion,  the  only  way  to  teach  the  Indian  self-support  and  the 
value  of  property  is  to  devise  some  plan  whereby,  without  special  urging, 
he  may  be  induced  to  support  himself  by  his  own  efforts. 

I  give  you,  herewith,  a  short  history  of  my  experiences  with  Indians, 
and  a  brief  outline  of  the  plan  we  are  at  present  following. 

My  first  experiment  originated  thru  my  proposing  to  three  Indian 
boys  at  our  schopl  that,  if  they  would  each  milk  a  cow  thru  the  summer, 
I  would  give  them  the  calf  which  the  cow  had.  Altho  they  had  never 
milked  a  cow  in  their  lives,  they  agreed  to  do  their  best,  and  were  duly 
rewarded.  This  placed  them  in  a  conspicuous  position  among  the  other 
children,  as  being  owners  of  property,  and  it  enabled  me  the  next  spring 
to  get  ten  boys  to  volunteer  to  raise  corn.  The  agent  thought  the  idea 
so  unpromising  that  he  said  the  boys  might  have  all  the  corn  they  could 
raise. 

The  Indians  then  regarded  all  work  as  degrading,  and  these  boys 
knew  they  would  be  taunted  and  ridiculed  as  squaws  all  thru  the  season. 


7o8 


NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION 


[Indian 


Nevertheless  they  persevered  and  had  great  success  with  their  crop.  I 
marketed  the  corn  for  them,  and  with  the  proceeds  purchased  thirty-five 
head  of  cattle,  which  I  divided  among  them,  branding  each  boy's  cattle 
with  a  distinct  brand,  thus  giving  him  an  individual  ownership. 

The  success  of  the  boys  naturally  had  its  effect  on  the  other  children, 
and  the  next  spring  I  had  volunteers  enough  to  undertake  to  raise  loo 
acres  of  corn,  giving  half  of  the  crop  to  the  government  for  the  use  of  the 
land.  From  this  land  we  raised  about  3,000  bushels  of  corn,  and  with 
the  proceeds  of  the  boys'  share  I  bought  100  head  of  heifers.  We  were 
obliged  to  bring  these  cattle  from  a  distance  of  140  miles,  and  altho  the 
country  for  the  whole  distance  was  entirely  wild,  and  inhabited  only  by 
Indians,  yet  with  three  of  these  Indian  boys  we  drove  up  the  cattle,  swim- 
ming them  across  rivers  and  watching  them  at  night,  occupying  ten  days 
in  the  journey. 

When  we  arrived  at  the  school,  the  children  manifested  the  most 
intense  interest  in  the  herd,  and  all  who  were  receiving  wages  wanted  to 
use  it  in  the  purchase  of  cattl.e  for  themselves.  Even  the  girls  caught 
the  enthusiasm  to  become  property-owners.  This  spirit  I  encouraged, 
and  allowed  those  who  were  earning  wages  to  use  a  part  of  it  each  month 
in  creating  a  fund  with  which  to  buy  cattle.  We  worked  along  this  line 
until  our  school  herd  numbered  about  400  head. 

It  was  not  long  before  our  success  in  this  venture  attracted  the  atten- 
tion of  the  inspectors,  and  eventually  the  Indian  Office.  The  government 
officials  reasoned  that,  if  the  school  could  raise  cattle  profitably,  why  not 
the  Indians,  and  thus  make  them  self-supporting  ?  Following  this  up, 
they  secured  an  appropriation  to  buy  400  head  of  cattle,  to  be  issued  to 
the  adult  Indians  of  the  reservation.  The  agent  on  learning  of  this 
advised  the  Indian  Office  that  it  was  impracticable  for  the  Indians  to 
engage  at  that  time  in  the  raising  of  cattle,  as  they  were  continually 
moving  about,  sometimes  being  absent  on  a  buffalo  hunt  three  months  at 
a  time.  He  therefore  recommended  that  these  400  head  of  cattle  be 
given  to  my  school,  which  was  done. 

While  I  had  control  of  the  herd  no  white  man  had  anything  to  do 
with  their  care,  they  being  looked  after  altogether  by  Indian  boys  under 
my  supervision.  This  I  considered  the  very  best  education  I  could  give 
them.  The  plan  I  had  in  view  was  eventually,  thru  this  herd  of  cattle, 
to  make  the  schools  of  the  agency  self-supporting. 

I  also  had  in  mind  the  establishing  of  a  large  pasture,  which  I  pro- 
posed inclosing  with  a  wire  fence.  Around  this  pasture  I  would  locate 
young  Indians  as  they  married  and  settled  down  in  life.  They  would  be 
obliged  to  care  for  the  fence  and  keep  their  cattle  inside  the  pasture. 
As  the  care  of  their  cattle  would  occupy  but  a  portion  of  their  time,  I 
also  included  in  my  plan  the  allotting  to  each  individual  settling  around 
the  pasture  land  enough  to  make  a  small  farm.     As  their  ponies  were  not 


Department]         PRACTICAL  METHODS  IN  INDIAN  EDUCATION  709 

adapted  to  plowing  the  prairie  sod,  cattle  might  be  taken  from  the  herd 
and  broken  in  as  oxen.  In  preparation  for  this  I  had  some  oxen  at  the 
school  which  I  trained  the  Indian  boys  to  drive  and  handle. 

At  the  time  of  my  resignation  from  the  school  superintendency  our 
herd  consisted  of  1,000  head.  By  careful  breeding  we  had  improved 
their  grade  to  a  degree  far  above  the  native  Texan  stock  with  which  we  began. 

Almost  from  the  very  first  the  parents  of  the  children  manifested  a 
deep  interest  in  the  success  of  the  project,  and  encouraged  and  aided  it 
in  every  possible  way.  A  number  of  Indian  chiefs  made  donations 
toward  it,  and  a  single  Indian  woman  gave  fifty  head  of  cattle  to  the 
school  to  be  the  property  of  her  daughter,  and  her  husband  also  gave  a 
large  number  of  ponies  to  the  boys  for  use  in  caring  for  the  herd.  These 
and  many  other  instances  are  evidence  of  what  may  be  expected  from  the 
Indians  if  their  ambition  and  spirit  of  emulation  are  aroused. 

At  our  present  institution  in  Oklahoma,  the  Seger  Colony  School,  we 
are  pursuing  the  same  object  of  making  it  self-supporting  and  have 
adopted  the  plan  of  stock-raising  and  farming  in  conjunction,  of  which  I 
shall  speak  later. 

This  school  was  started  seven  years  ago,  at  which  time  100  head  of 
cattle  were  given  us  by  the  government.  These  cattle  cost  $1,300,  and 
for  the  last  five  years  this  small  herd  has  supplied  the  school  with  over 
$1,000  worth  of  beef  each  year,  besides  proving  a  practical  education  for 
our  boys.     Our  herd  now  numbers  141,  of  an  excellent  grade. 

The  main  features  of  the  plan  I  am  at  present  endeavoring  to  carry 
out  are  as  follows  : 

The  land  is  divided  into  sections  of  perhaps  one  hundred  acres  each, 
and  upon  each  section  four  families  are  located,  giving  each  about  twenty- 
five  acres.  These  four  families  thus  form  a  group  and  are  of  mutual 
assistance  to  each  other  in  their  farm-work.  Upon  locating  they  are 
required  to  sign  a  contract  by  which  they  agree  to  remain  on  their  farms 
at  least  three  years ;  to  haul  the  lumber  and  build  a  suitable  house  on  the 
farm  ;  to  keep  at  least  one  cow,  a  hog,  and  a  small  amount  of  poultry;  to 
give  half  of  their  crops  toward  the  support  of  the  school ;  and  that  not  more 
than  one  of  the  four  shall  be  absent  from  home  at  a  time,  so  that  the 
others  may  look  after  his  premises.  Other  restrictions  tending  to  pre- 
vent the  Indian  from  wasting  his  capital,  in  the  prodigal  fashion  so  char- 
acteristic of  him,  may  be  incorporated. 

The  Indians  must  earn  the  horses  they  need,  but  all  implements 
necessary  for  conducting  their  farms  are  furnished  by  the  school. 

The  first  year  the  land  is  planted  in  cotton  and  the  second  year  in 
wheat.  When  the  cotton  is  well  up,  cattle  may.  be  allowed  to  run  in  it 
without  damage.  The  interval  between  the  planting  of  the  cotton  and 
picking  time  is  about  three  months,  and  during  this  period  work  is  pro- 
vided for  them  in  some  shop,  so  that  they  can  make  a  living.     When  the 


7IO 


NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION 


I  Indian 


cotton  is  ready  to  pick,  the  whole  school  assists.  When  the  crop  is  sold, 
half  goes  to  the  family  raising  it  and  half  to  the  school.  The  profits  are 
invested  in  cattle,  which  is  considered  the  very  best  investment,  bringing 
on  the  average  a  return  of  25  per  cent,  on  the  capital  invested.  This  is 
repeated  at  the  end  of  each  season,  and  in  three  years  I  estimate  that  each 
family  will  be  worth  $1,000  and  be  able  to  support  itself.  If  they  will 
allow  me  to  write  the  agreement  as  to  what  they  shall  do,  I  am  positive 
this  result  can  be  attained  in  every  case.  The  cattle  belonging  to  each 
family  are  held  as  security  for  the  observance  of  their  contract. 

In  our  colony  at  present  we  have  over  70  per  cent,  of  the  Indians 
in  houses.  It  is  a  rare  sight  to  see  an  Indian  wearing  a  blanket.  I 
wanted  to  take  an  Indian  boy's  picture  as  he  looked  a  few  years  ago  and 
as  he  looks  now,  but  he  would  not  think  of  having  his  picture  taken  with 
his  legs  bare. 

In  this  connection,  also,  it  may  not  be  amiss  to  say  a  word  regarding 
their  religious  and  social  development.  There  is  a  splendid  field  here  for 
missionary  work,  and  religious  teaching  is  an  element  that  is  very  much 
needed. 

Some  young  men  of  the  tribe,  having  been  elected  to  leadership,  came 
to  me  and  asked  my  advice  as  to  their  course,  saying  they  wanted  to  do 
what  was  best  for  their  people.  I  told  them  that  as  long  as  I  had  been 
among  them  I  had  known  of  nothing  that  had  kept  them  back  so  much 
as  their  religion.  I  said  :  "  You  have  your  sun  dance  and  other  dances, 
and  you  are  apt  to  change  again  to  some  other  kind  of  religion.  The 
white  people's  religion  has  remained  unchanged  for  thousands  of  years, 
and  my  advice  to  you  would  be  to  throw  aside  your  heathen  worship  and 
become  Christians."  They  replied  :  "  We  know  nothing  about  the  Chris- 
tian religion."  To  this  I  said  :  "A  man  has  come  here  to  explain  it  to  you. 
He  will  tell  you  everything  about  the  Christian  religion,  the  existence  of 
God,  the  birth  of  Christ,  his  crucifixion,  and  that  he  died  for  us.  All  of 
you  who  would  learft  about  this  religion  and  become  Christians  come  over 
and  give  him  your  hand."  The  whole  camp  immediately  came  over  and 
shook  hands  with  him.  Soon  after  they  built  a  church,  and  have  since 
built  a  parsonage.  Already  they  have  expended  over  56,000  in  this 
work. 

An  Indian  club-house  has  also  been  built.  The  funds  for  this  were 
raised  at  the  Lake  Mohonk  conference  by  the  friends  of  Indian  educa- 
tion, and  turned  over  to  Mr.  Walter  Roe,  a  nephew  of  E.  P.  Roe,  the 
novelist.  It  is  known  as  "The  Lodge,"  and,  in  addition  to  tables  with 
magazines,  games,  etc.,  it  is  fitted  up  with  all  the  appliances  for  house- 
keeping. When  a  family  comes  to  visit,  it  must  bring  its  own  provisions 
and  live  and  eat  in  a  civilized  manner.  Other  rooms  are  provided 
with. cots,  and  the  visiting  Indians  bring  their  bedding  with  them  and 
put  it  down  on  these  cots,  thus  doing  away  with  camp  life  entirely.     The 


Department]         PRACTICAL  METHODS  IN  INDIAN  EDUCATION  1 1 1 

Lodge  also  has  bath-rooms  and  everything  necessary  for  cleanliness. 
When  an  Indian  or  an  Indian  family  comes  to  stay  at  the  Lodge,  they 
must  keep  it  neat  while  there  and  leave  it  in  good  condition.  Mr.  Roe 
receives  a  great  deal  of  clothing,  which  he  gives  to  the  old  and  young, 
but  not  to  the  middle-aged.  To  these  he  gives  cloth  and  lets  them  make 
their  own  clothes. 

Here  also  there  is  a  sewing  machine,  and  the  Indians  learn  to  use  it  in 
making  their  clothes.  The  result  is  that  all  the  Indians  dress  in  citizens' 
clothes,  and  they  take  great  pride  in  imitating  white  people  in  dress. 

Mr.  Roe  and  his  friends  have  undertaken  to  hire  a  matron  for  the 
Lodge,  and  have  asked  Mr.  Andrew  Carnegie  for  a  donation.  The  Lodge 
plan  is  excellently  adapted  for  relieving  the  Indians  of  the  evils  of  camp 
life. 

At  every  Indian  school  there  should  be  a  good  hospital,  and  every 
girl  who  leaves  school  should  know  how  to  take  care  of  the  sick.  Often 
they  are  twenty-five  miles  from  a  physician,  and  the  girls  ought  to  know 
how  to  give  medicine  and  use  hygienic  means  in  caring  for  the  sick.  The 
boys  will  learn  it  by  being  treated  in  a  hygienic  way,  and  the  whole  fam- 
ily will  also  profit  by  the  knowledge  of  the  girls. 


IRcport  of  Committee  on  IRecrolog^ 


To  the  Members  of  the  National  Educational  Association  : 

Your  Committee  on  Necrology  appointed  at  Charleston  submits  herewith  the  follow- 
ing list,  with  accompanying  sketches,  of  active  members  who  have  died  since  the  last 
report  published  in  the  volume  of  proceedings  for  1899  (Los  Angeles  meeting): 

Zalmon  Richards  Washington,  D.  C. 

William  Evarts  Sheldon Boston,  Mass. 

James  Henry  Smart Lafayette,  Ind. 

Henry  Barnard Hartford,  Conn. 

Henrietta  B.  Ayres Denver,  Colo. 

Elias  J.  Beardsley  Elmira,  N.  Y. 

H.  R.  Blaisdell Covington,  Ky. 

Emanuel  R.  Boyer "^     -      Chicago,  111. 

John  Braden Nashville,  Tenn. 

Charles  M.  Davis Bayonne,  N.  J. 

Larkin  Dunton Boston,  Mass. 

August  E.  Engstrom         ....  Cannon  Falls,  Minn. 

George  L.  Farnham Riverside,  Cal. 

John  T.  Flavin  - Watertown,  Wis. 

Louis  H.  Galbreath     - Charleston,  111. 

S.  Olin  Garrison Vineland,  N.  J. 

Henry  B.  Gwynn Baltimore,  Md. 

James  Hannan Chicago,  111. 

Henry  S.  Jones Houston,  Tex. 

Frederick  H.  Lane New  York,  N.  Y. 

Angelina  N.  Miller Denver,' Colo. 

W.  H.  Morgan  -         -         - Cincinnati,  O. 

James  Russell  Olin -      Belmont,  Mass. 

Frank  Ostrander West  Superior,  Wis. 

Edwin  H.  Owen     ----...       Carlinville,  111. 

S.  S.  Parr -        St.  Cloud,  Minn. 

Mrs.  Matilda  S.  Boucher Oswego,  N.  Y. 

William  H.  Shelley Baltimore,  Md. 

Julia  C.  Silcox Cleveland,  O. 

Christine  Gordon  Sullivan    -        -        -        -  Cincinnati,  O. 

Martha  J.  B.  Thomas Bayonne  City,  N.  J. 

Samuel  Gardner  Williams Ithaca,  N.  Y. 

The  committee  has  found  it  difificult  to  obtain  material  for  memorial  sketches  in  time 
for  publication  in  the  volume  of  proceedings,  and  regrets  that  several  of  the  sketches  are 
not  as  full  as  the  merits  of  the  deceased  members  would  justify. 

Inasmuch  as  the  Council  of  Education  has  made  provision  for  a  memorial  address 
on  the  life  and  educational  services  of  Dr.  Henry  Barnard,  to  be  presented  at  the  next 
annual  meeting,  only  a  brief  sketch  of  this  distinguished  educator  appears  in  this  report. 

Respectfully  submitted, 

Emerson  E.  White,  Chairman, 

E.  Oram  Lyte, 

Aaron  Gove, 

Robert  C.  Metcalf, 

Alex.  Hogg, 

Committee. 

712 


REPORT  OF  COMMITTEE  ON  NECROLOGY  713 

Z^almon  IRtcbarDs' 

Zalmon  Richards  was  born  in  Cummington,  Mass.,  August  li,  1811.  His  father  was 
the  possessor  of  a  small  farm  in  this  rugged  hill  town  in  the  western  part  of  the  state. 

Soon  after  he  was  three  years  old  he  commenced  attending  school.  His  first  school 
dame  was  named  Sybil  Bates,  and  she  had  a  powerful  influence  in  shaping  the  religious 
and  moral  principles  that  controlled  his  after-life.  At  a  very  early  age  he  began  to  "do 
the  chores"  and  to  work  with  his  father  on  the  farm,  and  he  matriculated  in  the  "little  red 
schoolhouse  "  of  the  district,  where  until  ten  years  old  he  attended  school  annually  a  summer 
and  winter  term  of  about  ten  weeks  each ;  and  from  his  tenth  to  his  fourteenth  year,  as  his 
services  on  the  farm  became  more  valuable,  he  could  be  spared  only  for  the  winter  term. 
A  little  later  he  attended  for  a  short  period  a  "select  school "  in  his  native  town,  and 
still  later  its  successor,  the  Cummington  Academy,  where  he  was  able  to  drink  somewhat 
deeper  of  the  Pierian  spring. 

After  listening  to  a  very  eloquent  and  impressive  temperance  lecture  in  his  early 
youth  he  pledged  himself  to  total  abstinence,  and  that  pledge  was  never  violated.  When 
about  fifteen  years  old  he  made  a  public  profession  of  religion  and  united  with  a  church 
of  the  Baptist  denomination,  in  which  communion  he  continued  ever  after,  a  devoted 
and  active  member. 

At  the  age  of  seventeen  he  began  to  teach  a  country  district  school  on  a  salary  of  $>% 
a  month  and  "board  around."  It  was  about  this  time  that  he  resolved  to  get  a  college 
education  and  devote  his  life  to  teaching.  As  his  father  was  unable  to  assist  him  in  this, 
he  was  obliged  to  depend  wholly  upon  his  own  resources,  which  consisted  mainly  in 
teaching  before  entering  college  and  during  the  college  vacations,  and  such  small  sums 
as  he  might  be  able  to  borrow  to  be  repaid  after  his  graduation.  By  attendance  at 
Cummington  Academy,  Southampton  Academy,  and  some  private  instruction,  he  com- 
pleted his  preparatory  studies  and  entered  Williams  College  in  1832.  Here  he  met  with 
a  second  teacher,  Professor  Mark  Hopkins,  who  had  great  influence  upon  his  future.  He 
was  graduated  from  that  institution  in  1836,  and  was  later  granted  the  degree  of  M.A. 

Immediately  after  his  college  graduation  he  became  principal  of  the  academy  in  his 
native  town  and  held  the  position  for  three  years.  Meanwhile  he  married  his  accom- 
plished assistant  teacher.  He  and  his  wife  then  received  a  call  to  take  charge  of  an 
academy  at  Stillwater,  N.  Y.,  which  was  accepted,  and  they  entered  upon  their  duties  in 
September,  1839.  A  successful  administration  of  this  academy  for  a  period  of  ten  years 
followed,  and  during  this  time  he  was  engaged  at  intei-vals  in  conducting  teachers'  insti- 
tutes in  Saratoga  county,  N.  Y.,  and,  at  the  instance  of  Governor  Eaton  and  other  warm 
friends  of  education,  in  the  state  of  Vermont.  These  institutes  were  then  a  new  feature 
in  educational  work. 

On  December  i,  1848,  he  became  principal  of  the  preparatory  department  of 
Columbian  College,  Washington,  D.  C,  and  continued  in  charge  of  that  Institution  about 
four  years.  While  thus  engaged  he  was  active  in  the  organization  and  conduct  of  the 
Columbian  Teachers'  Association  of  Washington,  which  continued  for  some  years  and 
did  much  good  in  its  time. 

In  1852  he  established  in  Washington  a  private  school,  named  the  Union  Academy, 
which  was  favorably  known  and  well  supported  until  the  breaking  out  of  the  Civil  War 
in  1861.  Many  of  the  patrons  of  the  school  were  from  the  South,  and  their  withdrawal 
from  the  city  at  that  time,  and  the  disturbed  state  of  affairs  generally,  seriously  inter^'ered 
with  the  school. 

In  1855  he  was  active  in  organizing  the  Young  Men's  Christian  Association  of 
Washington,  the  third  association  of  the  kind  organized  in  the  United  States.  He  was 
elected  its  first  president,  filled  that  office  for  two  years,  and  continued  an  active  and 
interested  member  to  the  close  of  his  life. 

'  By  request  of  the  chairman  of  the  Committee  on  Necrology,  the  amended  spellings  adopted  by  the 
Board  of  Directors  are  not  used  in  this  report. 


714 


NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION 


In  i86i  he  was  appointed  to  a  clerkship  in  the  Treasury  Dcpartmejit;  subsequently 
he  was  assigned  to  duty  in  the  Bureau  of  Statistics,  and  filled  that  office  until  1867.  He 
was,  in  the  same  year  also,  elected  a  member  of  the  common  council  of  thg^  city  and  the 
president  of  that  body.  While  in  the  Bureau  of  Statistics,  by  consent  of  his  chief,  he 
made  a  large  collection  of  school  statistics,  somewhat  in  the  line  of  work  afterward 
undertaken  by  the  Bureau  of  Education,  but  he  did  not  succeed  in  having  the  informa- 
tion tabulated  and  published. 

For  two  years  he  conducted  a  local  normal  institute  for  teachers  of  the  Washington 
city  public  schools. 

He  was  one  of  the  three  members  of  the  Christian  Commision  selected  to  represent 
the  District  of  Columbia  during  the  Civil  War,  and  faithfully  ministered  to  the  sick  and 
wounded  in  the  hospitals. 

He  was  active  in  securing  the  passage  by  Congress  of  the  bill  establishing  the 
National  Department  of  Education,  was  appointed  to  a  prominent  clerkship  in  it  when 
organized  in  1867,  and  held  the  office  until  1869,  when  the  department  was  made  a 
bureau  of  the  Interior  Department  and  a  change  was  made  in  its  head. 

While  holding  this  office  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the  board  of  aldermen  of  the 
city  of  Washington,  and  president  of  the  board.  Through  his  efforts  an  ordinance  was 
passed  by  the  city  council  creating  the  office  of  superintendent  of  public  schools,  and  he 
was  appointed  the  first  incumbent  of  the  position  in  1869,  and  held  the  office  one  year. 

In  187 1,  under  the  territorial  form  of  government,  he  was  appointed  auditor  for  the 
District  of  Columbia  and  held  the  office  for  three  years. 

Up  to  this  time  he  had  acquired  a  handsome  property  in  the  city,  and  apparently  had 
abundant  means  to  supply  all  his  wants  in  his  advancing  years.  But  unfortunately  he 
had  allowed  the  use  of  his  name  in  indorsing  paper  for  some  of  his  intimate  friends,  who 
became  involved  so  heavily  in  debt  that  most  of  his  own  property  was  sacrificed  in  its 
liquidation,  and  he  was  left  in  straitened  and  embarrassing  circumstances  which  clouded 
and  embittered  his  old  age.  After  his  retirement  from  all  public  office  he  taught  a  small 
private  school  in  his  own  residence  for  a  while. 

He  died  in  Washington,  D.  C,  November  i,  1899,  in  the  eighty-ninth  year  of  his  age. 

His  life,  which  almost  spanned  the  nineteenth  century,  coterminous  with  the  history 
of  our  country  from  the  administration  of  Madison  to  that  of  McKinley,  was  full  of 
activities  resulting,  now  in  gratifying  success,  and  now  in  grievous  disappointment;  but 
running  through  all  there  was  a  remarkable,  persistent  devotion  to  what  he  most  earnestly 
believed  to  be  his  foreordained  mission  as  an  educator. 

The  National  Educational  Association  was  the  educational  interest  with  which  he 
was  connected  the  longest  time  and  for  which  he  had  the  deepest  attachment.  He  was 
one  of  the  thirty-eight  delegates  who  met  in  the  Athenaeum  building  in  Philadelphia,  Pa., 
August  26,  1857,  and  framed  and  signed  the  constitution  of  the  National  Teachers'  Asso- 
ciation, which  developed  into  the  National  Educational  Association  in  1870.  He  was 
elected  its  first  president,  presided  at  the  first  annual  meeting,  held  at  Cincinnati,  O.,  in 
1858,  was  a  constant  attendant  at  the  meetings  held  from  that  date  down  to  1896,  when 
failing  health  intervened,  and  he  always  took  an  active  part  in  its  proceedings. 

He  was  a  member  of  the  Committee  of  Three  which  in  1886,  at  Washington,  D.  C, 
secured  articles  of  incorporation  for  the  National  Educational  Association  ;  for  some  years 
he  was  a  member  of  the  Board  of  Trustees  constituting  the  body  corporate  of  the  asso- 
ciation, and  was  the  custodian  of  its  publications. 

He  prepared  and  read  at  the  meeting  held  at  Toronto,  Can.,  in  1891,  a  valuable  histori- 
cal sketch  of  the  association,  which  is  published  in  brochure  form.  The  numerous  papers 
read  by  him  and  reports  of  his  discussions  are  to  be  found  scattered  all  through  its  pub- 
lished volumes. 

Even  in  his  last  days,  when  the  hand  of  affliction  was  laid  heavy  upon  him,  when  his 
body  refused  ready  obedience  to  an  exceptionally  strong  will,  and  the  mental  brightness 


REPORT  OP  COMMITTEE  ON  NECROLOGY  7I5 

of  his  prime  was  gradually  fading  into  twilight,  his  glimmering  thoughts  seemed  to 
linger  about  the  great  institution  with  whose  origin  and  growth  he  had  been  so  closely 
identified. 


J.  Ormond  Wii.son. 


Mdliam  Bvartg  SbelOon 

William  Evarts  Sheldon  was  born  in  Dorset,  Vt.,  October  22, 1832,  and  died  in  Boston 
April  16,  1900,  being  suddenly  summoned  while  signing  a  business  letter.  He  studied  at 
Middlebury  College  and  received  the  degree  of  A.M.  His  early  life  was  devoted  to  teach- 
ing, and  the  last  twenty-five  years  to  journalism  and  business.  He  began  his  teaching  in 
the  common  schools  of  his  native  state.  He  came  to  Massachusetts  in  1853,  and  taught 
the  high  school  of  Abbington.  In  1858  he  took  charge  of  the  grammar  school  of  West 
Newton,  and  in  1864  became  master  of  the  Hancock  School,  Boston,  which  position  he 
filled  with  marked  ability  until  1870,  when  he  left  it  to  engage  in  business.  While  master 
of  the  Hancock  School  he  was  made  supervising  principal  of  the  primary  schools  in  that 
section  of  the  city,  and  introduced  advanced  methods  of  primary  instruction.  His  expe- 
rience in  business  was  not  wholly  satisfactory,  and  he  became  principal  of  the  Waltham 
grammar  school,  which  position  he  resigned  to  take  charge  of  the  advertising  depart- 
ment of  a  Boston  daily.  In  1875  he  became  manager  of  the  advertising  department  of 
Wit.  Journal  of  Education,  holding  the  position  until  his  death.  While  connected  with  the 
Journal  he  was  editor  of  the  Primary  Teacher,  later  known  as  the  American  Teacher. 
He  was  an  enthusiastic  advocate  of  the  kindergarten,  and  helped  to  organize  the  Kinder- 
garten Department  of  the  National  Educational  Association. 

Mr.  Sheldon  took  from  the  first  an  active  interest  in  all  movements  for  the  improvfe- 
ment  of  public  education.  He  early  became  an  active  member  of  the  Massachusetts 
Teachers'  Association  and  of  the  American  Institute  of  Instruction,  and  was  one  of  the 
two  New  England  educators  who  participated  in  the  organization  of  the  National  Teach- 
ers' Association  in  Philadelphia  in  1857,  when  he  was  chosen  the  first  secretary  of  that 
body.  He  was  president  of  the  Massachusetts  Teachers'  Association  in  1863-64;  of  the 
American  Institute  of  Instruction  in  1867;  and  of  the  National  Educational  Association 
in  1887,  presiding  at  the  famous  Chicago  meeting  —  one  of  the  largest  meetings  of  the 
association  yet  held.  He  was  secretary  of  this  association  in  1857  (as  above  stated),  and 
again  in  1882,  1883,  1885,  and  1886.  For  forty-three  years  he  was  a  member  of  the 
organization,  and  very  few  men  have  had  greater  influence  in  its  councils,  and  no  one 
has  been  more  devoted  to  its  best  interests.  As  a  presiding  officer  he  had  few  equals. 
He  was  always  courteous,  and  his  genial  personality  won  friends.  He  was  the  soul  of 
good  nature  and  kindness ;  was  a  clear  thinker  on  his  feet ;  had  a  ready  command  of 
choice  language,  and  a  clear  and  ringing  voice,  with  sufficient  force  and  compass  to  reach 
the  largest  audiences.  He  had  the  ability  to  say  what  he  wished  to  say,  in  such  a  way 
that  his  hearers  were  not  left  in  doubt  as  to  his  meaning. 

Mr.  Sheldon  resided  in  West  Newton  for  forty-two  years.  He  took  a  deep  interest 
in  the  improvement  of  the  town,  and  was  a  leader  in  whatever  concerned  its  civic  life. 
He  was  an  active  member  of  the  Congregational  church.  He  was  married  in  1854  to 
Miss  Mary  A.  Soule,  who,  with  one  daughter  and  two  granddaughters  —  children  of  a 
younger  daughter,  deceased  —  survives  him. 

The  following  tribute  to  Dr.  Sheldon's  memory  is  paid  by  Mr.  Alexander  Hogg, 
of  Fort  Worth,  Tex.: 

"  I  first  met  Mr.  Sheldon  at  the  meeting  of  the  National  Educational  Association  in 
Detroit,  in  1874,  and  I  shall  never  forget  the  cordiality  with  which  I  was  received  by  him 
and  others.  I  was  at  that  time  a  citizen  of  Alabama,  and  traveled  all  the  way  to  Detroit 
to  become  a  member  of  that  then  small  body  of  educators.  This  was  but  a  decade  after  the 
Civil  War,  and  yet  a  most  fraternal  feeling  already  existed  between  educators  north  and 


7i6 


NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION 


south.  It  must  be  said  that  no  other  class  of  men  have  done  more  to  bring  about  a  res- 
toration of  the  union  than  these  same  schoolmasters.  Among  those  whom  I  met  at  Detroit, 
William  E.  Sheldon  was,  if  not  the  first,  among  the  foremost  in  this  good  work.  It  has 
been  to  me  a  great  privilege  to  be  associated  with  him  in  the  National  Educational  Asso- 
ciation for  a  quarter  of  a  century.  He  has  always  been  to  me  a  brother  beloved,  and  I 
would  like  to  pay  this  humble  tribute  to  his  noble  character  and  life." 


Jamee  "fcentB  Smart 

James  Henry  Smart,  LL.D.,  was  born  at  Center  Harbor,  N.  H.,  June  30,  1841. 
His  early  schooling  was  in  the  rural  schools.  At  eleven  years  of  age  he  entered  the 
high  school  of  Concord,  where  he  prepared  for  college,  but  was  prevented  from  taking  a 
college  course.  At  eighteen  he  taught  a  district  school,  and  the  next  year  took  charge 
of  a  graded  school  in  Laconia,  N.  H.  The  next  three  years  he  taught  in  different 
schools.  In  1863  he  became  principal  of  a  public  school  in  Toledo,  O.,  and  in  1865 
accepted  the  superintendency  of  the  public  schools  of  Fort  Wayne,  Ind.,  filling  the  posi- 
tion for  ten  years  with  marked  success.  He  early  became  an  active  and  leading  member 
of  the  Indiana  State  Teachers'  Association. 

In  1874  he  was  elected  state  superintendent  of  public  instruction,  and  filled  the 
position,  by  re-election,  for  three  successive  terms,  or  six  years.  He  secured  important 
school  legislation,  and  gave  a  new  impulse  to  the  public  schools  of  the  state.  The  new 
law  creating  the  office  of  county  superintendent  of  schools  was  in  danger  of  repeal  when 
he  entered  the  office,  but,  by  well-directed  and  persistent  efforts,  he  saved  the  system. 
He  left  the  office  with  a  high  reputation,  not  only  in  Indiana,  but  among  educators  in 
other  states. 

In  1883  Dr.  Smart  was  elected  president  of  Purdue  University,  at  Lafayette,  Ind., 
and  continued  in  this  position  until  his  death  in  February,  1900.  His  administration  was 
characterized  by  high  executive  ability.  He  developed  with  wise  efforts  the  excellent 
plan  of  organization  which  had  been  devised  and  put  into  operation  by  his  predecessor, 
making  Purdue  University  one  of  the  best-equipped  and  most  successful  institutions  of 
technology  and  applied  science  in  the  United  States.  The  resources  of  the  institution 
were  greatly  increased  during  his  administration.  In  all  the  years  of  his  connection  with 
the  university  he  suffered  from  a  serious  affection  of  the  eyes,  and  later  from  failing 
health.  For  more  than  two  years  many  of  his  duties  were  discharged  by  Vice-President 
Stone,  now  his  successor  as  president. 

Dr.  Smart  filled  various  other  positions  of  trust  and  honor.  He  served  as  trustee  of 
the  state  university,  and,  for  six  years,  of  the  state  normal  school.  He  was  a  member  of 
the  state  board  of  education  for  nearly  thirty  years.  In  1872  he  was  assistant  commis- 
sioner for  Indiana  to  the  Vienna  exposition;  in  1878  he  served  as  United  States 
commissioner  to  the  Paris  exposition,  and  in  1898  as  representative  commissioner  for 
the  United  States  to  the  Agricultural  Congress  at  The  Hague.  He  was  the  twentieth 
president  of  the  National  Educational  Association,  presiding  at  the  meeting  in  Atlanta, 
Ga.,  in  1881,  and  was  president  of  the  American  Association  of  Agricultural  Colleges  in 
1890.  In  1870  Dartmouth  College  conferred  upon  him  the  degree  of  A.M.,  and  in  1883 
the  Indiana  University  gave  him  the  degree  of  LL.D. 

Dr.  Smart  filled  the  various  positions  to  which  he  was  called  with  marked  ability 
and  success.  His  perception  was  keen,  his  judgment  practical,  his  energy  untiring,  his 
purpose  persistent,  and  his  dealings  with  men  politic  and  winning.  In  the  accomplish- 
ment of  his  purposes  he  made  a  careful  study  of  conditions,  and  was  tactful  in  adapting 
means  thereto.  His  plans  in  all  positions  held  looked  to  practical  results,  and  he  kept  a 
firm  grasp  on  details. 


REPORT  OF  COMMITTEE  ON  NECROLOGY  7  i  7 

In  addition  to  papers  and  reports,  and  a  little  manual  on  gymnastics,  he  published, 
prior  to  1 880,  four  small  volumes,  viz.:  An  Ideal  School  System  for  a  State,  The  Institute 
Syst&m  of  the  United  States,  A  Commentary  on  the  School  Laws  of  Indiana,  and  The 
Schools  of  Indiana, 

■fcentB  :SSarnarO 

Henry  Barnard,  LL.D.,  was  born  in  Hartford,  Conn.,  in  January,  181 1,  and  died  in  the 
city  of  his  birth  July  6, 1900.  He  graduated  from  Yale  College  in  1830  and  then  studied  law. 
He  began  his  career  as  an  advocate  of  public  education  as  early  as  1835,  and  as  a  member 
of  the  Connecticut  legislature  in  1837  rendered  most  important  service  in  securing  legis- 
lation which  reorganized  the  common  schools  of  the  state.  He  was  made  secretary  of  the 
state  board  of  education  and  in  this  capacity  wrote  a  number  of  able  reports.  He  after- 
ward held  a  similar  position  in  Rhode  Island,  where  he  won  an  apparently  impossible 
victory  for  state  schools.  It  is  reported  that  he  made  over  a  thousand  speeches  in  this  little 
state,  winning  the  people  to  the  support  of  public  schools.  He  was  early  an  eloquent 
advocate  of  normal  training,  and  participated  in  Horace  Mann's  efforts  which  resulted  in 
the  establishment  of  the  first  normal  school  in  the  United  States. 

In  these  early  years  Mr.  Barnard  was  a  very  eloquent  and  convincing  orator.  He 
pleaded  the  cause  of  public  education  before  the  legislatures  in  ten  states,  and  he  was 
officially  connected  with  the  schools  not  only  of  Connecticut  and  Rhode  Island,  but  also 
of  Wisconsin  and  Maryland.  He  was  appointed  United  States  Commissioner  of  Educa- 
tion in  1867,  and  held  the  position  until  1870,  when  he  was  succeeded  by  General  John 
Eaton.     After  his  retirement  from  the  commissionership  he  held  no  official  position. 

In  1855  Dr,  Barnard  founded  the  American  Journal  of  Education,  and  published 
thirty-one  volumes.  He  was  not  strong  in  business  or  executive  ability.  The  receipts 
from  subscriptions  and  sales  of  the  Journal  fell  much  below  the  cost  of  publication,  and 
a  considerable  fortune  was  sunk  in  its  continuance.  In  its  scope  and  ability  this  pub- 
lication is  not  equaled  by  any  single  publication  in  the  world.  As  Editor  George  P. 
Brown  has  happily  put  it :  "  He  built  for  himself  a  great  monument,  but  expended  all 
his  fortune  in  doing  it.  Dr.  Barnard  was  a  noble  example  of  the  devotion  of  large 
endowments  to  a  great  cause  without  expectation  of  financial  reward." 


Denrietta  IB,  Bgrcs 

Miss  Henrietta  B.  Ayres  was  born  at  Hagaman's  Mills,  Montgomery  county,  N.  Y., 
in  1846.  At  the  age  of  twelve  years  she  removed  with  her  parents  to  Cleveland,©.  She 
completed  her  studies  in  the  public  schools  of  that-city  in  1865.  She  began  teaching  in 
the  schools  of  Cleveland  in  the  following  year  and  continued  in  that  service  until  1881. 
Her  work  in  the  schools  of  Denver,  Colo.,  commenced  in  1882,  and  at  the  time  of  her 
death  she  was  a  teacher  in  the  Gilpin  School  of  that  city. 

She  becaine  an  active  member  of  the  National  Educational  Association  in  1892. 
Her  death  occurred  at  Cleveland,  O.,  August  24,  1900. 


BUas  5.  J3earddleis 

Elias  J.  Beardsley,  superintendent  of  schools  and  secretary  of  the  board  of  educa- 
tion of  the  city  of  Elmira,  N.  Y.,  died  at  his  home  on  March  2,  1899.  He  was  bom  in 
Catherine,  Schuyler  county,  N.  Y.,  on  July  7,  1833.  In  early  life  he  attended  the  public 
schools  in  that  vicinity,  and  prepared  for  college  at  Havana  Union  School  and  Newark 
Academy.    He  was  graduated  fromtJnion  College  in  the  class  of  1855.    He  later  received 


7i8  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION 

the  degree  of  A.M.  from  that  institution.  He  turned  his  mind  to  teaching  while  prepar- 
ing for  college,  and  in  1 851,  when  nineteen  years  of  age,  taught  his  first  school.  He 
taught  three  successive  fall  and  winter  terms  in  his  native  district,  and  on  leaving  college 
taught  one  year  in  Dundee  Academy  and  several  years  in  district  schools. 

Superintendent  Beardsley  came  to  Elmira  in  the  fall  of  1858,  and  began  to  teach  in 
District  School  No.  3,  and  taught  in  various  schools  of  the  city  until  August,  1889,  when 
he  was  appointed  superintendent  of  city  schools.  This  ofifice  he  filled  until  his  death. 
He  gave  a  remarkably  long  and  faithful  service  to  the  city  of  Elmira,  having  devoted 
twenty-nine  years  as  principal  and  ten  years  as  superintendent  to  the  interests  of  the 
schools. 

Mr.  Beardsley  was  married  about  forty  years  ago  to  Miss  Iva  Brown,  of  Elmira,  who, 
with  one  son,  survives  him. 

■fcencis  1R.  JSlafs&ell 

Henry  R.  Blaisdell  was  born  in  Beaver,  Pa.,  November  i,  1837.  His  early  years 
were  spent  in  Boston,  Mass.,  where  he  received  his  preparatory  education.  In  1856  he 
graduated  from  the  Lowell  (Mass.)  High  School,  with  highest  honors.  In  i860  he  gradu- 
ated from  Wesleyan  University,  Middletown,  Conn. 

He  came  to  Kentucky  and  began  his  life-work  as  an  educator  in  i860,  teaching 
Latin  and  mathematics  for  one  year  in  the  Millersburg  Female  College.  In  1861  he 
removed  to  Flemingsburg,  Ky.,  and  was  principal  of  the  Flemingsburg  Seminary  from 
1861  to  1865,  when  he  took  charge  of  the  Maysville  Seminary,  being  principal  of  that 
institution  for  fifteen  years. 

He  was  elected  principal  of  the  high  school  of  Paris,  Ky.,  in  1880,  and  filled  with 
great  acceptability  this  position  for  eight  years,  when  Re  resigned  to  take  the  presidency 
of  the  Wheeling  Female  College,  Wheeling,  W.  Va.,  from  1887  to  1891.  In  1891  he 
returned  again  to  Kentucky,  and  was  elected  principal  of  Covington  High  School,  in 
which  position  he  continued  until  the  time  of  his  death,  March  14,  1899. 

He  had  been  a  member  of  the  National  Educational  Association  variously  from  1874 
to  1893,  since  which  time  his  active  membership  had  been  continuous. 


]6manuel  1R.  JBoi^er 

When  Emanuel  R.  Boyer  died  at  his  home  in  Chicago,  February  24,  1900,  one  of 
the  most  progressive  and  promising  men  among  the  educators  of  America  passed  away. 
Only  a  week  before,  his  splendid  physique  and  robust  health  indicated  years  of  increasing 
usefulness  to  come.  But  a  visit  to  Hull  House  resulted  in  a  heavy  cold,  which  developed 
into  pneumonia,  and,  in  spite  of  the  most  faithful  efforts  of  physicians  and  friends,  laid 
the  strong  man  low  in  one  week. 

Mr.  Boyer  was  born,  of  Quaker  ancestry,  near  York,  Pa.,  April  15,  1851.  While  a  lad 
he  came  with  his  parents  to  Fulton  county.  111.  His  early  years  were  spent  on  the  farm, 
and  his  early  education  was  acquired  in  country  schools.  When  twenty-one  years  of  age  he 
began  teaching  in  country  schools,  and  soon  entered  the  Illinois  State  Normal  University 
at  Normal,  from  which  he  graduated  in  1879.  After  graduation  he  became  principal  of 
the  public  schools  in  Astoria,  111.,  and  after  two  years'  service  was  called  to  a  similar 
position  at  Lewistown,  111.  Soon  after  graduation  he  marrried  Miss  Emily  A.  Sherman, 
a  classmate  at  the  normal  school,  who,  with  four  children,  survives  him. 

From  1883  to  1886  he  was  county  superintendent  of  the  schools  of  Fulton  county. 
He  then  became  instructor  for  a  short  time  in  the  University  of  Illinois.  In  1890,  after 
a  residence  of  two  years,  he  graduated  from  Harvarc^  University  with  the  degree  of  A.B. 
His  special  study  was  biology,  which  he  pursued   with  eminent   success.     In   1890  he 


REPORT  OF  COMMITTEE  ON  NECROLOGY  719 

became  connected  with  the  high  schools  of  Chicago,  serving  in  succession  at  Lake,  Engle- 
wood,  and  Hyde  Park. 

When  Dr.  E.  Benjamin  Andrews  became  superintendent  of  Chicago  he  selected  Mr. 
Boyer  as  his  general  assistant. 

In  the  fall  of  1899  he  was  called  to  become  general  director  and  business  manager  of 
the  Chicago  Institute.  Before  leaving  the  service  of  the  city  board  of  education  he  was 
appointed  to  prepare  the  educational  exhibit  of  Chicago  for  the  Paris  exposition.  This 
work  he  completed  after  his  connection  with  the  Chicago  schools  had  ceased. 

He  prepared  and  published  a  Manual  of  Biology,  which  was  used  in  the  high 
schools  of  Chicago.  He  also  published  other  contributions  to  science.  His  success  as  a 
teacher  and  manager  of  school  affairs  was  phenomenal. 


5obn  aSraOen 

John  Braden,  D.D.,  was  born  in  New  York  city,  August  18, 1826.  At  the  age  of  sixteen 
he  went  west  to  care  for  himself.  In  1853  he  graduated  from  Ohio  Wesleyan  University. 
Subsequently  he  received  the  degree  of  D.D.  from  the  Iowa  Wesleyan  University.  The 
same  year  he  became  a  teacher  in  Xenia  Female  College.  He  was  ordained  as  a  min- 
ister of  the  M.  E.  church  in  1854.  From  1859  to  1861  he  was  president  of  Carlisle 
Academy.  In  1861  he  became  pastor  of  the  York  Street  Church  of  Cincinnati.  At  the 
close  of  the  Civil  War,  in  response  to  a  call  for  workers  among  the  freedmen  of  the  South, 
he  became  president  of  a  school  which  afterward  became  Central  Tennessee  College, 
which  position  he  held  until  the  time  of  his  death,  June  10,  1900. 

His  greatest  educational  work  consisted  in  the  organization  and  upbuilding  of  Cen- 
tral Tennessee  College  for  colored  students.  More  than  6,000  colored  young  people  had 
come  under  the  influence  of  his  life  and  teaching,  and  carried  into  their  life-work  the  results 
of  his  consecrated  enthusiasm  and  inspiring  influence. 

He  had  frequently  attended  the  National  Educational  Association  since  1884  and  had 
been  continuously  an  active  member  since  1895. 


Cbacles  tt.  Davis 

Charles  M.  Davis  was  born  in  Bloomfield,  N.  J.,  in  1824.  He  received  his  early  edu- 
cation in  Bloomfield  Seminary.  He  graduated  from  Princeton  College  at  the  head  of  his 
class,  and  was  later  granted  the  degree  of  A.M.  by  that  institution. 

After  graduation  he  established  the  Bloomfield  Classical  School,  which  he  conducted 
until  1867,  when  he  became  principal  of  Newark  Academy,  where  he  remained  six  years. 
During  this  period  he  was  appointed  superintendent  of  the  public  schools  of  Essex 
county,  which  position  he  held  for  twenty-three  years. 

He  was  associated  with  the  late  Rev.  Charles  F.  Deems  and  others  in  the  American 
Institute  of  Christian  Philosophy,  and  was  for  many  years  the  secretary  of  that  body. 
This  labor  of  love  for  the  promotion  of  Christian  scholarship  was  characteristic  of  his 
broad  intellectual  culture  and  profound  spirituality. 

In  1891  he  was  appointed  superintendent  of  the  Bayonne  public  schools,  which  posi- 
tion he  held  at  the  time  of  his  death,  August  I,  1900. 

Mr.  Davis  was  vice-president  of  the  Council  of  Education  of  the  State  of  New 
Jersey  and  a  member  of  the  State  Sanitary  Commission.  He  had  been  an  active  member 
of  the  National  Educational  Association  since  1893. 


720  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION 

Xarftin  2)unton 

Larkin  Dunton,  LL.D.,  was  born  at  Concord,  Me.,  July  22, 1828.  His  early  training  in 
the  primitive  and  exacting  school  of  experience  did  not  crush  his  masterful  spirit,  but  rather 
left  it  molded,  refined,  and  strengthened.  His  desire  for  an  education  was  such  that  at 
nineteen  years  of  age  he  bought  his  time  that  he  might  attend  school. 

He  fitted  for  college  at  Hallowell  Academy,  where  he  served  as  an  assistant  teacher 
during  the  most  of  his  preparatory  course.  He  graduated  from  Waterville  College,  now 
Colby  College,  in  1855.     He  paid  his  college  expenses  largely  by  teaching. 

After  leaving  college  he  read  law  and  was  admitted  to  the  Kennebec  bar.  He 
practiced  law  and  taught  school  for  several  years,  but  when  he  was  elected  to  the  princi- 
palship  of  the  Bath  High  School,  he  abandoned  the  law  and  decided  to  make  teaching 
his  life-work.  During  his  seven  and  a  half  years  of  service  as  principal  of  the  Bath 
High  School  he  was  an  earnest  student  of  the  principles  of  teaching,  and  he  read  several 
very  thoughtful  papers  before  the  State  Teachers'  Association.  In  1867  he  entered  the  serv- 
ice of  the  city  of  Boston  as  submaster  in  the  Lawrence  School.  Within  a  year  he  was 
made  master  of  this  important  grammar  school.  In  1872  he  was  elected  headmaster  of 
the  Boston  Normal  School,  and  he  held  this  position  until  September,  1899,  when  failing 
health  compelled  him  to  resign. 

For  more  than  a  quarter  of  a  century  Dr.  Dunton  was  a  trusted  leader  in  the  educa- 
tional activities  of  Boston.  He  was  an  earnest  student  of  his  profession,  a  safe  counselor, 
and  a  skillful  interpreter  of  educational  philosopihy.  The  Boston  Normal  School  was  in 
reality  his  creation,  and  the  intelligent  professional  spirit  possessed  by  its  multitude  of 
graduates  who  are  now  teaching  in  Boston  is  a  worthy  monument  to  his  efficiency. 

Dr.  Dunton  was  widely  sought  as  a  lecturer  upon  educational  topics,  and  he  wrote 
and  edited  a  large  number  of  books  for  school  use,  besides  contributing  freely  to  the 
educational  periodicals.  His  favorite  study  was  psychology,  and  his  most  mature  thought 
was  given  to  the  psychological  basis  of  the  principles  of  education. 

He  was  connected  with  every  important  local  and  state  educational  organization,  and 
was  a  member  of  the  National  Educational  Association  at  frequent  intervals  from  1874. 

At  the  twenty-fifth  anniversary  of  his  graduation  from  Colby  College  he  received  the 
degree  of  LL.D.,  a  degree  which  he  wore  with  becoming  modesty  and  dignity.  He  was 
later  made  a  trustee  of  his  alma  mater. 

Dr.  Dunton  died  October  23,  1899,  at  his  home  in  Allston,  Mass.  His  widow,  a  son, 
and  a  daughter  survive  him. 


august  JE.  Angstrom 

August  E.  Engstrom  was  born  near  the  city  of  Skofde,  in  the  western  part  of  Sweden, 
in  185 1.  At  the  age  of  seventeen  years  he  emigrated  to  America,  settling  near  Red 
Wing,  Minnesota.  In  1871  he  entered  the  Academy  of  Carleton  College,  at  Northfield, 
Minn.,  graduating  from  the  classical  course  of  the  college  in  1878. 

In  the  fall  of  the  same  year  he  was  elected  principal  of  the  schools  of  Cannon  Falls, 
Minn.,  which  position  he  filled  for  three  years.  In  1881  he  was  elected  county  superin- 
tendent of  the  schools  of  Goodhue  county,  Minn.,  and  re-elected  bienni  Ily  for  twenty 
years.  This  position  he  held  at  the  time  of  his  death,  having  been  longest  in  service 
of  any  county  superintendent  in  the  state. 

He  was  president  of  the  Minnesota  Educational  Association  for  one  term,  a  member 
of  the  State  Normal  Board  for  two  years,  and  a  trustee  of  Carleton  College  for  ten  years. 
His  twenty  years  of  service  in  the  Goodhue  county  schools  had  brought  them  to  the  front 
rank  of  the  rural  schools  in  the  state  through  a  higher  grade  of  teachers,  higher  wages, 
more  certain  tenure  of  appointment,  a  systematic  course  of  study  for  rural  schools,  free 


REPORT  OF  COMMITTEE  ON  NECROLOGY  721 

text-books  in  137  districts,  and  a  well-selected  library  in  each  of  152  of  the  161  districts 
of  that  count}'. 

He  first  attended  the  National  Educational  Association  in  1890  and  became  an 
active  member  in  1895. 

He  died  at  Cannon  Falls  October  12,  1899,  leaving  a  wife  and  seven  children. 


George  1..  Farnham  was  born  in  1824  in  Watertown,  N.  Y.  His  early  education  was 
obtained  in  the  schools  of  that  city.  Later  he  graduated  from  the  State  Normal  School 
at  Albai>y,  and  became  superintendent  of  schools  of  Syracuse,  N.  Y.  From  1869  to 
1875  he  was  superintendent  of  schools  of  Binghamton,  N.  Y.  From  that  place  he 
removed  to  Council  Bluffs,  la.,  where  he  was  superintendent  of  city  schools  for  three 
years.  His  greatest  educational  work  was  performed  later  as  principal  of  the  State  Nor- 
mal School  at  Peru,  Neb.,  which  position  he  held  for  nine  years.  In  1893  he  resigned 
on  account  of  ill-health,  and  removed  to  Riverside,  Cal.,  where  he  had  since  lived. 

His  connection  with  the  National  Educational  Association  dates  from  1870.  At  the 
annual  meeting  held  in  Elmira,  N.  Y.,  he  presented  before  the  Elementary  Department  a 
notable  paper  on  "  The  Thought  and  Sentence  Method  in  Primary  Reading."  He  died 
suddenly  in  July,  1900,  while  on  a  visit  to  Binghamton,  N.  Y.,  his  former  home. 


5obn  Z,  JFlavin 

The  death  of  John  T.  Flavin,  superintendent  of  public  schools  of  Dodge  county, 
Wis.,  and  president  of  the  Wisconsin  State  Teachers'  Association,  removed  from  the 
educational  field  one  of  its  most  devoted  and  indefatigable  workers,  and  from  the  state 
a  superintendent  whom  the  people  had  kept  at  the  head  of  their  schools  for  twenty-six 
consecutive  years. 

John  T.  Flavin  was  born  near  Watertown,  Wis.,  in  1848.  The  common  schools  and 
the  Northwestern  University  accorded  him  his  early  training.  At  an  early  age  he  began 
to  teach  school.  In  1873,  while  principal  of  a  ward  school  in  Watertown,  the  people  of 
Dodge  county  elected  him  superintendent  of  public  schools,  and  this  position  he  held 
continuously  up  to  the  time  of  his  death.  He  served  several  terms  as  president  of  the 
Wisconsin  Reading  Circles,  and  also  as  a  member  of  the  Board  of  Normal-School  Visitors, 
[n  December,  1898,  the  State  Teachers'  Association,  as  a  tribute  to  his  long  and  faithful 
service,  elected  him  president.  His  death  occurred  as  a  consequence  of  overwork,  on 
August  28,  1899. 

Superintendent  Flavin  was  no  ordinary  man.  He  was  a  person  of  the  most  refined 
sensibilities  and  of  noble  character.  Loving  good  and  his  fellow-men,  he  always  stood 
ready  to  lend  a  helping  hand  to  anyone  in  need.  His  manly  presence  and  kind  and 
thoughtful  treatment  of  everyone  with  whom  he  came  in  contact  endeared  him  to  all.  His 
noble  qualities  of  head  and  heart  kept  him  in  the  superintendency  for  more  than  a  quarter 
of  a  century,  and  they  will  keep  his  memory  fresh  in  the  hearts  of  those  who  knew  him. 


Xoui0  1).  (3albreatb 

Louis  H.  Galbreath  was  born  near  Ashmore,  Coles  county.  111.,  in  1 86 1.  His  early 
life  was  spent  on  a  farm  and  in  the  public  schools  of  Ashmore.  Before  the  age  of 
twenty  he  began  teaching  district  schools.     Later  he  entered  the  State  Normal  University 


722  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION 

at  Normal,  111.,  from  which  he  graduated  in  1885.  He  then  entered  Cornell  University  at 
Ithaca,  N.  Y.  After  attending  a  year  he  returned  to  school,  teaching  for  three  years  in 
his  native  county.  He  then  resumed  his  studies  in  Cornell  University,  where  he  gradu- 
ated in  1890.  He  remained  in  Ithaca  for  two  years  after  graduating,  taking  postgraduate 
studies  and  tutoring. 

From  1892  to  1896  he  was  superintendent  of  the  model  school  and  teacher  of  methods 
in  the  State  Normal  School  at  Winona,  Minn.;  the  following  year  he  occupied  the  chair 
of  pedagogy  in  the  Normal  University  of  Illinois  ;  the  next  year  was  spent  in  a  similar 
position  in  the  School  of  Pedagogy  at  Buffalo,  N.  Y.  The  last  year  of  his  life  was  spent 
as  a  fellow  in  the  Teachers  College  of  Columbia  University,  New  York  city. 

In  April,  1899,  he  was  elected  to  the  chair  of  pedagogy  in  the  new  normal  school  at 
Charleston,  111.,  and  was  making  preparation  for  entering  upon  this  work  when  he  was 
suddenly  taken  ill  with  typhoid  fever,  and  died  at  St.  Luke's  Hospital,  New  York  city, 
August  14,  1899. 

In  1895  he  married  Miss  Julia  Tift,  of  Ithaca,  N.  Y.,  who,  with  two  boys,  survives 
him. 

Mr.  Galbreath  was  a  man  of  noble  character,  and  a  teacher  of  rare  gifts,  who  had 
already  won  high  rank  among  the  educators  of  the  country. 


S.  ©Ifn  ©arrison 

S.  Olin  Garrison  was  born  at  Millville,  N.  J.,  on  Christmas  day,  1853.  For  several 
years  he  was  a  regular  ordained  minister  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  church.  In  1877, 
with  his  brother.  Rev.  Charles  F.  Garrison,  he  turned  their  old  family  homestead  into 
a  private  training  school  for  feeble-minded  children.  The  accommodations  there  were 
soon  outgrown,  and  in  his  search  for  a  larger  field  Professor  Garrison  met  the  late  B.  D. 
Maxham,  of  Vineland,  whose  interest  in  this  unfortunate  class  was  so  great  that  he  made 
over  for  the  purpose  of  the  institution  forty  acres  of  land  and  a  large  house.  This  was 
the  beginning  of  what  has  grown  to  be  one  of  the  most  important  schools  for  the  feeble- 
minded in  the  country. 

He  gave  his  life  for  others,  and  nothing  seemed  to  touch  him  so  profoundly  as  the 
weakness  and  disability  of  those  whom  he  loved  to  call  his  children.  He  did  not  seek 
self-aggrandizement ;  he  did  not  ask  recognition  for  himself,  but  only  for  the  great  cause 
that  he  had  espoused.  Professor  Garrison  felt  that  for  many  years  the  work  of  the  edu- 
cation of  the  feeble-minded  had  been  degenerating  into  mere  custodial  care  in  most  of 
the  so-called  training  schools,  and  it  was  his  constant  aim  to  bring  to  the  front  the  educa- 
tional idea. 

He  died  on  April  17,  1900,  leaving  a  wife  and  four  children. 


Ijenrs  JBasb  ©wgnn 

Henry  Bash  Gwynn  was  born  in  Baltimore,  Md.,  December  16,  1853.  He  was  edu- 
cated in  the  public  schools  of  that  city,  graduating  from  the  City  College  in  1873.  He 
taught  in  a  private  school  for  two  years,  then  was  made  first  assistant  in  Male  Grammar 
School  No.  4. 

In  1881  he  became  superintendent  of  the  public  schools  of  Galveston,  Tex.  During 
the  following  two  years,  spent  in  Texas,  Dr.  Gwynn  arranged  a  course  of  study  for  every 
city  of  any  size  in  the  state,  and  conducted  the  Summer  Normal  School. 

Retur»ing  to  Baltimore  in  1883,  he  again  entered  the  public-school  service,  first 
as  first  assistant  in  Male  Grammar  School  No.    18,  next  in  a  similar  position  in  Male 


REPORT  OF  COMMITTEE  ON  NECROLOGY  723 

Grammar  School  No.  i.  In  189 1  he  was  promoted  to  the  principalship  of  the  latter 
school,  which  position  he  held  until  his  death,  October  li,  1900. 

Dr.  Gwynn  was  the  pioneer,  at  least  in  Baltimore,  in  the  teaching  of  geography  and 
history  with  the  aid  of  the  stereopticon.  He  also  introduced  into  his  school  the  first 
gymnasium  in  the  public  schools  of  this  section  of  the  country.  Dr.  Gwynn  graduated 
from  the  Medical  College  of  the  Baltimore  University  in  1887. 

His  interest  in  and  kindness  to  all  who  were  associated  with  him  in  the  profession  of 
teaching,  and  his  special  helpfulness  to  young  teachers,  were  among  his  chief  character- 
istics.    All  his  work  was  marked  by  the  most  liberal  and  progressive  views. 

He  became  an  active  member  of  the  National  Educational  Association  at  the  Wash- 
ington meeting  in  1898. 


5ame0  t>annan 


James  Hannan  was  born  in  Kenosha  county,  Wis.,  in  November,  1840,  and  was 
educated  in  the  high  school  of  Kenosha  and  at  the  Michigan  State  University.  He  taught 
in  the  rural  schools  of  Kenosha  county,  and  was  county  superintendent  for  one  term.  In 
1869  he  became  connected  with  the  Chicago  schools,  serving  as  principal  of  the  Kinzie, 
La  Salle,  and  Lake  High  Schools.  He  became  local  superintendent  of  District  No.  2, 
Lake  township,  in  1888.  At  the  time  of  the  annexation  to  Chicago  he  was  elected 
assistant  superintendent  of  Chicago  schools,  and  served  until  death  closed  his  work  on 
September  6,  1900. 

Cool,  calm,  and  dispassionate,  he  deliberately  and  critically  examined  every  problem 
that  arose  in  his  work,  and  with  unerring  judgment  arrived  at  its  correct  and  equitable 
solution.  His  courteous  and  placid  nature  recoiled  from  forwardness.  He  regarded  all 
political  methods  of  advancement  with  innate  scorn.  He  was  a  lover  of  books,  and  had 
acquired  a  large  library  of  the  rarest  and  best  works  in  science,  philosophy,  and  literature. 

To  the  children  he  was  the  kind  father,  to  the  parents  the  revered  friend,  to  the 
teachers  the  kindest  and  wisest  of  counselors,  and  to  his  associates  in  the  Board  of  Super- 
intendents in  Chicago  the  loyal,  consistent,  and  cultured  coadjutor. 


Ijenrs  S.  Jones 

Henry  S.  Jones  was  born  in  Rochester,  N.  Y.,  in  1832,  and  was  of  Puritan  and  Welsh 
descent.  His  father's  family  went  to  Michigan  in  1834.  He  was  graduated  from  the 
Michigan  State  Normal  School,  and  subsequently  attended  the  Michigan  State  University 
at  Ann  Arbor.  He  served  for  several  years  as  principal  of  schools  of  Three  Rivers  and 
Dowagiac,  Mich.  In  1858  he  became  principal  of  the  West  Ward  schools  of  Erie,  Pa., 
and  later  was  placed  in  charge  of  the  East  and  West  Ward  schools.  In  1865  he  was 
elected  superintendent  of  the  schools  of  the  city  of  Erie,  and  served  in  this  capacity  for 
twenty-six  years,  during  which  time  he  built  up  a  system  of  schools  that  attracted  wide 
attention  thruout  the  country.  After  leaving  Erie  he  took  charge  of  the  schools  of 
Lincoln,  Neb.,  performing  his  duties  there  with  the  same  indomitable  purpose  and  untiring 
energy  which  had  characterized  his  work  throughout  his  entire  life.  After  three  years' 
service  at  Lincoln  he  was  forced  to  resign  on  account  of  ill-health,  and  to  seek  a  milder 
climate.  In  1895,  with  his  wife  and  family,  he  removed  to  a  ranch  near  Houston,  Tex. 
Here  his  health  seemed  to  improve  considerably  until  July  5,  1900,  when  he  died  sud- 
denly of  heart  failure,  induced  by  over-exposure  to  the  heat. 

Dr.  Jones  was  a  member  of  the  National  Educational  Association  for  many  years. 
In  1882  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the  National  Council  of  Education,  served  as  vice- 
president  of  the  Council  in  1886,  and  at  the  time  of  his  death  was  enrolled  among  its 


724 


NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION 


honorary  members.  While  in  Pennsylvania  he  was  one  of  the  most  active  members  of 
the  Pennsylvania  State  Teachers'  Association,  serving  as  its  president  in  1870.  During 
his  career  as  superintendent  he  delivered  a  large  number  of  scientific  lectures  and  peda- 
gogical addresses,  and  wrote  frequently  for  the  educational  journals.  As  a  recognition 
of  his  ability  as  a  school  superintendent  and  educator,  he  received,  about  eighteen  years 
before  his  death,  the  honorary  degree  of  doctor  of  philosophy  from  Lafayette  College. 
Dr.  Jones  was  an  able  teacher  and  superintendent.  His  work  was  characterized  by 
a  faithful  adherence  to  a  lofty  ideal  of  duty,  and  a  hearty  sympathy  with  the  needs  of 
childhood  and  youth.  In  private  life  he  was  most  highly  esteemed  as  a  man  of  the 
highest  integrity  and  Christian  principles,  whose  best  endeavors  were  cheerfully  given 
to  assist  his  fellow-men. 


ffre&ericft  Ibiram  Xanc 

Frederick  Hiram  Lane  was  born  at  Owego,  N.  Y.,  May  14,  1867,  and  died  at  Baby- 
lon, June  10,  1899.  He  received  his  education  in  the  schools  of  Owego,  in  the  State 
Normal  School  at  Oneonta,  and  was  also  a  graduate  of  Illinois  Wesleyan  University. 

His  written  contributions  to  education  consisted  of  a  book  on  Elementary  Greek 
Education,  and  of  a  number  of  papers  on  various  educational  topics.  His  teaching 
work  was  done  in  Babylon  and  Long  Island  City.  During  the  three  years  preceding  his 
death  he  was  the  highly  prized  and  trusted  representative  of  Silver,  Burdett  &  Co.,  of 
New  York.  He  was  married,  June  29,  1893,  to  Elizabeth  Rathbun  Hull,  who,  with  two 
children,  survives  him. 

Mr.  Lane  was  a  manly,  vigorous  personality,  a  sincere  lover  of  truth,  and  a  hater  of 
shams.  As  a  teacher  he  showed  high  organizing  and  executive  ability ;  he  was  a  man 
of  affairs,  as  well  as  a  man  of  ideas.  He  had  to  a  marked  degree  the  power  of  winning 
friends  and  of  holding  their  esteem  and  confidence. 


angelina  m.  /Ibtller 

Miss  Angelina  N.  Miller  was  born  in  Covington,  Ind.,  in  1853.  She  was  educated 
in  the  public  schools  of  Iowa  and  graduated  from  the  State  University  of  Iowa.  After 
graduating  she  taught  continuously  in  public  schools  until  her  death  in  Denver,  Colo., 
December  4,  1899. 

P'or  the  past  sixteen  years  she  was  a  principal  of  one  of  the  schools  of  Denver,  and 
was  prominent  in  public  service  in  many  ways,  especially  thru  her  connection  with  the 
Associated  Charities  of  that  city. 

She  first  attended  the  National  Educational  Association  in  1884,  the  Madison  meet- 
ing.    She  became  an  active  member  of  the  association  at  the  Denver  meeting  in  1 895. 


MtlUam  D.  /Dbordan 

William  H.  Morgan  was  born  in  New  Y'ork  on  April  16,  1837,  and  came  with  his 
parents  to  Cincinnati  in  1844.  He  received  his  education  in  the  public  schools  of  the  city, 
graduating  from  Woodward  High  School  in  1856.  Soon  after  leaving  school  he  became  a 
teacher  in  one  of  the  district  schools  of  Cincinnati,  and  in  1864  was  appointed  principal 
of  the  Ninth  District  School.  In  1869  he  resigned  the  position  to  go  into  the  insurance 
business,  in  which  he  remained  for  twenty  years. 

While  in  the  insurance  business  he  served  several  terms  in  the  board  of  city  school 
examiners,  and  one  or  two  terms  on  the  board  of  education,  and  otherwise  showed  an 
active  interest  in  the  public  schools. 


REPORT  OF  COMMITTEE  ON  NECROLOGY  725 

In  1889  Mr.  Morgan  was  elected  superintendent  of  the  public  schools  of  Cincinnati, 
remaining  in  the  office  until  1899,  when,  owing  to  a  failure  of  health,  he  resigned.  As 
superintendent  Mr.  Morgan  gave  close  attention  to  the  details  of  supervision,  and  always 
expressed  satisfaction  with  the  work  done  in  the  schools  and  the  degree  of  progress 
attained.     He  became  an  active  member  of  the  National  Educational  Association  in  1895. 


Jobn  "Russell  ©lin 

John  Russell  Olin  was  born  in  Clinton,  Oneida  county,  N.  Y.  A  few  years  later  the 
family  removed  to  Watertown,  N,  Y.  He  received  his  schooling  in  the  public  schools  of 
that  city.  He  entered  Hobart  College  in  the  fall  of  1889,  and  was  graduated  with  honors 
iH  the  class  of  1893.  He  was  at  once  engaged  as  science  master  in  the  Watertown  High 
School.  Upon  the  resignation  of  the  principal,  Dr.  Lyttle,  four  years  later,  the  board  of 
education  unanimously  elected  Mr .  Olin  his  successor.  Later  he  resigned  this  position 
to  take  postgraduate  work  in  Harvard  University  in  pedagogy  and  science. 

In  the  spring  of  1899  he  was  elected  principal  of  the  high  school,  Belmont,  Mass., 
which  position  he  filled  with  rare  success  until  his  death,  April  14,  1900. 

Mr.  Olin's  chief  characteristics  were  earnestness,  sincerity,  a  genial,  refined  manner, 
and  a  sympathetic  nature.  He  was  an  instructor  of  rare  skill  and  a  man  who  was  always 
helpful  to  those  who  came  in  contact  with  him. 


I'ranl^  (^stranDec 

The  late  Hon.  Frank  Ostrander  was  born  December  20,  1861,  in  Jefferson,  Wis.  His 
father.  Judge  Dempster  Ostrander,  was  one  of  the  pioneers  of  Wisconsin.  In  1872  his 
parents  removed  to  Milwaukee,  where  he  continued  his  elementary  and  secondary-school 
training. 

His  first  position  after  leaving  school  was  that  of  a  messenger  boy  in  the  First 
National  Bank  of  Milwaukee.  Later  he  entered  the  insurance  office  of  Benjamin  Weil. 
Thus  early  in  life  he  learned  the  first  principles  of  the  two  branches  of  business  in  which 
he  rose  to  eminence  in  West  Superior.  His  business  career  was  one  of  unusual  activity 
and  prosperity.  A  man  of  great  energy,  keen  foresight,  and  remarkable  will,  loyal  to  his 
friends  and  faithful  to  trusts,  Frank  Ostrander  soon  became  one  of  the  few  great  leaders 
in  northern  Wisconsin. 

During  the  administration  of  Governor  William  Upham  he  was  appointed  resident 
regent  for  the  River  Falls  Normal  School.  His  interest  and  influence  in  the  location  of 
the  Seventh  Normal  School  at  Superior,  of  which  he  was  the  first  regent,  brought  him 
into  prominence  in  educational  circles.  During  the  greater  part  of  the  time  of  his  service 
as  member  of  the  Board  of  Normal  School  Regents  Mr.  Ostrander  was  chairman  of  the 
Teachers'  Committee.  He  examined  carefully  into  the  qualifications  of  everyone  who 
entered  the  normal-school  service,  exhibiting  the  same  independence  and  vigor  in  his 
educational  work  that  he  did  in  his  private  business  affairs.  He  became  an  active 
member  of  the  National  Educational  Association  in  1897. 

He  was  identified  with  almost  every  public  enterprise  of  note  in  his  city  and  state  ; 
he  was  liberal  in  his  views  and  in  the  distribution  of  his  wealth ;  his  sympathies  were 
active,  and  his  impulses  manly  and  noble. 

A  widow  and  one  son  survive  him. 


726  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION 

BJ)w(n  1).  ©wen 

Edwin  H.  Owen  was  born  in  Wellington,  O.,  in  1858,  and  died  of  spinal  meningitis 
at  Carlinville,  111.,  August  30,  1899.  He  was  educated  in  the  common  schools  and  in  the 
Ohio  Wesleyan  University  at  Delaware,  O.  He  had  been  superintendent  of  schools  at 
Carlinville  since  1 891;  previous  to  that  time  he  held  the  same  office  in  Shelbyville  and 
Areola,  111. 

In  1893  he  was  married  to  Miss  Sara  Loomis,  of  Carlinville,  who,  with  a  young  son, 
survives  him. 

His  noble  character  and  his  remarkable  success  as  a  teacher  and  manager  of  school 
affairs  won  for  him  the  esteem  and  confidence  of  all. 

He  became  an  active  member  of  the  National  Educational  Association  in  1897. 


S.  S.  part 

S.  S.  Parr  was  born  at  Dell  Roy,  O.,  in  1848,  where  he  lived  until  fifteen  years  of  age, 
when  his  parents  removed  to  Bell  Air,  111.  He  graduated  from  both  elementary  and 
advanced  courses  of  the  State  Normal  School  at  Terre  Haute,  Ind. 

He  was  city  superintendent  of  schools  at  Marshall,  111.,  in  1873-74,  and  taught  in  the 
Indianapolis  High  School  in  1875-76.  From  1876  to  1881  he  taught  in  the  State  Normal 
School  at  Terre  Haute.  The  next  four  years  were  spent  mainly  in  Minnesota  in  educa- 
tional work  and  in  editing  the  state  educational  paper.  School  Education,  which  he 
founded. 

From  1885  to  1889  he  was  dean  of  the  normal  department  of  DePauw  University  at 
Greencastle,  Ind.  He  then  returned  to  Minnesota  and  became  superintendent  of  city 
schools  of  St.  Cloud,  in  which  position  he  remained  until  his  death,  February  23,  1900. 

Superintendent  Parr  was  almost  continuously  an  active  member  of  the  National  Edu- 
cational Association  from  1884,  and  was  president  of  the  Normal  Department  at  the  San 
Francisco  meeting  in  1888. 

/Hbtd.  /ibattlOa  S.  poucber 

Mrs.  Poucher  was  born  in  Blauveltville,  N.  Y.,  in  1839.  Her  maiden  name  was 
Matilda  S.  Cooper.  She  received  her  early  education  in  rural  schools,  afterward  attend- 
ing Hardcastle's  Institution  at  Nyack,  N.  Y.,  and  Clinton  Liberal  Institute.  She  then 
entered  the  State  Normal  School  at  Albany,  N.  Y.,  where  she  was  graduated  in  the 
summer  of  1856. 

Immediately  after  graduation  she  was  employed  by  the  Oswego  board  of  education 
to  take  charge  of  a  department  of  one  of  the  senior  schools.  She  was  afterward  trans- 
ferred to  a  primary  school,  where  her  success  was  so  marked  that  she  was  appointed 
critic  of  the  city  training  school.  Later  she  became  teacher  of  methods  in  the  Oswego 
State  Normal  School,  which  position  she  filled  until  her  resignation  in  1886. 

She  was  married  in  1890  to  Principal  I.  B.  Poucher  of  the  Oswego  Normal  School. 

She  frequently  attended  the  meetings  of  the  National  Educational  Association.  She 
was  for  some  years  an  active  member  of  the  National  Council  of  Education,  and  at  the 
time  of  her  death  was  an  honorary  member  of  that  body. 

No  brief  sketch  can  do  justice  to  her  noble  character  and  her  great  work  in  connec- 
tion with  the  Oswego  Normal  School  during  the  first  twenty-five  years  of  its  history. 

The  memory  of  her  beautiful  life  and  of  her  molding  and  inspiring  influence  will  ever 
be  a  rich  heritage  to  the  thousands  of  teachers  who  came  under  her  guidance. 

She  was  always  a  tireless  worker  and  was  prominent  in  all  charitable  and  social,  as 
well  as  educational,  circles. 


REPORT  OF  COMMITTEE  ON  NECROLOGY  l^l 

TlCKlUam  *.  Sbelleg 

William  H.  Shelley  was  born  on  the  Mansion  Farm  on  the  Hill  Island  in  the  Susque- 
hanna river  in  1840. 

He  entered  the  York  County  Academy  when  quite  young,  and  spent  several  years 
in  that  institution.  He  began  teaching  in  West  Hempfield  township,  Lancaster  county. 
Pa.  Subsequently  he  taught  three  years  in  Columbia  borough  and  three  years  as  an 
assistant  in  York  County  Academy,  during  which  time  he  completed  a  full  collegiate 
course,  but  failing  health  at  the  time  prevented  him  from  graduating  from  Dickinson 
College. 

He  removed  to  the  state  of  Michigan,  and  for  three  years  filled  the  chair  of  Latin 
and  Greek,  and  for  two  years  the  chair  of  mathematics,  in  Albion  College.  For  pro- 
ficiency in  the  branches  taught  an  honorary  degree  of  master  of  arts  was  conferred  upon 
him  by  the  Iowa  Wesleyan  University. 

In  1870  he  was  elected  the  first  superintendent  of  schools  of  York,  Pa.,  and  held  the 
position  for  many  years.  Later  he  became  connected  with  the  Woman's  College  of  Balti- 
more, and  was  elected  principal  of  the  Girls'  Latin  School  of  Baltimore,  which  position 
he  held  at  the  time  of  his  death,  August  12,  1900. 

He  became  an  active  member  of  the  National  Educational  Association  in  1895. 


3^uUa  C.  Silcoj 

Miss  Julia  C.  Silcox  was  born  in  the  year  1857  at  Portsmouth,  O.  She  began  and 
ended  her  school  days  in  the  public  schools  of  her  native  city.  So  marked  was  her 
ability  and  her  industry  as  a  student  that  soon  after  she  had  completed  her  course  in  the 
schools  she  became  a  teacher  where  she  had  so  many  years  been  a  pupil.  Her  early 
work  as  a  teacher  was  of  such  high  character  that  Superintendent  Andrew  J.  Rickoff 
called  her  to  the  Cleveland  schools,  in  which  she  labored  with  unusual  success  to  the 
time  of  her  death,  in  August,  1900.  Of  the  nineteen  years  she  taught  in  the  Cleveland 
schools  two  were  spent  in  the  high  school  and  the  last  seven  as  assistant  principal  of  one 
of  our  largest  elementary-school  buildings.  Miss  Silcox  was  always  a  student,  seeking 
to  improve  herself  by  study,  wide  reading,  travel,  and  by  attending  meetings  held  in  the 
interest  of  her  profession. 

At  the  time  of  her  death  she  was  a  member  of  the  Northeastern  Ohio  Teachers' 
Association,  the  Ohio  State  Teachers'  Association,  and  the  National  Educational 
Association.  As  a  teacher  she  was  quiet,  faithful,  conscientious,  and  efficient.  Forgetting 
herself,  she  gave  her  life  in  loving,  earnest  effort  for  her  pupils. 


Cbristine  ©ovDon  Sullivan 

Miss  Christine  Gordon  Sullivan  was  born  in  Cincinnati  in  1857,  and  died  September 
I,  1899.  She  was  educated  in  the  public  schools  of  the  city,  graduating  from  one  of  the 
high  schools  in  1873.  From  her  tenth  year  she  received  private  instruction  in  modeling 
and  painting,  and  after  leaving  school  she  took  the  last  year's  course  in  the  art  depart- 
ment of  Cooper  Institute,  New  York. 

In  1874  she  was  appointed  a  teacher  of  drawing,  and  for  two  years  her  leisure  was 
spent  in  the  studio  of  Jacquier,  an  able  French  sculptor  then  in  Cincinnati,  and  her 
summer  vacations  were  spent  in  Boston  in  painting  under  Fuller.  In  1879  she  was 
appointed  assistant  supervisor  of  drawing,  and  1884  superintendent  of  drawing,  in  the 
public  schools,  filling  the  position  with  marked  efficiency  and  success  for  fifteen  years. 
She  possessed  remarkable  administrative  ability,  and  whatever  enterprise  was  undertaken 


728  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION 

by  her  was  most  successfully  managed.  Her  services  as  assistant  commissioner  in  the 
department  of  education  in  the  Centennial  Exposition  of  the  Ohio  Valley  and  Central 
States  in  1888  won  the  high  praise  of  all  interested. 

Miss  Sullivan  had  no  leisure,  finding  important  work  for  all  her  time.  She  had  a 
talent  for  hard  work.  In  1882  she  published  her  first  book,  The  Elements  of  Perspective, 
and  in  1884  The  Eclectic  System  of  Industrial  Drawing,  viMic^v  was  at  once  adopted  for 
the  schools  of  Cincinnati,  and  is  still  used  with  satisfaction.  The  excellence  of  her 
method  of  teaching  drawing  has  been  attested  by  awards  of  merit  wherever  presented  in 
competition. 

She  was  the  author  of  a  series  of  papers  on  the  relation  of  art  to  education,  transla- 
tions ftom  French  journals,  a  text-book  on  The  Elements  of  Mechanical  Drawing,  and,  in 
1899,  a  series  of  papers  on  "Our  Home  Birds,"  to  appear  in  book  form ;  also  material  for 
another  book  of  short  stories  dealing  with  child  life. 

Miss  Sullivan  was  president  of  the  Art  Department  of  the  National  Educational  Asso- 
ciation in  1894,  and  she  filled  other  positions  of  responsibility  and  honor.  She  received 
the  honorary  degree  of  A.M.  in  1890,  and  two  years  later  the  degree  of  Ph.D.  The 
sculptor  Webber  is  now  at  work  on  a  marble  bust  of  Miss  Sullivan  which  is  to  be  placed 
in  the  Art  Museum  of  Cincinnati  as  a  memorial  of  her  work  and  character. 


fliartba  %.  :JS.  Hbomas 

Miss  Martha  J.  B.  Thomas  was  born  in  Chester,  Morris  county,  N.  J.  She  was  some 
time  vice-principal  of  the  school  of  Raritan,  N.  J.,  leaving  that  school  in  1881  to  accept 
a  similar  position  in  the  schools  at  Woodbridge,  N.  J.,  of  which  she  was  elected  principal. 
Several  years  later  Miss  Thomas  was  called  to  Bayonne,  N.  J.,  to  take  charge  of  an 
academic  class,  which  soon  became  a  high  school,  of  which  she  was  made  principal. 

During  her  connection  with  the  high  school  of  Bayonne  she  pursued  studies  as  a 
non-resident  student  of  the  University  of  New  York  and  was  granted  the  degree  of  A.M. 

After  a  remarkably  successful  career  as  a  teacher  for  forty  years,  she  died  at  Potter- 
ville,  N.  J.,  October  18,  1899. 

She  became  an  active  member  of  the  National  Educational  Association  in  1896. 


Samuel  (3ardnec  William? 

Samuel  Gardner  Williams  was  born  in  1827  near  Winfield,  N.  Y.  His  early  educa- 
tion was  received  in  rural  schools  and  in  Whitestown  Seminary.  He  entered  Hamilton 
College  in  1849  and  graduated  at  the  head  of  his  class  in  1852,  winning  election  to  the 
Phi  Beta  Kappa  fraternity.  He  taught  successively  as  principal  of  Groton  Academy, 
Seneca  Falls  Academy,  Ithaca  Academy,  and  the  Central  High  School  of  Cleveland,  O. 

In  1879  he  was  elected  professor  of  geology  in  Cornell  University,  Ithaca,  N.  Y.,  and 
in  1886  became  professor  of  pedagogy  of  that  institution.  For  the  latter  position  his 
equipment  was  thorough  and  ample,  gained  in  a  remarkably  successful  experience  in  all 
grades  of  schools,  to  which  he  added  a  careful  study  of  pedagogical  methods  abroad, 
particularly  in  the  schools  of  Germany. 

In  1898  he  resigned  his  position  at  the  head  of  the  department  of  pedagogy  of  Cor- 
nell University  and  was  elected  professor  emeritus.  He  was  the  author  of  various  publi- 
cations, mainly  on  geology  and  pedagogy. 

Dr.  Williams  had  been  a  prominent  member  of  the  National  Educational  Association 
since  1889,  and  had  frequently  taken  part  in  the  annual  meetings. 

His  death  occurred  at  Ithaca,  N.Y.,  May  9,  1900. 


LIST  OF  LIFE,  ACTIVE,  AND  CORRESPONDING 

MEMBERS 

ARRANGED    BY    STATES,    CLASSES,    AND    YEARS    OF    CONTINUOUS    MEMBERSHIP 

REVISED  TO  NOVEMBER  I,  IQC» 


The  marginal  figures  indicate  the  year  of  the  commencement  of  continuous  annual 
membership  for  those  whose  names  immediately  follow.  The  indented  figures  indicate 
year  of  appointment  to  present  educational  position.  The  value  of  this  list  as  an  educa- 
tional directory  depends  upon  its  accuracy  and  completeness ;  all  members  are  invited  to 
contribute  to  this  end  by  furnishing  corrections  of  errors,  however  slight,  and  by  supply- 
ing omitted  data. 

Extra  copies  of  this  list  may  be  obtained  by  remitting  twenty-five  cents  to  the  Secre- 
tary, Winona,  Minn. 


CORRESPONDING  MEMBERS 

Miss  Dorothea  Beale,  Principal  of  Ladies'  College,  Cheltenham,  London,  England. 

SiGNOR  LuiGi  BoDio,  Direttore  Generale  della  Statistica  del  Regno,  Roma,  Italia. 

Professor  Ferdinand  Buisson,  Professor  of  Education  at  the  Sorbonne,  Paris,  France. 

Gabriel  Compayr^,  Rector  of  the  University  at  Lyons,  France. 

Sir  Joshua  G.  Fitch,  LL.D.,  formerly  Her  Majesty's  Inspector  of  Training  Colleges  and  Lecturer  on 
Exlucation  at  the  University  of  Cambridge,  13  Leinster  Sq.,  Bayswater,  W.,  London,  England. 

S.  S.  Laurie,  LL.D.,  Professor  of  the  History  and  Institutes  of  Education  in  the  University  of  Edin- 
burgh, Scotland. 

Dr.  E.  Levasseur,  Professor  at  the  College  of  France,  President  of  the  Statistical  Commission  for 
Primary  Instruction. 

Friedrich  Paulsen,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of  Philosophy  and  Education  in  the  University  of  Berlin, 
Germany. 

Michael  Sadler,  A.M.,  Director  of  Special  Inquiries  and  Reports,  Department  of  Education, 
Whitehall,  S.  W.,  London,  England, 

Hon.  E.  Lyulph  Stanley,  Member  of  the  School  Board,  London,  England. 

LIFE  DIRECTORS,  LIFE  AND  ACTIVE  MEMBERS 

ALABAMA 

active  members 
1882     Julia  S.  Tutwiler. 

Principal  of  Alabama  Normal  College  for  Girls,  Livingston. 
1888     John  Herbert  Phillips,  A.M.,  Marietta  Coll.,  O. ;  Ph.D.,  Southern  Univ.,  Ala. 

1883,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  2231,  7th  Ave.,  Birmingham. 
1892     Francis  Morton  Roof. 

1897,  President  of  Howard  College,  East  Lake. 

1894  LuciEN  V.  La  Taste. 

General  Agent,  University  Publishing  Co.  of  New  York ;  Box  564,  Montgomery. 
John  Massey,  A.M.,  '75,  LL.D.,  '79,  Univ.  of  Ala. 

1876,  President  of  Alabama  Conference  Female  College,  Tuskegee. 

1895  Mary  A.  Cahalan. 

1884,  Principal  of  the  Powell  School,  2311,  4th  Ave.,  Birmingham. 
J.  B.  Cunningham. 

1898,  Principal  of  High  School,  1030  S.  21st  St.,  Birmingham. 
Robert  Alexander  Mickle,  A.B.,  '86,  Davidson  Coll.,  N.  C. 

Principal,  Jefferson  St.  Primary  and  Grammar  Schools,  loi  Georgia  Ave.,  Mobile, 
Kate  E.  Moon. 

Grammar  Department,  Public  Schools,  no  N.  Conception  St.,  Mobile. 
James  K.  Powers,  A.M.,  '73,  LL.D.,  '97,  Univ.  of  Ala. 

1897,  President  of  University  of  Alabama,  University. 
John  D.  Yerbv,  A.B.,  '79,  Southern  Univ. ;  A.M.,  '96,  Univ.  of  Ala. 

1894,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  996  Government  St.,  Mobile. 

729 


73°  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Arkansas 

ALABAMA  —  Continued 

1897  Alabama  Polytechnic  Institute. 

President,  William  Le  Roy  Broun,  LL.D. ;  Librarian,  Charles  C.Thach,  Auburn. 

1898  Robert  Venable  Allgood,   B.P.,  '88,   B.Sc,  '90,  So.  Univ.,   Greensboro;  A.M.,   '93,  Univ.   of 

Nashville. 

1894,  Superintendent  of  Public  Schools,  5th  Ave.  E.,  Avondale,  Birmingham. 
J.  F.  Elliott. 

1900,  Superintendent  of  Schools  at  Brookwood  and  Searles,  Brookwood,  Tuscaloosa  Co. 
J.  D.  Matlock. 

Representative  of  American  Book  Co.,  Birmingham. 

1899  Arthi;r  U.  Craig,  B.Sc,  '95,  Univ.  of  Kan. 

1895,  Teacher   of  Physics   and  Mechanical   Drawing,  Tuskegee  Normal  and   Industrial 

Institute,  Tuskegee. 
State  Normal  School  at  Jacksonville. 

President,  William  Clarence  Daugette,  Jacksonville. 

1900  John  W.  Abercrombie,  A.B.,  '86,  Oxford  Coll. ;  LL.B.,  '88,  Univ.  of  Ala. 

1898,  Superintendent  of  Education  of  Alabama,  Department  of  Education,  Montgomery. 
LuciEN  P.  Giddens,  A.B.,  '88,  Southern  Univ. 

1894,  Professor  of  Mathematics,  Southern  University,  Greensboro. 
Charles  B.  Glenn,  M.Sc,  '92,  Ala.  Polytechnic  Inst. ;  A.B.,  '96,  Harvard. 

1899,  Principal,  Paul  Hayne  School,  Birmingham.  * 
WiLLARD  J.  Wheeler. 

1896,  President,  Birmingham  Business  College,  1909/^-1917/^,  tst  Ave.,  Birmingham. 
M.  C.  Wilson,  C.E.,  '76,  Univ.  of  Va. 

President,  State  Normal  College,  Florence. 

ARIZONA 

active  members 

1895  Horace  E.  Wilson. 

1898,  Superintendent  in  charge  of  Supai  Indians  and  School,  Supai. 
LvDiA  Hunt  Wright.  _ 

1894,  Superintendent,  U.  S.  Indian  Boarding  School,  Indian  School,  San  Carlos. 

1898  R.  L.  Long. 

1899,  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  211  Fleming  Block,  Phoenix, 
Blanche  Torrence  Thomas. 

1896,  Kindergarten  Teacher,  Fort  Defiance. 

1899  Frank  Yale  Adams,  A.B.,  '88,  A.M.,  '94,  St.  Lawrence  Univ. 

1897,  Professor  of  History  and  Pedagogy,  University  of  Arizona,  Tucson. 
W.  J.  Anderson,  B.Sc,  '97,  National  Univ.,  Chicago. 

1898,  Grand  Avenue  School,  12th  Ave. ;  Box  282,  Phoenix. 
Mrs.  Sidney  C.  Botkin. 

Matron  of  Indian  School,  Mohave  City. 
F.  A.  Coolev,  A.B.,  '92,  Stanford  Univ. 

1898,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  51  Council  St.,  Tucson. 
William  B.  Creager,  A.B.,  '95,  Ind.  State  Univ. 

1895,  Superintendent  of  City  Schools,  Phoenix. 
A.  J.  Matthews. 

1900,  Principal  of  Normal  School,  Tempe. 
James  R.  Meskimons. 

1900,  Director  of  Manual  Training,  Phoenix  Indian  Schools,  Phoenix. 
M.  M.  Parker,  A.  M.,  '78,  Wesleyan  Univ. 

1897,  President  of  University  of  Arizona,  Tucson, 

1900  Milton  J.  Needham. 

Principal,  Blue  Canon  School,  Algert. 

ARKANSAS 

active  members 

1887     Thomas  A.  Futrall,  A.M.,  West  Tenn.  Coll. ;  LL.D.,  1900,  Univ.  of  Ark. 

1884,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Marianna. 
189s     George  B.  Cook,  A.M. 

Superintendent  of  City  Schools,  217  Garden  St.,  Hot  Springs. 
J.  L.  Holloway,  A.m.,  Mo.  St.  Nor.  Sch. 

1889,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  12th  and  K  Sts.,  Fort  Smith. 
W.  W.  Rivers,  A.B.,  '86,  A.M.,  '89,  Univ.  of  Miss. 

1894,  Superintendent  of  City  Schools,  Helena. 

1896  Howard  Gates. 

1891,  Principal  of  Kramer  School,  Little  Rock. 
J.  H.  Hinemon,  A.m. 

1894,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  618  W.  6th  Ave.,  Pine  Bluff. 
Alfred  Lee  Peacher,  A.M.,  '92,  Wooster  Univ.,  O. 

1895,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  806  Broadway,  Van  Buren. 

1897  Hendrix  College. 

President,  A.  C.  Millar,  Conway. 
J.  W.  Parker. 

Principal  of  Schools,  8th  and  B  Sts.,  Fort  Smith. 
John  Hugh  Reynolds,  A.B.,  '93,  Hendrix  Coll. ;  A.M.,  '97,  Univ.  of  Chicago. 

Professor  of  Education  and  History,  Hendrix  College,  Conway. 

1898  A.  D.  Garden,  A.B.,  '90. 

1898,  Superintendent  of  City  Schools,  Camden. 
Joseph  Carter  Corbin,  A.M.,  '60;  Ph.D.,  '99,  Ohio  Univ. 

1873,  President  of  Branch  Normal  College,  Pine  Bluff. 
Frances  Owen  Hogg. 

Teacher  in  Piiblic  Schools,  630  Chestnut  St.,  Pine  Bluff, 


California]  LIFE,  ACTIVE,  AND  CORRESPONDING  MEMBERS  73 1 

ARKANSAS—  C^«<«"«a^(^ 

1898  Emma  Mann,  M.E.L.,  '91,  Memphis  Con.  Female  Inst.,  Jackson,  Tenn. 

1898,  Vice-Principal  of  6th  Ave.  School,  627  Pine  St.,  Pine  Bluff. 
T.  P.  Murrey. 

Representative  of  American  Book  Co.,  Fort  Smith. 
J.  R.  Rights  ELL. 

Superintendent  of  City  Schools,  Little  Rock. 
Cora  Sheber. 

1894,  Teacher  in  Public  Schools,  Hot  Springs. 

1899  James  H,  Witherspoon,  A.B.,  '92,  Univ.  of  Tenn. 

189s,  Principal  of  High  School,  302  W.  17th  Ave.,  Pine  Bluff. 

1900  T.  L.  Cox. 

Little  Rock. 
J.  S.  Stilwell,  D.D.S.,  '86,  Kansas  City  Dental  Coll. 

1899,  Secretary,  State  Board  t)ental  Examiners,  2020  Spring  and  Arch  Sts.,  Searcy. 
J.  D.  Van  Winkle. 

District  Manager,  B.  F.  Johnson  Publishing  Co.,  1023  N.  14th  St.,  Fort  Smith. 

CALIFORNIA 

life  members 
1877      Mrs.  Anna  Kalfus  Spero. 
Berkeley. 
1879     James  H.  Hoose,  A.M.,  '64,  Ph.D.,  '73,  Syracuse  Univ. 

Department  of    Psychology  and  Pedagogy,  University  of    Southern  Cal.,   255  S. 
Euclid  Ave.,  Pasadena. 
1882     Harriet  N.  Morris,  A.M.,  '86,  Nat.  Nor.  Univ. 

2346,  2d  St.,  San  Diego. 
1884     Nathan  Crook  Twining,  A.B.,  '61,  A.M.,  '65,  Milton  Coll.,  Wis. 

1900,  Principal  of  Public  Schools,  Nipomo;  res.,  1224  Walnut  St.,  Riverside. 
1886      C.  Y,  Roop. 

634,  i8th  St.,  Oakland, 
i888     Rebecca  F.  English. 

1891,  Critic  Teacher,  State  Normal  School,  141  S.  loth  St.,  San  Jose. 
Joseph  O'Connor.  _ 

Principal  of  Mission  High  School,  i8th  and  Dolores  Sts.,  San  Francisco. 
1889     Augusta  W.  Hobe. 

1888,  Teacher  in  Grammar  Grade,  1633  Hyde  St.,  San  Francisco. 

ACTIVE    members 

1888  J.  P.  Greeley. 

1889,  County  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Santa  Ana. 

1889  Sanford  a.  Hooper,  A.B.,  '72,  A.M.,  '82,  Beloit  Coll. 

1899,  Head  Master  of  Los  Angeles  Military  Academy,  Los  Angeles. 
Edward  T.  Pierce,  LL.B.,  '77,  Union  Univ. ;  Pd.D.,  '94,  N.  Y.  Nor  Coll. 

1893,  President  of  State  Normal  School,  631  W.  5th  St.,  Los  Angeles. 

1891  Elmer  Ellsworth  Brown,  A.B.,  '89,  Univ.  of  Mich. ;  Ph.D.,  '90,  Halle. 

1898,  Professor  of  Theory  and  Practice  of  Education,  Univ.  of  Cal.,  2341  Channing  Way, 

Berkeley. 

1892  Frederic  L.  Bukk,  B.L.,  '83,  Univ.  of  Cal. ;  A.M.,  '92,  Stanford  Univ. ;  Ph.D.,  '98,  Clark  Univ. 

1899,  President  of  State  Normal  School,  Powell  St.,  near  Clay,  San  Francisco. 
i8q3      James  A.  Foshay,  A.M.,  Univ.  of  So.  Cal. ;  Pd.D.,  '98,  N.  Y.  Nor.  Coll. 

189s,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  2341  Scarff  St.,  Los  Angeles. 

1894  Ellwood  p.  Cubberley,  A.B.,  '91,  Ind.  Univ. 

1899,  Associate  Professor  of  Education,  Leiand  Stafford  Jr.  Univ.,  Stanford  Univ. 
Joseph  C.  Templeton,  A.B.,  Leiand  Stanford  Jr.  Univ. 

1899,  Superintendent  of  City  Schools,  611  Hickey  St.,  Santa  Ana. 
Charles  C.  Van  Liew, Ph.D.,  '93,  Jena. 

1899,  President  of  State  Normal  School,  Chico. 

1895  D.  R.  Augsburg,  B.P.,  '84,  Syracuse  Univ. 

i898,|Director  of  Drawing,  Public  Schools,  1261,  6th  Ave.,  East  Oakland. 
Lewis  B.  Avery,  B.Sc,  '83,  Tabor  Coll.,  la. 

1895,  Principal  of  Union  High  School,  Redlands. 
Walter  J.  Bailey,  A.M.,  1900,  Bates  Coll. 

1900,  Master  in  The  Harvard  School  (Military),  Los  Angeles. 
Samuel  T.  Black. 

1898,  President  of  State  Normal  School,  San  Diego. 

Theodore  B.  Comstock,  B.Ag.,  '68,  Pa.  State  Coll. ;  B.Sc,  '70,  D.Sc,  '86,  Cornell  Univ. 

Ex-President  of  Univ.  of  Ariz.,  Director  of  School  of  Mines,  534  Stimson  Block, 
Los  Angeles. 
Melville  Dozier,  Ph.B.,  '67,  B.Pd.,  Furman  Univ.,  S.  C. 

189s,  Vice-President  of  State  Normal  School,  825  W.  nth  St.,  Los  Angeles. 
John  A.  Hancock,  M.L.,  '90,  Univ.  of  Wis. ;  A.M.,  '93,  Stanford  Univ. 

1900,  Principal  of  High  School,  Nevada  City. 
Charles  Edward  Hutton,  A.B.,  '53,  A.M.,  '6t,  St.  John's  Coll.,  Md. 

1890,  Instructor  in  State  Normal  School,  1007  W.  21st  St.,  Los  Angeles. 
Joseph  Perry  Jackson,  LL.B..  '76,  Iowa  Univ. ;  A.M.,  1900,  Columbia  Univ. 

1900,  Supervising  Principal  of  Schools,  Colton. 
Thomas  J.  Kirk. 

1899,  State  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  Sacramento. 

Joseph  Le  Conte,  A.B.,  '41,  A.M.,  '45,  LL.D.,  '79,  Univ.  of  Ga. ;  LL.D.,  '96,  Princeton;  M.D.,  '45, 
Coll.  of  Phys.  &  Surg.,  N.  Y. ;  B.Sc,  '51,  Harvard  Univ. 

1869,  Professor  of  Geology  and  Natural  History,  University  of  California.  Berkeley. 
James  McNaughton,  A.B.,  '62,  A.M.,  '65,  Ph.D.,  '87,  Allegheny  Coll. 

San  Jose. 
J.  B.  MoNLUx,  A.M.,  '81,  Iowa  State  Univ. 

1896,  Principal  of  aStif  St.  School,  250  E.  30th  St.,  Los  Angeles. 


732  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [California 

1895  University  of  California. 

President,  Benjamin  Ide  Wheeler,  LL.D. ;  Librarian,  J.  C.  Rowell,  Berkeley. 

1896  E.  Morris  Cox,  A.B.,  Haverford  Coll.,  Pa. 

1897,  Principal  of  Public  Schools,  Santa  Rosa. 
Mrs.  C.  L.  Place. 

21  Lloyd  St.,  San  Francisco. 

1897  Frank  H.  Ball. 

1900,  Director  of  Manual  Training,  Throop  Polytechnic  Institute,  Pasadena. 
Christine  Benson. 

1898,  Primary  Teacher,  Gray  Gables,  Los  Angeles. 
Arthur  H.  Chamberlain. 

1896,  Professor  of  Pedagogy  and  Instructor  of  Sloyd,  Throop  Polytechnic  Institute,  377 

N.  Los  Robles  Ave.,  Pasadena. 
Free  Public  Library  of  San  Francisco. 

Secretary,  George  A.  Mullin,  San  Fraiy:isco. 
Flokence  Lawson. 

Directoi  of  Kindergarten  Department,  State  Normal  School,  Los  Angeles. 
Fernando  Sanford. 

1891,  Professor  of  Physics,  Leland  Stanford  Jr.  University,  Stanford  University. 
Leland  Stanford  Jr.  University. 

President,  David  Starr  Jordan;  Librarian,  H.  C.  Nash,  Stanford  University. 
State  Normal  School  at  Chico. 

President,  C.  C.  Van  Liew ;  Librarian,  Susan  T.  Smith,  Chico. 
State  Normal  School  at  Los  Angeles. 

President,  Edward  T.  Pierce,  Los  Angeles. 

1898  Henry  T.  Ardley,  S.A.,  '70,  London,  Eng. 

1893,  Prof,  of  Decorative  and  Industrial  Art,  Univ.  of  Cal.,  2311  Durant  Ave.,  Berkeley. 
James  A.  Barr. 

i8gi,  Superintendent  of  City  Schools,  1407  E.  Channel  St.;  Stockton. 
Morris  Elmer  Dailey,  A.M.,  Ind.  Univ. 

1900,  President  of  State  Normal  School,  San  Jose. 
David  Starr  Jordan,  M.Sc,  Ph.D..  M.D.,  LL.D. 

President  of  Leland  Stanford  Jr.  University,  Stanford  University. 
Anna  E.  Lemon. 

1894,  Teacher  in  First  Primary,  115  N.  Marengo  Ave.,  Pasadena. 
Albert  Lyser. 

Principal  of  John  Swett  Grammar  School.  417  Larkin  St.,  San  Francisco. 
Alexander  Holmes  MacDonald,  Dalhousie  Coll.,  Halifax,  Nova  Scotia. 

1885,  Principal  of  Lincoln  Evening  School,  407  Fair  Oaks  St.,  San  Francisco. 
Cecil  Wirt  Mark,  B.Sc,  '88,  Univ.  of  Pacific,  Cal. 

1899,  Deputy  Superintendent  of  Schools,  1007  Dolores  St.,  San  Francisco. 
Carl  H.  Nielsen. 

1899,  Principal,  Union  High  School,  Vacaville. 
Antrim  Edgar  Osborne,  M.D.,  '77,  Ph.D.,  '79. 

1886,  Superintendent  of  State   Institute   for   Feeble-Minded;   1896,  Professor,  Nervous 

and  Mental  Diseases,  College  of   Physicians  and  Surgeons,  San   Francisco ; 
Eldridge. 
State  Normal  School  Library,  San  Jos:^. 

President,  Morris  Elmer  Dailey;  Librarian,  Ruth  Royce,  San  Jose. 

1899  Osmer  Abbott,  A.B.,  '90,  Oberlin  Coll. ;  Ph.D.,  '98,  Jena. 

1899,  Principal  of  Washington  Union  High  School,  Fresno. 
James  E.  Addicott. 

189T,  Teacher  of  Manual  Training  and  Mathematics,  55  George  St.,  San  Jose. 
Lulu  Claire  Bahr. 

1899,  County  Superintendent  of  Schools,  222,  7th  St.,  San  Bernardino. 
Thomas  P.  Bailey,  Jr.,  Ph.D.,  Univ.  of  So.  Cal. 

Associate  Professor  of  Education  as  Related  to  Character,  Univ.  of  Cal.,  Berkeley. 
W.  H.  Baker,  A.M.,  P.T.,  St.  Nor.  Sch.,  Kirksville,  Mo. 

1897,  Teacher  of  Mathematics,  High  School,  103  Abby  St.,  Fresno. 
Hugh  J.  Baldwin. 

1899,  County  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Courthouse,  San  Diego. 
Katherine  M.  Ball. 

1894,  Supervisor  of  Drawing,  Public  Schools,  1260  California  St.,  San  Francisco. 
Miss  Lew  Ball. 

1898,  Teacher  in  Garfield  School,  Oakland  ;  address  for  1900,  Stanford  University. 
O.  F.  Barth,  A.B.,  '82,  A.M.,  '85,  Shurtleff  Coll. 

1897,  Principal  of  Union  High  School,  Perris. 
Sara  P.  Brown,  B.Sc, '81,  Univ.  of  W.  Va. 

Pres.  American  Young  People's  Patriotic  Society,  902  California  St.,  San  Franci.sco, 
Thomas  Pollock  Brown,  A.B.,  '99,  Nev.  State  Univ. 

1900,  Principal  of  Sixth  Street  School,  Santa  Monica. 
Louis  A.  Buchanan,  M.E.,  '93,  Stanford  Univ. 

Director  of  Manual  Training,  221  W.  Magnolia  St.,  Stockton. 
J.  D,  Burks,  Ph.B.,  '93,  Univ.  of  Chicago;  M.L.,  '94,  Univ.  of  Cal. 

Department  of  Psychology  and  History  of  Education,  State  Nor.  School,  San  Diego, 
Rev.  Allan  L.  Burleson,  A.M.,  '81,  Racine;  B.D.,  93,  Kenyon, 

All  Saints'  Mission,  Redding. 
Minnie  L.  Catey. 


i895,^eacher  in  Grammar  Department,  Compton. 
:k  H.  "  ■ 


Frederick  H.  Clark,  A.M.,  '86,  Univ.  of  Cal. 

1889,  History  Department,  Lowell  High  School,  San  Francisco;    res.,  1418  Myrtle  St., 
Oakland. 
Mrs.  Henrietta  Treat  Compton. 

Teacher  in  South  Pasadena,  94  Allesandro  PI.,  Pasadena. 
W.  H.  Cook. 

Principal  of  Vernon  School,  1134  E.  Vernon  Ave.,  Los  Angeles. 
Minnie  Coulter,  A.B.,  '98,  Stanford  Univ. 

1898,  Superintendent  of  Schools  of  Sonoma  Countf ,  Santa  Rosa. 


California]  LIFE,  ACTIVE,  AND  CORRESPONDING  MEMBERS  733 

1899     Henry  G.  Crocker,  M.L.,  '91,  Yale. 

1897,  Principal  of  High  School,  Coronado. 
Jesse  George  Cross,  A.M.,  '68,  McKendree  Coll. 

1900,  Professor  in  Throop  Polytechnic  Institute,  Pasadena;  res.,  Monrovia. 
Frank  P.  Davidson. 

1889,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  San  Diego. 
Anna  E.  Edwards. 

1890,  Teacher  of  Eighth  Grade,  City  Schools,  1837,  3d  St.,  San  Diego. 
Walter  A.  Edwards.  A.M.,  '86,  Knox  Coll. 

1897,  President  of  Throop  Polytechnic  Institute,  Pasadena. 
W.  S.  Edwards,  A.M.,  Alfred  Univ. 

1899,  County  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Santa  Barbara  Co.,  Santa  Barbara, 
Richard  Douglas  Faulkner,  B.L.,  '77,  Univ.  of  111. 

1895,  Principal  of  Franklin  Grammar  School,  809  Castro  St.,  San  Francisco. 
Frank  L.  Ferguson,  B.D.,  '98,  Yale. 

1898,  President  of  Pomona  College,  Claremont. 
J.  H.  Francis. 

Head  of  Commercial  Dept.,  High  School,  1701  New  England  St.,  Los  Angeles. 
Charles  Mills  Gayley,  A.B.,  Univ.  of  Mich. 

1889,  Professor  of  English  Language  and  Literature,  University  of  California,  2403  Pied- 
mont Ave.,  Berkeley. 

E.  F.  Goodyear,  A.B.,  '92,  Univ.  of  Cal. 

1896,  Pacific  Coast  Agent  of  The  Macmillan  Co.,  325  Sansome  St.,  San  Francisco, 
Hattie  F.  Gower. 

1896,  Assist.  Teacher  of  Sloyd,cor.  N.  Johnson  and  Minnesota  Sts.,  Sta.  A,  Los  Angeles. 
James  D.  Graham,  A.B.,  '88,  A.M.,  '92,  Toronto  Univ. 

Superintendent  of  Schools,  510  Ellis  St.,  Pasadena. 
Lyman  Gregory,  M.D.,  '87,  Chicago  Home  Med.  Coll. 

1900,  Teacher  of  Physiology  in  High  School,  400  W.  30th  St.,  Los  Angeles. 
A.  F.  Gunn. 

Aonerican  Book  Co.,  204  Pine  St.,  San  Francisco. 
Julius  C.  Hammel,  A.B.,  '94,  Stanford  Univ. 

Principal  of  George  Dewey  School,  Fruitvale. 
Lillian  D.  Hazen. 

1899,  Principal  of  Vernon  School,  544  Ruth  Ave.,  Los  Angeles. 

T,  L,  H  EATON, 

1897,  Teacher  of  Pedagogy,  University  of  California,  Berkeley. 
Caspar  W.  Hodgson,  A.B.,  '96,  Stanford  Univ. 

Pacific  Coast  Manager,  D,  C.  Heath  &  Co.,  325  Sansomei6t.,  San  Francisco. 
W.  H.  HousH. 

189s,  Principal  of  High  School,  1534  Ingraham  St.,  Los  Angeles. 
Agnes  E.  Howe,  A.B,,  '97,  Stanford  Univ. 

1897,  Instructor  in  History,  State  Normal  School,  San  Jose. 
A,  D.  Hunter, 

Director  of  Music,  Public  Schools,  582  N.  Ellen  St.,  Pomona. 
Frank  H.  Hyatt. 

1898,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Pomona. 

O.  P.  Jenkins,  A.B.,  A.M.,  Moores  Hill  Coll. ;  M.Sc,  Ph.D.,  Ind.  Univ. 

Professor  of  Physiology,  Leland  Stanford  Jr.  University,  Stanford  University. 
*Rev.  S.  H.  Kellogg.,  D.D.,  '57. 

loio  E.  gth  St., Los  Angeles. 
Burt  O.  Kinney.  A.B.,  '97,  Stanford  Univ. 

Principal  of  Siskiyou  County  High  School,  Yreka. 
T.  H,  Kirk,  B.L., '82,  M.L.. '87,  IJniv,  of  Wis. 

1899,  Principal  of  High  School  and  Supervising  Principal  of  Grades,  Monrovia. 
C.  A,  KuNOu. 

Supervisor  of  Manual  Training,  422  So.  Ave.  19,  Los  Angeles. 
J.  W.  McClymonds,  A.B,,  '71,  Westminster,  Pa. 

1888,  Superintendent  of  City  Schools,  4(7,  34th  St.,  Oakland. 

F,  H.  Meyer. 

Instructor  in  Drawing  and  Manual  Training,  545  N.  Center  St.,  Stockton. 
Charles  M.  Miller. 

Director  of  Sloyd,  State  Normal  School,  Los  Angeles. 
Ernest  Carroll  Moore,  A.B.,  '92,  LL.B.,  '94,  Ohio  Nor.  Univ.;  A.M., '96,  Columbia  Univ.; 
Ph.D., '98,  Univ.  of  Chjcago. 

1899,  Instructor  in  Philosophy,  University  of  California,  Berkeley. 
Frank  Morton,  A.B,,  '80,  Dartmouth. 

1888,  Principal  of  Lowell  High  School,  3331  Washington  St., "San  Francisco. 

E.  H.  MOSHER. 

1897,  Principal  of  Schools,  Benicia. 

F.  O.  MowER,  A.B.,  '78,  Bates  Coll.,  Lewiston,  Me. 

1897,  Principal  of  High  School,  715,  3d  St.,  Napa. 
Watson  Nicholson,  A.B.,  '92,  Stanford  Univ.;  A.M.,  '05,  Harvard. 

1897,  Teacher  of  English  in  High  School,  Redlands. 
Pomona  College. 

President,  Frank  L.  Ferguson ;  Acting  Librarian,  F.  A.  Bissell,  Claremont. 
Minnie  E.  Rees. 

Teacher  of  Fifth  and  Sixth  Grades,  City  Schools,  632  Britannia  St.,  Los  Angeles. 
Mrs.  May  Reese,  Grad.  of  Nor.  Sch, 

Director  of  Kindergarten,  412  W.  Montecito  St.,  Santa  Barbara. 
W.W,  Seaman. 

Fourth  Deputy  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  1419  O  St.,  Sacramento, 
George  M.  Sheldon. 

1897,  Teacher  in  Grammar  School,  Anaheim, 
Mrs.  Julia  Cole  Sherwood. 

1898,  Teacher,  Spruce  Grove  District,  Lower  Lake. 

♦Died  May  15,  igoo. 


TU 


MATtoNAL  Educational  association 


[Colorado 


CAIAYOK'HIA— Continued 

1899  Mrs.  Hattie  Bikdick  Shorkley. 

Teacher  in  First  Grade,  Public  Schools,  578,  17th  St.,  Oakland. 
U.  P.  Shull,  A.B.,  '79,  A.M.,  '82,  Westfield  Coll. 

Supervising  Principal  of  Schools,  cor.  Painter  and  Philadelphia  Sts.,  Whittier. 
State  Library  of  California. 

Librarian,  J.  L.  Gillis,  Sacramento. 

F.  W.  Stein,  Jr. 

1899,  Principal  of  Harper  School,  1398  Newton  St.,  Los  Angeles. 
W.  W.  Stone. 

1890,  Principal  of  Burnett  School,  745  Shrader  St.,  San  Francisco. 
Anna  M.  Stovall. 

1891,  Principal  of  Free  Normal  Training  School  of  Golden  Gate  Kindergarten  Association, 

221,  9th  St.,  San  Francisco. 
John  Harvey  Strine. 

1898,  County  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Room  47,  Courthouse,  Los  Angeles ;  permanent 

address,  Monrovia. 
Francis  A.  Swanger.  M.S.D.,'92,  Mo.  State  Nor.,  Kirksville;  A.M., '98,  Willamette  Univ.,  Ore. 

1899,  Principal  of  High  School,  Woodland. 
John  Swett,  A.M.  (honorary),  Dartmouth  Coll. 

Martinez. 
W.  Scott  Thomas,  A.B.,  '89,  Johns  Hopkins  Univ. 

1900,  Principal  of  Merced  County  High  School,  Box  288,  Merced. 

G.  S.  Trowbridge,  B.Sc,  '80,  A.M.,  '82,  Iowa  State  Univ. 

Principal  of  San  Fernando  Union  High  School,  Fernando. 
Harr  Wagner,  A.B.,  '81,  A.M.,  '85,  Wittenberg  Coll. 

Editor  "  Western  Journal  of  Education,"  723  Market  St.,  San  Francisco. 
M.  Edna  Walker. 

1896,  Teacher  in  Public  Schools,  Monrovia. 
Louis  K.  Webb,  B.Sc,  '78,  Univ.  of  Mich. ;  A.M.,  '98,  Stanford  Univ. 

1899,  Principal  of  Union  High  School,  Clovis. 
R.  H.  Webster,  A.B.,  '77,  A.M.,  '82,  Univ.  of  Cal. 

1896,  Superintendent  of  Schools  in  and  for  the  City  and  County  of  San  Francisco,  City 
Hall,  San  Francisco. 
Daniel  H.  White. 

Superintendent  of  Schools,  Solano  County,  Fairfield. 
M.  M.  Whiting,  A.B.,  '81,  Cent.  Univ.  of  Iowa. 

Principal  of  Lugo  School,  Compton. 
Warring  WilkiSson,  A.B..  '58,  Union  Coll. ;  L.H.D.,  Gallaudet  Coll.,  D.  C. 

1865,  Principal  of  Institute  for  Deaf  and  Blind,  Berkeley. 
Anna  L.  Williams. 

1899,  Superintendent  of  Schools  of  Modoc  County,  Alturas. 
M.  Ida  Williams,  A.B.,  '99,  Stanford  Univ. 

1899,  Teacher  in  Public  Schools,  135  S.  Marengo  Ave.,  Pasadena. 
Mrs.  Rosa  Viola  Winterburn,  B.L.,  '93,  Univ.  of  Mich. 

1896,  Supervisor  in  History  and  Literature,  1009  N.  Sutter  St.,  Stockton. 

1900  Arthur  W.  Gray,  A.B.,  '96,  Univ.  of  Cal. 

1900,  Teacher  of  Physics,  Chemistry,  and  Mathematics,  Merced   County  High    School; 

P.  O.  Box  183,  Merced. 
George  A.  Merrill,  B.Sc,  '88,  Univ.  of  Cal. 

1894,  Principal  of  CaliforniaSchool  of  Mechanic  Arts,  i6th  and  Utah  Sts.,  San  Francisco. 

COLORADO 

life  director 

1888     Aaron  Gove,  A.M.,  '78,  Dartmouth  CoU. ;  LL.D.,  '88,  Univ.  of  Colo. 

1874,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  District  No.  i.  High  School,  Denver. 

life  member 

1886      Fr-ank  Howard  Clark,  B.Didac,  '83,  Univ.  of  Kan. 

1899,  Superintendent  of  City  Schools,  Spruce  St.,  Central  City. 


active  members 

1884     James  H.  Baker,  A.B.,  '73.  A.M.,  '76,  LL.D.,  '92,  Bates  Coll. 
1892,  President  of  University  of  Colorado,  Boulder. 
Robert  H.  Beggs,  B.Sc,  '68,  111.  Coll. ;  M.Sc,  1900,  Fort  Worth  Univ. ;  A.M.,  1900,  Denver  Univ. 
1880,  Principal  of  Grammar  School,  2427  Ogden  St.,  Denver. 
1887      Ch.\rles  V.  Parker,  B.Sc,  '97,  Denver  Univ. 

1899,  Superintendent  of  City  Schools,  601  Baca  St.,  Trinidad. 

Z.  X.  Snyder,  B.Sc,  '76,  A.B.,  '78,  Ph.D.,  '85,  Waynesburg  Coll.,  Pa. 

T891,  President  of  State  Normal  School  of  Colorado,  Greeley. 

1892  Lewis  C.  Greenlee,  Grad.,  State  Nor.  Sch.,  '78,  Edinboro,  Pa. ;  A.M.,  '95,  Waynesburg  Coll.,  Pa. 

1890,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Dist.  No.  2,  549  S.  Tremont  St.,  Denver. 
William  Henry  Smiley,  A.B.,  '77,  Harvard  Univ. 

1892,  Principal  of  High  School,  Dist.  No.  i,  2112  Lincoln  Ave.,  Denver. 

1893  Charles  A,  Bradley,  Grad.,  '77,  U.  S.  Military  Acad. 

1894,  Principal  of  Manual  Training  High  School,  1341  Corona  St.,  Denver. 
James  W.  Scott,  A.B.,  Duquesne  Coll. 

1899,  Principal  of  Garfield  School,  219  E.  Columbia  St.,  Colorado  Springs. 

1894  Edgar  Rollin  Downs,  A. B.,  '76,  A.M.,  '81,  Williams  Coll. 

1900,  Superintendent  of  City  Schools,  Durango. 
S.  Arthur  Johnson,  B.Sc,  '91,  M.Sc,  '95,  Rutgers  Coll. 

1896,  Instructor  in  Math.,  High  School,  Dist.  No.  2,  55  S.  Washington  Ave.,  Denver, 


Connecticut]         LIFE,  ACTIVE,  AND  COkRESPONDiNG  MEMBERS  73S 

COLORADO—  Continued 

189s      H.  M.  Barrett^  A.B.,  '90,  A.M.,  '93,  Allegheny  Coll. 

Teacher  of  Latin  and  English,  High  School;  Editor  "Colorado   School  Journal;" 
526  Charlesburg  St.,  Denver. 
A.  E.  Beardsley,  B.Sc,  '78.  Cornell  Univ. ;  M.Sc,  '98,  Univ.  of  Colo. 

1892,  Professor  of  Biology,  State  Normal  School,  1412,  loth  St.,  Greeley. 
George  Lvman  Cannon,  Jr. 

1887,  Instructor  in  Geology  and  Biology,  High  School,  Denver. 
William  V.  Casey. 

1893,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  820  Pine  St.,  Boulder. 

Charles  Ernest  Chadsey,  A.B.,  '92,  A.M.,  '93,  Stanford;  A.M.,  '94,  Ph.D.,  '97,  Columbia. 

1897,  Superintendent  of  City  Schools,  N.  S.,  Denver. 
Fred  Dick,  A.M.,  Hamilton  Coll.,  N.  Y. 

Principal  of  Normal  and  Preparatory  School,  1543-45  Glenarm  St.,  Denver. 
John  Dietrich. 

1893,  Superintendent  of  City  Schools,  922  N.  Weber  St.,  Colorado  Springs. 
E.  Waite  Elder,  A.B.,  '91,  A.M.,  '94,  Princeton. 

1900,  Instructor  in  Physics,  High  School,  District  No.  i,  Denver. 
John  B.  Garvin,  B.Sc,  '86,  Univ.  of  Illinois. 

1892,  Instructor  in  Chemistry,  High  School,  Dist.  No.  i,  2536  W.  34th  Ave.,  Denver. 
Edward  F.  Hermanns. 

1891,  Principal  of  High  School,  Dist.  No.  2,  S.  12th  St.  and  W.  5th  Ave.,  Denver. 
John  F.  Keating,  A.B.,  '92,  Ohio  Wes.  Univ. 

1896,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  South  Side,  1102  Lake  Ave,  Pueblo. 
Ch.\rles  Joseph  Ling,  B.Sc,  '90,  Cornell  Univ. ;  A.M.,  1900,  Univ.  of  Denver. 

1894,  Instructor  in  Physics,  Manual  Training  High  School,  Denver. 
Clara  Louise  Little. 

1891,  Teacher  in  Public  Schools,  Delgany  School,  Denver. 
J.  S.  McClung. 

1879,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Dist.  No.  i,  423,  nth  St.,  Pueblo. 
Dora  M.  Moore. 

1893,  Principal  of  Corona  School,  1031  Emerson  St.,  Denver. 

Charles  Skeele  Palmer,  A.B.,  '79,  A.M.,  '82,  Amherst;  Ph.D.,  '86.  Johns  Hopkins. 
1887,  Professor  of  Chemistry,  University  of  Colorado,  1224  Pine  St.,  Boulder. 
Sidney  Fuller  Smith,  Grad.,  "84,  U.  S.  Naval  Acad. 

1890,  Instructor  in  Physics,  High  School.  Dist.  No.  i,  2009  Vine  St.,  Denver. 
Emanuel  Stuver,  B.Sc,  '77,  M.Sc,  '85,  Nat.  Nor.  Univ.,  Lebanon,  O. ;  M.D.,  '80,  Ohio  Med.  Coll. ; 
Ph.D.,  '95,  Wyo.  Normal  and  Scientific  Coll. 
Rohling  Block,  Fort  Collins. 

1896  O.  J.  Blakesley,  B.Sc  ,  Pd.D. 

1896,  Superintendent  of  City  Schools,  La  Junta. 
Mrs.  Z.  X.  Snyder. 

Greeley. 

1897  IzoRA  Scott,  A. B., '87,  Kan.  Nor.  Coll. 

1899.  Principal  of  High  School,  425  Broadway,  Pueblo. 
State  Normal  School  at  Greeley. 

President,  Z.  X.  Snyder;  Secretary,  Vernon  McKelvey,  Greeley. 

1898  Cecelia  Adams,  '88,  Chicago  Froebel  Assoc. 

Supervisor  of  Kindergartens,  High  School,  Dist.  No.  1,  Denver. 
Emily  H.  Miles. 

1893,  Supervisor  of  Drawing,  Dist.  No.  1,  ■ii,yi  Lincoln  Ave.,  Denver. 
H.  W.  Zirkle,  A.B.,  '83,  Polytechnic  Inst.,  Va. ;  A.M.,  1900,  Univ.  of  Colo. 

1892,  Principal  of  Elmwood  School,  357  Lincoln  Ave.,  Denver. 

1899  A.  B.  COPELAND. 

1882,  Superintendent  of  City  Schools,  1228  Main  St.,  Greeley. 
Edward  C.  Elliott,  B.Sc,  '95,  A.M.,  '97,  Univ.  of  Neb. 

1898,  Superintendent  of  City  Schools,  Box  462,  Leadville. 
Benjamin  R.  Gass,  A.B.,  '66,  A.M.,  '69,  Antioch  Coll. 

i89i,*Principal  of  Hyde  Park  School,  2020  Clarkson  St.,  Denver. 
Mrs.  Helen  L.  Grenfell. 

1898,  State  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  1452  Elizabeth  St..  Denver. 
Herbert  Griggs. 

1884,  Director  of  Music,  Box  765,  Denver. 

E.  G.  Lancaster,  A.B.,  '85,  A.M.,  '88,  Amherst;  Ph.D.,  '97,  Clark  Univ. 

1897,  Assistant  Professor  of  Philosophy  and  Pedagogy,  Colorado  College,  1451  N.  Nevada 

Ave.,  Colorado  Springs. 
Ezra  W.  Palmer,  A.B.,  '94,  Univ.  of  Kan. 

1897,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Box  308,  Cripple  Creek. 
H.  S.  Philips,  Ph.B.,  '83,  Oskaloosa  Coll. 

1890,  Principal  of  Logan  School,  Dist.  No.  2,  57  S.  Washington  Ave.,  Denver. 
Elizabeth  Skinner. 

1900,  Deputy  State  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  2500  Boulevard,  Denver. 
Hknrv  B.  Smith,  A.B.,  '94,  Harvard.  A.M.,  '96,  Moores  Hill  Coll. 

1897,  Instructor  in  Latin,  High  School,  District  No.  2,  521,  i8th  Ave.,  Denver, 

CONNECTICUT 

active  members 

1888  George  B.  Hurd. 

1885,  Supervising  Principal  of  Winchester  School  District,  59  Lake  PI.,  New  Haven. 

1889  Charles  W.  Deane,  A.M.,  '84,  Ph.D.,  '92,  Allegheny  Coll. 

1893,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  338  Main  St.,  Bridgeport. 
1892     David  N.  Camp,  A.M.,  '53,  Vale. 

185s,  Ex-State  Supt.  of    Schools,  Manager  of    New  Britain  Library,  9  Camp  St.,  New 
Britain. 
1894     Fredbrick  a.  Curtiss. 

1892,  Principal  of  Old  Saybrook  High  School,  Saybrook, 


736 


NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Dist.  of  Col. 


CONNECTICUT—  Continued 
i8q5     Nathan  L.  Bishop. 

1877,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Central  District,  7  Huntington  PI.,  Norwich. 
Charles  H.  Keyes,  A.B.,  '78,  St.  John's  Coll. 

1899,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  South  District,  Hartford. 

1896  E.  Hermann  Arnold,  M.D.,  '94,  Yale. 

1895,  Director  of  Anderson  Normal  School  of  Gymnastics,  46  York  Sq.,  New  Haven. 
Francis  E.  Howard. 

1890,  Supervisor  of  Music,  322  John  St.,  Bridgeport. 

1897  Ernest  Milnor  Benedict,  A.B.,  '85,  Kenyon  Coll. ;  D.B.,  '91,  Epis.  Theol.  Sch. 

1900,  Instructor  of  History,  Manor  School,  Stamford. 
Berlin  Wright  Tinker,  A.B.,  '88,  A.M.,  '89,  Bates  Coll. 

1897,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  28  Mitchell  Ave.,  Waterbury. 

1898  Wilbur  Fisk  Gordv. 

1884,  Supervising  Principal  of  North  School  District,  104  Gillett  St.,  Hartford, 
Stuart  H.  Rowe,  A.B.,  '90,  Yale ;  Ph.D.,  '95,  Jena  Univ.,  Germany. 

1898,  Supervising  Principal,  285  Wilfow  St.,  New  Haven, 
Sarah  J.  Walter. 

189s,  Principal  of  Training  Department,  State  Normal  School,  Willimantic. 

1899  Isaac  M,  Agard,  A.B.,  '79,  A.M.,  '84,  Amherst  Coll. 

1888,  Principal  of  Rockville  High  School;  Superintendent  of  East  District  Graded  School, 
Vernon;  res.,  Rockville. 
Waterman  Rufus  Burnham, 

362  Main  St.,  Norwich. 
CoNNECTicirr  Agricultural  College. 

President,  George  W,  Flint,  Storrs. 
William  North  Rice,  A.B.,  '65,  A.M.,  '68,  Wesleyan;  Ph.D.,  '67,  Yale;  LL.D.,  '86,Syracuse. 

1867,  Professor  of  Geology,  Wesleyan  University,  31  College  Place,  Middletown. 
Giles  Alfred  Stuart,  A.B.,  '77,  A.M.,  '80,  Bates  Coll. 

1896,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  31  Emmons  PI.,  New  Britain. 

DELAWARE 

active  members 

1891  Edwina  B.  Kruse. 

1876,  Principal  of  Howard  High  School,  206  E.  10th  St.,  Wilmington. 

1892  Albert  N.  Raub,  A.M., '67,  Princeton;  Ph.D.,  '79,  Lafayette;  LL.D.,  '95,  Ursinus  Coll. 

Author  and  Publisher,  Newark. 
1896      A.  H.  Berlin,  A.M.,  '88,  Hamilton  Coll. 

1888,  Principal  of  High  School,  817  Adams  St.,  Wilmington. 

DISTRICT  OF  COLUMBIA 

life  directors 

1876     William  Torrev  Harris,  A.M.,  '69,  Yale;  LL.D.,  '70, Univ.  of  Mo.;  '94,  Univ.  of  Pa.;  "95,  Yale; 
'96,  Princeton;  A.M.,  Ph.D.,  '93,  Brown  Univ. ;  Ph.D.,  '99,  Univ.  of  Jena.  Germany. 

1889,  Commissioner  of  Education  of  the  United  States,  1303  P  St.,  N.  W.,  Washington. 
1880     James  Ormond  Wilson,  A.M., '74,  Dartmouth  Coll. 

1892.  Secretary  of  American  Colonization  Society;   Custodian   of   National  Educational 
Association,  450  Pennsylvania  Ave.,  N.  W.,  Washington. 

LIFE  members 
1880     John  Hitz. 

1887,  Superintendent  of  Volta  Bureau,  cor.  35th  and  Q  Sts.,  Washington. 
1884     Alex.  Graham  Bell. 

1331  Connecticut  Ave.,  Washington. 
1889      Rt.  Rev.  John  J.  Keane,  D.D.,  Laval;  LL.D.,  Harvard, 

1886,  Late  Rector  of  Catholic  University  of  America,  Washington. 

active  members 
1889     W.  F.  Powell. 

Minister  to  Haiti,  American  Legation;  address  State  Dept.,  Washington. 

1892  William  Bramvvell  Powell,  A.M.,  '66,  Lombard  Univ. 

Ex -Superintendent  of  Schools,  1404  M.  St.,  N.  W.,  Wa.shington. 
Mrs.  Sara  A.  Spencer. 

1891,  President  of  Spencerian  Business  College,  Academy  of  Music  Building,  403,  9th  St., 

N.  W.,  Washington. 

1893  John  Eaton,  Ph.D.,  Rutgers  Coll. ;  LL.D.,  Dartmouth  Coll. 

Ex-U.  S.  Commissioner  of  Education,  The  Concord,  Washington. 

1894  Susan  Plessner  Pollock,  Grad.  of  Kg.  Nor.  Inst.,  Berlin. 

Principal,  Froebel  Normal  Institute  and  Kindergarten,  1426  Q  St.,  N.  W.,  Washington. 
Estelle  Reel. 

1898,  General  Superintendent  of  Indian  Schools,  Department  of  the  Interior,  Washington. 

1895  Allan  Davis,  B.Sc,  '90,  M.S.,  '96,  Columbian  Univ.;  LL.M.,  '93,  Nat.  Law  School,  Washington. 

1890,  Principal  of  Business  High  School,  ist  St.,  between  B  and  C  Sts.,  N.  W.,  Washington. 
Anna  Tolman  Smith. 

Bureau  of  Education,  Washington. 

1896  Powhatan  W.  Robertson,  M.AcctsI,  '82,  Eastman  Nat.  Bus.  Coll. 

1894,  Columbian  University,  2232  Q  St.,  N.  W.,  Washington. 
Rebecca  Stoneroad,  Grad.,  Oswego  Normal  School. 

1889,  Director  of  Physical  Training,  Public  Schools,  Webster  School,  10th  and  H  Sts., 
Washington. 

1897  Court  Foster  Wood,  LL.B.,  '84,  LL.M.,  '85,  Columbian  Univ. 

1885,  Principal  of  Wood's  Commercial  College,  311  E.  Capitol  St.,  Washington. 

1898  Zue  Hunter  Brockett. 

Teacher  of    Physical  Training   in  Public  Schools,  3425  Holmead  Ave.,   N.  W., 
Washington. 


Florida]  LIFE,  ACTIVE,  AND  CORRESPONDING  MEMBERS  737 

DISTRICT  OF  ZQ)U5^\-&\K—  Continued 

1898  Elias  Brown. 

1895,  Teacher,  Deanwood. 
Elizabeth  V.  Brown. 

Method  and  Training  Teacher,  Normal  School,  1357  Roanoke  St.,  Washington. 
Ellis  \V.  Brown. 

1896,  Supervisor  of  Public  Schools,  924,  24th  St.,  N,  W.,  Washington. 
John  T.  Freeman,  B.Sc  ,  '83,  M.Sc,  '87.  Dartmouth  Coll. 

1890,  Supervisor,  Washington  Public  Schools,  Wallack  School,  S.  E.,  Washington. 
Nathaniel  P.  Gage,  A.B.,  '62,  A.M.,  '65,  Dartraouih  Coll. 

1874,  Supervising  Principal  of  Schools,  1126,  5th  St.,  N.  W.,  Washington. 
Miss  Amanda  L.  Grant. 

1887,  Principal  of  Brent  School,  507  E.  Capitol  St.,  Washington. 
William  Hamilton,  A.B.,  '84,  Moravian  Coll.,  Bethlehem,  Pa. ;  A.M.,  '94,  Columbian  Univ. 
1890,  Agent,  Bureau  of  Education  for  Alaska,  Bureau  of  Education,  Washington. 
David  H.  Hazen,  M.D. 

Trustee  of  Public  Schools,  407,  6th  St.,  S.  W.,  Washington. 
Nora  Lindenberg  Hoegelsberger. 

1887,  Teacher  of  German,  Central  High  School,  924  Mass.  Ave.,  N.  W.,  Washington. 
Bernard  T.  Janney. 

Supervising  Principal  of  Public  Schools,  1671,  31st  St.,  N.  W.,  Washington. 
Hosmer  M.  Johnson.  "* 

1900,  Supervising  Principal,  Public  Schools,  Chestnut  St.,  Anacostia. 
ArtemasMartin,  Ph.D., '82,  Rutgers;  LL.D., '85,  Hillsdale;  A.M.. '87;  Fellow  of  the  A.  A.  A.  S. ; 
Member  of  the  London.  Edinburgh,  and  N.  Y.  Mathematical  Societies. 

Librarian,  U.  S.  Coast  and  Geodetic  Survey,  1534  Columbian  St.,  N.  W.,  Washington. 
E.  E.  McCaslin,  A.B.,  '92,  A.M.,  '95,  Antioch  Coll. 

Superintendent  of  Industrial  Home  School,  Wisconsin  Ave.,  Station  A,  Washington. 
Kelly  Miller,  A.B.,  '86,  Howard  Univ. 

1890,  Professor  of  Mathematics,  Howard  University,  Washington. 
Winfield  Scott  Montgomery,  A.B.,  '78,  Dartmouth  ;  M.D.,  '90,  Howard  Univ. 

1900,  Assistant  Superintertdent  of  Public  Schools,  1912,  nth  St.,  N.  W.,  Washington. 
Sophie  F.  E.  Nussbaum,  Grad.,  Teacher's  Sem.,  Rostock,  Meckl.  Schwerin,  and  Conservatory  of 
Music,  Dresden,  Germany,  and  Library  Science  Class,  Columbia  Univ. 

1889,  Translator,  and,  1900,  Cataloguer  in  Library,  Bureau  of  Education,  Washington. 
Alice  N.  Parker. 

1899,  Director  of  Kindergarten,  Toner  School,  The  Concord,  New  Hampshire  Ave.  and  S 
St.,  Washington. 
Warren  W.  Phelan,  A.B.,  '94,  A.M.,  '96,  Columbia  Univ. ;  Ph.D.,  1900,  Columbian  Univ. 

1896,  Principal  of  National  Capitol  University  School  for   Boys,  822  Connecticut  Ave., 

N.  W.,  Washington. 
LovicK  Pierce,  A.B.,  '60,  Emory  Coll. 

1893,  Chief  Clerk  in  Bureau  of  Education,  1409  Rhode  Island  Ave.,  N.  W.,  Washington. 
Alex.  Summers,  B.Sc,  '76,  A.M.,  '93,  Univ.  of  Tenn. 

1894,  Statistician  in  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education,  Washington. 

Robert  H.  Terrell,  A.B.,  '84,  Harvard  Univ. ;  LL.M.,  '93,  A.^L,  1900,  Howard  Univ. 

1899,  Principal  of  High  School,  326  T  St.,  N.  W.,  Wa.shingion. 
Edith  C.  Westcott. 

1890,  Principal  of  Western  High  School,  1718  Corcoran  St.,  Washington. 

1899  Rev.  James  P.  Fagan,  S  J. 

1899,  Vice-President  and  Secretary  of  Georgetown  Universitj',  W.,  Washington. 
Edward  Allen  Fay,  A.B.,  '62,  A.M.,  '65,  Univ.  of  Mich. ;  Ph.D.,  '81,  Johns  Hopkins  Univ. 

1866.  Professor  and  Vice-President,  Gallaudet  College,  3  Kendall  Green,  Washington. 
Merrill  Edwards  Gates,  PI1.D.,  LL.D.,  L.H.D.,  Princeton,  Univ.  of  Rochester,  Columbia  Coll., 
Williams  Coll. 

President,  Rutgers  Coll.  1882-5(0,  and  of  Amherst  Coll.  1890-99 ;  1899,  Secretary  of  U. 
S.  Board  of  Indian  Commissioners,  1429  New  York  Ave.,  Washington. 
Charles  D.  Rakestraw,  A.M.,  Univ.  of  Va. 

Supervisor  of  U.  S.  Indian  Schools,  Indian  Office,  Washington. 

FLORIDA 

active  members 

1893  William  N.  Sheats,  A.B.,  '73,  A.M.,  '76,  Emory  College,  Ga. 

1892,  State  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  Tallahassee. 

1894  Mrs.  W.  Schleppegrell-Keppler. 

1893,  Principal  of  Froebel  Academy,  Main  and  Monroe  Sts.,  Jacksonville. 
189s      J.  L.  HoLLiNGSWORTH,  A.B..  '88,  Emory  Coll.,  Oxford,  Ga. 

1893,  County  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  Bartow. 

1898  L.  W.  BoCHHOLZ,  Nor.  Sch.,  Pr.  Friedland,  Germany. 

Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  Hillsboro  Co.,  io6  Park  Ave.,  Tampa. 

1899  H.  Elmer  Bierly,  A.B.,  '92,  Princeton  Univ. 

1898,  Professor  of  Biology,  Pedagogy,  and  Child  Study  in  the  State  Coll.,  Tallahassee. 
John  B.  Stetson  University. 

President,  John  F.  Forbes,  DeLand. 

1900  Benella  Davenport. 

1900,  Department  of  Latin  and  Literature,  State  Normal  School,  De  Funiak  Springs. 
W.  L.  Floyd,  Major,  U.  S.  A. 

Commandant  and  Professor  of  Science,  East  Florida  Seminary,  Gainesville.         .   . 
William  Wilson  Fry. 

1897,  Director  of  the  Business  College,  John  B.  Stetson  University,  De  Land. 
Miss  Clem  Hampton. 

First  Assistant  in  High  School,  Live  Oak. 
Cleburne  L.  Hayes,  Grad.,  '90,  Peabody  Nor.  Coll. ;  A.B.,  '91,  Univ.  of  Nashville. 

1897,  Principal  of  State  Normal  School,  De  Funiak  Springs. 
Mrs.  Lena  B.  Mathes. 

1899,  Principal  of  Washington  School,  341  Hyde  Park  Ave.,  Tampa, 


738  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Idaho 


GEORGIA 

<  LIFE    MEMBER 

1890     W.  H.  Baker. 

i368,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Chatham  Academy,  Savannah. 

ACTIVE    MEMBERS 

1887  EuLER  B.  Smith,  A.M.,  '82,  Emory  Coll.,  Oxford,  Ga. 

1895,  Department  of  English,  State  Normal  School,  Athens. 

1894  Otis  Ashmore,  A.M.,  Univ.  of  Ga. 

1896,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Savannah. 
George  Glenn  Bond,  A.M.,  '95,  Univ.  of  Ga. 

1891,  Superintendent  of  City  Schools,  Dearing  St.,  Athens. 
Lawton  B.  Evans,  A.M.,  Univ.  of  Ga. 

Superintendent  of  Schools,  415  Mcintosh  St.,  Augusta. 
William  Martin  Slaton,  A.M.,  'gi,  Univ.  of  Ga. 

1892,  Principal  of  Boys'  High  School,  142  Jackson  St.,  Atlanta. 

1895  Atlanta  University. 

President,  Rev.  Horace  Bumstead ;  Librarian,  Miss  E.  J.  Stenabaugh,  Atlanta. 
GiJSTAvus  R.  Glenn,  LL.D.,  '98,  Univ.  of  Nashville,  and  '98,  Peabody  Nor.  Coll. 

•»■       1894,  State  School  Commissioner,  Capitol,  Atlanta. 
Joseph  S.  Stewart,  A.B.,  '8;?,  Emory  Coll. ;  A.M.,  '97,  Univ.  of  Ga. 

1897,  President  of  North  Georgia  Agricultural  College,  Dahlonega. 
University  of  Georgia. 

Chancellor,  Walter  B.  Hill ;  Secretary,  W.  D.  Hooper,  Athens. 

1896  D.  Q.  Abbott,  A.M.,  '78,  Emory  Coll.,  Ga. 

Superintendent  of  Schools,  654  Mulberry  St.,  Macon. 
N.  E.  Ware. 

1891,  Superintendent  of  Public  Schools,  Haukinsville, 

H.  C.  White,  B.Sc,  C.  &  M.E.,  '70,  Ph.D.,  '87,  Univ.  of  Va.,  F.  C.  S. 

1898,  President  of  National  Agricultural  College  and  Experiment  Station;  207  Milledge 
Ave.,  Athens. 
Nathan  Benjamin  Young,  A.B.,  '88,  A.M.,  '91,  Oberlin  Coll. 

1897,  Department  of  Pedagogy,  State  Industrial  College,  College,  Chatham  Co. 

1897  J.  M.  GuiLLlAMS,  A.B.,  Central  Nor.  Col. ;  A.M.,  'p8. 

1900,  Principal  of  Southern  Normal  Institute,  Douglas. 
L.  M.  Landrum,  A.B.,  '76,  Univ.  of  Ga. 

1897,  Assistant    Superintendent  of  Schools  and   Secretary  of  Board   of    Education,   105 

Smith  St.,  Atlanta. 
John  N.  Rogers. 

County  School  Commissioner,  Sandersville. 
William  F.  Slaton,  A.M.,  '51,  Emory  Coll.,  and  '94,  Univ.  of  Ga. 

1879,  Superintendent  of  Public  Schools,  336  Courtland  St.,  Atlanta. 
Jessie  May  Snyder. 

1898,  Assistant  Training  Teacher,  State  Normal  and  Industrial  College,  Milledgeville. 
John  Charles  Woodward,  A.B.,  '88. 

Superintendent  of  Schools,  Newnan. 

1898  Alice  Dugged  Cary. 

Teacher  in  Kindergarten  Department,  47  Bradley  St.,  Atlanta. 
Carleton  B.  Gibson,  A.M.,  '85,  Univ.  of  Ala. 

1896,  Siiperintendent  ot  Schools,  309,  nth  St.,  Columbus. 
Henry  Pearson,  A.B.,  '88.  A.M.,  '92,  Claflin  Univ.,  Orangeburg,  S.  C. 

1895,  Instructor  in  English  Language  and  Literature,  State  Industrial  College,  College. 

1899  J.\MES  C.  Harris,  A.M.,  '85,  Univ.  of  Ga. 

1892,  Superintendent  of  Public  Schools,  313,  2d  Ave.,  Rome. 

Walter  B.  Hill.  A.B.,  '70,  B.L.  and  A.M.,  '71,  Univ.  of  Ga. ;  LL.D.,  1900,  Emory  Coll.  and  S.  W. 
Pres.  Univ.,  Clarksville,  Tenn. 

1899,  Chancellor  of  University  of  Georgia,  University  Campus,  Athens. 
Mercer  University  Library. 

President,  P.  D.  Pollock,  Macon. 
iQoo     B.  K.  Benson. 

Agent  for  D.  C.  Heath  &  Co.,  115  Crew  St.,  Atlanta. 
M.  L.  Brittain,  A.B.,  '86,  Emory  Coll. 

Superintendent  of  Fulton  County  Schools,  133  Capitol  Ave.,  Atlanta. 
O.  F.  McRae. 

1895,  Vice-President,  South  Georgia  College,  McRae. 
Fred  J.  Orr,  B.E.,  '95,  Univ.  of  Ga. 

1896,  Director  of  Drawing  and  Manual  Training,  State  Normal  School,  Athens. 
Hiram  H.  Thweatt. 

1896,  Principal  of  Clay  Street  Normal  and  Industrial  Institute,  Thomasville. 
Mrs.  Walton  H.  Wiggs. 

College  Park,  Atlanta. 
Richard  R.  Wright,  A.B.,  A.M.,  Atlanta  Univ. ;  LL.D.,  Wilberfotce  Univ. 
1891,  President,  State  Industrial  College,  College. 

IDAHO 
active  members 

1888  James  C.  Black,  Pd.M.,  '94,  Pd.D.,  '95,  School  of  Pedagogy,  Univ.  of  City  of  New  York. 

1897,  President  of  State  Normal  School,  Albion. 

1898  John  W.  Daniels.  A.B.,  '76,  A.M..  '79,  Bates  College,  Lewiston,  Me. 

1898,  Superintendent  of  City  Schools,  238  Jefferson  St.,  Boise. 
George  E.  Knepper,  A.M. 

1895,  President  of  State  Normal  School,  Lewiston. 

1899  Permeal  French. 

1898,  State  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  Boise. 


Illinois]  LIFE,  ACTIVE,  AND  CORRESPONDING  MEMBERS  739 

ILLINOIS 

LIFE   DIKECTORS 

1884      Albert  G.  Lane,  A.M.,  '96,  Dartmouth  Coll. 

1898,  Assistant  Superintendent  of  Schools,  430  W.  Adams  St.,  Chicago. 
1887     Newton  Charles  Dougherty,  A.M.,  Ph.D. 

Superintendent  of  Schools,  Peoria. 
Charles  I.  Parker. 

Principal  of  South  Chicago  High  School,  893,  71st  PI.,  Chicago. 

1890  State  Teachers'  Association  of  Illinois. 

President,  A.  V.  Greenman,  West  Aurora;  Sec'y,  Joel  M.  Bowlby,  Carbondale, 

1891  Joshua  Pike,  A.B.,  '65,  A.M..  '68,  Univ.  of  Chicago. 

1874,  Superintendent  of  City  Schools,  Jerseyville. 

life  members 

1870     Ira  Wilder  Allen,  A.B.,  '50,  Hamilton  Coll.,  N.  Y. ;  A.M.,  '52,  Antioch  Coll.,  O. ;  LL.B.,  '63, 
Albany  Law  Sch. ;  LL.D.,  '74,  Union  Christian  Coll.,  Ind. 
612  W.  60th  PI.,  Station  O,  Chicago. 
1876     Alexander  Forbes,  A.M.,  Ph.D. 

Manager  for  Butler,  Sheldon  &  Co.,  315-321  Wabash  Ave.,  Chicago. 
1880     George  P.  Brown. 

Editor  "  School  and  Home  Education,"  Bloomington. 
1884     Augustus  J.  Cheney,  B.Sc,  '57,  Dartmouth  Coll. 

Western  Agent  for  G.  &  C.  Merriam  Co.,  316  N.  Grove  Ave.,  Oak  Park. 
Emily  A.  Havward,  A.M.,  Antioch  Coll. 

Teacher,  1233  W.  Irving  Park  Boul.,  Irving  Park,  Chicago, 
Edwin  C.  Hewett,  LL.D.,  ^77,  Shurtleff  Coll. 

Associate  Editor  "  Public  School  Journal,"  Box  42,  Normal. 
Henry  Raab,  LL.D. 

717  S.  Illinois  St.,  Belleville. 

active  members 

1880      Francis  W.  Parker,  A.M.,  Dartmouth  Coll. ;  LL.D.,  Lawrence  Univ. 

1899,  President  of  Chicago  Institute,  1931  Deming  PI.,  Chicago. 
1884     Albert  R.  Sabin. 

1887,  Assistant  Superintendent  of  Schools,  2509  Vernon  Ave.,  Irving  Park,  Chicago. 

1886  Louis  Milton  Dillman. 

Educational  Publisher,  521  Wabash  Ave.,  Chicago. 
David  S.  Geer. 

1886,  Attorney  and  Counselor  at  Law,  Suite  511,  Ashland  Block,  Chicago. 
Augustus  F.  Nightingale,  A.B.,  '66,  A.M.,  '69,  Wes.  Univ.,  Conn. ;    Ph.D.,  '91,  Upper  Iowa  Univ. 

1892,  Superintendent  of  High  Schools,  1997  Sheridan  Road,  Station  X,  Chicago. 

1887  John  C.  Ellis. 

Educational  Publisher,  521  Wabash  Ave.,  Chicago. 

1888  Andrew  S.  Draper,  LL.B.,  '71,  Union  Univ. ;  LL.D.,  '89,  Colgate  Univ. 

1894,  President  of  University  of  Illinois,  President's  House,  Champaign. 

1889  O.  F.  Barbour. 

1866,  Principal  of  Kent  School,  512  N.  Court  St.,  Rockford. 

1890  John  E.  Bradley,  Ph.D.,  '79,  Univ.  of  N.  Y, ;  LL.D.,  '93,  Williams  Coll. 

1892,  President  of  Illinois  College,  1202  W.  College  Ave.,  Jacksonville. 
John  Williston  Cook,  A.M.,  '86,  Knox  Coll. ;  LL.D.,  '92,  Blackburn  Univ. 

1899,  President  of  Northern  Illinois  State  Normal  School,  De  Kalb. 
Henry  R.  Corbett,  B.Sc,  '89,  Hastings  Coll. ;  Ph.M.,  1900,  Univ.  of  Chicago. 

Ex  State  Superintendent  of  Schools  of  Nebraska ;   108  La  Salle  St.,  Chicago. 
Charles  Alexander  McMurry,  Ph.D.,  '87,  Halle. 

1899,  Principal  of  Practice  School,  State  Normal  School,  De  Kalb. 
William  Lucas  Steele,  A.M.,  '80,  Monmouth  Coll.,  111.;  Ph.D.,  1900,  Knox  Coll. 

1885,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  462  N.  Cherry  St.,  Galesburg. 
Peleg  R.  Walker. 

1884,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  716  N.  Church  St.,  Rockford. 

1891  F.  J.  Albrecht,  F.R.G.S. 

Educational  Publisher,  35  Randolph  St.,  Chicago. 
Herbert  F.  Fisk,  A.B.,  '60,  A.M.,  '63,  D.D.,  '88.  Wes.  Univ.,  Conn. ;  LL.D.,  '99,  Allegheny  Coll. 

1888,  Prin.  Academy  and  Prof,  of  Ped.,  Northwestern  Univ.,  1625  Judson  Ave.,  Evanston. 
Dana  Warren  Hall,  A.M.,  '93,  Colby  Univ.,  Me. 

1894,  High  School  and  College  Department,  Ginn  &  Co., 378-388  Wabash  Ave.,  Chicago. 
M.  A.  Whitney,  A.B.,  '90,  A.M.,  '93,  Colby  Univ. 

1896,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  118  Hinsdell  PI.,  Elgin. 

1892  C.  M.  Bardwell. 

1896,  Superintendent  of  East  Side  Schools,  60  S.  Lincoln  Ave.,  Aurora. 
Albert  W.  Clancy,  Grad.,  National  Normal  School. 

1880,  American  Book  Co. ,  521  Wabash  Ave. ;  res.,  cor.  Langley  Ave.  and  39th  St.,  Chicago. 
Mrs.  M.  E.  Ferris  Gettemv,  M.L.,  '97,  Knox  Coll. 

189s,  Assistant  in  High  School,  246  N.  Academy  St.,  Galesburg. 
Henry  Talbot. 

1899,  Supervisor  of  Drawing,  Public  Schools,  804  Summit  Ave.,  East  St.  Louis. 

1893  John  J.  Allison. 

1899,  Superintendent  of  City  Schools,  329  Jefferson  St.,  Joliet. 
O.  T.  Bright. 

County  Superintendent  of  Schools,  907  The  Temple,  Chicago. 
Archibald  O.  Coddington,  M.L.,  '83,  Univ.  of  111. 

Principal  of  Knickerbocker  School,  938  Summerdale  Ave.,  Chicago. 
Mrs.  J.  N.  Crouse. 

i8yo.  Director  of  Kindergarten  College,  2231  Prairie  Ave.,  Chicago. 
Lincoln  P.  Goodhue. 

1900,  District  Superintendent  of  Schools,  7029  Yale  Ave.,  Chicago. 


740  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Illinois 

1893  William  O.  Krohn,  A.B.,  Western  Coll. ;  A.M.,  Ph.D.,  '89,  Yale. 

1897,  Psychologist,  Illinois  Eastern  Hospital  for  the  Insane,  and,  1895,  Editor  of  "  The 

Child  Study  Monthly,"  Fine  Arts  Building,  Chicago. 
Frbd  R.  Nichols. 

1891,  Instructor  in  Physics,  English  High  and  Manual  Training  School,  1672  Van  Buren 

St.,  Chicago, 
Mrs.  Alice  H.  Putnam. 

1881,  Superintendent,  Chicago  Froebel  Asso.,  4740  Madison  Ave.,  The  Beivoir,  Chicago. 
Lucy  S.  Silke. 

1890,  Assistant  Special  Teacher  in  Drawing,  Public  Schools,  3307  Rhodes  Ave.,  Chicago. 
Alice  E.  Sollitt. 

1890,  Principal  of  Kenwood  School,  4020  Prairie  Ave.,  Chicago. 
VoLNBY  Underhill,  Ph.B.,  'ti,  LL.B.,  '75.  Univ.  of  Wis. 

1875,  Principal  of  Carpenter  School,  296  S.  Paulina  St.,  Chicago. 

1894  C.  H.  Congdon. 

Music  Department,  Scott,  Foresman  &  Co.,  378  Wabash  Ave.,  Chicago. 
Ira  T.  Eaton. 

Publisher,  Eaton  &  Co.,  203  Michigan  Ave.,  Chicago. 
Richard  Hardy,  B.Sc,  Univ.  of  Mich. 

1899,  Representative  of  Prang  Educational  Co.,  5326  Calumet  Ave.,  Chicago. 
Joseph  C.  Hisey. 

1898,  Representative  of  Ginn  &  Co.,  644  School  St.,  Chicago. 

Mrs.  Frances  Smallwood  Lane,  B.Sc,  '65,  Genesee  Coll. ;  M.Sc,  '80,  Sycracuse  Univ. 

430  W.  Adams  St.,  Chicago. 
Livingston  C.  Lord,  Pd.D.,  1900,  Univ.  of  111. 

1898,  President  of  Eastern  Illinois  State  Normal  School,  Charleston. 
189s     John  Nichols  Adee,  Ph.B.,  '91,  Northwestern  Univ. 

1898,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Sycamore. 
B.  D.  Berry. 

Educational  Publisher,  378-388  Wabash  Ave,,  Chicago. 
Julia  E.  Bolkley,  Ph.D.,  Zurich. 

1892,  Associate  Professor  of  Pedagogy,  University  of  Chicago,  Chicago. 
Fremont  Luman  Calkins,  B.Sc,  '8x,  N.  Ind.  Nor.  Sch. 

1894,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Delavan. 
William  H.  Campbell. 

1899,  Principal  of  D.  S.  Wentworth  School,  6147  Woodlawn  Ave..  Chicago. 
Joseph  H.  Collins,  A.B.,  '75,  A.M.,  '78,  La  Grange  Coll.,  Mo. 

1888,  Superintendent  of  City  Public  Schools,  715  S.  7th  St.,  Springfield. 
Mrs.  Julia  H.  Collins. 

715  S.  71st  St.,  Springfield. 
Henry  C.  Cox,  A.M.,  '73,  Abingdon  Coll. 

1884,  Principal  of  Froebel  Grammar  School,  Chicago ;  Lock  Box  201,  La  Grange. 
May  M.  Crockett. 

1891,  Principal  of  Irving  School,  535  Lind  St.,  Quincy. 
Edward  C.  Delano. 

1877,  Assistant  Superintendent  of  Schools,  172  Ashland  Boul.,  Chicago. 

W.  H.  DUCKER. 

Educational  Publisher  (Sibley  &  Ducker),  378  Wabash  Ave.,  Chicago. 
Joseph  Hewett  Freeman,  A.M.,  '88,_ Bates  Coll. 

1900,  Assistant  State  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  Capitol,  Springfield. 
Enoch  A.  Gastman. 

i862,!Superintendent  of  City  Schools,  464  W.  North  St.,  Decatur. 
William  M.  Giffin,  A.M.,  '82,  Lawrence  Univ.,  Wis. ;  Pd.D.,  '94,  State  Nor.  Coll.,  N.  Y. 

1889,  Principal  of  Chicago  Normal  Practice  School,  7710  Emerald  Ave.,  Chicago. 
Newell  D.  Gilbert,  A.B.,  '791  A.M.,  '82,  111.  Wes.  Univ. 

1899,  Superintendent   of   Public    Schools    and  Department  of  School  Organization    and 
Management,  Northern  Illinois  Normal  School,  De  Kalb. 
Robert  A.  Haight,  A.B.,  '75,  A.M.,  '78,  Shurtleff  Coll.,  111. 

1881,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  1129  Warren  St.,  Alton. 

William  R.Harper,  A.B.,'70,  Muskingum  Coll.;  Ph.D.,  '75,  Yale;  D.D., '91.  Colby  Univ. ;  LL.D., 
Univ.  of  Neb. 

1890,  President  of  University  of  Chicago,  59th  St.  and  Lexington  Ave.,  Chicago. 
Elizabeth  Harrison. 

Principal  of  Kindergarten  College,  10  Van  Buren  St.,  Chicago. 
Mary  S.  L.  Hartigan. 

1893,  Principal  of  Hoemer  School,  7409  Morgan  St.,  Chicago. 
Mary  Hartmann,  A.M.,  '88,  LombardUniv. 

1882,  Instructor  in  Mathematics,  Illinois  State  Normal  School,  log  Normal  Ave,,  Normal. 
W.  H.  Hatch. 

1892,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Oak  Park. 
Harry  Helmer. 

Agent  for  Publishing  House,  315  Wabash  Ave.,  Chicago. 
Charles  Hkrtel,  M.Sc,  Cent.  Wes.  Coll.,  Warrenton,  Mo. 

1894,  Superintendent  of  Schools  of  St.  Clair  County,  Courthouse,  Belleville. 
Amalie  Hofer. 

Chicago  Kindergarten  Institute,  530  E.  47th  St.,  Chicago. 
J.  A.  HoRNBERGER,  A.B.,  '84,  A.M.,  '87,  Bucknell  Univ.,  Pa. ;  Ph.D.,  '89,  Bellevue  Coll. 

1899,  Educational    Department,  Rand,  McNally  &  Co.,  166  Adams   St.,  Chicago;    res., 
Naperville. 
Wilbur  S.  Jackman,  A.B.,  '84,  Harvard. 

1899,  Head  of  Department  of  Natural  Science  and  Dean  of  the  Chicago  Institute,  6916 
Perry  Ave.,  Station  O,  Chicago. 
Francis  Austin  Kendall. 

1888,  Superintendent  of  Schools  (East  Side) ;  1894,  Secy,  and  Mgr.,  III.  Pupils'  Reading 
Circle,  25  Jefferson  Ave.,  Naperville. 

EfFIE  J.  KiLBOURNE. 

1891,  Head  Assistant  in  Kenwood  School,  5313  Washington  Ave.,  Chicago. 


Illinois]  LIFE,  ACTIVE,  AND  CORRESPONDING  MEMBERS  741 

1895  Vashti  a.  Lambert. 

1886,  Teacher  in  Jefferson  Park  School,  4280  Milwaukee  Ave.,  Chicago ;  res.,  Palatine. 
Leslie  Lewis,  A.B.,  '66,  A.M.,  '69,  Yale. 

1890,  District  Superintendent  of  Schools,  5605  Madison  Ave.,  Chicago. 
William  S.  Mack. 

Western  Manager,  The  Prang  Ed.  Co.,  Room  813,  Fine  Arts  Building,  Chicago, 
J.  J.  McGlvnn. 

1888,  Teacher  of  Science,  High  School,  Hotel  Diehl,  East  St.  Louis. 

A.  L.  McLaughlin. 

Agent  for  Butler,  Sheldon  &  Co.,  315-321  Wabash  Ave.,  Chicago. 
Kate  S.  O'Learv. 

1882,  Teacher  in  Public  Schools,  208  S.  Hickory  St.,  Joliet. 
C.  M.  Parker. 

Editor  and  Publisher  of  "  The  School  News,"  Taylorville. 
C.  F.  Philbrook. 

1893,  Superintendent  of  Public  Schools,  205  Stiles  St.,  Rochelle. 
Albert  R.  Robinson,  A.M.,  Northwestern  Univ. 

1891,  Principal    of    English  High   and  Manual   Training   School,   126  S.  Jefferson  St., 

Chicago;  res.,  Hinsdale. 
Erastus  H.  Scorr. 

Publisher,  378  Wabash  Ave.,  Chicago. 
Orion  C.  Scott,  Ph.B.,  '78,  B.D.,  '80,  A.M.,  '81,  Univ.  of  Iowa. 

1898,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  34th  St.  and  Home  Ave.,  Berwyn,  Cook  Co. 
WiNFiELD  S.  Smvth,  A.M.,  '66,  Wesleyan  Univ.,  Conn.;  Ph.D.,  '76,  Syracuse  Univ. 

Ed.  Publisher  (Vice-President  D.  C.  Heath  &  Co.),  378  Wabash  Ave.,  Chicago. 
LvuiA  E.  Snyder. 

1893,  Teacher  in  Brentano  School,  1389  N.  Rockwell  St.,  Maplewood. 
LiLLiE  S.  Stephenson.  < 

1898,  Teacher  in  6th  Grade,  Park  Ridge  School,  1028  Dempster  St.,  Evanston. 
Frank  D.  Thomson,  A.B.,  '92,  A.M..  '95,  Knox  Coll. 

1895,  Principal  of  High  School,  529  N.  Cherry  St.,  Galesburg. 
J.  E.  Turner,  A.B.,  '94,  A.M.,  '95,  Lincoln  Univ. 

1896,  Principal  of  High  School,  710  Clement  PI.,  Alton. 
Edwin  O.  Vaile. 

Editor  of  the  "  Intelligence,"  Oak  Park. 
Nathan  T.  Veatch. 

1887,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Rushville. 
J.W.  Warr. 

Editor  of  "  The  Practical  Age,"  1723,  6th  Ave.,  Moline. 
Willia.m  Edward  Watt,  Ph.D.,  1900,  Taylor  Univ.,  Ind. 

188s,  Principal  of  Graham  School,  4453  Emerald  Ave.,  Chicago. 
Charles  W.  Weeks. 

1888,  Supervisor  of  Music,  320  Congress  St.,  Ottawa. 
Oliver  S.  Westcott,  A.M.,  '56,  D.S.,  '92,  Brown  Univ. 

1883,  Principal  of  North  Division  High  School,  Chicago;  res.,  Maywood. 
Daniel  A.  White,  A.B.,  '83,  Harvard  Univ. ;  LL.B.,  '92,  Lake  Forest  Univ. 

1896,  Principal  of  Everett  School,  3501  Wabash  Ave.,  Chicago. 
Harry  G.  Wilson. 

1879,  with  The  American  Book  Co.,  521  Wabash  Ave.,  Chicago. 

1896  Mary  E.  Ahern. 

Editor  of  "  Public  Libraries,"  Library  Bureau,  215  Madison  St.,  Chicago. 
C.  J.  Albert,  B.Sc.  and  A.M.,  '78,  Baldwin  Univ. 

Manager  of  the  Albert  Teachers'  Agency,  Central  Music  Hall,  Chicago. 

B.  F.  Armitage,  A.B.,  '80,  A.M.,  '84,  Dartmouth  Coll. 

Ex -Superintendent  of  City  Schools,  1317  Charleston  Ave.,  Mattoon. 
Alfred  Bayliss,  M.Sc,  '73,  Hillsdale  Coll.,  Mich. 

1899,  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  Springfield. 

S.  S.  Beggs,  A.B.,  '88.  A.M.,  '95,  N.  E.  Ohio  Nor.  Coll. ;  LL.B.,  '99,  Indianapolis  Coll.  of  Law. 

1897,  Superintendent  of  City  Schools,  Beardstown. 
Charles  A.  Bennett,  B.Sc,  '86,  Worcester  Polytechnic  Inst. 

Head  of  Department  of  Manual  Arts,  Bradley  Polytechnic  Institute,  211  S.  Gar- 
field Ave.,  Peoria. 
R.  W.  Burton,  A.M.,  ;85,  Beloit  Coll. 

1894,  Superintendent  of  Schools  of  Stephenson  Co.,  209  Pleasant  St.,  Freeport. 
William  J.  Button. 

President  of  the  Werner  Schoolbook  Co.,  378-388  Wabash  Ave.,  Chicago. 
Annicb  E.  Bradford  Butts,  A.M. 

Principal  of  Kenwood  Institute,  40  E.  47th  St.,  Chicago. 
Mrs.  Elizabeth  Blanchard  Cook,  A.M.,  Wheaton  Coll. 

President  of  Woman's  Educational  Union,  316  Washington  Boul.,  Chicago. 
George  W.  Davis. 

1892,  Principal  of  Hawthorne  School,  1430  Montrose  Ave.,  Chicago. 
William  T.  Dix. 

Secretary,  Thomas  Charles  Co.,  195  Wabash  Ave.,  Chicago. 
William  C.  Dodge. 

1887,  Assistant  Superintendent  of  Schools,  2268  Kenmore  Ave.,  Station  X,  Chicago. 
Mabel  E.  Dougherty. 

906  E.  Bluff  St.,  Peoria. 
Mrs.  Millie  Ryan  Eakins. 

1898,  Critic  Teacher,  Chicago  Normal  School,  6233  Peoria  St.,  Station  O,  Chicago. 
H.  A.  Forbsman.  A.m.,  '90,  Lafayette  Coll, 

Educational  Publisher  (Scott,  Foresman  &  Co.),  378  Wabash  Ave.,  Chicago. 
Robert  Foeesman. 

Educational  Publisher  (Silver,  Burdett  &  Co.),  378-388  Wabash  Ave.,  Chicago. 
G.  Charles  Griffiths. 

1893,  Principal  of  Robert  Emmet  School,  5737  Ontario  St.,  Austin  Station,  Chicago. 
Charles  W.  Groves,  '80,  Univ.  of  III. 

1897,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  515  Peoria  Ave.,  Dixon. 


742  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Illinois 

1896  John  W.  Henninger,  B.Sc,  '81,  M.Sc,  '84,  LL.B.,  '91,  McKendree  Coll. 

1896,  Superintendent  of  City  Schools,  1127  W.  Lafayette  Ave.,  Jacksonville. 
Margaret  MacDonald. 

1886,  Teacher  in  Public  Schools,  6440  Ellis  Ave.,  Chicago. 

J.  F.  McCuLLOUGH. 

Agent  for  Silver,  Burdett  &  Co.,  378-388  Wabash  Ave.,  Chicago. 
Mrs.  Lida  B.  McMurry. 

1900,  Training  Teacher,  Primary  Department,  N.  Illinois  State  Normal  School,  De  Kalb, 
O.  L.  Miller,  A.I?.,  '90,  Univ.  of  Mich. 

1898,  Principal  of  Township  High  School,  Sterling. 
Mrs.  Sarah  J.  O'Keefe. 

1885,  Principal  of  Jefferson  Park  School,  Chicago;  res,,  Arlington  Heights. 
F,  B.  Ormsbv. 

1895,  Principal  of  Perkins  Bass  School,  6550 Lafayette  Ave.,  Englewood  Station,  Chicago. 
W.  B.  Owen. 

Agent,  Publishing  House,  Ginn  &  Co.,  Chicago;  res.,  851  Grove  St.,  Jacksonville. 
R.  S.  Page,  A.M. 

1895,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Brewster  House,  Freeport. 
Bertha  Payne. 

1895,  Principal  of  Chicago  Froebel  Association,  Chicago;  res.,  Hinsdale. 
William  C.  Payne. 

1890,  Principal  of'Gladstone  School,  Chicago  ;  res.,  Hinsdale. 
Mary  I.  Purer. 

1893,  Principal  of  La  Fayette  School,  1902  Barry  Ave.,  Chicago. 

W.  F.  ROCHELEAU. 

1899,  Editor,  Educational  Publications,  2838  N.  Hermitage  Ave.,  Ravenswood,  Chicago. 
Mabel  E.  Smallwood. 

1892,  Teacher  of  Biology,  Medill  High  School,  430  Adams  St.,  Chicago. 
E.  E.  Smith.  A.B.,B.Sc. 

1900,  Editorial  and  Literary  Work,  6010  Jefferson  Ave.,  Chicago. 
W.  W.  Speer. 

1S95,  Assistant  Superintendent  of  Schools,  The  Yale,  Station  O,  Chicago. 
Arnold  Tompkins,  A.M.,  '91,  Univ.  of  Ind. ;  Ph.D.,  '96,  Univ.  of  Ohio,  Athens. 

1900,  Principal  of  Chicago  Normal  School,  6640  Parnell  Ave.,  Chicago. 
Franklin  N.  Tracy. 

1881,  Superintendent  of  City  Schools,  316  Harrison  Ave.,  Kankakee. 
Richard  Waterman,  B.Sc,  '92,  Mass.  Inst,  of  Tech. 

1900,  Teacher  of  Ryerson  School,  Chicago;  res. ,  Wilmette. 
J.  J.  Wilkinson,  Grad.,  '85,  111.  Nor.  Univ. ;  Ph.D.,  '98,  Univ.  of  Leipzig. 

1900,  Superintendent  of  City  Schools,  High  School,  Mattoon. 
James  D.  Williams,  A.M.,  '72,  Hillsdale  Coll.,  Mich. 

Manager,  Maynard,  Merrill  &Co.,  203  Michigan  Ave.,  Chicago. 
Francis  Marion  Woods,  A.B.  and  A.M.,  Northwestern  University. 

Manager  and  Treasurer,  Educational  Aid  Asso.,  1278  Washington  Boul.,  Chicago. 
Albert  Henry  Yoder,  A.B.,  '93,  Ind.  Univ. 

1900,  Editor  of  "  Journal  of  Adolescence,''  Oak  Park,  Chicago. 

1897  L.  H,  Allen.  A.B.,  '87,  E.  Ind.  Nor.  Sch, 

1896,  Traveling  Agent,  National  Educational  Co.,  523  Wabash  Ave.,  Chicago. 
Richard  H.  Allin,  B.D.,  '62,  Univ.  of  Iowa. 

Manager,  Educational  Map  and  Globe  Department,  Rand,  McNally  &  Co.,  6037  Jef- 
ferson Ave.,  Chicago. 
Carl  E.  Bacon,  A.B.,  Harvard. 

AUyn  &  Bacon,  Publishers,  378  Wabash  Ave.,  Chicago. 
Paul  V.  Bacon,  A.B. ,  '98,  Harvard. 

Agent  for  Allyn  &  Bacon,  Publishers,  378  Wabash  Ave.,  Chicago. 
Em.ma  V.  Bailey. 

1895.  Teacher  in  City  Schools,  220  N.  Central  Park  Ave.,  Chicago. 
William  J.  Bartholf,  A.B,,  Univ.  of  111. ;  B.Sc,  Ind.  Nor.  Sch. 

1888,  Principal  of  Von  Humboldt  School,  11  Roslyn  PI.,  Chicago. 
Homer  Bevans. 

1884,  La  Salle  School,  353  \V.  60th  PI.,  Station  O,  Chicago. 
William  J.  Black. 

1887,  Principal  of  Sherwood  School,  6620  Lafayette  Ave.,  Station  O,  Chicago. 
J.  Stanley  Brown,  A.B.,  '89,  Denison  Univ. ;  A.M.,  '91,  Arlington  Coll. 

1893,  Superintendent  and  Principal  of  Township  High  School,  115  Dewey  Ave.,  Joliet. 
Delos  Buzzell,  M.Sc,  '74,  Univ.  of  Mich. 

1890,  Principal  of  Irving  Park  School,  2406  N.  42d  Court,  Chicago. 
Taylor  C.  Clendenen. 

1886,  Superintendent  of  City  Schools,  722  Center  St.,  Cairo. 
Edwin  Gilbert  Cooley,  Ph.B,,  '95,  Univ.  of  Chicago. 

1900,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Schiller  Building,  Chicago. 
Emma  Coy. 

Principal  of  Hall  School,  615  Oak  St.,  Rockford. 
Mrs.  Charles  R.  Crane. 

President  of    Chicago   Asso.,    Parents    of    Deaf    Children,    2559    Michigan    Ave., 
Chicago. 
John  Dewey,  A  B.,  '79,  Univ.  of  Vt, ;  Ph.D.,  '84,  Johns  Hopkins. 

1894,  Professor  of  Philosophy,  University  of  Chicago,  6036  Jefferson  Ave,  Chicago. 
Letitia  L.  Doane. 

1898,  Teacher  in  Public  Day  Schools  for  the  Deaf,  714  West  Adams  St.,  Chicago. 
M.  LuELLA  Dodge. 

Teacher,  Jefferson  Park  School,  3464  Forest  Glen  Ave.,  Chicago. 
M.  Elizabeth  Farson. 

1889,  District  Superintendent  of  Schools,  134  Warren  Ave.,  Chicago. 
Mary  C.  Foote. 

1891,  Principal  of  School,  124  Auburn  PI,,  Rockford. 
J,  M.  Frost.  A.M.,  Hobart  Coll. 

1896,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Hinsdale, 


Illinois]  LIFE,  ACTIVE,  AND  CORRESPONDING  MEMBERS  743 

1897      Mary  Gillespie. 

1893,  Principal  of  High  School,  Winnetka. 
Nellie  Gillespie. 

1893,  Assistant  in  High  School,  Winnetka. 

Joseph  Claybaugh  Gordon,  A.B.,  '66,  A.M.,  '69,  Ph.D.,  '92,  Monmouth  Coll. 

1897,  Superintendent  of  State  School  for  the  Deaf,  Jacksonville. 
A.  V.  Greenman. 

Superintendent  of  Schools,  248  Galena  St.,  Aurora. 
Frank  H.  Haix. 

1897,  Superintendent  of  Institution  for  the  Blind,  Jacksonville. 
N.  A.  Harvey,  Ph.D. 

1900,  Head  of  the  Department  of  Science,  Chicago   Normal   School,  631  W.  65th  PI., 
Englewood  Station,  Chicago. 
Herbert  B.  Havden,  A.M.,  '99,  Mt.  Hope  Coll. 

1900,  Superintendent  of  City  Schools.  923,  20th  St.,  Rock  Island. 
Dudley  Grant  Hays,  Graduate,  State  Normal  Univ. 

1900,  Principal  of  Arnold  School,  Chicago;  550  W. 60th  PL.  Englewood. 
Samuel  H.  Heidler. 

Springfield. 
Mrs.  Kate  A.  Henderson. 

Librarian,  Public  Library,  Joliet.  * 

Mrs.  E.  a.  Hubbard. 

Supervisor  of  Primary  Schools,  503  Union  St..  Joliet. 
Arthur  Wooley  Hussey,  B.Sc.  '78.  Nat.  Nor.  Univ. 

1896,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Geneseo. 
ThkIJohn  Crerar  Library,  Chicago. 

Librarian,  Clement  W.  Andrews,  Chicago. 
J.  A.  Johnson. 

Principal  of  Mark  Sheridan  School,  3500  Ellis  Ave  ,  Chicago. 
Emma  Frances  Jones. 

1878,  Assistant  in  High  School,  1131  S.  6th  St.,  Springfield. 
C.  H.  Kammann,  B.L  ,  Univ.  of  111. 

1894,  Head  of  German  Department,  High  School,  810,  6th  Ave.,  Peoria. 
Carl  J.  Kroh. 

1899,  Head  of    Physical    Training    Department,   Chicago  Institute,  962   N.   Clark   St., 
Chicago. 
Cephas  H.  Leach. 

1889,  Principal  of  A.  H.  Burley  School,  523  Greenleaf  Ave.,  Rogers  Park  Station,  Chicago. 
Lincoln  University. 

President,  J.  L.  Goodknight,  D.D. ;  Secretary,  Robert  W.  Crowell,  Lincoln. 
Mary  McCowen. 

Principal  of  Day  Schools  for  the  Deaf,  6550  Yale  Ave.,  Chicago. 
Anna  McKillop, 

1886,  Head  Assistant  in  Graham  School,  740  \V.  47th  PI.,  Chicago. 
EuDORA  Montgomery. 

1894,  Head  Teacher,  Oral    Class    for    the    Deaf,   Public    Schools,   4319   Drexel    Boul., 
Chicago. 
Montgomery  Moore,  A.M.,  Ph.D. 

Superintendent  of  Schools  of  South  Belvidere,  501  Logan  Ave.,  Belvidere. 
Royal  T.  Morgan,  A.B.,  '74,  A.M.,  '77,  Wheaton  Coll. 

1886,  County  Superintendent  of  Schools,  710  College  Ave.,  Wheaton. 
Frank  L.  Morse,  A.B.,  '86,  A.M., '89,  Brown  Univ. 

Principal  of  Burr  School,  393  Warren  Ave.,  Chicago. 
Daniel  Baldwin  Parkinson,  A.M.,  '74,  Ph.D.,  '98,  McKendree  Coll. 

1898,  President  of  Southern  Illinois  Normal  University,  335  Walnut  St.,  Carbondalc. 
Mary  Rhid  Pierce. 

1898,  Agent,  American  Book  Co..  521-531  Wabash  Ave.,  Chicago. 
Frederick  William  Plapp,  A.B.,  '85,  A.M.,  '91,  Dartmouth  Coll. 

1890,  Assistant  in  Jefferson  High  School,  2549  N.  42d  Ave.,  Station  35,  Chicago, 
Mrs.  Andrea  Hofer  Proudfoot. 

Editor  "  Child  Garden,"  9333  Prospect  Ave.,  Chicago. 
Louise  D.  Rennick. 

Teacher  in  Pullman  School,  7142  Evans  Ave.,  Station  R,  Chicago. 
Robert  H.  Rennie. 

1889,  Principal  of  Gresham  School,  817  W.  87th  St..  Chicago. 
John  Richeson,  M.Sc,  *8o,  A.M.  (honorary),  '84,  Ewing  Coll. 

1897,  Superintendent  of  City  Schools,  District  No.  i,  819  Ohio  Ave.,  East  St.  Louis.  « 
George  A.  Robbins. 

1892,  Teacher  of  Manual  Training,  Public  Schools,  995  Osgood  St.,  Chicago. 
H.  L.  Roberts. 

1896,  Superintendent  of  Public  Schools,  Farmingion. 
Joseph  L.  Robertson. 

1894,  County  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Courthouse.  Peoria. 
Edward  O.  Sisson,  B.Sc,  '86,  State  Agr.  Coll. ;  A.B.,  '93.  Univ.  of  Chicago. 

1897,  Director  of  Bradley  Polytechnic  Institute,  Peoria. 
Eva  A.  Smedley. 

1898,  Principal  of  Noyes  St.  School,  Evanston;  138  Wells  St.,  Chicago. 
E.  R.  Smith. 

General  Agent  for  D.  C.  Heath  &  Co.,  378  Wabash  Ave.,  Chicago. 
Arthur  John  Snyder. 

1897,  Superintendent  of  North   Belvidere   Schools,  cor.  McComb  and   Van   Burcn  Sts. 
Belvidere. 
John  H.  Stehman. 

1881,  Principal  of  Avondale  School,  1571  Kimbell  Ave.,  Logan  Square,  Chicago. 
Albert  LeRoy  Stevenson,  B.Sc,  '82,  N.  Ind.  Nor.  Sch. 

188';,  Principal  of  Oakland  Grammar  School,  848  N.  Park  Ave.,  Chicago. 
Emma  J.  Todd. 

283  Downer  PI.,  Aurora, 


744  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Illinois 

1897  Henry  L.  Tolman,  A.M.,  '69,  Rochester  Univ. 

Professor  of  Medical  Jurisprudence,  School  of  Medicine,  Univ.  of  III.,  929  Chicago 
Opera  House  Building,  Chicago;  res.,  919  Hinman  Ave.,  Evanston, 
Frank  H.  Wescott,  A.B.,  Univ.  of  Chicago. 

1900,  Student,  University  of  Chicago;  res.,  Lacon. 
John  F.  Wicks. 

1890,  Principal  of  School,  Blue  Mound;  res.,  Decatur. 

1898  Anna  Bodlkk,  M.Sc,  '95.  State  Nor.  Sch.,  Mansfield,  Pa. 

Student,  University  of  Chicago,  Beecher  Hall,  University  of  Chicago,  Chicago. 
The  Chicago  Public  Library. 

Librarian,  Frederick  H.  Hild,  Chicago. 
John  A.  Forbes. 

With  Butler,  Sheldon  &  Co.,  Publishers,  315  Wabash  Ave.,  Chicago. 
John  Calvin  Hanna,  A.B.,  '81,  A.M.,  "84.  Univ.  of  Wooster. 

1898,  Principal  of  Oak  Park  High  School,  Park  Hotel,  Oak  Park. 
Illinois  State  Normal  University. 

President,  David  Felmley ;  Librarian,  Ange  V.  Milner,  Normal. 
Anna  Murray. 

Sloyd  Teacher,  18-26  Van  Buren  St.,  Chicago. 
Newberry  Library. 

Librarian,  J.  V.  Cheney,  Chicago. 
Chauncey  F.  Newkirk. 

Manager,  Educational  Dept.,  Rand,  McNally  &  Co.,  166-168  Adams  St.,  Chicago. 
J,  H.  Pugh. 

Agent,  Werner  Schoolbook  Co.,  378  Wabash  Ave.,  Chicago.' 
W.  S.  Russell. 

Western  Manager,  Edu.  Dept.,  Harper  &  Brothers,  203  Michigan  Ave.,  Chicago. 
Clyde  Sloane,  A.B.,  '88,  Univ.  of  Mich. 

CarroUton. 
Mrs.  Constance  B.  Smith. 

1894,  Supervisor  of  Music  in  Public  Schools,  239  Webster  Ave.,  Jacksonville. 

1899  J.  W.  Asbury,  A.B.,  '97,  and  B.Pd.,  '98,  Nor.  Sch.,  Valparaiso,  Ind. 

1898,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Marion. 
J.  Edward  Bangs. 

1894,  Principal  of  Township  High  School,  1097  N.  Main  St.,  Pontiac. 
Francis  G.  Blair,  B.Sc,  '97,  Swarthmore  Coll. 

1899,  Supervisor  of  Training  Department,  Eastern  Illinois  Normal  School,  Oakwood  PI., 

Charleston. 
Louis  J.  Block,  A.B.,  '68,  A.M.,  Ph.D.,  Washington  Univ. 

Principal  of  Marshall  High  School,  363  Warren  Ave.,  Chicago. 
Henry  L.  Boltwood,  A.M.,  '56,  Amherst. 

1883,  Principal  of  High  School,  1218  Benson  Ave.,  Evanston. 
Isaac  B.  Burgess,  A.B.,  '83,  A.M.,  '86,  Brown  Univ. 

1892,  Professor  of  Latin  in  the  Academy  of  the  University  of  Chicago,  Morgan  Park. 
Joseph  Carter. 

Superintendent  of  City  Schools,  201  S.  Elm  St.,  Champaign. 
Francis  B.  Cassilly. 

1898,  Vice-Piesident  of  St.  Ignatius  College,  Chicago. 
Henry  L.  Chaplin. 

1894,  Superintendent  of  the  Union  District  Schools,  Sterling. 
Wayland  J.  Chase,  A.B.,  '87,  A.M.,  '89,  Brown  Univ. 

1898,  Assistant  Professor  of  History  and,  1899,  Dean  of  Morgan  Park  Acad.,  Morgan 
Park. 
Chicago  Institute. 

President,  Francis  W.  Parker;  Librarian,  Irene  Warren,  18  Crilly  PI.,  Chicago. 
George  Victor  Clum,  A.B.,  '93,  Ohio  State  Univ. 

1898,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Earlville. 
Ida  M.  Cook. 

1886,  Principal  of  Nathaniel  Greene  School,  3207  Prairie  Ave.,  Chicago. 
William  J.  M.  Cox,  A.M.,  '93,  Univ.  of  Wooster. 

1898,  Superintendent  of  City  Schools,  1614,  8th  Ave.,  Moline, 
Department  of  Public  Instruction,  State  of  Illinois. 

Superintendent,  Alfred  Bayliss,  Springfield, 
Eastern  Illinois  State  Normal  School. 

President,  Livingston  C.  Lord,  Charleston. 
Mrs.  Mary  E.  Gilbert. 

Principal  of  Brighton  School,  3207  Prairie  Ave.,  Chicago. 
M.  H.  Haertel,  B.Sc,  '95,  St.  Charles  Coll.,  Mo. 

1900,  Student,  University  of  Chicago,  5700  Jackson  Ave.,  Chicago. 
William  Gardner  Hale,  A.B.,  '70,  Harvard;  LL.D.,  Union  and  Princeton. 

1897,  Professor  of  Latin,  University  of  Chicago,  5757  Lexington  Ave,  Chicago. 
WiNKiELD  Scott  Hall,  Ph.D.,  M.D.,  Leipzig,  Germany. 

1895,  Professor  of  Physiology  in  Northwestern  University  Medical  School,  2431  Dearborn 

St.,  Chicago. 
Ika  W.  Howerth,  A.B.,  '93,  Harvard;  A.M.,  '94,  Ph.D.,  '97,  Univ.  of  Chicago. 

1898,  Registrar,  College  for  Teachers,  University  of  Chicago,  228,  53d  St.,  Chicago. 
Henry  Johnson,  B.L.,  '89,  Univ.  of  Minn. 

i8gg.  Department  of  History,  Eastern  Illinois  State  Normal  School,  Charleston. 
Alfred  Kirk. 

District  Superintendent  of  Schools,  4229  Oakenwald  Ave.,  Chicago. 
J.  E.  Lemon,  A.B.,  '83,  Univ.  of  Mich. 

1894,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  528  Maple  Ave.,  Blue  Island. 
William  P.  McKee,  A.M.,  Univ.  of  Minn. ;  B.D.,  Univ.  of  Chicago. 

1897,  Dean,  the  Frances  Shimer  Academy  of  the  University  of  Chicago,  Mt.  Carroll. 
Edward  McLoughlin.  M.D..  'go.  Rush  Med.  Coll. 

1899,  Principal,  George  Dewey  School,  6547  Lafayette  Ave.,  Chicago. 
Mrs.  Edward  .McLoughlin. 

6547  Lafayette  Ave.,  Chicago. 


Indiana]  LIFE,  ACTIVE,  AND  CORRESPONDING  MEMBERS  745 

WAA^Ol'S,-  Contivued 

1899  Anthony  Middlkton. 

1894,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Chenoa. 
Burton  E.  Nelson,  B.Sc.  M.Sc,  Western  Nor.  Coll. 

1900,  Superintendent  of  City  Schools,  455,  8th  St.,  Lincoln. 
Northern  Illinois  State  Normal  School. 

President,  John  W.  Cook,  De  Kalb. 
Percy  Pickrell. 

Agent  for  Ginn  &  Co.,  Williamsville. 
Public  Library,  Rockford. 

Librarian,  W.  L.  Rowland.  Rockford 
R.  Keable  Row,  A.B.,  '97,  Queens  Univ.,  Kingston,  Can. 

With  D.  C.  Heath  &  Co.,  378  Wabash  Ave.,  Chicago. 
John  J.  Schobinger. 

1876,  Principal  of  Harvard  Preparatory  School,  4670  Lake  Ave.,  Chicago. 
James  B.  Scott,  A.M.,  '91.  Harvard;  J.U.U.,  '94,  Heidelberg. 

1899,  Professor  of  Law  and  Dean  of  College  of  Law,  University  of  Illinois,  Champaign, 
Elmer  E.  Silver,  A.M.,  '88,  Brown  Univ. 

Educational  Publisher,  378  Wabash  Ave. 

D,  H,  Smalley. 

378-88  Wabash  Ave.,  Chicago. 
Alexander  Smith,  B.Sc,  '86,  Edinburgh;  Ph.D.,  '89,  Munich. 

1894,  Associate  Professor  of  General  Chemistry,  University  of  Chicago,  Quadrangle  Club, 
Chicago. 
George  W.  Smith,  A.M.,  '93,  Blackburn  Univ. 

1897,  Department  of  History  and  Geography,  State   Normal   School,  351  Walnut  St., 
Carbondale. 
Southern  Illinois  Normal  University. 

President,  Daniel  B.  Parkinson;  Librarian,  Bessie  M.  Thompson,  Carbondale. 
J.  A.  TowNSEND,  A.B.,  '94,  Dartmouth  Coll. 

With  Charles  Scribner's  Sons,  334  Dearborn  St.,  Chicago. 
University  of  Chicago. 

President,  William  R.  Harper;  Librarian,  Zella  Allen  Dixson,  Chicago. 
University  of  Illinois,  Library. 

President,  Andrew  S.  Draper;  Librarian,  Katharine  L.  Sharp,  Champaign. 
Edwin  M.  Van  Petten,  M.Sc,  '85,  III.  Wes.  Univ. 

1892,  Superintendent  of  City  Schools,  1217  E.  Washington  St.,  Bloomington. 
Ransom  E.  Walker. 

Teacher  in  Richard  Yates  School,  223  S.  Hermitage  Ave.,  Chicago. 
Gborge  W.  Webster,  M.D.,  '82,  N.  W.  Univ.  Med.  Sch. 

Professor  of  Physical  Diagnosis,  Northwestern  University  Medical  School,  70  State 
St.,  Chicago. 
Meta  Wellers. 

Teacher  in  Grammar  Department,  The  Renfost,  Chicago. 
Wheaton  College. 

President,  Charles  A.  Blanchard;  Secretary,  D.  A.  Straw,  Wheaton. 

1900  Cornelia  D.  Bingham. 

1897,  Head  Teacher,  McCowen  Oral  School  for  the  Deaf,  6550  Yale  Ave.,  Chicago. 

E.  C.  Rosseter,  A.m.,  '75,  Marietta  Coll. 

Principal,  Medill  High  School,  939  S.  Spaulding  Ave.,  Chicago. 
Scoville  Institute. 

President,  H.  D.  Pierce  ;  Librarian,  E.  L.  Moore,  Oak  Park. 
Randolph  Blodgett  Seymour,  A.B.,  '84,  A.M.,  '87,  Hamilton  Coll.,  N.  Y. 

1900,  Director,  Commercial  Department,  High  School,  215  W.  Adams  St.,  Springfield. 
J.  K.  Stableton,  B.Sc,  '82,  A.M.,  '88,  Ohio  Wes.  Univ. 

1897,  Superintendent  of  Public  Schools,  1103  Jefferson  Ave..  Charleston. 
Frederick  L.  Turner,  A.B.,  '97,  A.M.,  '98,  Ohio  State  Univ. 

1900,  Teacher  of  Latin,  High  School,  103  N.  Oak  Park  Ave.,  Oak  Park. 
Marion  Foster  Washburne. 

1900,  Teacher  in  Chicago  Institute,  553  Jackson  Boul.,  Chicago. 

INDIANA 

LIFE   members  • 

1876     Moses  Cobb  Stevens,  A.M.,  '83,  Earlham  Coll. 

1883,  Professor  of  Higher  Mathematics,  Purdue  University,  11  Waldron  St.,  W.  Lafayette. 
1880     John  S.  Irwin,  A.B.,  '42,  Western  Univ.  of  Pa.;  M.D.,  '47,  Univ.  of  Pa. ;  LL.D.,  '75,  Univ.  ot  Ind. 
1203  E.  Main  St.,  Lafayette. 

active  members 
1885     Mary  E.  Nicholson. 

Principal  of  Normal  School,  1222  Broadway,  Indianapolis. 

1890  Anna  Suter. 

1889,  Principal  of  High  School,  115,  4th  St.,  Aurora. 

1891  W.  S.  Almond. 

1893,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  East  Franklin  St.,  Delphi. 
Jessb  H.  Brown. 

Lecturer  on  Art  and  General  Educational  Subjects,  1615  Broadway,  Indianapolis. 
Miss  N.  Cropsey. 

1894,  Assistant  Superintendent  of  Schools,  1219  College  .■Vve.,  Indianapolis. 

1892  Edward  Ayres,  A.B.,  '78,  A.M.,  '85,  Amherst  Coll. 

1890,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  625  Ferry  St.,  Lafayette. 

1893  William  L.  Bryan,  Ph.D.,  '92,  Clark  Univ. 

1887,  Professor  of  Philosophy,  Indiana  University,  812  N.  College  Ave.,  Bloomington. 
Albert  E.  Humke. 

1891,  Superintendent  of  Public  Schools,  Vincennes. 


746 


NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION 


[Indiana 


1893  Joseph  Swain,  B.L.,  '83,  M.Sc,  '85,  Ind.  Univ. ;  LL.D.,  '93,  Wabash  Coll. 

1893,  President  of  Indiana  University,  Beechwood  Ave.,  Bloomington. 
H.  G.  Woody,  B.Sc,  National  Normal  Univ. 

Superintendent  of  Schools,  Greencastle. 

1894  George  W.  Benton,  A.B., '84.  A.M., '87.  Wabash  Coll. 

1888,  Instructor  in  Chemistry,  High  School,  609  N.  Delaware  St.,  Indianapolis. 
George  W.  Hufford,  A.M.,  '67,  Antioch  Coll. 

1892,  Principal  of  High  School,  1209  Park  Ave.,  Indianapolis. 
1R95     W.  C.  Belman. 

1883,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  130  Ogden  St.,  Hammond. 
H.  B.  Brown,  A.M. 

President  of  Northern  Indiana  Normal  School,  53  Jefferson  St.,  Valparaiso. 
John  A.  Carnagkv,  A.B.,  '81,  A.M.,  '84.  Hanover  Coll.,  Ind. 

1890,  Superintendent  of  City  Schools,  1039  Franklin  St.,  Columbus. 
T.  F.  FiTZGiDDONs,  Grad.,  '90,  Ind.  St.  Nor.  Sch. ;  A.B.,  '97,  Ind.  Univ. 

i8go,  Superintendent  of  Public  Schools,  1808  N.  C  St.,  Elwood. 
D.  M.  Geeting. 

1895,  Editor  of  "Inland  Educator"'  and  "Indiana  School  Journal,"  2026  Central  Ave., 

Indianapolis. 
William  A.  Hester,  A.M.,  '83,  De  Pauw  Univ. 

1894,  Superintendent  of  City  Public  Schools,  7th  and  Vine  Sts.,  Evansville. 
Cyrus  W.  Hodgin,  A.M.,  '88.  Earlham  Coll. 

1887,  Professor  of  History  and  Political  Science,  Earlham  Coll.,  30  Central  Ave.,  Rich- 
mond. 
Frank  L.  Jones,  B.Sc,  '90,  N.  Ind.  Nor.  Sch. ;  A.B.,  '98,  Ind.  Univ. 

1898,  State  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  Room  27,  State  House,  Indianapolis. 
George  Franklin  Kenaston,  A.B.,  '78,  Dartmouth;  A.M.,  '81,  Univ.  of  Mich. 

1897,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  sti  S.  Washington  St.,  Crawfordsville. 
Calvin  N.  Kendall.  AM. 

1900,  Superintendent  of  Public  Schools,  Indianapolis. 
Mary  E.  Rovve. 

1900,  Teacher  in  Knickerbocker  Hall,  2307  Talbot  Ave,,  Indianapolis. 
William  S.  Rowe,  A.B.,  '92,  De  Pauw  Univ. 

1899,  Superintendent  of  Schools.  803  Grand  Ave.,  Connersville. 
James  F.  Scull. 

1892,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Room  11,  Central  Building,  Rochester. 
W.  R.  Snyder,  A.M  ,  '98,  Pennsylvania  Coll. 

1887,  Superintendent  of  City  Schools,  319  \V.  Adams  St.,  Muncie. 
Wabash  College. 

'~^  President,  William  P.  Kane;  Librarian,  H.  S.  Wedding,  Crawfordsville, 

1896  George  F.  Bass. 

Manager  "Indiana  Young  People's  Reading  Circle,"   Commercial  Club  Building, 
Indianapolis. 
Mrs.  Eliza  A.  Blaker. 

1882,  Superintendent,  Indianapolis  Free  Kindergartens,  Normal   and  Domestic  Training 
School,  2320  N.  Meridian  St.,  Indianapolis. 
Henry  Willard  Bowers,  A.B.,  '77,  A.M..  '81,  De  Pauw  Univ. 

1896,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Union  City. 

John  Franklin  Brown,  Ph.B.,  '89,  A.M.,  '95,  Earlham  Coll. ;  Ph.D.,  '96,  Cornell. 

1898,  Vice-President  and  Professor  of  Philosophy,  Earlham  College,  Richmond. 
Isaac  Vinton  Busby,  A.B.,  '91,  Indiana  Univ. 

1894,  Superintendent  of  City  Schools,  202  E.  Garfield  St.,  Alexandria. 
Robert  I.  Hamilton. 

1887,  Superintendent  of  City  Schools,  53  Poplar  St.,  Huntington. 
Miles  W.  Harrison,  A.B..  '79,  Oberlin. 

1886,  Superintendent  of  City  Schools,  109  W.  Sinclair  St.,  Wabash. 
William  Handford  Hershman,  A.B.,  '98,  Ind.  Univ. 

1900,  President  of  Vincennes  University,  5th  and  Broadway,  Vincennes. 
J.  R.  Houston,  M.Sc,  '93,  Moore's  Hill  Coll. 

1896,  Superintendent  of  Public  Schools,  Aurora. 
John  O.  Lewellen,  B.Sc,  N.  Ind.  Nor.  School. 

Principal  of  Lincoln  School,  301  North  St.,  Muncie. 
C.  M.  McDaniel,  B.Sc.,  '85,  A.M.,  '93. 

Superintendent  of  Schools,  505  W.  Main  St.,  Madison. 
William  A.  Millis,  A.M.,  Ind.  Univ. 

1900,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  113  W.  Wabash  Ave.,  Crawfordsville. 
B.  F.  Moore. 

1899,  Superintendent  of  City  Schools,  618  W.  5th  St.,  Marion. 
Thomas  Abjott  Mott,  A.M.,  '98,  Earlham  Coll. 

1896,  Superintendent  of  Schools.  Garfield  School,  Richmond. 
Charles  N.  Peak,  A.B.,  '84,  Moores  Hill  Coll. ;  Ph.B.,  '86,  Ind.  Univ. 

1891,  Superintendent  of  City  Schools,  Princeton. 
Flora  Roberts,  B.Sc,  '87,  M.Sc,  '98,  Purdue  Univ. 

1894,  Teacher  in  West  La  Fayette  High  School,  Northwestern  Ave.,  Lafayette. 
Howard  Sandison,  A.M.,  '89,  Ind.  Univ. 

1890,  Vice-President,  Indiana  State  Normal  School,  404  N.  Center  St.,  Terre  Haute. 
David  W.  Thomas,  A.B.,  '72,  A.M.,  "75.  De  Pauw  Univ. 

1886,  Superintendent  of  City  Schools,  506  Pigeon  St.,  Elkhart. 
William  H.  Wiley,  A.B.,  '64,  A.M.,  '67,  Butler  "Univ. 

1869,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  451  N.  7th  St.,  Terre  Haute. 

1897  Adelaide  Steele  Baylor,  Ph.B.,  '97,  Univ.  of  Chicago. 

1888,  Principal  of  High  School,  108  E.  Hill  St.,  Wabash. 
J.  W.  Carr,  A.B.,  '85,  A.M.,  '90,  Ind.  Univ. 

1890.  Superintendent  of  City  Schools,  439  W.  nth  St.,  Anderson. 
Indiana  State  Library. 

State  Librarian,  W.  E.  Henry,  State  House,  Indianapolis. 
Indiana  State  Normal  School. 

President,  William  W.  Parsons,  Terre  Haute. 


iowa]  LIFii,  ACTIVE,  ANt>  COkRHSPO^DlNG  MEMBkkB  H? 

INDIANA—  Continued 

1897  W.  D.  Kerlin,  Grad.,  '?i,  Ind.  Nor.  Sch. 

1895,  Superintendent  of  City  Schools,  289  E.  Washington  St.,  Martinsville. 
Irwin  F.  Mather,  A.B.,  A.M.,  Iowa  Coll. 

1898,  Superintendent  of  City  Schools,  East  Chicago. 

Francis  M.  Merica,  B.Sc,  '96,  Wm.  Taylor  Univ. ;  Ph.B.,  '97,  Univ.  of  Chicago. 

Superintendent  of  Schools,  La  Grange  ;  address,  Garrett. 
Edwin  S.  Monroe,  Ph.B.,  '96,  111.  Wesleyan  Univ.;  A.M., '97,  Hanover  Coll. 

189s,  Superintendent  of  City  Schools,  Box  552,  Mt.  Vernon. 
H.  C.  Montgomery,  A.B.,  '80,  Hanover  Coll. ;  A.M.,  '91,  Univ.  of  Mich. 

1892,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Seymour. 
Will  A.  Myers,  A.B.,  '96,  A.M.,  '99,  Indiana  Univ. 

1899,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Shoals. 
Robert  Alexander  Ogg,  B.Sc,  '72,  A.M.,  '92,  Ind.  Univ. 

Superintendent  of  Schools,  216  W.  Sycamore  St.,  Kokomo. 
Justin  N.  Study,  A.M.,  "73,  Ohio  Wes.  Univ. 

1896,  Superintendent  of  Public  Schools,  Fort  Wayne. 
Valparaiso  College  and  Northern  Indiana  Normal  School. 

President,  H.  B.  Brown ;  Librarian,  O.  P.  Kinsey,  Valparaiso. 

1898  Edward  G.  Bauman,  Grad.,  '90,  Ind.  State  Nor.  Sch. ;  Ph.B.,  '96,  111.  Wes.  Univ. ;  A.M.,  '98,  Cent. 

Wes.,  '99,  111.  Wes.  Univ. 

t899,  Principal  of  High  School,  829  Main  St.,  Mt.  Vernon. 
Mrs.  Harriet  F.  Case. 

Supervisor  of  Methods,  Public  Schools,  320  S.  Liberty  St.,  Muncie. 
Fassett  a.  Cotton. 

1895,  Deputy  State  Supt.  of  Public  Instruction,  1413  N.  New  Jersey  St.,  Indianapolis. 
Mrs.  Laura  Dale  Floyd. 

1900,  Principal  of  South  Side  School,  East  Chicago. 
WiNFiELD  Scott  Hiser. 

Supervisor  and  Teacher  of  Manual  Training,  Public  Schools.  33  S.  13th  St.,  Richmond. 
Alfred  E.  Malsbary,  Grad.,  '8g,  Ind.  State  Nor. ;  A.B.,  '96,  Ind.  State  Univ. 

Superintendent  of  Schools,  Peru. 
Clara  Jane  Mitchell,  A.B.,  '97,  Ind.  Univ. 

1897,  Teacher  of  English  and  History,  High  School,  71  W.  Hendricks  St.,   Shelbyville. 
John  F.  Rieman,  B.Sc,  '97,  Univ.  of  Mich. ;  B.Pd.,  '99,  Mich.  Nor.  Coll. 

Superintendent  of  Public  Schools,  Goshen. 
John  Anderson  Wood,  .\.B.,  Ind.  Univ. 

1898,  Superintendent  of  City  Schools,  i2ioClaySt.,  La  Porte. 

1899  Anna  M.  Baker,  B.L.,  '98,  M.L.,  '99,  Univ.  of  Mich. 

1899,  Instructor  in  English  and  History,  Box  438,  Mount  Vernon, 
C.  Bunnell. 

Principal  of  High  School,  Wanatah. 
Charles  H.  Copeland,  A.B.,  '96,  A.M.,  '97,  Indiana  Univ. 

Superintendent  of  Public  Schools,  Fairmount. 
Harrison  L.  Frank,  A.M.,  '79,  Otterbein  Univ.,  Ohio. 

1899,  Superintendent  of  City  Schools,  Frankfort. 
Clara  Funk,  B.Sc,  '84,  Nat.  Nor.  Univ.,  Lebanon,  O. 

1891,  Teacher  of  English  in   High  School,  Jeffersonville ;     res.,   208    Cherry  St.,   New 
Albany. 
Joseph  P.  Funk,  A.M.,  Nat.  Nor.  LTniv.,  Lebanon,  O. 

1887,  Principal  of  High  School,  208  Cheity  St.,  New  Albany. 
William  H.  Glascock,  A.B.,  '98,  Ind.  Univ.;  Ph.M.,  '99, Univ.  of  Chicago. 

1899,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  408  College  Ave..  Bloomington. 
Alexander  Campbell  Goodwin,  A.M.,  Ph.D.,  Hanover  Coll. 

1899,  Superintendent  of  City  Schools,  Jeffersonville. 
Frank  F.  Heighway.  B.Sc,  '88,  No.  Ind.  Nor.  Sch. 

1896.  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Crown  Point. 
John  A.  Hill,  B.Sc,  '95. 

1899,  Superintendent  of  City  Schools,  Tipton. 
Indiana  University  Library. 

President,  Joseph  Swain ;  Librarian,  George  F.  Danforth,  Bloomington. 
Ezra  E.  Lollar,  A.B.,  '93,  Otterbein  Univ.,  O. 

1899,  Superintendent  of  City  Schools,  Garrett. 

1900  W.  S.  Ellis. 

1898,  President,  Board  of  Education,  335  W.  5th  St.,  Anderson. 
Robert  Lee  Hughes,  A.B.,  '95,  A.M.,  '99,  Univ.  of  Chicago. 

1900,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Whiting. 

J.  F.  Spaunhurst,  D.O.,  1900,  American  School  of  Osteopathy,  Kirksville,  Mo. 

9th  Floor,  Stevenson  Building,  Indianapolis. 
William  A.  Wirt,  Ph.B.,  '98,  De  Pauw  Univ. 

Superintendent  of  Public  Schools,  524  W,  Washington  St.,  Bluffton. 

IOWA 

life  members 

1884     Henry  J.  Taylo'r,  A,B.,  '78,  LL.B.,  '80,  A.M.,  '84,  Univ.  of  Wis. 
Lawyer,  1635  Douglas  St.,  Sioux  City. 
William  A.  Willis,  A.B.,  '62,  A.M.,  '65,  Beloit  Coll, 

Proprietor  and  Principal  of  Iowa  City  Academy,  308  Church  St.,  Iowa  City. 

active  members 

1884      Hamline  H.  Freer,  B.Sc,  '69,  M.Sc,  '78,  A.B.,  '80,  A.M.,  '83,  Cornell  Coll.,  la. 

1872,  Prof,  of  Science  and  Art  of  Teaching  and  Pol.  Econ.,  Cornell  Coll..  Mt.  Vernon. 
William  Fletcher  King.  A.B.,  '57,  A.M.,  '60,  Ohio  Wesleyan  Univ. ;  D.D.,  '70,  111.   Wesleyan 
Univ. ;  LL.D..  '87,  State  Univ.  of  Iowa,  Ohio  Wesleyan  Univ. 
1863,  President  of  Cornell  College,  Mt.  Vernon. 


748  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [lowa 

1889  William  Miller  Beardshear,  A.B.,  '76,  A.M.,  '79,  LL.D.,  '85. 

1891,  President  of  Iowa  State  College  of  Agriculture  and  Mechanical  Arts,  Ames. 
Hbnry  Sabin,  LL.D.,  '93,  Drake  Univ. ;  '94,  Cornell  Coll. ;  '95,  State  Univ. of  Iowa. 

Ex-State  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction, 615  Iowa  Ix>an  and  Trust  Building, 
Des  Moines. 
Homer  H.  Seerley,  Ph.B.,  '73,  B.D.,  '75,  A.M.,  '76,  State  Univ.  of  Iowa  ;  LL.D.,  '98.  Penn  Coll. 
1886,  President,  State  Nor.  School,  2403  Normal  St.,  Cedar  Falls. 

1890  Henry  Elton  Kratz,  A.M.,  '77,  Ph.D.,  '90,  Univ.  of  Wooster,  Ohio. 

1891,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  805  Douglas  St.,  Sioux  City. 
189T      OzRO  P.  BosTWiCK,  A.B.,  '78,  Lombard  Univ.,  111. 

1889,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  313,  8th  Ave.,  Clinton. 

1892  J.  M.  Mehan. 

1884,  President,  Capital  City  Commercial  College,  Y.  M.  C.  A.  Building,  Des   Moines. 

1893  Jacob  Theodore  Merrill,  A.B.,  '62,  A.M.,  '65,  Otterbein  Univ.,  Ohio. 

1890,  Superintendent  of  City  Schools,  518  S.  7th  St.,  Cedar  Rapids. 

1894  Ashley  Van  Storm,  Ph.B.,  '98,  III.  Wesleyan  Univ. 

1898,  Superintendent  of  City  Schools,  Cherokee. 
A.  B.  Warner. 

1896,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Missouri  Valley. 
189s     James  Johnson  Billingsly,  B.Sc,  '92,  N.  Ind.  Nor.  Univ. 

1898,  Superintendent  of  Public  Schools,  Sanborn. 
M.  E.  Crosier. 

1892,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Walnut. 

E.  D.  Y.  Culbertson,  B.D.,  '89,  State  Normal  School,  Cedar  Falls,  la. 

1895,  Superintendent  of  City  Schools,  Ames. 
O.  E.  French. 

1895,  Superintendent  of  City  Schools,  602  N.  Maple  St.,  Creston. 
P.  C.  Hayden. 

Teacher  of  Music,  Public  Schools,  Keokuk. 
Joseph  Jasper  McConnell,  A.B.,  '76;  B.Didac.,  '78.  A.M.,  '80,  State  Univ.  of  Iowa. 

1891,  Professor  of  Pedagogy,  State  University  of  Iowa,  331  Summit  St.,  Iowa  City. 
W.  A.  McCoRD. 

1898,  General  Agent,  Rand,  McNally  &  Co.,  Educational  Department,  Des  Moines. 
J.  J,  Nagel,  Ph.B.,  '98,  ^Vesleyan  Univ.,  Bloomington,  111. 

1870,  Principal  of  Grammar  School  No.  4,  906  ^V.  Locust  St.,  Davenport. 

A.  A.  Reed,  A.B.,  Univ.  of  Neb. 

1900,  Principal  of  High  School,  Keokuk. 
Etta  Suplee. 

Supervisor  of  Primary  Training,  State  Normal  School,  Cedar  Falls. 
Fannie  Suplee. 

1894,  Principal  of  Public  School,  104s,  9th  St.,  Des  Moines. 
J.  E.  Williamson,  A.M.,  '82,  Wabash  Coll. 

1892,  Superintendent  of  City  Schools,  Fairfield. 

1896  Richard  C.  Barrett,  A.M.,  '94,  Cornell  Coll.,  la. 

1898,  State  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  Des  Moines. 
George  I.  Miller,  B.Sc,  '77,  M.Sc,  '97,  Iowa  State  Coll. 

1886,  Superintendent  of  Public  Schools,  427  Story  St.,  Boone. 
Franklin  T.  Oldt,  A.M. 

189s,  Superintendent  of  City  Schools,  1240  Locust  St.,  Dubuque. 
Austin  Norman  Palmer. 

President  of  Cedar  Rapids   Business  College   and  Editor  of  "Western   Penman," 
Cedar  Rapids. 
Hattie  Adblia  Phillips. 

1894,  Supervisor  of  Kindergartens,  1013,  21st  St.,  Des  Moines. 

F.  E.  Willard,  B.Sc,  '89,  A.M.,  '92,  Iowa  Coll. 

1896,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  206  W.  Grant  St.,  Marshalltown. 
J.  B,  Young,  A.B.,  ^61,  A.M.,  '64,  Middlebury  Coll. 

1878,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  422  E.  14th  St.,  Davenport. 

1897  Eugene  Brown,  B.Sc., '92,  Iowa  State  Coll. 

1900,  President  of  Midland  Normal  School,  505-507  W.  State  St.,  Mason  City. 
Jacob  Leonard  Buechkle,  Ph.B.,  '86,  Cornell  Coll.,  Iowa. 

1896,  Superintendent  of  City  Schools,  Independence. 
Horace  T.  Bushnell. 

1873,  Principal  of  Grammar  School  No.  8,  Farnam  St.  and  South  Ave.,  Davenport. 
C.  P.  Colgrove,  A.M.,  Univ.  of  Chicago. 

1896,  Assistant  Professor  of  Pedagogy,  State  Normal  School,  1207  Clay  St.,  Cedar  Falls. 
W.  A.  DoRON,  M.Sc 

Superintendent  of  Public  Schools,  Eldora. 
Mrs.  E.  Dudley,  A.B.,  '84.  A.M.,  '87,  Cornell  Coll. 

1890,  Assistant  Principal  in  High  School,  Paullina. 
Lyman  H.  Ford,  A.B.,  '92.  A.M.,  '93,  Univ.  of  Wooster. 

1893,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  726  Walnut  St.,  Webster  City. 
*  Irene  Garrette. 

Principal  of  Jefferson  School,  708,  3d  Ave.,  Cedar  Rapids. 

B.  J.  Horchem. 

1898,  Principal  of  Audubon  School,  315  Bluff  St.,  Dubuque. 
F.  E.  Lark.  '4 

1896,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Monona  County,  Onawa. 
George  Edwin  MacLean,  Ph.D.,  '83,  Leipzig;  LL.D., '95,  Williams. 

1899,  President  of  the  State  University  of  Iowa,  Iowa  City. 
A  R.  Sale. 

1893,  Superintendent  of  City  Schools,  326  S.  Superior  Ave.,  Mason  City. 
William  S.  Shearer. 

Agent  for  American  Book  Co.,  2718  University  Ave.,  Des  Moines. 
State  Normal  School,  Cedar  Falls. 

President,  H.  H.  Seerley,  Cedar  Falls. 
State  University  of  Iowa. 

President,  George  Edwin  MacLean ;  Librarian,  Mrs.  Bertha  G.  Ridgeway,  Iowa  City. 


Kansas!  LIFE,  ACTIVE,  AND  CORRESPONDING  MEMBERS  749 

IOWA  —  Contitiued 

1897  V.  L.  Wilson. 

Agent  for  American  Book  Co.,  Ottumwa. 
FiNLEY  M.  Witter,  B.Sc,  A.M.,  '76,  University  of  Iowa. 

1864,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  1314  Mulberry  St.,  Muscatine. 

1898  Edson  N.  Coleman,  A.M.,  '89,  Bellevue  Coll. 

1900,  Superintendent  of  City  Schools,  1239,  4th  Ave.,  N.,  Fort  Dodge. 
J.  D.  Stout,  B.Sc,  '83,  Valparaiso  Coll. 

1899,  President  of  Ellsworth  College,  600  N.  College  Ave.,  Iowa  Falls. 
Mary  Ziek. 

1898,  Principal  of  Madison  School,  417,  ist  St.  W.,  Cedar  Rapids. 
1900     William  Bayard  Craig,  A.M.,  '85,  St.  Univ.  of  Iowa;    D.D.,  '93,  Univ.  of  Colo.;  LL.D.,  '97, 
Drake  Univ. 

1897,  Chancellor  of  Drake  University,  2817  Cottage  Grove  St.,  Des  Moines. 

KANSAS 

LIKE   DIRECTORS 

1886      A.  V.  Jewett,  A.B.,  's7,  Middlebury  Coll.,  Vt. 
Abilene. 
A.  R.  Taylor,  Ph.D.,  '83,  Lincoln  Univ.,  111. 

1882,  President  of  State  Normal  School  of  Kansas,  928  Union  St.,  Emporia. 

life  members 
1886     Board  of  Education,  Abilene. 

President,  Mrs.  Mary  Hamilton;  Secretary,  W.  P.  Gulick. 
Board  of  Education,  Dodge  City. 

President,  J.  M.  Kirkpatrick;  Clerk,  W.  H.  Chapman. 
Board  of  Education,  City  of  Ottawa. 

President,  A.  W.  Benson;  Clerk,  Miss  Hattie  Murrey. 
Board  of  Education,  Sedgwick. 

Superintendent,  R.  A.  Hampshire;  Clerk,  G.  P.  Schouten. 
Anderson  Griffeth  Campbell. 

Council  Grove. 
Nathaniel  Coover. 

1900,  Superintendent  of  City  Schools,  Wilson. 
Edward  T.  Fairchild. 

1897,  Superintendent  of  City  Schools,  Ellsworth. 
Henry  G.  Larimer,  LL.B.,  '81,  Univ.  of  Mich. 

Lawyer,  525  Kansas  Ave.,  Topeka. 
A,  N.  Limerick. 

Principal  of  Public  Schools,  South  Haven. 
John  MacDonald. 

Editor  "  Western  School  Journal,"  Topeka. 
Peter  McVicar,  A.B.,;'56.  A.M.,  '71,  D.D.,  '71,  Beloit  Coll.,  Wis. 

189s,  President  Emeritus  of  Washburn  College,  College  Ave.,  Topeka. 
Rilev  Co.  Educational  Association. 

President,  R.J.  Barnett;  Sec'y>  Miss  Reppie  Carey,  Manhattan. 
Thomas  Watson  Roach,  A.B.,  '701  M.Sc,  '90,  Mt.  Union  Coll.,  Alliance, _0. 

1892,  Superintendent  of  Kansas  Wesleyan  Business  College,  Salina. 
George  E.  Rose,  B.D.,  '83,  Univ.  of  Kan. ;  M.Sc,  '98,  Kan.  St.  Agri.  Coll. 

1893,  Principal  of  High  School,  846  Burnett  St.,  Kansas  City. 
Thomas  A.  Sawhill,  A.B.,  '74,  Amherst  Coll._ 

Publisher  of  "  Concordia  Empire,"  Concordia. 
Aaron  Schuyler,  A.M.,  '60,  Ohio  Wes.  Univ. ;  LL.D.,  '73,  Otterbein  ;  Ph.D.,  *o8,  Kan.  Wes.  Univ. 

Professor  of  Philosophy  and  Higher  Mathematics,  Kansas  Wesleyan  University, 
1316  S.  Santa  Fe  St.,  Salina. 
Edmund  Stanley,  A.M., '91,  Penn  Coll.,  Oskaloosa,  la. 

1898,  President  of  Friends'  University,  1203  University  Ave.,  Wichita. 
Teachers'  Association  of  Cowley  Co. 

President,  Julia  B.  King;  Secretary,  Edna  M.  Glass,  Winfield. 
D.  C.  Tillotson, 

621  Fillmore  St.,  Topeka. 
Philo  Jesse  Williams,  A.M.,  '57,  Madison  Univ. ;  D.D.,  '76,  Univ.  of  Kan. 
Baldwin. 

active  members 
1884     Jaspar  N.  Wilkinson. 

1884,  Director  of  Training,  State  Normal  School,  832  Merchant  St.,  Emporia. 

1889  Emory  M.  Wood,  A.M.,  '82,  Ph.D.,  '93,  Allegheny  Coll. 

1887,  Professor  of  Mathematics,  Baker  University,  8th  and  King  Sts.,  Baldwin. 

1890  William  M.  Davidson. 

1892,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  1105  Tyler  St.,  Topeka. 
Arvin  S.  Olin,  A.B.,  '92,  Ottawa  Univ. ;  A.M.,  '94,  Univ.  of  Kan. 

1899,  Professor  of  Education,  University  of  Kansas,  1134  Louisiana  St.,  Lawrence. 
Lloyd  E.  Wolfe. 

1898,  Superintendent  of  Public  Schools,  921  Minnesota  Ave.,  Kansas  City. 

1891  Frank  R.  Dyer,  A.M..  '88,  M.Pd.,  '93,  Ohio  Nor.  Univ. ;  A.M.,  '92,  Ohio  Wesleyan  Univ. 

1893,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  609  N.  Topeka  Ave.,  Wichita. 
J.  D,  Orr. 

1900,  Principal  of  Central  School,  Fort  Scott. 

1893  Francis  Huntington  Snow,  Ph.D.,  '81,  Williams  Coll. ;  LL.D.,  '90,  Princeton. 

1890,  Chancellor  of  University  of  Kansas,  Lawrence. 

1894  Elva  Enola  Clarke. 

1893,  Librarian  of  State  Normal  School,  1025  Constitution  St.,  Emporia. 
O.  P.  M.  McClintock. 

1897,  Principal  of  Clay  School,  iiii  Huntoon  St.,  Topeka. 


750  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Kentucky 

KANSAS —  Continued 

1895  O.  P.  Barnes. 

Western  Agent,  Ginn  &  Co.,  Leavenworth. 
Jessie  L.  Clark. 

1892,  Supervisor  of  Music,  Public  Schools,  1203  N.  Market  St.,  Wichita. 
Fenella  Dana, 

1889,  Teacher  in  Public  Schools,  909  Tyler  St.,  Topeka. 
M.  E.  Dolphin. 

1891,  Superintendent  of  City  Schools,  Leavenworth. 
Leida  H.  Mills. 

1895,  Assistant  in  High  School,  1203  N.  Market  St.,  Wichita. 
Maggie  S.  Mitchell,  B.Sc,  Geneva  Coll.,  Pa. 

1879,  Teacher  in  Public  Schools,  509  W.  6th  St.,  Topeka. 
L.  H.  Murlin,  A.B.,  'gi-  S.T.B.,  '92,  De  Pauw  Univ.;  D.D.,  '97,  Cornell  Col.;  S.T.D,  '971  Denver 
Univ.;  B.D., '99,  Garrett  Biblical  Inst. 

1894,  President  of  Baker  University,  Baldwin. 
Miss  C.  S.  Newell. 

1890,  Teacher  in  Public  Schools,  917  W.  14th  St.,  Topeka. 
David  F.  Shirk. 

1893,  Superintendent  of  City  Schools,  Cottonwood  Falls. 
Edward  A.  Simerwell. 

1892,  Principal  of  Grant  School,  1209  N.  Western  Ave.,  Topeka. 
1897     Mrs.  Gaston  Boyd. 

Teacher  of  Voice  and  Physical  Culture,  Main  St.,  Newton. 
Charles  A.  Boyle. 

1893,  Director  of  Department  of  Music,  State  Normal  School, 831  Constitution  St.,  Emporia, 
Kansas  State  Agricultural  College. 

President,  Ernest  R.  Nichols;  Librarian,  Josephine  T.  Berry,  Manhattan. 
L.  A.  LowTHER,  A.B.,  '94,  State  Univ. 

1896,  Superintendent  of  City  Schools,  617  Exchange  St.,  Emporia. 
H.  B.  Peairs. 

Superintendent  of  Haskell  Institute,  Indian  Industrial  Training  School,  Lawrence, 
Walter  G.  Riste. 

189s,  Principal  of  Thomas  County  High  School,  Colby. 
Frank  P.  Smith,  A.B.,  '78,  Ind.  Univ.;  A.M.,  '90,  Baker  Univ. 

1894,  Superintendent  of  City  Schools,  900  Tennessee  St.,  Lawrence. 

L.    A.  WiRICK. 

Yates  Center. 

1899  Frederick  B.  Abbott,  Ph.D.,  '98,  Martyn  Coll. 

Teacher  of  Manual  Training,  State  Normal  School,  831  Exchange  St.,  Emporia. 
J.  H.  Glotfelter. 

1891,  Superintendent  of  City  Schools,  323  Atchison  St.,  Atchison. 
T.  S.  Johnson. 

1898,  Superintendent  of  City  Schools,  McPherson. 
Midland  College, 

President,  Rev.  Jacob  A.  Clutz,  D.D. ;  Librarian,  Granville  H.  Meixell,  Atchison. 
Frank  Nelson,  Ph.B.,  '92,  Iowa  State  Univ. 

1899,  State  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  213  Topeka  Ave.,  Topeka. 

John  W.  Spindler,  A.B.,  '76,  A.M.,  '95,  Ohio  Wes.  Univ. ;  B.L.,  '82,  Cincinnati  Law  School. 
i8gi.  Superintendent  of  City  Schools,  Winfield. 

1900  Thomas  B.  Henry,  A.B.,  '98,  Univ.  of  Kan. 

1899,  Instructor  in  Mathematics,  Montgomery  Co.  High  School,  Independence. 
Lizzie  E.  Wooster. 

Educational  Author,  care  of  Crane  &  Co.,  Topeka. 

KENTUCKY 

life  directors 

1886     George  Thompson  Fairchild,  LL.D.,  '93,  Oberlin  Coll. 

1898,  Vice-President  and  Professor  of  English  Literature,  Berca  College,  Berea. 

life  members 
1877     William  Henry  Bartholomew. 

1881,  Principal  of  Girls'  High  School,  426  E.  Gray  St.,  Louisville. 
Mrs.  Laura  L.  Monsarrat. 

Principal  of  Seventh  Ward  Public  School,  208  W.  Walnut  St.,  Louisville. 

active  members 

1891  Charles  H.  Dietrich,  B.Sc,  '78,  Ohio  State  Univ. 

Agent  for  American  Book  Company,  Cincinnati,  O. ;  res.,  Hopkinsville. 
McHenry  Rhoads,  A.m.,  West  Ky.  Coll. ;  Ph.M.,  Hartford  Coll. 

1900,  Superintendent  of  City  Schools,  Owensboro. 

1892  George  O.  McBroom,  A.B.,  '85,  Drake  Univ.,  Des  Moines,  la. 

1890,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Longfellow  School,  Paducah. 

1893  Edgar  H.  Mark. 

1894,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Center  and  Walnut  Sts.,  Louisville. 
James  McGinnis. 

1891,  Ex-Superintendent  of  Schools,  114  W.  4th  St.,  Owensboro. 

1894  Susie  M.  Bartholomew. 

426  E.  Gray  St.,  Louisville. 
Arthur  C.  Fleshman,  B.Sc,  '84,  M.Sc.,'92,  Nat.  Nor.  Univ.,  O. 
1898,  Institute  Instructor,  Bagdad. 
189s     Livingstone  McCartney. 

1895,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Hopkinsville. 

1896  F.  S.  Alley. 

1896,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Dayton. 


Maine]  LIFE,  ACTIVE,  AND  CORRESPONDING  MEM  HERS  75 1 

KENTUCKY—  Coniimieci 

1896  W.  J.    McCONATHY. 

189s,  Principal  of  Normal  Scliool,  1454,  2d  St.,  Louisville. 
John  Morris. 

189s,  Superintendent  of  Public  Schools,  829  Scott  St.,  Covington. 
Ida  Rudolf. 

1895,  Principal  of  the  Monsarrat  School,  2427  W.  Chestnut  St.,  Louisville. 
Edward  Taylor.  A.M.,  '78,  Earlham  Coll.,  Richmond,  Ind. 

1894,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  1109  College  St.,  Bowling  Green. 
Louise  A.  Wiard. 

Teacher  in  Eighth  Grade,  Public  Schools,  Frankfort. 

1897  J.  G.  Crabbe,  A.B.,  A.M.,  Ohio  Wes.  Univ. ;  M.Pd.,  Ohio  Univ. 

1890,  Superintendent  of  City  Schools,  721  E.  Winchester  Ave.,  Ashland. 
Reuben  Post  Halleck,  A.M..  Yale. 

Principal  of  Boys'  High  School,  1240,  3d  Ave.,  Louisville. 
Anna  C.  Roth. 

1887,  Teacher  in  Sixth  Grade,  Duncan  St.  School,  2441  W.  Chestnut  St.,  Louisville. 

1898  W.  Tho-mas  Berry. 

Principal  of  Third  District  School,  221  Wood  St.,  Maysville. 
John  Wirt  Dinsmore. 

1900,  Dean  of  Normal  Department.  Berea  College,  Berea. 
A.  C.  Kuykendall,  A.B.,  '9t.  Burrett  Coll. 

1898,  Teacher  of  Mathematics.  South  Kentucky  College,  Hopkinsville. 
Miles  Eugene  Marsh,  A.B.,  '93,  Oberlin  Coll. 

Principal  of  Academy  of  Berea  College,  Berea. 
William  H.  Perry,  A.M.,  '92,  Ky.  State  Univ. 

Principal,  Public  Schools,  2909  W.  Walnut  St.,  Louisville. 

1899  J.  M.  McCallie,  A.B.,  '87,  Univ.  of  Tenn. 

1899,  Superintendent  of  City  Schools,  Center  St.,  Henderson. 

1900  Charles  B.  Hatfield. 

1900,  Superintendent  of  City  Public  Schools,  232  N.  7th  St.,  Paducah. 

LOUISIANA 

ACTIVE    MEtlBEKS 

1889  Miss  Marion  Brown. 

1895,  Principal  of  New  Orleans  Normal  School.  1303,  3d  St.,  New  Orleans. 
1892     George  SoulS. 

President  of  Soule  Commercial  College  and  Literary  Institute,  603  St.  Charles  St., 
New  Orleans. 

1894  Edwin  A.  Alderman,  Ph. B.,  Univ.  of  N.  C. ;  D.C.L.,  '96,  Univ.  of  the  South;  LLD., '99,  Tulane 

Univ.,  La. 

1900,  President  of  Tulane  University  of  Louisiana,  New  Orleans. 
Miss  H.  A.  Suter. 

1878,  Principal  of  McDonogh  High  School  No.  2,  1426  St.  Andrew  St.,  New  Orleans. 

1895  Warren  Easton. 

Superintendent  of  Schools,  1413,  3d  St.,  New  OWeans. 

1896  B.  C.  Caldwell. 

1896,  President  of  State  Normal  School,  Natchitoches. 
J.  G.  Haupt. 

Lake  Charles. 

1897  Clara  G.  Baer,  Grad.,  '91,  Posse  Gymnasium,  Boston. 

189T,  Dir.  of  Physical  Education,  Newcomb  Coll.,  1532  Washington  Ave.,  New  Orleans. 
Brandt  V.  B.  Dixon,  A.M.,  LL.D. 

President  of  H.  Sophie  Newcomb  Memorial  College,  1220  Washington  Ave..  New 
Orleans. 
Eveline  A.  Waldo. 

Kindergarten   Training  Teacher,   Normal   School,   6106    St.    Charles    Ave.,    Ntw 
Orleans. 

1899  Augustine  Aurianne,  L.I.,  Peabody  Nor.  Sch.,  Univ.  of  Nashville. 

1898,  Professor  in  Academic  Department,  New  Orleans  Normal  School,  615  Conti  St., 
New  Orleans. 

1900  C.  H.  Carson,  Jr.,  A.B.,  '83,  Emory  Coll.,  Oxford,  Ga. 

1898,  Professor  of  Chemistry  and  Physics,  Louisiana  Industrial  Institute,  Ruston. 

'  MAINE 

LIFE   director 

1886     JosiAH  Little  Pickaru,  LL.D.,  '70,  Chicago  Univ.  and  Beloit  Coll.;  '94,  Howdoin  Coll. 

Ex-President,  State  University  of  Iowa ;  res.  with  Dr.  George  T.  Little,  Bowdoln 
College,  Brunswick. 

active  members 

1890  M.  C.  Fernald.  A.B.. '61,  A.M., '64.  Ph.D., '81,  Bowdoin  Coll. 

Professor  of  Philosophy.  Emeritus,  University  of  Maine.  12  Bennock  St.,  Oronj. 
1892      W.  J.  Corthell,  A.B.,  'S7,  A.M.,  '60,  Waterville  Coll. ;  LL.D.,  '88,  Colby  Univ. 

1879,  Principal  of  State  Normal  School,  Gorham. 
1895     John  S.  Locke. 

1893,  Superintendent  of  Schools;  President  of  York  Institute,  42  Middle  St.,  Saco. 
William  Wall.\ce  Stetson. 

1895,  State  Superintendent  of  Public  Schools,  295  Minot  Ave.,  Auburn. 

1897  Orlando  M.  Lord. 

Superintendent  of  Schools,  Portland. 

1898  Charles  F.  Cook,  A.B.,  '91,  St.  Lawrence  Univ. 

1896,  Principal  of  Cony  High  School,  52  State  St.,  Augusta. 


752  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Massachusetts 

MAINE—  Coiiiinued 

1898     Abram  W.  Harris,  A.I?.,  '80,  A.M.,  '83,  Wesleyan  Univ. ;  Sc.D.,  '94,  bowdoin;  LL.D.,  1900,  Univ. 
of  N.  Brunswick. 

1893,  President  of  the  University  of  Maine,  Orono. 
Franklin  W.  Johnson,  A.B., '91,  A.M.,  '94,  Colby  Univ. 

1894,  Principal  of  Coburn  Classical  Institute,  6  Dalton  St.,  Waterville. 
Mary  S.  Snow,  Ph.M.,  '96,  Uni,v,  of  Maine. 

i88g,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  City  Hall,_ Bangor. 

MARYLAND 

life  member 
1876      Sakah  E.  Richmom). 

187s,  Vice -Principal  of  State  Normal  School,  2508  Madison  Ave..  Baltimore, 

active  members 

1885      Henry  A.  Wise,  Grad.  of  Virginia  Military  Inst. 

1883,  Ex-Superintendent  of  Schools,  409  St,  Paul  St.,  Baltimore. 

1890  William  C.  Stevenson. 

igoo.  Teacher  of  Commercial    Law,   Bookkeeping,  and  Penmanship,  Jacob  Tome  Inst., 
Port  Deposit. 

1891  John  E.  McCahan,  A.M.,  '69,  Dickinson  Coll.,  Pa. 

1884,  Assistant  Superintendent  of  Public  Schools,  1719  Rollins  St.,  Baltimore. 

1892  Elijah  Barrett  Prettvm an,  A.B.,  '48,  A.M.,  '52,  LL.D.,  '97,  Dickinson  Coll.,  Pa. 

1900,  Principal  of  State  Normal  School  and  Secretary  of  State  Board  of  Education,  1200 
W.  Lafayette  Ave.,  Baltimore. 
James  H.  Van  Sickle,  A.B.,  '96,  A.M.,  '98,  Univ.  of  Colo. 

1891,  Superintendent  of  Instruction,  School  Administration  Building,  Baltimore. 
1894     Eli  M.  Lamb. 

1864,  Associate  Principal  of  Friends'  Elementary  and  High  School,  1432  McCuUoh  St., 
Baltimore. 
Rachel  E.  Lamb. 

English  Instructor  in  Friends'  Elementary   and  High  School,    1516  Linden  Ave., 
Baltimore. 
1896      Daniel  C.  Gilm.\n,  A.B.,  A.M.,  LL.D.,  Y^e  and  Harvard. 

1875,  President  of  Johns  Hopkins  University,  Baltimore. 
Harry  Marc  Rowe,  Ph.D. 

Secretary  and  Treasurer,  Sadler,  Rowe  &  Co.,  12  N.  Charles  St.,  Baltimore. 

.1897        Z.^CHARIAH  C.  EbAUGH. 

1900,  Principal  of  Franklin  High  School,  Reisterstown. 

1898  E.  E.  Cates.  A.B.,  '83,  A.M.,  '88,  Colby  Univ. 

1897,  President  of  Frederick  College,  Frederick. 
John  E.  Edwards,  A.M. 

1898,  County  Examiner,  157  Washington  St.,  Cumberland. 
Elmer  Gates. 

In  charge  of  Laboratory  of  Psychology  and  Psychurgy,  Chevy  Chase  Circle,  Chevy 
Chase.^ 

A.  J.  G.MINDER. 

1896,  Principal  in  English-German  Public  School  No.  7,  iiii  Barclay  St.,  Baltimore. 
Jacob  Tome  Institute. 

President,  Mrs.  Evelyn  S.  Tome ;  Librarian,  Caroline  Burnlte,  Port  Deposit. 
Schuyler  B.  Moon,  A.B.  and  C.E.,  '87,  Washington  and  Lee  Univ. 

1887,  Teacher  in  McDonogh  Institute,  McDonogh. 
J.  H.  N.  Waring,  A.M.,  Howard  Univ. ;  M.D. 

Supervisor  of  Public  Schools,  Washington,  D.  C. ;  res..  Linden. 
John  Thomas  White,  Grad., '78,  Mercersburg  Coll.;  A. B., '78,  A.M., '84,  Franklin  and  Marshall 
Coll.,  Lancaster,  Pa. 

1900,  Secretary,  Treasurer,  and  Examiner,  Board  of  School  Commissioners,  24  S.  George 
St.,  Cumberland, 

1899  A.  Marshall  Elliott,  A.B.,  '66,  A.M.,  '78,  Haverford  Coll.;  A.B. , '68,  Harvard;    Ph.D.,  '77, 

Princeton;  LL.D., 'gi. 

1876,  Professor  in  Johns  Hopkins  University,  935  Calvert  St.,  Baltimore. 
Thomas  Crawford  Galbreath,  A.M.,  '97,  W.  Md.  Coll.,  Westminster. 

1899,  Superintendent  of  Public  Schools  of  Harford  County,  Bel  Air. 
Edward  H.  Griffin,  D.D.,  Amherst;  LL.D.,  Princeton. 

1889,  Professor  of  the  History  of  Philosophy  and  Dean  of  the  College  Faculty,  Johns 
Hopkins  University,  Baltimore. 
Johns  Hopkins  University. 

President,  Daniel  C.  Gilman;  Librarian,  N.  Murray,  Baltimore. 
Woman's  College. 

President,  J.  H.  Apple;  Librarian,  Susan  Garrott,  Frederick. 

1900  William  C.  A.  Hammel. 

1888,  Department  of  Physics  and   Zoology,  State  Normal   School,   2529  McCulloh   St., 

Baltimore. 
Edwin  Hebden. 

Principal,  Male  Grammar  School  No.  7,  Tuxedo  Park,  Baltimore. 
Mrs.  Elizabeth  E.  Pippin. 

Vice-Principal,  High  School,  Denton. 
M.  Bates  Stephens,  A.M.,  '89,  Dickinson  Coll. 

State  Superintendent  of  Public  Education,  Baltimore. 

MASSACHUSETTS 

life  director 
1887     Mrs.  Mary  Hanchett  Hunt. 

1880,  National  and,  1888,  International  Superintendent  of  Scientific  Temperance  Instruc- 
tion, Woman's  Christian  Temperance  Union,  23  Trull  St.,  Boston. 


Massachusetts]     LIFE,  ACTIVE,  AND  CORRESPONDING  MEMBERS  753 

LIFE    MEMBERS 

1884     John  Bascom,  LL.D.,'73.  Amherst  Coll. ;  D.D.,  '75,  Iowa  Coll. ;  LL.D.,  '97^  Williams  Coll. 

1891,  Professor  of  Political  Science,  Williams  College,  Park  St.,  Williarastown, 
1886      William  Augustus  Mowry,  A.M.,  Brown  Univ.;  Ph.D.,  Bates  Coll. 
Writer  and  Lecturer,  17  Riverside  Sq.,  Hyde  Park. 

ACTIVE    MEMBERS 

1884      Frank  A.  Fitupatrick. 

93  Summer  St.,  Boston. 
1888     Will  S.  Monroe;  A.B.,  '94,  Stanford  Univ. 

1896,  Department  of  Pedagogy  and  Psychology,  State  Normal  School,  Westfield. 

1890  Albert  Gardner  Bovden,  A.M.,  '61,  Amherst  Coll. 

i860.  Principal  of  State  Normal  School,  Bridgewater. 
Mrs.  Mary  Dana  Hicks. 

1887,  Director  of  Prang  Normal  Art  Classes,  646  Washington  St.,  Boston. 
Arthur  P.  Smith. 

1868,  Master  of  South  Grammar  School,  11  High  St.,  Waltham. 

1891  G.  Stanley  Hall. 

President  of  Clark  University,  94  Woodland  St.,  Worcester. 
Daniel  C.  Heath,  A.B.,  '68,  A.M.,  '71,  Amherst  Coll. 

1876,  Educational  Publisher,  no  Boylston  St.,  Boston. 
Amy  Morris  Homans. 

Director  of  Boston  Normal  School  of  Gymnastics,  97  Huntington  Ave.,  Boston, 
R.\Y  Greene  Huling,  A.B.,  '69,  A.M.,  '72,  D.Sc,  '94,  Brown  Univ. 

1893,  Head  Master  of  English  High  School.  loi  Trowbridge  St.,  Cambridge. 
A.  Eugene  Nolen,  A.B.,  '67,  A.M.,  '70,  Yale. 

1881,  Teacher  of  Greek  and  Latin,  High  School,  3  Wood  PL,  Fitchburg. 
Alvin  F.  Pease,  A.B.,  '75,  A.M.,  '78,  Brown  Univ. 

1898,  with  N.  E.  Publishing  Co.  and  Winship's  Teachers'  Agency,  3  Somerset  St.,  Boston. 
Elizabeth  H.  Perry, 

1891,  Teacher  of  Drawing,  Normal  School,  Bridgewater. 
John  Tilden  Prince,  Ph.D.,  '89,  Leipzig. 

1881,  Agent  for  Massachusetts  Board  of  Education,  15  Temple  St.,  West  Newton. 

1892  Orlando  Merriam  Baker. 

Publisher,  499  Main  St.,  Springfield, 
Milton  Bradley. 

Treasurer  and  Manager,  Milton  Bradley  Co.,  Springfield. 
John  S.  Clark. 

Treasurer,  Prang  Educational  Co.,  no  Boylston  St.,  Boston. 
Charles  W.  Eliot,  A.B.,'s3.  Harvard;  LL.D.,  '69,  Williams,  Princeton;  '70,  Yale. 

1869,  President  of  Harvard  University,  17  Quincy  St.,  Cambridge. 
Gilman  C.  Fisher,  A.B.,  '69,  A.M.,  '86,  Colby  Univ. 

1808,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Castle  St.,  Great  Barrington. 
Robert  C,  Metcalf, 

1882,  Supervisor  of  Schools,  School  Committee  Rooms,  Mason  St,,  Boston;  17  Kenwood 

St.,  Dorchester. 
William  W.  Taplev. 

Manager,  Educational  Department,  Milton  Bradley  Co.,  Springfield. 
George  Augustus  Walton,  A.M.,  Williams  Coll. 

Agent,  State  Board  of  Education  from  1869-95,  68  Chestnut  St.,  West  Newton. 
Henry  N.  Wheeler,  A.B.,  '71,  A.M.,  '75,  Harvard. 

1882,  Supt.  of  Educational  Department,  Houghton,  MifHin  &  Co.,  4  Park  St.,  Boston. 
•    Arthur  K.  Whitcomb,  A,B,,  '73,  Dartmouth. 

1891,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  City  Hall,  Lowell. 
Albert  Edward  Winship,  Lit.D.,  '98. 

Editor  of  "Journal  of  Education,"  3  Somerset  St.,  Boston. 

1893  Francis  Cogswell,  A.M.,  '81,  Harvard. 

1874,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  257  Prospect  St,,  Cambridge, 
Frank  Irving  Cooper, 

Wayland, 
Ernest  Henry  Johnson,  A.B.,  '91,  A.M.,  '92,  Brown  Univ. 

1896,  Master  of  Williams  School,  266  Chestnut  St,,  Chelsea. 
George  H.  Martin,  A.M.,  '81,  Amherst  Coll. 

1892,  Supervisor  of  Schools,  Boston ;  res.,  388  Summer  St.,  Lynn. 
Charles  Cornell  Ramsay,  A.B.,  A.M.,  '92,  Harvard. 

1892,  Principal  of  B.  M.  C.  Durfee  High  School,  355  N,  Main  St,,  Fall  River. 
Edwin  P.  Seaver,  A.M.,  LL,B,,  Harvard. 

1880,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  School  Committee  Rooms,  Mason  St.,  Boston. 
Charles  Herbert Thurber,  Ph.B., '86,  Cornell;  A.M.,  '90,  Haverford  Coll.;  Ph,D.,  1900,  Clark 
Univ, 

1900,  with  Ginn  &  Co.,  Publishers,  13  Tremont  PI.,  Boston. 

1894  Frederick  Elmer  Chapman. 

1890,  Director  of  Music,  Cambridge  Public  Schools,  126  Oxford  St.,  North  Cambridge, 

1895  Sarah  Louise  Arnold. 

1895,  Supervisor  of  Schools,  Boston ;  res.,  21  Institution  Ave.,  Newton  Centre, 
Thomas  M,  Balliet. 

1887,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  47  Vernon  St.,  Springfield, 
Eugene  Bouton,  A.B,,  '75,  A.M,,  '80,  Yale;  Ph.D,,  '81,  Syracuse  Univ. 

1894,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  60  Elizabeth  St.,  Pittsfield. 
J,  E,  Burke,  A,B.,  '90,  A.M.,  '93,  Colby  Univ, 

1894,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Lawrence, 
William  Paxton  Burris,  Ph,B,,  '91,  A.M.,  '94,  De  Pauw  Univ, 

1900,  Graduate  Student,  Harvard  University,  5  Avon  St.,  Cambridge, 
Clarence  F,  Carroll. 

1894,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  666  Main  St.,  Worcester. 
Roland  W,  Guss,  Grad,,  '8t,  State  Nor.  Sch.,  Pa, ;  A.B.,  '88,  A.M.,  '91,  Wesl.  Univ.,  Conn, 

1897,  Instructor  in  Natural  Science,  State  Normal  School,  405  Church  St,,  North  Adams, 


754  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  LMasMchuseti* 

1895  Isaac  Freeman  Hall. 

189s,  Superintendent  of  Public  Schools,  City  Hall,  North  Adams. 
Paul  H.  Hanus,  B.Sc. 

Assistant  Professor  of  the   History  and   Art  of  Teaching,   Harvard  University.   15 
Phillips  PI.,  Cambridge. 
Albert  Bushnkll  Hakt,  A.B.,  '80,  Harvard;  Ph.D.,  Freiburg,  Baden. 

1897,  Professor  of  History,  Harvard  University,  15  Appian  Way,  Cambridge. 
Harvard  College  Library. 

President,  Charles  W.  Eliot ;  Librarian,  William  C.  Lane",  Cambridge. 
Frank  k.  Hill,  A.B.,  '62,  A.M.,  '65,  Lit.D.,  '94,  Bowdoin. 

1894,  Secretary  of  State  Board  of  Education,  366  Harvard  St.,  Cambridge. 
Austin  H.  Kenerson,  A.B.,  '76,  Dartmouth  Coll. 

With  Ginn  &  Co.,  Schoolbooks,  i3Tremont  PI.,  Boston. 
Alonzo  Meserve. 

1886,  Master  of  Bowdoin  School,  87  Linden  St.,  Allston  Station,  Boston. 
Charles  H.  Morss,  A.H.,  '80,  A.M.,  '82,  Harvard. 

189s,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Medford. 
James  Phinney  Munroe,  B.Sc,  '82,  Mass.  Inst,  of  Technology. 

Author,  179  Devonshire  St.,  Boston. 
Charles  W.  Parmenter,  A.B.,  '77,  A.M.,  '86,  Ph.D..  '95.  Tufts  Coll. 

1894,  Head  Master  of  Mechanic  Arts  High  School,  Boston;  res.,  80  Upland   Road,  North 
Cambridge. 
Baroness  Rose  Posse. 

1896,  Director  of  Posse  Gymnasium,  206  Massachusetts  Ave.,  Boston. 
Charles  A.  Sibley,  A.B.,  '87,  Amherst. 

Member  of  firm  of  Sibley  &  Ducker,  no  Boylston  St.,  Boston. 
John  Gilbert  Thompson,  A.B.,  '86,  A.M.,  '94,  Dartmouth  Coll. 

189s,  Principal  of  State  Normal  School,  11  Weymouth  St.,  Fitchburg. 
Alfred  Turner,  B.Sc,  '93,  Amherst  Coll. 

1897,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Prospect  St.,  Turner's  Falls. 
Hattie  Twichell. 

1896,  Kindergarten  Training  Teacher,  Longmeadow. 
Henry  Whittemore,  A.B.,  '66,  Dartmouth  Coll. 

1898,  Principal  of  State  Normal  School,  State  St.,  Framingham. 

1896  Charles  H.  .\mes.  A. B., '70,  A.M.,  "73,  Amherst  Coll. 

Educational  Publisher,  with  D.  C.  Heath  &  Co.,  no  Boylston  St.,  Boston;  res.. 
West  Newton. 
George  Peters  Armstrong. 

1896,  Superintendent  of  Schools  of  Belmont  and  Manchester,  7  Oak  St.,  Belmont. 
William  C.  B.\tes,  A.B.,  '77,  Harvard. 

1894,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  182  June  St.,  Fall  River. 
Wallace  C.  Boyden,  A.B.,  '83,  A.M.,  '86,  Amherst. 

1900,  Head  Master  of  Boston  Normal  School,  221  Walnut  St.,  Newtonville. 
George  W.  Brown.  * 

1886,  Principal  of  Jackman  School,  38  High  St.,Newburyport. 
Elmer  Hewitt  Capen,  D.D.,  '79,  St.  Lawrence  Univ. ;  LL.D.,  '99,  Buchtel  Coll. 

1875,  President  of  Tufts  College,  8  Professors'  Row,  Tufts  College. 
Joseph  G.  Edgerly. 

1875.  Superintendent  of  City  Schools,  37  Atlantic  Ave.,  Fitchburg. 
Herbert  J.  Jones,  Ph.B.,  '94,  Cornell  Univ. 

1900,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Central  Worcester  District,  Holden. 
Lincoln  Owen,  A.B.,  '89,  A.M.,  '92,  Colby  Univ. 

1893,  Master  of  Rice  Training  School,  53  Montview  St.,  West  Roxbury. 
Walter  Scott  Parker,  B.Sc,  Dartmouth  Coll. ' 

1894,  Supervisor,  Boston  Public  Schools,  School  Com.  Rooms,  Mason  St.,  Boston. 
Myron  T.  Pritchard,  A.B.,  "78,  Boston  Univ. 

Master  of  Everett  School,  Boston  :  res.,  125  School  St.,  Roxbury. 
Dudley  A.  Sargent,  A.B.,  '75,  A.M.,  '87,  S.D.,  '93,  Bowdoin;  M.D.,  '78,  Yale. 

1879,  Director  of  Hemenway  Gymnasium,  Harvard  Univ.,  27  Everett  St.,  Cambridge. 
Elisa  a.  Sargent. 

1900,  Editorial  Department,  The  Prang  Educational  Co.,  89  Mt,  Vernon  St.,  Boston. 
Kirk  N.  Washburn. 

One  of  the  Publishers  of  Webster's  International  Dictionary,  499  Main  St.,  Springfield. 
Charles  Branch  Wilson.  A.B.,  '81,  A.M.,  '84,  Colby  Univ.,  Me. 

1896,  Dept.  of  Natural  Science,  State  Normal  School,  16  Washington  St.,  Westfield. 

1897  Amherst  College. 

President,  George  Harris,  D.D.,  LL.D. ;  Librarian,  W.  I.  Fletcher,  Amherst. 
S.  F.  Blodgett,  A.m.,  '74,  Yale. 

Superintendent  of  Schools,  103  Union  Ave.,  So.  Framingham. 
Boston  College. 

President,  W.  G.  Read  MuUan ;  Librarian,  Thomas  I.  Gasson,  Boston. 
Arthur  C.  Boyden,  A.B.,  '76,  .A.M.,  '81,  Amherst  Coll. 

1879,  Vice -Principal  of  State  Normal  School,  Park  Ave.,  Bridgewater. 
J.  H.  Carfrey,  Ph.B.,  '92,  Ph.M.,  '95,  Syracuse  Univ. 

1898,  Superintendent  of  Public  Schools,  Dryads  Green,  Northampton. 
George  H.  Conlky,  A.B.,  Holy  Cross. 

Supervisor  of  Schools  and,  1893,  Member  Mass.  State  Board  of  Elducation,  Mason 
St.,  Boston. 
Gertrude  Edmund,  Pd.D.,  '93,  New  York  Univ. 

Principal  of  Normal  Training  School,  74  Huntington  St.,  Lowell. 
William  E.  H.\tch,  A.B.,  '75,  A.M.,  '78,  Bowdoin. 

Superintendent  of  Schools,  166  William  St.,  New  Bedford. 
E.  A.  Kirkp.vtrick,  B.Sc,  '87,  Ph.M.,  '89,  Iowa  St.  Coll.,  Ames. 

Psychology  and  Child  Study,  State  Normal  School,  6  Highland  Ave.,  Fitchburg. 
Perkins  Institution  and  Massachusetts  School  for  the  Blind, 

Director,  Michael  Anagnos,  East  Broadway,  South  Boston, 
Thomas  E.  Thompson. 

1895,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Leominster. 


Michigan]  LIFE,  ACTIVE,  AND  CORRESPONDING  MEMBERS  755 

MASSACHUSETTS  -  Continued 

1897  Westfielu  State  Normal  School. 

Principal,  Charles  S.  Chapin,  8  Mill  St.,  Westfield. 
Williams  College  Library. 

President,  Franklin  Carter,  D.D.,  LL.D. ;  Librarian,  Rev.  Charles  H.  Burr,  Wil- 
liamstown. 

1898  Arthur  Deerin  Call,  Ph.B.,  '96.  Brown  Univ. 

1899,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Medway,  Holliston  and  Sherborn  Districts,  Holliston. 
The  City  Library  Association,  Stringfield. 

Librarian,  J.  C.  Dana,  Springfield. 
George  Wells  Fitz,  M.D.,  '91. 

483  Beacon  St.,  Boston. 
Free  Public  Library  of  the  City  of  Worcester. 

Librarian,  Samuel  Swett  Green,  \V'orcester. 
Frank  Fuller  Murdock,  A.M.,  1900,  Williams  Coll. 

1896,  Principal  of  State  Normal  School,  37s  Church  St.,  North  Adams. 
Herbert  Myrick,  B.Sc,  '82,  Mass.  Agri.  Coll. 

President  of  Orange  Judd  Company,  New  York;  151  Bowdoin  St.,  Springfield. 
Mrs.  Ellen  H.  Richards,  A.B.,  '70,  A.M.,  '73,  Vassar  Coll. ;  B.Sc,  '73,  Mass.  Inst,  of  Tech. 

1884,  Instructor  in  Sanitary  Chemistry,  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology,  Boston ; 
res.,  32  Eliot  St.,  Jamaica  Plain. 
S.MITH  College. 

President,  Rev.  L.  Clark  Seelye ;  Librarian,  Miss  L.  W,  Lyon,  Northampton. 
State  Library  of  Mass.\chusetts. 

State  Librarian,  C.  B.  Tillinghast,  State  House,  Boston. 

1899  Lyman  Richards  Allen,  B.Sc.  '98,  Harvard. 

1898,  Instructor  of  History,  Geography,  and  Latin,  State  Normal  School,  93  Church  St., 

North  Adams. 
William  A.  Baldwin,  B.Sc,  '97,  Harvard. 

1897,  Principal  of  State  Normal  School,  Hyannis. 
Frank  F.  Coburn,  A.B.,  '70,  Amherst. 

Principal  of  State  Normal  School,  277  E.  Merrimac  St.,  Lowell. 
William  Morris  Davis,  B.Sc,  '69,  M.E.,  "70,  Harvard. 

1899,  Sturgis- Hooper  Professor  of  Geology,  Harvard  University,  17  Francis  Ave.,  Cam- 

bridge. 
Edwin  H.  Hall,  Ph.D.,   80,  Johns  Hopkins  Univ. 

189s,  Professor  of  Physics,  Harvard  University,  37  Gorham  St.,  Cambridge. 
Lizzie  Mason. 

1891,  Superintendent  of  Schools  of  Orange,  Wendall,  and  Ewing;  Box  1373,  Orange. 
May  E.  Murray. 

"Kindergarten  Review,"  51  Acushnet  Ave.,  Springfield, 
Louis  P.  Nash. 

1899,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Morgan  St.,  Holyoke. 
J.  Asbury  Pitman. 

1897,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  62  Greenwood  St.,  Marlborough. 
William  T.  Sedgwick,  Ph.D.,  '81,  Johns  Hopkins  Univ. 

1883,  Professor  of  Biology,  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology.  Boston, 
Maurice  B.  Smith,  A.B.,  '95.  Amherst  Coll. 

1896,  Principal  of  High  School,  Holliston. 
State  Normal  School,  Fitchburg. 

Principal,  John  G.  Thompson,  Fitchburg. 
Charles  F.  Warner,  A.B.,  '79,  A.M.,  '82,  Colby  Univ. 

1898,  Principal  of  Mechanic  Arts  High  School,  837  State  St.,  Springfield. 
Elizabeth  Josephine  Woodward. 

Associate  Principal  of  Private  School,  319  Marlborough  St.,  Boston. 

1900  Sarah  Fuller. 

1869,  Principal  of  tlie  Horace  Mann  School  for  the  Deaf,  178  Newbury  St.,  Boston. 
Bertram  A.  Lenfest,  B.Sc,  '90,  Mass.  Inst,  of  Tech. 

1898,  Principal,  Manual  Training  High  School,  15  Floyd  St.,  Waltham. 
Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology. 

President,  Henry  S.  Pritchett ;  Secretary,  H.  N.  Tyler,  491  Boylston  St.,  Boston. 
Public  Library  ok  the  City  of  Boston. 

Librarian,  James  L.  Whitney,  Copley  Sq.,  Boston. 
Sterrie  a.  Weaver. 

1888,  Supervisor  of  Music,  Public  Schools,  61  Western  Ave.,  Westfiela. 

MICHIGAN 

life  directors 

1895     Hugh  A.  Graham,  A.B.,  "87,  A.M..  '92,  Albion  Coll, ;  A.B.,  '90,  Univ.  of  Mich. 
1898,  Superintendent  of  Public  Schools,  Grayling. 
Charles  G.  White,  A.B.,  "73,  A.M.,  '80,  Ph.D.,  '90. 

1884,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Lake  Linden. 

ACTIVE    members 

1884      B.  A.  Hinsdale,  A.M. ,'71,  Williams  Coll. ;  Ph.D.,  '87,  LL.D.,  '92.  Ohio  State  Univ. 

1887,  Professor  of  Science  and  Art  of  Teaching,  University  of  Michigan,  1414  Washtenaw 
Ave.,  Ann  Arbor. 
John  A.  Stewart,  A.B.,  '75,  Univ.  of  Mich. 

1894,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  908  Van  Buren  St.,  Bay  City. 
1887      William  Austin  Ellis,  LL.B.,  '95,  Detroit  Coll.  of  Law;  Grad.,  "97,  Mich.  State  Nor.  Coll. 

1885,  Principal  of  Duffield  Grammar  School,  307  Merrick  Ave.,  Detroit. 

1889  J.  L.  Snyder,  A.B.,  '86,  Ph.D.,  '91,  Westminster  Coll. 

1896,  President,  Michigan  State  Agricultural  College,  Agricultural  College. 

1890  Ferris  S.  Fitch,  A.B.,  '77>  Univ.  of  Mich. 

Ex-State  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  49  Williams  St.,  Pontiac 


756 


NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Michiean 


1891  Albert  Leonard,  A.B.,  '88,  A.M.,  '91,  Ohio  Univ. ;  Ph.D.,  '94,  Hamilton  Coll. 

1900,  President  of  Normal  Schools  of  Michigan,  Ypsilanti. 

1892  Myra  Jones. 

1883,  Supervisor  of  Drawing,  Windermere  Apartments,  Detroit. 
John  B,Nykirk,  A.B.,  '85,  A.M.,  '88,  Hope  Cell.,  Mich. 

1895,  Professor  of  English  Language  and  Literature,  Hope  College,  236  Columbia  Ave., 

Holland. 
Henky  R.  Pattengill,  B.Sc,  "74,  Univ.  of  Mich. 

1896,  Editor  and  Publisher,  420  Townsend  St.,  Lansing. 
Edwin  A.  Strong,  A.B.,  '58,  A.M.,  '65,  Union  Coll. 

1885,  Professor  of  Physical  Sciences,  State  Normal  College,  127  Normal  St.,  Ypsilanti. 

1893  S.  Emoky  Whitney. 

1885,  Principal  of  Cass  School,  209  Hancock  Ave.,  E.,  Detroit. 

1894  E.  D.  Palmer,  A.B.,  '89,  A.M.,  '92,  Hillsdale  Coll. ;  A.M.,  '97,  Univ.  of  Mich. 

1898,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Mason. 
H.  M.  Slauson,  Ph.B.,  '77,  Univ.  of  Mich. 

i8g8,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  433  S.  5th  Ave.,  Ann  Arbor. 
Durand  William  Springer,  B.Sc,  '86,  Albion  CoU. 

1893,  Director  of  Business  Department,  High  School,  702  E.  University  Ave.,  Ann  Arbor. 
Edwin  C.  Thompson,  A.M.,  Pd.M. 

1888,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  1117  Court  St.,  Saginaw,  W.  S. 
Allen  S.  Whitney,  A.B.,  '85,  Univ.  of  Mich. 

1899,  Junior  Professor  of  Pedagogy,  University  of  Michigan,  620  S.  State  St.,  Ann  Arbor. 

1895  Frederick  W.  Arbury,  A.B.,  '83,  Univ.  of  Mich. 

Representative  of  Silver,  Burdett  &  Co.,  515  Brush  St.,  W.,  Detroit. 
Frederick  Leroy  Bliss,  A.B.,  '77,  Univ.  of  Mich. 

1899,  Principal  of  Detroit  University  School,  69  Frederick  Ave.,  Detroit, 
William  Gibson  Coburn,  A.B.,  '90,  Univ.  of  Mich. 

1895,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  92  MaCamly  St.,  Battle  Creek. 
Frank  W.  Cooley,  B.Sc,  '81,  M.Sc,  '86,  Lawrence  Univ. 

1893,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  27  Mine  St.,  Calumet. 
W.  H.  Elson,  A.B.,  Univ.  of  Ind. 

1900,  Superintendent  of  City  Schools,  City  Hall,  Grand  Rapids. 
Henry  H.  Frost,  A.B.,  '85,  Univ  of  Mich. 

1897,  Teacher  of  Geometry,  Central  High  School,  1302  John  R  St.,  Detroit. 
Austin  George,  A.B.,  '66,  A.M.,  '69,  Kalamazoo  Coll. ;  M.Pd.,  93,  Mich.  State  Nor.  Sch. 

Superintendent  of  Public  Schools,  iii  Normal  St.,  Ypsilanti. 
Carl  C.  Marshall. 

189s,  Educational  Author,  347  E.  Main  St.,  Battle  Creek. 
William  C.  Skinner. 

1899,  Director  of  Detroit  University  School,  158  McDougall  St.,  Detroit, 

1896  L.  E.  Amidon,  A.B.,  '92,  Mich.  Univ. ;  A.M.,  '98,  Harvard  Univ. 

1898,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  406  W.  Flesheim  St.,  Iron  Mountain. 
W.  E.  Conkling,  Grad.,  Mich.  St.  Nor.  Coll. 

1896,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  304  Cortland  St.,  Dowagiac. 
Augustus  E.  Curtis,  A.B.,  '66,  A.M.,  '70,  Union  Coll. 

1896,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  113  W.  Maumee  St.,  Adrian. 
Edgar  E.  Ferguson,  B.Pd.,  '96,  Mich.  State  Nor.  Coll.;  Ph.B.,  '99. 

Superintendent  of  Schools,  526  Bingham  Ave.,  Sault  Ste.  Marie. 
S.  B.  Laird,  M.Sc,  '96,  McKendree  Coll.,  111. 

1899,  Associate  Professor  of  Pedagogy,  Michigan  State  Normal  College,  423  Ballard  St., 

Ypsilanti. 
William  Lightbody,  B.Sc,  Mich.  Agri.  Coll.;  B.Pd.,  Mich.  Nor.  Sch. 

Principal  of  Higgins  School,  Woodmere;  496  Dragoon  Ave.,  Detroit. 
David  Mackenzie,  A.M.,  Univ.  of  Mich. 

1892,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  208  W.  Clay  Ave.,  Muskegon. 
James  M.  Mandeville.  Grad.,  Mich.  State  Nor.  Sch. ;  LL.B.,  1900,  Detroit  Coll.  of  Law. 

1891,  Principal  of  Amos  School,  278,  24th  St.,  Detroit. 
Lew,  D.  Remington, 

1890,  Principal  of  High  School,  1020  Adelaide  St.,  Fenton. 
W.  V.  Sage,  B.Sc,  '84,  Mich.  Agri.  Coll. 

1899,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Mt.  Pleasant. 
J.  D.  Schiller,  A.M.,  '87,  Hillsdale  Coll. 

Superintendent  of  Schools,  Niles. 
Harriet  M.  Scott. 

1900,  Principal  of  Observation  School,  7x5  Monroe  St.,  Ann  Arbor. 
Mrs.  Emma  A.  Thomas. 

1886,  Supervisor  of  Music,  91  Watson  St.,  Detroit. 
Omar  D.  Thompson. 

1876,  Superintendent  of  Village  Schools,  Romeo. 

O.   I.  WOODLEY. 

1894,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  617  Stephenson  Ave.,  Menominee. 
L.  L.  Wright. 

Superintendent  of  Schools,  Ironwood. 

1897  James  H.  BejVzell. 

1899,  Principal  of  Central  High  School,  94  Horton  Ave.,  Detroit. 
H.  Z.  Brock,  B.Sc,  '85,  Univ.  of  Mich. 

Superintendent  of  Schools,  Hancock. 
Francis  D.  Clarke,  C.E.,  Univ.  of  Mich. 

Superintendent  of  State  School  for  the  Deaf,  Flint. 
Delos  Fall,  B.Sc,  '75,  M.Sc,  '82,  Univ.  of  Mich. ;  ScD.,  '98,  Albion  Coll. 

1897,  Professor  of  Chemistry,  Albion  College,  iioi  Mich.  Ave.,  Albion. 
William  H.  Fort. 

Coldwater. 
C.  O.  HoYT,  A.M.,  Albion. 

1899,  Professor  of  Pedagogy,  State  Normal  School,  502  Cross  St.,  Ypsilanti. 
Warren  C.  Hull,  Ph.M.,  '94,  Albion;  M.Pd.,  '96,  Mich.  Nor.  Coll. 

1898,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  305  Court  St.,  Flint. 


Minnesota]  LIFE,  ACTIVE,  AND  CORRESPONDING  MEMBERS  757 

MICHIGAN—  Continued 

1897  Henry  C.  Lott. 

1895,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Elk  Rapids. 
WiLUAM  Franklin  Lyon. 

1886,  Supervisor  of  Penmanship,  City  Schools,  879  Brooklyn  Ave.,  Detroit. 
Wales  C.  Martindale,  LL.B.,  Detroit  Coll.  of  Law. 

1897,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  50  Miami  Ave.,  Detroit. 
Fred  Newton  Scott,  Ph.D.,  '89,  Univ.  of  Mich. 

Junior  Professor  of  Rhetoric,  Univ.  of  Michigan,  1351  Washtenaw  Ave.,  Ann  Arbor. 
The  Public  Library  of  Detroit. 

Librarian,  H.  M.  Utley,  Detroit. 
Belle  M.  Tower.  _ 

1899,  Principal  of  Baxter  Street  School,  531  Jefferson  Ave.,  Grand  Rapids. 
Albert  J.  Volland,  A.B.,  Univ.  of  Mich. 

1896,  Principal  of  Central  High  School,  145  Madison  Ave.,  Grand  Rapids. 
William  Stearns  White,  Ph.B.,  '89,  Albion  Coll. 

State  Agent  for  the  American  Book  Co.,  35  Alexandrine  Ave.,  E.,  Detroit. 

1898  Hugh  Brown,  A.B.,  '84,  Univ.  of  Mich. 

1897,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  no  W.  Huron  St.,  Pontiac. 
Paul  A.  Cowgill,  B.Sc,  Univ.  of  Mich. ;  B.Pd.,  Mich.  State  Nor.  Coll. 

Superintendent  of  City  Schools,  Lapeer. 
General  Library,  University  of  Michigan. 

President,  James  B.  Angell ;  Librarian,  Raymond  C.  Davis,  Ann  Arbor. 
James  H.  Harris,  A.B.,  '91,  Univ.  of  Mich. 

1897,  Principal  of  High  School,  501  N.  Madison  St.,  Bay  City. 
E.  A.  Lyman,  A.B.,  '86,  Univ.  of  Mich. 

1899,  Principal  of  State  Normal  College,  126  N.  Washington  St.,  Ypsilanti. 
DiMON  H.  Roberts,  A.B.,  '92,  A.M.,  '95,  Amherst  Coll. 

Superintendent  of  Training  School,  Michigan  State  Normal   College,   318    Forest 
Ave.,  Ypsilanti. 

1899  Edward  J.  Berringer. 

701  Forest  St.,  Charlotte. 
Anna  M.  Chandler,  Ph.M.,  '79,  Univ.  of  Mich. 

1888,  Superintendent  of  Public  Schools,  411  E.  Ridge  St.,  Marquette. 
Richard  D.  Ewing,  B.Sc,  '96,  Univ.  of  Mich. 

1899,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Escanaba. 
W.  N.  Ferris. 

Principal,  Ferris  Institute,  Big  Rapids. 
Elbridge  L.  Heath. 

1898,  Principal  of  High  School,  Calumet. 
W.  J.  McKoNE. 

1898,  Superintendent  of  Public  Schools,  iioo  E.  Porter  St.,  Albion. 
J.  E.  NeCollins,  B.L.,  '92,  Univ.  of  Wis. 

1899,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Ishpeming. 
Northern  State  Normal  School. 

Principal,  D.  B.  Waldo,  Marquette. 
Samuel  Cheney  Price,  A.B.,  '91,  Ohio  Univ. 

1895,  Superintendent  of  Public  Schools,  87  Lincoln  Ave.,  Mt.  Clemens. 
Frederick  Edward  Searle,  A. B., '93,  Williams  Coll. 

1899,  Principal  of  The  Detroit  School  for  Boys,  Detroit. 
Eugene  C.  Warriner,  A.B.,  '91,  Univ.  of  Mich. 

Superintendent  of  Schools,  Saginaw. 
Estees  Eugene  Webster. 

Superintendent  of  Schools,  314  North  St.,  Three  Rivers. 
Eugene  A.  Wilson,  A.M.,  '99,  Mt.  Hope  Coll.,  O. ;  M.Pd.,  '99,  Mich.  Nor.  Coll. 

Superintendent  of  Schools,  141  Washington  St.,  Benton  Harbor. 

1900  Lewis  F.  Anderson,  A.B.,  Univ.  of  Toronto. 

Professor  of  Psychology  and  Education,  Northern  State  Normal  School,  724  Pine  St., 
Marquette. 
E.  A.  CoDDiNGTON,  B.Sc,  '98,  Olivet  Coll. 

1898,  Superintendent  of  Public  Schools,  85  W.  Superior  St.,  Alma. 
William  Franklin  Edwards,  B.Sc,  '90,  Univ.  of  Mich. 

Principal  of  Michigan  Military  Academy,  Orchard  Lake. 
Lucy  Adella  Sloan,  M.Sc,  '85,  Hillsdale  Coll.,  Mich. 

Preceptress  and  Professor  of  English  Literature,  Central  State  Normal  School,  Mt. 
Pleasant. 

MINNESOTA 

LIFE    director 

1870     William  F.  Phelps,  A.M.,  '52,  Union  Coll.,  N.  Y. 

Resident  Director,   State  Normal   School,  318    Chamber  of   Commerce  Building, 
Duluth. 

LIFE   MEMBERS 

1864     Calvin  Smith  Pennell,  A. B., '41,  A.M., '50,  Colby  Univ. 

Ex-Professor  of  Moral  and  Mental  Philosophy,  Washington  University,  St.  Louis, 
Mo.,  224s  Knapp  St.,  St.  Anthony  Park. 
1890     Board  of  Education,  Independent  School  District  No.  3,  Notthfield. 

President,  A.  W.  Norton;  Clerk,  S.  Finkelson,  Northfield. 

active  members 

1880     D.  L.  KiEHLE,  A.B.,  '61,  A.M.,  '64,  LL.D,  '87,  Hamilton  Coll.,  N.  Y. 

1893,  Professor  of  Pedagogy,  Univ.  of  Minn.,  2800  Portland  Ave.,  Minneapolis. 
1883      Irwin  Shepard,  A.B.,  '71.  A.M.,  '74,  Ph.D.,  '93,  Olivet  Coll.,  Mich. 

1893,  Secretary  of  National  Educational  Association,  118  W.  Wabasha  St.,  Winona. 
1886      Frederick  E.  Stratfon,  A.B.,  '71,  A.M.,  '74,  Williams  Coll. ;  Ph.D.,  '91,  III.  Wesleyan  Univ. 

1892,  Principal  of  Academy,  Carleton  College,  Northfield. 


758  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Minnesota 


loqo 


Robert  Eduard  Denfeld,  A.B.,  '76,  A.M.,  '78,  Amherst  Coll. 

1885,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Central  High  School,  Duluth. 

1893  Charles  M.  JoRnvN,  Ph.D.,  '92,  Tufts  Coll. 

1892,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  615  E.  i8th  St.,  Minneapolis. 
A.W.  Rankin,  A.B.,  '80,  Univ.  of  Minn. 

1895,  State  Inspector  of  Graded  Schools,  1529  University  Ave.,  S.  E.,  Minneapolis. 

1894  George  B.  Aiton,  A.B.,  '81,  A.M.,  '87,  Univ.  of  Minn. 

1893,  State  Inspector  of  High  Schools,  1601  University  Ave.,  S.  E.,  Minneapolis. 
Sarah  C.  Brooks. 

1899,  Principal  of  Teachers'  Training  School,  631  Westminster  St.,  St.  Patil. 
S.  A.  Farnsworth. 

1886,  Principal  of  Cleveland  High  School,  529  Case  St.,  St.  Paul. 
J.  G.  Hopkins. 

318  West  King  St.,  Winona. 
L.  Grace  Hopkins. 

Stenographer,  State  Normal  School,  318  W.  King  St.,  Winona. 
Isabel  Lawrence. 

1879,  Training  Teacher  in  Normal  School,  417,  2d  Ave.  S.,  St.  Cloud. 
LuCiA  M.  Miller. 

Principal  of  Webster  School,  631  Westminster  St.,  St.  Paul. 
Mary  L.  Olds. 

1089,  Principal  of  Washington  School,  Central  High  School,  Duluth. 
Mrs.  Louise  Preece. 

Author  and  Instructor  of  the  Preece  System  of  Physical  Training,  Hotel  Berkeley, 
Minneapolis. 
Alex  M.  Rowe,  A.B.,  '70.  A.M.,  '79,  Oberlin  Coll. 

1897,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Little  Falls. 

1895  F.  V.  HCBBARD. 

1896,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Red  Wing. 
George  R.  Kleeberger. 

1895,  President  of  State  Normal  School,  St.  Cloud. 
Irwen  Leviston,  A.B.,  '82,  A.M.,  '88,  Dartmouth  Coll. 

1900,  Superintendent  of  City  Schools,  New  York  Life  Building,  St.  Paul. 
Jesse  F.  Millspaugh,  A.B.,  '89,  Univ.  of  Mich. ;  M.D.,  '83,  Univ.  of  Pa. 

1898,  President  of  State  Normal  School,  Winona. 
Samuel  J.  Race,  B.L.,  Univ.  of  Pa. 

1886,  County  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Redwood  Falls. 
Waite  a.  Shoemaker,  Pd.D.,  '98,  N.  Y.  Univ. 

1900,  Superintendent  of  City  Schools,  713,  ist  Ave.,  S.,  St.  Cloud. 
William  G.  Smith. 

26  Washington  Ave.,  S.,  Minneapolis. 
James  W.  Strong,  A.B.,  '58,  A.M..  '61,  D.D.,  '72,Beloit  Coll.;  LL.D.,  '96,  III.  Coll. 

1870,  President  of  Carleton  College,  108  College  Ave.,  Northfield. 
Adolph  C.  Tibbetts. 

1896,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Blue  Earth  City. 
Frank  A.  Weld. 

1899,  President  of  State  Normal  School,  Moorhead. 

1896  C.  A.  Ballard,  B.Sc,  '94,  Univ.  of  Minn. 

1899,  Department  of  Science,  State  Normal  School,  Moorhead. 
J.  Danford  Bond,  B.Sc,  '72,  M.Sc,  '73,  Milton  Coll.,  Wis. 

1872,  Assistant  Superintendent  of  Public  Schools,  639  St.  Anthony  Ave.,  St.  Paul. 
Clarence  M.  Boittelle,  LL.D.,  '96,  St.  Stephen's  Coll.,  Annandale,  N.  Y. 

1895,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Marshall. 
Ralph  H.  Burns,  A.B.,  Yale. 

1899,  Superintendent  of  Public  Schools,  Renville. 
Mrs.  Alice  W.  Coolev. 

1895,  Supervisor  of  Primary  Schools,  1674  Hennepin  Ave.,  Minneapolis. 
R.  W.  Cranston. 

1898,  Agent  for  Butler,  Sheldon  &  Co.,  1025,  3d  Ave.,  S.,  Minneapolis. 
James  J.  Dow,  A.B.,  '74,  A.M.,  '78,  L.H.D.,  '99.  Carleton  Coll. 

1875,  Superintendent  of  School  for  the  Blind,  Faribault. 
H.  L.  Grant,  M.Sc,  Lawrence  Univ. 

2922,  rst  Ave..  S.,  Minneapolis. 
Bonnie  E.  Snow. 

1896,  Supervisor  of  Drawing,  Public  Schools,  Hampshire  Arms,  Minneapolis. 
Helen  Ford  Staples. 

1891,  Teacher  in  Primary  Department,  Public  Schools,  127  E.  Broadway,  Winona. 
J.  A.  Vandyke,  A.M.,  '90,  B.Pd.,  '89,  B.Ph.,  '87,  Univ.  of  Iowa. 

1899,  Superintendent  of  Public  Schools,  511  Union  Ave.,  Fergus  Falls. 
William  Franklin  Webster,  A.B.,  '86,  Univ.  of  Minn. 

1893,  Principal  of  East  Side  High  School,  1025,  5th  St.,  S.  E.,  Minneapolis. 

1897  Isaac  I.  Bargen. 

1886,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Mountain  Lake. 
William  A.  Bartlett.  B.Sc,  '87,  A.M.,  '90,  Iowa  Coll. 

1896,  Principal  of  High  School,  226  \V.  Broadway,  Winona. 
Herbert  R.  Edwards,  Ph.B.,  '91,  Alfred  Univ. 

1899,  Superintendent  of  Public  Schools,  Browns  Valley. 
Frances  A.  Elmer. 

1886,  Teacher  of  Latin,  State  Normal  School,  264  W.  Wabasha  St.,  Winona. 
George  A.  Franklin,  Grad.,  '77,  Nor.  Sch,,  Normal,  III. 

1894,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  401  W.  6th  St.,  Faribault. 
P.  P.  Kennedy,  B.Sc,  '90,  Univ.  of  Minn. 

1895,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Fairmont. 
Charles  L.  Sawyer,  A.B.,  '88,  A.M.,  '91,  Dartmouth. 

Ex-Principal  S.  High  School.  1916  Columbus  Ave.,  Minneapolis. 
Hiram  Worcester  Slack,  Ph.B.,  '95,  III.  Wes.  Univ. 

1876,  Principal  of  Schools,  735  Olive  St.,  St.  Paul. 


Missouri]  LIFE,  ACTIVE,  AND  CORRESPONDING  MEMBERS  759 

MINNESOTA—  Continued 

1897  State  Normal  School  at  Moorhead. 

President,  Frank  A.  Weld,  Moorhead. 
State  Normal  School  at  St.  Cloud.  ■« 

President,  George  R.  Kleebergcr,  St.  Cloud. 
State  Normal  School  at  Winona. 

President,  J.  F.  Millspaugh ;  Librarian,  F" ranees  A.  Elmer,  Winona. 
James  Albert  Tormev,  B.L.,  '95,  Univ.  of  Wis. 

1896,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  373  Johnson  St.,  Winona. 

1898  E.  T.  Critchett,  A.B.,  '85,  A.M..  '88,  Dartmouth. 

1894,  Superintendent  of  Public  Schools,  New  Ulm. 
Fannie  P.  Farnsworth,  B.L.,  '88,  Univ.  of  Wis. 

1898,  Principal  of  High  School,  203.  3d  St.,  Red  Wing. 
DiEDRiCH  A.  Grussendorf,  B.Sc,  '97,  Univ.  of  Minn. 

1899,  Principal  of  High  School,  New  Ulm. 
John  C.  Miller,  Ph.B.,  Hamlin  Univ.,  Minn. 

1899,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Lanesboro. 
Minneapolis  Athen.«um. 

Librarian,  Jessie  McMillan,  Minneapolis. 
W.  F.  F.  Selleck,  Ph.B.,  '98,  111.  Wes.  Univ. 

1892,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  804  Freeborn  St.,  Austin. 
I.  A.  Thorson. 

1900,  Superintendent  of  Public  Schools,  Aitkin. 
G.  O.  Virtue,  A.M.,  '93,  Ph.D.,  '97- 

1897,  Instructor  in  History  and  Civics,  State  Normal  School,  150  W.  Wabasha  St.,  Winona, 

1899  D.  Lange. 

1887,  Supervisor   of    Nature  Study,  Teacher  of    Geology    and   German,  Central    High 

School,  St.  Paul. 
Edward  M.  Lehnerts. 

1896,  Depaitment  of  Geography,  State  Normal  School,  Director  of  American  Bureau  of 

Geography,  456  E.  Sanborn  St.,  Winona. 
John  H.  Lewis,  A.B.,'78. 

1899,  State  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  St.  Paul ;  res.,  Hastings,       * 
Arthur  C.  Rogers,  B.Sc,  '77,  Earlham  Coll. ;  M.D.,  '83,  Univ.  of  Iowa. 

1885,  Superintendent  of  School  for  Feeble-Minded,  Faribault. 
Pete  Wikoff  Ross,  B.Sc,  A.B.,  '92,  Univ.  of  Mich. 

1897,  Superintendent  of  Public  Schools,  Morris. 
Edith  A.  Scott, 

1899,  Principal  of  Model  School,  Box  182,  Moorhead. 
State  Normal  School  at  Mankato. 

President,  C.  H.  Cooper,  Mankato. 

1900  P.  P.  COLGROVE,  Pd.D.,  1900,  N.  Y.  Univ. 

1900,  Department  of  Psychology  and  Mathematics,  State  Normal  School,  501,  3d  Ave.  S., 

St.  Cloud. 
Elmer  I.  Shepard,  A.B.,  1900,  Williams  Coll. 

Graduate  Student,  Columbia  University;  res.,  118  W.  Wabasha  St.,  Winona. 

MISSISSIPPI 

active  members 
1890     James  Rhea  Preston,  A.M. 

1899,  President  of  Faculty,  Stanton  College,  Natchez, 

1894  Robert  B.  Fulton,  A.B.,  '69,  A.M.,  '72,  Univ.  of  Miss, :  LL.D.,  '93,  Univ.  of  Niishville. 

1892,  Chancellor  of  University  of  Mississippi,  University. 

1895  E.  E.  Bass.B.L.,  '83,  Mo.  State  Univ. 

1884,  Superintendent  of  City  Schools,  509  N,  Broadway,  Greenville. 

1896  A.  A.  KiNCANNON,  A.B.,  M.Sc,  Lebanon,  O. 

i8g6,  Ex-State  Superintendent  of  Education,  Jackson. 
Richard  M.  Leavell,  A.B., '59,  Univ.  of  Miss. ;  LL.D., '89,  Miss.  Coll. 

1890,  Professor  of  Philosophy  and  Political  Economy,  Univ.  of  Mississippi,  University. 

1897  J.  G.  Deupree,  A.B..  A.M.,  Howard  Coll.,  Ala. :  LL.D.,  S.  W.  B.  Univ.,  Tenn. 

1896,  Professor  of  Pedagogy,  University  of  Mississippi,  University. 
John  Clayton  Fant,  A.M.,  '92,  Emory  and  Henry  Coll. ;  Pd.M.,  '95,  N.  Y,  Univ. 

1896,  Superintendent  of  Public  Schools,  The  Highlands,  Meridian. 
W.  I.  Thames,  Grad.,  N.  Nor.  Univ. ;  A.B. 

Principal  of  High  School  and  Editor  of  "  Mississippi  School  Journal,"  Poplarville. 

1899  Rev,  Cyrus  Hamlin,- D.D.,  '93,  Beloit  Coll.,  Wis. 

1896,  Dean  of  Tougaloo  University  tor  Colored  People,  Tougaloo. 
B.  M,  Walker,  B.Sc,  '83,  M.Sc,  '86,  Miss.  Agri.  and  Mech.  Coll. 

1888,  Professor  of  Mathematics,  Mississippi  Agricultural  and  Mechanical  College,  Agri- 

cultural College, 

1900  H.  L.  Whitfield,  B.L. 

State  Superintendent  of  Education,  Jackson, 

MISSOURI 

life  directors 

1877      F.  Louis  Soldan,  LL.D.,  '83.  South  Carolina  Univ. 

189s,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  3634  Flad  Ave.,  St.  Louis. 
1886     J.  M.  Greenwood,  A.M.,  '73,  LL.D.,  Univ.  of  Missouri. 

1874,  Superintendent  of  City  Schools,  9th  and  Locust  Sts,,  Kansas  City. 

life  members 
1871     James  B.  Merwin. 

Editor  "  American  School  and  College  Journal,"  3609  Palm  St.,  St,  Louis, 


76o  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Missouri 

1886  Charles  Henry  Evans,  A.M.,  '78,  William  Jewell  Coll.,  Liberty,  Mo. 

1877,  Editor  of  "  American  College  and   Public   School  Directory,"  915  Locust  St.,  St. 
Louis. 
G.  L  Harvey. 
'  3d  and  Francis  Sts.,  St.  Joseph. 

ACTIVE    MEMBERS 

1887  James  U.  White,  M.S.D.,  Missouri  State  Nor.  Sch. 

1899,  Superintendent  of  City  Schools,  Brookfield  Ave.,  Brookfield. 
Calvin  Milton  Woodward,  A.B.,  '60,  Harvard  Univ. ;  Ph.D.,  '84,  Washington  Univ. 

1870,  Professor  of  Mathematics  and  Applied  Mechanics;  i879,Director  of  Manual  Training 
School,  Washington  University,  3013  Hawthorne  Boul.,  St.  Louis. 
r89o     Mrs.  Matilda  Evans  Riley. 

1887,  Director  of  Drawing,  Public  Schools,  Board  of  Education  Building,  St.  Louis. 
1891     John  R.  Kirk. 

1899,  President  of  State  Normal  School,  Kirksville. 
George  Thomas  Murphy. 

1890,  Assistant  Superintendent  of  Instruction,  4946  Berlin  Ave.,  St.  Louis. 
F.  D.  Tharpe. 

1899,  Assistant  Superintendent  of  Schools,  9th  and  Locust  Sts.,  Kansas  City. 
1S92      Richard  Henry  Jesse,  LL.D.,  '91,  Tulane  Univ. 

1891,  President  of  University  of  State  of  Missouri,  Columbia. 
Mary  Clifton  McCulloch. 

1880,  Supervisor  of  Public  Kindergartens,  3851  Washington  Boul.,  St.  Louis. 
Florence  McNeal. 

1896,  Teacher  in  Humboldt  School,  1009  McGee  St.,  Kansas  City. 

C,  W.  ROBBINS. 

President,  Central  Business  College,  Sedalia. 

1893  James  Underwood  Barnard. 

1897,  City  School  Principal,  3000  E.  6th  St.,  Kansas  City. 
Obediah  M.  Wood. 

,  1883,  Principal  of  L'Ouverture  School,  3or6  Caroline  St.,  St.  Louis. 

1894  George  Victor  Buchanan,  A.M.,  '94,  McKendree  Coll.,  111. 

1893,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  614  W.  7th  St.,  Sedalia. 
Edwin  D.  Luckey,  B.S.D.,  '87,  State  Normal  School,  Kirksville,  Mo. 

1892,  Principal  of  Elleardville  School,  1332  Union  Boul.,  St.  Louis. 

1895  William  H.  Black,  A.M.,  '76,  Waynesburg  Coll.;  D.D.,  '88,  Cumberland  Univ. 

1889,  President  of  Missouri  Valley  College,  312  College  Ave.,  Marshall. 
Ira  I.  Cammack,  B.Sc,  '84,  Earlham  Coll.,  Ind. 

1897,  Vice-Principal  of  Central  High  School,  528  Chestnut  Ave.,  Kansas  City. 
Sarah  Elizabeth  Crouch. 

1890,  Teacher  in  Longfellow  School,  2915  Charlotte  St.,  Kansas  City. 
Arthur  A.  Dodd,  M.S.D.,  '86,  State  Nor.  Sch.,  Warrensburg,  Mo.;  B.Sc,  '95,  Harvard. 

1896,  Director  of  Mathematical  Course,  Manual  Training  High  School,  29r8  Tracy  Ave  , 

Kansas  City. 
Mary  Gilday. 

Teacher  in  Jefferson  School,  1403  Wabash  Ave.,  Kansas  City. 
William  Henry  Lynch,  A.B.,  '68,  A.M.,  '72,  Univ.  of  Missouri. 

1887,  Principal  of  Public  Schools,  Mountain  Grove. 
Richard  C.  Norton,  A.M.,  LL.D. 

1900,  Department  of  Didactics,  Avalon  College,  Trenton. 
Josephine  Norville. 

Chair  of  English,  High  School,  336  E.  Webster  St.,  Chillicothe. 
Charles  B.  Reynolds. 

1897,  Principal  of  Garfield  School,  321  Wabash  Ave.,  Kansas  City. 
Louis  Theilmann,  B.Sc,  '85,  M.Sc,  '90,  Missouri  Univ. 

1900,  Superintendent  of  Public  Schools,  Breckenridge. 
Marie  L.  Turner. 

1891,  Principal  of  Public  School,  Clayton. 
University  of  the  State  of  Missouri. 

President,  R.  H.  Jesse,  LL.D. ;  Secretary,  J.  G.  Babb,  Columbia. 
John  A.  Whiteford,  M.S.D.,  '93,  State  Nor.  Sch.,  Kirksville. 

189s,  Superintendent  of  City  Schools,  835  W.  Rollins  St.,  Moberly. 

1896  Amelia  C.  Fruchte. 

First  Assistant,  Normal  and  High  School,  4296  Washington  Ave.,  St.  Louis. 
Josephine  Heermans. 

1891,  Principal  of  Whittier  School,  1702  E.  8th  St.,  Kansas  Qity. 
Anna  Isabel  Mulford,  A.B.,  A.M.,  '86,  Vassar  Coll. ;  Ph.D.,  '95,  Washington  Univ.,  St.  Louis. 

1898,  Teacher  of  Botany,  High  School,  3225  Morgan  St.,  St.  Louis. 

1897  Z.  R.  Ashbaugh,  Grad.,  '72,  Hillsdale  Coll.,  Mich. 

1898,  Agent  for  American  Book  Co.,  Midland  Hotel,  Kansas  City. 
S.  M.  Barrett. 

1900,  Superintendent  of  Public  Schools,  Rich  Hill. 
R.  L.  Barton. 

1899,  Principal  of  Eliot  School,  912a  Pendleton  Ave.,  St.  Louis. 
Ben  Blewett,  A.B.,  '76,  A.M.,  '79,  Washington  Univ. 

1897,  Assistant  Superintendent  of  Schools,  9th  and  Locust  Sts.,  St.  Louis. 
John  S.  Collins,  A.B.,  '72,  Univ.  of  Miss. 
f  Principal  of  Divall  School,  St.  Louis;  res.,  Kirkwood. 

James  M.  Cottingham. 

i8gs.  Principal  of  Benton  School,  14th  and  Liberty  Sts.,  Kansas  City. 
W.  D.  DoBSON,  LL.D. 

Professor  in  State  Normal  School,  315  E.  Jefferson  St.,  Kirksville. 
Peter  Herzog. 

1882,  Principal  of  Blair  School,  3219  Bailey  Ave.,  St.  Louis. 
Benjamin  F.  Hoffman,  A.M.,  '88,  Univ.  of  Mo. 

189s,  Professor  of  German,  University  of  Missouri,  Columbia. 


Montana]  LIFE,  ACTIVE,  AND  CORRESPONDING  MEMBERS  761 

MISSOURI—  C«?«;'z>/7<«rf 

1897  G.  13.  LONGAN. 

1899,  Assistant  Superintendent  of  Schools,  1517  Michigan  Ave.,  Kansas  City. 
Sarah  J.  Milligan. 

1887,  Principal  of  Public  School,  Webster  Groves. 
Alex  H.  Noel. 

1883,  Principal  of  Grant  School,  1518  S.  Broadway,  St.  Louis. 
Hbmning  W.  Prentis. 

1878,  Principal  of  Hodgen  School,  5723  Delmar  Boul.,  St.  Louis. 
Catherine  Spencer. 

Primary  Teacher  in  Jefferson  School,  1700  E.  8th  St.,  Kansas  City. 

1898  G.  W.  Armstrong,  B.Sc,  '71,  Eureka  Coll.,  111. 

189s,  City  School  Principal,  2304  Lydia  Ave.,  Kansas  City. 
Joseph  D.  Elliff. 

1897,  Superintendent  of  City  Schools,  124  N.  Joplin  St.,  Joplin. 
William  Prentice  Evans,  A.B.,  '84,  Washington  Univ. 

1893,  Principal  of  Chouteau  School,  6618  S.  6th  St.,  St.  Louis. 
George  Henry  Howe.  Ph.B.,  '86,  A.M.,  '89,  III.  Wes.  Univ. 

1899,  President  of  State  Normal  School,  204  Tyler  Ave.,  Warrensburg. 
Isaac  H,  Hughes,  LL.B.,  '89,  Cumberland  Univ. ;  B.C.,  B.Sc,  '95,  A.B.,  '96,  A.M.,  '97,  Nat.  Nor. 
Univ.;  Pd.M.,  '97,  Nor.  Sch.,  New  Mex. 

1898,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Bloomfield. 
Thomas  P.  Jandon,  Jr. 

Principal  of  Webster  School,  710  W.  14th  St.,  Kansas  City. 
George  Warren  Krall,  B.Sc,  Millersville  Nor.  Sch.,  Pa. 

Teacher  of  Physics,  Manual  Training  School,  St.  Louis. 
William  Campbell  Ridgewav. 

1898,  Principal  of  Scarritt  School,  3035  E.  7th  St.,  Kansas  City. 
Oliver  Stigall,  B.S.D.,  '92,  State  Normal  School. 

Superintendent  of  City  Schools,  Chillicothe. 

C.  C.  Thudium,  A.m.,  M.Sc,  O.  Nor.  Univ. 

1894,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Hermann. 

1899  William  J.  S.  Bryan,  A.B.,  '73,  Washington  Univ.,  St.  Louis,  Mo. 

189s,  Principal  of  St.  Louis  Normal  and  High  School,  3746  Windsor  PI.,  St.  Louis. 
Caroline  L.  Bryant. 

Principal  of  Charless  School,  3039  Locust  Ave.,  St.  Louis. 
W.  T.  Carrington. 

1899,  State  Superintendent  of  Public  Schools,  804  E.  High  St.,  Jefferson  City. 
Washington  S.  Dearmont,  A.M.,  '89,  Mo.  State  Univ. 

1899,  President  of  State  Normal  School,  Cape  Girardeau. 
Daniel  A.  McMillan,  A.B.,  '68,  A.M.,  '09,  Miami  Univ, 

1882,  Superintendent  of  Public  Schools,  Mexico. 
Gilbert  B.  Morrison. 

1896,  Principal  of  Manual  Training  High  School,  2510  Peery  Ave.,  Kansas  City. 
Edward  H.  Stroeter,  A.B.,  '98,  William  Jewell  Coll.,  Liberty,  Mo. 

1898,  Superintendent  of  Public  Schools,  Carrollton. 

1900  Elizabeth  Buchanan. 

1890,  Principal  of  Primary  and  Grammar  School,  1815  E.  7th  St.,  Kansas  City. 
Irene  Gilbert. 

Principal,  Jefferson  School,  Kansas  City. 
G.  N.  Grisham,  A.B.,  V8.  Brown  Univ. ;  A.M.,  '86,  Roger  Williams  Univ. 

1889,  Principal  of  Lincoln  High  School,  2426  Flora  Ave.,  Kansas  City. 
Pritchett  College. 

President,  Charles  C.  Hemenway,  Glasgow. 

MONTANA 

ACTIVE    members 

1889     Robert  G.  Young,  M.Sc,  '77,  N.  I.  Univ. ;  Ph.M.,  1900,  Cornell  Coll. 

1900,  Superintendent  of  City  Schools,  Butte. 

1892      Oscar  J.  Craig,  A.M.,  De  PauwUniv. ;  Ph.D.,  Wooster  Univ. 

President  of  University  of  Montana,  318  W.  2d  St.,  Missoula. 
189s     James  M.  Hamilton,  M.Sc,  '90,  Union  Christian  Coll. 

1889,  Superintendent  of  City  Schools,  Misscula. 
W.  H.  Johnson,  A.M.,  '90,  Univ.  of  Kansas. 

1896,  Principal  of  High  School,  731  Stewart  St.,  Helena. 
James  Reid,  A.B.,  '8r,  McGill  Univ. 

President  of  Montana  College  of  A.  and  M.  Arts,  Hozeman. 
Cynthia  Elizabeth  Reiley,  B.Sc. 

Professor  of  Mathematics,  University  of  Montana,  53  Hammond  Block,  Missoula. 

D.  E.  Sanders,  A.M.,  '97,  Kan.  Nor.  Coll. 

1897,  President  of  State  Normal  School,  Dillon. 

1896  E.  a.  Steere,  B.Sc,  '81,  M.Sc  ,  '95,  Univ.  of  Wisconsin. 

1900,  Principal  of  Free  County  High  School,  Kalispell. 

1897  E.  a.  Carleton. 

State  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  Helena. 
Frank  C.  Patten. 

1892.  Librarian,  Public  Library,  Helena. 

1898  J.  P.  Hendricks,  B.Sc,  '86,  A.M.,  '89,  Western  Coll.,  Toledo.  la. 

1900,  State  Board  of  Education,  610  W.  Mercury  St.,  Butte.  ' 

1899  Miss  B.  P.  Downey.  . 

County  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Silver  Bow  Co.,  617  N.  Alaska  St.,  Butte. 
S.  D.  Largent. 

1898,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Great  Falls. 
Montana  State  College. 

President,  James  Reid,  Bozeman. 


762  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Nebraska 

MONTANA—  Confirmed 
1899     Mary  Elizabeth  Ryan. 

Principal  of  Jefferson  School,  408  W.  Quartz  St.,  Butte. 
M.  A.  Carkoll  Stapleton,  A.B.,  '85,  A.IVI.,  '88,  Middlebury  Coll.,  Vt. 
189s,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Anaconda. 

NEBRASKA 

LIFE    MEMBERS 

1876      S.  DeWiit  Beals. 

1882,  Teacher  in  High  School,  2118  Davenport  St.,  Omaha. 
1880     Mrs.  Grace  B.  Sudborough._ 

1898,  Teacher  in  High  School,  549  S.  26th  Ave.,  Omaha. 

active  members 

1890  Lizzie  L.  B.\nkek. 

1900,  Principal  of  Vinton  School,  1707  Center  St.,  Omaha. 

1891  C.  G.  Pearse. 

1895,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  508  City  Hall,  Omaha. 

1892  W.  K.  Fowler. 

1893,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Blair. 

1894  D.  C.  O'Connor,  A.B.,  '89,  A.M.,  '93,  Allegheny  Coll.,  Meadville,  Pa. 

1898,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Norfolk. 
Anna  M.  Tibbets. 

1892,  Principal  of  Grammar  School,  658  S.  17th  St.,  Lincoln. 

1895  Charles   Edwin   Bessey,  B.Sc,  '69,  M.Sc,  '72,  Mich.  Agri.  Coll.;   Ph.D.,  '79,  Univ.  of  Iowa; 

LL.D., '98,  Iowa  Coll. 

1884,  Professor  of  Botany  in  the  University  of  Nebraska,  1504  S  St.,  Lincoln. 
Edwin  J.  Bodwell,  B.Sc,  '88,  Dartmouth  Coll. 

Superintendent  of  Schools  of  Douglas  Co.,  Courthouse,  Omaha. 
W.  A.  Clark,  A.B.,  '72,  A.M.,  '85,  Pd.D.,  '94,  National  Normal  Univ. ;  A.M.,  '99,  Harvard;  Ph.D., 
1900,  Univ.  of  Chicago. 

1900,  President  of  State  Normal  School,  Peru. 
J.\mes  W.  Crabtree,  B.Sc,  'go,  Bloomfield  Sci.  Inst. 

1897,  Inspector  of  Nebraska  High  Schools,  1046  Pine  St.,  Lincoln. 
G.  W.  A.  LucKEV,  A.B.,  '94,  Stanford  Univ. 

1895,  Professor  of  Education,  University  of  Nebraska,  1433  R  St.,  Lincoln. 
Emm.\  Wheatlev. 

1892,  Principal  of  Ward  School,  2539  Capitol  Ave.,  Omaha. 
William  J.  Williams,  B.Sc,  '71,  A.B.,  '71,  A.M.,  '74,  Denison  Univ. 

1894,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  510,  14th  St.,  Columbus. 

1896  Howard  Walter  Caldwell,  Ph.B.,  '80,  A.M.,  '94,  Univ.  of  Neb. 

1892,  Professor  of   American   History   and  Jurisprudence,  University   of   Nebraska,   511 

N.  i6th  St.,  Lincoln. 
William  R.  Jackson. 

1897,  State  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  1909  G  St.,  Lincoln, 
A.  H.  Waterhouse. 

1899,  Principal  of  High  School,  416  S.  28th  St.,  Omaha. 
Harry  Kirke  Wolfe,  A.B.,  '80,  Univ.  of  Neb. ;  A.M.,  Ph.D.,  '86,  Leipzig. 

1898,  Superintendent  of  Public  Schools,  High  School,  South  Omaha. 

1897  Kate  L.  Brown. 

1896,  Principal  of  Clifton  Hill  School,  314  S.  26th  St.,  Omaha. 
George  L.  Farley. 

County  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Plattsmouth. 
Anna  Foos. 

Principal  of  Schools,  The  Madison,  Omaha. 
A.  L.  Shaw,  B.Sc,  '94,  Olivet  Coll. 

1898,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Valley. 
University  of  Omaha. 

President,  David  R.  Kerr,  D.D. ;  Secretary,  Willis  H.  Kerr,  Bellevue. 
Henry  Baldwin  Ward,  A. B.,  '85,  Williams;  A.M.,  Ph.D.,  '92,  Harvard. 

1893,  Professor  of  Zoology,  University  of  Nebraska,  Lincoln. 

1898  Allen  C.  Fling,  A.B.,  '94,  A.M.,  ^^98,  Univ.  of  Neb. 

1898,  Superintendent  of  City  Schools,  115  N.  nth  St.,  Nebraska  City. 
Omaha  Public  Library. 

President,  Lewis  S.  Reed;  Librarian,  Edith  Tobitt,  Omaha. 
Julius  Irving  Read,  A.B.,  '94,  Dartmouth  Coll. 

Instructor  in  Latin  and  English,  High  School,  1823  Capitol  Ave.,  Omaha. 
University  of  Nebraska. 

Chancellor,  E.  Benjamin  Andrews,  LL.D. ;  Librarian,  J.  I.  Wyer,  Jr.,  Lincoln. 

1899  E.  Benjamin  Andrews,  LL.D.,  '84,  Univ.  of  Neb. ;  D.D.,  '84,  Colby  Univ. 

1900,  Chancellor,  University  of  Nebraska,  Lincoln. 
R.  J.  Barr. 

1882,  Superintendent  of  City  Schools,  1015  W.  Division  St.,  Grand  Island. 
Mrs.  Donna  Wilson  Crabtree. 

631  N.  24th  St.  Lincoln. 
Elleky  W,  Davis,  B.Sc,  Univ.  of  Wis.;  Ph.D.,  Johns  Hopkins  Univ. 

1893,  Professor  of  Mathematics,  University  of  Nebraska,  1545  C  St.,  Lincoln. 
Charles  Fordyce,  B.Sc,  '96.  A.M.,  '98,  Ph.D.,  1900,  Univ.  of  Neb. 

1893,  Professor  of  Biology,  Nebraska  Wesleyan  University,  Lincoln. 
John  D.  French. 

1899,  Superintendent  of  Schools.  Hastings. 

Albert  Ross  Hill,  A.B.,  '92,  Dalhousie  Coll.,  Halifa.x.  Nova  Scotia;  Ph.D.,  '95,  Cornell  Univ. 

1897,  Professor  of  Philosophy,  University  of  Nebraska,  505  N.  25th  St.,  Lincoln, 
C.  W.  Turner. 

With  Silver,  Burdett  &  Co.,  Lincoln. 
W.  H.  Wagner.  B.L.,  Univ.  of  Neb. 

1894,  Superintendent  of  City  Schools,  Hebron, 


New  Jersey]        LIFE,  ACTIVE,  AND  CORRESPONDING  MEMBERS  763 

NEBRASKA  —  Cojitinued 

19CXJ     Nathan  Bernstein,  B.L.,  '92,  A.M.,  '97,  Dartmouth  Coll. 

1897,  Instructor  in  Science,  High  School,  2622  Capitol  Ave.,  Omaha. 
George  L.  Towne,  A.B.,  '95. 

Editor  "  Nebraska  Teacher,"  225  N.  nth  St.,  Lincoln. 

NEVADA 

active  members 
1895      Walter  C.  Gayhart,  C.E. 

1894,  Principal  of  High  School  and  Public  Schools,  Austin. 
Joseph  Edward  Stubbs,  A.B.,  '73.  A.M.,  '76,  D.D.,  '90. 

1894,  President  of  Nevada  State  University,  Reno. 
1899     James  C.  Doughty. 

Principal  of  Schools,  Tuscarora. 

NEW  HAMPSHIRE 

life  member 
1886     James  E.  Klock.  ^ 

igoo.  Principal  of  State  Normal  School,  Plymouth. 

active  members 

1898  New  Hampshire  State  Library. 

Librarian.  Arthur  H.  Chase,  Concord. 

1899  John  Augustus  Brown,  A.B.,  '79,  Harvard. 

1886,  Member  of  School  Board,  33  Pine  St.,  Exeter. 

NEW  JERSEY 

LIFE    member 

1876      Langdon  Shook  Thompson,  A.M.,  '84,  Marietta  Coll.,  O. ;  Pd.D.,  '9T,  Univ.  of  the  City  of  New  York. 
i88g.  Supervisor  of  Drawing,  Public  Schools ;  1893,  Principal  of  Metropolitan  Normal  Art 
School,  12  Park  St.,  Jersey  City. 

active    MEMBERS 

1889  A.  W.  Moon,  A.B.,  '95,  Indiana  Univ. 

1899,  Supervising  Principal  of  Schools,  Pleasantville. 

1890  Levi  Seelev,  A.M.,  '83,  Williams  Coll.;  Ph.D.,  '86,  Leipzig. 

189s,  Professor  of  Pedagogy,  State  Normal  School,  482  W.  State  St.,  Trenton. 

1891  Augustus  Scarlett. 

1863,  Principal  of  South  8th  St.  School,  56  S.  nth  St.,  Newark. 

1892  Sarah  Y.  Ely. 

1887,  Supervisor  in  High  and  Grammar  Departments  of  State  Model  School,  52  Carroll 

St.,  Trenton. 
James  M.  Green,  A.M.,  '84,  Dickinson  Coll. ;  Ph.D.,  '90,  111.  Wesleyan  Univ. 

1889,  Principal  of  State  Normal  and  Model  Schools,  Trenton. 
M.  H.  Kinsley,  B.Sc,  '88,  St.  Lawrence  Univ. 

1899,  Principal  of  School  No.  5,  117  Magnolia  Ave.,  Arlington. 
Jane  M,  Lewis. 

1877,  Principal  of  Primary  School  No.  8,  99  Mercer  St.,  Jersey  City. 
S.  E.  Manness,  A.M.,  '96,  Univ.  of  Tenn. 

1900,  Principal  of  Waverley  Ave.  School,  261  Broad  St.,  Newark. 
Byron  C.  Mathews,  A.B.,  '77,  A.M.,  '92,  Ph.D.,  '93.  Syracuse  Univ. 

1885,  Instructor  in  Greek  and  Economics,  High  School,  36  Kearney  St.,  Newark. 
Henrv  M.  Maxson.  A.m.,  '80,  Amherst  Coll. 

1892,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  439  W.  6th  St.,  Plainfield. 

Addison  B.  Poland,  A.M.,  '76,  Wes.  Univ.,  Conn. ;  Ph.D.,  '90,  Univ.  of  City  of  N.  Y. 

1897,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  City  Hall,  Paterson. 
James  M.  Ralston,  A.M.,  '82,  Dickinson  Coll. 

Allenhurst. 
Emily  A.  Rice,  Pd.D.,  '92,  Albany  Nor.  Coll. 

Teacher  of  Private  Classes,  77  Clark  Ave.,  Ocean  Grove. 
R.\ndall  Spaulding,  A.B.,  '70,  Yale. 

1874,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  14  Clinton  Ave.,  Montclair. 
Jotham  Walker  Wakeman. 

1865,  Principal  of  School  No.  6,  550  Summit  Ave.,  Jer.sey  City. 
H.  Brewster  Willis. 

1886,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Middlesex  Co,,  185  Livingston  Ave.,  New  Brunswick, 
William  R.  Wright. 

1893.  Principal  of  Franklin  Public  Schools,  Nutley. 

1893  Martin  Luther  Cox,  Pd.M..  '97,  New  York  Univ. 

1900,  Principal  of  Ann  St.  School,  Newark. 
C.  B.  Gilbert. 

1896,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  226  Mt.  Prospect  Ave.,  Newark. 
Henry  E.  Harris. 

1879,  Principal  of  School  No.  i,  64  Trask  Ave.,  Bayonne. 
Miss  S.  M.  Searle. 

1893,  Principal  of  Primary  Department,  Public  School  No,  23,  cor.  Romaine  and  Pavonia 
Aves.,  Jersey  City. 
George  H.  Voorhis. 

1881,  Principal  of  Centennial  Grammar  School,  311  S.  Clinton  Ave.,  Trenton. 
L.  C,  Wooley. 

Principal  of  James  Wood  School,  136  E,  Front  St.,  Trenton. 

1894  William  N.  Barringer,  A.M.,  Princeton;  Pd.D.,  Univ.  of  City  of  N.  Y. 

Supervisor  of  Evening  and  Summer  Schools,  1142  a  Broad  St.,  Newark. 


764  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [New  Jersey 

1894  Richard  Case,  A.M.,  '81,  Brown  Univ. 

1898,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Trenton  Ave.,  Point  Pleasant. 
Mary  J.  Donohoe. 

1895,  Principal  of  School  No.  4,  33  Dodge  St.,  Bayonne. 
Benjamin  C.  Gregory,  A.B.,  Coll.  of  City  of  New  York. 

1888,  Supervising  Principal  of  Schools,  54  Chestnut  Ave.,  Trenton, 
Anna  J.  Goden. 

1892,  Assistant,  School  No.  4,  202  Avenue  D,  Bayonne. 
J.  F.  D.  Heineken. 

1899,  Principal  No.  7,  Public  Schools,  East  Brunswick;  res.,  Milltown,  Middlesex  Co. 
Gaius  Hoffman. 

1881,  Principal  of  Schools,  Bound  Brook. 
Will  C.  Ingalls,  A.B.,  '84,  A.M.,  '87,  Brown  Univ. 

1900,  Principal  of  South  Jersey  Institute,  Bridgeton. 
Carl  F.  Kayser,  Ph.D.,  '92,  Univ.  of  City  of  New  York. 

1897,  First  Assistant   of    Latin   and    German,  Boys'   High    School,   and,   1899,   Acting 
Principal  of  High  School  Annex,  23d  St.,  New  York  city;  res.,  21,  9th  Ave., 
Newark. 
James  Wilmer  Kennedy,  A.M.,  '91,  New  York  Univ. 

1889,  Principal  of  Miller  Street  Grammar  School,  3  Emmett  St.,  Newark. 
Henrietta  S.  Leslie. 

1885,  Principal  of  Public  School,  Box  26,  Blackwood,  Camden  Co. 
N.  W.  Pease. 

1867,  Principal  of  Grammar  School  No.  2,  31  Morrell  St.,  Elizabeth. 
J.  Albert  Reinhart,  A.M.,  '77,  Ph.D.,  '81,  Syracuse  Univ. ;  Ph.B.,  '76,  A.M.,  '77,  Ph.D.,  '81,  Dela- 
ware Coll. 

1882.  Principal  of  City  High  School,  534  E.  27th  St.,  Paterson. 
E.  H.  Schuyler,  A.M.,  '92,  Princeton  Coll. 

1884,  Professor  of  Mathematics,  Dr.  Julius  Sachs'  Collegiate  Institute,  38  W.  sgth  St., 
New  York  city;  res.,  Haworth. 
Henry  Snyder,  A.B.,  '78,  A.M.,  '88,  Lafayette  Coll. 

1892,  Superintendent  of  Public  Schools,  City  Hall,  Jersey  City. 
Margaret  I.  Wade. 

Teacher  of  Mathematics,  High  School,  507,  3d  Ave.,  Asbury  Park. 

1895  Wilson  Farrand,  A.B.,  '86,  A.M.,  '89,  Princeton. 

1889,  Associate  Master  of  Newark  Academy,  544  High  St.,  Newark. 
Ada  Van  Stone  Harris. 

1897,  Supervisor,  Primary  Schools  and  Kindergartens,  298  Clifton  Ave.,  Newark. 
Robert  Mezger,  Grad.,  '90,  Univ.  of  Heidelberg. 

1897,  Instructor  in  German,  High  School,  112  S.  nth  St.,  Newark. 
W.  J.  Shearer,  A.B.,  '87,  A.M.,  '90,  Dickinson  Coll. 

1895,  Superintendent  of  Schools  of  City  of  Elizabeth  and  County  of  Union,  470  Monroe 

Ave.,  Elizabeth. 

1896  Charles  J.  Baxter. 

1896,  State  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  930  Putnam  Ave.,  Plainfield. 
Mrs.  Lydia  A.  Bennett. 

1895,  Principal  of  Leonia  Heights  Public  Schools,  Box  103,  Leonia,  Bergen  County. 
H.  B.  BoicE,  M.D.,  '88,  Univ.  Med.  Sch.,  New  York  city. 

1891,  State  Normal  School,  Box  638,  Trenton. 
Mrs.  Orrell  F.  Elwell. 

1876,  Teacher  of  Grammar  School,  152  S.  Stockton  St.,  Trenton. 

D.  H.  Farley. 

Teacher  in  State  Normal  School,  515  E.  State  St.,  Trenton. 

E.  R.  Johnstone. 

1898,  Vice-Principal  of  N.  J.  Training  School  for  Feeble-Minded,  Vineland. 
Edwin  C.  Merrill. 

Publisher,  Maynard,  Merrill  &  Co.,  29-33  E.  19th  St.,  New  York;  res.,  33  Wash- 
ington St.,  East  Orange. 

F.  E.  Spaulding.  A.B.,  '89,  Amherst;  Ph.D.,  '94,  Univ.  of  Leipzig. 

1897,  Superintendent  of  City  Schools,  54  High  St.,  Passaic. 

1897  Margaret  Bancroft. 

Princfpal  and  Owner  of  Haddonfield  Training  School,  Haddonfield. 
Miss  Jean  N.  Cox. 

1889,  Principal  of  Haddonfield  Training  School,  Haddonfield. 
Anna  M.  Fell,  M.E.L.,  Pennington  Sem. 

1894,  Principal  of  Cadwalader  School  No.  21,  304  W.  State  St.,  Trenton. 
Free  Public  Library  of  Jersey  City. 

President,  L.  J.  Gordon;  Librarian,  Esther  E.  Burdick,  Jersey  City. 
E.  K.  Sexton,  Pd.M.,  '92,  New  York  Univ. 

1894,  Principal  of  Central  Ave.  Grammar  School,  64,  9th  Ave.,  Newark. 
State  Normal  School,  Trenton 

Principal,  J.  M.  Green,  Trenton. 
Ira  Winthrop  Travell,  A.B.,  '90,  Williams  Coll. 

1893,  Principal  of  High  School,  815  College  PI.,  Plainfield. 
Thvrza  C.  Williams, 

1896,  Associate  Principal  of  Haddonfield  Training  School,  Haddonfield. 

1898  S.  V.  Arrowsmith. 

1897,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  103  Maple  Ave.,  Red  Bank. 
Arthur  Grant  Balcom. 

Principal  of  Franklin  School,  167  Mt.  Prospect  Ave.,  Newark. 
Mrs.  Louise  E.  Hogan. 

1900,  Editor  of  Juvenile  Literature,  Box  37,  Fanwood. 
Phoebus  W.  Lyon,  A.M.,  Princeton. 

Principal  of  West  Jersey  Academy,  Bridgeton. 
William  M.  Swingle,  Ph.D. 

1898,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  1T4  Cleveland  St.,  Orange. 

1899  Mrs.  R,  L.  Rogers  Dresser,  Grad.,  Kraus  Tr.  Sch.  for  Kgrs.,  '90. 

1899,  Principal  of  Kraus  Kindergarten  and  Training  Classes,  229  High  St.,  Burlington. 


New  York]  LIFE,  ACTIVE,  AND  CORRESPONDING  MEMBERS  765 

NEW  l^-9S^\  —  CoHtitiHed 

1899  J.  Howard  Hulsart,  A.M.,  '98,  111.  Wes.  Univ. 

1891,  Supervising  Principal.  105  Sussex  St.,  Dover. 
Jerohn  Joseph  Savitz,  Ph.B.,  '93,  III.  Wes.  Univ.;  A.M., '94,  Ursiuus  Univ.;  Pd.M.,  '99,  New 
York  Univ. 

1896,  Superintendent  of  Public  Schools,  Myrtle  Ave.,  Boonton. 
Andrew  F.  West,  Ph.D.,  LL.D. 

1883,  Professor  of  Latin,  Princeton  University,  Princeton. 
J,  Alfred  Wilson,  B.Sc,  '97,  Rutgers  Coll. 

1899,  Principal  of  Public  Schools,  18  Remsen  Ave.,  New  Brunswick. 

1900  W.  F.  Babcock,  M.Pd.,  '98,  N.  Y.  Univ. 

189s,  Principal  of  Grammar  School  No.  3,  277  Fair  St.,  Paterson. 
Bertha  Eltekich. 

1895,  Instructor  of  Physical  Culture,  Haddonfield  Training  School,  Haddonfield. 
James  L.  Hays. 

President,  State  Board  of  Education,  Newark. 

NEW  MEXICO 

ACTIVE   MEMBERS 

1891      Hiram  Hadlev,  A.M.,  '85,  Earlham  Coll. 

1898,  Professor  of  History  and  Philosophy,  Coll.  of  Agri.  and  Mech.  Arts,  Las  Cruces. 
1895     Clarence  T.  Hagertv,  B.Sc,  '90,  M.Sc,  '95,  Notre  Dame  Univ.,  Ind. 

1891,  Professor  of  Mathematics,  Coll.  of  Agriculture  and  Mechanic  Arts.  Las  Cruces. 
Charles  E.  Hodgin,  Grad.,  '81,  Ind.  St.  Nor.  Sch. ;  B.Pd.,  '93,  Univ.  of  N.  Mex. 

1897,  PrincipEd  of  Normal  Department,  University  of  New  Mexico,  Albuquerque. 
Mrs.  Elizabeth  R.  Jackson. 

1900,  Primary  Teacher  in  Public  Schools,  Silver  City. 
C.  M.  Light,  Ph.D.,  Univ.  of  City  of  N.  Y.  and  Nor.  Sch.  of  Kan. 

1896,  Principal  of  Normal  School  of  New  Mexico,  Silver  City. 
1897      George  Benjamin  Haggett,  B.Sc,  '75.  Grand  River  Institute. 

1899,  Principal  Teacher,  Indian  Service,  Thornton. 
Hugh  A.  Owen,  B.Sc. 

1900,  Instructor  of  Biography  and  Physiography,  Nor.  School  of  New  Mexico,  .Silver  City. 
Frederic  W.  Sanders,  A.B.,  '83,  Coll.  of   City  of    N.  Y.,  A.M.,  '92,  Harvard  Univ. ;  Ph.D.,  '95, 

Univ.  of  Chicago. 

1899,  President  and  Professor  of  Political  and  Economic  Science,  New  Mexico  College  of 
Agriculture  and  Mechanic  Arts,  Mesilla  Park. 
James  Alpheus  Wood,  A.B.,  '77,  A.M.,  '80. 

1899,  Superintendent  of  Public  Schools,  Santa  Fe. 
1899      William  H.  Decker,  B.E.,  Nor.  Sch.,  Silver  City,  N.  Mex. 
Principal  of  Schools,  Pinos  Altos. 
Edgar  L.  Hewett,  M.Pd. 

1897,  President  of  New  Mexico  Normal  University,  Las  Vegas. 
Mrs.  M.  R.  Koehler. 

1899,  Superintendent  of  Public  Schools,  Silver  City. 
Jennie  Potter. 

1899,  Teacher  in  Grammar  Department,  Canal  St.,  Eddy. 
Miss  O.  P.  Whitehill. 

Teacher  in  Public  Schools,  Silver  City. 

NEW  YORK 

LIFE    directors 

1880     Albert  Prescott  Marble,  A.M.,  '63,  Ph.D.,  '83,  Colby  Univ.,  Me. 

1896,  Associate  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Park  Ave.  and  59th  St.,  New  York. 

1884  James  H.  Canfield,  A.B.,  '68,  A.M.,  '77,  LL.D.,  '94,  Williams  Coll. 

1899,  Librarian  of  Columbia  University,  New  York. 

1885  Nicholas  Murray  Butler,  A.B.,  '82,  Ph.D.,  '84,  Columbia  Coll. 

i88g.  Professor  of   Philosophy  and   Education,    Columbia  University,    119   E.  30th  St., 
New  York. 
EzEKiBL  Hanson  Cook,  A.B.,  '66,  A.M.,  '69,  Bowdoin  Coll. ;  Ph.D.,  '8g,  Colgate  Univ. 

610  S.  Broadway,  Yonkers. 
Caleb  G.  Hall. 

New  Berlin. 
1890     Charles  Rufus  Skinner,  A.M.i  '90,  Hamilton  Coll. ;  LL.D.,  '95,  Colgate  Univ. 

1895,  State  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  453  State  St.,  Albany. 

LIFE    MEMBERS 

i8s7     James  Cruikshank,  LL.D.,  '62. 

187s,  Principal  of   Grammar  School   No.    12,  and  Evening  High   School ;  Secretary  of 
Council  of  Brooklyn  Institute  of  Arts  and  Sciences,  206  S.  Oxford  St.,  Brooklyn, 

1870  Oliver  Cromwell  Arey,  A.M.,  '65,  Union  Coll. 

229  Averill  Ave.,  Rochester.  • 

William  Edward  Crosby. 

Literary  and  Educational  Writer,  178  W.  i3Sth  St.,  Manhattan,  New  York. 

1871  John  Jacob  Anderson,  A.M.,  '67,  Rutgers  Coll. ;  Ph.D.,  '76,  New  York  Univ. 

Author  of  School  Histories  and  Historical  Readers,  343  Adelphi  St.,  Brooklyn. 
1876     Charles  C.  Rounds,  B.Sc,  '57,  M.Sc,  '60,  Dartmouth  Coll. ;  A.M.,  Bowdoin  Coll.  and  VVaterville 
Coll.;  Ph.D.,  Bates  Coll. 

1896,  Institute  Instructor  and  Lecturer,  96  Broadway,  New  York. 
1882     Josephine  E.  Hodgdon,  Pd.M.,  '91,  Univ.  of  City  of  New  York. 

1898,  Principal  of  Primary  School  No.'iio,  20  Sidney  PI.,  Brooklyn. 
Menco  Stern. 

1879,  Professor  of  German  Language  and  Literature,  Stern's  School  of  Languages,  27  E. 
44th  St.,  New  York. 


766 


NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [New  York 


1884  Sarah  A.  Stewart. 

28  W.  94th  St.,  New  York. 
Mrs.  Gkorgiana  Van  Aken. 

1858,  Principal  of  Day  School,  Ladies'  Home  Mission,  63  Park  St.,  New  York. 

1885  Thomas  Hunter.  A.M.,  '66.  Columbia  Coll. ;  Ph.D.,  '77,  Williams  Coll. ;  LL.D.,  N.  Y.  Univ. 

1869,  President  of  Normal  College,  2079.  5th  Ave.,  New  York. 
1891      Mrs.  M.  J.  B.  WvLiE. 

46  Essex  St.,  Buffalo. 
1893     Universitv  of  State  of  New  York. 

Secretary,  James  Russell  Parsons,  Jr.,  Regents'  Office,  Albany. 

active  members 
1882     Walter  S.  Goodnough. 

1890,  Director  of  Drawing,  Borough  of  Brooklyn,  267a  I-.ewis  Ave.,  Brooklyn. 
1884      Edward  N.  Jones,  A.B.,  '83,  A.M.,  '86,  Ph.D.,  '93.  Hamilton  Coll. 

1898,  First  Assistant,  The  New  York  Training  School  for  Teachers,  119th  St.  and  2d  Ave., 
New  York  city;  res.,  50  Church  St.  White  Plains. 

1886  Charles  L.  Patton. 

University  Publishing  Co.,  43-47  E.  loth  St.,  New  York. 

1887  GussiE  Power. 

1880,  Teacher,  535  Warren  St..  Hudson. 

1889  Charles  De  Garmo,  Ph.D.,  '86,  Halle,  Germany, 

1898,  Professor  of  Science  and  Art  of  Education,  Cornell  University,  809  E.  State  St., 
Ithaca. 
Thomas  Francis  Kane,  A.B.,  '92,  Cornell  Univ. 

1809,  Teacher  of  Mathematics,  Stapleton  High  School,  Richmond  Borough,  5  Wall  St., 
New  Brighton,  S.  I. 
Gratia  L.  Rice.  ^ 

1892,  State  Director  of  Drawing,  Box  321,  Buffalo. 

1890  C.  W.  Bardeen,  A.B.,  '69,  Yale. 

1874,  Editor  of  "  School  Bulletin,"  406  S.  Franklin  St.,  Syracuse. 
A.  B.  Blodgett. 

1889,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  127  Burnet  Ave.,  Syracuse. 
John  T.  Buchanan,  A.B.,  '72,  A.M..  '74,  Central  Coll. 

1897,  Principal  of  Boys'  High  School,  New  York  city  ;  res.,  585  Greene  Ave.,  Brooklyn, 
John  W.  Chandler,  Ph.D.,  "77,  Univ.  of  State  of  New  York. 

1894,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Ellenville. 
Edward  D.  Farrell,  A.M.,  '67,  Coll,  of  the  City  of  New  York. 

1889,  Assistant  Superintendent  of  Schools,  163  E.  124th  St.,  New  York. 
Marv  a.  Fleming. 

1878,  Teacher  in  Grammar  School  No.  13,  "The  Oxford,"'  432  Pearl  St.,  Buffalo. 
Amos  M,  Kellogg,  A.M.,  '57,  Hamilton  Coll. 

Editor  of  "The  School  Journal '"  and  "Educational  Formulations,"  61  E.  9th  St. 
YorV. 
Francis  B.  Palmer,  A. B.,  '58,  A.M.,  '63,  Ph.D.,  '79,  Univ.  of  Rochester. 

1878,  Principal  of  State  Normal  School,  86  Central  Ave.,  Fredonia. 
Isaac  H.  Stout,  A.M.,  '88,  Hobart  Coll. 

1887,  Supervisor  of  Teachers'  Institutes,  State  Department  of  Public  Instruction,  61  Lan- 
caster St. ,  Albany. 

1891  Vincent  Aldridge,  A.M.,  '81.  Syracuse  Univ. 

1889,  Teacher  of  Mathematics,  Boys'  High  School,  26  Clarkson  St.,  Brooklyn. 
Earl  Barnes,  A.M^'89,  Ind.  Univ. ;  M.Sc,  '90,  Cornell  Univ. 

232  Greene  Ave.,  Brooklyn.  * 

Francis  John  Cheney,  A.B.,  '72,  A.M.,  75.  Ph.D.,  '89,  Syracuse  Univ. 

1891,  Principal  of  State  Normal  School,  45  Church  St.,  Cortland. 
Augustus  S.  Downing,  A.M..  Pennsylvania  Coll. 

1898,  Principal  of  New  York  Training  School  for  Teachers,  119th  St.  and  2d  Ave.,  New  York. 
Matthew  J.  Elgas,  A.B.,  '72,  A.M.,  '63,  Montreal  Coll. ;  Ph.D.,  '69,  St.  John's  Coll. 

1896,  Associate  Superintendent  of  Public  Schools,  121  W.  87th  St.,  New  York. 
Harlan  P.  French,  A.B.,  '68,  A.M.,  '71,  Amherst  Coll. 

189s,  Member  of  Board  of  Education,  Proprietor  of  Albany  Teachers'  Agency,  81  Chapel 
St.,  Albany. 
George  D.  Halk,  A.B.,  '70,  A.M.,  '73,  Univ.  of  Rochester. 

1871,  Principal  of  Hale's  Classical  and  Scientific  School,  409  Lake  Ave.,  Rochester. 
OssiAN  H.  Lang. 

1895,  Editor  of  "  Educational  Foundations  "  and  "The  School  Journal,"  New  York  and 

Chicago,  61  E.  9th  St.,  New  York. 
Henry  M.  Leifziger,  A.M.,  Coll.  of  City  of  N.  Y.;  Ph.D.,  '88,  Columbia  Coll. 

1890,  Superintendent  of  Lectures,  Board  of  Education,  New  York  city,  324  E.  soth   St., 

New  York. 
John  M.  Milne,  A.M.,  '79,  Rochester  Univ. ;  Ph.D..  '90,  Univ.  of  State  of  New  York. 

1889,  Principal  of  State  Normal  School,  Geneseo. 
Thomas  B.  Stowell,  A.M.,  '65,  Genesee  Coll. ;  Ph.D.,  '81,  Syracuse  Univ. 

1889,  Principal  of  State  Normal  and  Training  School,  6  Le  Roy  St.,  Potsdam. 

1892  Mrs.  Ella  N.  Allen. 

*  345^  Eagle  St..  Utica. 

Thomas  O.  Baker,  A.M.,  '92,  Ph.D.,  Univ.  of  City  of  New  York. 

189s,  Principal  of  High  School,  Yonkers. 
Emmet  Belknap,  A.B,,  '80,  A.M.,  '83,  Marietta  Coll. 

1889,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  206  East  Ave.,  Lockport. 
W.  H.  Benedict,  A.B.,  '75,  A.M.,  '78,  Hamilton  Coll. 

1889,  Principal  of  School  No.  8,  508  ^V.  3d  St.,  Elmira. 
A.  Hall  Burdick. 

1890,  Principal  of  Public  School  No.  14,  and  High  School,  4  Harrison  St.,  Stapleton. 
Charles  W.  Cole,  A.B.,  A.M.,  Ph.D.,  Hamilton  Coll. 

1878,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  354  Hudson  Ave.,  Albany. 
Melvil  Dewey,  A.B.,  '74,  A.M.,  '77.  Amherst. 

1899,  Director  of  New  York  State  Library  and  Home  Education,  Albany. 


New  York]  LIFE,  ACTIVE,  AND  CORRESPONDING  MEMBERS  767 

1892  George  Fenton. 

Agent  for  American  Book  Co.,  Broadalbin,  Fulton  Co. 
William  B.  Friedberg,  B.Sc,  '731  Coll.  of  New  York;  LL.B.,  '77,  Columbia  Law  School. 

1890,  Principal  of  Grammar  School  No.  95,  21  E.  125th  St.,  New  York. 
William  Beverley  Harison. 

Educational  Publisher,  5  ^V.  i8th  St.,  New  York. 
H.  E.  Hayes. 

1890,  Manager  of  Educational  Department,  D.  Aj)pIeton  &  Co.,  Publishers,  72,  5th  Ave., 

New  York. 
Mary  F.  Hyde. 

Author  of   "  Practical   Lessons  in  Use  of  English"  and  "Practical  English  Gram- 
mar," 208  Main  St.,  Binghamton. 
James  Lee,  M.D.,  '86,  "  Bellevue  Hospital  Medical  Coll." 

1892,  Associate  Superintendent  of  Schools,  235  E.  T24th  St.,  New  Yofk. 
William  H.  Maxwell,  A.B.,  '72,  A.M.,  '74,  Queen's  Univ.,  Ireland. 

Superintendent  of   Schools,  The  City  of  New  York,  Park  Ave.  and  sgth  St.,  New 
York  ;  res.,  283  Henry  St.,  Brooklyn. 
William  J.  Milne,  A.B.,  '68,  A.M.,  '71,  Ph.D.,  '77.  Rochester  Univ. ;  LL.D.,  '78,  De  Pauw  Univ. 

President  of  New  York  State  Normal  College,  94  Willett  St.,  Albany. 
R.  V.  K.  MoNTFORT,  M.D.,  '56,  Albany  Med.  Coll. 

1887,  Superintendent  of  Schools.  22  Montgomery  St.,  Newburgh. 
Oscar  D.  Robinson,  Ph.D.,  '87,  Dartmouth  Coll. 

1886,  Principal  of  High  School,  501  State  St.,  Albany. 
James  Winne,  A.B.,  '77,  A.M.,  '79,  Hamilton  Coll. 

1886,  Principal  of  High  School,  30  Hooker  Ave.,  Poughkeepsie. 

1893  Henry  P.  Emerson,  A.B.,  '71,  A.M.,  '74,  Univ.  of  Rochester. 

1893,  Superintendent  of  Education,  1C2  College  St.,  Buffalo. 
John  Arthur  Greene. 

1896,  Manager  of  American  Book  Co.,  100  Washington  Sq.,  New  York. 
George  Griffith,  A.B  ,  '77.  Hamilton  Coll. ;  Ph.D.,  '93,  111.  Wes.  Univ. 

1892,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  40  Jewett  PI.,  Utica. 
Mary  F.  Hall. 

Spencer. 
Lawrence  C.  Hull,  A.B.,  "77,  A.M.,  '97,  Univ.  of  Mich. 

1899,  Principal  of  Academic  Department,  Brooklyn  Polytechnic  Institute,  29  Schermerhorn 
St.,  Brooklyn. 
Jenny  B.  Merrill,  Pd.D.,  '92,  New  York  Univ. 

1896,  Supervisor  of  Kindergartens,  Boroughs  of  Manhattan  and  The  Bronx,  112  E.  8ist  St., 
New  York. 
Josephine  E.  Rogers. 

Principal  of  Public  School  No.  75,  482  Lexington  Ave.,  New  York. 
Edward  Richard  Sh.\w,  B.L.,  '78,  Del.  Coll. ;  Ph.B.,  '81,  Lafayette  Coll. ;  Ph.D.,  '90,  N.  Y.  Univ. 

189 1,  Dean   of  School  of  Pedagogy,  New  York  University,  University  Building,  Wash- 

ington Sq.,  New  York. 
Arthur  Merrill  Wright,  A.B.,  '72,  A.M.,  '80,  Hamilton  Coll. 

Supervisor,  Bureau  of  Compulsory  Education,  Department  of  Public  Instruction, 
Waterville. 

1894  Frank  D.  Beattys,  A.B.,  '85,  A.M.,  '88,  Wesleyan  Univ. 

Manager,  Silver,  Burdett  &  Co.,  31  E.  19th  St.,  New  York. 
Mrs.  B.  Ellen  Burke. 

1899,  Editor  of  "  The  Sunday  Companion,"  Akron,  O. ;  res..  Main  St.,  Malon. 
Francis  R.  Clair. 

1893,  School  Commissioner,  Queen's  County,  College  Point. 
Charles  Newell  Cobb,  A.B.,  '77,  and  A.M.,  '80,  Syracuse  Univ. 

1893,  Inspector  of  University  of  State  of  New  York,  26  N.  Pine  Ave.,  Albany. 
Florence  Browning  Himes. 

1894,  State  Instructor  in  Drawing,  126  Chestnut  St.,  Albany. 
Logan  D.  Howell,  A.B.,  "89,  Univ.  of  N.  C. 

1898,  Teacher  of  English,  the  Peter  Cooper  High  School,  3080,  3d  Ave.,  New  York. 
Cynthia  Lagomarsino. 

1884,  Teacher  in  Five  Points  Ladies'  Home  Mission  Day  School.  63  Park  St.,  New  York. 
William  A.  Mackey. 

1899,  Principal  of  Grammar  School  No.  53,  1697  Amherst  St.,  Buffalo. 
Charles  E.  Merrill. 

Educational  Publisher,  29-31  E.  19th  St.,  New  York. 
Frederick  Monteser,  Ph.D.,  "85,  Univ.  of  Vienna,  Austria;  Pd.D.,  '93,  N.  Y.  Univ. 

1893,  Lecturer,  School    of  Pedagogy,  New   York  University;    1897,  First  Assistant    in 

Boys'  High  School,  New  York  city;  re.s.,  Caryl  Station,  Yonkers. 
Mrs.  Agnes  O'Brien. 

Principal  of  School  No.  151,  61  W.  136th  St.,  New  York. 
W.  F,  O'Callaghan,  A.B.,  Harvard  Univ. 

1894,  Assistant  Principal  of  Gram.  Sch.  No.  29,  Washington  and  Albany  Sts.,  New  York. 
George  A.  Plimpton. 

Publisher,  70,  5th  Ave.,  New  York. 
Hester  A.  Roberts. 

1886,  Principal  of  Primary  Department  No.  10,  149  W.  128th  St.,  New  York. 
Edgar  O.  Silver,  A.B.,  '83,  A.M.,  '86,  Brown  Univ. 

Publisher,  President  of  the  Corporation  Silver,  Burdett  &  Co.,  29-33  E.  19th  St., 
New  York. 
Joseph  S.  Taylor,  Pd.D.,  '92,  New  York  Univ, 

1885,  Principal  of  Public  School  No.  19,  344  E.  14th  St.,  New  York. 
Martha  Van  Rensselaer. 

1894,  School  Commissioner,  Second  District,  Cattaraugus  Co.,  Randolph. 
189s      Samuel  Houston  Albro.  Ph.D.,  Colgate  Univ. 

SVoodside,  Central  Ave.,  P'redonia. 
H.  T.  Ambrose. 

President  of  American  Book  Co.,  Publishers,  too  Washington  Sq.,  New  York. 


768 


NA  riONA  L  ED  UCA  TIONAL  ASSOC! A  TION  [New  York 


1895      Middlesex  A.  Bailey,  A.M.,  '77,  Wesleyan  Univ.  of  Conn. 

1899,  Department  of  Mathematics,  New  York  Training  School  for  Teachers,  417  \y.  ii8th 

St.,  New  York. 
Ida  C.  Bender,  M.D.,  '90,  Univ.  of  Buffalo  (Med.  Dept.). 

1893,  Supervisor  of  Primary  Grades,  731  Ellicott  St.,  Buffalo, 
N.  L.  Benham. 

1892,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  539,  4th  St.,  Niagara  Falls. 
Clarence  C.  Birchard. 

Agent  for  American  Book  Co.,  100  Washington  Sq.,  New  York. 
'  Columbia  University. 

President,  Seth  Low,  LL.D. ;  Secretary,  W.  H.  H.  Beebe,  New  York. 
Fannie  S.  Comings. 

1893,  Principal,  Primary  Department,  Grammar  School  No.  77,  22  Halsey  St.,  Brooklyn. 
Julia  E.  Ckane. 

Teacher  of  Vocal  Music,  State  Normal  School,  and,  1884,  Director  of  Crane  Normal 
Institute  of  Music,  91  Main  St.,  Potsdam. 
John  W.  Davis. 

1886,  Public  School  No.  81,  Bedford  Park,  New  York. 
H.  T.  Dawson,  A.B..  '82,  111.  Wesleyan  Univ. 

Publisher,  424  W.  144th  St.,  New  York. 
Samuel  T.  DirrroN,  A.B.,  Yale. 

1900,  Professor  of  School  Administratioa,  Teachers  College,    Columbia  University,   814 

West  End  Ave.,  New  York. 
George  W.  French,  LL.B..  '78,  Columbia  Coll. 

i88i,  Principal  of  Public  Schools,  Jamaica  Ave.,  opp.  Enfield  St.,  Brooklyn. 
Mrs.  Anna  Eggleston  Friedman. 

1898,  Instructor  in  Primaiy  Work,  Teachers'  Institutes,  45  Wadsworth  St.,  Buffalo. 
Edward  Haywaru,  A.M.,  Ph.D.,  '90,  Union  Coll. 

1892,  Principal  of  High  School,  177  Genesee  St.,  Lockport. 
Welland  Hendrick,  A.B.,  '80,  A.M.,  '83,  Colgate  Univ. 

1898,  First  Assistant,  New  York  Training  School  for  Teachers,  174  St,  Nicholas  Ave., 
New  York. 
Walter  L.  Hervey,  A.B.,  A.M.,  Ph.D.,  '93,  Princeton. 

1898,  Examiner  of  Board  of  Education,  Park  Ave.  and  59th  St.,  New  York. 
Samuel  B.  Howe,  A.M., '65,  Ph.D..  '87,  Union  Coll. 

1868,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  615  Union  St.,  Schenectady. 
WiLBER  W.  Howe. 

1891,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Whitehall. 
Sara  D.  Jenkins. 

1895,  Principal  of  Teachers'  Training  Class  and  Teacher  of  English,   High  School,   103 
Huestis  St.,  Ithaca. 
Thomas  R.  Kneil,  A.B.,  '75,  A.M.,  '78,  Wesleyan  Univ.,  Middletown,  Conn. 

1893,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  High  School  Building,  Saratoga  Springs. 
Louise  M.  Lapey. 

Department  Principal  of  School  No.  16,  731  Ellicott  St.,  Buffalo. 
Charles  D.  Larkins,  Ph.B.,  '81,  Alfred  Univ. 

1893,  Principal  of  Manual  Training  High  School,  76  Court  St.,  Brooklyn. 

Seth  Low,  LL.D.,  '89,  Amherst;  '90,  Univ.  of  State  of  N.  Y.,  Univ.  of  Pa.,  Harvard,  Trinity  ;  '96, 
Princeton. 

1889,  President  of  Columbia  University,  New  York. 
Kate  Palmer  Macdona. 

1899,  Principal,  Public  School  No.  70,  62  W.  83d  St.,  New  York. 
J.  Milford  McKee,  Ph.B.,  '95,  111,  Wesleyan  Univ. 

Principal  of  Public  School  No.  5,  122  Valentine  St.,  Mt.  Vernon. 
F.  M.  McMurry,  Ph.D.,  Jena. 

1898,  Professor  of  Theory  and  Practice  of  Teaching,  Teachers  College,  Columbia  Univer- 
sity, 26  Hamilton  Terrace,  New  York. 
Henry  Dorsey  Newson,  A.B.,'72,  Western  Md.  Coll. 

President  of  Newson  &  Co.,  Publishers  of  Schoolbooks,  15  E.  17th  St.,  New  York. 
Andrew  V.  V.  Raymond,  A.B.,  '75,  D.D.,  '86,  Union  Coll. ;  LL.D.,  '94,  Williams  Coll. 

1894,  President  of  Union  College,  College  Hill,  Schenectady. 
J.  M.  Rice,  M.D.,  '81,  Coll.  of  Phys.  and  Sur.,  New  York. 

Educational  Writer,  Editor  of  the  "  Forum,"  1245  Madison  Ave.,  New  York. 
Rovillus  R.  Rogers,  A.B.,  Oberlin  Coll. 

1890,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  627  E.  6th  St.,  Jamestown. 
James  E.  Russell,  A.B.,  '87,  Cornell ;  Ph.D.,  '94,  Leipzig. 

1898,  Dean  of  Teachers  College,  Columbia  University,  317  W.  103d  St.,  New  York. 
Henry  R.  Sanford,  A.M.,  '64,  Genesee  Coll. ;  A.M., '73,  Syracuse  IJniv. ;  Ph.D.,  '94,  Union  Coll. 

1885,  State  Institute  Conductor  and  State  Examiner  of  New  York,  E.  Main  St.,  Penn  Van. 
Alfred  T.  Schaufflek,  A.B.,  '65,  A.M.,  '68,  Williams  Coll. 

1898,  Associate  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Boroughs  of  Manhattan  and  The  Bronx,  New 

York  city  ;  res.,  23  Woodland  Ave.,  New  Rochelle. 
'Henry  G.  Schneider,  B.Sc,  '87,  Coll.  City  of  New  York. 

Third  Assistant,  Grammar  School  No.  90,  610  W.  47th  St.,  New  York. 
MvRON  Tracy  Scudder,  A.B.,  '82,  A.M.,  '86,  Rutgers  Coll. 

1899,  Principal  of  State  Normal  School,  New  Paltz. 
Sylvester  R.  Shear. 

1897,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  3  South  Broadway,  White  Plains. 
Herbert  J.  Smith,  A.B.,  '88,  A.M.,  '91,  Colgate  Univ. 

1899,  Professor  of  Gieek,  Latin,  and  Civics,  State  Normal  School,  Oswego. 
J.  Mace  Smith,  B.Sc, '82,  Mich.  Agri.  Coll. 

1900,  Student,  Cornell  University,  Ithaca. 
Plowdon  Stevens,  Jr.,  B.Sc,  '88,  Coll.  City  of  New  York. 

1898,  Assistant  Principal  of  Public  School  No.  81,  2126  Washington  Ave.,  New  York. 
John  H.  Walsh,  A.B.,  '73,  A.M.,  '89,  Georgetown  Coll.,  D.  C. ;  LL.B.,  '80,  Columbia  Coll. 

1889,  Associate  Supermtendent  of  Public  Instruction,  39,  3d  Place,  Brooklyn. 
Frank  E.  Welles,  A.M.,  '92,  111.  Wesleyan  Univ. ;  Ph.D.,  '97,  Nat.  Nor.  Univ. 

1889,  Professor  of  Latin  and  Greek,  State  Normal  School,  97  South  St.,  Geneseo. 


New  York]  LIFE,  ACTIVE,  AND  CORRESPONDING  MEMBERS  769 

1895  Charles  F.  Wheelock,  B.Sc,  '73.  Cornell  Univ. 

1891,  Head  Inspector,  University  of  State  of  New  York,  Regents'  Office,  Albany. 

1896  Mrs.  Amelia  D.  Alden,  Grad.,  '68.  State  Nor.  Sch.,  Albany,  N.  Y. 

1895,  Vice-Principal  of  Westerleigh  Collegiate  Institute,  West  New  Brighton. 
John  Elmendorf  Brandegee.  A.B.,  '74,  Trinity. 

1896,  Member  of  School  Board,  30  Genesee  St.,  Utica. 
E.  N.  Bristol. 

Book  Publisher,  29  W.  23d  St.,  New  York. 
Kate  G.  Broderick. 

1881,  Principal  of  Public  School  No.  76,  E.  68th  St.,  New  York. 
Eugene  C.  Colbv. 

1885,  Principal  of  Department  of   Industrial   and    Fine  Arts,   Rochester  Athenaeum  and 
Mechanics'  Institute,  55  Plymouth  Ave.,  Rochester. 
Le  Roy  C.  Coolev,  x\.M.,  Ph.D. 

1874,  Professor  of  Physics,  Vassar  College,  2  Reservoir  Sq.,  Poughkeepsie. 
Cornell  University  Library. 

President,  J.  G.  Schurman;  Librarian,  George  W.  Harris,  Ithaca. 
Henry  M,  Crist. 

Manager  of  New  York  Office,  Milton  Bradley  Co.,  11  E.  i6th  St.,  New  York. 
Boothk  Colwbll  D.wis,  A.B.,'90,  A.M.,  '93,  Alfred  Univ. ;  B.D.,  '93,  Yale;  Ph.D.,  '96, Nat.  Ncr. 
Univ. 

1895,  President  of  Alfred  University,  8  Terrace  St.,  Alfred. 
George  S.  Davis. 

1888,  Associate  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Park  Ave.  and  59th  St.,  New  York. 
William  Reed  Eastman,  A.B.,  '54,  Yale;  B.L.S.,  '92,  Univ.  of  N.  Y. 

1892,  Inspector  of  Pub.  Libraries,  Univ.  of  State  of  New  York,  State  Library,  Albany. 
Andrew  W.  Edson,  A.B.,  '78,  A.M.,  '81,  Dartmouth  Coll. 

1897,  Associate  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Park  Ave.  and  59th  St.,  New  York. 
Ella  C.  Elder. 

1898,  Supervisor  of  Buffalo  Kindergartens,  86  Delaware  Ave.,  Buffalo. 
Henry  W.  Ellsworth,  Grad.,  Fredonia  Acad.,  N.  Y. 

Author  and  Publisher  of  Schoolbooks,  127  Duane  St.,  New  York. 
James  A.  Estee,  A.M.,  Alfred  Univ. 

Superintendent  of  Schools,  17  Marshall  Ave.,  Gloversville. 
Charles  Eugene  Gorton. 

1883,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  55  Hawthorne  Ave.,  Yonkers. 
Elbert  W.  Griffith,  Ph.B.,  111.  Wes.  Univ. ;  A.M.,  Wes.  Univ.,  Conn. 

1899,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  8  Sherman  Ave.,  Glens  Falls. 
Walter  B.  Gunnison,  A.B.  '75,  A.M.,  '78,  Ph.D.,  '93. 

1896,  Principal  of,  Erasmus  Hall  High  School,  77  Wilson  St.,  Brooklyn. 
Alfred  Hallam. 

Superintendent  of  Music,  116  N.  9th  Ave.,  Mt.  Vernon. 
Caroline  T.  Haven. 

1884,  Principal,  Kindergarten  Department,  Ethical  Culture  Schools,  109  W.  54th  St.,  New 

York. 
Frances  C.  Hayes. 

1898,  Supervisor  of  Kindergartens,  Borough  of  Queens,  New  York  city;  res.,  Flushing. 
William  C.  Hess,  B.Sc,  '67,  M.Sc,  '71,  Coll.  of  City  of  N.  Y. 

1897,  Principal  of  Public  School  No.  30,  and,  1896,  Principal  of  East  Side  Evening  High 

School,  439  E.  1 18th  St.,  New  York. 
W.  D.  Hewes. 

1893,  Principal  of  High  School,  Shortsville. 
Alpheus  B.  Kenyon,  B.Sc,  "74,  M.Sc,  '77,  Alfred  Univ. 

1874,  Professor  of  Mathematics  and  Graphics,  and,  1891,  Registrar  of  Alfred  Univ.,  33 

S.  Main  St.,  Alfred. 
Roland  S.  Keyser,  A.B.,  '72,  Ph.D.,  '81,  Syracuse  Univ. 

1898,  Department  of  English,  Normal  School,  Jamaica. 
Mrs.  Maria  KRAus-BoELTfi. 

1873,  Principal  of  Kraus   Seminarj^or  Kindergartners,  Hotel  San  Remo,  Central  Park 
West,  New  York, 
Charles  E.  Lawton.  _ 

1889,  Principal  of  Central  Grammar  School,  7  Franklin  St.,  Auburn. 
Louise  A.  Lounsbery. 

1896,  Teacher  of  Music  and  Drawing,  St.  Johnsville. 
Thomas  Bailey  Lovell,  A.B.,  '62,  A.M.,  '65,  Univ.  of  Rochester;  LL.D.,  1900,  Hobart  Coll., 
Geneva,  N.  Y. 

T892,  Principal  of  High  School,  1018  South  Ave.,  Sta.  A,  Niagara  Falls. 
Marv  A.  Magovern. 

1876,  Principal  of  Primary  Department,  Public  School   No.  166.  134  W.  89th  St.,  New 
York. 
Nathalie  Mankell,  Grad.,  Central  Royal  Institute,  Sweden. 

Teacher  in  Gymnastics  in  Franklin  School,  and,  1899,  Lecturer  in  Medical   Gym- 
nastics, University  of  Buffalo,  85  Mariner  St.,  Buffalo. 
J.  Edman  Massee,  A.B..  '73,  A.M.,  '76,  Hamilton  Coll. 

1898,  Superintendent  of  City  Schools,  981  Broadway,  Watcrvliet. 
Mark  M.  Maycock,  M.P.,  Syracuse  Univ.,  '75. 

Teacher  in  State  Normal  School,  220  Jersey  St.,  Buffalo.  > 

Clarence  E.  Melknby,  A.B.,  '76,  A.M.,  '79,  Colby  Univ. 

1896,  Associate  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Park  Ave.  and  sgth  St.,  New  York  city;  res., 
429  Washington  Ave.,  Brooklyn. 
Gurdan  R.  Miller,  Ph.B.,  '93,  Syracuse  Univ. 

1893,  Principal  of  High  School,  Matteawan. 
Otis  Montrose. 

Principal  of  Haldane  Union  School,  Coldspring. 
Howard  J.  Rogers,  A.B. ,  '84,  Williams  Coll.  ■■    " 

1895,  Deputy  State  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  Capitol,  Albany. 
Charles  M.  Ryon. 

1875,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  130  Elmendorf  St.,  Kingston. 


770  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [New  Yoik 

1896  Frank  A.  Schmidt,  Pd.I).,  '91,  New  York  Univ. 

188s,  First  Asst.  Grammar  School  No.  49,  and,  1895,  Principal  of  Evening  School  No.  79, 
4  Van  Nest  PI.  (Charles  St.),  New  York. 
Anna  A.  Schryver. 

.S02  N.  Aurora  St.,  Ithaca. 
Jacob  Gould  Schurmajj,  A.B.,  '77,  A.M.,  '78,  London  Univ.;  D.Sc,   "78.   Edinburgh;   LL.D., 
Columbia  Coll. 

1892,  President  of  Cornell  University,  Ithaca. 
Mary  V.  Squire. 

Assistant  in  School  No.  39,  19  Marigold  Ave.,  Buffalo. 
Henry  Morse  Stephens,  A.M.,  '92,  Oxford. 

1894,  Professor  of  History,  Cornell  University,  Ithaca. 
Edward  Walmsley  Stitt,  M.Sc,  '87,  Coll.  of  City  of  New  York;  Pd.M.,  '97,  Pd.D.,  1900,  N.  Y. 
Univ. 

1896,  Principal  of  Public  School  No.  89,  613  W.  179th  St.,  New  York. 
Ada  Frances  Thayer. 

1893,  Supervisor  of  Physical  Training,  Public  Schools,  Board  of  Ed.  Rooms,  Syracuse. 
Amelia  Earle  Trant,  M.D.,  '94,  Univ.  of  Buffalo. 

1897,  Principal  of  Boys'  Department,  Instructor  of  Psychology  and  Physiology,  Masten 

Park  High  School,  1268  Main  St.,  Buffalo. 
M.  H.  Walrath,  A.B.,  '89,  A.M.,  '92,  Syracuse  Univ. 

1896,  Principal  of  High  School,  Pawling  Ave.,  Box  544,  Troy. 
Etta  Lansing  Wentz. 

Physical  Director,  Female  Academy,  Kindergarten  Training  School  and  Woman's 
Gymnastic  Club,  99  Eagle  St.,  Albany. 

1897  Jessie  H.  Bancroft. 

1893,  Director  of  Physical  Training,  Public  Schools,  131  Livingston  St.,  Brooklyn. 
C.  L.  Barstow,  A.B.,  Union  Coll. 

Manager  of  Educational  Dept.,  Longmans,  Green  &  Co.,  93,  sth  Ave.,  New  York. 
Enoch  Henry  Currier,  A.M.,  '92,  Nat.  Deaf-Mute  Coll.,  Washington,  D.  C. 

1893,  Principal  of  New  York  Institute  for  Deaf  and  Dumb,  Station  M,  New  York. 
Editors'  Library,  American  Book  Co. 

Librarian,  L.  H.  Peet,  Washington  Sq.,  New  York. 
Anne  J.  Farley. 

1896,  Principal  of  Primary  Department,  Grammar  Sch.  No.  82,  128  E.  63d  St.,  New  York. 
Henry  W.  Jameson,  A.B.,  Yale. 

Associate  Superintendent  of  Schools,  47  W.  119th  St.,  New  York. 
Edward  Lord,  A.M.,  '94,  Dartmouth  Coll. 

General  Manager,  Educational  Department,  Charles  Scribner's  Sons,  153,  5th  Ave., 
New  York. 
A.  L.  Pbck. 

1880,  Librarianof  Free  Library,  Gloversville. 
Gustave  Straubenmoller,  A.B. 

Associate  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Boroughs  of  Manhattan  and  The  Bronx,  403 
W.  i47ih  St.,  New  York. 
J.H.  Thiry. 

Introducer  of  the  School  Savings  Bank  System,  r8i  Academy  St.,  Long  Island  City. 
Henry  H.  Vail,  A.B.,  '60.  LL.D.,  '96,  Middlebury  Coll. 
Publisher,  322  W.  7i;th  St.,  New  York. 
Zenas  Freeman  Westervelt,  LL.D.,  '75,  Rochester  Univ. 

1876,  Superintendent  of  Western  N.  Y.   Institution  for  Deaf-Mutes,  945  N.  St.  Paul  St., 
Rochester. 
1898     Bryson  Library,  Teachers  College. 

Librarian,  Miss  E.  G.  Baldwin,  Morningside  Heights,  120th  St.,  W.,  New  York. 
Mary  Hyde  Carroll. 

Private  Teacher,  Church  St.,  Kingsbridge. 
Susan  F.  Chase,  A.B.,  Wis.  Univ. ;  A.M.,  Milton  Coll. ;  Pd.D.,  Teachers'  Coll.,  Buffalo  Univ. 
Teacher  of  Literature,  State  Normal  School,  "  The  Porter,"  Porter  Ave.,  Buffalo. 
W.  E.  Cochrane. 

Manager  of  Prang  Educational  Co.,  5  W.  i8th  St.,  New  York. 
I.  O.  Crissy. 

189s,  Inspector  of  Business  Education,  University  of  State  of  New  York,  137  Eagle  St., 
Albany. 
Richard  Elwood  Dodge,  A.B.,  "90.  A.M.,  '94,  Harvard  Univ. 

1896,  Professor  of  Geography,  Teachers   College,   Columbia   University,   120th  St.,  W., 

New  York. 
Thomas  M.  Gafney. 

1898,  Member  of  Board  of  Education,  407  Otisco  St.,  Syracuse. 
George  B.  Germann,  A.B.,  '95,  Ph.D.,  '99,  Columbia  Univ. 

1900,  Registrar  of  Columbia  University,  90  Norman  Ave.,  Brooklyn. 
H.  W.  Gray. 

Publisher,  zi  E.  17th  St.,  New  York. 
Charles  L.  Harrington,  A.B.,  '70,  A.M.,  '98,  Amherst  Coll. 

1884,  Head  Master.  Dr.  J.  Sachs*  Collegiate  Institute,  38  W.  59th  St.,  New  York. 
Edwin  S.  Harris,  A.M.,  '89,  Union  Coll. 

1898,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Nelson  House,  Poughkeepsie. 
Charles  C.  Hold  en,  Pd.M. 

1893,  First  Assistant  M.D.,  Public  School  No.  39,  Manhattan,  res.,  Mamaroneck. 
John  F.  Hughes. 

Chairman  of  Board  of  Education,  35  Charlotte  St.,  Utica. 
Eugene  W.  Lyttle,  A.B.,  "78,  A.M.,  "81,  Ph.D.,  '95,  Hamilton  Coll. 

1897,  Inspector  of  Schools,  University  of  the  State  of  New  York,  Regents'  Office,  Albany. 
Mrs.  Louise  Maitland,  B.A.,  '98,  Stanford  Univ. 

Fiske  Hall,  Barnard  College,  New  York. 
Arthur  Marvin,  B.A.,  '91,  M.A.,  '96,  Yale. 

1897,  Principal  of  Union  Classical  Institute,  832  Union  St.,  Schenectady. 
William  Smith  Murray,  B.Sc,  '88,  M.Sc,  '93,  Syracuse  Univ. 

1899,  Graduate  Student  in  Columbia  University,  New  York. 


New  York]  LIFE,  ACTIVE,  AND  CORRESPONDING  MEMBERS  771 

1898  Edward  Beverly  Nelson,  A.B.,  '73,  A.M.  (honorary),  '94,  Harvard  Univ, 

Principal,  Central  N.  V.  Institution  for  Deaf-Mutes,  711  N.  Madison  St.,  Rome. 
Milton  Noyes. 

Superintendent  of  Schools,  Free  Academy  Building,  Rochester. 
Vinton  S.  Paessler. 

Principal  of  Barlow  School  of  Industrial  Arts,  23  Walnut  St.,  Binghamton. 
C.  R.  Richards,  B.Sc. 

1898,  Director,  Manual  Training  Dept,,  Teachers  College,  Columbia  University,  New  York. 
SvRACirsE  Central  Library. 

Librarian,  Ezekiel  W.  Mundy,  Syracuse. 
Edward  Lee  Thorndike,  A.B.,  '95,  Wes.  Univ.,  '96,  Harvard;  A.M.,  '97,  Harvard;    Ph.D.,  '98, 
Columbia. 

1899,  Instructor  in  Genetic  Psychology,  Teachers  College,  Columbia  Univ.,  New  York. 
Vassar  College  Library, 

President,  James  M.Taylor,  D.D.,  LL.D. ;    Librarian,  Frances  A.Wood,  Pough- 
keepsie. 
Sherman  Williams,  Ph.D.,  '94,  Albany  Nor.  Coll. 

1898,  Institute  Instructor,  State  of  New  York,  10  Grove  Ave.,  Glens  Falls. 

1899  Danforth  E.  Ainsworth. 

189s,  Deputy  State  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  Capitol,  Albany. 
Darwin  L.  Bardwell,  A.B.,  '83,  A.M.,  '88,  Amherst, 

1899,  Superintendent  of  City  Schools,  41  Riverside  Drive,  Binghamton. 
Buffalo  Public  Library. 

Superintendent,  H.  L.  Elmendorf ;  Librarian,  William  Ives,  Buffalo. 
Harry  D,  Frisbee.  A.B.,  '91,  Columbia  Univ. 

1895,  Teacher  in  City  Schools,  1340  Fulton  Ave.,  Borough  of  The  Bronx,  New  York, 
Josephine  A.  Greene, 

189s,  Director  of  Art  Department,  Normal  School,  Plattsburgh. 
Philip  M.  Hull,  A.B.,  '76,  A.M.,  '79,  Hamilton  Coll.,  N.  Y. 

1899,  Institute  Conductor,  cor.  Globe  and  Montgomery  Sts.,  Johnstown. 
A.  Leroy  Jones,  A.B.,  '95,  Williams  Coll. ;  Ph.D.,  '98,  Columbia  Univ, 

.    1898,  Assistant  in  Philosophy,  Columbia  University,  310  W.  113th  St.,  New  York. 
Grant  Karr,  Ph.D.,  Jena. 

Superintendent  of  Practice  School,  Oswego  Normal  School,  32  Mohawk  St.,  Oswego. 
John  Kennedy. 

Superintendent  of  Schools,  Batavia. 
Nhw  York  Public  Library. 

Director,  John  S,  Billings,  Astor  Library  Building,  40  Lafayette  PI.,  New  York. 
Charles  E.  Nichols.  _ 

1894,  Superintendent  of  City  Schools,  153  Stevens  Ave.,  Mount  Vernon,    • 
Edward  A,  Page,  LL.B.,  '73,  Columbia  Univ, 

Principal,  Public  School  No,  77,  Borough  of  Manhattan,  400  E.  86th  St.,  New  York. 
Juliet  Pearson. 

i860.  Principal  of  School  No.  68,  319  Lenox  Ave,,  New  York. 
Port  Jervis  Free_  Library. 

Librarian,  Elizabeth  G.  Thome,  Port  jervis. 
William  E.  Pulsifer, 

Educational  Publisher  of  D.  C.  Heath  &  Co.,  93,  5th  Ave.,  New  York. 
Frances  E.  Ransom. 

Director  of  Drawing,  New  York  Training  School,  703  St,  Nicholas  Ave.,  New  York, 
Edward  B.  Rawson,  B.Sc,  '81,  Mass.  Agri.  Coll, 

1897,  Principal  of  Friends'  Seminary,  226  E,  i6th  St,,  New  York, 
J.  F,  Reigart,  A.B.,  Dickinson  Coll. 

Superintendent  of  Workingman's  School,  109  W.  S4th  St.,  New  York, 
M.  Augusta  Requa,  M,D.,  "93,  Women's  Coll.,  N.  Y,  Infirmary;  M,Pd,,  '96,  N.  Y.  Univ, 

1896,  Supervisor  of  Physical  Education,  New  York  College,  65  W.  S2d  St,,  New  York, 
School  of  Pedagogy,  New  York  University, 

Dean,  Edward  R.  Shaw,  Washington  Sq.,  New  York. 
Irving  B.  Smith,  A,M,,  '73,  Hillsdale  Coll.,  Mich. 

1899,  Conductor  of  Teachers' Institutes,  Department  of  Public  Instruction,  State  of  New 

York,  Warsaw. 
David  S,  Snedden,  A.B.,  '90,  St.  Vincent's  Coll.,  Los  Angeles,  and  '97,  Stanford  Univ. 

1900,  Graduate  Student,  Teachers  College,  Columbia  University,  New  York. 
State  Normal  School,  New  Paltz,  N.  Y. 

Principal,  Myron  T.  Scudder,  New  Paltz. 
Edward  L,  Stevens,  A.B.,  '90,  A.M.,  '93,  Hamilton;  Ph,D,,  '96,  111,  Wes.  Univ. 

1898,  Borough  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Borough  of  Queens,  City  of  New  York;   res.. 

Flushing. 
Ralph  Stockman  Tarr,  B.Sc,  '91,  Harvard. 

1896,  Professor  of  Dynamic  Geology  and  Physical  Geography,  Cornell  University,  i  East 
Ave.,  Ithaca. 
Teachers  College,  Department  of  Manual  Training. 

Director,  C.  R.  Richards,  New  York. 
William  L.  Tuttle,  M.D. 

54  W.  126th  St.,  New  York. 
Harlan  Updegraff,  A.M.,  '98,  Columbia  Univ. 

1900,  Assistant  in  Philosophy  and  Education,  Columbia  Univ,,  New  York, 
Edward  G.  Ward. 

1898,  Borough  Superintendent  of  Schools,  276  Decatur  St.,  Brooklyn. 
Fred  Carleton  White,  A.B.,  '95,  Alfred  Univ. 

1899,  Principal  of  High  School,  Comwall-on-Hudson. 
John  F.  Woodhull,  A.B.,'8o,  Yale;  Ph.D.,  '99,  Columbia. 

1888,  Professor  of  Physical  Science,  Teachers  College,  Columbia  University,  New  York. 

1900  S,  Dwight  Arms,  A.M.,  '86,  Hamilton  Coll. 

1895,  Inspector  of  Schools,  University  of  State  of  New  York,  146  Main  St.,  Palmyra. 
Charles  W,  D.  Coffin. 

1899,  Manager,  New  York  Office,    Williams   &   Rogers,   Educational    Publishers,    1125 
Broadway,  New  York. 


772  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  LNorth  Dakota 

NEW  \0^Y.— Cotitivued 

1900     James  B.  T.  Demarest,  M.Pd.,  '98,  New  York  Univ. 

Principal,  Evening  School  No.  16,  44  W.  20th  St.,  New  York. 
William  Elkanah  Doggett. 

1885,  Head  Teacher  and  Assistant  Principal,  Commercial  High  School,  Brooklyn;  res., 
342  E.  i2thSt.,  Flatbush. 
E.  A.  Gruver,  A.B.,  '92,  A.M.,  '95,  Gettysburg  Coll. 

Principal,  Institution   for  the  Improved  Instruction  of  Deaf-Mutes,  904  Lexington 
Ave.,  New  York. 
Emma  A.  Newman. 

Teacher  in  First  Grade,  Teachers'  Training  School,  80  Bryant  St.,  Buffalo. 
Elmer  S.  Redman,  A.M.,  '94,  Ph.D.,  '98,  111.  Wesleyan. 
Superintendent  of  Schools,  Homellsville. 
State  Normal  School  Library,  Brockport. 

Principal,  David  Eugene  Smith  ;  Chairman  of  Library  Committee,  Charles  D.  Seely, 
Brockport. 
Albert  Henry  Wilcox,  A.B.,  '90,  A.M.,  '96,  Univ.  of  Rochester. 
1900,  Principal  of  High  School,  Rochester. 

NORTH  CAROLINA 

life  members 
880     Emily  M.  Coe. 

1900,  Principal  of  Normal   Training   School  and  Kindergarten,  Asheville  College,  Oak 
and  College  Sts.,  Asheville. 
Robert  Bingham,  A.M.,  '60,  LL.D.,  '90,  Univ.  of  N.  C. 

1873,  Superintendent  of  the  Bingham  School,  Asheville. 

ACTIVE  members 

895  John  Jay  Blair,  B.Sc,  A.B.,  '85,  Haverford  Coll.,  Pa. 

1899,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Wilmington. 

896  Charles  D.  McIver,  A.B.,  '81,  D.L.,  '93,  Univ.  of  N.  C. 

President  of  State  Normal  and  Industrial  College,  Greensboro. 
Dora  B.  Rogers. 

1898,  Teacher  of  History,  Literature,  and  Sciences,  Kinsey  Seminary,  Wilson. 
George  Tayloe  Winston,  B.L.,  '74,  Cornell ;  A.M.,  Davidson  Coll. ;  LL.D.,  Trinity. 

1896,  President  of  No.  Car.  College  of  Agriculture  and  Mechanic  Arts,  West  Raleigh. 

897  James  Carter  Blasingame,  A.B.,  '92,  Univ.  of  Ga. ;  Pd.D.,  '99,  Holbrook  Nor.  Coll. 

Yarboro  House,  Fayetteville  St.,  Raleigh, 

898  Philander  P.  Claxton,  A.M.,  '97,  Univ.  of  Tenn. 

1893,  Professor  of  Pedagogy,  State  Normal  and  Industrial  College,  W.  Market  and  Men- 

denhall  Sts.,  Greensboro. 
G.  A,  Grimsley,  A.m.,  '99,  Univ.  of  Nashville,  Tenn. 

1890,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  313  Forbis  St.,  Greensboro. 
J.  Y.  Joyner,  Ph.B.,  Univ.  of  N.  C. 

Professor  of  English  Literature,  State  Normal  and  Industrial  College,  1027  Spring 
Garden  St.,  Greensboro. 
The  State  Normal  and  Industrial  College  of  North  Carolina. 

President,  Charles  D.  McIver,  Greensboro. 
Hester  C.  Struthers. 

1894,  Teacher  in  Sixth  Grade,  Public  Schools,  418  Market  .St.,  Wilmington. 
D.  Matt  Thompson,  A.M.,  Butterford  Coll. 

1891,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Box  145,  Statesville. 
Lydl\  a.  Yates. 

1898,  Teacher  in  Private  School,  Princess  St.,  Wilmington. 

1899  Collier  Cobb,  A.B.,  '89,  A.M.,  '94,  Harvard;  F.G.S.A.,  '94. 

1892,  Professor  of  Geology,  University  of  North  Carolina,  Chapel  Hill. 
Charles  B.  King,  A.M.,  '83,  Roanoke  Coll. ;  D.D.,  '83,  Theological  Sem.,  Gettysburg,  Pa. 

1897,  President  of  Elizabeth  College,  Charlotte. 
Scotia  Seminary. 

President,  Rev.  D.  J.  Satterfield,  D.D.,  Concord. 
University  of  North  Carolina,  Library. 

President,  F.  P.  Venable  ;  Librarian,  W.  S.  Bernard,  Chapel  Hill. 

1900  Charles  D.  Cobb,  A.M.,  Ph.B.,  '95,  N.  C.  Coll. 

Principal,  Jefferson  Academy,  McLeansville. 
Jennie  Bentham  Gray,  Grad.,  '93,  Peabody  Nor.  Coll. 

1898,  Principal  of  Grammar  School,  2  Aston  PI.,  Asheville. 
Paul  J.  Long. 

1897,  County  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Jackson. 
T.  Gilbert  Pearson,  B.Sc.  '9;;,  Guilford  Coll.,  and  '99,  Univ.  of  N.  C. 

1899,  Professor  of  Biology  and  Geology,  Guilford  Coll. 
R.  J.  Tighe. 

1900,  Superintendent  of  City  Schools,  175  Chestnut  St.,  Asheville. 
W.  T.  Whitsett,  Ph.D. 

President,  Whitsett  Institute,  Whitsett. 

NORTH  DAKOTA 

ACTIVE   MEMBERS 

1894  Walter  L.  Stockwell,  B.Sc,  '89.  Univ.  of  Minn. 

1891,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Grafton. 
Mrs.  Helen  H.  Stockweli  ,  B.L.,  Univ.  of  Minn. 

Grafton. 

1895  George  A.  McB'arland,  B.Sc,  '83,  M.Sc,  '86,  Hiram  Coll. 

1892,  Principal  of  State  Normal  School,  Valley  City. 


\ 


Ohio]  LIFE,  ACTIVE,  AND  CORRESPONDING  MEMBERS  773 

NORTH  XiKYJQrX—  Cofttinued 

1895  Webster  Merrifield,  A.B.,  '77.  A.M.,  '92,  Yale. 

1891,  President  of  State  University  of  North  Dakota,  University. 
LuRA  L.  Perrine.  A.B.,  '80,  Albion  Coll.,  Mich. 

1892,  Teacher  of  Natural  Sciences,  State  Normal  School,  Valley  City. 

1896  Educational  Association  of  North  Dakota. 

President,  Superintendent  W.  L.  Stockwell,  Grafton. 
Joseph  Kennedy,  B.Sc,  *86.  Univ.  of  Minn. 

1893,  Professor  of  Pedagogy,  Logic,  and  Psychology,  and  Principal  of  Normal  Department, 

University  of  North  Dakota,  iioo  University  Ave..  Grand  Forks. 

1897  Anna  L.  Barnum. 

Primary  Critic,  State  Normal  School,  Mayville. 
J.  G.  Halland,  A.m.,  Luther  Coll.,  la. 

State  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  Bismarck. 
W.  E.  Hoover,  M.Sc,  '87,  Ohio  Nor.  Univ. 

1898,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Park  River. 
Rosalie  Pollock. 

State  Institute  Instructor,  210,  8th  St.  S.,  Fargo. 
Bertha  Scofield. 

1899,  Teacher  in  2d  Primary  Department,  Public  Schools,  Drayton. 

1898  H.  W.  McArdle,  B.Sc,  '87,  Mich.  Agri.  Coll. 

Professor  of  Mathematics,  Noith  Dakota  Agricultural  College,  Fargo. 

1899  University  of  North  Dakota. 

President,  Webster  Merrifield ;  Secretary,  Joseph  Kennedy,  Grand  Forks. 

OHIO 

LIFE   DIRECTORS 

1870      Emerson  Elbridge  White,  A.M., '58,Westem  Reserve  Coll.;  LL.D.,'76,  Ind.Univ.  and  Marietta  Coll, 

Author  and  Lecturer,  387  E.  Broad  St.,  Columbus. 
1887     Oscar  T.  Corson,  A.M.,  '87. 

1891,  State  Commissioner  of  Common  Schools,  57  E.  Main  St.,  Columbus. 

LIFE  members 

1866     Ulysses  Thompson  Curran,  A.B.,  '56,  A.M.,  Miami  Univ.;  B.L.,  '72.  Cin.  Law  Coll. 

Ex- Superintendent  of  Schools,  622  Columbus  Ave.,  Sandusky. 
1870    Mrs.  Delia  Lathrop  Williams,  Pd.D.,  '94,  N.  Y.  State  Nor.  Univ.- 

1880,  Assistant  Professor  of  English,  Ohio  Wesleyan  Univ.,  62  S.  Liberty  St.,  Delaware. 
1876     William  Allen  Bell,  A.B.,  '60,  A.M.,  '63,  Antioch  Coll.;  LL.D.,  1900,  Union  Christian  Coll., 

Merom,  Ind. 

1899,  President  of  Antioch  College,  Yellow  Springs. 
1880     J.  J.  Burns,  A.M.,  Washington  and  Jefferson  Coll. ;  Ph.D.,  '76,  Ohio  State  Univ. 

1899,  State  Secretary  of  Ohio  Teachers'  Reading  Circle,  628  Holgate  Ave.,  Defiance. 
Charles  C.  Davidson,  A.M.,  '87,  Ohio  Univ. 

1891,  Trustee  of  Ohio  Univ.,  59  W.  Ely  St.,  Alliance. 
Bkttie  a,  Ditton. 

1870,  Principal  of  Kentucky  Street  School,  94  State  Street,  Cleveland. 
Mrs.  Susan  S.  McMillan. 

South  Broad  St.,  Canfield,  Mahoning  Co. 
Lewis  Miller. 

President  of  Chautauqua  University,  Oak  PI.,  Akron. 
John  Bradley  Peaslee,  A.B.,  '63,  A.M..  '66,  Dartmouth;  LL.B.,  '66,  Cincinnati  Law  Coll. ;  Ph.D., 
'79,  Ohio  State  Univ. 

809  N,  Crescent  Ave.,  Cincinnati. 
Esther  A.  Widner. 

21  Maple  St.,  Dayton. 

1882  James  A.  Robert,  A.M.,  '67,  Yale;  Ph.D.,  '83,  Denison  Univ. 

230  Sunset  Ave.,  Dayton. 

1883  E.  W.  Coy,  A.M., ''58,  Brown  Univ. ;  Ph.D.,  '86,  Princeton. 

1873,  Principal  of  Hughes  High  School,  Cincinnati. 

1884  C.  W.  Bennett,  A.B.,  '66,  A.M.,  '69.  Ohio  Wesleyan  Univ. ;  Ph.D.,  '89,  Moores  Hill  Coll.,  Ind. 

1874,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  218  W.  Ash  St.,  Piqua. 

1894     Jacob  Albright  Shawan,  A.B.,'8o,  A.M.,'83.0berlin  Coll. ;  Ph.D.  (honorary  1,  '94,  Muskingum  Coll. 
1889,  Superintendent  of  City  Schools,  1122  Bryden  Road,  Columbus. 

active  'members 

1879     William  Nicholas  Hailmann,  A.M.,  '64,  Univ.  of  Louisville;  Ph.D.,  '85,  Ohio  State  Univ. 

1898,  Superintendent  of  Instruction,  Steele  High  School,  Dayton. 
1884      Richard  G.  Boone,  A.M.,  De  Pauw  Univ. ;  Ph.D..  Ohio  Univ. 

1899,  Superintendent  of  City  Schools,  Cincinnati. 
E.  A.  Jones.  A.B.,  '65,  A.M.,  '68,  Amherst  Coll. 

1869,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  138  E.  Tremont  St.,  Massillon. 
1889      Edwin  B.  Cox,  A.B  ,  '74,  Ohio  Wesleyan  Univ. 

1881,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  205  W.  Church  St.,  Xenia. 
Nathan  L.  Glover. 

1872,  Teacher  of  Music,  Public  Schools,  627  E.  Mill  St.,  Akron. 
Lewis  Henry  Jones. 

1894,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  39  Hayward  St.,  Cleveland. 
X890     Lewis  D.  Bonebrake,  A.M.,  Ph.D. 

1898,  Commissioner  of  Schools  of  Ohio,  1315  Forsythe  Ave.,  Columbus. 
Mrs.  Ada  E.  Laird. 

1892,  Principal  of  Waverly  School,  268  Franklin  Ave.,  Cleveland. 
Anna  M.  Osgood. 

1893,  Principal  of  Avondale  School,  1348  Oak  St.,  Columbus. 
J.  P.  Shakkey. 

1898,  Superintendent  of  Schools  ;  1893,  Member  of  State  Board  of  Examiners,  Van  Wert. 


774  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Ohio 

1890  Sophie  Vance. 

1876,  Teacher  in  Grammar  Department,  1229  Ridge  Road,  Van  Wert. 

1891  Arthur  Owen  Jones,  B.Sc,  '99,  Univ.  of  Cincinnati, 

1890,  Teacher  of  Drawing,  Public  Schools,  2315  Highland  Ave.,  Walnut  Hills,  Cincinnati. 
Ellen  G.  Revelry,  Pd.D.,  '94,  N.  Y.  State  Nor.  Coll. 

1892,  Supervisor  of  Public  Schools,  190  Euclid  Ave.,  Cle\:eland. 

Charles  William  Super,  A.B.,  '66,  Dickinson  Coll. ;  A.M.,  '82,  Syracuse  Univ. ;  Ph.D.,  '74,  111. 
Wesleyan  Univ. ;  LL.D.,  '94,  Dickinson  Coll. 

1883,  President  of  Ohio  University,  no  Union  St.,  Athens. 
Frederick  Treudlev,  A.B.,  '78,  Univ.  of  Ind. 

1886,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  625  Elm  St.,  Voungstown. 

1892  Virgil  G.  Curtis,  A.M.,  Tufts  Coll. 

1899,  Superintendent  of  Polytechnic  School,  "  The  Monticello,"  Toledo. 
C.  C.  Miller,  A.B.,  '83,  Ohio  State  Univ. 

189s,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  701  W.  North  St.,  Lima. 
N.  CoE  Stewart,  F.C.M. 

1867,  Director  of  Music,  Public  Schools,  71  Jennings  Ave.,  Cleveland. 
Matilda  L.  Walke. 

Teacher  in  Public  Schools,  471  Riddle  Road,  Cincinnati. 

1893  Charles  Haupert,  A.B.,  '80,  A.M.,  '83,  Heidelberg  Univ. 

1893,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  and,  1894,  Member  of  State  Board  of  Examiners,  9  Col- 

lege Ave.,  Wooster, 

M.  A.  KiM.MEL. 

1880,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Poland. 
Mrs.  Caroline  Newhall  Lathrop 

Principal  of  Normal  School, "  The  Somerset,"  Avondale,  Cincinnati. 
H.  H.  Rascuig. 

1874,  Principal  of  loth  District  School,  6i8  Prospect  PI.,  Avondale,  Cincinnati. 
S.  D.  Sanor,  A.M.,  '98,  LL.B.,  '99,  Western  Reserve  Univ. 

1900,  Instructor  in  English,  East  High  School,  150  Hawthorne  Ave.,  Cleveland. 
William  Henry  Scott,  A.M.,  '65,  Ohio  Univ. ;  LL.D.,  '84,  Ohio  Univ.  and  Ohio  Wesleyan  Univ. 

1883,  Professor  of  Philosophy,  Ohio  State  Univ.,  131,  15th  Ave.,  Columbus. 
Lucia  Sticknev,  A.M.,  '95,  Oberlin  Coll. 

1900,  Teacher  in  East  High  School,  840  Franklin  Ave.,  Cleveland. 

1894  James  Whitford  Bashford,  A.B.,  '73,  A.M.,  '76,  Univ.  of  Wis. ;  S.T.B.,  '76,   Ph.D.,  '81,  Boston 

Univ.;  D.D.,  'qo.  Northwestern  Univ. 

1889,  President  of  Ohio  Wesleyan  University,  Delaware. 
J.  Remsen  Bishop,  A.B.,  '82,  Harvard. 

Principal  of  Walnut  Hills  High  School,  Cincinnati. 
W.  W.  Boyd,  A.B.,  '84,  A.M.,  '86,  Marietta  Coll. 

1891,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  and,  1897,  Member  of  Ohio  State  Board  of  Examiners, 

Mentor  Ave.,  Painesville. 
Emma  C.  Davis. 

1893,  Supervisor  of  Public  Schools,  190  Euclid  Ave.,  Cleveland. 
Arnold  J.  Gantvoort. 

1894,  Lecturer  on  Musical  History  and  ^Esthetics,  College  of  Music,  Cincinnati. 
Edward  L.  Harris,  A.B.,  A.M.,  Ph.B. 

1889,  Principal  of  Central  High  School,  Cleveland. 
Julia  A.  Harris. 

1873, Teacher  in  Primary  Grade,  286  W.  McMicken  Ave.,  Cincinnati. 
Harriet  L.  Keeler,  A.B.,  '70,  Oberlin  Coll. 

1878,  Assistant,  Central  High  School,  92  Olive  St.,  Cleveland. 
Charles  P.  Lynch,  A.B.,  '86,  A.M.,  '89.  Ph.D.,  '97,  Allegheny  Coll. 

1891,  Teacher  of  Latin,  Central  High  School.  146  Hawthorne  Ave.,  Cleveland. 
William  O.Thompson,  D.D.,  '91,  Muskingum  Coll.;  LL.D.,  Western  Univ.  of  Pa. 

1899,  President  of  Ohio  State  University.  Columbus. 
George  R,  Twiss,  B.Sc,  '85,  Ohio  State  Univ. 

1894,  Head  Science  Teacher,  Central  High  School,  142  Cornell  St.,  Cleveland. 
Anna  J,  Wright,  A.B.,  '72,  Oberlin  Coll. 

1879,  Teacher,  West  High  School,  94  State  St.,  Cleveland. 

1895  Charles  E.  Albright.  . 

1899,  Principal  of  Central  High  School,  449,  sth  Ave.,  West,  Columbus. 
C.  G.  Ballou,  B.Sc,  O.  Wes.  Univ. 

Principal  of  High  School,  116  Floyd  St.',  Toledo. 
Charles  S.  Barrett,  B.Sc,  '85,  Hopedale  Coll.,  O. 

1900,  Principal  of  South  High  School,  78  W.  gth  Ave.,  Columbus. 
Mary  Blakiston,  Ph.B.,  '93,  Ohio  State  Univ. 

1899, Head  of  Department  of  Languages,  East  High  School,"  TheNormandie,"  Columbus. 
George  Stockton  Burroughs,  A.B.,  '73,  A.M.,  '76,  Ph.D.,  '84,  D.D.,  '87,  Princeton ;  LL.D.,  '95, 
Marietta  Coll. 

1899,  Professor  of  Old  Testament  Languages  and  Literature,  Oberlin  College,  257  Elm  St., 
Oberlin. 
C.  E.  Carey,  Ph.B. 

1897,  Superintendent  of  Public  Schools,  305  Mahoning  Ave.,  Warren. 

William  Wallace  Chalmers,  A. B.,  '87,  Univ.  of  Mich.;  A.M. ,'89,  Eureka  Coll.;  B.Pd.,  '91,  Mich. 
State  Normal  Coll. 

1898,  Superintendent  of  Instruction.  331  Floyd  St.,  Toledo. 

Stephen  Trimble  Dial,  A.B.,  '80,  A.M.,  '84,  Ohio  Wes.  Univ. ;  Ph.D.,  '94,  Syracuse  Univ.,  N.  V. 

1890,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  116  Hillside  Ave.,  Lockland. 
.  Clayton  L.  Dickey. 

1893,  Superintendent  of   Schools,  Clinton,  Sharon,  and  Perry  Townships,  N,  Broadway, 

Clintonville. 
George  A.  Howard. 

With  American  Book  Co.,  Cincinnati. 
AnneH.  King,  B.L.,  '92,  Univ.  of  Cincinnati. 

1894,  Teacher  in  Public  School,  3716  Morris  PI.,  Station  C,  Cincinnati. 
Julia  C.  Kolbe. 

1893,  Primary  Teacher  and  Teacher  of  German,  Norwood,  337  Milton  St.,  Cincinnati. 


Ohio]  LIF^,  ACTIVE,  AND  COKKESPONDING  MEMBERS  775 

1895  Annie  Laws. 

President  of  Cincinnati  Kindergarten  Association,  818  Dayton  St.,  Cincinnati. 
S.  Herrick  Layton,  B.Sc,  B.L.,  A.M..  Ph.D. 

1899,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Barnesville. 
William  R.  Lazenbv,  B.Agri.,  Cornell;  M.Agri.,  Iowa  A^ri.  Coll. 

1881,  Professor  of  Horticulture  and  Forestry,  Ohio  State  University,  Columbus. 
Charles  L.  Loos.  Jr.,  A.B.,  '6q,  A.M.,  '71,  Bethany  Coll.,  W.  Va. 

1900,  Principal  of  High  School,  132  Salem  St.,  Dayton. 
S.  H.  Maharry,  A.m.,  '90,  Muskingum  Coll.,  New  Concord,  O. 

1896.  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Millersburg,  Holmes  Co. 
S.  K.  Mardis,  Ph.B..  Pd.B.,  '93,  Ohio  Univ..  Athens. 

1898,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  88  N.  Water  St.,  Uhrichsville. 
George  C.  Maurer,  Ph.M  ,  '90,  Univ.  of  Wooster. 

1893,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  409  W.  Ray  St.,  New  Philadelphia. 
W.  W.  McIntire,  Ph.B.,  Ph.M., Univ.  of  Wooster. 

1900,  Agent  for  American  Book  Co.,  317  Walnut  St.,  Cincinnati. 
Henry  N.  Mertz,  A.B.,  '70.  A.M.,  '80,  Bethany  Coll. 

1879,  Superintendent  of  Public  Schools,  La  Belle  Ave.,  Steubenville. 
Miami  University. 

President,  David  Stanton  Tappan,  D.D.,  LL.D. ;  Librarian,  Rev.  Wm.  J.  McSmely, 
D.D.,  Oxford. 
Carrie  E.  Moores. 

1896,  Teacher  in  College,  College  Hill,  Hamilton  Co. 
Henry  M.  Parker,  A.B.,  '59,  A.M.,  '65,  Marietta  Coll.,  O. 

1873,  Superintendent  of  Public  Schools,  Elyria. 
J.  W.  Pfkiffer,  A.B.,  Hopedale  Nor.  Coll.,  O. 

1888,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  141  Wooster  Ave.,  Canal  Dover. 
Ed.  H.  Prichard. 

Principal  of  Third  Intermediate  School,  Franklin  St.,  Cincinnati. 
Robert  Edgar  Rayman. 

1897,  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  240  Thompson  Ave.,  East  Liverpool. 
WiLLi.\M  Sherman  Robinson,  B.Sc,  '91,  M.Sc,  '93,  Mt.  Union  Coll. 

1900,  Superintendent  of  Public  Schools,  327  Perry  St.,  Fostoria. 
Horace  A.  Stokes,  A.B.,  '87,  Ohio  Wes.  Univ. ;  A.M.,  '96,  Denison  Univ. 

1897,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  70  Lincoln  Ave.,  Delaware. 
Margaret  W.  Sittherland. 

i88g.  Principal  of  Normal  School,  694  Neil  Ave.,  Columbus. 
Charles  F.  Thwing,  D.D  .  '88,  Chicago  Theo.  Sem. :  LL.D.,  '94,  III.  Coll.  and  Marietta  Coll. 

1890,  President  of  Adelbert  College  and  Western  Reserve  University,  Cleveland. 
J.  S.  Young,  A.M.,  '08,  Univ.  of  Mich. 

335  N.  Main  St.,  Fostoria. 

1896  P.  J.  Anderson. 

1895,  Principal  of  Felton  Ave.  School,  648  E.  Long  St.,  Columbus. 
J.  J.  Bliss,  A.B.,  '81,  A.M., '86,  Oberlin  Coll. 

1895,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  512  E.  Rensselaer  St.,  Bucyrus. 
G.  B.  Bolenbaugh. 

1898,  Assistant  Principal  of  Lincoln  School,  4738  Harris  St.,  Cincinnati. 
Granville  Webster  Brumbaugh,  M.E.,  '89,  Juniata  Coll.,  Pa. 

1896,  Principal  of  Seventh  District  School,  1601  W.  2d  St  ,  Dayton. 
Mary  L.  Bruot. 

1889,  Teacher  of  Elocution  and  Oratory,  Central  High  School,  Cleveland. 
Howard  Champlin. 

1892,  Superintendent  of  Writing  in  Public  Schools,  Lane  Seminary  Grounds,  Station  D, 

Cincinnati. 
Tressa  M.  Corcoran._ 

1886,  Principal  of  Allen  School,  "  The  Normandie,"  Dayton. 
Frank  B.Dyer,  A.B. 

1886,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Madisonville. 
August  F.  Foerste,  A.M..  Ph.D.,  '90,  Harvard  Univ. 

1893,  Teacher  of  Physics,  Steele  High  School,  1017  Grand  Ave.,  Dayton. 
Warren  L.  Fulton,  B.Sc,  '95,  Ohio  Wes.  Univ. 

1900,  Superintendent  of  Public  Schools,  Alvordton. 
Alfred  E.  Gi-adding,  A.M.,  '91.  Bgthany;  Ph.D.,  '98.  Mt.  Hope. 

1899,  Professor  of  Mathematics  and  Dean  of  Mt.  Hope  College,  5  Eells  St.,  Rogers. 
J.  P.  Gordv,  Ph.D.,  Leipzig  Univ.,  LL.D. 

Professor  of  Education.  Ohio  State  Univ.,  Columbus. 
J.  W.  Jones.  B.Sc,  N.  Nor.  Univ. ;  B.P..  O.  Univ. 

Superintendent  of  the  Ohio  Institute  for  the  Deaf,  Columbus. 
Frederick  Alwin  King,  A.M. 

Teacher  of  Latin  and  Greek,  Hughes  High  School,  no  Huntington  PI.,  Mt.  Auburn, 
Cincinnati. 
Mrs.  Frances  W.  Leiter. 

1890,  Superintendent  of  Physical  EUlucation,  Department  of  The  National  W.  C.  T.  U.,  220 

W.  Park  Ave.,  Mansfield. 
Anna  E.  Logan. 

1896,  Teacher  in  Intermediate  Grade,  Westwood,  Cincinnati. 
J.  V.  McMillan. 

1899,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  108  N,  4th  St.,  Canal  Dover. 
George  M.  Plumer. 

Principal  of  Ward  School,  623,  4th  St.,  Marietta. 
Samuel  Lee  Rose. 

189s,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  219  N.  2d  St.,  Hamilton. 
John  H.  Rowland,  A.M. 

General  Agent,  American  Book  Co.,  240  N.  Main  St.,  Delaware. 
Joseph  H.  Snyder,  B.Sc,  '74,  Ohio  Cent.  Col. ;  .A.M.,  Heidelberg  Coll.,  O. 

iSjo.^uperintendent  of  Schools,  169  Monroe  St.,  Tiffin. 
Harriet  E.  Terrel. 

j8qo>  Principal  of  Scranton  Schools.  381  Jennings  Ave,,  Cleveland. 


776  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION 


[Ohio 


1896  Charles  Liggett  Van  Clevk,  A.B.,  A.M.,  O.  Wes.  Univ.,  Delaware. 

Superintendent  of  Public  Schools,  323  S.  Plum  St.,  Troy. 
William  M.  White,  A.B.,  McNeely  Nor.  Sch. 

1868,  Superintendent  of  Union  Schools,  Mt.  Pleasant. 
Ida  Mortimer  Windate,  A.M.,  O.  W.  Univ. 

igoo,  Preceptress,  Monnett  Hall,  Ohio  Wesleyan  University,  Delaware. 

1897  Ella  Bkistlh. 

1888,  Principal  of  School,  loth  District,  31  E.  McOwen  St.,  Dayton. 
Cleveland  Public  Library. 

Librarian,  William  H.  Brett,  Cleveland. 
Rose  Morrison. 

1894,  Kindergartner  and  Assistant  in  City  Normal  School,  550  Sibley  St.,  Cleveland, 
Ohio  State  University. 

President,  William  O.  Thompson ;  Librarian,  Olive  Jones,  Columbus. 
Mabel  L.  Pray. 

1893,  Director  of  Physical  Training,  Public  Schools,  "  The  Monticello,"  Toledo. 
John  C.  Ridge. 

1877,  with  the  American  Book  Co.,  2322  Nelson  Ave.,  Mt.  Auburn,  Cincinnati. 
Sylvester  F.  Scovel,  A.B.,  '53,  A.M.,  '56,  Hanover. 

1898,  ex-President  and  Professor  of  Morals  and  Sociology,  University  of  Wooster,  Wooster. 
Edward  M.  Van  Cleve,  A.B.,  '86,  A.M.,  '89,  Ohio  Wes.  Univ. 

1892,  Superintendent  of  City  Schools,  124  W.  Main  St.,  Greenville, 
Mary-Bellk  Westfall. 

1882,  Principal  of  School,  nth  District,  219  N.  Main  St.,  Dayton. 
T.  Howard  Winters,  A.B.,  '96,  Ohio  Wes.  Univ. 

1900.  Teacher  in  High  School,  1016  W.  4th  St.,  Canton. 

1898  James  M.  Carr. 

1893,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Frazeysburg. 

H.  D.  Grindle,  A.B.,  '91,  Ohio  Wes.  Univ. ;  A.M.,  '98,  Defiance  Coll. 

1898,  Superintendent  of  Public  Schools,  Columbus  Grove. 
Myra  Hamilton  Hanson,  Mt.  Holyoke  Coll. 

1898,  Instructor  of  Latin  in  Central  High  School,  "  The  Perry,"  Toledo. 
L.  J.  House. 

1899,  Superintendent  of  Perkins  Public  Schools,  Lock  Box  96,  Sandusky. 
Jesse  S.  Johnson,  Ph.B.,  '92,  De  Pauw  Univ. 

1900,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  57  Lincoln  Ave.,  Salem. 
Edmund  D.  Lyon,  A.B.,  Ohio  Wesleyan  Univ. 

1895,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  181  W.  ist  St.,  Mansfield. 
Gillespie  K.  Lyons. 

Agent  for  American  Book  Co.,  2130  Lawrence  Ave.,  Toledo. 
Harvey  V.  Merrick,  A.B.,  '80,  A.M.,  '83,  Mt.  Union  Coll. 

1888,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Cadiz. 
Normal  School,  Dayton. 

Principal,  Grace  A.  Greene,  Dayton. 
James  E.  Randall. 

1897,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Camden. 
W.  C.  Reeder. 

1893,  Teacher  of  English  and  History,  Steele  High  School,  1253  W.  ist  St.,  Dayton. 
William  E.  Roberts. 

Supervisor  of  Manual  Training  in  Public  Schools,  371  Franklin  Ave.,  Cleveland. 
F.  J.  Roller,  A.M.,  '83,  Mt.  Union  Coll. 

1888,  Superintendent  of  Public  Schools,  34  Main  St.,  Niles. 
John  M.  Sarver,  A.M.,  Ohio  Nor  Univ. 

1894,  Principal  of  High  School,  3136  W.  Tuscarawas  St.,  Canton. 
Leander  William  Sheppard. 

1898,  Teacher  in  High  School,  79  E.  nth  Ave.,  Columbus. 
J.  F.  Smith,  A.B.,  '85,  A.M.,  '90,  Kenyon  Coll. 

1888,  Principal  of  High  School,  130  Hancock  St.,  Findlay. 
Ralph  Richard  Upton,  A.B.,  Vale;  LL.B.,  LL.M., Columbian. 

1898.  Principal  of  High  School,  "  The  Clinton,"  Chillicothe. 
Isaac  Newton  Van  Tassel. 

Superintendent  of  Schools,  33  N.  Prospect  St.,  Bowling  Green. 
Mary  Walter. 

Primary  Teacher,  Public  Schools,  Pomeroy. 
Miss  M.  A.  Woodmansee. 

1899,  Director  of  Drawing,  City  Schools,  119  S.  Williams  St.,  Dayton. 

1899  Howard  Avers,  B.Sc,  '83,  Harvard;  Ph.D.,  '86,  Freiburg,  Germany;  LL.D.,  '99,  Mo.  State  Univ. 

1899,  President  of  University  of  Cincinnati,  3240  Burnet  Ave.,  Avondale,  Cincinnati. 
William  I.  Crane. 

Head  of  English  Department,  Steele  High  School,  1206  W.  5th  St.,  Dayton. 
C.  L.  Cronebaugh,  B.Sc,  '87,  Nat.  Nor.  Univ. 

1898,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  944  Wheeling  Ave.,  Cambridge. 
John  A.  Heizer,  B.Sc. 

1893,  Assistant  Principal  in  19th  District  School.  Norwood,  Cincinnati. 
H.  C.  Koehler,  Ph.B.,  Mt.  Union  Coll.,  Alliance,  O. 

1899,  Superintendent  of  Public  Schools,  Louisville,  Stark  Co. 
W.  D.  Lash,  A.M.,  '74,  Ohio  Univ. 

1878,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Zanesville. 
J.  J.  Maas. 

Principal,  2d  District  Schools,  Sycamore,  near  4th  St.,  Cincinnati. 
T.  B.  Pinkerton. 

Superintendent  of  Schools,  Water\'ille. 

E.  A.  F.  Porter. 

Representative  of  American  Book  Co.,  317  Walnut  St.,  Cincinnati, 
Christian  F.  Rapp. 

Principal  of  District  School  No.  29,  950  Elberon  Ave.,  Cincinnati. 

F.  M.  Shelton,  B.Sc,  '99,  Mt.  Union  Coll. 

1899,  Teacher  of  Mathematics,  High  School,  Fostoria, 


Oregon]  LIFE,  ACTIVE,  AND  CORRESPONDING  MEMBERS  777 

OHIO—  Continued 

1899  F.  P.  Shumaker.  M.Sc,  '86,  Mt.  Union  CoH, 

1888,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Chagrin  Falls. 
John  W.  Swartz,  A.B.,'96,  Ohio  Wesleyan  Univ. 

Superintendent  of  Schools,  Tippecanoe  City. 
David  Stanton  Tappan,  A.B.,  '64,  Miami  Univ.;  A.M.,  "78,  Wooster  Univ.;    D.D.,  "87,  I.enox 
Coll. ;  LL.D.,  'gg,  Wooster  Univ. 

1899,  President  of  Miami  University,  Oxford. 
Fannie  E.  Thomson,  Ph.B.,  '93,  Oberlin  Coll. 

1887,  Principal  of  High  School.  Medina. 
John  S.  Weaver,  A.B.,  '67,  A.M.,  '70,  Wittenberg  Coll. 

1900,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  166  Stanton  Ave.,  Springfield. 
The  Western. 

President,  Leila  S.  McKee;  Librarian,  Miss  C.  D.  White,  Oxford. 

1900  G.  W.  Burns,  A.B.,  Bethany  Coll.,  W.  Va. ;  A.M.,  Farmers'  Coll.,  O. 

1879,  Principal,  District  School  No.  18,  Laurel  Ave.,  College  Hill,  Sta.  X,  Cincinnati. 
N.  H.  Chanhv,  A.B.,  '80,  A.M.,  '84,  Wilmington  Coll. ;  A.M.,  '92,  Ph.D.,  '93,  Ohio  Wes.  Ui.iv. 

1898,  Superintendent  of  City  Schools,  210  Caldwell  Ave.,  Chillicothe. 
J,  P.  Cummins. 

Principal  of  District  School  No,  22,  Clifton,  Cincinnati, 
Nettte  Fillmore. 

1879,  Teacher  in  Woodward  High  School,  611  Richmond  St.,  Cincinnati. 
F.  P.  Geiger,  A.B.,  '94,  Mt.  Union  Coll. 

1897,  Principal  of  High  School,  Canal  Dover. 
L  C.  Guinther,  B.Sc,  '90,  A.M.,  1900,  N.  W.  O.  U. 

Superintendent  of  Public  Schools,  323  W.  Main  St.,  Galion. 
J.  S.  Hauer. 

Assistant  Principal  of  School  No.  30,  Westwood,  Cincinnati. 
W.  F.  Hughes. 

Superintendent  of  Covedale  School,  Sta.  L,  Cincinnati. 
S.  P.  Humphrey,  B.Sc,  '95,  Rio  Grande  Coll.,  O. 

1897,  Superintendent  of  Public  Schools,  215  S.  5th  St.,  Ironton. 
A.  B,  Johnson,  A.M.,  '56,  Oberlin  Coll. 

1855,  Principal  of  Avondale  Schools,  524  Forest  Ave.,  Sta.  I,  Avondale,  Cincinnati. 
Lek  R.  Knight. 

1889,  Principal  of  Kent  School,  210  Kent  St.,  Akron. 
A.  N.  Krieg,  B.Sc,  A.M. 

1900,  Superintendent  of  Arcadia  and  Washington  Township  Schools.  Arcadia. 
R.  W.  Mitchell. 

Superintendent  of  Public  Schools,  701  Wayne  St., Defiance. 
H.  W.  Mumma. 

Superintendent  of  Randolph  Township  Schools,  Englewood.] 
Ella  A.  Rothe. 

Teacher  in  Third  Intermediate  School,  2351  W.  McMicken'Ave.,  Cincinnati. 
Edward  D.  Roberts,  A.B.,  '99,  Univ.  of  Cincinnati. 

1900,  Teacher  in  Whittier  School,  1620  Dudley  St.,  Cincinnati. 
WiLLi.\M  H.  Vogel. 

1899,  Superintendent  of  Drawing,  Public  Schools,  1028  Linn  St.,  Cincinnati. 
William  Campbell  War  field. 

52  Perrin  Building,  Cincinnati. 

E.  W.  WlKINSON. 

1900,  Principal  of  First  Intermediate  School,  3661  Rus.sell  Ave.,  Cincinnati. 

H.  B.  Williams. 

Superintendent  of  Schools,  Sandusky. 

OKLAHOMA 

active  members 

1892      David  R.  Boyd,  A.B.,  "78,  A.M.,  '81,  Univ.  of  Wooster;  Ph.D.,  1900. 

1892,  President  of  University  of  Oklahoma,  Norman. 
1895      H,  Edgar  Thompson,  B.Sc,  '88,  So.  Nor.  Sch.,  Bowling  Green,  Ky. 

Principal  of  Preparatory  Department,  A.  and  M.  College.  Ralston. 

1898  L.  W.  Cole,  B.Pd.,  '93,  S.  W.  Kan.  Coll. ;  A.B.,  '99,  Univ.  of  Okla. 

1900,  Principal  of  Preparatory  Department,  University  of  Oklahoma,  Norman, 
S.  N.  Hopkins. 

Territorial  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction  and  ex-cflficio  Auditor.  411  N.  Broad 
St.,  Guthrie, 
Edmund  D.  Murdaugh. 

President  of  Territorial  Normal  School  of  Oklahoma,  Eldmond. 

1899  University'  of  Oklahoma. 

President,  David  R.  Boyd ;  Librarian,  Maud  Rule,  Norman. 

1900  Elmira  R.  Greason. 

1892,  Principal  Teacher,  Indian  School,  Kaw  Agency. 

OREGON 

LIFE   director 

1888     Charles  Carroll  Stratton,  A.M.,  Willamette  Univ.,  Ore  ;  B.D.,  '79,  Northwestern  Univ.,  111., 
and,  '80,  Ohio  Wes.  Univ. 

Ex- President  of  Portland  University,  University  Park. 

LIFE  member 

1884     Henry  M.  James,  A.B.,  '61,  A.M.,  '64,  Williams  Coll. 
370,  14th  St.,  Portland. 


77^  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Pennsylvania 


OREGON—  Co«/iK«/'rf 


ACTIVE    MEMBERS 


1892      Edwin  DeVore  Ressler,  A.B.,  '91,  Otterbein  Univ. ;  A.M.,  '97,  Ohio  State  Univ. 

1897,  Superintendent  of  Public  Schools,  Eugene. 

189s        J.  H.  ACKERMAN. 

1898,  State  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  Salem. 

E.  B.  McElrov,  A.m.,  '83,  Christian  Coll. ;  Ph.D.,  '84,  Willamette  Univ. 
189s,  Professor  of  Logic,  University  of  Oregon,  Eugene. 

1897  Charles  Friedel,  Ph.D.,  '95,  Leipzig. 

Professor  of  Physics  in  University  of   Oregon,  Eugene. 

1898  Frank  Rigler. 

1896,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  533  Yamhill  St.,  Portland. 

1899  J.  A.  Beattie,  A.m.,  '76,  Bethany  Coll. ;  LL.D. 

1900,  President  of  Eastern  Oregon  State  Normal  School,  Weston. 
H.  D.  Cannon. 

Primary  Teacher,  St.  Helen's  Hall,  Portland. 
J.  S.  Landers,  B.Sc,  '87,  Nor.  Ind.  Nor.  Sch. 

1899,  Superintendent  of  Public  Schools,  Union  and  9th  Sts.,  The  Dalles. 
Tualatin  Academy  and  Pacific  University. 

Dean,  W.  N.  Ferrin ;  Librarian,  Joseph  W.  Marsh,  Forest  Grove. 

PENNSYLVANIA 

LIFE   directors 

879     Teachers'  Institute  of  the  City  of  Philadelphia. 

President,  A.  J.  Macfarlane;  Secretary,    Mary  Wallace,   913   S.   i6th  St.,   Phila- 
delphia. 
Representative  for  1900,  Miss  Elizabeth  S.  Tait,  Philadelphia. 
891      Eliphalet  Oram  Lyte,  M.Sc,  Millersville;  A.M.,  Ph.D.,  Franklin  and  Marshall  Coll. 
1887,  Principal  of  First  Pennsylvania  State  Normal  School,  Millersville. 

life  me.mbers 

876      Edward  Brooks,  A.M.,  '58,  Union  Coll.;  Ph.D.,  '76,  Lafayette  Coll.,  and  Wash,  and  Jeff.  Coll. 
1891,  Superintendent  of  Public  Schools,  5971  Drexel  Road,  Philadelphia. 

879  Rachel  Foster  Avery. 

Somerton,  Philadelphia. 
Simon  Gratz,  A.M.,  Univ.  of  Pa.   • 

Ex-President  of  Board  of  Education,  1919  Spruce  St.,  Philadelphia.. 
Edward  Shippen. 

Ex-President  of  Board  of  Education,  1207  Walnut  St.,  Philadelphia. 

880  Edgar  Arthur  Singer,  Ph.D..  '96,  Univ.  of  Pa. 

1887,  Assistant  Superintendent  of  Schools,  4662  Penn  St.,  Station  F,  Philadelphia. 
884      Robert  Curry,  A.B.,  '48,  A.M.,  '51,  Jefferson  Coll. ;  Ph.D.,  '73,  Wash,  and  Jeff.  Coll.,  Palmyra. 

2420  Perryville  Ave.,  Allegheny. 

active  members 

879     George  Morris  Philips,  A.M.,  '74.  Ph.D.,  '84,  Bucknell  Univ. 

1881,  Principal  of  State  Normal  School,  West  Chester. 
Andrew  J.  Morrison,  A.M. 

1899,  Principal  of  Northeast  Manual  Training  School,  1430  N.  7th  St.,  Philadelphia. 
George  H.  Stout. 

1888,  Supervising    Principal  of  Newlon    Boys'  Combined  School,  3746  Powelton  Ave., 
Philadelphia. 

Nathan  C.  Schaeffer,  LL.D.,  '95,  Western  Univ.  of  Pa. 

1893,  State  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  Harrisburg;  home  address,  546  W.James 
St.,  Lancaster. 

E.  Mackey,  A.B.,  '78,  Mercersburg  Coll. 

1896,  Superintendent  of  Public  Schools,  1244  Perkiomen  Ave.,  Reading. 
Eliza  A.  Bishop. 

Teacher,  211  Pine  St.,  Harrisburg. 
R.  K.  Buehrle,  A.m.,  '78,  Ph.D.,  '87,  Franklin  and  Marshall  Coll.,  Lancaster,  Pa. 

1880,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  408  Manor  St.,  Lancaster. 
W.  Wilberforce  Deatrick,  A.B.,  '76,  A.M.,  '791  Mercersburg  Coll. 

1891,  Professor    of    Psychology    and   Higher   English,   Keystone   State   Normal  School, 
Kutztown. 
Mrs.  Constance  Mackenzie  Durham. 

Formerly  Director  of  Public  Kindergartens,  4816  Florence  Ave.,  Philadelphia. 
H.  W.  Fisher,  Grad.,  State  Nor.  Sch.,  Millersville,  Pa. 

187s,  Supervisor  of  17th  Ward  Schools,  350  Lehigh  Ave.,  Pittsburg. 
Joseph  K.  Gotwals,A.M. 

1872,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  19  E.  Chestnut  St.,  Norristown. 
Mary  J.  Lamberton. 

1891,  Supervising  Principal  of  George  W.  Childs  School.  4403  Osage  Ave.,  West  Phila- 
delphia. 
Enoch  C.  Layers,  A.M.,  Pd.D.,  Ph.D. 

1894,  Teacher  of  Mathematics  and  Pedagogy,  Public  and  High  Schools,  324  Cattail  St., 
•        Easton. 

Herman  T.  Lukens,  A.M.,  '88,  Univ.  of  Pa. ;  Ph  D.,  '91,  Jena. 

1898,  Head  Training  Teacher  of  State  Normal  School,  California. 
John  A.  M.  Passmore,  M.Sc,  '62,  State  Nor.  Sch,,  Millersville,  Pa. ;  Ph.D.,  Richmond  Coll.,  Ohio. 

1890,  Agent  for  American  Book  Co.,  318  S.  42d  St.,  Philadelphia. 
S.  C.  Schmucker,  A.m.,  '85,  M.Sc,  '90,  Muhlenberg  Coll.,  Pa. ;  Ph.D.,  '93,  Univ.  of  Pa. 

1895,  Professor  of   Biological    Sciences,   State   Normal    School,  610  S.  High   St.,  West 
Chester. 


\ 


Pennsylvania]      LIFE,  ACTIVE,  AND  CORRESPONDING  MEMBERS  T]9 

1892  H.  H.  Spayd. 

1883,  Principal  of  Public  Schools,  Box  310,  Minersvillc. 
J.  Liberty  Tadd. 

1884,  Director  of  Industrial  Art  School,  319  N.  32d  St.,  Philadelphia. 

1893  C.  A.  Babcock,  A.m.,  '77.  LL.B.,  '83,  Hamilton  Coll. 

1883,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  no  Bissell  St.,  Oil  City. 
James  A.  Dewey,  M.E.,  '84,  State  Nor.  Sch.,  Mansfield. 

1890,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Newport  Township,  Wanamie. 
Loyal  Freeman  Hall,  M.E.D.,  '91,  State  Nor.  Sch.,  Indiana,  Pa. 

Principal  of  McKean  St.  and  Springdale  Schools,  125  Lincoln  Ave.,  Butler. 
William  Henry  Samuel,  Ph.D.,  '92,  Univ.  of  Pa. 

1878,  Supervising  Principal  of  Public  Schools,  2505  N.  12th  St.,  Philadelphia. 
Andrew  Thomas  Smith,  Pd.D.,  '93,  School  of  Pedagogy,  Univ.  of  N.  Y. 

1899,  Principal  of  State  Normal  School,  Mansfield. 
Pauline  W.  Sfencer. 

1893,  Teacher  of  Literature,  Girls'  Normal  School,  3421  Race  St.,  Philadelphia. 

1894  Franklin  B.  Sawvel,  A.M.,  Hopedale  Coll.;  Ph.D.,  '86,  Wittenberg  Coll. 

1890,  Professor  of   English  Literature  and  Philosophy,  Thiel   Coll.,  109   Shenango  St., 
Greenville. 
Henry  T.  Spangler,  A.B.,  '73.  A.M..  '76,  Ursinus  Coll. ;  D.D.,  '94,  Heidelberg  Univ.,  O. 

1893,  President  Ursinus  College,  Collegeville. 
Charles  K.  Witmer,  A.B.,  '88,  A.M.,  '91,  Franklin  and  Marshall  Coll. 

1893.  Principal  of  High  School,  Lebanon. 

1895  Arthur  Dan.\  Colegrove,  A.M.,  '84,  Allegheny  Coll. 

1883,  Superintendent  of  City  Schools,  73  Euclid  St.,  Corry, 
W.  G.  Ga.ss. 

1898,  Principal  of  Union  High  School,  Turtle  Creek;   res.  East  Pittsburg. 

James  Mac  Alister,  A.M.,  LL.D.,  Brown  Univ. ;  LL.B.,Un!v.  of  N.  Y. ;  Officier  d'Academie,  Paris. 

1890.  President  of  Drexel  Institute,  Philadelphia, 
Rt.  Rev.  J.  \V.  Shanahan,  D.D. 

Bishop  of  Harrisburg,  Harrisburg. 
Sydney  T.  Skidmore,  A.M.,  '85,  Amherst  Coll. 

1893,  Director  of  Science  Laboratories,  Philadelphia  Normal  School,  1706  N.  i8th  S'., 
Philadelphia. 
H.  M.  Trask. 

Manager  for  Silver,  Burdett  &  Co.,  1328  Arch  St.,  Philadelphia. 

1896  J.  George  Becht,  M.Sc,  Lafayette  Coll. 

1893,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Lycoming  County,  Muncy. 
R.  M.  Cargo. 

1868,  Principal  of  Mt.  Washington  School,  127  Sycamore  St.,  Pittsburg. 
Watson  Cornell.  Ph.D.,  '97,  Univ.  of  Pa 

Supervising  Principal  of  Logan  Grammar  School,  r72s  N.  i6th  St.,  Philadelphia. 
Lemuel  O.  Foose,  A.M.,  '78,  Penn.  Coll.,  Gettysburg. 

1879,  Superintendent  of  City  Schools,  121  Chestnut  St.,  Harrisburg. 
John  Arthur  Gibson,  A.B.,  '91,  Allegheny  Coll. 

1896,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  411  N.Washington  St.,  Butler. 
George  Howell. 

Superintendent  of  Schools,  175  Bromley  Ave.,  Scranton. 
William  Leroy  MacGowan,  A.B.,  Allegheny  Coll.;  Ph.B.  and  Ph.M. 

1890,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  9,  5th  St.,  Warren. 
C.  B.  McCabe. 

Principal  of  North  Braddock  boro  Schools,  1019  Halkett  St.,  Braddock. 
S.  R.  McClure,  A.M.,  '94,  Ph.D.,  '97,  Grove  City  Coll. 

1893,  Principal  of  High  School,  616  Jones  Ave.,  North  Braddock. 
Theodore  B.  Noss,  A.M.,  '82,  Ph.D..  '83,  Syracuse  Univ. 

1883.  Principal  of  State  Normal  School,  California. 
Emma  G.  Olmstead. 

1899,  Principal  of  Training  School,  410  Jefferson  Ave.,  Scranton. 
W.  Riddle. 

Educational  Author,  1314  N.  Line  St.,  Lancaster. 
JuDSON  Perry  Welsh,  A.M.,  '84,  Ph.D.,  '93,  Lafayette  Coll.,  Easton,  Pa. 

1890,  Principal  of  State  Normal  .School,  Bloomsburg.  « 

Margaret  Catharine  Zillafro,  M.E.D.,  State  Nor.  Sch.,  Edinboro. 

1893,  Primary  Teacher,  4th  Ward  Schools,  25  Congress  St.,  Bradford. 

1897  Francis  Burke  Brandt,  A. B.,  '92,  Harvard;  Ph.D.,  '95,  Columbia. 

1896,  Professor  of  Pedagogy,  Central  High  School,  1637  S.  isth  St.,  Philadelphia. 
Clyde  Ernest  Ehinger,  M.D,,'8o,  Chicago  Hom.  Med.  Coll. 

1890,  Physical  Director  and  Instructor  in  Hygiene,  State  Normal  School,  15  Normal  Ave., 
West  Chester. 
The  Free  Library  of  Philadelphia. 

Librarian,  John  Thomson,  1217-1221  Chestnut  St.,  Philadelphia. 
Mary  S.  Garrett. 

1893,  Principal  of  Home  for  the  Training  in  Speech  of  Deaf  Children  before  they  are  of 
School  Age,  Belmont  and  Monument  Aves.,  Philadelphia. 
M.  A.  Grove. 

1897,  Department  of  Commerce,  918  N.  6th  St.,  Harrisburg. 
Henry  Houck. 

Deputy  State  Superintendent,  Harrisburg. 
N.  P.  McNelis. 

Inspector  of  Parochial  Schools,  St.  Bernard's  Church,  Indiana. 
Eu  M.  Rapp. 

1896,  Superintendent  of  Berks  County  Schools,  115  N.  4th  St.,  Hamburg. 
•Statb  Normal  School  at  Millersvillb. 

Principal,  E.  Oram  Lyte,  Millersville. 
State  Normal  School  Library,  Mansfield. 

Principal,  Andrew  Thomas  Smith,  Mansfield. 
E.  W.  Weaver,  B.E.,  St.  Nor.  Sch.,  Millersville,  Pa. 

1899,  Teacher  in  Brooklyn,  N.  Y. ;  res.,  805  Locust  St.,  Columbia. 


78o  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Pennsylvania 

1898  D.  H.  Bergey,  B.Sc,  '84,  M.D.,  '84,  Univ.  of  Pa. ;  A.M..  '94,  III.  Wes.  Univ. 

1895,  First  Assistant,  Laboratory  of  Hygiene,  University  of  Pennsylvania,  34th  and  Loctist 
Sts.,  Philadelphia. 
A.  J.  Davis,  M.Sc,  '85,  Nat.  Nor.  Sch. ;  A.M.,  '87,  Bucknell  Univ. 

1887,  Principal  of  State  Normal  School,  Clarion. 
Franklin  Spenxer  Edmonds,  Ph.B.,  '93,  Univ.  of  Pa. ;  A.M.,  '95,  Cent.  High  Sch. 

1897,  Assistant  Professor  of    Political  Science,  Central  High  School,   1753  N.  33d  St., 
Philadelphia. 
Maurice  Fels,  A.B.,  '83,  Johns  Hopkins  Univ. ;  LL.B.,  "85,  Univ.  of  Pa. 

4615  Springfield  Ave.,  Philadelphia. 
J.  R.  Flickinger,  A.B.,  '77.  A.M.,  '80,  Princeton;  D.Sc,  1900,  Bucknell  Coll. 

1900,  Principal  of  State  Central  Normal  School,  Lock  Haven. 
H.  W.  Golden,  B.Didac,  '90,  M.Didac,  '92,  Edinboro  State  Nor. 

1897,  Principal  of  sth  Ward  Public  Schools,  Allegheny  City ;  8  Dawson  Ave.,  Belleviie. 
Samuel  Hamilton,  A.M.,  Ph.D.,  1900,  Grove  City  Coll. 

1887,  Superintendent  of  County  Schools,  Braddock. 
Keystone  Literary  Socikts-  of  the  Keystone  State  Normal  School. 

Kutztown. 
John  W.  Lansinger. 

State  Normal  School,  Millersville. 
William  A.  Mason. 

1892,  Director  of  Drawing  in  Schools  of  Philadelphia,  212  W.  Chelton  Ave.,  German - 

town. 
Jesse  H.  Michener,  Ph.D.,  Univ.  of  Pa. 

Principal  of  Grammar  School,  4512  Regent  St.,  Philadelphia. 
Rev.  Eugene  Murphy. 

Director  of  St.  John    the    Baptist   Parochial  School,  146  Rector  St.,  Manayunk, 
Philadelphia. 
William  Noetling,  A  M.,  '59,  Union  Coll.,  Schenectady,  N.  Y. 

Selimsgrove. 
Mary  Craig  Pe.\cock. 

1894,  Teacher  in  Normal  School,  Torresdale,  Philadelphia. 
Philomathean  Literary  Society,  Keystone  State  Normal  School. 

Kutztown. 
R.  H.  Pratt,  Major  of  loth  Cavalry,  U.  S.  A. ;  LL.D.,  '98,  Dickinson  Coll. 

1879,  Superintendent  of  Indian  Industrial  School,  Carlisle. 
Margaret  S.  Prichard. 

Head  of  Department  of  Psychology,  Normal  School,  Philadelphia. 
Elizabeth  S.  Tait. 

Teacher  in  Normal  School,  342  S.  i8th  St.,  Philadelphia. 
University-  of  Pennsylvania,  Library. 

Provost,  Charles  C.  Harrison,  LL.D.;    Librarian,  Morris  Jastrow,  Jr.,  Philadel- 
phia. 
Edward  Weldon. 

1898,  Member  of  Board  of  Education,  117  Church  St.,  Bethlehem. 
Lightner  Witmer,  Ph.D.,  '91,  Leipzig,  Germany. 

1893,  Professor  of  Psychology,  University  of  Pennsylvania,  Philadelphia. 

1899  Edward  E.  Allen,  A.B.,  '84,  Harvard. 

1890,  Principal  of  Pennsylvania  Institution  for  the  Instruction  of  the  Blind,  Overbrook. 
Altoona  Mechanics'  Library  and  Reading  Room  Association. 

Charles  B.  Dudley,  Chairman  Library  Committee,  Altoona. 
J.  P.  Archibald,  B.E.,  '93,  M.E.,  '95,  State  Nor.  Sch.,  Indiana,  Pa. ;   A.M.,  '99,  M.Sc,  1900,  Mt. 
Hope  Coll. 

1899,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Walnut  St.,  Blairsville. 
Brvn  Mawr  College. 

President,  Miss  M.  Carey  Thomas ;  Librarian,  Isabel  Ely  Lord,  Bryn  Mawr. 
Carnegie  Library  of  Pittsburg. 

Librarian,  Edwin  H.  Anderson,  Schenley  Park,  Pittsburg. 
Dickinson  College. 

President,  George  Edward  Reed,  LL.D.,  Carlisle. 
George  D.  Gideon. 

Publisher,  17  N.  7th  St.,  Philadelphte. 
Indiana  Normal  School  of  Pennsylvania. 

Principal,  D.  J.  Waller,  Jr.,  D.D. ;  Librarian,  Albert  F.  Carter,  Indiana. 
Lehigh  University. 

President,  Thomas  M.  Drown,  LL.D. :  Librarian,  Dr.  W.  H.  Chandler,  South  Beth- 
lehem. 
Benjamin  Wiestling  Mitchell,  A.B.,  '83,  A.M.,  '86,  Princeton  ;  Ph.D.,  '88,  Washington- Jefferson. 
1867,  Professor  of  Latin  and  Head  of  Department  of  Ancient  and   Modern   Languages, 
Central  High  School,  4326  Pine  St.,  Philadelphia. 
Henry  C.  Pearson,  A.B.,  '92,  Harvard. 

Principal  of  the  Allegheny  Preparatory  School,  820  Lincoln  Ave.,  Allegheny. 
James  H.  Penniman,  A.B.,  '84,  Yale. 

1886,  De  Lancey  School,  4326  Sansora  St.,  Philadelphia. 
Scranton  Public  Library. 

Librarian,  Henry  J.  Carr,  Scranton. 
Joseph  R.  Smith,  Colonel  U.  S.  A. ;  M.D.,  '53,  Univ.  of  Buffalo;  A.M.,  '51,  Univ.  of  Mich. 

2300  De  Lancey  St.,  Philadelphia. 
State  Normal  School. 

Principal,  Theodore  B.  Noss,  California. 
M.  B.  Wicks. 

1872,  Teacher  in  Eastburn  Academy,  700  N.  Broad  St.,  Philadelphia. 
Mrs.  L.  L.  W.  Wilson,  Ph.D.,  '97,  Univ.  of  Pa. 

1893,  Head  of  Department  of  Biology.  Normal  School,  640  N.  32d  St.,  Philadelphia. 

1900  O.  H.  Bakeless,  M.E.,  '79,  Bloomsburg  State  Nor.  Sch. ;  A.M.,  '93,  Lafayette  Coll. 

1893,  Principal,  Indian  Training  School,  Carlisle. 
Weston  D.  Baylev,  M.D.,  '88,  Hahnemann  Med.  Coll. 

Lecturer  on  Nervous  and  Mental  Diseases,  1438  Poplar  St.,  Philadelphia. 


South  Carolina]    LIFE,  ACTIVE,  AND  CORRESPONDING  MEMBERS  781 

PENNSYLVANIA  —  Continued 

1900      F.  W.  Booth.  B.Sc,  '77,  Iowa  Agri.  Coll. 

1899,  General  Secretary,  American  Association  to  Promote  the  Teaching  of  Speech  to  the 
Deaf,  7342  Rural  Lane,  Mt.  Airy,  Philadelphia. 
•        A.  L.  E.  Crolter,  A.m.,  '85,  LL.D.,  '93. 


Superintendent,  Pennsylvania  Institute  for  the  Deaf  and  Dumb,  7406  Germantown 
"-"hiladelph 
Cheesman  a.  Herrick,  Ph.D.,  '99,  Univ.  of  Pa. 


Ave.,  Mt.  Airy,  Philadelphia. 


Professor  of  History,  Central  High  School,  Broad  and  Green  Sts.,  Philadelphia. 
Mary  Hunter  Mayer. 

1897,  Principal,  Girls'  High  School,  141  N.  sth  St.,  Reading. 
Rev.  p.  R.  McDevitt. 

Superintendent  of  Philadelphia  Parochial  Schools,  21  S.  13th  St.,  Philadelphia. 
Pedagogical  Library  of  Superintendent  of  Schools. 

Superintendent,  Dr.  Edwaid  R.  Brooks,  696  City  Hall,  Philadelphia, 
Pennsylvania  State  College. 

President,  George  W.  Atherton,  State  College. 
James  Lane  Pennypacker,  A.B.,  '80,  Harvard  Coll. 

Member  of  Christopher  Sowei  Co.,  Edu.  Publishers,  614  Arch  St.,  Philadelphia, 
Grace  E.  Spiegle,  M.D.,  '98. 

1893,  Head  of  Department  of  Physical  Training,  Normal  School,  Philadelphia. 

RHODE  ISLAND 

LIFE  director 

i88a      Thomas  W.   Bicknell,  A.M.,  '60,  Brown  Univ. ;    '78,  Amherst  Coll. ;    LL.D.,  '84,  Drury  Coll. 
Author,  Editor,  and  Publisher,  49  Westminster  Ave.,  Providence. 

active  members 

1891  Thomas  B.  Stockwell,  A.M.,  '65,  Brown  Univ. 

187s,  Commissioner  of  Public  Schools,  Box  1432,  Providence. 
Horace  S.  Tarbell,  A.M.,  '62,  Wesleyan  Univ. ;  LL.D.,  '96,  Brown  Univ. 
1884,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  141  Governor  St.,  Providence. 

1892  Benjamin  Baker,  A.M.,  '78,  Brown  Univ. 

343  Thayer  St.,  Providence. 
George  E.  Church,  A.B.,  '72,  A.M.,  '78,  Amherst  Coll. 

1889,  Principal  of  Peace  Street  Grammar  School,  43  Adelaide  Ave.,  Providence. 
1894     Walter  Ballou  Jacobs,  A.M.,  '85,  Brown  Univ. 

189s,  Associate  Professor  of  Pedagogy,  Brown  University,  310  Olney  St.,  Providence. 
Abby  L.  Marlatt,  B.Sc,  '88,  M.Sc,  '90,  State  Agri.  Coll.,  Kan. 

1894,  Teacher  of    Domestic   Science,  Manual   Training   High  School,  261   Benefit  St., 

Providence. 

1896  Victor  Frazee,  A.B.,  '89,  Dalhousie  Coll.,  Halifax,  N.  S. 

1893,  Teacher  in  Hope  Street  High  School,  82  Larch  St.,  Providence. 
Henry  Dwight  Hekvey,  A.B.,  '89,  A.M.,  '96,  Denison  Univ.,  Granville,  O. 

1898,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  80  Lyon  St.,  Pawtucket. 
Ellen  Lb  Garde. 

1893,  Physical  Director  of  Schools,  10  Mawney  St.,  Providence. 
Mrs.  Ella  M.  Pierce. 

1891,  Supervisor  of  Primary  Schools,  19  Lester  St.,  Providence. 
Bessie  M.  Scholfield. 

Supervisor  of  Primary  Work  in  Public  Schools,  190  Knight  St.,  Providence. 
W.  R.  Whittle,  A.B.,  '83,  A.M.,  '88,  Colby  Univ. 

i'89i.  Principal  of  Schools,  56  Elm  St.,  Westerly. 

1897  Rhode  Island  Normal  School. 

Principal,  Fred  Gowing,  Providence. 

1898  David  Webster  Hovt,  A.M..  '72,  Brown  ;  '61,  Middlebury. 

1864,  Principal  of  English  High  School,  40  Humboldt  Ave.,  Providence. 
Leonard  Worcester  Williams,  A.B.,  '95,  Hanover  Coll. ;  A.M.,  '99,  Princeton  Univ. 
1900,  Graduate  Student,  Brown  University,  172  Prospect  St.,  Providence. 

1899  Sarah  Dyer  Barnes. 

Supervisor  of  Grammar  Schools,  Providence  ;  res.,  Manton, 
Harris  Institute  Library. 

Librarian,  Anna  H.  Ward,  Woonsocket. 

SOUTH  CAROLINA 

LIFE  member 

1891     Martha  Schofield. 

x868,  Founder  of  Schofield  Normal  and  Industrial  School  for  Colored  Youth,*Aiken. 

active  members 

189s     WiNTHROP  Normal  and  Industrial  College. 

President,  D.  B.  Johnson.  Rock  Hill. 

1896  E.  S.  Dreher,  A.M.,  '93,  Roanoke  Coll.,  Salem,  Va. 

1895,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Columbia. 
W.  H.  Hand. 

1893,  Superintendent  of  City  Schools,  Chester. 

1897  C.  A.  Graeser,  A.m.,  '90,  Charleston  Coll. 

1898,  Professor  of  Modern  Languages,  High  School,  6  Glebe  St.,  Charleston. 

1898  J.  Frank  Fooshe,  A.M.,  "^3,  Wofford  Coll.,  Spartanburg. 

Editor  "Carolina  Teachers'  Journal,"  WInnsboro. 


78?  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [South  Dakota 

SOUTH  CAROLINA— Co«/»«?/^rf 

1898  John  S.  Marquis,  A.B.,  '76,  A.M.,  '93,  Lafayette  Coll.,  Easton,  Pa. 

1892,  Principal  of  Brainerd  Institute,  Box  235,  Chester. 

1899  Henry  P.  Archer,  A.M.,  '59,  College  of  Charleston. 

1885,  Superintendent  of  Instruction,  74  Rutledge  Ave.,  Charleston. 
John  J.  McMahan,  A.B.,  '86,  A.M.,  '88,  South  Carolina  Coll. 

1899,  State  Superintendent  of  Education,  1118  Senate  St.,  Columbia. 
A,  P.  Montague,  A.M.,  LL.D. 

President  of  Furman  University,  Greenville. 
W.  K.  Tate,  A.B.,  '92.  Univ  of  Nashville. 

1898,  Principal  of  Memminger  Normal  School,  131  Coming  St.,  Charleston. 
W.  B.  Wilson. 

Charleston. 
Franklin  Cowles  Woodward,  A.M.,  '74,  Randolph  Macon  Coll.;  Lit.U.,  Univ.  of  N.  Car. 
President  of  South  Carolina  College,  Columbia. 

1900  J.  T.  Coleman. 

1896,  Professor  of  Physics,  South  Carolina  Military  Academy,  The  Citadel,  Charleston. 
Virgil  C.  Dibble.  Jr.,  A.B.,  '95,  Coll.  of  Charleston. 

Teacher  of  English  and  Physics,  High  School,  76  Wentworth  St.,  Charleston. 
Mrs.  Marion  Churchill  Dudley. 

Mills  House,  Charleston. 
R.  Ferdinand  Gilliam,  A.B.,  '96,  Stanford  Univ. 

1897,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Abbeville. 
Evelyn  Holmes. 

1896,  Director,  South  Carolina  Kindergarten  Association  Training  School,  141  Rutledge 
Ave.,  Charleston. 
Morrison  A.  Holmes. 

1887,  Principal,  Avery  Normal  Institute,  157  Bull  St.,  Charleston. 
Jennie  Jaques. 

Teacher  in  Public  Schools,  61  Society  St.,  Charleston. 
Graves  L.  Knight. 

Member.  State  Board  of  Education,  Graniteville. 
W.  Zach  McGhee,  A.m.,  1900,  S.  C.  Coll. ;  Grad.,  S.  C.  Mil.  Acad. 

1899,  Clerk  in  State  Department  of  Education,  Capitol,  Columbia. 
John  Ogren. 

Member,  Board  of  Education,  529  King  St.,  Charleston. 
Clarence  J.  Owens,  A.M.,  Columbian  Univ.  " 

1895,  President,  Orangeburg  College,  cor.  Broughton  and  Glover  Sts.,  Orangeburg. 
E.  Emmet  Reid,  A.M.,  '92,  Richmond  Coll. ;  Ph.D.,  '98,  Johns  Hopkins  Univ. 

1898,  Professor  of  Chemistry,  College  of  Charleston,  Charleston. 
A.  L.  Stokes. 

1900,  Principal,  Richmond  Business  College,  399  King  St.,  Charleston. 
H.  A.  C.  Walker,  A.B.,  '97,  Wofford  Coll.,  S.  C. 

1899,  Principal,  Graded  School,  Summerton. 
Patterson  Wardlaw,  A.B.,  Erskine  Coll. 

1894,  Professor  of  Pedagogy,  South  Carolina  College,  831  Sumter  St.,  Columbia. 

SOUTH  DAKOTA 

active  members 
1875      Fayette  L.  Cook. 

President  of  South  Dakota  State  Normal  School,  Spearfish. 
1890     William  H.  H.  Beadle,  A.B.,  '61,  A.M.,  '64,  LL.B.,  '67,  Univ.  of  Mich. 
1889   President  of  State  Normal  School,  Madison. 

1893  A.  Wellington  Norton,  A.B.,  '73,  A.M.,  '76,  LL.D.,  1900,  Univ.  of  Rochester. 

1899,  President  of  Sioux  Falls  College,  Sioux  Falls. 

1894  Mattie  Jones. 

1896,  Teacher  in  Indian  Industrial  School,  Flandreau. 
Kate  Taubman,  B.Didac,  Iowa  State  Nor.  Sch. 

1900,  Teacher  in  High  School,  Deadwood. 

1895  Frank  Ckane,  A.M..  Gale  Coll. 

Watertown. 
Anna  B,  Herrig,  Grad.,  Oswego  Normal  School,  N.  Y. 

1898,  Superintendent,  Training  Department,  State  Normal  School,  Madison. 
George  M.  Smith,  A.B.,  '73,  A.M.,  '77,  Colby  Univ. 

1899,  Professor  of  Modern  Languages,  Literature,  and  Pedagogy,  University  of   South 

Dakota,  Vermillion. 
Edmund  J.  Vert,  Pd.D.,  '94,  Ph.B.,  '96,  Ph.D.,  '98. 

1895,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  502  Lynn  St.,  Yankton. 

1896  A.  H.  Avery. 

1894,  Principal  of  Public  Schools,  Woonsocket. 

1897  Alexander  Strachan,  A.M.,  '82,  Univ.  of  Rochester. 

1890,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  71  Forest  Ave.,  Deadwood. 

1899  E.  E.  Collins, 

Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  Vermillion. 
William  W.  Girton,  Grad.,  '74,  State  Nor.  Sch.,  Platteville,  Wis. 

1896,  Professor  of  Civics,  Geography,  Geology,  and  Astronomy,  State   Normal    School, 

Washington  Ave.,  Madison. 
Ida  p.  Hatch. 

1896,  ex-Superintendent  of  City  Schools,  Pierre. 
G.  L.  PiGG,  A.B.,  '73,  Berea  Coll.,  Ky. 

Superintendent  of  Government  Indian  School,  Crow  Creek. 
South  Dakota  Agricultural  College. 

President,  J.  W.  Heston,  Brookings. 

1900  Woodford  D.  Anderson. 

1896,  Director  of  Commerce,  University  of  South  Dakota,  Vermillion. 


Texas]  LIFE,  ACTIVE,  AND  CORRESPONDING  MEMBERS  783 

TENNESSEE 

LIFE   DIRECTORS 

1886      William  Robertson  Gakkett,  A.M.,  '57,  William  and  Mary  Coll. ;  Ph.D.,  '91,  Univ.  of  Nashville. 
1895,  Professor  of  American  History,  Peabody  Nor.  Coll.,  920  S.  Summer  St.,  Nashville. 
I      Board  of  Education  of  Nashville. 

President,  J.  L.  Weakley;  Superintendent,  H.  C.  Weber,  Nashville. 

LIFE   MEMBER 

Clara  Conwav,  A.M.,  '88,  Peabody  Nor.  Coll. 

Founder  and  Organizer  of  Clara  Conway  Institute,  Memphis,  Tenn. ;  Nashville. 

ACTIVE    members 

I      W.  T.  White.  A. B., '77,  A.M., '93,  Univ.  of  Tenn. 

1881;,  Principal  of  Girls'  High  School,  508  Broad  St..  Knoxville. 
1892      William  H.  Payne,  LL.D.,  Univ.  of  Mich. ;  Ph.D.,  Univ.  of  Nashville. 

Chancellor  of  University  of  Nashville  and  President  of  Peabody  Normal  College,  16 
Lindsley  Ave.,  Nashville. 
1894      A.  T.  B.VRRETT,  LL.D.,  '81,  S.  W.  Univ. 

1891,  Superintendent  of  City  Schools,  looi  E.  gth  St.,  Chattanooga. 
Richard  Jones,  A.M.,  '81,  Iowa  Coll.;  Ph.D.,  '93,  Heidelberg,  Germany. 

1898,  Professor  of  Literature,  Vanderbilt  University,  Nashville. 

1896  James  A.  Henry,  A.B.,  '83,  Atlanta  Univ. 

1886,  Principal  of  High  School,  207  Gro:^  St.,  Chattanooga. 

1897  J.  H.  McCallie,  B.Sc,  Grant  Univ. 

Superintendent  of  Schools,  233  Deaderick  St ,  Knoxville. 
H.C.Weber. 

1897,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  cor.  Broad  and  Spruce  Sts.,  Nashville. 
"_'!     William  Riley  Payne. 

1892,  Secretary  and  Treasurer  of  Peabody  Normal  College ;    1895,  Secretary,  Board  of 

Education,  City  of  Nashville,  16  Lindsley  Ave.,  Nashville. 

1899  Charles  W.m.  Dabney,  A.B.,  Hampden -Sidney;  Ph.D.,  Gottingen. 

1887,  President  of  University  of  Tennessee,  Knoxville. 
M.  M.  Ross. 

1886,  Principal  of  Grammar  School,  523  Stevenson  Ave.,  Nashville. 
Ward  Seminary  for  Young  Ladies. 

President,  J.  D.  Blanton,  Nashville. 

1900  James  N.  Anderson,  A.M.,  '87,  Univ.  of  Va. ;  Ph.D.,  "94,  Johns  Hopkins  Univ. 

1900,  Instructor  in  Latin,  Vanderbilt  Univer.sity,  1006  Lamar  St.,  Nashville. 
Mrs.  E.  G.  Buford. 

1885,  President  of  "The  Academy,"  829  Madison  St  ,  Clarksville. 
R.  J.  Dearborn,  Grad.,  Ind.  State  Nor.  Sch. 

Superintendent  of  City  Schools,  La  FoUette. 
Rev,  J.  L.  Dickens,  A.B.,  '79,  Bethel  Coll. ;  A.M.,  '85,  McKendree  Coll. ;  Ph.D.,  '87,  Cumberland 
Univ.;  LL.D..  '91,  Butler  Univ. ;  D.D.,  "99,  Florence  Coll. 
Kenton. 
Dora  Johnson,  A.B.,  '91,  Vanderbilt  Univ. ;  A.M.,  1900,  Univ.  of  Chicago. 

351  Springdale  Ave.,  Memphis. 
Israel  H.  Peres.  A.B.,  '89,  A.M.,  'gg,  LL.B.,  '91,  Yale. 

Member,  Board  of  Education,  42  Equitable  Building,  Memphis. 
J. M.  Steen. 

Member  of  School  Board.  326  Rayburn  Ave.,  Memphis. 
R.  Brewster  Taggart,  A.M.,  Westminster  Coll.,  Pa.;  Ph.D.,  American  Temperance  Univ.,  Tenn. 

1900,  Principal  of  the  Taggart  School,  629  Cumberland  St.,  Harriman. 
Mrs.  Lvde  P.  Thomas. 

Superintendent  of  Shelby  County  Schools,  Courthouse,  Memphis. 

TEXAS 

ACTIVE  MEMBERS 

1874      Alexander  Hogg,  A.M. ,'57.  Randolph- Macon  Coll. ;  '74.  William  and  Mary  Coll. ;  '89,  Univ.  of  Ala. 

1900,  Editor  of  "  Texas  and  Pacific  Quarterly,"  303  Lamar  St.,  Fort  Worth. 
1892      H.  C.  Pritchett.  A.m.,  '78,  Pritchett  Institute,  Glasgow,  Mo. 

1891,  Principal  of  Sam.  Houston  Normal  Institute,  Huntsville. 

1894  Oscar  Henry  Cooper,  A.B.,  '72,  Yale;  A.M.,  LL.D.,  '91,  Univ.  of  Nashville. 

1899,  President  of  Baylor  University,  1435  S.  8th  St.,  Waco. 
A.  H.  Wilkins. 

Representative  of  American  Book  Co.,  418  Main  St.,  Dallas. 

1895  ■   David  Shires  Bodenhamer. 

1885,  Professor  of  Mathematics,  Trinity  University,  Tehuacana. 
James  M.  Carlisle,  A.B.,  '98,  Cumberland  Univ. ;  A.M.,  '78,  Emory  Coll.,  Ga. ;  LL.D.,  "98,  Univ. 
of  Nashville. 

Ex-State  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  Austin. 
J.  M.  Fendley,  A.B.,  '82,  Univ.  of  Nashville. 

1885,  County  Superintendent    and    Principal  of    .Avenue    L    School,   3202   Avenue    N, 
Galveston. 
T.  G.  Harris,  A.B.,  '76,  A.M.,  '80,  Carson  Coll.,  Tenn. 

1895,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Austin. 
W.  S.  Sutton.  A.B.,  '78,  A.M.,  '84,  Univ.  of  Ark. 

1897,  Professor  of  Pedagogy,  University  of  Texas,  1812  Congress  Ave.,  Austin. 

1896  J.  L.  Long, 

1893,  Superintendent  of  City  Schools,  High  Schools,  Dallas. 

1897  Charles  T.  Alexander. 

1900,  Southern  Manager,  Maynard,  Merrill  &  Co.,  1122  Columbus  St.,  Waco, 
N.  J.  Clancy,  Grad.,  State  Nor.  Sch. 

Superintendent  of  Schools,  Mansfield. 


784  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Virginia 

TEXAS— Co«//«?<frf 

1897  C.  E.  Foster,  B.Sc,  E.  Tex.  Nor. 

1898,  Principal  of  Public  Schools,  Handley. 

1898  J.  K.  McBkide,  L.I.,  Peabody  Nor.  Coll. ;  A.B.,  '93,  Univ.  of  Nashville. 

1900,  Principal  of  Wieland  Public  School,  Lone  Oak. 
R.  E.  Miller,  A.B.,  Nat.  Nor.  Univ. 

1898,  Principal  of  High  School,  Lafayette. 
Univeksity  of  Texas. 

President,  William  L.  Prather;  Librarian,  Benjamin  Wyche,  Austin, 

1899  J.  E.  Smith. 

1885,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  City  Hall,  San  Antonio. 

1900  F.  A,  Mood,  A.M.,  '84,  S.  W.  Univ.,  Georgetown,  Tex. 

1889,  President,  Alexander  Institute,  Kiljjore. 

UTAH 

active  members 
1894     Frank  B.  Cooper. 

1899^  Superintendent  of  City  Schools,  1145  E.  6th  South  St.,  Salt  Lake  City. 
189s     William  Jasper  Kerr,  B.Sc  ,  D.Sc. 

1900,  President  of  Agricultural  College  of  Utah,  Logan. 
University  cf  Utah. 

President,  J.  T.  Kingsbury ;  Librarian^  George  Quincy  Coray,  Salt  Lake  City. 

1897  A.  O.  Clark. 

Principal  of  High  School,  1059,  3d  St.,  Salt  Lake  City. 

1898  Brigham  Young  College. 

President, ,  Logan. 

1899  J.  L.  Bkown,  B.Pd,,  B.Sc,  '97,  Univ.  of  Mich. 

1897,  Superintendent  of  Public  Schools,  Utah  Co.,  Pleasant  Grove. 
Susan  G.  Stokes,  B.Sc,  '96,  Stanford  Univ. 

1896,  Instructor  in  Biology,  High  School,  Salt  Lake  City. 

VERMONT 

life  member 

1889      Edmund  Wentworth  Wright,  A.B.,  '66,  A.M.,  '69,  Harvard  Coll. 
Teachers'  Examiner,  Lunenburg. 

active  members 

1894      Mason  S.  Stone,  A.B.,  '83,  Univ.  of  Vt. 

Ex -State  Superintendent  of  Education,  Montpelier. 

1898  John  L.  Alger,  A.B.,  '90,  A.M.,  '95,  Brown  Univ. 

1900,  Principal  of  State  Normal  School,  Johnson. 

1899  David  Young  Comstock,  A.B.,  '73,  A.M.,  '76,  Amherst  Coll. 

Principal  of  St.  Johnsbury  Academy,  i  Main  St.,  St.  Johnsbury. 
Walter  E.  Ranger,  A.B.,  ;79,  A.M.,  '83,  Bates  Coll. 

1900,  State  Superintendent  of  Education,  Montpelier. 
Isaac  Thomas,  A.B.,  '81,  A.M.,  '84,  Yale. 

1898,  Principal  of  High  School,  8  Wilson  St.,  Burlington. 

1900  Amy  M.  Burt,  Ph.B.,  igoo,  Univ.  of  Vt. 

1900,  Assistant  in  High  School,  Brown  Ave.,  St.  Albans. 
Willard  a.  Frasier. 

1897,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  138  Church  St.,  Rutland. 

VIRGINIA 

active  members 

1889     George  J.  Ramsev,  A.M.,  '80,  Hampden  Sidney  Coll.,  Va. ;  LL.D.,  '98,  Southwestern  Univ. 

1900,  Editor-in-Chief,  B.  F.  Johnson  Publishing  Co.,  905  Main  St.,  Richmond. 
1894      John  H.  Bader,  A.B.,  '85,  Washington  and  Lee  Univ. 

1893,  Superintendent  of  Public  Schools,  Staunton. 
William  F.  Fox,  A.M.,  '58,  Richmond  Coll. 

1889,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  City  Hall,  Richmond. 
E.  C.  Glass. 

1893,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  622  Madison  St.,  Lynchburg. 
Maximilian  P.  E.  Groszmann,  Pd.D.,  '93,  New  York  Univ. 

1900,  Director  of  Groszmann  School  for   Exceptional  Children   and   Principal   of   High 
School,  Comenius  Grove,  Vareo. 

1896  Albert  H.  Tu'iTLE,  B.Sc, '68,  M.Sc,  7T,  State  Coll.  of  Pa. 

1888,  Professor  of  Biology,  University  of  Virginia,  i  West  Lawn,  Charlottesville. 

1897  Celestia  S.  Parrish,  Ph.B.,  '96,  Cornell  Univ. 

1893,  Professor  of  Philosophy  in  Randolph  Macon  Woman's  College,  Lynchburg. 
George  C.  Shepard. 

1899,  Principal  of  Fairfax  Hall,  112  Market  St.,  Winchester. 

1898  Maurice  M.  Lynch. 

1886,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Frederick  Co.,  12  Rouss  Ave.,  Winchester. 
Joseph  W.  Soitthall. 

State  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction.  Richmond. 
r899      Charles  Bartleit  Dyke,  A.B.,  '98,  Stanford  Univ. ;  A.M.,  '99,  Columbia  Univ. 

1899,  Professor  of  Education,  Hampton  Institute,  Hampton. 

Edward  Bell  Fishburne,  Jr.,  Grad.,'93,  S.  C  Mil.  Acad.;  Ph.B.,  A.M.,  '98,  State  Univ.,  111. 

1900,  President,  Hoge  Memorial  Military  Academy,  Blackstone. 
Hampton  Normal  and  Agricultural  Institute. 

President,  Rev.  H.  B.  Frissel!,  D.D.;  Librarian,  Miss  L.  E.  Herron,  Hampton. 
N.  C.  Starke,  Grad.,  '89,  Va.  Military  Inst. 

Principal  of  the  "  The  Virginia  High  School,''  Farmville. 


West  Virginia]     LIFE,  ACTIVE,  AND  CORRESPONDING  MEMBERS  785 

VIRGINIA—  Continued 

1899  State  Female  Normal  School. 

President,  Robert  Frazer,  Farmville. 

1900  Rev.  H.  B.  Frissell,  D.D.,  1900,  Harvard. 

i393,  Principal  Hampton  Institute,  Hampton. 
W.  H.  Keister. 

Principal  of  High  School,  Harrisonburg, 

WASHINGTON 

LIFE  MEMBERS  ' 

1886     J.  H.  Miller. 

1900,  Principal,  State  Normal  School,  Cheney. 
1891     John  Hull,  A.M.,  '76,  111.  W.  Univ.  * 

President  of  the  Reveille  Publishing  Co.,  New  Whatcom. 

ACTIVE  MEMBERS 

1890  William  E.  Wilson,  A.M.,  '75,  Monmouth  Coll.,  111. 

1898,  Principal  of  Washington  State  Normal  School,  Ellensburg. 

1891  Frank  J.  Barnard. 

1890,  Superintendent  of  City  Schools,  Box  85,  Seattle. 

1895  J.  T.  Forrest,  Ph.B,  '83,  Central  Univ.  of  Iowa. 

1899,  Department  of  Mathematics,  State  Normal  School,  586  Gardner  St.,  New  Whatcom. 

1896  Reuben  S.  Bingham,  A.B.,  A.M.,  Hamilton  Coll. 

1896,  Superintendent  of  City  Schools,  616  Tacoma  Ave.,  Tacoma. 
Charles  Francis  Reeves,  B.Sc,  '78,  M.Sc,  '81,  Pa.  State  Coll. 

1894,  Professor  of  German,  and  1898,  Dean  of  College  of  Liberal  Arts,  University  of  Wash- 

ington, Seattle;  res.,  Latona. 
J.  F.  Savlor,  B.Sc,  '82,  Iowa  Agri.  Coll. 

Superintendent  of  City  Schools,  High  School,  Spokane. 

1897  Washington  State  Normal  School. 

Principal,  W.  E.  Wilson,  Ellensburg. 

1898  Geokge  Lancaster,  Ph.B.,  Wesleyan  Univ.,  111. 

1899,  Instructor  in  Mathematics  in  High  School,  Everett. 
University  of  Washington. 

President,  Frank  P.  Graves,  Ph.D.,  LL.D. ;  Librarian,  H.  C.  Coffman,  Seattle. 
O.  C.  Whitney,  B.L.,  '96,  Puget  Sound  Univ. 

189s,  Principal  of  Bryant  School,  704  S.  I  St.,  Tacoma. 

1899  F.  F.  Avery. 

Superintendent,  Fort  Spokane  Indian  Boarding  School,  Miles. 
Mary  A.  Grupe. 

1897,  Principal  of  Training  Department,  Drawing,  State  Normal  School,  Ellensburg. 
J.  H.  Morgan,  A.M.,  '79,  Furman  Univ. 

1893,  Vice -Principal  of  State  Normal  School,  Ellensburg. 
Ernest  Riste. 

1900,  Principal  of  Schools,  Medical  Lake. 
Charles  S.  Tilton. 

1899,  Principal  of  City  School,  Fall  City. 
Jessie  B.  Wilcox. 

1898,  History  and  Training,  State  Normal  School,  Ellensburg. 

1900  New  Whatcom  State  Normal  School, 

Principal,  E.  T.  Mathes,  597  High  St.,  New  Whatcom. 

WEST  VIRGINIA 

LIFE  DIRECTOR 

1877     T.  Marcelll'S  Marshall. 
Glcnville. 

life  member  ^ 

1870     William  H.  Cole,  A.B.,  A.M.,  Ohio  Wesleyan  Univ. 

1898,  Superintendent  of  Public  Schools,  Hotel  Adelphi,  Huntington. 

ACTIVE  members 

1890  W.  H.  Anderson,  A.M.,  '89,  Bethany  Coll. 

1885,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  45,  14th  St.,  Wheeling. 

1891  J.  Walter  Barnes,  A.M.,  West  Virginia  Univ. 

1892,  Principal  of  State  Normal  School,  Fairmont. 

Bvrd  Prillerman,  B.Sc,  '89,  Knoxville  Coll. ;  A.M.,  '94  Westminster  Coll. 

1895,  Professor  of  English  Language,  West  Virginia  Colored  Institute,  Institute. 

1894  Robert  A.  Armstrong,  A.M., '90,  West  Virginia  Univ. 

1893,  Professor  of  English  Literature,  and,  1897,  Vice-President,  West  Virginia  Univer- 

sity, Morgantown. 

1895  D.  M.  Willis. 

Principal  of  Commercial  Department,  West  Virginia  University,  Morgantown. 

1896  J.  N.  Deahl,  A.B.,  '93,  Harvard;  A.M.,  '99,  Columbia  Univ. 

Claude,  Taylor  Co. 
Lucy  Robinson. 

Supervisor  of  Music,  112  S.  Front  St.,  Wheeling. 

1897  J.  R.  Trotter,  A.B.,  '90,  A.M.,  '96,  Harvard. 

State  Superintendent  of  Free  Schools,  Charleston. 

1898  Charles  H.  Cole,  A.B.,  '82,  A.M.,  '97,  Univ.  of  Mich. 

1897,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  119  North  Raleigh  St.,  Martinsburg. 

1899  Jerome  Hall  Raymond,  A.B..  '92,  A.M.,  '93,  Northwestern  Univ. ;  Ph.D.,  '95,  Univ.  of  Chicago. 

1897,  President  of  West  Virginia  University,  Morgantown. 
West  Virginia  University. 

President,  Jerome  H.  Raymond;  Librarian,  Eliza  J.  Skinner,  Morgantown, 
J900     W.  C.  Miller,  B.L., '93,  Univ.  of  Nashville. 

Teacher  of  Science,  State  Normal  School.  Fairmont. 


786  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Wisconsin 

WISCONSIN 

life  members  • 

1884     Alumni  Association,  State  Normal  School  at  Milwaukee. 

President,  Herbert  E.  Bolton,  Normal  School,  Milwaukee. 
Athen.^um  Societv  of  State  Normal  School  at  Platteville. 

Librarian,  Miss  B.  A.  Gardner,  Platteville. 
John  Arthur  Aylward,  B.A.,  '84;  B.L.  (Law),  '90,  Univ.  of  Wis. 

Vilas  Block,  Madison. 
George  Beck,  M.Sc,  '63,  Univ.  of  Mich. 

514  N.  Elm  St.,  Platteville. 
Beloit  City  School  Board. 

President  and  Superintendent,  F.  E.  Converse;  Clerk,  A.  N.  Bort,  Beloit. 
Board  of  Education  of  the  City  of  Janesville. 

President,  W.  S.  Jeffries;  Clerk,  S.  C.  Burnham,  Janesville. 
Board  of  Education,  La  Crosse, 

President,  J.  J.  Fruit;  Superintendent,  John  P.  Bird,  La  Crosse. 
Board  of  Education,  Oshkosh. 

President,  Dr.  Harvey  B.  Dale;  Clerk,  Dan  Witzel,  Oshkosh. 
Board  of  Regents,  State  Normal  Schools. 

President,  Frank  A.  Ross,  West  Superior;  Secretary,  S.  S.  Rockwood,  Madison. 
Board  of  School  Directors,  Milwaukee. 

President,  G.  W.  Augustyn,  636^^,  nth  St. ;  Secretary,  Henry  E.  Legler,  City  Hall, 
Milwaukee. 
City  Superintendents'  and  Supervising  Principals'  Association  of  Wisconsin. 

President,  H.  L.  Terry,  Waukesha. 
Jairus  Harolin  Carpenter,  A.M.,  '74,  Yale;  LL.D.,  '76,  Univ.  of  Wis. 

Ex-Professor  of  Law,  University  of  Wisconsin,  315  Wisconsin  Ave.,  Madison. 
Willard  H.  Chandler, 

Ex- State  Inspector  of  High  Schools,  Sun  Prairie. 
Lewis  Herbert  Clark. 

1892,  Professor  of  Mathematics,  State  Normal  School,  River  Falls. 
County  Teachers'  Association,  Milwaukee  County. 

President,  Herbert  J.  Piper,  712  Astor  St.,  Milwaukee. 
Philip  Eden,  Ph.B.,  '72,  Univ.  of  Wis. 

601  Pine  St.,  Platteville. 
John  Q.  Emery,  A.M.,  Ph.B. 

1899,  State  Normal  School  Regent,  Albion. 
Lorenzo  Dow  Harvey,  Ph.D.,  '91,  Milton  Coll. 

1898,  State  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  Capitol,  Madison. 
Andrew  J,  Hutton. 

1879,  Institute  Conductor,  State  Normal  School,  1105  Main  St.,  Whitewater. 
Charles  H.  Nye. 

1893,  Superintendent  of  Schools  of  Grant  County,  212  N.  Adams  St.,  Lancaster. 
W,  D.  Parker,  A.M.,  Univ.  of  Wis. 

1899,  State  Inspector  of  Free  High  Schools,  215  Monona  Ave.,  Madison. 
John  Barber  Parkinson,  A.B.,  '60,  A.M.,  '63,  Univ.  of  Wis. 

1885,  Vice-President,  and,  1893,  Professor  of  Constitutional  and  International  Law,  Uni- 
versity of  Wisconsin,  803  State  St.,  Madison. 
Philadelphian  Society  of  State  Normal  School  at  Platteville. 

President,  Alfred  Kuykendall ;  Secretary,  Arthur  Hughes,  Platteville. 
Public  School  Teachers  of  Janesville. 

Superintendent,  D.  D.  Mayne;  Secretary,  Lizzie  A.  Paterson,  Janesville. 
Samuel  Shaw,  A.M.,  '75,  Univ.  of  Wis. 

Lawyer,  Crandon,  Forest  Co. 
Robert  Closson  Spencer. 

1863,  President   of    Spencerian   Business   College,  Wisconsin   St.  and   Broadway,   Mil- 
waukee. 
Joshua  Stark,  A.B.,  '48,  Union  Coll.,  Schenectady,  N.  Y. 

355  Farwell  Ave.,  Milwaukee. 
State  Historical  Society  of  Wisconsin. 

Secretary  and  Superintendent,  Reuben  G.  Thwaites,  Madison. 
State  Normal  School  at  Platteville. 

President,  Duncan  McGregor;  Librarian,  Miss  B.  A.  Gardner,  Platteville. 
John  William  Stearns,  A.B.,  '60,  A.M.,  '64,  Harvard;  LL.D.,  '74,  Chicago  Univ. 

1888,  Professor  of  Philosophy  and  Pedagogy,  and,  1897,  Director  of  School  of  Education, 
Univ.  of  Wis.,  512  Wisconsin  Ave.,  Madison. 
Isa.\c  Newton  Stewart,  B.Sc,  '62,  Univ.  of  Wis. 

Editor  of  Milwaukee  "Journal,"  609  Grand  Ave.,  Milwaukee. 
Teachers'  Association  of  Wisconsin. 

President,  G.  G.  Williams,  West  Superior;  Secretary,  W.  H.  Cheever,  Milwaukee, 
Charles  Frederick  Viebahn. 

1881,  Superintendent  of  City  Schools  and  Principal  of  High  School,  703  Western  Ave., 
Watertown. 
William  Clarke  Whitford,  A.B.,  '53,  A.M.,  '58,  Union  Coll.,  N.  Y. ;  D.D.,  '85,  Blackburn  Univ., 
Illinois. 

1858,  President  of  Milton  College,  Milton,  Rock  Co. 

active  members 

1887      Albert  Salisbury,  Ph.D.,  Milton  Coll.,  Wis. 

1885,  President  of  State  Normal  School,  Whitewater. 

1890  William  Judson  E.  Hoyt,  A.B.,  '80,  Univ.  of  Wis. 

1891,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  512  Wilson  Ave.,  Menomonie. 

1891  Marie  E.  Doyle. 

1894,  Supervisor  of  Practice,  State  Normal  School,  West  Superior, 

1892  I.  C.  McNeill. 

1896,  President  of  Superior  State  Normal  School,  West  Superior. 


Wisconsin]  LIFE,  ACTIVE,  AND  CORRESPONDING  MEMBERS  787 

1892  M.  V.  O'Shea,  B.L.,  '92,  Cornell. 

1895,  Professor  of  the  Science  and  Art  of  Education,  University  of  Wisconsin,  140  Lang- 

don  St.,  Madison. 
Albert  Willis  Tressler,  A.B.,  "91,  Univ.  of  Mich. 

1900,  Assistant  Professor  of  Pedagogy  and  Inspector  of  High  Schools,  University  of  Wis- 
consin, 229  W.  Gilman  St.,  Madison. 

1893  William  George  Bruce. 

Editor  of  "American  School  Board  Journal,''  435  Hanover  St.,  Milwaukee. 

1894  Richard  B.  Dudgeon,  A.B.,  '76,  Univ.  of  Wis. 

1891,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  520  Jefferson  St.,  Madison. 

D.  D.  Mavne. 

1892,  Superintendent  of  Schools  and  Principal  of  High  School,  226  S.  Main  St.,  Janesville. 
Theron  B.  Pray.  A.M.,  '72,  Univ.  of  Chicago. 

1894,  President  of  State  Normal  School,  402  Pine  St.,  Stevens  Point. 
189s      G.  L.  Bowman. 

1896,  Teacher  of  Mathematics  and   Reading,  State  Normal  School,  1713  Hughitt  Ave., 

West  Superior. 
Warren  J.  Brier. 

1898,  President  of  State  Normal  School,  River  Falls. 
C.  E.  Brown. 

1034  Spaight  St.,  Madison. 
Silas  Y.  Gill.\n,  A.M.,  '87,  111.  Wesleyan  Univ. 

1892,  Editor  of  "Western  Teacher"  and  "Gillan's  Monthly,"  141  Wisconsin  St.,  Mil- 

waukee. 
RuFUS  Henry  Halsev,  A.B.,  '77,  Williams  Coll. 

1898,  President  of  State  Normal  School,  107  Mt.  Vernon  St.,  Oshkosh. 
Ellen  C.  Sabin,  A.M.,  '95,  Univ.  of  Wis. 

1891,  President  of  Milwaukee -Downer  College,  Milwaukee. 

H.  O.  R.  SlEFERT. 

1896,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  City  Hall,  Milwaukee. 
Henry  A.  Simonds,  A.B.,  '83,  A.M.,  '86,  Amherst  Coll. 

1899,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  63  Union  St.,  Oshkosjj. 
Rose  C.  Swart,  A.M.,  '95,  Univ.  of  Wis. 

1884,  Inspector  of  Practice  Teaching,  State  Normal  School,  37  Elm  St.,  Oshkosh. 
Samuel  B.  Todd,  A.B.,  Univ.  of  Mich. ;  A.M.,  Univ.  of  Nashville. 

Wisconsin  State  Agent,  American  Book  Co.,  Pfister  Hotel,  Milwaukee. 

E.  V.  Wernick. 

1895,  President  of  Board  of  Education,  Hillsboro. 

Charles  F.  A.  Zimmerman, -Ph. B.,  '96,  111.  Wes.  Univ. ;  A.M.,  '96,  Charles  City  Coll. 
1888,  Principal  of  17th  District  School,  622  Otjen  St.,  Milwaukee.  ' 

1896  Walter  Allen. 

1899,  First  Assistant  Superintendent  of  City  Schools,  344  Washington  St.,  Milwaukee. 
William  H.  Beach,  A.M.,  Hamilton  Coll. 

1891,  Professor  of  History-  and  Civics,  East  Side  High  School,  229  Pleasant  St.,  Milwaukee. 
William  Owen  Brown. 

1894.  Principal  of  East  Side  High  School,  719  Webster  Ave.,  Green  Bay. 
Arthur  Burch. 

Assistant  Superintendent  of  Public  .Schools,  116,  32d  St.,  Milwaukee. 
W.  H.  Cheever,  B.Pd.,  Nor.  Coll.,  Ypsilanti,  Mich. 

1899,  Vice-President  of  State  Normal  School,  2510  Sycamore  St.,  Milwaukee. 
Otis  C.  Gross,  B.Sc,  '90,  Univ.  of  Minn. 

1896,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  315  Oxford  Ave.,  Eau  Claire. 
Mary  Hill. 

1869,  Assistant  Teacher,  3d  District,  170  Mason  St.,  Milwaukee. 
Harriet  B.  Merrill,  B.Sc.  '90,  M.Sc,  '93,  Univ.  of  Wis. 

1899,  Professor  of  Biology  in  Milwaukee-Downer  College,  Milwaukee. 
Kate  S.  Nelson. 

Grade  Teacher,  Public  Schools,  no  Park  Ave.,  Janesville. 
Mae  E.  Schreiber. 

Librarian,  State  Superintendent's  Office,  Department  of  Public  Instruction,  Madison. 
Emma  Willard  Shribves. 

1895,  Physical  Training  Dept.,  State  Normal  School,  178  Prospect  Ave.,  Milwaukee. 
George  C.  Shutts,  Ph.B. 

Teacher  of  Mathematics,  State  Normal  School,  306  Main  St.,  Whitewater. 
James  L.  Thatcher,  B.L..  '93,  Univ.  of  Wis. 

Representative  of  Ginn  &  Co.,  Milwaukee. 
R.  A.  Waterbury,  A.B.,  '67,  A.M.,  '70,  Ph.D.,  "86,  Alfred  Univ. 

1447  Charles  St  ,  La  Ciosse. 

1897  Mrs.  Helen  E.  Bateman. 

789  Astor  St.,  Milwaukee. 
JoLiA  Campbell. 

1880,  A.ssistant  Teacher  in  Public  Schools,  7th  Grade,  97,  i8th  St.,  Milwaukee. 
C.  P.  Gary,  B.Sc,  Univ.  of  Chicago. 

1893,  Supervisor  of  Practice  Teaching,  and  Model   Schools,  State  Normal  School,  1703 

Cedar  St.,  Milwaukee. 

F.  E.  Converse,  B.L., '88, Univ.  of  Mich. 

1897,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  412  Prospect  Ave.,  Beloit, 
George  Eber  Dafoe. 

1892,  Principal  of  High  School,  Plainfield. 

Mrs.  Medora  Dodge  Gammon,  Grad.,  Froebel  Asso.,  Chicago. 

Special  Substitute  Teacher  in  Chicago  Schools,  2639  N.  Hermitage  Ave.,  Ravens- 
wood,  Chicago;  home  address.  408  Exchange  St.,  Kenosha. 
Albert  Guttman. 

1886,  Principal  of  Schools,  Manitowoc. 
Ellen  C.  Lloyd  Jones. 

1887,  Associate  Principal  and  Proprietor  of  Hillside  Home  School,  Hillside. 
Janb  Lloyd  Jones. 

1887,  Associate  Principal  and  Proprietor  of  Hillside  Home  School,  Hillside. 


788  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  [Wisconsin 

1897  W,  W.  Jones. 

Superintendent  of  Schools,  Washburn, 
Frederick  G.  Kraege,  B.L.,  '8^,  M.L.,  "95,  Univ.  of  Wis. 

1897,  Superintendent  of  Public  Schools,  336  S.  Monroe  Ave.,  Green  Bay. 
Emma  J.  Luebke. 

18^5,  Principal  of  loth  Dist.  Primary  School  No.  i,  872.  loth  St.,  N.  W.  Sta.,  Milwaukee. 
Mary  L.  Lugg. 

1885,  Teacher  in  Public  Schools,  464  Russell  Ave.,  Milwaukee. 
Harriet  Cecil  Magee,  Grad.,  '82,  Mt.  Holyoke  Coll. 

1884,  Director  of  Drawing,  State  Normal  School,  34  Elm  St.,  Oshkosh. 
C.  O.  Marsh. 

1893,  Prinipal  of  High  School.  103  Clermont  St.,  Antigo. 

Charles  McKennv,  B.Sc,  '81,  Mich.  Agr.  Coll.;  A.B.,  '89,  A.M.,  '92.  Olivet  Coll. 

1900,  President,  State  Normal  School,  123,  25th  St.,  Milwaukee. 
E.  C.  Meland,  B.L.,  '89,  Univ.  of  Wis. 

Principal  of  Windsor  High  School,  De  Forest. 
ChARLES  O.  Merica,  A.M. 

1897,  Superintendent  of  Wisconsin  Industrial  School  for  Boys,  Wauke.sha. 
James  A.  Mekrii  l,  B.Sc,  '93,  Harvard. 

1900,  Teacher  of  Science,  State  Normal  School,  West  Superior. 
Thomas  B.  Mills. 

Senator,  nth  District,  West  Superior. 
John  A.  Moldstad,  A.B.,  '94,  Luther  Col).,  Decorah,  la. 

De  Forest. 
John  G.  Nageler. 

1896,  Principal  of  Primary  School,  2517  Elm  St.,  Milwaukee. 
Oliver  Needham,  Grad.,  '96,  Adv.  Course,  1900,  State  Normal  School,  River  Falls, 

Box  30,  Midway. 
Richard  J.  O'Hanlon. 

1892,  Principal  of  21st  District  School,  692  Farwell  Ave.,  Milwaukee. 
J.  P.  Peterson. 

1894,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Polk  County,  West  Denmark. 
Lorenzo  D.  Roberts. 

1888,  County  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Main  St.,  Shawano. 
John  F.  Sims. 

1896,  Department  of  Geography,  U.  S.  History,  and  Economics  in  State  Normal  School, 

River  Falls. 
Harriet  E.  Smith,  Grad.,  Oshkosh  Nor.  Sch. 

1892,  Principal  of  i6th  District  Primary  School,  2409  Cedar  St.,  Milwaukee. 
State  Normal  School,  Oshkosh. 

President,  Rufus  H.  Halsey;  Librarian,  Ella  G.  Parmele,  Oshkosh. 
Lizzie  P,  Swan. 

1897,  Librarian  of  State  Normal  School,  Whitewater. 
J.  M.  Turner. 

Superintendent  of  Schools,  Burlington. 

E.  W.  Walker. 

Institute  Conductor,  State  Normal  School,  1910  John  Ave.,  West  Superior. 
Edith  M.  Watson. 

1896,  Kindergartner,  West  Superior;  address  for  1900,  73  Worcester  St.,  Boston,  Mass. 
A.  W.  Weber. 

911  W.  Johnson  St.,  Madison. 
H.  A.  Whipple. 

1899,  Superintendent  of  Schools  and  Principal  of  High  School,  523,  3d  Ave.,  Baraboo. 
William  Hill  Williams.  A.B.,  '84,  A.M.,  '87,  Williams  Coll. 

1897,  Teacher  in  Mathematics  in  State  Normal  School,  Platteville. 

1898  Thomas  Higdon  Gentle. 

1900,  Director  of  Training  School,  State  Normal  School,  Platteville. 
Milwaukee  Public  Library. 

Librarian,  George  W.  Peckham,  Milwaukee. 
Adolphus  H.  Sage,  B.Sc,  '86,  Cornell  Univ. 

1893,  Professor  of  Physics,  State  Normal  School,  52  High  St.,  Oshkosh. 
State  Normal  School,  Whitewater. 

President,  Albert  Salisbury,  Whitewater. 
Guy  Allan  Tawney,  A.B.,  '93,  A.M.,  "94,  Princeton;  Ph.D.,  '96,  Leipzig. 

1898,  Squire  Professor  of  Mental  Science  and  Philosophy,  717  Chapin  St.,  Beloit. 

1899  Mrs.  Annie  B.  Dean. 

Student  of  Education,  719  State  St.,  Madison. 
Joseph  B.  Estabrook,  A.M.,  Olivet  Coll. 

1896,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  1316  Main  St.,  Racine. 
William  E.  Goddard,  A.B.,  '90,  Univ.  of  Mich. 

1894,  Agent  for  Ginn  &  Co.,  209  S.  Carroll  St.,  Madison. 
J.  A.  Hagemann,  Ph.B.,  '99,  Univ.  of  Wis. 

1899,  Superintendent  of  Schools  and  Principal  of  High  School,  Fort  Atkinson. 
George  P.  Hambrecht. 

1898,  Superintendent  of  City  Schools,  408  High  St.,  Grand  Rapids. 
Charles  H.  Haskins,  A. B., '87,  Ph.D., '90,  Johns  Hopkins  Univ. 

1892,  Professor  of  European  History,  University  of  Wisconsin,  Madison. 
Lawrence  University. 

President,  Samuel  Plantz  ;  Librarian,  Zelia  Smith,  Appleton. 
C.  E.  Patzek. 

Teacher  in  State  Normal  School,  225,  23d  St.,  Milwaukee. 

F.  F.  Showers,  B.L.,  Univ.  of  Wis. 

1899,  Superintendent  of  City  Schools,  Antigo. 
James  W.  Simmons. 

Superintendent  of  Schools,  640  Clark  St.,  Stevens  Point. 
V.  A.  Suydam,  B.Sc,  '96,  Univ.  of  Wis. 

1900,  Principal  of  High  School,  Ripon. 

1900  Superior  State  Normal  School  Library. 

•President,  I.  C.  McNeill,  West  Superior. 


Foreign]  LIFE,  ACTIVE,  AND  CORRESPONDING  MEMBERS  789 

WYOMING 

ACTIVE   MEMBERS 

189s      Hbnrv  Mbrz,  B.Sc,  A.m.,  Blackburn  Univ. 

1888,  Professor  of   German   and    Social    Science,   University   of  Wyoming,  407,  9th    St. 
Laramie. 
1897     J.  O.  Churchill. 

Superintendent  of  Schools,  2504  Ferguson  St.,  Cheyenne. 
The  Universitv-  of  Wyoming. 

President,  Elmer  E.  Smiley,  D.D. ;  Librarian,  Grace  Raymond  Hebard,  Laramie. 

1899  C.  P.  Lamar.  B.Sc,  A.M.,  Nor.  Ind.  Nor.  Sch. 

1898,  Superintendent  of  City  Schools,  Rawlins. 

T.  T.  TVNAN. 

1899,  State  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  1308  Ferguson  St  ,  Cheyenne. 

1900  Elmer  E.  Smiley,  A.B.,  '83,  Syracuse  Univ. ;  B.D.,  '90,  Yale;  D.D.,  '99,  Syracuse  Univ. 

1898,  President  of  the  University  of  Wyoming,  Laramie. 

ALASKA 

ACTIVE     member 

1895     Cassia  Patton. 

1894,  Teacher  of  School  No.  2,  Sitka. 

HAWAII 
active  members 

1895     Allie  M.  Felker,  Grad., '84,  State  Normal  Sch.,  San  Jose. 

1899,  Assistant  in  Princess  Kaiulani  School,  Box  100,  Honolulu. 
S.  Lillian  Bvington. 

1899,  Teacher  of  Music,  Kamehameha  Girls'  School,  Honolulu. 

1899  John  A.  Moore. 

Principal  of  English  School,  High  St.,  Wailuku  Maui. 
Henry  S.  Townsend,  A.B.,  '80,  A.M.,  '83,  Univ.  of  Des  Moines. 
1896,  Inspector  General  of  Schools,  Honolulu. 

1900  Mrs.  Nina  L.  D.  Frasher. 

1900,  Principal  of  the  Princess  Kaiulani  School,  30  Kukui  St.,  Honolulu. 

PORTO  RICO 

ACTIVE    MEMliERS 

1890     Charles  B.  Scott,  A>M.,  '87,  Rutgers  Coll. 

1899,  in  charge  of  Schools  of  American  Missionary  Association,  Santurce,  San  Juan. 

1893  M.  G.  Brumbaugh,  A.M.,  '93,  Ph.D.,  '94,  Univ.  of  Pa. 

1900,  Commissioner  of  Education  for  Porto  Rico,  San  Juan. 
1897     G.  Clinton  Hanna,  A.B.,  '70,  A.M.,  '73,  Calvert  Coll.,  Md. 

1899,  Hanna's  Select  School,  86  Fortaleza  St.,  San  Juan. 
1899     Victor  S.  Clark,  A.B.,  '90,  Univ.  of  Minn. 

1899,  President  of  Insular  Board  of  Education  and  Insular  Superintendent  of  Schools,  San 
Juan. 

PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS 

active  MEMBERS 

1892  Allen  Allensworth,  A.M. 

1899,  Enlisted  Men's  Military  School,  Manila. 

1894  Fred  Washington  Atkinson,  A.B,,  '90,  Harvard;  Ph.D..  '93,  Leipzig. 

1900,  General  Superintendent  of  Education  in  Philippine  Islands,  Manila. 
1899     George  P.  Anderson,  A.M.,  '86,  Whitman  Coll.,  Wash. ;  B.D.,  '91,  Yale. 

Superintendent  of  Public  Schools,  Manila. 

CANADA 

active  members 

1890  James  L.  Hughes. 

Inspector  of  Schools,  cor.  York  and  Richmond  Sts. ;  58  Henry  St.,  Toronto. 

1891  Samuel  Bower  Sinclair,  A.M.,  "93,  Univ.  of  Toronto. 

1893,  Vice  Principal  of  Normal  School,  Ottawa. 

1895  Mrs.  Ada  M.  Hughes. 

Superintendent  of  Kindergartens,  Public  Schools,  58  Henry  St.,  Toronto. 

ENGLAND 

*  ACTIVE    member 

1899     Samuel  S.  Fechheimer  Fletcher,  A.B.,  '94,  London;  Ph.D.,  '97,  Jena. 

1898,  Lecturer  on  Education  in  the  University  of  Cambridge,  and  Teacher  of  Method  in 
the  C.  U.  Day  Training  College,  i6  Warkworth  St.,  Cambridge,  England. 

GERMANY 

ACTIVE    MEMBER 

1895      David  Kopp  Goss,  A.B.,  '87,  Indiana  Univ. ;  Fellow  in  Cornell,  '92-3. 
1900,  Principal,  American  College,  Strasburg. 

HUNGARY 

ACTIVE   MEMBER 

1893  B^LA  KriScsv,  State  High  School  Teacher's  Diploma,  '81. 

State  High  School,  6th  District  at  Budapest,  VI  Lovag  Utca  18,  Budapest. 


INDEX  TO   LIST  OF 

LIFE  DIRECTORS,  LIFE  AND  ACTIVE  MEMBERS 


(The  names  of  Life  Directors  and  Life  Members  are  printed  in  italics.] 
[Deceased  members  are  indicated  by  a  *.] 


Abbott,  D.Q.,Ga.,  'q6 
Abbott,  F.  B.,  Kan.,  '99 
Abbott,  Osmer,  Cal.,  '99 
Abercrombie,  J.  W.,  Ala.,  1900 
Ackerman,  J.  H.,  Ore.,  '95 
Adams,  Cecilia,  Colo.,  '98 
Adams,  F.  Y.,  Ariz.,  '99 
Addicott,  J.  E.,  Cal.,  '99 
Adee,J.  N.,  11!., '95 
Agard,  I.  M.,  Conn.,  '99 
Agricultural  Coll.,  Kan.,  '97 
Ahern,  M.  E.,  III.,  '96 
Ainsworth,  D.  E.,  N.  V.,  '99 
Alton,  Geo.  B.,  Minn.,  '94 
Ala.  Polytech.  Inst.,  Ala.,  '97 
Albert,  C.  J.,  III.,  '96 
Albrecht,  F.  J.,  111., '91 
Albright,  C.  E.,  Ohio,  '95 
Albro,  S.  H.,  N.  Y.,  '95 
Alden,  Amelia  D.,  N.  Y.,  '96 
Alderman,  E.  A.,  La.,  '94 
Aldridge,  Vincent,  N.  Y.,  '91 
Alexander,  Charles  T.,  Tex.,  '97 
Alger,  John  L.,  Vt.,  '98 
Allen,  E.  E.,  Pa.,  '99 
Allen,  Mrs.  Ella  N.,  N.  Y.,  '92 
Allen,  Ira  W.,  111..  '70 
Allen,  L.  H.,  111.,  '97 
Allen,  L.  R.,  Mass.,  '99 
Allen,  Walter,  Wis.,  '96 
AUensworth,  Allen,  P.  I.,  '92 
Alley,  F.  S.,  Ky.,  '96 
Allgood,  Robt.  v.,  Ala..  '98 
Allin,  R.  H.,  111.,  '97 
Allison,  J.  J.,  111.,  *93 
Almond,  W.  S.,  Ind.,  '91 
Altoona  Mech.  Lib'y,  Pa.,  '99 
Alumni  A  sso.,Mihvaukee,vl\$,., 

•84 
Ambrose,  H.  T.,  N.  Y.,'95 
Ames,  Chas.  H.,  Mass.,  '96 
Amherst  Coll.  Lib'y,  Mass.,  '97   . 
Amidon,  L.  E.,  Mich.,  '96 
Anderson,  Geo.  P.,  P.  I.,  '99 
Anderson,  John  J.,  N.  Y.,  '71 
Anderson,  J.  N.,  Tenn.,  1900 
Anderson,  L,  F.,  Mich..  1900 
Anderson,  P.  J.,  Ohio,  '96 
Anderson,  W.  D.,  S.  D.,  1900 
Anderson,  W.  H.;  W.  Va.,  '90 
Anderson,  W.  J.,  Ariz.,  '99 
Andrews,  E.  Benj.,  Neb.,  '99 
Arbury,  F.  W.,  Mich.,  '95 
Archer,  Henry  P.,  S.  C.,  '99 
Archibald,  J.  P.,  Pa.,  '99 
Ardley,  H.  T.,  Cal., '98 
Arcy,  Oliver  C,  N.  Y.,  '70 
Armitage,  B.  F.,  111.,  '96 
Arms,  S.  Dwight,  N.  Y.,  1900 
Armstrong,  Geo.  P.,  Mass.,  '96 
Armstrong,  G.  W.,  Mo.,  '98 
Armstrong,  Robt.  A.,  W.  Va.,'94 
Arnold,  E.  H.,  Conn., '96 
Arnold,  Sarah  L.,  Mass.,  '95 
Arrowsmith,  S.  V.,  N.  J.,   98 
Asbury,  T.  W.,  111.,  '99 
Ashbaugh,  Z.  R.,  Mo.,  '97 


Ashmore,  Otis,  Ga.,  '94 
Athenteutn  Soc,  Wis.,  '84 
Atkinson,  Fred  W.,  P.  I.,  '94 
Atlanta  Univ.,  Ga.,  '95 
Augsburg,  D,  R.,  Cal.,  '95 
Aurianne,  A.,  La.,  '99 
Avery,  A.  H.,  S.  D.,  '96 
Avery,  F.  F.,  Wash.,   99 
Avery,  Lewis  B.,  Cal.,  '95 
Avery,  Rachel  F.,  Pa.,  '79 
Ayers,  Howard,  Ohio,  '99 
Ayhuard,  John  A.,  Wis.,  '84 
Ayres,  Edw.,  Ind.,  '92 
Babcock,  C.  A.,  Pa.,  '93 
Babcock.  W.  F.,  N.  J.,  1900 
Bacon,  Carl.  E.,I11.,  '97 
Bacon,  Paul  V.,  111.,  '97 
Bader,  John  H.,  Va.,  '94 
Baer,  Clara  G.,  La.,  '97 
Bahr,  Lulu  C,  Cal.,  '99 
Bailey,  Emma  V.,  111.,  '97 
Bailey,  M.  A.,  N.  Y..  '95 
Bailey,  T.  P.,  Jr.,  Cal.,  '99 
Bailey,  Walter  J.,  Cal.,  '95 
Bakeless,  O.  H.,  Pa.,  1900 
Baker,  Anna  M.,  Ind.,  '99 
Baker,  Benj.,  R.  I.,  '92 
Baker,  Jas.  H.,  Colo.,  '84 
Baker,  O.  M.,  Mass.,  '92 
Baker,  Thos.  O.,  N.  Y.,  "92 
Baker,  W.  H.,  Cal.,  '99 
Raker,  JV.  H.,  Ga.,  '90 
Balcoin,  A.  G.,  N.  J.,  '98 
Baldwin,  H.  J.,  Cal.,  '99 
Baldwin,  Wm.  A.,  Mass.,  '99 
Ball,  Frank  H.,  Cal.,  '97 
Ball,  Kath.  M.,  Cal.,  '99 
Ball,  Miss  Lew,  Cal.,  '99 
Ballard,  C.  A.,  Minn.,  '96 
Balliet,  Thos.  M.,  Mass.,  "95 
Ballon,  C.  G.,  Ohio,  '95 
Bancroft,  Jessie  H.,  N.  Y.,  '97 
Bancroft,  Margaret,  N.  J.,  '97 
Bangs,  J.  Edward,  III.,  '99 
Banker,  Lizzie  L.,  Neb.,  '90 
Barbour,  O.  F.,  111.,  '89 
Bardeen,  C.  W.,  N.  Y.,  '90 
Bardwell,  C.  M.,  III.,  '92 
Bardwell,  D.  L.,  N.  Y.,  "99 
Bargen,  I.  I.,  Minn..  '97 
Barnard,  Frank  J.,  Wash.,  "91 
Barnard  Jas.  U.,  Mo.,  '93 
Barnes,  Earl,  N.  Y.,  '91 
Barnes,  Mrs.  F.  S.,  N.  Y.,  '96 
Barnes,  J.  Walter,  W.  Va.,  '91 
Barnes,  O.  P.,  Kan.,  '95 
Barnes,  Sarah  D.,  R.  1.,  '99 
Barnum,  Anna,  N.  D.,  '97 
Barr,  Jas.  A.,  Cal.,  '98 
Barr,  R.  L,  Neb.,  '99 
Barrett,  A.  T.,  Tenn.,  '94 
Barrett,  Chas.  S.,  Ohio,  '95 
Barrett,  H.  M.,  Colo., '95 
Barrett,  R.  C,  Iowa,  '96 
Barrett,  S.  M.,  Mo.,  '97 
Barringer,  Wm.  N..  N.  J.,  "94 
Barstow,  C.  L.,  N.  Y., '97 

790 


Barth,  O.  F.,  Cal.,  '99 
Bartholf,  Wm.  J.,  Ill.,'97 
Bartholomew,  Susie  M.,  Ky.,  '94 
Bartholomew,  ]V.  H.,  Ky.,  '77 
Bartlett,  Wm.  A.,  Minn.,  '97 
Barton,  R.  L.,  Mo.,  '97 
Bascom,  John,  Mass.,  '84 
Bashford,  Jas.  W.,  Ohio,  '94 
Bass,  E.  K.,Miss.,  '95 
Bass,  Geo.  F.,  Ind..  '96 
Bateman,  Mrs.  H.  E.,  Wis.,  '97 
Bates,  Wm.  C,  Mass.,  '96 
Bauman,  E.  G.,  Ind.,  '98 
Baxter,  Chas.  J.,  N.  J.,  '9C 
Bay  ley,  W,  D.,  Pa.,  1900 
Bayliss,  Alfred,  111.,  '96 
Baylor,  Adelaide  S.,  Ind.,  '97 
Beach,  Wm.  H.,  Wis.,  '96 
Beadle,  Wm.  H.  H.,  S.  D.,  '90 
Seals,  S.  DeWitt,  Neb.,  '76 
Beardshear,  W,  M.,  Iowa,  '89 
Bea^sley,  A.  E.,  Colo.,  '95 
Beattie,  J.  A.,  Ore.,  '99 
Beattys,  Frank  D.,  N.  Y.,  '94 
Beazell,  Jas.  H.,  Mich.,  '97 
Becht,J.  Geo.,  Pa.,  '96 
Beck,  Geo.,  Wis.,  '84 
Beggs,  Robt.  H.,  Colo.,  '84 
Beggs,  S.  S.,I11.,  '96 
Beistle,  Ella,  Ohio,  '97 
Belknap,  Emmet,  N.  Y„  '92 
Bell,  Alex.  Graham,  D.  C,  '84 
Bell,  Wm.  A.,  Ohio,  '76 
Belman,  W.  C,  Ind.,  \s 
Beloit  Sch.  Board,  Wis.,  '84 
Bender,  Ida  C,  N.  Y.,  '95 
Benedict,  E.  M.,  Conn.,  '97 
Benedict,  W,  H.,  N.  Y.,  '92 
Benham,  N.  L.,  N.  Y.,  '95 
Bennett,  Chas.  A.,  111.,  '96 
Bennett,  C.  ]V.,  Ohio,  '84 
Bennett,  Mrs.  Lydia  A.,N.  J.,  '96 
Benson,  B.  K.,  Ga.,  1900 
Benson,  Christine,  Cal.,  '97 
Benton,  Geo.  W.,  Ind.,  '94 
Bergey,  D.  H.,Pa.,  '98 
Berlin,  A.  H.,  Del.,  '96 
Bernstein,  Nathan,  Neb.,  1900 
Berringer,  E.  J.,  Mich.,  '99 
Berry,  B.  D.,  111.,  '95 
Berry,  W.  T.,  Ky.,  '98 
Bessey,  Chas.  E.,  Neb.,  '95      . 
Bevans,  Homer,  111.,  '97 
Bicknell,  Thos.  W.,  R.  I..  '82 
Bierly,  H.  Elmer,  Fla.,  '99 
Billingsly,  J.  J.,  Iowa, '95 
Bingham,  Cornelia  D.,  111.,  1900 
Bingham,  Reuben  S.,  Wash.,  "96 
Bingham,  Robt.,  N.  C,  '84 
Birchard,  C.  C,  N.  Y., '95 
Bishop,  Eliza  A.,  Pa.,  '92 
Bishop,  J.  Remsen,  Ohio,  '94 
Bishop,  Nathan  L,,  Conn.,  95 
Bissell,  Annie  M.,  N.  Y.,  '95 
Black.  Jas.  C,  Ida.,  "88 
Black,  S.  T.,  Cal.,  '95 
Black,  Wm.  H.,  Mo.,  '95 


INDEX  TO  LIFE  AMD  ACTIVE  MEMBERS 


791 


Black,  Wm.  J.,  111., '97 
Blair,  Francis  G.,  111.,  '99 
Blair,  John  J.,  N.  C, '95 
.  Blake,  Mrs.  E.  M.,  Ark.,  '98 
Blaker,  Mrs.  E.  A.,  Ind.,  '96 
Blakesley,  O.  J.,  Colo.,  '96 
Blakiston,  Mary,  Ohio,  '95 
Blasingame,  J.  C.,  N.  C,  '97 
Blewett,  Ben,  Mo.,  '97 
Bliss,  Fred.  L.,  Mich.,  '95 
Bliss.  J.  J.,  Ohio.  '96 
Block,  Louis  J.,  111.,  '99 
Blodgett,  A.  B.,N.  Y.,  '90 
Blodgett,  S.  F..  Mass.,  '97 
B.  of  Ed..  Abilene,  Kan.,  '86 
B.  of  Ed..  Beloit,  Wis.,  '84 
B.  of  Ed.,  Dodge  City,  Kan.,  'So 
B.  of  Ed.,  JanesvilU,  Wis.,  '84 
B.  of  Ed.,  La  Crosse.  Wis.,  '84 
B.  of  Ed.,  Milwaukee,  Wis.,  '84 
B.  of  Ed.,  Nashville,  Tenn.,  '89 
B.  of  Ed.,  Northfield,  Minn.,  '90 
B.  of  Ed.,  Oshkosh,  Wis.,  '84 
B.  of  Ed..  Ottawa,  Kan.,  '86 
B.  of  Ed..  Sedg-wick.  Kan.,  '86 
B.  of  Ree:enis,  St.  Nor.    Sch., 

Wis.,  '84 
Bodenhamer,  D.  S.,  Tex.,  '95 
Rodler,  Anna.  111.,  '98 
Bodwell,  Edwin  J.,  Neb.,  '95 
Boice,  H.  B.,  N.  J.,  '06 
Bolenbaugh,  G.  B.,  Ohio,  '96 
Boltwood,  H.  L,,  111.,  '99 
Bond,  G.  G.,  Ga.,  '94 
Bond,  J.  D.,  Minn.,  '96 
Bonebrake,  Lewis  D.,  Ohio,  '90 
Boone,  Richard  G.,  Ohio,  '84 
Booth,  F.  W.,  Pa.,  1900 
Boston  College,  Mass.,  '97 
Bostwick,  O.  P.,  Iowa,  '91 
Botkin,  Mrs,  Sidney  C,  Ariz.,  "99 
Boutelle,  C.  M.,  Minn.,  '96 
Bouton,  Eugene,  Mass.,  '95 
Bowers,  H.  W.,  Ind.,  '96 
Bowman,  G.  L.,  Wis.,  '95 
Boyd,  David  R.,  Okla.,  '92 
Boyd,  Mrs.  Gaston,  Kan.,  '97 
Boyd,  W.  W.,  Ohio, '94 
Boyden,  Albert  G.,  Mass.,  '90 
Boyden,  Arthur  C,  Mass.,  '97 
Boyden,  Wallace  C,  Mass.,  '96 
Boyle,  Chas.  A,,  Kan.,  '97 
Bradley,  Chas.  A.,  Colo.,  '93 
Bradley,  John  E.,  111.,  '90 
Bradley,  Milton,  Mass.,  '92 
Brandegee,  J.  E.,  N.  Y.,  '96 
Brandt,  K.  B.,  Pa.,  '97 
Brier,  Warren  J.,  Wis.,  '95 
Brigham  Young  Coll.,  Utah,  '98 
Bright,  O.  T.,  111.,  "93 
Bristol,  E.  N.,  N.  Y.,  '96 
Brittain,  M.  L.,  Ga.,  1900 
Brock,  H.  Z.,  Mich.,  '97 
Brocket!,  Zue  H.,  D.  C.,  '98 
Brodcrick.  Kate  G.,  N.  Y.,  '96 
Brooks.  Ed'.u.,  Pa.,  '76 
Brooks,  Sarah  C,  Minn.,  '94 
Brown,  C.  E.,  Wis.,  '95 
Brown,  Elias,  D.  C.,'98 
Brown,  Eliz.  V.,  D.  C,  '98 
Brown,  Ellis  W.,D.  C.  '98 
Brown,  Elmer  E.,  Cal.,  '91 
Brown,  Eugene,  Iowa,  '97 
Brown,  Geo.  P.,  III.,  '80 
Brown,  Geo.  W.,  Mass.,  '96 
Brown,  H.  B.,  Ind.,  '95 
Brown,  Hugh,  Mich.,  '98 
Brown,  Jesse  H.,  Ind.,  91 
Brown,  J.  L.,  Utah,  '99 
Brown,  John  A.,  N.  H.,  "99 
Brown,  John  F.,  Ind..  '96 
Brown,  J.  Stanley,  III.,  '97 
Brown,  Kate  L.,Neb.,  '97 
Brown,  Miss  Marion,  La.,  '89 
Brown,  Sara  P.,  Cal.,  '99 
Brown,  Thos.  P.,  Cal.,  '99 
Brown,  Wm.  O.,  Wis.,  '96 
Bruce,  Wm.G.,  Wis., '93    . 


Brumbaugh,  G.  W.,  Ohio,  '96 
Brumbaugh,  M.  G.,  P.  R..  '93 
Bruot,  Marie  L..  Ohio,  '96 
Bryan,  Wm.  J,  S.,  Mo.,  '99 
Bryan,  Wm.  L.,  Ind.,  '93 
Bryant,  Miss  C.  L.,  Mo.,  '99 
Bryn  Mawr  Coll.,  Pa.,  '99 
Bryson  Library,  Teachers   Coll., 

N.  Y.,  '98 
Buchanan,  Elizabeth,  Mo.,  1900 
Buchanan,  Geo.  V.,  Mo.,  '94 
Buchanan,  John  T.,  N.  Y.,  '90 
Buchanan,  L.  A.,  Cal.,  '99 
Buchholz,  L.  W.,  Fla.,  V 
Buechele,  J.  L.,  Iowa,  '97 
Buehrle,  R.  K.,  Pa.,  '92 
Buffalo  Pub.  Library,  N.  Y.,  '99 
Buford,  Mrs.  E.  G.,  Tenn.,  1900 
Bulklev,  Julia  E.,  111., '95 
Bunnell,  C,  Ind.,  '99 
Bunzel,  Belle,  Ark.,  '08 
Burch,  Arthur,  Wis.,   96 
Burdick,  A.  Hall.  N.  Y„  "92 
Burgess,  I.  B.,  111.,  '99 
Burk,  Fred  L.,  Cal.,  '92 
Burke,  Mrs.  B.  Ellen,  N.  Y.,  "94 
Burke,  J.  E.,  Mass.,  '95 
Burks,  J.  D.,  Cal.,  '99 
Burleson,  A.  L.,  Cal.,  '99 
Bumham,  W.  R.,  Conn.,  '99 
Burns,  G.  W.,  Ohio,  1900 
Burns,  J.  J.,  Ohio.  '80 
Burns,  Ralph  H.,  Minn.,  '96 
Burris,  Wm.  P.,  Mass,  '95 
Burroughs,  Geo.  S.,  Ohio,  '95 
Burt,  Amy  M.,  Vt.,  1900 
Burton,  R.  W.,  111.,  '96 
Busby,  Isaac  V.,  Ind.,  '96 
Bushnell,  H.  T.,  Iowa,  '97 
Butler.  Nicholas  M.,  N.  Y.,  '85 
Button,  Wm.  J.,  III.,  '96 
Butts,  Mrs,  Annice  B.,  111.,  "96 
Buzzell,  Delos,  III.,  "97 
Byington,  S.  Lillian,  H.  I.,  '95 
Cahalan,  Mary  A.,  Ala.,  '95 
Caldwell,  B.  C.,  La.,  '96 
Caldwell,  H.  W.,  Neb.,i'96 
Calkins,  F.  L.,  III.,  '95 
Call,  A.  D.,  Mass.,  '98 
Cammack,  Ira  I.,  Mo.,  '95 
Camp,  David  N.,  Conn.,  '92 
Campbell,  A.  C,  Kan.,  '86 
Campbell,  Julia,  Wis.,  '97 
Campbell,  W.  H.,  111.,  '95 
Canfield,  James  H.,  N.  Y.,  '84 
Cannon,  Geo.  L.,  Colo.,  '95 
Cannon,  H.  D.,  Ore.,  '99 
Capen,  Elmer  H.,  Mass.,  '96 
Capen,  Frank  S.,  N.  Y.,  "96 
Garden,  A.  D.,  Ark.,  '98 
Carey,  C.  E.,  Ohio,  '95 
Carfrey,  J.  H.,  Mass.,  "97 
Cargo,  R.  M.,  Pa.,  '96 
Carleton,  E.  A.,  Mont.,  "97 
Carlisle,  Jas.  M.,  Tex.,  '95 
Camagey,  J.  A.,  Ind.,  '95 
Carnegie  Library,  Pa.,  '99 
Carpenter,  J.  H .,  Wis.,  '84 
Carr,  J.  M.,  Ohio, '98 
Carr,  J.  W..  Ind..  "97 
Carrington,  W.  T.,  Mo..  "99 
Carroll,  C.  F.,  Mass.,  '95 
Carroll,  Mary  H.,  N.  Y.,  '98 
Carson,  C.  H.,  Jr.,  La.,  1900 
Carter,  Joseph,  111.,  "99 
Cary,  Alice  D.,  Ga.,  '98 
Gary,  C.  P.,  Wis.,  '97 
Case.  Harriet  F.,  Ind.,  "98 
Case,  Richard,  N.  J.,  '94 
Casey,  W.  V.,  Colo.,  "os 
Cassilly,  Francis  B.,  111.,  '99 
Gates,  E.  E.,  Md.,  '98 
Catey,  Minnie  L.,  Cal.,  '99 
Chadsey,  Chas.  E.,  Colo.,  '95 
Chalmers,  W.  W.,  Ohio,  '95 
Chamberlain,  A.  H.,  Cal.,   97 
Champlin,  Howard,  Ohio,  '96 
Chandler,  Anna  M.,  Mich  ,  '99 


Chandler,  John  W.,  N.  Y.,  "90 
Chandler.  VVillard H.,'^\%.;iA. 
Chaney,  N.  H.,  Ohio,  1900 
Chaplin,  Henry  L.,  III.,  '99 
Chapman,  F.  L.,  Mass.,  '94 
Chase,  Susan  F.,  N.  Y.,  '98 
Chase,  W.  J.,  III., '99 
Cheever,  W.  H.,  Wis.,  '96 
Cheney,  Augustus  J.,  III.,  '84 
Cheney,  Francis  J.,  N.  Y.,  '91 
Chicago  Institute,  111.,  '99 
Chicago  Pub.  Library,  111.,  "98 
Church,  Geo.  E.,  R.  I.,  '92 
Churchill,  J.  O.,  Wyo.,  '97 
City  Lib'y.  Springfield,  Mass.,  '98 
Clair,  Francis  R.,  N.  Y.,  '94 
Clancy,  Albert  W.,  111.,  '92 
Clancy,  N.  J.,  Tex.,  '97 
Clark,  A.  O.,  Utah,  "97 
Clark,  Frank  //.,  Colo.,  '86 
Clark,  F.  H.,  Cal.,  '99 
Clark,  Jessie  L.,  Kan.,  "95 
Clark,  John  S.,  Mass.,  '92 
Clark,  L.  H.,  Wis.,  '84 
Clark,  V.  S.,  P.  R.,  '99 
Clark,  \\.  A.,  Neb.,  '95 
Clarke,  Elva  E.,  Kan.,  '94 
Clarke,  Francis  D.,  Mich.,  "97 
Claxton,  P.  P.,J>I,  C,  '98 
Clendenen,  T.  C,  III.,  '97 
Cleveland  Pub.  Lib'y,  Ohio,  '97 
Glum,  George  V.,  111.,  '99 
Cobb,  Chas.  D.,  N.  C,  1900 
Cobb,  Chas.  N.,N.Y., '94 
Cobb.  Collier,  N.  C,  '99 
Coburn,  F.  F.,  Mass.,  '99 
Cobum,  Wm.  G.,  Mich.,  '95 
Cochrane,  W.  E.,  N.  Y.,  '98 
Coddjngton,  A.  O.,  111.,  '93 
Coddington,  E.  A.,  Mich.,  1900 
Coe,  Emily  M.,  N.  C,  '80 
Coffin,  C.  W.  D.,  N.  Y.,  1900 
Cogswell,  Francis,  Mass.,  '93 
Colby.  E.  C,  N.  Y.,  '96 
Cole,  Chas.  H.,  W.  Va.,  '98 
Cole,  Chas.  W.,  N.  Y..  '92 
Cole,  L.  W.,  Okla.,  '98 
Cole,  Wm.  H.,  W.  Va.,  '70 
Colegrove,  A.  D.,  Pa.,  '95 
Colegrove,  P.  P.,  Minn.,  1900 
Coleman,  E.  N.,  Iowa,  '98 
Coleman,  J.  T.,  S.  C,  1900 
Colgrove,  C.  P.,  Iowa,  '97 
College,  Agr.,  of  Kan.,  '97 
College,  Amherst,  Mass.,  '97 
College,  Boston,  Mass.,  '97 
College,  Brig.  Young,  Utah,  '98 
College,  Bryn  Mawr,  Pa.,  '99 
College,  Conn.  Agri.,  '99 
College,  Dickinson,  Pa.,  '99 
College,  Hendrix,  Ark., '97 
College,  Midland,  Kan.,  '99 
College,  Mont.  State,  '99 
College,  Pa.  St.,  1900 
College,  Pomona,  Cal.,  '99 
College,  Pritchett,  Mo.,  1900 
College,  Smith,  Mass.,  '98 
College,  S.  D.  Agri.,  '99 
College,  Valparaiso,  Ind.,  '97 
College,  Vassar,  N.  Y,,  '98 
College,  Wabash,  Ind.,  '95 
College,  Wheaton,  111.,  '99 
College,  Williams,  Mass.,  '97 
College,  Woman's.  Md.,  '99 
Collins,  E.  E.,  S.  D., '99 
Collins,  J.  H.,  111., '95 


95 


Collins,  Mrs.  J.  H.,  111.,  '95 
Collins,  John  S.,  Mo.,  '97 
Columbia  University,  N.  V.,  'i__ 
Comings,  Fannie  S.,  N.  Y.,  '95 
Compton,  Mrs.  H.  T.,  Cal.,  '^ 
Comstock,  D.  Y.,  Vt.,  '99 
Comstock,  T.  B.,  Cal.,  '95 
Congdon,  C.  H.,  111.,  '94 
Conkling,  W.  E.,  Mich.,  '96 
Conley,  Geo.  H.,  Mass.,  '97 
Conn.  Agri.  College,  Conn.,  '99 
Converse,  F.  E.,  Wis.,  '97 


792 


NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION 


Cotiway,  Clara,  Tenn.,  '87 
Cook,  Chas.  F„  Me.,  '98 
Cook,  £.//.,N.  Y.,'85 
Cook,  Elizabeth  B.,  111.,  '96 
Cook,  F.  L.,  S.  D.,  '75 
Cook,  Geo.  B.,  Ark.,  '95 
Cook,  Ida  M.,  111.,  '99 
Cook,  John  W.,  111.,  '90 
Cook,  W.  H.,  Cal.,  '99 
Cooley,  Mrs.  A.  W..  Minn.,  '96 
Cooley,  E.  G.,  Ill  , '97 
Cooley,  F.  A.,  Ariz.,  '99 
Cooley,  F.  W.,  Mich.,  '95 
Cooley,  L.  C,  N.  Y.,  '96 
Cooper,  F.  B.,  Utah,  '94 
Cooper,  F.  I.,  Mass.,  '93 
Cooper,  O.  H.,  Tex.,  '94 
Coover,  N.,  Kan.,  '86 
Copeland,  A.  B.,  Colo.,  '99 
Copeland,  Chas.  H.,  Ind.,  '99 
Corbett,  H.  R„  111.,  '90 
Corbin,  J.  C,  Ark.,  '98 
Corcoran,  Tressa  M.,  Ohio,  '96 
Cornell  Univ.  Library,  N.  Y.,  '96 
Cornell,  Watson,  Pa.,  '96 
Corson,  O.  T.,  Ohio,  '87 
Corthell,  W.  J.,  Me.,  '92 
Co,  Teachers'  Asso.,  Wis.,  '84 
Cottingham,  J.  M.,  Mo.,  '97 
Cotton,  F.  A.,  Ind..  '98 
Coulter,  Minnie,  Cal.,  '99 
Cowgill,  Paul  A.,  Mich.,  '98 
Cox,  Edwin  B.,  Ohio,  '89 
Cox,  E.  Morris,  Cal.,  '96 
Cox,  Henry  C,  111.,  '95 
Cox,  Jean  N.,  N.  J.,  '97 
Cox,  Martin  L.,  N.  J.,  '93 
Cox,  T.  L.,  Ark.,  1900 
Cox,  Wm.  J.  M.,  111., '99 
Coy,  Emma,  111..  '97 
Coy,  E.  W.,  Ohio,  '83 
Crabbe.J.G.,  Ky., '97 
Crabtree,  J.  W.,  Neb.,  '95 
Crabtree,  Mrs.  D.  W.,  Neb.,  '99 
Craig,  Arthur  U.,  Ala.,  '99 
Craig,  Oscar  J.,  Mont.,  '92 
Craig,  Wm.  B.,  Iowa,  1900 
Crane,  Mrs.  Chas.  R.,  III.,  '97 
Crane,  Frank,  S.  D.,  '95 
Crane,  Julia  E.,  N.  Y.,  '95 
Crane,  Wm.  I.,  Ohio,  '99 
Cranston,  R.  W.,  Minn.,  '96 
Creager,  W.  B.,  Ariz.,  '99 
Crissy,  I.  O.,  N.  Y.,  '98 
Crist,  Henry  M.,  N.  Y.,  '96 
Critchett,  E.  T.,  Minn.,  '98 
Crocker,  H.  G.,  Cal.,  '99 
Crockett,  May  M.,  III.,  '95 
Cronebaugh,  C.  L.,  Ohio,  '99 
Cropsey,  Miss  N.,  Ind.,  '91 
Crosby.  IV.  E.,  N.  Y.. '70 
Crosier,  M.  E.,  Iowa,  '95 
Cross,  J.  G.,  Cal.,  '99 
Crouch,  Sarah  E.,  Mo.,  '95 
Grouse,  Mrs.  J.  N.,  111.,  ^93 
Crouter,  A.  L.  E.,  Pa.,  1900 
Cruikshaiik,  Jas,,  N.  Y.,  '57 
Cubberly,  E.  P.,  Cal.,  '94 
Culbertson,  E.  D.  Y.,  Iowa,  '95 
Cummins,  J.  P.,  Ohio,  1900 
Cunningham,  J.  B.,  Ala.,  '95 
Curran,  Ulysses  T„  Ohio,  '66 
Currier,  E.  H.,  N.  Y.,  '97 
Curry,  Robt.,  Pa.,  '84 
Curtis,  A.  £.,  Mich.,  '96 
Curtis,  Virgil  G.,  Ohio,  '92 
Curtiss,  Fred.  A.,  Conn.,  '94 
Dabney,  C.  W.,  Tenn.,  '99 
Dafoe,  Geo.  Eher,  Wis.,  '97 
Dai  ley,  M.  E.,  Cal., '98 
Dalton,  T.  E.,  Ariz.,  '98 
Dana,  Fenella,  Kan.,   95 
Daniels,  J.  W.,  Ida.,  '98 
Davenport,  Benella,  Fla.,  1900 
Davidson,  Chas.  C,  Ohio,  '80 
Davidson,  F.  P.,  Cal.,  '99 
Davidson,  Wm.  M.,  Kan.,  '90 
Davis,  A.  J.,  Pa.,  '98 


Davis,  Allan,  D.  C,  '95 
Davis,  Booth  C,  N.  Y.,  '96 
Davis,  Ellery  W.,  Neb.,  '99 
Davis,  Emma  C,  Ohio,  '94 
Davis,  Eva  L.,  Ark.,  '98 
Davis,  Geo.  S.,  N.  Y.,  '96 
Davis,  Geo.  W.,  111.,  '96 
Davis,  John  W.,N.Y., '95 
Davis,  J.  M.,  Iowa,  '98 
Davis,  W.  M..  Mass.,  '99 
Dawson,  H.  T.,  N.  Y.,  "95 
Deahl,  J.  N.,  W.  Va.,  '96 
Dean,  Mrs.  Annie  B.,  Wis.,  '99 
Deane,  Chas.  W.,  Conn.,  '89 
Dearborn,  R.  J.,  Tenn.,  1900 
Dearmont,  W.  S.,  Mo.,  '99 
Deatrick,  W.  W.,  Pa.,  '92 
Decker,  Wm.  H.,  N.  Mex.,  '99 
De  Garmo,  Chas.,  N.  Y.,  '89 
Delano,  Edward  C.,  111.,  '95 
Demarest,  J.  B.  T.,  N.  Y.,  1900 
Denfeld,  Robt.  E.,  Minn.,  '90 
Dept.  Pub.  Instr.,  III.,  '99 
Deupree,  J.  G.,  Miss.,  '97 
Dewey,  Jas.  A.,  Pa.,  '93 
Dewey,  John,  111.,  '97 
Dewey,  Melvil,  N.  Y.,  '92 
Dial,  S.  T.,  Ohio,  '95 
Dibble,  V.  C,  Jr.,  S.  C,  1900 
Dick,  Fred.,  Colo.,  '95 
Dickens,  J.  L.,  Tenn.,  1900 
Dickinson  College,  Pa.,  '99 
Dickey,  C.  L.,  Ohio,  '95 
Dietrich,  Chas.  H.,  Ky.,  '91 
Dietrich,  John,  Colo.,  '95 
Dillman,  L.  M.,  111.,  '86 
Dinsmore.  J.  W.,  Ky. ,  '98 
Dix,  Wm.  T.,  111..  '96 
Dixon,  B.  V.  B.,  La.,  '97 
Doane,  Letitia  L.,  111.,  '97 
Dobson,  W.  D.,  Mo.,  '97 
Dodd,  Arthur  A.,  Mo.,   95    ' 
Dodge,  M.  Luella,  111.,  '97 
Dodge,  R.  E.,N.  Y., '98 
Dod&e,  Wm.  C,  111.,  '96 
Doggett,  VV.  E.,  N.  Y.,  1900 
Dolphin,  M.  E.,  Kan.,  '95 
Donohoe,  Mary  J.,  N.  J.,  '94 
Dorland,  J.  E.,  Ky.,  '92 
Doron,  W.  A.,  Iowa,  '97 
Dougherty,  Mabel  E.,  111.,  '96 
Dougherty,  N.  C,  111.,  '87 
Doughty,  Jas.  C,  Nev. ,  '99 
Dow,  J.  J.,  Minn.,  '96 
Downey,  Miss  B.  P.,  Mont.,  '99 
Downing,  A.  S.,  N.  Y.,  '91 
Downs,  Edgar  R.,  Colo.,  '94 
Doyle,  Marie  E.,  Wis.,  '91 
Dozier,  Melville,  Cal.,  '95 
Draper,  Andrew  S.,  III.,  '88 
Dreher,  E.  S.,  S.  C,  '96 
Dresser,  Mrs.  R.  L.  R.,  N.  J.,  "99 
Ducker,  W.  H.,  111.,  '95 
Dudgeon,  R.  B.,  Wis.,  '94 
Dudley,  Mrs.  E.,  Iowa,  '97 
Dudley,  Marion  C,  S.  C,  1900 
Durham,  Mrs.  C.  M.,  Pa.,  '92 
Dutton,  Bettie  A .,  Ohio,  '80 
Dutton,  S.  T.,  N.  Y.,  '95 
Dyer,  F.  B.,  Ohio.  '96 
Dyer,  Frank  R.,  Kan.,  '91 
Dyke,  Chas.  B.,  Va.,  '99 
Eakins,  Mrs.  Millie  R.,I11.,  '96 
E.  111.  St.  Nor.  School,  111.,  '99 
Ea.stman,  Wm.  R.,  N.  Y.,  '96 
Easton,  Warren,  La.,  '95 
Eaton,  Ira  T.,  111.,  '94 
Eaton,  John,  D   C.,'93 
Ebaugh,  Z.  C,  Md.,  V 
Eden,  PhiliJ),  Wis.,  '84 
Edgerly,  Jos.  G.,  Mass.,  '96 
Ed.  Assoc,  N.  D.,  '96 
Editor's  Library,  N.  Y.,  '97 
Edmonds,  F.  S.,  Pa.,  '98 
Edmund,  Gertrude,  Mass.,  '97 
Edson,  A.  W.,N.  Y.. '96 
Edwards,  Anna  E.,  Cal.,  '99 
Edwards,  H.  U.,  Minn.,  '97 


Edwards,  I.E.,  Md.,  '98 
Edwards,  W.  A,,  Cal.,  '99 
Edwards,  W.  F..  Mich,,  1900 
Edwards,  W.  S.,  Cal.,  '99 
Ehinger,  C.  E.,  Pa.,  '97 
Elder,  Ella  C,  N.  Y.,  '96 
Elder,  E.  W.,  Colo.,  95 
Elgas,  Mathew  J..  N.  Y.,  '91 
Eliot,  Chas.  W.,  Mass.,  '92 
Elliff,  J.  D.,  Mo.,  '98 
Elliott,  A.  M.,  Md.,  '99 
Elliott,  E.  C,  Colo.,  '99 
Elliott,  J.  F.,  Ala.,  '98 
Ellis,  John  C,  111.,  '87 
Ellis,  Wm.  Austin.  Mich.,  '87 
Ellis,  W.  S.,  Ind.,  1900 
Ellsworth,  Henry  W.,  N,  Y.,'96 
Elmer,  Frances  A.,  Minn.,  '97 
Elson,  W.  H.,  Mich.,  '95 
Elterich,  Bertha,  N.  J,,  1900 
Elwell,  Mrs.  O.  F.,  N.  J.,  '96 
Ely,  Sarah  Y.,  N.  J.,  '92 
Emerson,  Henry  P.,  N.  Y.,  '93 
Emery,  John  Q.,  Wis., '84 
English,  Rebecca  F.,  Cal.,  '88 
Estabrook,  J.  B.,  Wis.,  '99 
Estee,  Jas.  A.,  N.  Y.,  '96 
Ez'ans,  Chas.  H.,  Mo.,  '86 
Evans,  Lawton  B.,  Ga.,  '94 
Evans,  Wm,  P.,  Mo.,  '98 
Ewing,  R.  D.,  Mich., '99 
Fagan,  Rev.  J.  P.,  D.  C,  '99 
Fairchild,  E.  T.,  Kan.,  '86 
Fairchild,  Geo.  T.,  Ky.,  '86 
Fall,  Delos,  Mich..  '97 
Fant,  John  C,  Miss.,  '97 
Farley,  Anne  J.,  N.  Y.,  '97 
Farley,  D.  H.,  N.  J.,  '96 
Farley,  Geo.  L.,  Neb.,  '97 
Farnsworth,  Fannie  P.,  Minn.,  '98 
Farnsworth,  S.  A.,  Minn.,  '94 
Farrand,  Wilson.  N.  J.,  '95 
Farrell,  Edw.  D.,  N.  Y.,  V 
Farson,  M.  Elizabeth,  III.,  '97 
Faulkner,  R.  D.,  Cal.,  '99 
Fay,  Edw.  A.,  D.  C,  '99 
Felker,  AllieM.,H.  I.,  '95 
Fell,  Anna  M.,  N.  J.,  '97 
Fels,  Maurice,  Pa.,  '98 
Fendley,  J.  M.,  Tex.,  '95 
Fenton,  Geo.,  N.  Y,,  '92 
Ferguson,  E.  E.,  Mich.,  '96 
Ferguson,  F.  L.,  Cal.,  '99 
Fernald,  M.  C,  Me,,  '90 
Ferris,  W.  N.,  Mich.,  '99 
Fillmore,  Nettie,  Ohio,  1900 
Fishburne,  E.  B.,  Va.,  '99 
Fisher,  Oilman  C,  Mass.,  '92 
Fisher,  H.  W.,  Pa.,  '92 
Fisk,  Herbert  F.,  111.,  '91 
Fitch,  Ferris  S.,  Mich.,  '90 
Fitz,  Geo.  W.,  Mass.,  '98 
Fitzgibbons,  T.  F.,  Ind.,  '95 
Fitzpatrick,  Frank  A.,  Mass.,  '84 
Fleming,  Mary  A.,  N.  Y.,  '90 
Fleshman,  Arthur  C,  Ky..  '94 
Fletcher,  S.  S.  F.,  Eng.,  '99 
Flick,  W.  B.,  Ind., '95 
Flickinger,  J.  R.,  Pa.,  '98 
Fling,  Allen  C,  Neb.,  '98 
Floyd,  Laura  D.,  Ind.,  '98 
Floyd,  W.  L.,  Fla.,  1900 
Foerste,  A.  F.,  Ohio,  '96 
Foos,  Anna,  Neb.,  '97 
Foose,  L.  O.,  Pa.,  '96 
Fooshe,  J.  Frank,  S.  C,  '98 
Foote,  Mary  C,  111.,  '97 
Forbes,  Alexander,  111.,  '76 
Forbes,  John  A.,  111.,  '98^ 
Ford,  Lyman  H.,  Iowa.,  '97 
Fordyce,  Chas.,  Neb.,  '99 
Foresman,  H.  A.,  111.,  '96 
Foresman,  Robt.,  111.,  '96 
Forrest,  J.  T.,  Wash.,  '95 
Fort,  W.  H.,  Mich., '97 
Foshay,  Jas.  A.,  Cal,,  '93 
Foster,  C.  E.,  Tex., '97 
Fowler, .W.  K.,  Neb.,  '92 


INDEX  TO  LIFE  AND  ACTIVE  MEMBERS 


793 


Fox,  Wm.  F.,  Va.,  '94 
Francis,  J.  H.,  Cal.,  '99 
Frank,  H.  L.,  Ind.,  '99 
Franklin,  Geo.  A.,  Minn.,  '97 
Frasher,  Mrs.N.  L.  D.,  H.  I.,  1900 
Frasier,  W.  F.,  Vt.,  1000 
Frazee,  Victor,  R.  I.,  96 
Freeman,  J.  H.,  111.,  '95 
Freeman,  JohnT.,  D.  C.,  '98 
Freer,  H.  H.,  Iowa,  '84 
French,  Geo.  \V.,  N.  Y.,  '9s 
French,  Harlan  P.,  N.  Y.,  '91 
French,  John  D.,  Neb.,  '99 
French,  O.  E.,  Iowa,  '95 
French,  Permeal,  Ida.,  '99 
Friedberg,  Wm.  B.,  N.  Y.,  '92 
Friedel,  Chas.,  Ore.,  '97 
Friedman,  Anna  E.,  N.  Y.,  '95 
Frisbee,  H.  D.,  N.  Y.,  '99 
Frissell,  H.  B.,  Va.,  1900 
Frost,  H.  H.,  Mich.,  '95 
Frost,  J.  M.,  111.,  '97 
Fruchte,  Amelia  C,  Mo.,  '96 
Fry,  W.  W.,  Fla.,1900 
Fuller,  Sarah,  Mass.,  1900 
Fulton,  Robt.  B.,  Miss.,  "94 
Fulton,  W,  L.,  Ohio,  '96 
Funk,  Clara,  Ind.,  '99 
Funk,  J.  P.,  Ind.,  '99 
Futrall,  Thos.  A.,  Ark.,  '87 
Gafney,  T.  M.,  N.  Y.,  '98 
Gage,  Nathaniel  P.,  D.  C,  '98 
Galbreath,  T.  C,  Md.,  '99 
Gammon,  Mrs.  M.  D.,  Wis.,  '97 
Gans,  W.  G.,  Pa.,  '05 
Gantvoort,  A.  J.,  Ohio,  '94 
Garrett,  Mary  §.,  Pa.,  '97 
Garrett,  VV>n.  R.,  Tenn  ,  '86 
Garrette,  Irene,  Iowa,  '97 
Garvin,  John  B.,  Colo.,  '95 
Gass,  B.  R.,  Colo.,  '99 
Gastman,  E.  A.,  111.,  '95 
Gates,  Elmer,  Md.,  '98 
Gates,  Howard,  Ark.,  '96 
Gates,  Merrill  £.,  D.  C,  '99 
Gayhart,  Walter  C.,  Nev.,  '95 
Gayley,  Chas.  M.,  Cal.,  '99 
Geary,  Grace,  Mo.,  '97 
Geer,  David  S.,  111.,  '86 
Geetirg,  D.  M.,  Ind.,  '95 
Geiger,  F.  P.,  Ohio,  1900 
Gentle,  T.  H.,  Wis.,  '98 
George,  Austin,  Mich.,  '95 
Germann,  Geo.  B.,  N.  Y.,  '98 
Gettemy,  Mrs.  M.  E.,  111.,  '92 
Gibson,  C.  B.,  Ga.,  '98 
Gibson,  John  A.,  Pa.,  '96 
Giddens,  L.  P.,  Ala.,  1900 
Gideon,  Geo.  D.,  Pa.,  "qg 
Giffin,  W.  M„  111.,  '95 
Gilbert,  C.  B.,  N.  J.,  % 
Gilbert.  Irene,  Mo.,  1900 
Gilbert,  Mrs.  M.  E.,  111.,  '99 
Gilbert,  Newell  D.,  111.,  '95 
Gilday,  Mary,  Mo..  '95 
Gillan,  Silas  Y.,  Wis., '95 
Gillespie,  Mary,  111.,  '97 
Gillespie,  Nellie.  III.,  '97 
Gilliam,  R.  F.,  S.  C,  1900 
Gillman,  Daniel  C,  Md.,  '96 
Girton,  Wm.  W.,  S.  D.,  '99 
Gladding,  A.  E.,  Ohio,  '96 
Glascock,  Wm.  H.,  Ind.,  "99 
Glass,  E.  C,  Va.,'Q4 
Glenn,  Chas.  B.,  A'a.,  1900 
Glenn,  G.  R  ,Ga.,'9s 
Glotfelter,  J.  H.,  Kan..  '99 
Glover,  Nathan  L.,  Ohio,    ' 
Gminder,  A.  J.,  Md.,  ' 
Goddard.  Wm.  E.,  WisI,  '99 
Golden,  H.  VV„  Pa.,  '98 
Goodhue,  Lincoln  P.,  111.,  '93 
Goodnough,  Walter  S.,  N.  Y.,'82 
Goodwin,  A.  C,  Ind.,  '99 
Goodyear,  E.  F.,  Cal.,  '99 
Gordon,  Jos.  C.  III.,  '97 
Gordy,  J.  P.,  Ohio,  '96 
Gordy,  W,  F.,  Conn.,  '98 


Gorton.  Chas.  E.,  N.  Y.,  '96 
Goss,  D.  K.,  Germany,  '95 
Gotwals,  Jos.  K.,  Pa.,  '92 
Gove,  Aaron,  Colo.,  '88 
Gower,  Hattie  F.,  Cal.,  '99 
Graeser,  C.  A.,  S.  C,  '97 
Graham,  Hugh  A.,  Mich.,  '95 
Graham,  Jas.  D.,  Cal.,  '99 
Grandy,  Mary  A.,  Mass.,  '93 
Grant,  Miss  A.  L.,  D.  C,  '98 
Grant,  H.  L.,  Minn., '96 
Gratz,  Simon,  Pa.,  '79 
Gray,  Arthur  W.,  Cal.,  igoo 
Gray,  H.  W.,  N.  Y.,  '98 
Gray,  Jennie  B.,  N.  C,  1900 
Greason,  Elmira  R.,  Okla.,  1900 
Greeley,  J.  P.,  Cal.,  '88 
Green,  Jas.  M.,  N.  J.,  '92 
Greene,  John  A.,  N.  Y.,  '93 
Greene,  Josephine  A.,  N.  Y.,  '99 
Greenlee,  Ida  K.,  Mass.,  '93 
Greenlee,  L.  C  Colo.,  '92 
Greenman,  A.  V.,  111.,  '97 
Greenwood,  J.  M.,  Mo.,  '86 
Gregory,  Benj.  C,  N.  J.,  '94 
Gregory,  Lyman,  Cal..  '99 
Grenfell,  Helen  L.,  Colo.,  '99 
Griffin,  E.  H.,  Md.,  '99 
Griffith,  E.  W.,  N.  Y.,  '96 
Griffith,  Geo..  N.  Y.,  '93 
Griffiths,  G.  C,  III.,  '96 
Griggs,  Herbert,  Colo.,  '99 
Grimsley,  G.  A.,  N.  C,  '98 
Grindle,  H.  D.,  Ohio,  '98 
Grisham,  G.  N.,  Mo.,  1900 
Gross,  Otis  C,  Wis.,  '96 
Groszmann,  M.  P.  E.,  Va.,  '94 
Grove,  M.  A.,  Pa.,  '97 
Groves,  Chas.  W.,  111.,  '96 
Grupe,  Mary  A.,  Wash.,  '99 
Grussendorf,  D.  A.,  Minn.,  '98 
Gruver,  E.  A.,  N.  Y.,  1900 
Guden,  Anna  J.,  N.  J.,  94 
Guilliams,  J.  M.,  Ga.,'97 
Guinther,  \.  C,  Ohio,  1900 
Gunn,  A.  F.,  Cal.,  '99 
Gunnison,  W.  B.,  >f.  Y.,  '96 
Guss,  Roland  W.,  Mass.,  '95 
Guttmann,  Albert,  Wis.,  '97 
Hadley,  Hiram,  N.  Mex.,  '91 
Haertel,  M.  H.,  111.,  '99 
Hagemann,  J.  A.,  Wis.,  '99 
Hagerty,  C.  T.,  N.  Mex.,  '95 
Haggett,  Geo.  B.,  N.  Mex.,  '97 
Haight,  R.  A.,  111.,  '95 
Hailmann,  W.  N.,  Ohio,  '79 
Hale,  Geo.  D.,  N.  Y.,  '91 
Hale,  Wm.  G.,  111.,  '99 
Hall,  Caleb  G.,  N.  Y..  '85 
Hall,  Dana  W.,  III., '91 
Hall,  Edwin  H.,  Mass.,  '99 
Hall,  Frank  H.,  111..  '97 
Hall,  G.  Stanley,  Mass.,  '91 
Hall,  Isaac  Freeman,  Mass.,  '93 
Hall,  Loyal  Freeman,  Pa.,  '93 
Hall,  Mary  F.,  N.  Y.,  '93 
Hall,  R.  C.,  Ark.,  '98 
Hall,  W.  S.,  III..  'q9 
Hallam,  Alfred,  N.  Y.,  '96 
Halland,  J.  G.,  N.  D.,  '97 
Halleck,  R.  P.,  Ky.,  '97 
Halsey,  R.  H.,  Wis.,  '95 
Hambrecht,  Geo.  P.,  Wis.,  '99 
Hamilton,  jas.  M.,  Mont.,  '95 
Hamilton,  R.  I.,  Ind.,  '96 
Hamilton,  Sam.,  Pa.,  '98 
Hamilton.  Wm.,  D.  C,  '98 
Hamlin,  Cyrus,  Miss.,  '99 


10,    09  riamlin,  Cyrus,  iVliss.,   99 

98  Hammel,  f.  C,  Cal.,  '99 

!.,  '99  Hammel,  W.  C.  A.,  Md.,  iq 


Hampton,  Miss  C,  Fla.,  1900 
Hampton  Institute,  Va.,  '99 
Hancock,  John  A.,  Cal.,  '95 
Hand,  W.  H.,  S.  C.,  '96 
Hanna,  G.  C,  P.  R.,  '97 
Hanna,  John  C.  111.,  '98 
Hanson,  Myra  H.,  Ohio,  '98 
Hanus,  Paul  H.,  Mass.,  '95 


Hardy,  Richard,  111.,  '94 
Harison,  W.  B.,  N.  Y.,  '92 
Harper,  Wm.R.,  111., '95 
Harrington,  C.  L.,  N.  Y.,  '98 
Harris,  Abram  W.,  Me.,  '98 
Harris,  Ada  Van  Stone,  N.  J.,  '95 
Harris,  Edw.  L.,  Ohio,  '94 
Harris,  Edwin  S.,  N.  Y.,  '98 
Harris,  Henry  E.,  N.  J.,  '93 
Harris  Inst.  Lib'y,  R.  I.,  '99 
Harris,  J.  C  Ga.,  '99 
Harris,  Jas.  H.,  Mich.,  '98 
Harris,  Julia  A.,  Ohio,  '94 
Harris,  Mary  E.,  N.  Y.,  '96 
Harris,  T.  G.,  Tex.,  '95 
Harris,  IVm.  T.,  D.  C,  '76 
Harrison,  Elizabeth,  III.,  '95 
Harrison,  Miles  W.,  Ind.,  96 
Hart,  Albert  Bushnell,  Mass.,  '95 
Hartigan,  Mary  S.  L.,  111.,  '95 
Hartman,  Mary,  III.,  '95 
Harvard  Coll.  Lib'y,  Mass.,  '95 
Harvey,  G.  I.,  Mo.,  '86 
Harvey,  L.  D.,  Wis.,  '84 
Harvey,  N.  A.,  111.,  '97 
Haskins,  C.  H.,  Wis., '99 
Hatch.  Ida  P.,  S.  D.,  '99 
Hatch,  W.  E.,  Mass.,  '97 
Hatch.  W.  H.,  111.,  '95 
Hatfield,  C.  B.,  Ky.,  1900 
Hauer,  J.  S.,  Ohio,  1900 
Haupert,  Chas.,  Ohio,  '93 
Haupt,  J.  G.,  La.,  '96 
Haven,  Caroline  T.,  N.  Y.,  '96 
Hayden,  H.  B.,I11..'^7 
Hayden,  P.  C,  Iowa,  '95 
Hayes,  C.  L.,  Fla.,  1900 
Hayes,  Frances  C,  N.  Y.,  '96 
Hayes,  H.  E.,  N.  Y., '92 
Hays,  Dudley  G.,  111.,  V 
Hays,  James L.,  N,  J.,  1900 
Hayward,  Edw.,  N.  Y.,  '9,'; 
Hayward,  Emily  A.,  111.,  "84 
Hazen,  David  H.,  D.  C,  '98 
Hazen,  Lillian  D.,  Cal.,  '99 
Heath,  D.  C,  Mass.,  '91 
Heath,  E.  L.,  Mich.,  '99 
Heaton,  T.  L.,  Cal.,  '99 
Hebden,  Edwin,  Md.,  1900 
Heermans,  Josephine,  Mo. ,  '96 
Heidler,  S.  H.,  111., '97 
Heighway,  F,  F.,Ind.,  '99 
Heineken,  J.  F.  D.,  N.  J.,  '94 
Heizer,  John  A.,  Ohio,   99 
Helmer,  Harry,  111.,  '95 
Henderson,  Mrs.  Kate  A.,  111., '97 
Hendrick,  Welland,  N.  Y.,  '95 
Hendricks,  J.  P.,  Mont.,  '98 
Hendrix  College,  Ark.,  '97 
Henninger,  J.  W.,  III.,  '96 
Henry,  Jas.  A.,  Tenn.,  '96 
Henry,  f.  B.,  Kan.,  1900 
Hermanns,  Edw.  F.,  Colo.,  '95 
Herrick,  C.  A.,  Pa.,  1900 
Herrig,  Anna  B.,  S.  D.,  '95 
Hershman,  W.  H.,  Ind.,  '96 
Hertel,  Chas.,  111.,  '95 
Hervey,  Henry  D.,  R.  I.,  '96 
Hervey,  Walter  L.,  N.  Y.,  %% 
Herzog,  Peter,  Mo.,  '97 
Hess.  Wm.  C,  N.  Y.,  '96 
Hester,  W.  A.,  Ind..  '95 
Hewe.<,  W.  D.,N.  Y., '96 
Hewett,  Edgar  L.,  N.  Mex.,  '99 
Hewett,  Edwin  C,  111.,  '84 
Hicks.  Mrs.  Mary  D.,  Mass.,  '90 
Hill,  A.  Ross,  Neb., '99 
Hill,  Frank  A..  Mass.,  '95 
Hill,  John  A.,  Ind.,  '99 
Hill,  Mary,  Wis.,  '96 
Hill,  Walter  B.,  Ga.,  '99 
Himes,  Florence  B.,  N.  Y.,  '94 
Hinemon,  J.  H.,  Ark.,  '96 
Hinsdale,  6.  A.,  Mich.,  '84 
Hiser,  W.  S.,  Ind.,  '98 
Hisey,  Jos.  C,  111.,  ^94 
Hitz,  John,  D.  C,  '80 
Hobe,  Augusta  tV.,  Cal.,  '89 


794 


NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION 


Hodgdon,  Miss  J.  E.,  N.  Y.,  '82 
Hodgin,Chas.  E.,  N.  Mex.,  '95 
Hodgin,  Cyrus  W.,  Ind.,  '95 
Hodgson,  C.  W.,  Cal.,  '99 
Hoegelsboerger,  Nora,  D.  C,  '98 
Hofer,  Amalie,  111.,  '95 
Hoffman,  Benj.  F.,  Mo.,  '97 
Hoffman,  Gains,  N.  J.,  '94 
Hogan,  Louise  E.,  N.  J.,  '98 
Hogg,  Alex.,  Tex.,  '74 
Hogg,  Miss  V.  O.,  Ark.,  '98 
Holden,  C.  C.,N.  Y., '98 
Hollingsworth,  J.  L.,  Fla.,  '95 
Holloway,  J,  L,,  Ark.,  '95 
Holmes,  Evelyn,  S.  C,  1900 
Holmes,  M.  A..  S.C.,  1900 
Homans,  Amy  M.,  Mass.,  '91 
Hooper,  Sanford  A.,  Cal.,  '89 
Hoose,  Jatnes  H.,  Cal.,  '79 
Hoover,  W.  E.,  N.  D.,  '97 
Hopkins,  J.  G.,  Minn.,   94 
Hopkins,  L.  Grace,  Minn.,  '94 
Hopkins,  S.  N.,  Okla.,  '98 
Horchem,  B.  J.,  Iowa,  '97 
Hornberger,  J.  A.,  111.,  '95 
Houck,  Henry,  Pa.,  '97 
House,  L.  J.,  Ohio,  '98 
Housh,W.  H.,  Cal., '99 
Houston,  J.  R.,  Ind.,  '96 
Howard,  F.  E.,  Conn.,  '96 
Howard,  Geo.  A.,  Ohio,  '95 
Howe,  Agnes  E.,  Cal.,  '99 
Howe,  Geo,  H.,  Mo.,  '98 
Howe.S.  B.,N.  Y., '95 
Howe.  Wilbur  W.,  N.  Y.,  '95 
Howell,  Geo.,  Pa., '96 
Howell,  Logan  D.,  N.  Y.,  '94 
Howerth,  Ira  W.,  111.,  '99 
Hoyt,  C.  O.,  Mich.,  '97 
Hoyt,  David  W.,  R.  I., '98 
Hoyt,  W.  Judson  E.,  Wis.,  "90 
Hubbard,  Mrs.  E.  A.,  111.,  '97 
Hubbard,  F.  V.,  Minn.,  '95 
Hufford,  Geo.  W.,  Ind.,  '94 
Hughes,  Mrs.  Ada  M.,  Can.,  "95 
Hughes,  Isaac  H.,  Mo.,  '98 
Hughes,  Jas.  L.,  Can.,  '90 
Hughes,  John  F.,  N.  Y.,  '98     « 
Hughes.  R.  L.,  Ind.,  1900 
Hughes,  W.  F.,  Ohio,  igoo 
Hulmg.  Ray  Greene,  Mass.,  '91 
Hull,  John,  Wash.,  '91 
Hull,  Lawrence  C  N.  Y.,  '93 
Hull,  Philip  M.,  N.  Y.,  '99 
Hull,  Warren  C,  Mich.,  '97 
Hulsart,  J.  H.,N.J.,'99 
Humke,  Albert  E.,  Ind.,  '93 
Humphrey,  S.  P.,  Ohio,  1900 
Hunt,  Mary  H.,  Mass.,  '87 
Hunter,  A.  D.,  Cal.,  '99 
Hunter,  Thos.,  N.  Y..  '85 
Hurd,  Geo.  B.,  Conn.,  '88 
Hussey.A.  W.,  111.,  '97 
Hutton,A.  J.,  Wis.,  '84 
Hutton,  Chas.  E.,Cal.,  '95 
Hyatt,  F.  H.,  Cal.,  '99 
Hyde,  Mary  F.,  N.  Y.,  '92 
111.  State  Nor.  Univ.,  '98 
Ind.  Nor.  Sch.  of  Pa.,  '99 
Ind.  State  Library,  '97 
Ind.  State  Nor.  Sch.,  Ind.,  "97 
Ind.  Univ.  Library,  '99 
Ingalls,  Will  C,  N.J. ,  '94 
Irwin,  John  S.,  Ind.,  '80 
Jackman,  Wilbur  S.,  111.,  '95 
Jackson,  Mrs.  E.  R.,N.  Mex.,"95 
Jackson,  Jos.  P.,  Cal.,  '95 
Jackson,  Wm.  R.,  Neb.,  '96 

Jacobs,  Walter  Ballon,  R.  I.,  '94 
acob  Tome  Insti.,  Md.,  '98 
James,  Henry  /I/., Ore.,  '84 
Jameson,  H.  W.,  N.  Y.,  "97 
Jandon,  Thos.  P.,  Jr.,  Mo.,  '98 
Janney,  B.  T.,  D.  C,  '98 
Jaques,  Jennie,  S.  C,  1900 
Jenkins,  O.  P.,  Cal.,  '99 
Jenkins,  Sara  D.,  N.  Y.,  '95 
Jersey  City  Pub.  Lib'y,  N.  J.,  '97 


Jesse,  Richard  H.,  Mo.,  '92 
Jeivett,  A.  v.,  Kan.,  '86 
John  B.  Stetson  Univ..  Fla.,  "99 
John  Crerar  Library,  111.,  '97 
Johns  Hopkins  Univ.,  Md.,  '99 
Johnson,  Dora,  Tenn.,  1900 
Johnson,  Ernest  Henry,  Mass. ,'93 
Johnson,  F.  W,,  Me.,  "98 
Johnson,  A.  B.,  Ohio,  1900 
Johnson,  Henry,  111.,   '99 
Johnson.  H.  M..  D.  C,  '98 
Johnson,  J.  A.,  111.,  '97 
Johnson,  Jesse  S.,  Ohio,  '98 
Johnson,  S.  Arthur,  Colo.,  '94 
Johnson,  T.  S.,  Kan.,  '99 
Johnson,  W.  H.,  Mont.,  '95 

Johnstone.  E.  R.,  N.  J.,  '96 
ones,  A.  Leroy,  N.  Y.,  '99 
Jones,  Arthur  O.,  Ohio,  '91 
Jones,  E.  A.,  Ohio,  '84 
Jones,  E.  C.  Lloyd,  Wis.,  "97 
Jones,  Edward  N.,  N.  Y.,  '84 
Jones,  Emma  F.,  111.,  '97 
Jones,  Frank  L.,  Ind.,  '95 
Jones,  Herbert  J.,  Mass.,  '96 
Jones,  Jane  Lloyd,  Wis.,  '97 
Jones,  J.  W.,  Ohio,  '96 
Jones,  L.  H.,  Ohio,  '89 
Jones.  Lizzie  P.,  Mont.,  '97 
Jones,  Mattie,  S.  D.,  '94 
Jones,  Myra,  Mich.,  '92 
Jones,  Richard,  Tenn.,  '94 

Jones,  W.  W.,  Wis.,  '97 
ordan,  Chas.  M.,  Minn.,  '93 
Jordan,  David  S.,  Cal.,  '98 
Joyner,  J.  Y.,  N.  C,  '98 
Judd,  L.  C.,N.  Y., '96 
Kammann,  C.  H.,  111.,  '97 
Kane,  T.  F.,  N.  Y.,  '89 
Kansas  State  Agri.  Coll.,  '97 
Karr,  Grant,  N.  Y.,  '99 
Kayser,  Carl  F.,  N.  J.,  '94 
Keane,  John  /.,  D.  C,  '89 
Keating,  J.  F.,  Colo.,  '95 
Keeler,  Harriet  L.,  Ohio,  '94 
Keister,  W.  H.,  Va.,  1900 
Kellogg,  Amos  M.,  N.  Y.,  '90 
♦Kellogg,  S.  H.,  Cal.,  '99 
Kenaston,  G.  F.,  Ind.,  '95 
Kendall,  C.  N.,  Ind.,  '95 
Kendall,  F.  A.,  III.,  '95 
Kenerson,  A.  H.,  Ma.ss.,  "95 
Kennedy,  Jas.  W..  N.  J..  '94 
Kennedy,  John,  N.  Y.,  '99 
Kennedy,  Jos.,  N.  D.,  '96 
Kennedy,  P.  P.,  Minn.,  '97 
Kenyon,  A.  B.,  N.  Y., '96 
Keppler,  Mrs.  W.  S.,  Fla.,  '94 
Kerlin,  W.  D..  Ind.,  '97 
Kerr,  Wm.  J.,  Utah,  '95 
Keves,  Chas.  H.,  Conn..  '95 
Keyset,  Roland  S.,  N.  Y.,  '96 
Keystone  Lit.  Soc,  Pa.,  '98 
Kiehle,  D.L.,  Minn.,  '80 
Kilbourne,  Effie  J..  Ill.,'95 
Kimmel,  M.  A.,  Ohio,  '93 
Kincannon,  A.  A.,  Miss.,  '96 
King,  Anne  H.,  Ohio,  '95 
King,  C.  B.,N.  C.,'99 
King,  F.  A.,  Ohio,  '96 
King,  Wm.  F.,  Iowa,  '84 
Kinney,  Burt  O.,  Cal.,  '99 
Kinsley,  M.H.,  N.J. ,'92 
Kirk,  Alfred,  111.,  '99 
Kirk,  John  R..  Mo.,  '91 
Kirk.T.  H..  Cal., '99 
Kirk,  Thos.  J.,  Cal.,  '95 
Kirkpatrick,  E.  A.,  Mass.,  '97 
Kleeberger,  Geo.  R.,  Minn.,  '95 
Klock,  J.  E..  N.  H.,  '86 
Kneil,  Thos.  R..  N.  Y.,  '95 
Knepper,  Geo.  E.,  Idaho,  '98 
Knight,  G.  L.,  S.  C,  1900 
Knieht,  I.ee  R.,  Ohio,  1900 
Koehler,  H.  C,  Ohio,  '99 
Koehler,  Mrs.  M.  R.,  N.  Mex,  '99 
Kolbe,  Julia  C,  Ohio,  '95 
Kraege,  F.  G..  Wis.,  '97 


Krall,  G.  W.,  Mo.,  '98 
Kratz,  H.  E.,  Iowa,  '90 
Kraus-Boelte,  Mrs.  M.,  N.Y.,'96 
Krecsy,  Bela,  Hungary,  '93 
Krieg,  A.  N.,  Ohio,  1900 
Kroh,  Carl  J.,  111..  '97 
Krohn.  Wm.  O.,  III..  '93 
Kruse,  Edwina,  B.,  Del.,  '91 
Kunou,  C.  A.,  Cal.,  '99 
Kuykendall,  A.  C,  Ky.,  '98 
Lagomarsino,  Cynthia,  N.  Y.,  '94 
Laird,  Mrs.  Ada  E.,  Ohio,  '90 
Laird,  S.  B.,  Mich.,  '96 
Lamar,  C.  P.,  Wyo.,  '99 
Lamb,  Eli  M.,  Md.,  '94 
Lamb,  Rachel  E.,  Md.,  '94 
L?mbert,  Vashti  A.,  111.,  '95 
Lamberton.  Mary  J.,  Pa.,   92 
Lancaster,  E.  G.,  Colo.,  '99 
Lancaster,  G.,  Wash.,  '98 
Landers,  J.  S.,  Ore., '99 
Landrum,  L.  M.,  Ga.,  '97 
Lane,  Albert  G.,  111.,  '84 
Lane,  Mrs.  F.  S.,  111.,  '94 
Lang,  Ossian  H.,  N.  Y.,  '91 
Lange,  D.,  Minn.,  '99 
Lansinger,  J.  W.,  Pa.,  '98 
Lapey,  Louise  M.,  N.  Y.,  '95 
Largent,  S.  D.,  Mont.,  '99 
Larimer,  Henry  G.,  Kan.,  '86 
Lark,  F.  E.,  Iowa,  '97 
Larkins.  Chas.  D.,  N.  Y.,  '95 
Lash,  W.  D.,  Ohio,  '99 
La  Taste,  Lucien  V.,  Ala.,  '94 
Lathrop.  Mrs.  C.  N.,  Ohio,  '93 
Lavers,  E.  C,  Pa.,  '92 
Lawrence,  Isabel,  Minn.,  '94 
Lawrence  Univ.,  Wis.,  '99 
Laws,  Annie,  Ohio,  '95 
Lawson,  Florence,  Cal.,  '97 
Lawton,  Chas.  E.,  N.  Y.,  '96 
Layton,  S.  Herrick,  Ohio,  95 
Lazenby,  Wm.  R.,  Ohio,  '95 
I.£ach,  Cephas  H.,  111..  '97 
Leavell,  Richard  M.,  Miss.,  '96 
Le  Conte,  Jos.,  Cal.,  '95 
Lee,  James,  N.  Y.,  '92 
Le  Garde,  Ellen,  R.  I.,  '96 
Lehigh  Univ..  Pa.,  '99 
Lehnerts,  E.  M.,  Minn.,  '99 
Leipziger,  Henry  M.,  N.  Y.,  '91 
Leiter,  Mrs.  Frances  W.,  Ohio,'96 
Leland  Stanford  Jr.  Univ.,  Cal., 

'97 
Lemon,  Anna  E.,  Cal.,   98 
Lemon,  J.  E.,  III.,  '99 
Lenfest,  B.  A.,  Mass.,  1900 
Leonard,  Albert,  Mich.,  '91 
Leslie,  Miss  H.  S.,  N.  J.,  '94 
Leviston,  Irwen,  Minn.,  '95 
Lewellen,  John  O.,  Ind.,  '96 
Lewis,  Jane  M.,  N.  J.,  '92 
Lewis,  J.  H.,  Minn.,  '99 
Lewis,  Leslie,  111.,  '95 
Library,  Altoona  Mech.,  Pa.,  '99 
Library,  Amherst  Coll.,  Mass., '97 
Library,  Athenaeum,  Minn.,  '98 
Library,  Boston,  Mass.,  1900 
Library,  Brockport  N.   Sch.,   N. 

Y.,  1900 
Library,  Bryson,  N.  Y.,  '98 
Library,  Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  '98 
Library,  Carnegie,  Pa..  '99 
Library,  Chicago,  III.,  '98 
Library,  Cleveland,  Ohio,  '97 
Library,  Detroit.  Mich.,  '97 
Library,  Editors',  N.  Y.,'97 
Library,  Harris  Inst.,  R.  I.,  '99 
Library,  Harvard  Coll.,  '95 
Library,  Ind.  Univ.,  Ind..  '99 
Library,  Jersey  City,  N.  J.,  '97 
Library,  John  Crerar,  111.,  '97 
Library,  Milwaukee,  Wis  ,  '98 
Library,  M.  T.    Dept.   T.   Coll., 

N.  Y.,  "99 
Library,  Newberry,  III.,  '98 
Library,  N.  H.  State,  '98 
Library,  New  York,  N.  Y„  '99 


INDEX  TO  LIFE  AND  ACTIVE  MEMBERS 


795 


Library,  Omaha,  Neb.,  '98 
Library,  Ped.,  Supt.  of  Schs.,  Pa., 

1900 
Library,  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  '97 
Library,  Port  Jervis,  N.  Y.,  '99 
Library,  Rockford  Pub.,  III.,  '99 
Librarj',  San  Francisco,  Cal.,  '97 
Library,  Scoville  Inst.,  III.,  1900 
Library,  Scranton,  Pa., '99 
Library,  Springfield,  Mass.,  '98 
Library,  State,  Cal.,  '99 
Library,  State  Hist.  Soc.,Wis.,'84 
Library,  State,  Ind.,  '97 
Library,  State,  Mass.,  '98 
Library,  State,  N.  H..  '98 
Library,  Superior  N.  Sch.,  Wis., 

1900 
Library,  Syracuse,  N.  Y.,  '98 
Library,  Univ.  of  Mich.,  '98 
Library,  Univ.  of  Pa.,  '98 
Library,  Univ.  of  Wyo.,  '97 
Library,  Worcester,  Mass.,  '98 
Light.  C.  M.,  N.  Mex.,  '95 
Lightbody,  Wm.,  Mich..  '96 
Limerick,  A.  N.,  Kan., '86 
Lincoln  Univ.,  HI.,  '97 
Ling,  Chas.  J.,  Colo.,  '95 
Little,  Clara  L.,  Colo.,  '95 
Locke,  John  S.,  Me., '95 
Logan,  Anna  E.,  Ohio,  '96 
Lollar,  Ezra  E.,  Ind.,  '99 
Long,  J.  L.,  Tex.,  '96 
Long,  Paul  J.,  N.  C,  1900 
Long,  R.  L.,  Ariz.,  '98 
Longan,  G.  B.,  Mo.,  '97 
Loos,  Chas.  L.,  Ohio,  '95 
Lord,  Edward,  N.  Y.,'97 
Lord,  L.C.,  111., '94 
Lord,  Orlandt  M.,  Me.,  '97 
Lott,  H.  C,  Mich.,  '97 
Lounsbery,  Louise  A.,  N.  Y..  '96 
Lovell,  Thomas  B.,  N.  Y.,  '96 
Low,  Seth,  N.  Y,,  '95 
Lowther,  L.  A.,  Kan.,  '97 
Luckey,  Edwin  D.,  Mo.,  "94 
Luckey,  G.  W.  A.,  Neb.,  '95 
Luebke,  Emma  J.,  Wis.,  '97 
Lugg,  Mary  L.,  Wis.,  '97 
Lukens,  Herman  T.,  Pa.,  '92 
Lyman,  E.  A.,  Mich.,  '98 
Lynch,  Chas.  P.,  Ohio,  '94 
Lynch,  M.  M.,  Va..  '98 
Lynch,  Wm.  H.,  Mo.,  '95 
Lyon,  Edmund  U.,  Ohio,  '98 
Lyon,  P.  W.,N.J.,'98 
Lyon,  W.  F.,  Mich.,  '97 
Lyons,  G.  K.,  Ohio,  '98 
Lyser,  Albert,  Cal.,  '98 
Lyte,  E.  Oram,  Pa..  '91  . 
Lvttle,  Eugene  W.,  N.  Y.,  '98 
Maas,  J.  J.,  Ohio, '99 
MacAlister.  Jas.,  Pa.,  '95 
Macdona,  Kate  P.,  N.  Y.,  '95 
MacDonald,  A.  H.,  Cal.,  '98 
Mac  Donald,  John,  Kan.,  '86 
MacDonald,  Margaret,  111.,  '96 
MacGowan,  ^V.  L.,  Pa.,  '96 
Mack,  Wm.  S.,  111.,  '95 
MacKenzie,  David,  Mich.,  '96 
Mackey,  E.,  Pa.,  '89 
Mackey,  Wm.  A.,  N.  Y.,  '94 
MacLean,  Geo.  E.,  Iowa,  '97 
Magee,  Harriet  C,  Wis.,  '97 
Magovern,  Mary  A.,  N.  Y.,  '96 
Maguire,  Mrs.  S.  C,  Mo.,  '97 
Maharry,  S.  H.,  Ohio,  '95 
Maitland,  Mrs.  Louise.  N.Y.,  '98 
Malsbary,  Alfred  E.,  Ind.,  '98 
Mandeville,  Jas.  M.,  Mich., '96 
Mankell,  Nathalie,  N.  Y.,  '96 
Mann,  Emma,  Ark.,  '98 
Manness,  S.  E.,  N.  J.,  '92 
Marble,  A.  P.,ti.  Y., '80 
Mardis,  S.  K.,  Ohio,  '95 
Mark.  Cecil  W..  Cal.,  '98 
Mark.  E.  H.,  Ky.,  '93 
Marlatt,  Abby  L.,  R.  I.,  '94 
Marquis,  J.  S.,S.  C, '9)8 


Marsh,  C.  O.,  Wis.,  "97 
Marsh,  Miles  E.,  Ky.,  '98 
Marshall,  Carl  C,  Mich.,  '95 
Marshall,  T.  M.,  W.  Va.,  '77 
Martin,  Artemas,  D.  C,  '98 
Martin,  Geo.  H.,  Mass.,  '93 
Martindale,  W.  C.,  Mich.,  '97 
Marvin,  Arthur,  N.  Y.,  '98 
Mason,  Lizzie,  Mass.,  '99 
Mason,  Wm.  A..  Pa.,  '98 
Mass.  Inst.  Tech.,  Mass.,  1900 
Massee,  J.  Edman,  N.  Y.,  '96 
Massey,  John,  Ala.,  '94 
Mather,  I.  F.,  Ind.,  '97 
Mathes,  Mrs.  Lena  B.,  Fla.,  1900 
Mathews,  Byron  C,  N.  J.,  '92 
Matlock,  J.  D.,  Ala.,  '98 
Matthews,  A.  J.,  Ariz.,  '99 
Maurer,  G.  C,  Ohio,  '95 
Maxson,  Henry  M.,  N.  J.,  '92 
Maxwell,  Wm.  H.,  N.  -Y.,  '92 
Maycock,  Mark  M.,  N.  Y.,  '96 
Mayer,  Mary  H.,  Pa.,  1900 
Mayne,  D.  D.,  Wis.,  '94 
McArdle,  H.  W.,  N.  D.,  '98 
McBride,  J.  K.,Tex.,  98 
McBroom,  Geo.  O.,  Ky.,  '92 
McCabe,C.  B.,  Pa., '96 
McCahan,  John  E.,  Md.,  '91 
McCallie,  J.  H.,  Tenn.,  '97 
McCallie,  J.  M.,  Ky.,  '99 
McCartney,  Livingstone,  Ky.,  '95 
McCaslin,  E.  E.,  D.  C.  '98 
McClintock,  O.  P.  M.,  Kan.,  '94 
McCIung,  J.  S.,  Colo.,  '95 
McClure,  S.  R.,  Pa..  '96 
McClymonds,  J.  W.,  Cal.,  '99 
McConathy,  W.  J.,  Ky.,  '96 
McConnell.  J.  J.,  Iowa,  '95 
McCord,  W.  A.,  Iowa,  '95 
McCowen,  Mary,  111.,  '97 
McCulloch,  Mary  C,  Mo.,  '92 
McCullough,  J.  F.,  111., '96 
McDaniel,  C.  M.,  Ind.,  '96 
McDevitt,  Rev.  P.  R.,  Pa.,  1900 
McElroy,  E.  B.,  Ore., '95 
McFarland,  Geo.  A.,  N.  D.,  '95 
McGhee,  W.  Zach,  S.  C,  1900 
McGinnis,  Jas.,  Ky.,  '93 
McGlynn,  J.  J.,  III.,  '95 
Mclntire.  W.  W.,  Ohio,  '95 
Mclver,  Chas.  D.,  N.  C,  '96 
McKee,  J.  Milford,  N.  Y.,  '95 
McKee,  Wm.  P.,  III., '99 
McKenuy,  Chas.,  Wis.,  '97 
McKillop,  Anna,  III.,  '97 
McKone,  W.  J.,  Mich.,  '99 
McLauchlin,  A.  L..  111.,  '95 
McLoughlin,  Edw.,  III.,  '99 
McLoughlin,  Mrs.  Edw.,  111.,  '99 
McMahan,  J.  J.,  S.  C,  '99 
McMillan,  D.  A.,  Mo.,  '99 
McMillan,  J.  V.,  Ohio,  '96 
McMillan,  Mrs.  S.  S.,  Ohio,  '80 
McMurry,  Chas.  A.,  111.,  '90 
McMurry,  F.  M.,  N.  Y., '95 
McMurry,  Mrs.  L.  B.,  111.,  '96 
McNaughton,  Jas.,  Cal.,  '95 
McNeal.  Florence,  Mo.,  '92 
McNeill,  I.  C,  Wis.,  '92 
McNelis.  N.  P.,  Pa.,  '97 
McRae,  O.  F.,  Ga.,  1900 
Mc Vicar,  Peter,  Kan.,  '86 
Mehan,  J.  M.,  Iowa,  '92 
Meland,  E.  C.  Wis.,  '97 
Meleney.  C.  E.,  N.  Y.,  '96 
Mercer  Univ.  Lib'y,  Ga..  '99 
Merica,  C.  C,  Wis.,  '97 
Mcrica,  F.  M..  Ind.,  '97 
Merrick,  H.  V.,  Ohio,  '98 
Merrifield,  Webster.  N.  D.,  '95 
Merrill,  Chas.  E.,  N.  Y.,  '94 
Merrill,  Edwin  C,  N.  J..  '96 
Merrill,  Geo.  A.,  Cal.,  1900 
Merrill.  Harriet  B.,  Wis.,  '96 
.Merrill,  J.  A.,  Wis.,  '97 
Merrill,  Jenny  B.,  N.  Y.,  '93 
Merrill,  J.  T.,  Iowa,  '93 


Mertz,  Henry  N.,  Ohio,  '95 
Merivin,  J.  B.,  Mo.,  '71 
Merz,  Henry,  Wyo.,  '95 
Meserve,  Alonzo,  Mass.,  '95 
Meskimons,  J.  R.,  Ariz.,  '99 
Metcalf,  Robert  C,  Mass.,  '92 
Meyer,  F.  H..  Cal.,  '99 
Mezger,  Robt.,  N.  J.,  '95 
Miami  University,  Ohio,  '95 
Michener,  J.  H.,  Pa., '98 
Mickle,  Robt.  A.,  Ala.,  '95 
Middleton,  A.,  111.,  '99 
Midland  Coll.,  Kan.,  '99 
Miles,  Emily  H.,  Colo.,  '98 
Miller,  C.  C.,Ohio,  '92 
Miller,  Chas.  M.,  Cal.,  '99 
Miller,  Geo.  I.,  Iowa,  96 
Miller,  G.  R.,N.  Y.,'96 
Miller,  J.  H.,  Wash.,  '86 
Miller,  John  C,  Minn.,  '98 
Miller,  Kelly,  D.  C,  '08 
Miller,  Lewis,  Ohio,  '80 
Miller,  Lucia  M.,  Minn.,  '94 
Miller,  O.  L.,  111.,  '96 
Miller,  R.  E.,  Tex..  '98 
Miller,  W.  C,  W,  Va.,  1900 
Milligan,  Sarah  J.,  Mo.,  '97 
Minis,  Wm.  A.,  Ind.,  'q/S 
Mills,  Leida  H.,  Kan.,  '95 
Mills,  T.  B.,  Wis.,  '97 
Millspaugh,  J.  F.,  Minn.,  '95 
Milne,JohnM.,N.  Y., '91 
Milne,  Wm.  J.,  N.  Y.,  '92 
Milwaukee  Pub.  Lib'y,  Wis.,  '98 
Minneapolis  Athenaeum, Minn. ,'98 
Mitchell,  B.  W.,  Pa.,  '99 
Mitchell,  Clara  J.,  Ind.,  '98 
Mitchell,  Mary  E.,  Ark.,  V 
Mitchell,  M.  S  ,  Kan.,  '95 
Mitchell,  R.  W.,  Ohio,  1900 
Moldstad,  John  A.,  Wis.,  '97 
Monlux,  J.  B.,  Cal  .  '95 
Monroe,  E.  S..  Ind.,  '97 
Monroe,  Will  S.,  Mass.,  '88 
Monsarrat,Mrs.  L,  L.,  Ky.,'77 
Montague.  A.  P.,  S.  C  '99 
Montana  State  Coll.,  Mont.,  '99 
Monteser,  Fred.,  N.  Y.,  '94 
Montfort,  R.  V.  K.,  N.  Y.,  '92 
Montgomery,  Dora,  III.,  '97 
Montgomery,  H.  C,  Ind.,  '97 
Montgomery,  W.  S.,  D.  C,  '98 
Montrose,  (Jtis.  N,  Y.,  '96 
Mood,  F.  A.,  Tex..  1900 
Moon,  A,  W.,N.  J., '89 
Moon,  Kate  E.,  Ala.,  '95 
Moon,  Schuyler  B.,  Md.,  '98 
Moore,  B.  F.,  Ind..  '96 
Moore,  Dora  M.,  Colo.,  '95 
Moore,  E.  C,  Cal.,  '99 
Moore,  John  A.,  H.  1.,  '99 
Moore,  Montgomery,  111.,  '97 
Moores,  Carrie  E..  Ohio,  '95 
Morgan,  J.  H.,  Wash.,  '99 
Morgan,  R.  T.,  111.,  '97 
Morris,  Harriet  N.,  Cal.,  "82 
Morris,  John,  Ky.,  '96 
Morrison,  Andrew  J.,  Pa.,  '81 
Morrison,  G.  B.,  Mo.,  '99 
Morrison,  Rose,  Ohio,  '97 
Morse,  Frank  L.,  111.,  '97 
Morss,  Chas.  H..  Mass.,  '95 
Morton,  Frank,  Cal.,  '99 
Mosher,  E.  H.,  Cal.,  '99 
Mott,  T.  A  ,  Ind..  '96 
Mower,  F.  O.,  Cal.,  '99 
Mowry,  IViti.A,,  Mass.,  *86 
Mulford,  A.  Isabel.  Mo.,  '96 
Mumma,  H.  W.,  Ohio.  1900 
Munroe,  Jas.  P.,  Mass.,  '95 
Murdaugh.  E.  D..  Okla.. '98 
Murdock,  F.  F..  Mass.,  '98 
Murlin,  L.  H„  Kan..  "95 
Murphy,  Eugene,  Pa.,  '98 
Murphy,  Geo.  T.,  Mo.,  '91 
Murphy,  Maggie.  Ark.,  '98 
Murray.  Anna.  III..  '98 
Murray,  May  E..  Mass.,  '99 


•96 


NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION 


Murray,  Wm.  S.,  N.  Y.,  '98 
Murrey,  T.  P.,  Ark.,  '98 
Myers,  Will  A.,  Ind.,  '97 
Myrick,  H.,  Mass.,  '98 
Naff,  J.  H.,  Kan.,  '99 
Nagel,  J.  J.,  Iowa,  '95 
Nageler,  J.  G.,  Wis.,  '97 
Nash,  Louis,  P.,  Mass.,  '99 
Ne  Collins,  j.  E.,  Mich.,  '99 
Needham,  Milton  J.,  Ariz.,  1900 
Needham,  O.,  Wis.,  '97 
Nelson,  B.  E.,  111.,  '99 
Nelson,  E.  B.,  N.  Y.,  '98 
Nelson,  Frank,  Kan.,  '99 
Nelson,  Kate  K.,  Wis.,  '96 
Newberry  Lib'y,  HI,,  '98 
Newell,  Miss  C.  S.,  Kan.,  '95 
New  Hampshire  State  Lib'y,  '98 
Newkirk,  C.  F.,  111.,  '98 
Newman,  Emma  A.,  N,  Y.,  1900 
Newson,  H.  D.,  N.  Y.,  '95 
New  Whatcom  State  Nor.    Sch., 

Wash.,  1900 
New  York  Pub.  Lib'y,  '99 
Nichols,  Chas.E.,N.Y., '99 
Nichols,  Fred  R.,  111.,  '93 
Nicholson,  Mary  E.,  Ind., '85 
Nicholson,  Watson,  Cal.,  '99 
Nielsen,  Carl  H.,  Cal.,  '98 
Nightingale,  A.  F.,  111., '86 
Noel,  Alex  H.,  Mo.,  '97 
Noetling,  Wm.,  Pa.,  '98 
Nolen,  A.  Eugene,  Mass.,  "91 
N.  St.  Nor.  Sch., Mich.,  '99 
Nor.  Sch.,  Dayton,  O.,  '98 
N.  Dak.  Ed.  Assoc,  '96 
N,  111.  St.  Nor.  Sch.,  '99 
N.  Ind.  Nor.  Sch.  Lib'y,  '97 
Norton,  A.  W.,  S.  D.,'*93 
Norton,  R.  C,  Mo.,  '95 
Norville,  Josephine,  Mo., '95 
Noss,  Theo.  B.,  Pa.,  '96 
Noyes,  Milton,  N.  Y.,  '98 
Nussbaum,  Sophie  F.E.,  D.C.,'98 
.Vye,  C/ias.  H.,  Wis.,  '84 
Nykirk,  John  B.,  Mich.,  '92 
O  Brien,  Mrs.  Agnes,  N.  Y.,  "gj 
O'Callaghan,  W.  F.,  N.  Y.,  '94 
O'Connor,  D.  C.  Neb.,  '94 
CCotinor,  Joseph,  Cal.,  '88 
Ogg,  R.  A.,  Ind., '97 
Ogren,  John,  S.  C,  1900 
O'Hanlon,  R.  J.,  Wis., '97 
Ohio  State  Univ.,  '97 
O'Keefe,  Mrs.  S.  J.,  111.,  '96 
Olds,  Mary  L.,  Minn.,  '94 
Oldt,  F.T.,  Iowa,  '96 
O'Leary,  Kate  S.,  111.,  '95 
Olin,  Arvin  S.,  Kan.,  '90 
Olmslead,  Emma  G.,  Pa.,  '96 
Omaha  Pub.  Lib'y,  Neb.,  '98 
Ormsby,  F.  B.,  111.,  '96 
Orr,  Fred  J.,  Ga.,  1900 
Orr,  J.  D.,  Kan.,  '91 
Osborne,  A.  E.,  Cal,  "98 
Osgood,  Anna  M.,  Ohio,  '90 
O'Shea,  M.  V.,  Wis.,  '92 
Owen,  Hugh  A.,  N.  Mex.,  '97 
Owen,  Lincoln,  Mass.,  '96 
Owen,  W.  B.,  III.,  '96 
Owens,  C.  J.,  S.  C.,  1900 
Paessler,  V.  S.,  N.  Y.,  '98 
Page,  Edw.  A.,  N.  Y.,  '99 
Page,  R.  S.,I11., '96 
Palmer,  A.  N.,  Iowa,  '96 
Palmer,  Chas.  S.,  Colo.,  '95 
Palmer,  E.  D.,  Mich.,  '94 
Palmer,  E.  W.,  Colo.,  '90 
Palmer,  Francis  B.,  N.  Y.,  '90 
Parker,  Alice  N.,  D.  C,  '98 
Parker,  Chas.  I.,  III.,  '87 
Parker,  Chas.  V.,  Colo.,  '87 
Parker,  C.  M.,  III.,  '95 
Parker,  Francis  W.,  111.,  '80 
Parker,  Henry  M.,  Ohio,  '95 
Parker,  J.  W.,  Ark.,  '97 
Parker,  M.  M.,  Ariz.,  '99 
Parker,  W.  />.,  Wis.,  '84 


Parker,  W.  S.,  Mass.,  '96 
Parkinson,  D.  B.,  111.,  '97 
Parkinson,  John  B.,  Wis.,  '84 
Parmenter,  Chas.  W.,  Mass.,  '95 
Parrish,  Celestia  S.,  Va.,  '97 
Parsons,  H.  S.,  Tex.,  '95 
Passmore,  John  A.  M.,  Pa.,  '92 
Patten,  Frank  C,  Mont.,  '97 
Pattengill,  Henry  R.,  Mich.,  '92 
Patton,  Cassia,  Alaska,  '95 
Patton,  Chas.  L.,  N.  Y.,  '86 
Patzer,  C.  E.,  Wis.,  '99 
Payne,  Bertha,  111.,  '96 
Payne,  W.  C,  111.,  '96 
Payne,  Wm.  H.,  Tenn.,  "92 
Payne,  Wm.  R.,  Tenn.,  '98 
Peacher,  A.  L.,  Ark.,  '96 
Peacock,  Mary  C,  Pa.,  '98 
Peairs,  H.  B.,  Kan.,  '97 
Peak,  Chas.  N.,  Ind.,  '96 
Pearse,  C.  G.,  Neb.,  '91 
Pearson,  Henry,  Ga.,  '98 
Pearson,  H.  C,  Pa.,  '99 
Pearson,  Juliet,  N.  Y.,  '99 
Pearson,  T.  G.,  N.  C,  1900 
Pease,  Alvin  F.,  Mass.,  '91 
Pease,  N.  W..  N.  J.,  '94 
Peaslee,  John  B.,  Ohio,  '80 
Peck,  A.  L.,  N.  Y..  '97 
Ped.  Lib'y,  S.  of  Schs.,  Pa.,  1900 
Pennell,  Calvin  S.,  Minn.,  '64 
Penniman,  J.  H.,  Pa.,  '99 
Penn.  State  Coll.,  Pa.,  1900 
Pennypacker,  J.  L.,  Pa.,  1900 
Peres,  I.  H.,  Tenn.,  1900 
Perkins  Institution,  Mass.,  '97 
Perrine,  Lura  L.,  N.  D.,  '95 
Perry,  Elizabeth  H.,  Mass.,  '91 
Perry,  Wm.  H.,  Ky.,  '98 
Peterson,  J.  P.,  Wis.,  '97 
Pfeiffer,  J.  W.,  Ohio,  '95 
Phelan,  W.  W.,  D.  C,  '98 
Phelps,  Win.  F.,  Minn.,  '70 
Philadelphian  Soc,  Wis.,  '84 
Philbrook,  C.  F.,  HI.,  '95 
Philips,  Geo.  M.,  Pa..  ^79 
Philips,  H.  S.,  Colo., '99 
Phillips,  Hattie  A.,  Iowa,  '96 
Phillips,  T.H.,  Ala., '88 
Philomathean  Lit.  Soc,  Pa. ,'98 
Pickard,  Josiah  Z.,,  Me,  '86 
Pickrell,  Percy,  111.,  '99 
Pierce,  Edw.  T.,  Cal.,  '89 
Pierce,  Mrs.  Ella  M.,  R.  I.,  '96 
Pierce,  Lovick,  D.  C,  '98 
Pierce,  Mary  R.,  111.,  '97 
Pigg,  G.  L.,  S.  D.,'99 
Pike,  Joshua,  III.,  '91 
Pinkerton,  T.  B.,  Ohio,  '99 
Pippin,  Mrs.  E.  E.,  Md.,  1900 
Pitman,  J.  A.,  Mass., '99 
Place,  Mrs.  C.  L.,  Cal.,  '96 
Plapp,  F.  W.,  111., '97 
Plimpton,  Geo.  A.,  N.  Y.,  '94 
Plumer,  Geo.  M.,  Ohio,  '96 
Poland,  A.  B.,  N.  J.,  '92 
Pollock,  Jessie,  Ark.,  '98 
Pollock,  Rosalie,  N.  D.,  '97 
Pollock,  Susan  P.,  D.  C,  '94 
Pomona  Coll.,  Cal.,  '99 
Porter,  E.  A.  F.,  Ohio,  '99 
Port  Jervis  F.  Lib'y,  N.  Y.,  '99 
Posse,  Baroness  Rose,  Mass.,  '95 
Potter,  Jennie,  N.  Mex.,  '99 
Powell,  W.B.,  D.  C,  '92 
Powell,  W.  F.,  D.  C,  '89 
Power,  Gussie,  N.  Y.,  '87 
Powers,  Jas.  K.,  Ala.,  '95 
Pratt.  R.  H.,  Pa.,  '98 
Pray,  Mabel  L.,  Ohio,  '97 
Pray,  T.  B.,  Wis., '94 
Preece,  Mrs.  Louise,  Minn.,  '94 
Prentis,  H.  W.,  Mo.,  '97 
Preston,  J.  R.,  Miss.,   90 
Prettyman,  E.  B.,  Md.,  '92 
Price,  S.  C,  Mich.,  '99 
Prichard,  E.  H.,  Ohio.  '95 
Prichard,  Margaret  S.,  Pa.,  "98 


Prillerman,  l^vrd,  W.  Va.,  '91 
Prince,  John  T.,  Mass,  '91 
Pringle,  W.  J.,  111.,  '96 
Pritchard,  M.  T.,  Mass.,  "96 
Pritchett  Coll.,  Mo.,  1900 
Pritchett,  H.  C,  Tex.,  '92 
Proudfoot,  Mrs.  A.  H.,  Ill,,  "97 
Pub.  Lib'y,  Boston,  Mass.,  1900 
Pub.  Lib'y,  Detroit,  Mich.,  '97 
Pub.  Lib'y,  Jersey  City,  N.  J., '97 
Pub.  Lib'y,  New  York,  N.  Y.,  ^99 
Pub.  Lib'y,  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  "97 
Pub.  Lib^y,  Rockford,  111.,  '99 
Pub.  Lib'y,  S.  Francisco,  Cal.,  '97 
Pub.  Lib'y,  Worcester,  Mass., '98 
Pub.  Sch,  Teachers,  Wis.,  '84 
Pugh,  Jas.  H.,  111.,  '98 
Pulsifer,  Wm.  E.,  N.  Y.,  '99 
Purer,  Mary  I.,  III.,  '96 
Putnam,  Mrs.  Alice  H.,  III.,  '93 
Raal),  Henry,  111.,  '84 
Race,  S.  J.,  Minn.,  '95 
Rakestraw,  Chas.  D.,  D.  C,  '99 
Ralston,  Jas.  M.,  N.  J.,  '92 
Ramsay,  Chas,  C.,  Mass.,  '93 
Ramsey,  Geo.  J.,  Va.,  '8g 
Randall,  J.  E.,  Ohio,  '98 
Ranger,  W.  E.,  Vt.,  '99 
Rankin,  A.  W.,  Minn.,  "93 
Ransom,  Frances  E.,  N.  Y.,  '99 
Rapp.  Christian  F.,  Ohio,  '99 
Rapp.  Eli  M.,  Pa.,  '97 
Raschig,  H.  H.,  Ohio,  '93 
Raub,  A.  N.,  Del.,  '92 
Rawson,  E.  B.,  N.  Y.,  '99 
Rayman,  R.  E.,  Ohio,  '95 
Raymond,  A.  V.  V.,  N.  Y.,  '95 
Raymond,  J.  H.,  W.  Va.,  '99 
Read,  J.  I.,  Neb.,  '98 
Redman,  Elmer  S.,  N.  Y.,  1900 
Reed,  A.  A.,  Iowa,  '95 
Reeder,  W.  C,  Ohio,  '98 
Reel,  Estelle,  D.  C,  '94 
Rees,  Minnie  E.,  Cal.,  '99 
Reese,  Mrs.  May,  Cal.,  '99 
Reeves,  C.  F.,  Wash.,  '96 
Reid,  E.  Emmet,  S.  C,  1900 
Reid,  Jas.,  Mont.,  '95 
Reigart,  J.  F.,  N.  Y.,  '99 
Reiley,  Cynthia  E.,  Mont.,  '95 
Reinhart,  J.  Albert,  N.  Y.,  '94 
Remington,  L.  D.,  Mich.,  '96 
Rennick.  Louise  D.,  111.,  '97 
Rennie.  Robt.  H.,  III.,  '97 
Requa,  M.  Augusta,  N.  Y.,  "99 
Ressler,  Edwin  D.,  Ore.,  '92 
Reveley,  Ellen,  G.,  Ohio,  "91 
Reynolds,  Chas.  B.,  Mo.,  "95 
Reynolds,  J.  H.,  Ark.,  '97 
Rhoads,  McHenry,  Ky.,  '91 
Rhode  Island  Nor.  Sch.,  '97 
Rice,  Emily  A.,  N.  J.,  '92 
Rice,  Gratia  L.,  N.  Y.,  % 
Rice,  J.  M.,  N.  Y.,  '95 
Rice,  Wm.  N.,  Conn.,  '99 
Richards,  C.  R.,  N.  Y.,  '98 
Richards,  Mrs.  E.  H.,  Mass.,  '98 
Richeson,  J.,  111.,  '97 
Richmond,  Sarah  E.,  Md.,  '76 
Riddle,  W.,  Pa.,  '96 
Ridge,  J.  C,  Ohio,  "97 
Ridgeway,  Wm.  C,  Mo.,  '98 
Rieman,  John  F.,  Ind.,  '98 
Rightsell,  J.  R.,Ark.,  '98 
Rigler,  Frank,  Ore..  '98 
Riley  Co.  Ed.  Asso..  Kan.,  "86 
Riley,  Mrs.  M.  E.,  Mo.,  '90 
Riste,  Ernest,  Wash.,  '99 
Riste,  W.  G.,  Kan., '97 
Rivers,  W.  W.,  Ark.,  '95 
Roach,  T.  IV.,  Kan.,  '86 
Robbins,  C.  W.,Mo.,  '92 
Robbins,  Geo.  A.,  111.,  ^97 
Robert,  Jas.  A.,  Ohio,  '82 
Roberts,  Dimon  H.,  Mich.,  '98 
Roberts,  Edw.  D.,  Ohio,  1900 
Roberts.  Flora,  Ind.,  '96 
Roberts,  Hester  A.,  N.  Y.,  "94 


INDEX  TO  LIFE  AND  ACTIVE  MEMBERS 


1<)1 


Roberts,  H.  L.,  111.,  "97 
Roberts,  L.  D.,  Wis.,  '97 
Roberts.  Wm.  E.,  Ohio,  "98 
Robertson,  J.  L.,  111.,  "97 
Robertson,  P.  W.,  D.  C.,  '96 
Robinson,  Albert  R.,  III.,  "95 
Robinson,  Lucy,  W.  Va.,  '96 
Robinson,  Oscar  D.,  N.  Y.,  '92 
Robinson,  W.  S.,  Ohio,  '95 
Rocheleau,  W.  F.,  111..  "96 
Rogers,  A.  C,  Minn.,  '99 
Rogers,  Dora  B.,  N.  C,  "96 
Rogers,  Howard  J.,  N.  Y.,  '96 
Rogers,  J.  N.,  Ga.,  '97 
Rogers,  Josephine  E.,  N.  Y.,  '93 
Rogers,  Rovillus  R.,  N.  Y.,  '95 
Roller,  F.  J.,  Ohio,  '98 
Roof,  F.  AI.,  Ala.,  '92 
Roop,C.  K,CaI.,'86 
Rose,  Geo.  E.,  Kan.,  '86 
Rose,  S.  L.,  Ohio,  '96 
Ross,  M.  M.,  Tenn.,  '99 
Ross,  Pete  W.,  Minn.,  '99 
Rosseter,  E.  C,  111.,  1900 
Roth,  Anna  C,  Ky.,  '97 
Rothe,  Ella  A.,  Ohio,  1900 
Rounds,  Ckas.  C,  N.  Y.,  "76 
Row,  R.  K.,  111.,  '99 
Rowe,  Alex.  M.,  Minn.,  "94 
Rowe,  H.  M..  Md.,  '96 
Rowe,  Mary  E.,  Ind.,  '95 
Rowe,  Stuart  H.,  Conn.,  "98 
Rowe,  W.  S.,  Ind.,  '95 
Rowland,  I.  H.,  Ohio,  '96 
Rudolph,  Ida,  Ky.,  '96 
Russell,  Jas.  E.,  N.  Y.,  "95 
Russell,  \V.  S.,  HI.,  '98 
Ryan,  Geo.  G.,  N.  Y..  '^4 
Ryan,  Mary  E.,  Mont.,  '99 
Ryon,  C.  M.,  N.  Y.,  '96 
Sabin,  Albert  R.,  111.,  ^84 
Sabin,  Ellen  C,  Wis.,  '95 
Sabin,  Henry,  Iowa,  '89 
Sage,  A.  H.,  Wis.,  '98 
Sage,  W.  v.,  Mich.,  '96 
Sale,  A.  R.,  Iowa,  '97 
Salisbury,  Albert,  Wis..  "87 
Samuel,  Wm.  H.,  Pa.,  "93 
Sanders,  D.  E.,  Mont.,  '95 
Sanders,  F.  W.,  N.  Mex.,  '97 
Sandison,  Howard,  Ind.,  '96 
Sanford,  Fernando,  Cal.,  '97 
Sanford.  Henry  R.,  N.  Y.,  '95 
Sanor,  S.  D.,  Ohio,  '93 
Sargent,  Dudley  A.,  Mass.,  '96 
Sargent,  Elisa  A.,  Mass.,  '96 
Sarver,  J.  M.,  Ohio,  '98 
Savitz,  J.  J.,  N.  J.,  '99 
Sawhill,  Titos.  A.,  Kan.,  '86 
Sawvel,  Franklin  B.,  Pa..  '94 
Sawyer,  C.  L.,  Minn.,  '97 
Saylor.J.  F,  Wash.,  '96 
Scarlett,  Augustus,  N.J.,  '91 
Schaeffer,  Nathan  C,  Pa.,  '87 
Schauffler,  Alfred  T.,  N.  Y.,   95 
Schiller,  J.  D.,  Mich., '96 
Schmidt,  F.  A.,  N.  Y.,  ^96 
Schmucker,  S.  C,  Pa.,  '92 
Schneider,  Henry  G.,  N.  Y.,  '95 
Schobinger,  J.  J.,  111.,  '99 
Schofieid,  Martha,  S,  C.,  '91 
Scholfield,  Bessie  M.,  R.  I.,  V 
Sch.ofPed.,N.Y.Univ.,N.Y.,'99 
Schreiber,  Mae  E,,  Wis.,  '96 
Schryver,  Anna  A.,  N.  Y.,  '96 
Schurman,  J.  G.,  N.  Y.,  '96 
Schuyler /Aaron,  Kan.,   86 
Schuyler,  E.  H.,  N.  J.,  '94 
Scofield,  Bertha,  N.  D.,  '97 
Scotia  Seminary,  N.  C,  "99 
Scott,  Chas.  B.,  P.  R.,  *^ 
Scott,  Edith  A.,  Minn.,  '99 
Scott,  E.  H.,  111.,  '95 
Scott,  F.  N.,  Mich.,  '97 
Scott,  Harriet  M.,  Mich.,  "96 
Scott,  Izora,  Colo..  '97 
Scott,  J.  B.,  111..  '99 
Scott,  Jas.  W.,  Colo.,  '93 


Scott,  O.  cm.,  '95 
Scott,  W.  H.,  Ohio,  "93 
Scovel,  Sylvester  F.,  Ohio,  '97 
Scoville  Institute,  111.,  1900 
Scranton  Pub.  Lib'y,  Pa.,  '99 
Scudder,  Myron  T.,  N.  Y.,  '95 
Scull,  Jas.  F.,  Ind.,  '95 
Seaman,  W.  W.,  Cal.,  '99 
Searle,  F.  E.,  Mich.,  '99 
Searle,  Miss  S.  M.,  N.  J.,  '93 
Seaver,  Edwin  P.,  Mass.,  '93 
Sedgwick,  Wm.  T.,  Mass.,  '99 
Seeley,  Levi,  N.  J.,  '90 

■  Seerley,  H.  H.,  Iowa,  "89 
Selleck,  W.  F.  F.,  Minn.,  '98 
Sexton,  E.  K.,  N.  J.,  '97 
Seymour,  R.  B.,  111.,  1900 
Shanahan,  Rev.  J.  W.,  Pa.,  '95 
Sharkey,  J.  P.,  Ohio,  '90 
Shaw,  A.  L.,  Neb.,  '97 
Shaw,  Edw.  R.,  N.  Y,,  "93 
Shaw,  Sam.,  Wis.,  '84 
Shaivan,  J.  A.,  Ohio,  '94 
Shear,  S.  R.,  N.  Y..  '95 
Shearer,  W.  J,,  N.  J.,  '95 
Shearer,  W.  S.,  Iowa,  '97 
Sheats,  W.  N.,  Fla.,  '93 
Sheber,  Cora,  Ark.,  '98 
Sheldon,  Geo.  M.,  Cal.,  '99 
Shelton,  F.  M.,  Ohio,  '99 
Shepard,  Elmer  I.,  Minn.,  1900 
Shepard,  Geo.  C,  Va.,  '97 
Shepard,  Irwin,  Minn.,  '83 
Sheppard,  L.  W„  Ohio,  '98 
Sherwood,  Mrs,  J.  C  Cal,,  '99 
Shippen,  Edw,,  Pa.,  '79 
Shirk,  David  F.,  Kan.,  "95 
Shives,  Julia,  Ark.,  '98 
Shoemaker,  W.  A.,  Minn.,  "95 
Shorkley,  Mrs.  H.  B.,  Cal.,  '99 
Showers,  F.  F„  Wis,,  '99 
Shrieves,  EramaW,,  Wis.,  "96 
Shull,  U.  P.,  Cal.,  '99 
Shumaker,  F.  P.,  Ohio,  '99 
Shutts,  Geo.  C,  Wis.,  '96 
Sibley,  Chas,  A,,  Mass.,  '95 
Siefert,  H,  O,  R„  Wis.,  '95 
Silke,  Lucy  S.  111.,  '93 
Silver.  Edgar  O.,  N.  Y.,  '94 
Silver,  Elmer  E,,  III.,  '99 
Simerwell,  E.  A..  Kan.,  '95 
Simonds,  H.  A.,  Wis.,  '95 
Simmons.  J.  W.,  Wis,,  '99 
Sims,  J,  F„  Wis,,  '97 
Sinclair,  S,  B.,  Can.,  '91 
Singer,  Edgar  A.,  Pa.,  '80 
Sisson,  E.  O.,  111.,  '97 
Skidmore,  Sydney  T,,  Pa.,  '95 
Skinner,  Chas.  /?.,  N.  Y.,  '90 
Skinner,  Elizabeth,  Colo,,  '99 
Skinner,  Wra.  C,  Mich.,  '95 
Slack,  H,W,,  Minn,, '97 
Slaton,  W,  F,,  Ga.,  '97 
Slaton,  W.  M.,  Ga„  '94 
Slauson,  H,  M,,  Mich,,  '94 
Sloan,  Lucy  A„  Mich,  1900 
Sloane,  Clyde,  111,,  '98 
Smalley,  D,  H..  111.,  '99 
Smallwood,  Mabel  E.,  Ill,,  '96 
Smedley,  Eva  A.,  Ill,,  '97 
Smiley,  Elmer  E,,  Wyo.,  1900 

>  Smiley,  Wm.  H.,  Colo,,  '92 
Smith,  Alex,,  111,,  '99 
Smith,  Arthur  P.,  Mass.,  '90 
Smith,  A.  Thos.,  Pa,,  '93 
Smith,  Anna  T.,  D.  C,  '95 
Smith,  Mrs.  C,  B..  Ill,,  '98 
Smith,  E.  E,,  111,,  '96 
Smith,  E,  R„  III.,  '97 
Smith,  Euler,  B,,  Ga,,  '87 
Smith,  F,  P„  Kan,,  '97 
Smith,  Geo,  M,,  S,  D.,  '95 
Smith,  Geo.  W„  III,,  '99 
Smith,  Harriet  E,,  Wis,,  "97 
Smith,  Henry  B,,  Colo,,  '99 
Smith,  H,J„  N,  Y„'95 
Smith,  Irving  B.,  N,  Y,,  '99 
Smith,  J.  E.,  Tex..  "99 


Smith,  J.  F.,  Iowa,  '97 
Smith.  J,  F.,  Ohio,  '98 
Smith,  J,  Mace,  N,  Y.,  '95 
Smith,  Jos.  R.,  Pa.,  '99 
Smith,  M.  B.,  Mass.,  '99 
Smith,  Sidney  F.,  Colo.,  '95 
Smith,  Wm.  G.,  Minn.,  '95 
Smith  College,  Mass.,  "98 
Smyth,  W.  S.,  III.,  '95 
Snedden,  D.  S.,  N.  Y.,  '99 
Snow,  Bonnie  E.,  Minn.,  '96 
Snow,  Francis  H..  Kan.,  '93 
Snow,  Mary  S.,  Me,,  '98 
Snyder,  A,  J.,  Ill,,  '97 
Snyder,  Henry,  N,  J,, '94 
Snyder,  Tessie  M„  Ga,,  '97' 
Snyder,},  H,,  Ohio, '96 
Snyder,  J.  L.,  Mich.,  '89 
Snyder,  Lydia  E.,  111., '95 
Snyder,  W.  R.,  Ind.,  '95 
Snyder,  Z.  X.,  Colo..  '87 
Snyder,  Mrs.  Z.  X.,  Colo.,  '96 
Soldan,  F.  Louis,  Mo.,  '77 
SoUitt,  Alice  E,,  III.,  '93 
Soule,  Geo.,  La., '92 
S,  Dak,  Agri.  Coll..  S.  D.,  '99 
S,  111.  Nor.  Univ.,  Ill,,  "99 
Southall,  J,  W.,  Va,,  '08 
Spangler,  H.  T.,  Pa.,   94. 
Spaulding,  F.  E.,  N.  J.,  '96 
Spaulding,  Randall,  N.  J.,  '92 
Spaunhurst,  J.  F.,  Ind.,  1900 
Spayd,  H.  H.,  Pa..  '92 
Speer,  W.  W.,  Ill,, '96 
Spencer,  Catherine,  Mo,,  '97 
Spencer,  Pauline  W,,  Pa.,  '93 
Spencer,  Robt.  C,  Wis.,  '84 
Spencer,  Mrs.  Sara  A.,  D.  C.,'92 
Spero,  Mrs.  AnnaK.,  Cal., '77 
Spiegle,  Grace  E.,  Pa.,  1900 
Spindler,  J.  W,,  Kan..  '99 
Springer,  Durand  W,,  Mich.,  '94 
Squire,  Mary  V,,  N,  Y.,  '96 
Stableton,  J.  K.,  111.,  1900 
Stanley,  Edtnund,  Kan.,  '86 
Staples,  Helen  F.,  Minn.,  '96 
Stapleton,  M.  A.  C,  Mont.,  "99 
Stark,  Joshua,  Wis.,  '84 
Starke,  N.  C,  Va.,  '99 
St,  F.  N,  Sch.,  Farmville,Va„"99 
State  Agri.  Coll.,  Kan,,  '97 
St.  Historical  Soc,  Wis.,  '84 
State  Library,  Cal.,  '99 
State  Library.  Mass.,  '98 
St.  N.  and  Ind.  Coll.,  N.  C,  '98 
St.  N.  Sch.,  Brockport,  N.Y.,1900 
St.  N.  Sch.,  California,  Pa.,  '99 
St.  N.  Sch.,  Carbondale,  III.,  '99 
St.  N.  Sch.,  Cedar  Falls,  Iowa,'97 
St.  N.  Sch.,  Charleston,  111.,  '99 
St.  N.  Sch.,  Chico,  Cal.,  '97 
St.  N.  Sch.,  De  Kalb,  III.,  *99 
St.  N.  Sch.,Ellensburg,Wash.,'97 
St.  N.  Sch.,  Farmville,  Va,,  '99 
St.  N.  Sch,,  Fitchburg,  Mass, ,'98 
St,  N,  Sch,,  Greeley,  Colo,,  '97 
St,  N.  Sch,,  Indiana,  Pa,.  '99 
St,  N,  Sch.,  Jacksonville,Ala,,'g9 
St,  N.  Sch.,  Los  Angeles,  Cal,,'97 
St.  N,  Sch.,  Mankato,  Minn.,'99 
St.  N.  Sch.,  Mansfield,  Pa.,  '97 
St,  N,  Sch.,  Millersville,  Pa„  '97 
St.  N.  Sch,,  Marquette,  Mich,, '99 
St.  N.  Sch,,  Moorhead,  Minn, ,'97 
St.  N,  Sch.,  New  Paltz.  N.Y.,  '99 
St,   Nor.   Sch.,    New  Whatcom, 

Wash.,  1900 
St.  N.  Sch.,  Normal,  111.,  '98 
St.  N.  Sch..  Oshkosh,  Wis.,  '98 
St.  N.  Sch.,  P!atteville,ysr\%.;%t, 
St,  N,  Sch.,  Providence,  R,  I.,'97 
St.  N,  Sch,,  San  Jose,  Cal,,  '98 
St.  N.  Sch,,  St,  Cloud,  Minn. ,'97 
St,  N,  Sch,,  Superior,  Wis,,  1900 
St.  N.  Sch.,  Terre  Haute,  Ind.,' 97 
St.  N.  Sch.,  Trenton.  N.  J.,  '97 
St.  N.  Sch.,  Westfield,  Mass..  '97 
St.  N.  Sch.,  Whitewater,Wis.,'98 


798 


NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION 


St.  N.  Sch.,  Winona,  M!nn.,  '97 
St.  Teachers'  Asso.  of  /IL,  '90 
St.  Univ.  Lib'y,  Iowa,  '97 
St.  Univ.  Lib'y,  Ohio,  '97 
S tear f IS,  J.  IV.,  Wis.,  '84 
Steele.  Wm.  L.,  111.,  '90 
Steen,  J.  M.,Tenn.,  1900 
Steere,  E.  A.,  Mont.,  96 
Stehman,  J.  H.,  III.,  '97 
Stein,  F.  W.,  Cal., '99 
Stephens,  H.  Morse,  N.  Y.,  '96 
Stephens,  M.  Bates.  Md.,  1900 
Stephenson,  Lillie  S.,  111.,  '95 
Stern,  Menco,  N.  Y.,  '82 
Stetson,  W.  W.,  Me.,  '95 
Stevens,  Edw.  L.,  N.  Y.,  '99 


Stevens,  Moses  C,  Ind.,  '76 

Plowden,  Jr.,  N.  v.,  '95 
Stevenson,  A.  L.,  111.,  '97 


Stevens,  Plowden, 


Stevenson,  Wm.  C,  Md.,  '90 
Stewart,  I.  N.,  Wis.,  '84 
Stewart,  John  A.,  Mich.,  '84 
Stewart,  Jos.  S.,  Ga.,  '95 
Stewart,  N.  Coe,  Ohio,  '92 
Stewart,  Sarah  A.,  N.  Y.,  '84 
Stickney,  Lucia,  Ohio,  '93 
Stigall.  Oliver,  Mo.,  '98 
Stillwell,  J.  S.,  Ark.,  1900 
Stitt,  E.  W.,  N.  Y.,  '96 
Stockwell,  Mrs.  H.  H.,  N.  D.,"94 
Stockwell,  Thos.  B.,  R.  I.,  '91 
Stockwell,  Walter  L.,  N.  D.,  '94 
Stokes,  A.  L.,  S.  C,  1900 
Stokes,  Horace  A.,  Ohio,  '95 
Stokes,  Susan  G.,  Utah,  '99 
Stone,  Mason  S.,  Vt.,  '94 
Stone,  W.W.,  Cal., '99 
Stoneroad,  Rebecca  D.,  D.  C.,'96 
Storm,  A,  v.,  Iowa,  '94 
Stout,  Geo.  H.,Pa.,  '84 
Stout,  Isaac  H.,  N.  Y.,  '90 
Stout,  J.  D.,  Iowa, '98 
Stovall,  Anna  M.,  Cal.,  '99 
Stowell,  Thos.  B.,  N.  Y.,  '91 
Strachan,  Alex.,  S.  D.,  '97 
Stratton,  C.  C,  Ore.,  '88 
Stratton,  F.  E.,Minn.,  '86 
Straubenmiiller,  G.,  N.  Y.,  '97 
Strine,  J.  H.,  Cal.,  '99 
Stroeter,  E.  H.,  Mo.,  '99 
Strong,  Edwin  A.,  Mich.,  '92 
Strong,  Jas.  W.,  Minn.,  '95 
Struthers,  Hester  C,  N.  C.,  "98 
Stuart,  Giles  A.,  Conn.,  '99 
Stubbs,  J.  E.,  Nev.,  '95 
Study,  J.  N.,  Ind.,  '97 
Stuver.  E.,  Colo.,  '95 
SudboroughfMrs.  G.,  Neb.,  '80 
Summers,  Alex.,  D.  C,  '98 
Super,  Chas.  W.,  Ohio,  '91 
Superior  State  Nor.  Sch.  Library, 

1900 
Suplee,  Etta,  Iowa,  '95 
Suplee,  Fannie,  Iowa,  '95 
Su^t.  and  Prin.  Asso.^\%.,'%^ 
Suter,  Anna,  Ind.,  '90 
Suter,  Miss  H.  A.,  La.,  W 
Sutherland,  Marg.  W.,  Ohio,  '95 
Sutton,  \V.  S.,Tex.,  '95 
Suydam,  V.  A.,  Wis.,  '99 
Swain,  Jos.,  Ind.,  '93 
Swan,  Lizzie  P.,  Wis.,  '97 
Swanger,  F.  A.,  Cal.,  '99 
Swart,  Rose  C,  Wis,,  '95 
Swartz,  Jno.  W.,  Ohio,  '99 
Swett,  John,  Cal.,  '99 
Swingle,  W.  M.,  N.  J.,  '98 
Syracuse  Cent.  Lib.,  N.  Y.,  '98 
Tadd,  J.  Liberty,  Pa.,  '92 
Taggart,  R.  B.,  Tenn.,  1900 
Tait,  Elizabeth  S.,  Pa.,  '98 
Talbot,  Henry,  111.,  '92 
Tapley,  Wm.  W.,  Mass.,  '92 
Tappan,  David  S.,  Ohio,  '99 
Tarbell,  Horace  S.,  R.  1.,  ^91 
Tarr,  Ralph  S.,  N.  Y.,  '99 
Tate,  W.  K.,  S.  C,  '99 
Taubman,  Kate,  S.  D.,  '94 


Tawney,  Guy  A.,  Wis.,  '98 
Taylor,  A.  R.,  Kan., '86 
Taylor,  Edw.,  Ky.,  '96 
Taylor,  Henry  J.,  Iowa,  '84 
Taylor,  Jos.  S.,  N.  Y.,  '94 
T'chs' Asso., Cowley  C'tf.,Kan.,'86 
T'chs'  Asso.,  Riley  Co., Kan. ,'86 
Teachers'  Association,''^ IS.,  '84 
Teachers  Coll.,   Dept.  Man.  Tr., 

N.  Y.,  '99 
Tchs'  Inst.,  Phila.,  Pa.,  '79 
Templeton,  J.  C,  Cal.,  '94 
Terrel,  Harriet  E.,  Ohio,  '96 
Terrell,  Robert  H.,  D.  C,  '98 
Thames,  W.  I.,  Miss.,  '97 
Tharpe,  F.  D.,  Mo.,  '91 
Thatcher,  Jas.  L.,  Wis.,  '96 
Thayer,  Ada  F.,  N.  Y.,  '96 
Theilman,  Louis,  Mo.,  '95 
Thiry,  J.  H.,  N.  Y.,  '97 
Thomas,  Blanche  T.,  Ariz., '98 
Thomas,  D.  W.,  Ind.,  '96 
Thomas,  Emma  A.,  Mich.,  '96 
Thomas,  Isaac,  Vt.,  '99 
Thomas.Mrs.  Lyde  P.,Tenn.,i9oo 
Thomas,  W.  Scott,  Cal.,  '99 
Thompson,  D.  M.,  N.  C,  '98 
Thompson,  E.  C,  Mich.,  '94 
Thompson,  Fannie  E.,  Ohio,  '99 
Thompson,  H.  E.,Okla.,  '95 
Thompson,  John  G.,  Mass.,  '95 
Thompson,  L.  S.,  N.  J.,  '76 
Thompson,  O.  D.,  Mich.,  '96 
Thompson,  T.  E.,  Mass.,  '97 
Thompson,  Wm.  O.,  Ohio,  '94 
Thomson,  Frank  D.,  111.,  '95 
Thorndyke,  E.  L.,  N.  Y.,  '98 
Thorson,  I.  A..  Minn.,  '98 
Thudium,  C.  C,  Mo.,  '98 
Thurber,  Chas.  H.,  Mass.,  '93' 
Thweatt,  Hiram  H.,  Ga.,  1900 
Thwing,  Chas.  F.,  Ohio,  '95 
Tibbets,  Anna,  Neb.,  '94 
Tibbetts,  A.  C,  Minn., '95 
Tighe.  R.  J.,N.  C,  1900 
Tillotson,  D.  C,  Kan., '86 
Tilton,  Chas.  S.,  Wash.,  '99 
Tinker,  B.  W.,  Conn.,  '97^ 
Todd,  Emma  J.,  111.,  '97 
Todd.  Sanuiel  B,,  Wis.,  '95 
Tolman,  Henry  L.,  HI.,  '97 
Tompkins,  A,,  111.,  '96 
Tormey,  J.  A.,  Minn.,  '97 
Tower,  Belle  M.,  Mich.,  97 
Towne,  Geo.  L.,  Neb.,  1900 
Townsend.  H.  S.,  H.  1.,  '99 
Townsend,  J.  A.,  111..  '99 
Tracy,  Frank  N.,  111.,  '96 
Trant,  Amelia  Earle,  N.  Y.,  '96 
Trask,  H.  M.,  Pa.,  '95 
Travell,  IraW.,  N.J., '97 
Tressler,  A.  W,,  Wis.,  '92 
Treudley,  F.,  Ohio,  '91 
Trotter,  J.  R.,W.  Va.,  '97 
Trowbridge,  G.  S.,  Cal.,  '99 
Tual.  Acad.  Pacif.  Univ.,Ore.,'99 
Turner,  Alfred,  Mass.,  '95  | 
Turner,  C.  W.,  Neb.,  '99 
Turner,  F.  L.,  III.,  1900 
Turner.J.  E.,  111., '95 
Turner,  J.  M.,  Wis.,  '97" 
Turner,  Marie  L.,  Mo., '95 
Tuttle,  Albert  H.,  Va.,  '96 
Tuttle,  Wm.  L.,  N.  Y.,  '99 
Tutwiler,  Julia  S.,  Ala.,  '82 
Twitchell,  Hattie,  Mass.,  '95 
Twining,  Nathan  C,  Cal.,  '84 
Twiss,Geo.  R.,  Ohio,  '94 
Tynan,  T.  T.,  Wyo.,  '99 
Underbill,  Volney,  III.,  '93 
University,  Atlanta,  Ga.,  '95 
University,  Columbia,  N.  Y.,  '95 
University,  Cornell,  N.  Y.,  '96 
University,  Harvard,  Mass.,  '95 
University,  J.  B.  Stetson,  Fla.,'99 
University,  Johns  Hopkins,  Md., 

'99 
University,  Lawrence,  Wis.,  '99 


University,  Lehigh,  Pa.,  '99 
University,  Leland  Stanford  Jr., 

Cal.,  '97 
University,  Lincoln,  111.,  '97 
University,  Mercer,  Ga.,  '99 
University,  Miami,  Ohio,  '95 
University,  S.  111.  Nor.,  '99 
University,  West  Virginia,  '99 
University  of  California,  '95 
University  of  Chicago,  111.,  99 
University  of  Georgia,  '95 
University  of  Illinois,  '99 
University  of  Indiana,  '99 
!•  University  of  Iowa,  '97 
University  of  Michigan,  '98 
University  of  Missouri,  '95 
University  of  Nebraska,  '98 
University  of  N.  Carolina,  '99 
University  of  N.  Dakota,  '99 
University  of  Ohio,  '97 
University  of  Oklahoma,  '99 
University  of  Omaha,  Neb.,  '97 
University  of  Pennsylvania,  '98 
University  of  State  0/  N.  }'.,  '93 
University  of  Texas,  '98 
University  of  Utah,  '95 
University  of  Washington,  '98 
University  of  Wyoming,  '97 
Updegraff,  H.,  N.  Y.,  '99 
Upton,  R.  R.,  Ohio,  '98 
Vail,  Henry  H.,  N.  Y.,  "97 
Vaile,  E.  O.,  111.,  '95 
Valparaiso  Coll.,  Ind.,  '97 
Van  Aken,  Mrs.  G.,  N.  Y.,  '84 
Vance,  Sophie,  Ohio,  '90 
Van  Cleve,  C.  L.,  Ohio,  '96 
Van  Cleve,  Edw.  M.,  Ohio,  '97 
Vandyke,  J.  A.,  Minn.,  '96 
Van  Liew,  Chas.  C,  Cal.,  '94 
Van  Petten,  E.  M.,  111.,  '99 
Van  Rensselaer,  Martha,N.Y.,'94 
Van  Sickle,  Jas.  H.,  Md.,  '92 
Van  Tassel,  I.  N.,  Ohio,  '98 
Van  Winkle,  J.  D.,  Ark.,  1900 
Vassar  College,  N.  Y..  '98 
Veatch,  Nathan  T.,  111.,  '95 
Vert,  Edmund  J.,  S.  D.,  '95 
Viebahn,  Chas.  F.,  Wis.,  '84 
Virtue,  G.  O.,  Minn., '98 
Vogel,  Wm.  H.,  Ohio,  1900 
Volland,  A.  J.,  Mich.,  '97 
Voorhis,  Geo.  H.,  N.  J.,  '93 
Wabash  College,  Ind.,  '95 
Wade,  Margaret  I.,  N.  J.,  '94 
Wagner,  Harr,  Cal.,  '99 
Wagner,  W.  H..  Neb,,  '99 
Wakeman,  J.  W.,  N.  J.,  '92 
Waldo,  Eveline  A.,  La., '97 
Walke,  Matilda  L., Ohio,  '92 
Walker,  B.M.,  Miss.,  '99 
Walker,  E.W.,  Wis., '97 
Walker,  H,  A,  C„  S.  C,  1900 
Walker,  J.  W.,  Ind.,  '99 
Walker,  M.  Edna,  Cal.,  '99 
Walker.P.  R.,I11.,  '90 
Walker,  R.E..  111., '99 
Walrath,  M.  H.,N.  Y.,'96 
Walsh,  J.  H.,N.  Y„'95 
Walter,  Mary,  Ohio,  '98 
Walter,  Sarah  J.,  Conn.,  '98 
Walton,  Geo.  A.,  Mass.,  '92 
Ward,  Edw.  G.,  N.  Y.,  '99 
Ward,  Henry  B..  Neb.,  '97 
Ward  Seminary,  Tenn.,  '99 
Wardlaw,  P.,  S.  C,  1900 
Ware,N.  E.,Ga.,'o6 
Warfield,  Wm.  C,  Ohio,  1900 
Waring,  J.  H.  N.,  Md.,  '98 
Warner,  A.  B.,  Iowa,  '94 
Warner,  Chas.  F. ,  Mass.,  '99 
Warr,J.W.,  I11.,'9S 
Warriner,  E.  C,  Mich.,  '99 
Washburn,  Kirk  N.,  Mass.,  '96 
Washburne,  Marion  F.,  111.,  iqoo 
Washington  State  Nor.  Sch.,   99 
Waterbury,  R.  A.,  Wis.,  '96 
Waterhouse,  A.  H.,  Neb.,  '96 
Waterman,  Richard,  111.,  '96 


INDEX  TO  LIFE  AND  ACTIVE  MEMBERS 


799 


Watson,  Edith  M.,  Wis.,  "97 
Watt,  W.  E.,  111.,  '95 
Weaver,  E.  W.,Pa.,  '97 
Weaver.  John  S.,  Ohio,  '99 
Weaver,  Sterrie  A..  Mass.,  1900 
Webb,  Louis  K.,Cal., '99 
Weber,  A.  W.,  Wis.,  '97 
Weber,  H.  C,  Tenn..  '97 
Webster,  E.  E.,  Mich.,  '99 
Webster,  Geo.  W.,  111.,  '99 
Webster,  R.  H.,  Cal.,  '99 
Webster,  W.  F.,  Minn.,  '96 
Weeks,  C.  W.,  111.,  '95 
Weld,  Frank  A.,  Minn.,  '95 
Weldon,  Edw.,  Pa.,  '98 
Wellers,  Meta,  111.,  '99 
Welles,  Frank  E.,  N.  Y.,  '95 
Welsh,  I.  P.,  Pa.,  '96 
Wentz,  EttaL.,N.  Y„  '96 
Wernick,  E.  V.,  Wis.,  '95 
Wescott,  F.  H.,  111.,  '97 
West,  Andrew  F.,  N.  J.,  '99 
Westcott,  Edith,  D.  C.  '98 
Westcott,  O.  S.,I11.,'9S 
Western,  The,  Ohio,  '99 
Westervelt,  Z.  F.,  N.  Y.,  '97 
Westfall,  Mary  B.,  Ohio,  '97 
West  Virginia  Univ.,  '99 
Wheatley,  Emma,  Neb.,  '95 
Wheaton  Coll.,  111.,  '99 
Wheeler,  Henry  N.,  Mass.,  "92 
Wheeler,  Willard  J.,  Ala.,  1900 
Wheelock.  Chas.  F.,  N,  Y.,  '95 
Whipple,  H.  A.,  Wis.,  '97 
Whitcomb,  Arthur  K.,  Mass.,  '92 
White,  Chas.  G.,  Mich.,  '95 
White,  Daniel  A.,  111.,  '95 
White.  Daniel  H.,  Cal.,  '99 
IVhite,  Emerson  E,,  Ohio,  '70 
White,  Fred.  C,  N.  Y.,  '99 
White,  H.  C.  Ga.,  '96 
White.J.T.,  Md., '98 
White,  J.  U.,  Mo.. '87 
White,  Wm.  M.,  Ohio,  '96 
White,  W.  S.,  Mich.,  '97 
White,  W.  T.,  Tenn.,  '89 
^Vhiteford,  J.  A.,  Mo.,  '95 
Whitehill,  MissO.  P.,  N.  Mex.,"9g 
Whitfield,  H.  L.,  Miss.,  1900 
IVhitford,  Wm.  C,  Wis.,  '84 
Whiting,  M.  M.,  Cal.,  '99 


Whitney,  Allen  S.,  Mich.,  '94 
Whitney,  M.  A.,  III.,  '91 
Whitney,  O.C,  Wash., '98 
Whitney,  S.  Emory,  Mich.,  '93 
Whitsett,  W.  T.,  N.  C,  1900 
Whittemore,  Henry,  Mass.,  '95 
Whittle,  W.  R.,  R.  I„  '96 
Wiard,  Louise  A.,  Ky.,  '96 
Wicks,  John  F.,  111..  '99 
Wicks,  M.  B.,Pa.,  '99 
Widner, Esther  A.,  Ohio,  '80 
Wiggs,  Mrs.  W.  H.,  Ga.,  1900 
Wilcox,  Albert  H.,  N.  Y.,  1900 
Wilcox,  Jessie  B.,  Wash.,  '99 
Wiley,  Wm.  H.,  Ind.,  '96 
Wilkins,  A.  H.,  Tex.,  '94 
Wilkinson,  E.  W.,  Ohio,  1900 
Wilkinson,  J.  J.,  111.,  '96 
Wilkinson,  t.  N.,  Kan.,  '84 
Wilkinson,  Warring,  Cal.,  '99 
Willard,  F.  E.,  Iowa,  '96 
Williams,  Anna  L.,  Cal.,  '99 
Williams  Coll.  Lib'y,  Mass.,  '97 
Williams,  Mrs.  Delia,  Ohio,  '70 
Williams,  H.  B.,  Ohio,  1900 
Williams.  J.  D.,  111., '96 
Williams,  L.W.,R.  I., '98 
Williams,  M.  Ida,  Cal.,  '99 
Williams,  Philo  J.,  Kan.,  '86 
Williams,  Sherman,  N.  Y.,  '98 
Williams,  Thyrza  C,  N.  J.,  '97 
Williams,  Wm.  H.,  Wis.,  '97 
Williams,  Wm.  J.,  Neb.,  '95 
Williamson,  J.  E.,  Iowa,  '95 
Willis,  D.  M.,  W.  Va.,  '95 
Willis,  H.  B.,N.  J..  '92 
Willis,  W.  A.,  Iowa,  '84 
Wilson,  C.  B.,  Mass.,  '96 
Wilson,  Eugene  A.,  Mich.,  '99 
Wilson,  Harry  G.,  111., '95 
Wilson,  H.  E.,  Ariz.,  '95 
Wilson,  J.Alfred,  N.  J.,  '99 
Wilson,  J.  Ormond,  D.  C.,  '80 
Wilson,  M.  C,  Ala.,  1900 
Wilson,  Mrs.  L.  L.  W.,  Pa.,  '99 
Wilson,  V.  L.,  Iowa,  '97 
Wilson,  W.B.,S.C., '99 
Wilson,  Wm.  E.,  Wash,  '90 
Windate.  Ida  M..  Ohio,  '96 
Winne,  Jas.,  N.  Y.,  '92 
Winship,  Albert  E.,  Mass.,  '92 


Winston,  Geo.  T.,  N,  C,  '96 
Winters,  T.  H.,  Ohio, '97 
Winterbum.  Rose  V.,  Cal.,  '99 
Winthrop,  Nor.  Coll.,  S.  C,  '95 
Wirick,  L.  A.,  Kan.,  '97 
Wirt,  Wm.  A.,  Ind.,  1900 
Wise,  Henry  A.,  .Md.,  '85 
Wise,  W.J. ,  Colo.,  '95 
Witherspoon,  Jas.  H.,  Ark.,  '99 
Witnier,  Chas.  K.,  Pa.,  '94 
Witmer,  Lightner,  Pa..  '98 
Witter,  F.  M.,  Iowa,  '97 
Witter,  J.  C.  N.   Y., '98 
Wolfe,  H.  K.,  Neb.,  '96 
Wolfe,  L.E.,  Kan.,  '90 
Woman's  Coll.,  Md.,  '99 
Wood,  Court  F.,  D.  C,  '97 
Wood,  Emory  M.,  Kan.,  '89 
Wood,  Jas.  A.,  N.  Mex.,  '97 
Wood,  John  A.,  Ind.,  '98 
Wood,  O.  M.,Mo.,'93 
Woodhull,  J.  F.,  N.  Y.,  '99 
Woodley,  O.  I.,  Mich.,  '96 
Woodmansec,  M.  A.,  Ohio,  '98 
Woods,  Francis  M.,  111.,  '96 
Woodward,  CM.,  Mo.,  '87 
Woodward,  Eliz.  J.,  Mass.,  '99 
Woodward,  F.  C,  S.  C,  '99 
Woodward,  J.  C,  Ga.,  '97 
Woody,  H.  G.,  Ind.,  '93  ' 
Wooley,  L.  C,  N.  J.,  '93 
Wooster,  Lizzie  E.,  Kan.,  1900 
Wright,  A.  M.,  N.  Y.,  '93 
Wright,  Anna  J.,  Ohio,  '94 
Wright,  Edmund  W.,  Vt.,  '89 
Wright,  L.  L.  Mich.,  '96 
Wright,  Lydia  H.,  Ariz.,  '95 
Wright,  R.  R.,  Ga.,  1900 
Wright,  Wm.  R.,  N.  J.,  '92 
Wylie.  Mrs.  M.  J.  B.,  N.  Y.,  '91 
Yates,  Lydia  A.,  N.  C,  '98 
Yerby,  John  D.,  Ala., '95 
Yoder,  A.  H.,  111.,  '96 
Young,  J.  B.,  Iowa,  '96 
Young,  J.  S.,Ohio,  '95 
Young,  Nathan  B.,  Ga.,  '96 
Young,  Robert  G.,  Mont.,  '89 
Ziek,  Mary,  Iowa,  '98 
Z  ill  afro,  Margaret  C,  Pa.,  '96 
Zimmerman,  C.  F.  A.,  Wis.,  '95 
Zirkle,  H.  W.,  Colo.,  '98 


CLASSIFIED  MEMBERSHIP  BY  STATES 

IN   THE 

NATIONAL   EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION 

FOR   THE    YEAR    I9OO  —  (CHARLESTON    MEETING) 


State  or  Territory 


Total 

North  Atlantic  Division. 
Soutli  Atlantic  Division. 
Soutli  Central  Division... 
North  Central  Division... 

Western  Division , 

Foreign 

North  Atlantic  Division- 
Maine 

New  Hampshire 

Vermont 

Massachusetts 

Rhode  Island 

Connecticut 

New  York 

New  Jersey 

Pennsylvania 

South  Atlantic  Division- 
Delaware  

Maryland. 

District  of  Columbia 

Virginia 

West  Virginia 

North  Carolina 

South  Carolina 

Georgia 

Florida. 

Porte  Rico 

South  Central  Division- 
Kentucky 

Tennessee 

Alabama 

Mississippi 

Louisiana 

Texas 

Arkansas 

Oklahoma 

Indian  Territory , 

North  Central  Division- 
Ohio 

Indiana 

Illinois 

Michigan 

Wisconsin 

Iowa 

Minnesota 

Missouri 

North  Dakota 

South  Dakota 

Nebraska 

Kansas , 

Western  Division- 
Montana  

Wyoming 

Colorado 

New  Mexico . .    . 

Arizona    

Utah 

Nevada 

Idaho  

Washington 

Oregon 

California 

Alaska 

Hawaii 

Philippine  Islands 

Poreien 


Active  Membership 


r?<^ 


1,848 


108 
822 

255 
5 


34   t 


3 

lOI 

17 
17 
216 
66 
90 

3 
21 

37 


133 
70 

221 
63 
78 
5° 
63 
S8 
13 
»S 
28 
30 

14 

5 

42 

13 

T2 
7 

3 
4 
IS 
7 
126 


308 


61 
57 
27 

145 
17 


II 


2,322 


616 

206 

141 

1,067 

286 


18 

257 
73 
"5 

3 
28 

43 
17 
14 
24 
28 
33 


179 
86 

277 
81 

123 
53 
70 
70 
14 
17 

^1 

16 
6 
47 
14 
13 
7 
3 
4 
19 


II 


3s 


167 
975 
273 
836 

68 


53 
14 
21 
4 
48 
663 
112 
59 


107 
87 

280 
29 
64 
29 
SI 
96 

2 
13 

47 
31 


800 


RECORD  OF  MEMBERSHIP  BY  STATES 

IN  THE 

NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL   ASSOCIATION 

FOR    EACH    YEAR    FROM    1884-I9OO,    INCLUSIVE 

Excepting  for  1893,  when  no  regular  meeting  was  held.     Heavier  numbers  show  membership  from 
the  state  in  which  the  meeting  for  the  year  was  held. 


State 

OR 

Territory 


Total. 


N.  Atlantic  Div.. 
S.  Atlantic  Div-- 
S.  Central  Div-- 
N.  Central  Div-. 
\Western  Div  — 
Foreign 

N.  Atlantic  Div- 

Maine 

N.  Hampshire 

Vermont 

Massachusetts 

Rhode  Island.. 

Connecticut... 

New  York 

New  Jersey.. . 

Pennsylvania. 
S.  Atlantic  Div. 

Delaware 

Maryland 

District  of  Oil. 

Virginia 

West  Virginia. 

N.  Carolina... 

S.  Carolina  . . . 

Georgia 

Florida 

Porto  Rico. . . . 
S.  Central  Div. 

Kentucky 

Tennessee 

Alabama 

Mississippi,... 

Louisiana.... 

Texas 

Arkansas 

Oklahoma 

Indian  T'y 

N.  Central  Div. 

Ohio 

Indiana 

Illinois. 

Michigan 

Wisconsin  .... 

Iowa 

Minnesota 

Missouri 

North  Dakota. 

South  Dakota. 

Nebraska 

Kansas 

Western  Div. 

Montana 

Wyoming  .... 

Colorado 

New  Mexico.. 

Arizona 

Utah 

Nevada 

Idaho  

Washington. . . 

Oregon 

C.ilifornia    ... 

Alaska 

Hawaii 

Philippine  Isls 
Foreign 


792 

77 

III 

1,712 

26 


623 


54 
3S4 

77 
54b 
304 
132 

46 


9,"5 


773 
44 
370 
7,671 
102 
155 


581 
418 

l,7!iO 
273 
486 

1,146 
649 
625 

149 

634 
960 


7,216 


803 

113 

216 

1.074 

4,974 

36 


4 
206 

30 
48 

210 
41 

242 

3 
17 
32 
18 

6 


225 

71 
222 
40 
57 
96 
58 
133 


40 
124 


1 1   204 
i84,278 


155   36 


1,984 


lOI 

128 

1,074 

642 

38 


1890 


5,474 


795 
95 
261 
4,156 
122 
45 


32 
32 
40 

290 
31 
31 

228 


114 

6U7 

123 

87 

19 


64 


361 
206 
625 
137 
443 
572 
933 
249 
j  99 
I  109 
147 
275 

37 

5 
56 


1891 


4.778 


426 
151 
417 
2.933 
196 

655 


30 
9 
4 
"4 
42 
18 
117 
16 
76 

5 
13 
10 

8 
49 
13 
18 
31 

4 


35 

149 
666 

259 
222 
278 
118 
320 
32 
31 

220 
283 

34 

13 

tl4 

7 


65.5 


1892 


3.360 


1,187 
309 
253 

1,456 
104 
51 


23 
63 

611 
65 

178 

6 
49 
35 


178 

65 
214 
285 

72 
no 

54 


126 
127 

9 

4 

59 

5 


1894 


5.915 


1,711 
271 
460 
3,357 
73 
43 


13 
326 
%9 
323 


990 

258 
871 
155 
143 
164 


S8 


1895 


1,462 
289 
899 

7,2X1 

1.403 

33 


24 

27 
13 

191 
55 
26 

521 


9,072 


2,940 
237 
419 

5.083 

377 

16 


14 
197 
35 
43 
2,132 
179 
325 


176 
66 
41 
49 
108 
294 
84 
58 
23 


592  565 
321   250 

1.495  r.174 
204!  589 
413 

1,086 


193 

1. 113 

28 

78 

742 


>5 

48 

1,136 

26 

II 

89 

3 

3 

6 
14 
53 


578 
303 
406 
34 
83 
363 
325 

43 

7 

177 

t6 

6 
37 

5 

10 
16 

9 
51 


1897 


7,111 


942 
172 
304 
5,315 
366 


357 
205 
785 
327 

l,»7i 
543 
333 
285 

53 
118 
251 
187 

78 
10 

145 
21 
6 
33 
3 
6 
8 
7 
S6 


1898 


1,492 
1,146 
1,588 
5. 882 
412 
13 


159 
36 
31 
509 
172 
558 

9 
80 

382 
63 

129 
76 
92 

261 

54 


408 
248 

229 
100 
146 

257 

132 

60 

7 

r.313 
591 

1,340 
379 
361 
383 
164 
795 
26 
45 
103 
382 


196 
27 


13.656 


1,877 
361 
818 
5.074 
5.487 
39 

16 
14 

II 
294 
5° 
46 
756 
154 
536 

9 
50 
99 
22 

29 
27 
22 

87 
16 


136 
"3 
69 
65 
60 

221 
96 

47 


580 
354 
1,216 
196 
287 

593 
267 
673 
38 
86 
331 
453 

70 
13 
465 
90 
158 
106 
49 
32 
S6 
79 
4,357 


783 
1.181 

414 
1,903 

354 


139 
18 
24 

327 
93 
'57 


81 
57 
38 
18 
72 
691 
145 
71 


286 

173 

557 

no 

187 

82 

121 

166 

16 

30 

86 


98,7«'3 


16,876 
4,621 
7,607 

54.353 
14,066 
1,117 


217 

233 

239 

2,858 

454 

478 

6,784 

1.945 

3.479 


476 
8S9 
270 
466 
264 
976 
992 
216 
6 

1,567 
1,782 
898 
541 
556 
1.342 
701 

215 

72 

6,674 
3.265 
11,668 
3.092 
5338 
6,107 
3,447 
5,587 
350 
609 
3.251 
4.768 

346 
140 
2,653 
241 
273 
444 
207 
80 
178 

377 

9,103 

2 

14 

3 

1,117 


^e 


^^. 


6,169 

1,055 
289 
475 

3,397 
879 
69 


14 
15 
15 

179 
28 

29 

424 

122 
217 

5 
30 

54 
17 
29 
17 
61 
63 
14 


98 
III 
56 
34 
35 
84 
44 
14 
5 

417 
204 

729 
193 
333 
383 
215 
349 

23 

38 

203 

298 


9 

166 

'5 

17 

28 

13 

S 

It 

24 

569 


69 


801 


$o.3o 

$0.30 

.30 

.30 

.20 

•25 

.20 

.25 

.10 

.15 

.10 

.»5 

INVENTORY  AND  PRICE  LIST  OF  PUBLICATIONS  OF  THE  NATIONAL 
EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  IN  THE  DEPOSITORY  AT  WASHING- 
TON, D.  C,  JULY   I,   1900  Price  per 

Number  of     Prices  in         single  vol- 

copies      sets,  carriage   ume,  carriage 

MISCELLANEOUS  PUBLICATIONS        in  stock     not  prepaid         prepaid 

Historical  Sketch  of  the  National  Educational  Association,  1857-91     .         176  $0.20  $0.25 

t  REPRINTS  OF  PROCEEDINGS  OF  THE  DEPARTMENT  OF  SUPERINTENDENCE 

1891  Paper  cover,  147  pages     .......    162      $0.20      $0.25 

1892  "    "   237   •■ 403        .20        .25 

1894     "    "   184   "........    292        .20        .25 

1898     "    "   194   " 43        .20        .25 

t  REPRINTS  OF  PROCEEDINGS  OF  THE  NATIONAL  COUNCIL  OF  EDUCATION 

885        Paper  cover,  izo  pages 18  $0.10  $0.15 

888  "  "  73      " •  137  -lo  -I? 

889  "  "  98      " 230  .10  .15 

890  "  "  80  ".......         .  237  .10  .IS 

891  "  "  114  "........  100  .10  ,15 

894  "  "  95      " 122  .TO  .15 

89s  ••  "  81      " 49  .10  ,15 

t  REPRINTS  OF  REPORTS  OF  SPECIAL  COMMITTEES 

fReport  of  Committee  of  Ten  on  Secondary  Schools,  paper  cover,  249  pages 

f  Report  of  Committee  of  Fifteen  on  Elementary  Schools,  paper  cover,  235  pages 

Report  of  Committee  on  Rural  Schools,  paper  cover.  228  pages  .         .         .         , 

Report  of  Committee  on  College-Entrance  Requirements,  paper  cover,  188  pages 

Report  of  Committee  on  Normal  Schools,  paper  cover,  64  pages 

Report  of  Committee  on  Public  Libraries  and  Public  Schools,  paper  cover,  80  pages 

PROCEEDINGS  OF  THE  NATIONAL  TEACHERS'  ASSOCIATION 

1865  Paper  cover,  117  pages 24  $0.50  * 

1866  "  "      140      "  .......  26  .50  * 

BOUND  VOLUMES  OF  PROCEEDINGS  OF  THE  NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION 

1873  Elmira 247  $1.25  $1.50 

1874  Detroit  ..........         268  1.25  1.50 

J875        Minneapolis  .  .         .         .         .         .         184  1.25  1.50 

1876  Baltimore       ..........  27s  1.25  1.50 

1877  Louisville .         .  175  1.25  1.50 

1878  (No  meeting) 

1879  Philadelphia           .........  289  1.25  1.50 

1880  Chautauqua            .         .         .         .                   .         .         .         .  234  1.25  1.50 

1881  Atlanta           ..........  493  1.25  1.50 

1882  Saratoga  Springs            ........  32  1.50                         * 

1883  Saratoga  Springs •  •                         • 

1884  Madison 557  1.50  1.75 

1885  Saratoga  Springs             ........           19  1.50                         * 

1886  Topeka           ..........  322  1.50  1.75 

1887  Chicago          ..........  124  1.50  1.7s 

1888  San  Francisco        .........  247  1.50  1.75 

1889  Nashville       ..........  425  1.50  1.75 

1890  St.  Paul         ..........  452  1.75  2.00 

1891  Toronto          ..........  708  1.75  2.00 

1892  Saratoga  Springs  .........  697  1.75  2.00 

1893  Chicago  (International  Congress  of  Education)       .         .         .  488  1.75  2.00 

1894  Asbury  Park           .........  444  1.75  2.00 

1895  Denver           ..........*    337  1.75  2.00 

1896  Buffalo           ..........  255  1.75  2.00 

1897  Milwaukee             .........  180  1.75  2.00 

1898  Washington,  D.  C.         .......         .  65  1.75  2.00 

1899  Los  Angeles           .........  130  1.75  2.00 

1900  Charleston      ..........     in  press  1.75  2.00 

Subject  Index         .         ...         .         .         .         .        ■.         .  "free  1.00 

•  Stock  exhausted. 

t  The  Reports  of  the  Committee  of  Ten  and  the  Committee  of  Fifteen  are  printed  and  sold  by  the  Ameri- 
can Book  Co.  for  30  cents  each,  postage  paid. 

J  All  reprints  noted  above  are  included  in  the  bound  volumes  of  Proceedings  except  the  Report  of  the 
Committee  of  Ten  on  Secondary  Schools. 

A  complete  Subject  Index  of  all  published  proceedings  to  1897  has  been  issued  in  a  separate  volume, 
bound  in  cloth,  uniform  with  the  volumes  of  proceedings.  The  index  will  be  sent  free  of  charge  to  those  who 
purchase  five  or  more  volumes;  to  othersit  will  be  sent  postpaid  for  $1.00.  The  index  volume  will  be  supplied 
to   active  members  for  25  cents  for  postage,  wrapping,  etc. 

All  publications  can  be  obtained  of  the  Secretary.  Remittances  should  be  made  by  Draft  or  P,  O. 
Money  Order.  Irwin  Shepard,  Secretary, 

Winona,  Minn. 

802 


INDEX 


[Names  ofauthors  of  papers  are  set  in  small  capitals.     A  t  indicates  a  memorial  sketch.] 


Active  Members,  List  of,  729;  Index  to 
List  of,  790  ;  Minutes  of,  24. 

Act  of  Incorporation,  4. 

Address,  Closing —  A.  P.  Montague,  180. 

Addresses  of  Welcome  —  Governor  Mc- 
Sweeney,  41;  Superintendent  John  J. 
McMahan,  45 ;  Mayor  J.  Adger  Smyth, 
46 ;  Superintendent  Henry  P.  Archer, 
48 ;  in  Art  Department,  Azalea  H. 
Willis,  506. 

Advantages  and  Difficulties  of  Introdu- 
cing the  Commercial  Branches  in  Gram- 
mar and  High  Schools — H.  M.  Rowe,  562. 

Advice  to  Kindergartners,  A  Mother's,  370. 

Ahem,  Mary  Eileen  —  Secretary's  Minutes, 
Library  Department,  635 ;  Discussion, 
648, 

Alcohol  Physiology  and  Superintendence  — 
W.  O.  Atwater,  229  ;  Discussion,  250. 

Alcohol,  What  We  Should  Not  Teach 
about,  242 ;  What  We  Should  Teach 
about,  245. 

Alderman,  Edwin  A. — Obligations  and 
Opportunities  of  Scholarship,  266. 

Amendments,  proposed  at  meeting  of  Di- 
rectors, 36 ;  discussed  at  meeting  of  act- 
ive members,  26 ;  passed,  29 ;  proposed 
to  constitution  of  Council,  303. 

American  Colonies,  Education  in  the,  459. 

American  Education,  The  Function  of  the 
Land-Grant  College  in,  473. 

Anderson,  Woodford  D. — Should  Our 
Colleges  and  Universities  Educate  Men 
Specially  for  Business  ?  549. 

Annual  Business  Meeting,  24. 

Archer,  Superintendent  Henry  P. — 
Address  of  Welcome,  48. 

Architecture,  Schoolhouse,  610. 

Arithmetic,  School  and  Business  —  Limita- 
tions and  Improvements,  566. 

Art  Education,  Department  of,  505. 

Art  in  Everything  —  Francis  W.  Parker,  509. 

Ashmore,  Otis  —  The  Elimination  of  the 
Grammar  School,  424. 

Atwater,  W.  O. — Alcohol  Physiology 
and  Superintendence,  229 ;  Discussion, 
263,  264. 

Ayres,  Henrietta  B.,  t>  7i7' 

Bailey,  Thomas  P. —  Some  Difficulties  of 
Child  Study,  582. 

Baker,  James  H. — Resolution  on  Report  of 
Committee  on  College-Entrance  Require- 
ments, 458. 

Bancroft,  Margaret  —  The  Claims  of 
the  Feeble-Minded,  674. 


Baptist  Church,  Contributions  to  the  Cause 
of  Education  by  the,  87. 

Barnard,  Henry,  7,717. 

Bartholomew,  W.  H. —  Discussion,  340. 

Bayliss,  Alfred  —  Discussion,  210. 

Beardshear,  William  M.— The  Func- 
tion of  the  Land-Grant  College  in  Ameri- 
can Education,  473 ;  The  Influence  of 
Poetry  in  Education,  153. 

Beardsley,  Elias  J.,  f,  717, 

Benjamin,  George  H. —  Secretary's  Min- 
utes, 681. 

Black,  William  H. —  Discussion,  453. 

Blaisdell,  Henry  R.,  t,  7i8. 

Blind,  The  Higher  Education  of  the,  671. 

Board  of  Directors  for  1899-1900,  8  ;  Min- 
utes of  Meeting  of,  35  ;  for  1 900-1 901, 
12  ;  Minutes  of  Meeting  of,  38. 

Board  of  Trustees  for  1899- 1900,  12;  for 
1900-1901,  19. 

Bolte,  Mrs.  Jessie  Willard — Discussion,  262. 

Boone,  Richard  G.— General  Culture  as 
an  Element  in  Professional  Training, 
351  ;  Discussion,  253. 

Booth,  Frank  W. — Statistics  of  Speech- 
Teaching  in  Schools  for  the  Deaf  in  the 
United  States,  668. 

Boyer,  Emanuel  R.,  t,  718. 

Braden,  John,  "f,  719. 

Brittain,  M.  L. —  Discussion,  449. 

Brown,  Miss  Marion — Is  there  a  Nation- 
ality Problem  in  Our  Schools  ?  585. 

Bruce,  William  George  - —  Secretary's  Min- 
utes, Department  of  School  Administra- 
tion, 609. 

Brumbaugh,  Martin  G.  —  Educational 
Principles  Applied  in  the  Teaching  of 
Literature,  169. 

Bryan,  William  J.  S.— To  What  Extent 
Should  a  Pupil  in  the  High  School 
Choose  His  Studies?  428. 

Buchanan,  Miss  Elizabeth  —  Classifica- 
tion and  Promotion  —  A  Problem  of  the 
Grades,  128. 

Buchanan,  L.  A. — Secretary's  Minutes,  492. 

Bulloch,  J.  G. — Sanitary  Conditions 
among  the  Indians,  706. 

Bureau  of  Education,  Committee  on,  185. 

Burns,  J.  J. —  Discussion,  423,  447. 

Business  Education,  Department  of,  542. 

Butler,  Nicholas  Murray  — Discussion 
of  Amendments,  27  ;  Report  of  the  Com- 
mittee on  Resolutions,  31;  Status  of  Edu- 
cation at  the  Close  of  the  Century,  188. 

By-Laws  of  Constitution,  4. 


803 


8o4 


NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION 


Calendar  of  Meetings,  6. 

Carr,  J.  W. — Address  of  Welcome,  52  ; 
Discussion,  423. 

Carroll,  C.  F. — Discussion,  254. 

Carter,  Joseph — Discussion,  257. 

Catholic  Church,  Contributions  to  the  Cause 
of  Education  by  the,  94. 

Certificate  of  Incorporation,  5. 

Changes  of  Method  in  the  Pennsylvania 
Institution  for  the  Deaf  and  Dumb — A. 
L.  E.  Crouter,  663. 

Child  Study,  Department  of,  582;  Some 
Difficulties  of,  582. 

Choice  of  Studies  in  High  Schools,  428. 

Church  and  State  in  Education,  459. 

City  Superintendent,  The  Trail  of  the, 
214. 

Claims  of  the  Feeble-Minded,  The — Mar- 
garet Bancroft,  674. 

Classification  and  Promotion — A  Problem 
of  the  Grades — Miss  Elizabeth  Buchanan, 
128. 

Class  Intervals  in  Graded  Schools^Wil- 
liam  T.  Harris,  332  ;  Discussion,  340. 

Claxton,  p.  P.^ — The  Need  of  Kindergar- 
tens in  the  South,  376. 

Closing  Address — A.  P.  Montague,  180. 

Coleman,  Mrs. — Discussion,  655. 

College  President,  The  Satisfactions  of 
Being  a,  455. 

College,  The  Small  —  Its  Work  in  the  Past, 
61;  Its  Prospects,  67. 

Colonies,  Education  in  the,  305. 

Commercial  Branches  in  Grammar  and 
High  Schools,  562. 

Commercial  High-School  Course,  The  — 
William  E.  Doggett,  555. 

Committee  on  College-Entrance  Require- 
ments, Discussion  of  the  Report  of,  45 1; 
on  National  Bureau  of  Education,  185  ; 
on  Necrology,  Members  of,  22  ;  Prelimi- 
nary Report  of,  23 ;  Final  Report  of, 
712;  on  Nominations  of  Department  of 
Superintendence,  184;  Report  of,  186; 
on  Nominations,  Members  of,  22 ;  Re- 
port of,  25;  on  Permanent  Place  of  Meet- 
ing of  Department  of  Superintendence, 
Report  of,  183  ;  on  Resolutions,  Mem- 
bers of,  21 ;  Report  of,  31 ;  on  Temper- 
ance Instruction,  187. 
Common-Sense  as  an  Aid  to  the  School- 
Music  Supervisor  —  Sterrie  A.  Weaver, 
532. 
CoNGDON,  C.  H. —  Should  Music  in  the 
Public  Schools  be  Taught  from  the  Song 
to  the  Exercise  ?  537. 
Constitution  of  General  Association,  i;  of 

National  Council,  297. 
Content  and  Educational  Value  of  the  Cur- 
riculum for  a  Secondary 'School  of  Com- 
merce— Cheesman  A.  Herrick,  543. 
Contributions  of  Religious  Organizations 
to  the  Cause  of  Education.  I,  By  the 
Baptist  Church — Oscar  H.  Cooper,  87  ; 
ir.  By  the  Catholic  Church— Conde  B. 
Fallen,  94. 


CooLEY,  Mrs.  Alice  Woodworth— In- 
struction—A  Problem  of  the  Grades,  137. 

Cook,  John  W.— How  Can  the  Superin- 
tendent Improve  the  Teachers  under  His 
Charge  ?  276. 

Cooper,  Oscar  H.—  Contributions  of  Reli- 
gious Organizations  to  the  Cause  of  Edu- 
cation.   I,  By  the  Baptist  Church,  87. 

Corresponding  Members,  List  of,  729. 

Corson,  Oscar  T.—  President's  Address, 
58. 

Council,  The  National — Constitution,  297; 
Officers,  299;  Members,  300;  Secretary's 
Minutes,  302. 

Crouter,  A.  L.  E.— Changes  of  Method 
in  the  Pennsylvania  Institution  for  the 
Deaf  and  Dumb,  663. 

Culture  as  an  Element  in  Professional 
Training,  351. 

Curriculum  for  a  Secondary  School  of  Com- 
merce, Educational  Value  of,  543. 

Davis,  Allan  —  Secretary's  Minutes,  542. 

Davis,  Charles  M.,  t,  719. 

Deaf,  Blind,  and  Feeble-Minded,  Depart- 
ment of  Education  of  the,  656. 

Declaration  of  Principles,  31. 

Denfeld,  R.  E.— The  Superintendent  as 
an  Organizer  and  an  Executive,  287. 

Department  of  Art  Education,  505 ;  of 
Business  Education,  542;  of  Child  Study, 
582;  of  Education  of  the  Deaf,  Blind, 
and  Feeble-Minded,  656  ;  of  Elementary 
Education,  403;  of  Higher  Education, 
454;  of  Indian  Education,  681;  of  Kin- 
dergarten Education,  365;  Library,  635; 
of  Manual  Training,  49 1;  of  Music  Edu- 
cation, 531;  National  Council,  297;  of 
Normal  Schools,  480;  of  Physical  Train- 
ing (no  sessions);  of  School  Administra- 
tion, 609;  of  Science  Instruction,  592; 
of  Secondary  Education,  428  ;  of  Super- 
intendence, 183. 

Department  Officers  for  1899-1900,  8;  for 
1900-1901,  14. 

Directors,  Board  of,  for  1899-1900,  8 ;  Min- 
utes of  Meeting,  35;  Board  of,  for  1900- 
1901,  12;  Minutes  of  Meeting,  38. 
Discipline  — A   Problem  of  the  Grades  — 

Miss  Gertrude  Edmund,  123, 
Discussion  of  the  Report  of  the  Committee 
on  College-Entrance  Requirements  —  B. 
A,  Hinsdale,  451. 
DoBYNS,  J.  R. — The  Growth  and  Develop- 
ment of  Southern  Schools  for  the  Deaf, 
658. 
Doggett,  William  E. — The  Commercial 

High-School  Course,  555. 
DoLBEAR,  Katherine   £. — Nature  Study 

for  the  Graded  Schools,  600. 
Drawing  in  the  Public  Schools,  The  Rela- 
tion of  Nature  Study  to,  524. 
Dunton,  Larkin,  "f,  720. 
Dutton,  Bettie  A. — Secretary's  Minutes  of 
Council,  302  ;  of  Department  of  Elemen- 
tary Education,  403. 
Dutton,  Samuel  T. — Discussion,  250. 


INDEX 


805 


Dyke,  Charles  Bartlett — The  Train- 
ing of  Teachers  for  Indian  Schools,  696; 
Secretary's  Minutes,  480. 

Edmund,  Miss  Gertrude — Discipline — 
A  Problem  of  the  Grades,  123. 

Education  at  the  Close  of  the  Century, 
Status  of,  188. 

Education  in  the  American  Colonies,  459  ; 
in  Germany,  458;  in  Sweden,  457. 

Education  in  the  Colonies — Aaron  Gove, 
305  ;  Discussion,  310.  * 

Education  of  the  Deaf,  Blind,  and  Feeble- 
Minded,  Department  of,  656. 

Educational  Principles  Applied  to  the 
Teaching  of  Literature  —  Martin  G. 
Brumbaugh,  169. 

Educational  Progress  During  the  Year 
1899-1900 — B.  A.  Hinsdale,  312. 

Educational  Use  of  Music  for  Children 
under  Seven — Mari  Ruef  Hofer,  397, 

Educational  Value  of  the  Curriculum  for  a 
Secondary  School  of  Commerce,  543. 

Election  of  Studies  in  the  High  School,  428. 

Elementary  Education,  Department  of,  403. 

Elimination  of  the  Grammar  School,  The 
— Otis  Ashmore,  424  ;  Discussion,  426. 

Eliot,  Charles  W. — Discussion  of  Status 
of  Education  at  the  Close  of  the  Century, 
196. 

Ellis,  W.  S. — School- Board  Organization, 
631. 

Elmendorf,  H.  L. — The  Greater  School; 
or,  The  School  Plus  the  Library  Greater 
than  Either,  643;  Discussion,  647,  654. 

English  in  the  Grades — A.  A.  Reed,  416; 
Discussion,  422. 

English  Language,  How  Shall  We  Teacii 
the  Correct  Use  of,  437. 

English  Literature,  V'alue  of,  in  Ethical 
Training — Reuben  Post  Halleck,  160. 

Engstrom,  August  E.,^,  720. 

Errors  in  Current  Temperance  Teaching, 
246. 

Essentials  of  Modern  Business  Penman- 
ship— F.  L.  Haeberle,  576. 

Ethical  Training,  Value  of  English  Litera- 
ture in — R«uben  Post  Halleck,  160. 

Ethnic  View  of  Higher  Education  in — \. 
W.  Howerth,  465. 

Executive  Committee  for  1899- 1900,  8; 
for  1 900-1 901,  12. 

Famham,  George  L.,  t,  721. 

Feeble-Minded,  Claims  of  the,  674;  Train- 
ing of  the,  677. 

FiNLEV,  Blanche— Kindergarten  Work 
among  the  Indians,  705. 

Fitz  Simons,  Miss  Ellen — Discussion,  648. 

Flavin,  John  C,  f,  721. 

FosHAY,  James  A. — Address  of  Welcome, 
55- 

Free  Traveling  Library,  The :  An  Aid  to 
Education  and  a  Factor  in  the  National 
Life — Mrs.  Eugene  B.  Heard,  648;  Dis- 
cussion, 654. 

Frissell,  H.  B. — The  Training  of  Negro 
Teachers,  482 ;  The  Indian  Problem,  682. 


Function  of  the  Land-Grant  College  in 
American  Education — William  M.  Beard- 
shear,  473. 

Galbreath,  Louis  H.,  f,  721. 

Gantvoort,  Arnold  J. — The  Influence 
of  Music  upon  National  Life,  145. 

Garrett,  Mary  S.^ — The  State  of  the 
Case,  661. 

Garrison,  S.  Olin,  "f,  722. 

General  Culture  as  an  Element  in  Profes- 
sional Training — Richard  G.  Boone,  351. 

Geographical  Phase  of  Nature  Study  in  the 
Public  Schools,  411.  - 

Germany,  Education  in,  458. 

Gifts,  The  Kindergarten,  383. 

Gilbert,  Charles  B. — Discussion,  351. 

Glenn,  G.  R. — What  Manner  of  Child 
Shall   This    Be?    174;    Discussion,  489, 

655. 

Gorton,  Charles  E. — The  Superintend- 
ent in  Small  Cities,  222. 

Gove,  Aaron. — Flducation  in  the  Colonies, 
305 ;  Discussion,  340 ;  The  Trail  of  the 
City  Superintendent,  214. 

Graded  Schools,  Class  Intervals  in,  332 ; 
Nature  Study  for  the,  600. 

Graded-School  Systems,  Opportunities  for 
Improvement  in  the  Administration  of, 
203. 

Grades,  The  Problem  of  the.  I,  Disci- 
pline— Miss  Gertrude  Edmund,  123;  II, 
Classification  and  Promotion — Miss 
Elizabeth  Buchanan,  128;  III,  Instruc- 
tion— Mrs.    Alice    Woodworth    Cooley, 

137- 

Grades,  English  in  the,  416. 

Graeser,  C.  A. — Discussion,  423 ;  Secre- 
tary's Minutes,  428. 

Grammar  School,  Elimination  of  the,  424. 

Gray,  H.  W. — Secretary's  Minutes,  531. 

Greater  School,  The  ;  or.  The  School  Plus 
the  Library  Greater  than  Either — H.  L. 
Elmendorf,  643  ;  Discussion,  647. 

Green,  James  M. — Remarks  as  President- 
Elect,  33;  Discussion,  312. 

Greenwood,  James  M. — Report  on  High- 
School  Statistics,  340 ;  Discussion,  351. 

Grisham,  G.  N. — Discussion,  490. 

Growth  and  Development  of  Southern 
Schools  for  the  Deaf,  The,  658. 

Gruver,  E.  A. —Secretary's  Minutes,  656. 

Gwynn,  Henry  fiash,  t.  722. 

Haeberle,  F.  L. — Essentials  of  Modern 
Business  Penmanship,  576. 

Hall,  Winfield  S.^ — Discussion,  258. 

Halleck,  Reuben  Post — The  Value  of 
English  Literature  in  Ethical  Training, 
160;  Discussion,  647. 

Hannan,  James,  "f,  723. 

Harper,  William  R. — The  Small  College 
— Its  Prospects,  67. 

Harris,  William  T. — Class  Intervals  in 
Graded  Schools,  332;  Discussion  of  Status 
of  Education  at  the  Close  of  the  Century, 
199;  Discussion,  310,312,340. 

Harrison,  Miss— Discussion,  655. 


8o6 


NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION 


Harvey,  Lorenzo  D. — Two  Opportunities 
for  Improvement  in  the  Administration 
of  Graded-School  Systems,  203 ;  Discus- 
sion, 351. 

Harvey,  N.  A. — Secretary's  Minutes,  592. 

Health  of  the  Indian,  The — C.  C.  Wain- 
wright,  696. 

Heard,  Mrs.  Eugene  B. — The  Free 
Traveling  Library :  An  Aid  to  Educa- 
tion and  a  Factor  in  the  National  Life, 
648. 

Herrick,  Cheesman  a. —  Content  and 
Educational  V^alue  of  the  Curriculum  for 
a  Secondary  School  of  Commerce,  543. 

Higher  Education  of  the  Blind,  The — John 
E.  Swearingen,  671. 

Higher  Education,  An  Ethnic  View  of,  465  ; 
Department  of,  454. 

Higher  Education  in  Europe  and  America, 
State  Aid  to,  457. 

High-School  Course,  The  Commercial,  555. 

High  School,  Manual  Training  for  the, 
501 ;  Statistics,  Report  on,  340. 

High  Schools,  Choice  of  Studies  in,  428. 

Hinsdale,  B.  A. — Educational  Progress 
During  the  Year  1899-1900,  312;  Dis- 
cussion, 311,  351,  451. 

HoFER,  Mari  Ruef— The  Educational 
Use  of  Music  for  Children  under  Seven, 

397- 

Holmes,  Miss  Evelyn — Secretary's  Minutes, 
366. 

How  Can  Advanced  Science  in  the  College 
and  University  and  Nature  Work  in  the 
Graded  School  be  Rendered  More  Mutu- 
ally Helpful  ?— Charles  B.  Wilson,  592. 

How  Can  the  Superintendent  Improve  the 
Teachers  under  His  Charge  ? — ^John  W. 
Cook,  276. 

HowERTH,  I.  W. — An  Ethnic  View  of 
Higher  Education,  465  ;  Discussion,  464. 

How  Shall  We  Teach  Our  Pupils  the  Cor- 
rect Use  of  the  English  Language  ? — 
Oliver  S.  Westcolt,  437  ;  Discussion,  447. 

How  to  Direct  Children  in  Their  Reading — 

.    Mae  E.  Schreiber,  636. 

Hunt,  Mrs.  Mary  H. — Discussion,  259. 

Hunt,  W.  A. — The  Relations  of  the  School 
Board  and  the  Teachers,  625. 

Improvement  in  the  Administration  of 
Graded-School  Systems,  Opportunities 
for,  203. 

Incorporation,  Act  of,  5  ;  Certificate  of,  5. 

Index  to  List  of  Life  Directors,  Life  and 
Active  Members,  790. 

Indian  Education,  Department  of,  681 ; 
Practical  Methods  in,  707. 

Indian  Girl  as  the  Uplifter  of  the  Home, 
Training  of  the,  701. 

Indian,  The  Health  of  the,  696 ;  The 
Teaching  of  Trades  to  the,  698. 

Indian  Problem,  The — -Rev.  H.  B.  Frissell, 
682. 

Indian  Schools,  The  Proper  Relation  Be- 
tween Literary  and  Industrial  Education 
in,  692 ;  Training  of  Teachers  for,  696. 


Indians,  Kindergarten  Work    among   the, 

705 ;    Sanitary   Conditions   among   the, 

706. 
Industrial  Education  in  Indian  Schools,  692. 
Influence  of  Music  upon  National  Life — 

Arnold  J.  Gantvoort,  145. 
Influence  of  Poetry  in  Education— William 

M.  Beardshear,  153. 
Instruction — A  Problem  of   the   Grades — 

Mrs.  Alice  Woodworth  Cooley,  137. 
Intervals,  Class,  in  Graded  Schools,  332. 
Inventory  and   Price  List  of  Publications, 

802. 
Is    there    a   Nationality    Problem   in   Our 

Schools? — Miss  Marion  Brown,  585. 
Jefferson  and  State  Aid  to  Education,  461. 
Jenkins,  Mrs.  Sara  D. — Discussion,  422. 
Johnstone,  E.  R.— On  the  Training  of  the 

Feeble-Minded,  677. 
Jones,  Henry  S.,  t.  723. 
Jones,  Richard  —  Discussion,    463;    Secre- 

tar3''s  Minutes,  455. 
Jordan,  Charles  M. — Chairman  of  Council, 

302;  Secretary's  Minutes,  183. 
Journal  of  Proceedings,  21. 
Keyes,  Charles  H. — Discussion,  340  ;  Reso- 
lution on  the  Death  of  Henry  Barnard, 

302. 
Kiehle,  D.  L. — Discussion,  256. 
Kindergarten  Education,   Department   of, 

365- 
Kindergarten    Gifts,    The  —  Harriet    Niel, 

383. 

Kindergarten  and  the  Primary  School, 
The — Emma  A.  Newman,  390. 

Kindergarten  Work  among  the  Indians — 
Blanche  Finley,  705. 

Kindergartens  in  the  South,  The  Need  of, 
376. 

Kindergartners,  A  Mother's  Advice  to,  370. 

Kirk,  J.  R. — Discussion,  423,  426. 

Kratz,  H.  E. — A  Study  in  Musical  Inter- 
pretation, 590. 

Kraus-Boelte,  Mrs.  Maria — President's 
Address   of   Kindergarten    Department, 

367- 
Land-Grant  College  in  American  Educa- 
tion, The  Function  of  the,  473. 
Lane,  A.  G. — Report  of  Board  of  Trustees, 

19  ;  Explanations  of  Report,  36. 
Lane,  Frederick  Hiram,  "f,  724. 
Lange,  D. — Nature  Study   in    the    Public 

Schools,  404. 
Library  and  the  School,  643. 
Library  Department,  635. 
Library,  Free  Traveling,  648. 
Lining,  Ida  Marshall — Secretary's  Minutes, 

Department  of  Child  Study,  582. 
List  of  Corresponding  Members,  729. 
List  of  Life  and  Active  Members,  729. 
Literature,  Educational  Principles  Applied 

to  Teaching  of — Brumbaugh,  169. 
Lyte,  E.  Oram — Address  of  Welcome,  49. 
Manual  Training,  Department  of,  491. 
Manual  Training   for   the  Ordinary  High 

School — James  H.  Van  Sickle,  501. 


INDEX 


807 


Mark,  E.  H. — Discussion,  294. 

McIvER,  Charles  D. — Training  of  Teach- 
ers for  White  Schooh,  481 ;  Discussion, 
489,  490. 

McMahan,  Superintendent  John  J. — 
Address  of  Welcome,  45. 

McNeill,  I.  C. — Report  of  Discussions,  310, 
340,  351. 

McSwEENEY,  Governor  Miles  B. — Ad- 
dress of  Welcome,  41. 

Meleney,  Mrs. Clarence  E. — A  Mother's 
Advice  to  Kindergartners,  370. 

Membership,  Qualifications  for,  i. 

Metcalf,  R.  C. — Discussion,  647,  655. 

Miller,  Angelina  N.,  f.  724- 

Minutes  of  Meeting  of  Board  of  Directors 
for  1899-1900,  35;  of  Meeting  of  Board 
of  Directors  for  1900-1901,38;  of  Busi- 
ness Meeting  of  Active  Members,  24. 

Montague,  A.  P. — Closing  Address,  180. 

Morgan,  William  H.,  t,  724. 

Mother's  Advice  to  Kindergartners — Mrs. 
Clarence  E.  Meleney,  370. 

Musical  Interpretation,  A  Study  in,  590. 

Music  Education,  Department  of,  531. 

Music,  Influence  of,  upon  National  Life, 
145;  The  Use  of,  for  Children  under 
Seven,  397. 

Music  in  Public  Schools — Should  it  be 
Taught  from  Song  to  Exercise  ?  537. 

J^Jational  Council,  The — Constitution,  297; 
Officers,  299 ;  Members,  300 ;  Secretary's 
Minutes,  302 ;  Proposed  Amendments, 
303  ;  Papers  and  Discussions,  305. 

Nationality  Problem  in  Our  Schools  ?  Is 
there  3/585. 

National  Teachers'  Rallying  Song,  30. 

Nature  Study  in  the  Public  Schools — D. 
Lange,  404. 

Nature  Study  in  the  Public  Schools,  The 
Geographical  Phase — Jacques  W.  Red- 
way,  411. 

Nature  Study  for  the  Graded  Schools — 
Katherine  E.  Dolbear,  600. 

Nature  Work  in  Graded  School  vs.  Science 
in  the  University  and  College,  592. 

Necrology,  Report  of  Committee  on.  Pre- 
liminary, 23;  Final,  712. 

Need  of  Kindergartens  in  the  South — P.  P. 
Claxton,  376. 

Negro  Teachers,  Training  of,  482. 

Nelson,  A.  H. — Discussion,  435. 

Newman,  Emma  A. — The  Kindergarten 
and  the  Primary  School,  390. 

NiEL,  Harkibt— The  Kindergarten  Gifts, 
383. 

Nominations,  Report  of  the  Committee  on, 

25- 

Normal  Schools,  Department  of,  480. 

Obligations  and  Opportunities  of  Scholar- 
ship— Edwin  A.  Alderman,  266. 

Officers  of  Departments  for  1899-1900,  10; 
for  1900-1901,  14;  General  Association, 
Election  of,  25;  List  of,  for  1899-1900, 
8  ;  Liet  of,  for  1900-1901,  12. 

Olin,  John  Russell,  f,  725. 


Opportunities  for  Improvement  in  the  Ad- 
ministration of  Graded-School  Systems — 
L.  D.  Harvey,  203  ;  Discussion,  210. 

Opportunities  of  Scholarship,  Obligations 
and,  266. 

Ordinance  of  1787,460. 

Organization,  School-Board,  631. 

Orr,  Fred  J. — Picture  Study — Its  Relation 
to  Culture  and  General  Education,  514. 

Ostrander,  Frank,  t,  725. 

Owen,  Edwin  H.,  f ,  726. 

Pallen,  Conde  B.-— Contributions  to  the 
Cause  of  Education  by  the  Catholic 
Church,  94. 

Parents'  Conference  of  Kindergarten  De- 
partment, 366. 

Parker,  Francis  W. — Art  in  Everything, 
509;  Discussion,  255,  340. 

Parsons,  C.  H. — Schoolhouse  Architecture, 
610. 

Parr,  S.  S.,  t,  726. 

Pearse,  Carroll  G.  —  Discussion  of  Amend- 
ments, 26,  27,  29  ;  Discussion,  258  ;  Re- 
port of  Treasurer,  16. 

Penmanship,  Essentials  of  Modern  Busi- 
ness, 576. 

Pennsylvania  Institution  for  the  Deaf  and 
Dumb,  Changes  of  Method  in,  663. 

Peres,  Israel  H. — School- Administration 
Problems  in  the  South,  618. 

Physical  Training,  Department  of  (no  ses- 
sions). 

Picture  Study — Its  Relation  to  Culture  and 
General  Education — Fred  J.  Orr,  514. 

Poetry,  The  Influences  of,  in  Education,  153. 

Poucher,  Mrs.  Matilda  S.,  ti  726. 

Powers,  James  K. — Discussion,  462. 

Practical  Methods  in  Indian  Education- 
John  Seger,  707. 

Preamble  of  Constitution,  i. 

Presidential  Address,  Art  Education — 
Frances  E.  Ransom,  507  ;  Kindergarten 
Department- — Mrs.  Kraus  Boelle,  367. 

President's  Address  —  Oscar  T.  Corson,  58. 

Price  List  of  Publications,  802. 

Primary  School  and  the  Kindergarten,  390. 

Principles,  Declaration  of,  31. 

Problem  of  the  Grades.  I,  Discipline — Miss 
Gertrude  Edmund,  123;  II,  Classifica- 
tion and  Promotion — Miss  Elizabeth 
Buchanan,  128;  III,  Instruction— Mrs. 
Alice  Woodworth  Cooley,  137. 

Problem  of  the  South,  The — Booker  T. 
Washington,  114. 

Problems  in  the  South,  School-Administra- 
tion, 618. 

Professional  Training,  General  Culture  as 
an  Element  in,  351. 

Profitable  Publicity — A  Study  of  Advertis- 
ing as  Applied  to  Business  Colleges — 
Willard  J.  Wheeler,  573. 

Progress,  Educational,  During  the  Year, 
312. 

Proper  Relation  between  Literary  and  In- 
dustrial Education  in  Indian  Schools, 
The— A.  J.  Standing,  692. 


8o8 


NATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION 


Public  Schools,  Nature  Study  in  the,  404  ; 
Teaching  Trades  in  Connection  with  the, 
492, 

Rallying  Song,  National  Teachers',  30. 

Ransom,  Frances  E. — Presidential  Ad- 
dress, Department  of  Art  Education,  507. 

Reading,  How  to  Direct  Children  in,  636. 

Red  WAY,  Jacques  W. — Nature  Study  in 
the  Public  Schools — The  Geographical 
Phase,  411. 

Reed,  A.  A. — English  in  the  Grades,  416. 

Relation  of  Natuie  Study  to  Drawing  in  the 
Public   Schools,  The — James    M.  Stone, 

524- 

Relations  of  the  School  Board  and  the 
Teachers,  The — W.  A.  Hunt,  625. 

Relative  Value  of  Brush  and  Pencil  as 
Mediums  of  Expression,  The— -Miss 
Bonnie  Snow,  516. 

Religious  Organizations,  Contributions  of, 
to  the  Cause  of  Education.  I,  By  the 
Baptist  Church,  87  ;  II,  By  the  Catholic 
Church,  94. 

Report  of  Committee  on  Permanent  Place 
of  Meeting,  Department  of  Superintend- 
ence, 183;  of  Treasurer,  16  ;  of  Board  of 
Trustees,  19;  on  Nominations,  25;  on 
Resolutions,  31  ;  on  Necrology,  712. 

Report  on  High-School  Statistics — James 
M.  Greenwood,  340;  Discussion,  351. 

Richards,  Josephine  E. — The  Training 
of  the  Indian  Girl  as  the  Uplifter  of  the 
Home,  701. 

Richards,  Zalmon,  t,  7I3- 

Resolution  on  National  Bureau  of  Educa- 
tion, 185;  on  Report  of  Committee  on 
National  University,  303 ;  on  Report  of 
Committee  on  College-Entrance  Re- 
quirements, 454;  on  Simplifying  English 
Spelling,  184;  on  Teaching  of  Temper- 
ance, 86 ;  of  Thanks,  32. 
esolutions  on  Death  of  Henry  Barnard, 
302  ;  Department  of  Art  Education,  506  ; 
Department  of  Kindergarten  Education, 
366 ;  Department  of  Manual  Training, 
491;  Department  of  Superintendence, 
186 ;  Report  of  Committee  on,  31. 

Responses  to  Addresses  of  Welcome  —  E. 
Oram  Lyte,  49 ;  J.  W.  Carr,  52 ;  James 
A.  Foshay,  55. 

Rogers,  F.  K. —  The  Teaching  of  Trades 
to  the  Indian,  698. 

Rowe,  H.  M. —  The  Advantages  and  Diffi- 
culties of  Introducing  the  Commercial 
Branches  in  Grammar  and  High  Schools, 
562. 

Russell,  James  E. —  Discussion,  490. 

Sabin,  Henry  —  Discussion,  257,  264. 

Sanitary  Conditions  among  the  Indians  — 
J.  G.  Bulloch,  706. 

Satisfactions  of  Being  a  College  President, 
The  —  Charles  F.  Thwing,  455. 

Schaeffer,  N.  C. —  Discussion,  312,  351. 

Scholarship,  Obligations  and  Opportunities 
of,  266. 

School  Administration,  Department  of,  609. 


School-Administration  Problems  in  the- 
South  —Israel  H.  Peres,  618. 

School  and  Business  Arithmetic  -  Limita- 
tions and  Improvements  —  Edward  W. 
Stitt,  566. 

School  Board  and  Teachers,  Relations  of 
the,  625. 

School  Board  Organization  —  \V.  S.  Ellis,. 
631. 

Schoolhouse  Architecture  —  C.  H.  Parsons,. 
610. 

School  Plus  the  Library,  643. 

Schreiber,  Mae  E.— -  How  to  Direct  Chil- 
dren in  Their  Reading,  636. 

Science  Instruction,  Department  of,  592. 

Science  in  University  and  College  vs.. 
Nature  Work  in  Graded  Schools,  592. 

Secondary  Education,  Department  of,  428. 

Secretary's  Minutes,  Department  of  Art 
Education,  505 ;  of  Business  Education,. 
542;  of  Child  Study,  582;  of  Education  of 
the  Deaf,  Blind,  and  Feeble-Minded,  656; 
of  Elementary  Education,  403  ;  of  Higher 
Education,  454 ;  of  Indian  Education,. 
681;  of  Kindergarten  Education,  365-,. 
of  Library,  635;  of  Manual  Training,  491 ; 
of  Music  Education,  531;  of  Normal 
Schools,  480 ;  of  Physical  Training  (no- 
sessions);  of  School  Administration,  609  ; 
of  Science  Instruction,  592  ;  of  Secondary 
Education,  428;  of  Superintendence,  183;. 
of  the  Council,  297. 

Seger,  John  —  Practical  Methods  in  Indian 
Education,  707. 

Sheldon,  William  Evarts,  t,  715. 

Shelley,  William  H.,  -f,  727. 

Shepard,  Irwin  —  Secretary's  Minutes,  21; 
Annual  Business,  24  ;  Board  of  Directors, 
35,  38. 

Should  Music  in  the  Public  Schools  be 
Taught  from  the  Song  to  the  Exercise? — 
C.  H.  Congdon,  537. 

Should  Our  Colleges  and  Universities 
Educate  Men  Specially  for  Business? — 
Woodford  D.  Anderson,  549. 

Should  Pupils  of  High  School  Choose 
Studies?  428. 

Slaton,  William  M. —  Discussion,  648. 

Small  College,  The.  I,  Its  Work  in  the 
Past — William  O.  Thompson,  61 ;  II,  Its 
Prospects — ^  William  R.  Harper,  67. 

Smart,  James  Henry,  f,  716. 

Smyth,  Hon.  J.  Adger— Address  of  Wel- 
come, 46. 

Snow,  Miss  Bonnie  —  The  Relative  Value 
of  Brush  and  Pencil  as  Mediums  of 
Expression,  516. 

Some  Difficulties  of  Child  Study  —  Thomas 
P.  Bailey,  582. 

Southern  Schools  for  the  Deaf,  Growth  and 
Development  of,  658. 

Speech-Teaching  in  Schools  for  the  Deaf 
in  the  United  States,  Statistics  of,  668. 

Standing,  A.  J. —  The  Proper  Relation 
between  Literary  and  Industrial  Educa- 
tion in  Indian  Schools,  692. 


INDEX 


809 


rState  Aid  to  Higher  Education  in  Europe 
and  America — Joseph  Swain,  457;  Dis- 
cussion, 462. 

State  Education  in  the  West  and  North- 
west, 461. 

State  of  the  Case,  The — Mary  S.  Garrett, 
661. 

State  University,  The  —  Joseph  Swain,  106  ; 
Necessity  for  the,  iio;  A  Public  Trust, 
III. 

Statistical  Table  of  Membership  since  1884, 
801  ;  for  1900,  800. 

Statistics,  Report  on  High-School,  340. 

Statistics  of  Speech-Teaching  in  Schools 
for  the  Deaf  in  the  United  States  — 
Frank  W.  Booth,  668. 

Status  of  Education  at  the  Close  of  the 
Century  —  Nicholas  Murray  Butler,  188; 
Discussion,  196,  199. 

Stitt,  Edward  W. —  School  and  Business 
Arithmetic  —  Limitations  and  Improve- 
ments, 566. 

Stone,  James  M. — The  Relation  of  Nature 
Study  to  Drawing  in  the  Public  Schools, 
524. 

Study  of  Advertising  as  Applied  to  Busi- 
ness Colleges,  573. 

Study  in  Musical  Interpretation,  A — H.  E. 
Kratz,  590. 

Sullivan,  Christine  Gordon,  "f",  727. 

Superintendence,  Alcohol  Physiology  and, 
229 

Superintendent  as  an  Organizer  and  an 
Executive — R.  E.  Denfeld,  287;  Discus- 
sion, 294. 

Superintendent,  How  Can  the,  Improve  His 
Teachers  ?  276 

Superintendent  in  Small  Cities,  The — 
Charles  E.  Gorton,  222. 

Swain,  Joseph— State  Aid  to  Higher  Edu- 
cation in  Europe  and  America  457  ;  The 
State  University,  106. 

Sweartngen,  John  E. — The  Higher  Edu- 
cation of  the  Blind,  671. 

Sweden,  Education  in,  457. 

Teachers  ?  How  Can  the  Superintendent 
Improve  His,  276 

Teaching  of  Trades  to  the  Indian,  The — 
F.  K.  Rogers,  698. 

Teaching  Trades  in  Connection  with  the 
Public  Schools  —  Charles  F.  Warner, 
492. 

Temperance  Instruction  in  Schools,  187. 

Temperance  Teaching,  Errors  in,  246 ; 
Ethical  Considerations,  246. 

Thomas,  Martha  J.  B.,  t,  728 

Thompson,  William  O.— The  Small  Col- 
lege, Its  Work  in  the  Past,  61 

Thurston,  Miss — Discussion,  423 

Thwing,  Charles  F. — The  Satisfactions 
of  Being  a  College  President,  455. 

To  What  Extent  Should  a  Pupil  in  the 
High  School  Choose  His  Studies  ? — Wm. 
J.  S.  Bryan,  428  ;  Discussion,  435. 

Trail  of  the  City  Superintendent — Aaron 
Gove,  214. 


Training,  Culture   as  an  Element  in  Pro- 
fessional, 351. 
Training   of    the    Feeble-Minded — E.    R, 

Johnstone,  677. 
Training  of   the   Indian   Girl  as   the   Up- 

lifter  of  the    Home,  The — Josephine  E. 

Richards,  701. 
Training  of  Negro  Teachers — H.  B.  Fris- 

sell,  482  ;  Discussion,  489. 
Training  of  Teachers  for  Indian  Schools, 

The — Charles  Bartlett  Dyke,  696. 
Training  of  Teachers  for  White  Schools — 

Charles  D.  Mclver,  481. 
Treasurer's  Report,  16. 
Trustees,  Duties  of,  3;  Board  of,  for  1899- 

1900,  8;    Board   of,  for  1900-1901,  12; 

Report  of,  for  1899-1900,4^. 
Vaile,  E.  O. — Resolutions   on   Simplifying 

English  Spelling,  184. 
Value   of    English  Literature    in    Ethical 

Training — Reuben  Post  Halleck,  160. 
Van  Sickle,  James  H.— Manual  Training 

for    the    Ordinary   High    School,    501  ; 

Discussion,  351. 
Wainwright,  C.  C. — The  Health  of  the 

Indian,  696. 
Warner,  Charles  F.— Teaching  Trades 

in  Connection  with    the  Public  Schools, 

492. 
Washington,  Booker  T. — The  Problem 

of  the  South,  114. 
Weaver,  Sterrie  A. — Common-Sense  as 

an  Aid  to  the  School-Music  Supervisor, 

532. 
Webster,  Geo.  W. — Discussion,  256. 
Westcott,   Oliver    S. — How  Shall  We 

Teach  Our   Pupils   the  Correct    Use  of 

the  English  Language  ?  437 
What  Manner  of  Child  Shall  This  Be  ?— 

G.  R.  Glenn,  174. 
What  We  Should  Not  Teach  about  Alcohol, 

242. 
What   We  Should  Teach   about  Alcohol, 

245- 

Wheeler,  WillarO  J. — Profitable  Pub- 
licity— A  Study  of  Advertising  as  Ap- 
plied to  Business  Colleges,  573. 

White,  E.  E. — Proposed  Amendment  to 
Constitution  of  Council,  303 ;  Discussion 
of  Amendments  to  General  Constitution, 
26,  27,  28,  29  ;  Remarks  on  Deceased 
Members,  24  ;  Discussion,  311,351 ;  Re- 
port of  Committee  on  Necrology,  712. 

White  Schools,  Training  of  Teachers  for, 
481. 

Williams,  Samuel  Gardner,  f,  728. 

Williams,  Sherman — Discussion,  654,  655. 

Willis,  Azalea  H. — Address  of  Welcome, 
506. 

Wilson,CharlesB. — How  Can  Advanced 
Science  in  the  College  and  Nature  Work 
in  the  Graded  Schools  be  Rendered  More 
Mutually  Helpful?  592. 

Wilson,  J.  Ormond — Sketch  of  Zalmon 
Richards,  713. 

Wright,  R.  R. — Discussion,  490. 


L  National  Education  Association 

13  of  the  United  States 
N3A13  Addresses  and  pro- 

1900  ceedings... 


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