{"page": 1, "printed_page": null, "text": "; / ^\n\nV\n\n"}
{"page": 2, "printed_page": null, "text": "Slthrarg\nGIFT\n\nFROM\n\n-OV\\ g rle^J^ Cx:a ng\n-^it»^\n\nDu0.\nU. of C.\n\n"}
{"page": 3, "printed_page": null, "text": "*(,\n\n"}
{"page": 4, "printed_page": null, "text": "Digitized by the Internet Archive\nin 2007 with funding from\nIVIicrosoft Corporation\n\nhttp://www.archive.org/details/addressesproce1899natiuoft\n\n"}
{"page": 5, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIOH^l)\n\nASSOCIATION\n..\n\n-'.^.\n\nS^'O^l'^-*-*^-^\n'^\n\nJOURNAL\nOF\n\nPROCEEDINGS AND ADDRESSES\nTHIRTY-EIGHTH\n\nANNUAL\nHELD\n\nLOS ANGELES,\nJULY\n\nAT\n\nCALIFORNIA\n\n11-14, 1899\n\n1899\n\nIJubUsbe\n\nD\n\nMEETING\n\nbs tbe Bssoclat\n\nion\n\n"}
{"page": 6, "printed_page": null, "text": "mId\n\nPRINTED\n\nBY\n\ntCbe lamversltis of Cbtcago press\nCHICAGO\n\n"}
{"page": 7, "printed_page": null, "text": "CO'NTENTS\nPAGE\n\nConstitution,\nBy-Laws,\n\n-\n\n-\n\nI\n\n-\n\n------...\n\n^\n\nAct of Incorporation,\n\n---.--._\n\n^\n\nCalendar of Meetings,\n\n-----.,\n\n5\n\nOfficers for 1898-99,\n\n-\n\nOfficers for 1 899-1 900,\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n•-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-------\n\nTreasurer's Report,\nReport of Board of Trustees, ------Journal of Proceedings — ^ General Sessions,\n\n.\n\nMinutes of Proceedings — Board of Directors (1899-1900),\nGeneral Sessions — Addresses and Discussions,\nReport of Committee\n\n.\n\n.\n-\n\n-\n\non Necrology,\n\n.\n-\n\nDepartment of Superintendence (Columbus Meeting),\nThe National Council of Education,\n\n-\n\n-----\n\nMinutes of Proceedings — Board of Directors (1898-99),\n\n-\n\n.\n-\n\n34\n-\n\n38\n\n.\n\n232\n\n.\n.\n\n-\n\n^-j\n\n-\n\n251\n\n.--...\n\nSpecial Report of Committee on Public Libraries,\n\n-\n\n380\n\n-\n\n-\n\n452\n\n.\n\n^y^\n\n-\n\n632\n\nDepartment of Kindergarten Education, -----Department of Elementary Education,\n\n-\n\nDepartment of Secondary Education,\n\n-\n\n.\n\n.\n\n530\n\n------\n\nSpecial Report of Committee on College-Entrance Requirements,\nDepartment of Higher Education,\n\n-\n\nDepartment of Normal Schools,\n\n-\n\n-\n\nDepartment of Manual Training,\nDepartment of Art Education,\nDepartment of Music Education,\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\nggg\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n------...---\n\nStatistical Table of Membership since 1884,\nInventory and Price List of Publications,\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n.\n\n-\n\n.\n\n.....---\n\n1156\n1179\n1237\n1238\n\n.\n\n....\n.\n\n1118\nii35\n\n-\n\nList of Corresponding Members,\n\n.\n\n1097\n-\n\n-\n\nIndex to List of Active Members,\n\nStatistical Table of Membership for 1899,\n\n1064\n\n-\n\n-\n\n932\ngjQ\n1031\n\n-----\n\n-\n\n836\nQ04\n\n---.._\n\nDepartment of Education of Deaf, Dumb, and Feeble-Minded,\n\nGeneral Index,\n\n.\n\n-.--..\n\nDepartment of School Administration,\n\n818\n835\n\n.\n\n-------\n\nDepartment of Natural Science Instruction,\n\nList of Active Members,\n\n-\n\n- \"\n.---..\n\nDepartment of Physical Education,\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-..-..\n\nDepartment of Business Education,\n\nLibrary Department,\n\n501\n\n--.-..\n\nSpecial Report of Committee on Normal Schools,\n\nDepartment of Child Study,\n\n-\n\n16\n20\n23\n\n-\n\n-\n\n8\n12\n\n1247\n1248\n\n.\n\n1249\n1250\n\n"}
{"page": 8, "printed_page": null, "text": ""}
{"page": 9, "printed_page": null, "text": "CONSTITUTION\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nPREAMBLE\nTo elevate the character and advance the interests of the profession of teaching, and to promote the cause of popular education in\nthe United States, we, whose names are subjoined, agree to adopt\nthe following\nCONSTITUTION\nARTICLE\n\nI — NAME\n\nThis association shall be styled the National Educational\nARTICLE\n\nAssociation.\n\nII — DEPARTMENTS\n\nSection l. It shall consist of eighteen departments: first, of Superintendence;\nsecond, of Normal Schools ; third, of Elementary Education ; fourth, of Higher Education ;\nfifth, of Manual Training ; sixth, of Art Education ; seventh, of Kindergarten Education ;\neighth, of Music Education; ninth, of Secondary Education; tenth, of Business Education; eleventh, of Child Study; twelfth, of Physical Education; thirteenth, of Natural\nScience Instruction ; fourteenth, of School Administration ; fifteenth, the Library Department ;sixteenth, for the Education of the Deaf, Blind, and Feeble-minded ; seventeenth,\nof Indian Education; and eighteenth, the National Council of Education.\nSec. 2. Other departments may be organized in the manner prescribed in this\nconstitution.\nARTICLE\n\nIII — MEMBERSHIP\n\nSection i. There shall be three classes of members, namely, active, associate, and\ncorresponding.\nSec. 2. Teachers and all who are actively associated with the management of\neducational institutions, including- libraries and periodicals, may become active members.\nAll others who pay an annual membership fee of two dollars may become associate members. Eminent educators not residing in America may be elected by the Directory to\nbe correspondmg members. The number of corresponding members shall at no time\nexceed fifty.\nSec. 3. Any person eligible may become an active member upon application\nindorsed by two active members, and the payment of an enrollment fee of two dollars\nand the annual dues for the current year.\n\n"}
{"page": 10, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATWl^AL\nAll active members\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nmust pay annual dues of two dollars, and will be entitled to the\n\nvolume of proceedings without \"coupon\" or other conditions. If the annual dues are\nnot paid within the fiscal year, membership will lapse, and may be restored only on payment of the enrollment fee of two dollars and the annual dues for the current year. All\nlife members and life directors shall be denominated active members, and shall enjoy all'\nthe powers and privileges of such members without the payment of annual dues.\nAssociate members may receive the volume of proceedings in accordance with the\nusual \"coupon\" conditions, as printed on the membership certificate.\nCorresponding members will be entitled to the volume of proceedings without the\npayment of fees or other conditions.\nSec. 4. The names of active and corresponding members only will be printed in the\nvolume of proceedings, with their respective educational titles, offices, and addresses, the\nlist to be revised annually by the Secretary of the association.\nARTICLE\n\nIV— OFFICERS\n\nSection i. The officers of this association shall consist of a President, twelve VicePresidents, a Secretary, a Treasurer, a Board of Directors, a Board of Trustees, and an\nExecutive Committee, as hereinafter provided.\nSec. 2. The Board of Directors shall consist of the President of the National\nEducational Association, First Vice-President, Secretary, Treasurer, chairman of the\nBoard of Trustees, and one additional member from each state, territory, or district, to be\nelected by the association for the term of one year, or until their successors are chosen,\nand of all life directors elected previous to July 10, 1895.\nAll past presidents of the association now living (July 10, 1895), and all future\npresidents at the close of their respective terms of office, and the United States Commissioner of Education shall be life directors of the association.\nThe President of the National Educational Association, First Vice-President, Treasurer, chairman of the Board of Trustees, and a member of the association to be chosen\nannually by the Board of Directors, which member\nconstitute the Executive Committee.\n\nshall hold office for one year, shall\n\nSec. 3. The elective officers of the association, with the exception of the Secretary,\nshall be chosen by the active members of the association by ballot, unless otherwise\nordered, on the third day of each annual session, a majority of the votes cast being\nnecessary for a choice. They shall continue in office until the close of the annual session\nsubsequent to their election, and until their successors are chosen, except as hereinafter\nprovided.\nSec. 4. Each department shall be administered by a president, vice-president,\nsecretary, and such other officers as it shall deem necessary to conduct its affairs ; but no\nperson shall be elected to any office of the association, or of any department, who is not, at the\ntime of the election, an active member of the association.\nSec. 5. The President shall preside at all meetings of the association and of the\nBoard of Directors, and shall perform the duties usually devolving upon a presiding\nofficer. In his absence, the first vice-president in order, who is present, shall preside ;\nand in the absence of all vice-presidents a pro-tempore chairman shall be appointed on\nnomination, the Secretarj' putting the question.\nSec. 6. The Secretary shall keep a full and accurate report of the proceedings of\nthe general meetings of the association and all meetings of the Board of Directors, and\nshall conduct such correspondence as the directors may assign, and shall have his\nrecords present at all meetings of the association and of the Board of Directors. The\nsecretary of each department shall, in addition to performing the duties usually pertaining\nto his office, keep a list of the members of his department.\nSec. 7. The Treasurer shall receive, and under the direction of the Board of\n\n"}
{"page": 11, "printed_page": null, "text": "CONSTITUTION\nTrustees hold in safe-keeping, all moneys paid to the association; shall expend the same\nonly upon the order of said board ; shall keep an exact account of his receipts and\nexpenditures, with vouchers for the latter, which accounts, ending the 1st day of July each\nyear, he shall render to the Board of Trustees, and, when approved by said board, he shall\nreport the same to the Board of Directors. The Treasurer shall give such bond for the\nfaithful discharge of his duties as may be required by the Board of Trustees ; and he\nshall continue in office until the first meeting of the Board of Directors held prior to the\nannual meetmg of the association next succeeding that for which he is elected.\nSec. 8. The Board of Directors shall have power to fill all vacancies in their own\nbody ; shall have in charge the general interests of the association, excepting those herein\nintrusted to the Board of Trustees ; shall make all necessary arrangements for its meetings, and shall do all in its power to make it a useful and honorable institution. Upon\nthe written application of twenty active members of the association for permission to\nestablish a new department, it may grant such permission. Such new department\nshall in all respects be entitled to the same rights and privileges as the others. The formation of such department shall in effect be a sufficient amendment to this constitution for\nthe insertion of its name in Art. II, and the Secretary shall make the necessary alterations.\nSec. 9. The Board of Trustees shall consist of four members, elected by the Board\nof Directors for the term of four years, and the President of the association, who shall be\na member ex officio during his term of office. At the election of the trustees in 1886,\none trustee shall be elected for one year, one for two years, one for three years, and one\nfor four years ; and annually thereafter, at the first meeting of the Board of Directors\nheld prior to the annual meeting of the association, one trustee shall be elected for the\nterm of four years. All vacancies occurring in said Board of Trustees, whether by resignation or otherwise, shall be filled by the Board of Directors for the unexpired term ; and\nthe absence of a trustee from two successive annual meetings of the board shall forfeit\nhis membership therein. The Board of Trustees thus elected shall constitute the body\ncorporate of the association, as provided in the certificate of incorporation under the provisions of the Act of General Incorporation, Class Third, of the Revised Statutes of the\nDistrict of Columbia, dated the 24th day of February, 1886, at Washington, D. C, and\nrecorded in Liber No. 4, \"Acts of Incorporation for the District of Columbia.\"\nSec. 10. It shall be the duty of the Board of Trustees to provide for safe-keeping\nand investment of all funds which the association may receive from donations ; and the\nincome of such invested funds shall be used exclusively, in paying the cost of publishing\nthe annual volume of proceedings of the association, excepting when donors shall specify\notherwise. It shall also be the duty of the board to issue orders on the Treasurer for the\npayment of all bills approved by the Board of Directors, or by the President and Secretary of the association acting under the authority of the Board of Directors ; and, when\npracticable, the trustees shall invest all surplus funds exceeding one hundred dollars that\nshall remain in the hands of the Treasurer after paying the expenses of the association\nfor the previous year.\nSec. II. The Board of Trustees shall elect the Secretary of the association, who shall\nalso be secretary of the Executive Committee, and shall fix the compensation and the term\nof office for a period not to exceed four years.\nARTICLE\n\nV— MEETINGS\n\nSection i. The annual meeting of the association shall be held at such time and\nplace as shall be determined by the Board of Directors.\nSec. 2. Special meetings may be called by the President at the request of five\ndirectors.\nSec. 3. Any department of the association may hold a special meeting at such time\nand place as by its own regulations it shall appoint.\n\n"}
{"page": 12, "printed_page": null, "text": "AATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nSec. 4. The Board of Directors shall hold its regular meetings at the place and\nnot less than two hours before the assembling of the association.\nSec. 5. Special meetings may be held at such other times and places as the board\nor the President shall determine.\nSec. 6. Each new board shall organize at the session of its election. At its first\nmeeting a committee on publication shall be appointed, which shall consist of the President and the Secretary of the association for the previous year, and one member from\neach department.\nARTICLE\n\nVI — BY-LAWS\n\nBy-laws not inconsistent with this constitution may be adopted by a two-thirds vote\nof the association.\nARTICLE\n\nVII— AMENDMENTS\n\nThis constitution may be altered or amended at a regular meeting by the unanimous\nvote of the members present ; or by a two-thirds vote of the members present, provided\nthat the alteration or amendment has been substantially proposed in writing at a previous\nmeeting.\n,\n\nBY-LAWS\n1. At the first session of each annual meeting of the association there shall be\nappointed by the President a committee on resolutions ; and at the third session of such\nmeeting there shall be appointed a committee on nominations, consisting of one member\nfrom each state and territory represented, the same to be appointed by the President on\nthe nomination of a majority of the active members in attendance from such state or\nterritory ; provided, however, that such appointment shall be made by the President without such nomination, when less than three active members from a state or territory are in\nattendance, and also when a majority of the active members in attendance from any\nstate or territory shall fail to make a nomination.\nThe meetings of active members to nominate members of the nominating committee\nshall be held at 5 : 30 P. M. on the first day of the annual meeting of the association, at\nsuch places as shall be announced in the general program.\n2. The President and Secretary shall certify to the Board of Trustees all bills\napproved by the Board of Directors.\n3. Each paying member of the association shall be entitled to a copy of its proceedings.\n4. No paper, lecture, or address shall be read before the association or any of its\ndepartments in the absence of its author, nor shall any such paper, lecture, or address be\npublished in the volume of proceedings without the consent of the association, upon\napproval of the Executive Committee.\n5. It shall be the duty of the President, Secretary, and Treasurer of the association\nto appoint annually some competent person to examine the securities of the Permanent\nFund held by the Board of Trustees, and his certificate, showing the condition of the said\nfund, shall be attached to the report of the Board of Trustees.\n\nADOPTED\n\nBY THE\n\nBOARD\n\nOF DIRECTORS\n\nThe establishment of a special fund from surplus receipts, after the\nexpenses of the association have been paid, to be known as the \"Emergency Fund,\" was recommended by the Board of Trustees, submitted to\n\n"}
{"page": 13, "printed_page": null, "text": "ACT\n\nOF INCORPORATION\n\nthe Board of Directors at Saratoga Springs, N. Y., July 12, 1892, and the\nfollowing resolution was adopted :\nResolved, That there be established, as soon as the current expenses of the association will warrant, an Emergency Fund not to exceed ^4,000. Said fund shall Be subject\nto expenditure by the Board of Trustees in accordance with votes of the Board of Directors at any regularly called meeting. The said fund may be used for the purpose of\nmeeting deficiencies of income of the association, and for such additional investigations\nand publications as may be determined by said Board of Directors.\n\nACT\n\nOF INCORPORATION\n\nAt a meeting of the Board of Directors of the National Educational\nAssociation, held at Saratoga Springs, N. Y., July 14, 1885, the following\nresolution was passed :\nResolved, That a committee of three be appointed to secure articles of incorporation\nfor the National Educational Association, under United States or state laws, as speedily\nas may be.\n\nN. A. Calkins, of New York; Thomas W. Bicknell, of Massachusetts,\n■ and Eli T. Tappan, of Ohio, were appointed such committee.\nUnder the authority of the resolution quoted above, and with the\napproval of the committee, and by competent legal advice, the chairman\nobtained a\nCERTIFICATE\n\nOF INCORPORATION\n\nWe, the undersigned, Norman A. Calkins, John Eaton, and Zalmon Richards, citizens\nof the United States, and two of them citizens of the District of Columbia, do hereby\nassociate ourselves together, pursuant to the provisions of the Act of General Incorporation, Class Third, of the Revised Statutes of the District of Columbia, under the name\nof the \"National Educational Association,\" for the full period of twenty years, the purpose and objects of which are to elevate the character and advance the interests of the\nprofession of teaching, and to promote the cause of popular education in the United\nStates\nTo secure the full benefit of said act, we do here execute this our certificate\nof incorporation as said act provides.\nIn witness whereof we severally set our hands and seals this 24th day of February,\n1886, at Washington, D. C.\nNorman A. Calkins.\n[l, s. ]\nJohn Eaton.\n[ l. s.]\nZalmon Richards.\n[l. s. ]\nDuly acknowledged before Michael P. Callan, notary public in and for the District\nof Columbia, and recorded in Liber No. 4, Acts of Incorporation for the District of\nColumbia.\n\n"}
{"page": 14, "printed_page": null, "text": "CALENDAR\nNATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nTEACHERS'\n\n(Organized.\n,857.-PHILADELPHIA, PA.\nJames L. Ends, Chairman.\nW. E. Sheldon, Secretary.\n1858.-CINCINNATI, O.\nZ. Richards, President.\nJ. W. BuLKLEY, Secretary.\nA. J. RiCKOFF, Treasurer.\n\n1864.— OGDENSBURG, N. Y.\nW. H.Wells, President.\nDavid N. Camp, Secretary,\nZ. Richards, Treasurer.\n1865.— harrisburg, pa.\n.\nS. S. Greene, President.\nW. E. Sheldon, Secretary.\nZ. Richards, Treasurer.\n\n1859.-WASHINGTON, D. C.\nA. J. RicKOFF, President.\nJ.W. BuLKLEY, Secretary.\nC. S. Pennell, Treasurer.\ni860.— BUFFALO,\n\nOF MEETINGS\n\n1866.— INDIANAPOLIS,\n\nIND.\n\nJ, P. WicKERSHAM, President.\nS. H. White, Secretary.\nS. P. Bates, Treasurer.\n\nN. Y.\n\n1867. — No session.\n\nJ. W. BuLKLEV, President.\nZ. Richards, Secretary.\nO. C. Wight, Treasurer.\n\n1868.— NASHVILLE.\n\nTENN.\n\nJ. M. Gregory, President.\nL. Van Bokkelen, Secretary.\n\n1861, 1862.— No session.\n\nJames Cruikshank, Treasurer.\n1869.— TRENTON, N. J.\nL. Van Bokkelen, President.\nW. E. Crosby, Secretary.\nA. L. Barber, Treasurer.\n\n1863.— CHICAGO, ILL.\nJohn D. Philbrick, President.\nJames Cruikshank, Secretary.\nO C. Wight, Treasurer.\n\n1870.— CLEVELAND, O.\nDaniel B. Hager, President.\nA. P. Marble, Secretary.\nW. E. Crosby, Treasurer.\nNAME\n\nNATIONAL\n\nCHANGED\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nTO\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n1871.— ST. LOUIS, MO.\nJ. L. Pickard, President.\nW. E. Crosby, Secretary.\nJohn Hancock, Treasurer.\n\n1876.— BALTIMORE, MD.\nW. F. Phelps, President.\nW. D. Henkle, Secretary.\nA. P. Marble, Treasurer.\n\n1872.— BOSTON. MASS.\nE. E. White, President.\nS. H. White, Secretary.\nJohn Hancock, Treasurer.\n\n1877.— LOUISVILLE, KY.\nM. A. Newell, President.\nW. D. Henkle, Secretary.\n\n1873.— ELMIRA, N. Y.\nB. G. Northrop, President.\nS. H. White, Secretary.\nJohn Hancock, Treasure).\n\n1878. — No session.\n\n1874.— DETROIT, MICH.\nS. H. White, President.\nA, P. Marble, Secretary.\nJohn Hancock, Treasurer.\n\n1879.— PHILADELPHIA, PA,\nJohn Hancock, President.\nW. D. Henkle, Secretary.\n\n187s. -MINNEAPOLIS, MINN.\nW. T. Harris, President.\nW. R. Abbott, Secretary.\nA. P. Marble, Treasurer.\n\n1880.— CHAUTAUQUA,\n\nJ. Ormond\n\nJ. Ormond\n\nWilson, Treasurer.\n\nWilson, Treasurer.\n\nN. Y.\n\nJ. Ormond Wilson, President.\nW. D. Henkle, Secretary.\nE. T. Tappan, Treasurer.\n\n"}
{"page": 15, "printed_page": null, "text": "CALENDAR\n\nOF MEETINGS\n\ni88 1. —ATLANTA, GA.\nJames H. Smart, President.\nW. D. Henkle, Secretary.\nE. T. Tappan, Treasurer.\n\n1890.— ST. PAUL. MINN.\nJ. H. Canfield, President.\nW. R. Garrett, Secretary.\nE. C. Hewett, Treasurer.\n\n1882.— SARATOGA SPRINGS, N. Y.\nG. J. Orr, President.\nW. E. Sheldon, Secretary.\nH. S. Tarbell, Treasurer.\n\n1891.— TORONTO, ONTARIO.\nW. R. Garrett, President.\nE. H. Cook, Secretary.\n\n1883.— SARATOGA SPRINGS, N. Y.\nE. T. Tappan, President.\nW. E. Sheldon, Secretary.\nN. A. Calkins, Treasurer.\n\n1892.— SARATOGA SPRINGS, N. Y.\nE. H. Cook, President.\nR. W. Stevenson, Secretary.\n\n1884.— MADISON, WIS.\nThomas W. Bicknell, President.\nH. S. Tarbell, Secretary.\nN. A. Calkins, Treasurer.\n\n1893.-CHICAGO, ILL.\n(International Congress of Education.)\nAlbert G. Lane, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\n\n1885.— SARATOGA SPRINGS, N. Y.\nF. Louis Soldan, President.\nW. E. Sheldon, Secretary.\nN. A. Calkins, Treasurer.\n\n1894.— asbury park, N. J.\nAlbert G. Lane, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\n\n, J. M. Greenwood,\n\nJ. M. Greenwood,\n\nJ. M. Greenwood,\n\nJ. M. Greenwood,\n\n1886.— TOPEKA, KAN.\nN. A. Calkins, President.\nW. E. Sheldon, Secretary.\nE. C. Hewett, Treasurer.\n\nTreasurer.\n\nTreasurer.\n\nTreasurer.\n\nTreasurer.\n\n1895.— DENVER, COLO.\nNicholas Murray Butler, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nI. C. McNeill, Treasurer.\n\n1887.— CHICAGO, ILL.\nW. E. Sheldon, President.\nJ. H. Canfield. Secretary.\nE. C. Hewett, Treasurer.\n\n1896.— BUFFALO, N. Y.\nNewton C. Dougherty, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\n\n1888.-SAN FRANCISCO, CAL.\nAaron Gove, President.\nJ. H. Canfield, Secretary.\nE. C. Hewett, Treasurer.\n\n1897.— MILWAUKEE, WIS.\nCharles R. Skinner, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\n\n1889.— NASHVILLE, TENN.\nAlbert P. Marble, President.\nJ. H. Canfield, Secretary.\nE. C. Hewett, Treasurer.\n\n1898.— WASHINGTON, D. C.\nJ. M. Greenwood, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nI. C. McNeill, Treasurer.\n\nL C. McNeill, Treasurer.\n\nI. C. McNeill, Treasurer.\n\n1899.-\n\n-LOS ANGELES. CAL.\nE. Oram Lyte, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nI. C. McNeill, Treasurer.\n\n"}
{"page": 16, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL\nOF THE\n\nUNITED\n\nOFFICERS\n\nFOR\n\nGENERAL\nE. ORAM LYTE\nIRWIN SHEPARD\nI. C. McNEI LL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nSTATES\n\n1898-99\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nPresident\nSecretary\nTreasurer\n\n.\\ .\n\nMillersville, Pa.\nWinona, Minn.\nWest Superior, Wis.\n\nVICE-PRESIDENTS\nJames M. Greenwood, Kansas City, Mo.\nW. W. Stetson, Auburn, Me.\nE. B. Prettyman, Baltimore, Md.\nH. C. White, Athens, Ga.\nJoseph Swain, Bloomington, Ind.\nJ. R. Rightsell, Little Rock, Ark.\nBOARD\nAlbert G. Lane\nNicholas Murray\n\nButler\n\nAlbert G. Lane\nJ. Ormond Wilson\nF. Louis Soldan\nNicholas Murray Butlkr\nE. Oram Lyte\n\nR. S. Bingham, Tacoma, Wash.\nFrank P. Smith, Lawrence, Kan.\nE. B. McElroy, Eugene, Ore.\nMcHenry Rhoads, Frankfort, Ky.\nJ. Y. Joyner, Greensboro, N. C.\nS. N. Hopkins, Guthrie, Okla.\n\nOF TRUSTEES\n\n(See Art. IV, sec. g, of the constitution.')\nChairman\nChicago, 111.\nSecretary\nNew York, N. Y.\nChicago, III\nWashington, D. C\nSt. Louis, Mo\nNew York, N. Y\nMillersville, Pa\nEXECUTIVE\n\nTerm expires July, 1899\nTerm expires July, 1900\nTerm expires July, 1901\nTerm expires July, 1902\nEx officio\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\n(See Art. IV, sees. 2 and 11, of the constitution.)\nE. Oram Lyte\nJames M. Greenwood\nI. C. McNeill\nAlbert G. Lane\nW.T.Harris\nIrwin Shepard\n\n\".\n\nPresident\nMillersville, Pa.\nFirst Vice-President\nKansas City, Mo.\nTreasurer\nWest Superior. Wis.\nChairman Board of Trustees . . . Chicago, 111.\nMember by election\nWashington, D. C.\nSecretary\nBOARD\n\nWinona, Minn.\nOF DIRECTORS\n\nDirectors ex officio\n(See Art. IV, sec. 2, of the constitution.)\nE. Oram Lyte, Millersville, Pa.\nI. C. McNeill, West Superior, Wis.\nJames M. Greenwood, Kansas City, Mo.\nAlbert G. Lane, Chicago, 111.\nIrwin Shepard, Winona, Minn.\n\nXiife Directors\n(See Art. IV, sec. 2, of the constitution.)\nBiCKNELL. Thomas W., Providence, R. I.\nBoard of Education, Nashville, Tenn.\n\nButler, Nicholas Murray, New York, N. Y.\nCanfikld. James H., Columbus, O.\n\n♦Brown, Leroy D., San Luis Obispo, Cal.\n.* Deceased.\n\nCook, E.TI., Yonkers, N. Y.\n\n8\n\n"}
{"page": 17, "printed_page": null, "text": "DIRECTORS\nLife Directors\n*Day, L. W., Canton, O.\nDougherty, Newton C, Peoria, III.\nFairchild, George T., Berea, Ky.\nGarrett, W. R., Nashville, Tenn.\nGove, Aaron, Denver, Colo.\nGraham, H. A., Mt. Pleasant, Mich.\nGreenwood, J. M., Kansas City, Mo.\nHall, Caleb G., New Berlin, N. Y.\nHarris, W. T., Washington, D. C.\nHunt, Mary H., Boston, Mass.\nJewett, a. v., Abilene, Kan.\nLane, Albert G., Chicago, 111.\nMarble, Albert P., New York, N. Y.\nMarshall, T. Marcellus, Glenville, W. Va.\nParker, Charles 1., South Chicago, 111.\n\n— continued\nPhelps, W. F., St. Paul, Minn.\nPiCKARD, JosiAH L., lowa City, la.\nPike, Joshua, Jerseyville, III.\nRichards, Zalmon, Washington, D. C.\n*RiCKOFF, Andrew J., New York, N. Y.\nSheldon, W. E., Boston, Mass.\nSkinner, Charles R., Albany, N. Y.\nSmart, James H., Lafayette, Ind.\nSoldan, F. Louis, St. Louis, Mo.\nStratton, C. C, University Park, Ore.\nTaylor, A. R., Emporia, Kan.\nTeachers' Institute, Philadelphia, Pa.\nWhite, Charles G., Lake Linden, Mich.\nWhite, E. E., Columbus, O.\nWilson, J. Ormond, Washington, D. C.\n\nDirectors by Election\nNorth Atlantic Division\nMaine\nNew Hampshire\nVermont\nMassachusetts\nRhode Island\nConnecticut\nNew York\nNew Jersey\n\nJohn S. Locke\nChanning Folsom\nMason S. Stone\nWill S. Monroe\nH. S. Tarbell\nF. E. Howard\nA. S. Downing\nJames M. Green\n\nSaco\nDover\nMontpelier\nWestfield\nProvidence\nBridgeport\nAlbany\nTrenton\n\nSoitth Atlantic Division\nPennsylvania\nDelaware\nMaryland\nDistrict of Columbia\nVirginia\nWest Virginia\nNorth Carolina\nSouth Carolina\nFlorida\n\nGeorge Howell\nA. H. Berlin\nJohn D. Worthington\nW. B. Powell\nWilliam F. Fox\nJ. N. Deahl\nG. A. Grimsley\nJ. Frank Fooshe\nL. W. Buchholz\n\n.\n\nScranton\nWilmington\nBelair\nWashington\nRichmond\nWest Liberty\nGreensboro\nTampa\nBlackville\n\nSouth Central Division\n.,\n\nLouisville\nNashville\nAtlanta\nMobile\n\nKentucky\nTennessee\nGeorgia\nAlabama\nMississippi\nLouisiana\n\nW. H. Bartholomew\nH. C. Weber\nW. F. Slaton\nJohn D. Yerby\nE. E. Bass\nWarren Easton\n\nTexas\nOklahoma\n\nO.H.Cooper\nDavid R. Boyd\n\nGreenville\nNew Orleans\nCarthage.\nNorman\n\nArkansas\nIndian Territory\n\nJ. L. Holloway\nW. A. Caldwell\n\nFort Smith\nMuskogee\n\nNorth Cetttral Division\nOhio\nIndiana\nIllinois\n\nC. W. Bennett\nDavid K. Goss\nE. A. Gastman\n\nPiqua\nIndianapolis\nDecatur\n\nMichigan\nWisconsin\nIowa\n\nHenry R. Pattkngill\nL. D. Harvey\nW. M. Beardshear\n\nLansing\nMilwaukee\nAmes\n\nMinnesota\nMissouri\nNorth Dakota\nSouth Dakota\nNebraska\n\nGeorge B. Aiton\nJohn R. Kirk\nW. L. Stockwell\nFrank Crane\nCarroll G. Pearse\n\nMinneapolis\nJefferson City\nGraftoii\nWatertown\nOmaha\n\n* Deceased.\n\n"}
{"page": 18, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nlO\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nDirectors by 'Election— conitnued\nJVestern Division\n\nMontana\nWyoming\n\nJ.P.Hendricks\nEstelleReel\n\nButte\nWashington, D. C.\n\nColorado..\"\nNew Mexico\nArizona\n\nL.C.GBEENLEE\nMrs. E. R. Jackson\nF. S. Hafford\n\nDenver\nSilver City\nPrescott\n\nUtah\nNeva<k'V'''.''^^^'.'.'.'.^'.\nIdaho\nWashington\nOregon ...\n\nJ. M. Tanner\nJ. E. Stubbs\nJ.CBlack\nO. C. Whitoey\nJ. H. Ackerman\n\nLogan\nR«^o\nAlbion\n\nElmer E. Brown\n\nBerkeley\n\nCalifornia \".'...... '.'....\n\nDEPARTMENT\n\nTacoma\nPortland\n\nOFFICERS\n\nNational Council\nA. R. TAYLOR\nJAMES H. VAN SICKLE\nMiss BETTIE A. DUTTON\nJOHN DEWEY\nNICHOLAS MURRAY BUTLER\nL. H. JONES.\n\nPresident\nVice-President\n\nSecretary\nExecutive Committee\nExecutive Committee\nExecutive Committee\n\nEmporia, Kan,\nDenver, Colo.\nCleveland, O.\nChicago, 111,\nNew York, N. Y.\nCleveland, O.\n\nKindergarten\nMrs. MARIA KRAUS -BOELTE\nMiss FLORENCE LAWSON\nMiss MARY F. HALL\n\nNew York, N. Y.\nLos Angeles, Cal.\nSpencer, N. Y,\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nElementary\nPresident\n\nDayton, O.\n\nJ.W. CARR\nMiss E. V. BROWN\n\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nAnderson, Ind.\nWashington, D, C.\n\nEDWARD F. HERMANNS\n,\nW. F. WEBSTER\nFREDERICK H. CLARK\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nROBERT B. FULTON\nELMER E. BROWN\nG. A. TAWNEY\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nTHEODORE B. NOSS\nMiss MARION BROWN\nJ. N. WILKINSON\n\nPresident\nVice- President\nSecretary\n\nWILLIAM\n\nN. HAILMANN\n\nSecondary\nDenver, Colo.\nMinneapolis, Minn.\nSan Francisco, Cal.\n\nHigher\nUniversity, Miss.\nBerkeley, Cal.\nBeloit, Wis.\n\niN^ormal\n\n•\n\nCalifornia, Pa.\nNew Orleans, La.\nEmporia, Kan.\n\nSuperintendence\nE. H. MARK\nG. H. CONLEY\nA.T.BARRETT\nJ. H. VAN SICKLE\n\nPresident\nFirst Vice-President\nSecond Vice-President\nSecretary\n\nLouisville, Ky.\nBoston, Mass.\nChattanooga, Tenn.\nDenver, Colo.\n\nManual and Industrial\nJUDSON E. HOYT\nMiss PERLA G. BOWMAN\nCHARLES A. BENNETT\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\nArt\n\nMenomonie, Wis.\nColumbus, O.\nPeoria, 111.\n\nWILLIAM A. MASON\nCHARLES F. WHEELOCK\nMiss M. A. WOODMANSEE\nMiss HARRIET CECIL MAGEE\nMiss GERTRUDE EDMUND\nLANGDON S. THOMPSON\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\nExecutive Committee\nExecutive Committee\nExecutive Committee\n\nPhiladelphia, Pa.\nAlbany, N. Y.\nDayton, O.\nOshkosh. Wis.\nLowell, Mass.\nJersey City, N. J.\n\n"}
{"page": 19, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOFFICERS\n\nMusic\nP.C.HAYDEN\nMiss MARY A. GRANDY\nMiss ELEANOR M.JOY\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nALLA^f DAVIS\n\nPresident\n\nI. O. CRISSY\nCOURT F. WOOD\nW.C.STEVENSON.....\nCARL C. MARSHALL\n\nFirst Vice-President\nSecond Vice-President\nSecretary\nChairman Executive Committee\nChild Study\n\nWILLS. MONROE\nREUBEN POST HALLECK\nMrs. ALICE W. COOLEY\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nQuincy, 111.\nSpringfield, Mass.\nLos Angeles, Cal.\n\nBusiness\nWashington, D. C.\n'. Albany, N. Y.\nWashington, D. C.\nEmporia, Kan.\nBattle Creek, Mich.\nWestfield, Mass.\nLouisville, Ky.\nMinneapolis, Minn.\n\nPhysical Training\nGEORGE W. FITZ\nWILLIAM O. KROHN\nMiss ELLEN LeGARDE\nMiss REBECCA STONEROAD\n\nPresident\nFirst Vice-President.\nSecond Vice-President\nSecretary\n\nCHARLES NEWELL COBB\nALBERT H. TUTTLE\nCHARLES J. LING\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nCambridge, Mass.\nHospital, III.\nProvidence, R. I.\nWashington, D. C.\n\nScience\nAlbany, N. Y.\nCharlottesville, Va.\nDenver, Colo.\n\nSchool Administration\nE. F. BRADT\nCHARLES BULKLEY HUBBELL\nJOHN F. HUGHES\nWILLIAM S. MACK\nWILLIAM GEORGE BRUCE\nP. N. SIGLER\n\nPresident\nIshpeming, Mich.\nFirst Vice-President\nNew York, N. Y.\nSecond Vice-President\nUtica, N. Y.\nThird Vice-President\nAurora, III.\nSecretary\nMilwaukee, Wis.\nChairman Executive Committee .... Dayton, O.\n\nL. D. HARVEY\nJ. H. VAN SICKLE\nMiss MYRTILLA AVERY\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nLibrary\n\nMilwaukee, Wis.\nDenver, Colo.\nAlbany, N. Y.\n\nDeaf, Blind, etc.\nJOSEPH C. GORDON\nMrs. JENNIE BRIGHT HOLDEN\nFRANK H. HALL\nA. E. OSBORNE\nMiss MARY McCOWEN\n\nPresident\nJacksonville, 111.\nV.-Pres. Subdept.for the Deaf\nSan Francisco, Cal.\nV.-Pres. Subdept. for the Blind. . . . Jacksonville, III.\nV.-Pres. Subdept. for Ment. Deficient Glen Ellen, Cal.\nSecretary\nChicago, lU.\n\n"}
{"page": 20, "printed_page": null, "text": "EDUCATIONAL\n\nNATIONAL\n\nOF THE\n\nUNITED\n\nOFFICERS\n\nFOR\n\nGENERAL\nO. T. CORSON\nIRWIN SHEPARD\nC. G. PEARSE\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nSTATES\n\n1899-1900\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nPresident\nSecretary\nTreasurer\n\n,\n\nColumbus, O.\nWinona, Minn.\nOmaha, Neb.\n\nVICE-PRESIDENTS\nE. Oram Lyte, Millersville, Pa.\nJ. A. FosHAY, Los Angeles, Cal.\nH. M. Slauson, Ann Arbor, Mich.\nE. B. McElroy, Eugene, Ore.\nJ. P. Hendricks, Butte, Mont.\nJ. M. Green, Trenton, N. J.\nBOARD\n\nAlbert G. Lane\nNicholas Murray Butler\nJ. Ormond Wilson\nF.Louis Soldan\nNicholas Murray Butler\nAlbert G. Lane\nO. T. Corson\n\nW. H. Bartholomew, Louisville, Ky.\nW A. Bell, Yellow Springs, O.\nW. F. Slaton, Atlanta, Ga.\nL. W. Buchholz, Tampa, Fla.\nMrs. Gaston Boyd, Newton, Kan.\nGeorge H. Conlev, Boston, Mass.\nOF TRUSTEES\n\n(See Art, IV, sec. q, of the constitution.')\nChairman\nChicago, III.\nSecretary\nNew York, N. Y.\nWashington, D. C\nSt. Louis, Mo\nNew York, N. Y\nChicago, 111\nColumbus, O\nEXECUTIVE\n\nO. T. Corson\nE. Oram Lyte\nC. G. Pearse\nA. G. Lane\nW. T. Harris\n\nIrwin Shepard\n\nTerm expires July, igoo\nTerm expires July, 1901\nTerm expires July, 1902\nTerm expires July, 1903\nEx officio\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\n(See Art. IV, sees. 2 and 11, of the constitution.')\nPresident\nColumbus, O.\nFirst Vice-President\nMillersville, Pa.\nTreasurer\nOmaha, Neb.\nChairman Board of Trustees. . . Chicago, 111.\nMember by election\nWashington, D. C.\n\nSecretary\nBOARD\n\n•\n\n^\n\nWinona, Minn.\nOF DIRECTORS\n\nDirectors ex ofllcio\n(See ^r/. IV, sec. 2, of the constitution.)\n\nO. T. Corson, Columbus, O.\nC. G. Pearse, Omaha, Neb.\nE. Oram Lyte, Millersville, Pa.\nAlbert G. Lane, Chicago, 111.\nIrwin Shepard, Winona, Minn.\n\nIiife Directors\n(See v4r^ IV, sec. 2, of the constitution.')\nBicKNELL, Thomas W., Providence, R. I.\nCanfield, James H., New York, N. Y.\nBoard of Education, Nashville, Tenn.\nDougherty, Newton C, Peoria, 111.\nButler, Nicholas Murray, New York, N. Y.\nFairchild, George T., Berea, Ky.\n12\n\n"}
{"page": 21, "printed_page": null, "text": "OFFICERS\n\nOF THE\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nLife Directors. — continued.\nGarrett, W. R., Nashville, Tenn.\nGove, Aaron, Denver, Colo.\nGraham, H. A., Mt. Pleasant, Mich.\nGreenwood, J. M., Kansas City, Mo.\nHall, Caleb G., New Berlin, N. Y.\nHarris, W. T., Washington, D. C.\nHunt, Mary H., Boston, Mass.\nJewett, a. v., Abilene, Kan.\nLane, Albert G., Chicago, III.\nLvte, E. Oram, Millersville, Pa.\nMarble, Albert P., New York, N. Y.\nMarshall, T. Marcellus, Glenville, W. Va.\nParker, Charles I., South Chicago, 111.\nPhelps, W. F., St. Paul, Minn.\n\nPickard, Josiah L., Iowa City, la.\nPike, Joshua, Jerseyville, 111.\nRichards, Zalmon, Washington, D. C.\nSheldon, W. E., Boston, Mass.\nSkinner, Charles R., Albany, N. Y.\nSmart, James H., Lafayette, Ind.\nSoLDAN, F. Louis, St. Louis, Mo.\nStratton, C. C, University Park, Ore.\nTaylor, A. R., Emporia, Kan.\nTeachers\" Institute, Philadelphia, Pa.\nWhite, Charles G., Lake Linden, Mich.\nWhite, E. E., Columbus, O.\nWilson, J. Ormond, Washington, D. C.\n\nDirectors by Election\nNorth\n\nAtlantic Division\n\nMaine\nNew Hampshire\nVermont\nMassachusetts\nRhode Island\nConnecticut\nNew York\n\nJohn S. Locke\nChanning Folsom\nMason S. Stone\nWill S. Monroe\nGeorge E. Church\nC.N. Kendall\nAugustus S. Downing\n\nSaco\nDover\nMontpelier\nWestfield\nProvidence\nNew Haven\nNew York\n\nNew Jersey\n\nH. Brewster\n\nNew Brunswick\n\nWillis\n\nSouth Atlantic Division\nPennsylvania\nDelaware\nMaryland\nDistrict of Colurilbia\nVirginia\nWest Virginia\nNorth Carolina\nSouth Carolina\nFlorida\n\nH. W. Fisher\nA. H. Berlin\nE. B. Prettyman\nW. B. Powell\nE. C. Glass\nJ.N. Deahl\nE. A. Alderman\nF. C. Woodward\nW. N. Sheats\n\nPittsburg\nWilmington\nBaltimore\nWashington\nLynchburg\nClaude\n_Chapel Hill\nColumbia\nTallahassee\n\nSouth Central Division\nKentucky\nTennessee\nGeorgia\nAlabama\nMississippi\nLouisiana\nTexas\nOklahoma\n\nMcHenry Rhoads\nH. C. Weber\nWilliam M. Slaton\nJ. H. Phillips\nR. B. Fulton\nWarren Easton\nAlexander Hogg\nDavid R. Boyd\n\nFrankfort\nNashville\nAtlanta\nBirmingham\nUniversity\nNew Orleans\nFort Worth\nNorman\n\nArkansas\nIndian Territory\n\nJ. R. Rightsell\nW. A. Caldwell\n\nLittle Rock\nMuskogee\n\nNorth Central Division\nOhio\nIndiana\nIllinois\n\nJ. A. Shaw an\nJ. W. Carr\nJ. H. Collins\n\nColumbus\nAnderson\nSpringfield\n\nMichigan\n-.\n.Wisconsin\nIowa\nMinnesota\nMissouri\nNorth Dakota\nSouth Dakota\n\nD. W. Springer\nL.D.Harvey\nW. M. Beardshear\nF.V.Hubbard\nW. T. Carrington. .\nW. E. Hoover\nFrank Crane\n\nAnn Arbor\nMadison\nAmes\nRed Wing\nJefferson City\nPark River\nWatertown\n\nJ.H.Miller\nFrank R. Dyer\n\nLincoln\nWichita\n\nNebraska\nKansas\n\n;\n\n"}
{"page": 22, "printed_page": null, "text": "14\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nDirectors by Election — continued\nWestern Division\nMontana\nWyoming\nColorado\nNew Mexico\nArizona\nUtah\nNevada\nIdaho\nWashington\nOregon\nCalifornia\n\nSamuel D. Largent\nEstelle Reel\nL. C. Greenlee\nMrs. E. R. Jackson\nF. A. Coolev\nF. B. Cooper\nJ. E. Stubbs\nJ.W.Daniels\nO. C. WHrrNEV\nE. D. Ressler\nJohn Swett\n\nDEPARTMENT\n\nButte\nWashington, D. C.\nDenver\nSilver City\nTucson\nSalt Lake City\nReno\nBoise\nTacoma\nEugene\nMartinez\n\nOFFICERS\n\nNational Council\nF. LOUIS SOLD AN\nELMER E. BROWN\nMiss BETTIE A. DUTTON\nNICHOLAS MURRAY BUTLER\nMiss LUCIA STICKNEY\nELMERE.BROWN\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\nExecutive Committee\nExecutive Committee\nExecutive Committee\n\nSt. Louis, Mo.\nBerkeley. Cal.\nQeveland, O.\nNew York, N. Y.\nI . Cincinnati, O.\nBerkeley, Cal.\n\nKindergarten\nMrs. KRAUS-BOELTE\nMiss ANNA STOVALL\nMiss ELLA C. ELDER\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nMissN. CROPSEY\nJ. W. DINSMORE\nMiss BETTIE A. DUTTON\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nE. W. COY\nG.B.MORRISON\nH. L. BOLTWOOD\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nJEROME H. RAYMOND\nWILLIAM F. KING\nOSCAR J. CRAIG\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nJAMES E. RUSSELL\nMiss N. CROPSEY\nCHARLES C. VAN LIEW\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nNew York, N. Y.\nSan Francisco, Cal.\nBuffalo, N. Y.\n\nElementary\nIndianapolis, Ind.\nBe^>rlce, Neb.\nCleveland, O.\n\nSecondary\nCincinnati, O.\nKansas City, Mo.\nEvanston, 111.\n\nHigher\nMorgantown, W. Va\nMt. Vernon, la.\nMissoula, Mont.\n\nformal\nNew York, N. Y.\nIndianapolis, Ind.\nChico, Cal.\n\nSuperintendence\nA. S. DOWNING\nG. R. GLENN\nJ.A.SHAWAN\nC. M. JORDAN\n\nPresident\nFirst Vice-President\nSecond Vice-President\nSecretary\n\nCHARLES H. KEYES\nCHARLES A. BENNETT\nL. A. BUCHANAN\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nMiss FRANCES\n\nPresident\n\nNew York N Y\n\nVice-President\nSecretary\nExecutive Committee\n\nBerkeley, 'cal. '\nDayton, O.\nPhiladelphia, Pa.\n\nManual\n\nNew York, N. Y.\nAtlanta, Ga.\nColumbus, O.\nMinneapolis, Minn.\n\nHartford, Conn.\nPeoria, 111.\nStockton, Cal.\n\nArt\nE. RANSOM\n\nHENRY\nT. ARDLEY\nMiss MARY\nA. WOODMANSEE\nWILLIAM A. MASON\n\n"}
{"page": 23, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOFFICERS\n\n.\n\n15\n\nMusic\nHERBERT GRIGGS\nMrs. GERTRUDE B. PARSONS\nMrs. CONSTANCE B. SMITH\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\n,\n\nDenver, Colo.\nLos Angeles, Cal.\nJacksonville, 111.\n\nCARL C, MARSHALL\nM. B. WICKS\nI.O.CRISSY\n..;\nW. C. STEVENSON\n\nPresident\nBattle Creek, Mich.\nVice-President\nPhiladelphia, Pa.\nSecretary\nAlbany, N. Y.\nCkairfnan Executive Committee .... Emporia, Kan.\nChild Study\n\nFREDERIC L. BURK\n* LOUIS H. GALBREATH\nMiss CELESTIA S. PARRISH\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nBusiness\n\nSanta Barbara, Cal.\nCharleston, 111.\nLynchburg, Va.\n\nPhysical Training\nGEORGE W. FITZ\nW. O. KROHN\nMiss ELLEN LE GARDE\nMiss MABEL PRAY\n\nPresident\nFirst Vice-President\nSecond Vice-President\nSecretary\n\nGEORGE MANN RICHARDSON\nCHARLES WILLIAM DABNEY\nCHARLES B. WILSON\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nCambridge, Mass.\nHospital, 111.\nProvidence, R. I.\nToledo, O.\n\nScience\nStanford Univ., Cal.\nKnoxville, Tenn.\nWestfield, Mass.\n\nSchool Administration\nE. E. BARTHELL\nTHOMAS M. GAFNEY\nWILLIAM F. BRADT\nWILLIAM GEORGE BRUCE\nCHARLES CASSATT DAVIS\n\nPresident\nNashville, Tenn.\nFirst Vice-President\nSyracuse, N. Y.\nSecond Vice-President\nIshpeming, Mich.\nSecretary\nMilwaukee, Wis.\nChairman Executive Committee .... Los Angeles, Cal.\n\nSHERMAN WILLIAMS\nMrs. HARRIET CHILD WADLEIGH. . .\n\nPresident\nVice-President\n\nMiss ELIZABETH\n\nSecretary\n\nSKINNER\n\nLibrary\n\nGlens Falls, N. Y.\nLos Angeles, Cal.\n'. . . . Denver, Colo.\n\nDeaf, Blind, etc.\nWARRING WILKINSON\nMiss MARY McCOWAN\nEDWARD E. ALLEN\nARTHUR C. ROGERS\nEDWARD ALLAN FAY\n\nPresident\nBerkeley, Cal.\nV.-Pres. Subdept. for the Deaf\nChicago, 111.\nV.-Pres. Subdeft. for the Blind\nOverbrook, Pa.\nV.-Pres. Subdept. for Ment. Deficient Faribault, Minn.\nSecretary\nWashington, D. C.\n\nIndian Education\nMajor R. H. PRATT\nFRANK AVERY\nEDGAR A. ALLEN\n* Deceased.\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nCarlisle, Pa.\nCrow Creek, S. D.\nAlbuquerque, N. M.\n\n"}
{"page": 24, "printed_page": null, "text": "TREASURER'S\nTO\n\nREPORT\n\nTHE\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nJuly i, 1898, to July i, 1899\nMEETING\n\nAT WASHINGTON,\n\nD. C.\n\nI. C. McNeill, Treasurer, in account with the National Educational Association\nDr.\nTo balance from last report :\nIn Union National Bank of Denver, unavailable\nCash in hand available\n\n$\n\nTo cash memberships, Washington meeting\nTo delayed receipts, Milwaukee meeting, 1897-98\nTo memberships collected by railway and steamship lines\nTo receipts from Irwin Shepard, Secretary:\nMemberships and enrollments\nBack volumes sold\nCommittee reports and miscellany\n\n132.23\n2,069.68\n\n$ 2,201,91\ni, 753-75\n297.00\n18,225.00\n\n;\n\n$2,398.07\n406.70\n119.89\n\n2,924.66\n\nTo income from Board of Trustees\nTo income from copy rights\nTo miscellaneous memberships\n\n3,086.68\n74'io\n4.00\n$28,567.10\n\nOr.\nBy expenses. Board of Trustees :\nJ. N. Wilkinson, investigating bonds (913)*\nJ. Ormond Wilson, services as custodian (886)\nAmerican Colonization Society, rent of depository (852, 883, 888, 914)\nBy expenses of meetings :\nColumbus meeting. Department of Superintendence (902)\nWashington meeting, departments (855) :\nKindergarten\nElementary\nSecondary\nHigher\nNormal\nManual and Industrial\nArt\nMusic\nBusiness\nChild Study\nPhysical Training\nScience\nSchool Administration\nLibrary\nDeaf, Blind, etc\n\n$\n\n23.64\n100.00\n100.00\n■\n\n$\n\n222.64\n118.00\n\n$\n\n9.40\n10.50\n25.00\n24.28\n11.25\n22.00\n23.90\n25.00\n24.74\n21.35\n25,00\n25.00\n57.50\n25.00\n14.00\n\n343-92\n\n* The numbers in marks of parenthesis refer to the orders issued by the Board of Trustees.\n\n16\n\n"}
{"page": 25, "printed_page": null, "text": "TREASURER'S\nState managers (856), Washington meeting:\nAlabama\nArizona\nArkansas\nCalifornia\nColorado\nConnecticut\nDelaware\nDistrict of Columbia\nFlorida\nGeorgia\nIllinois\nIndiana\nIowa\nKansas\n\n20.00\n2.10\n22.25\n19.64\n20.00\n\n20.00\n10.50\n18.00\n18.00\n20.00\n20.00\n20.00\n\n19.50\n20.00\n8.75\n17.05\n20.00\n\nKentucky\nMaine\nMaryland\nM ichigan\nMinnesota\nMississippi\nMissouri\nNebraska\n\nn\n\nREPORT\n\n19-75\n\n20.00\n\n... .\n\nNew Jersey\nNew Mexico\nNorth Carolina\nNorth Dakota\nOhio\nOklahoma\nOregon\nPennsylvania\nPennsylvania, Western\nRhode Island\nSouth Carolina\nSouth Dakota\nTennessee\nTennessee, 1896-97\nUtah\nWashington\nWest Virginia\nWisconsin\nWyoming (901)\n\n20.00\n9.00\n20.00\n19.00\n20,00\n19.05\n\n8.45\n20.00\n\n^4-25\n19.50\n41-55\n4.00\n\n19-45\n\n20.00\n\n19-55\n7.00\n\n18.00\nig.oo\n\n19.50\n20.00\n19.00\n\n886.35\n20.00\n\nClerks, Washington meeting :\nOne assistant treasurer and twenty- seven clerks (854)\n\n731-84\n\nTwo Secretary's clerks (854, 865)\nOne President's clerk (864)\nStenographers, Washington meeting :\nOne official stenographer (858) ..\nOne assistant stenographer (868)\n\n117\n50\n31.00\n\nStationery and printing, Washington meeting:\nOfficial programs (866)\n...\nMiscellaneous programs and reports (869) .\nCirculars, etc. (876)\nPlatform tickets (873)\nMemorandum blanks (862)\nMiscellaneous stationery (861, 874, 875)..\n\n15.00\n260.25\n\nMiscellaneous, Washington meeting:\nRefunded memberships (856) ....\nMessenger (867)\nTelephone (870)\nFreight, etc. (871)\n\n30.00\n\n100.00\n\n1.50\n54-25\n28.51\n11.00\n\n8.00\n2.00\n18.92\n40.00\n\n68.92\n$ 3,021.08\n\n"}
{"page": 26, "printed_page": null, "text": "i8\n\nNATTOSTAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nBy expense, special committees :\nCommittee on Uniform Financial Reports, C. G. Pearse (908) .\nNormal -School Committee:\nN. C. Schaeffer (903)\n\n32.25\n\nA. G. Boyden (904)\nR. G. Boone (907)\n62.40\n183.02\n\nZ.X. Snyder (905, 918)\nH. H. Seerley (906, 923)\nF. M. McMurry (912,925)\n\n47.68\n110.00\n30.82\n\nCommittee on College- Entrance Requirements:\nWilliam Carey Jones (929)\nCharles H. Thurber (917)\nA. F. Nightingale (926) .\nWilliam H. Smiley (927)\nB.A.Hinsdale (928)\nJ. Remsen Bishop (930)\nPaul H. Hanus (931)\n\n19.75\n\n20.25\n\n50.00\n49.90\n22.75\n35.8s\n2I.OO\n62.76\n61.00\n\nHenry B. Fine (932)\nGeorge B. Alton (933)\nW. H. Butts (934)\nC. W. Gilbert (93s)\n\n40.00\n223.46\n398.16\n26.65\n39-74\n\nI. C. McNeill. Treasurer :\nTraveling (860, 891, 924)\nOffice expense, postage, etc. (860, 891, 924) .\nA. G. Lane, chairman Board of Trustees:\nTraveling (882, 900)\nTelegrams and postage (900)\n\n870.33\n\n14.90\n\nBy expenses, Executive Committee:\nE. Oram Lyte. President:\nTraveling (879, 890, 938)\nTelegrams (938)\nJ. M. Greenwood, Vice-President:\nTraveling (863, 881, 899)\nOffice expense, postage, etc. (863)\n\n465.17\n\n$\n\ni55-i3\n\n112.35\n\n$\n\n263.20\n181.78\n\n189.75\n\n\"3-57\n\n3..SS\n77.40\n\nBy premium on Treasurer's bond (877)\nBy expenses, volumes, proceedings, circulars, etc. :\nThe University of Chicago, printing 5,500 copies of volume (915, 887)\nReprints, postage, etc (916, 937, 940)\nW. H. McLean, expressage (895)\nUnited States Express Company (893, 909, 922. 936, 939)\nJ. Ormond Wilson, freight (852, 898)\nJones & Krocger, printing circulars, etc. (921, 892)\nAmerican Book Company, reports of Committee of Ten (940)\n\n751.8s\n1,629.7s\n4,268.41\n141-34\n252.92\n\n5-79\n\n50.00\n\n15-90\n322.72\n\n6,634.83\n\nBy transfer to permanent funds (878, 894, 897, 943)\nBy Secretary's office :\nSalary August i, 1898, to May i, 1899 (885, 896, 920)\nOffice expense (872, 880, 884, 889, 910, 911, 919, 921, 939) :\nPostage\nTelegrams\nExpress and freight\nStenographer and clerks\n•.\nTraveling\nStationery and miscellaneous\nOffice fixtures for Secretary (910, 911) .\n\n10,000.06\n\n21.53\n\n13497\n462.78\n\n$ 3,000.00\n\n118.44\n525.45\n\n275.21\n\n144-45\n1,538.38\n\n4.538.38\n$26,010.92\n\n"}
{"page": 27, "printed_page": null, "text": "TREASURER 'S REPOR T\n\n19\n\nSummary\nBy total disbursed as above\nBy balance :\nt In Union National Bank of Denver, unavailable\nCash in hand, available\n\n....\n$\n\n$26,010.92\n\n66.19\n2,489.99\n\n. 2,556.18\n\n$28,567 10\nRespectfully submitted,\nI. C. McNeill,\nTreasurer, National Educational\n\nWest\nTo Board\n\nof Trustees, National Educational\n\nAssociation.\n\nSuperior, Wis., June 27, 1899.\n\nAssociation:\n\nI hereby certify that I have personally examined the books of I. C. NcNeill, Treasurer, and have compared them with the orders issued by the chairman of the Board of Trustees, and receipts for bills paid, and\nfind them and this report correct to the best of my knowledge and belief,\n(Signed)\n\nOscar Halvorsen,\nAccountant.\n\nSworn and subscribed in my presence this 27th day of June, 1899.\n(Signed)\n\nLeona\n\nPinkham.\nNotary Public.\n\nfThe Union National Bank of Denver declared two dividends of 5 per cent, each, leaving the above\nbalance.\n\n"}
{"page": 28, "printed_page": null, "text": "THIRTEENTH\nANNUAL\nREPORT\nBOARD OF TRUSTEES\nTo the Board of Directors of the National Educational\n\nOF THE\n\nAssociation:\n\nThe Board of Trustees presents the following report of the Permanent Fund of the National Educational\nAssociation, and its income, for the year ending June 30, 1899:\nPermanent Fund, July I, 1898:\n\n^.\n\nMortgages on real estate\nKansas school an i municipal bonds\nIllinois, Indiana, and Missouri school bonds\nCash on hand for investment\n\n$ 8,000.00\n32,737.00\n20,500.00\n2,763.00\n\nCash received from I. C. McNeill, Treasurer, transferred to Permanent Fund from\nproceeds of the Washington meeting and from income of Permanent Fund. . . .\n\n$64,000.00\n\n10,000.00\n\nTotal in Permanent Fund, July i, 1899\n\n$74,000.00\n\nIn the following items :\nMortgages on real estate\nKansas school and municipal bonds ....\nIllinois, Indiana, and Missouri school bonds\n\n,\n\n$21,000.00\n27,000.00\n19,500.00\n\nTotal\n\n$67,500.00\n\nCash on hand for investment\nTotal\n\n■ 6,500.00\n$74,000.00\n\nINVESTMENTS\nInvestment July i, 1898\nBonds paid during the year :\nClark, No. 42\nClark, No. 60\nCrawford, No. 120\n\n$\n\nDecatur, No. 35\nEllis, No. 14\nEllis, No. 44\nEllis, No. 18\nMitchell, No. 106\nPhillips, No. 63\nSheridan, No. 22\nSmith, No. 109\nPratt, No. 39\nMitchell, No. 44\nNess, No. 41\nEudora City, No. 7\n\n500.00\n100.00\n200.00\n440.00\n800.00\n\n•\n\n•. . . .\n\n800.00\n350.00\n\n475.00\n372.00\n100.00\n400.00\n500.00\n500.00\n200.00\n100.00\n6,737.00\n\nInvestments during the year— real-estate mortgages:\n\nNo. 5136 Hibbard avenue, Chicago\nNo. 428 West Adams street, Chicago\n\nTotal investment July i, 1899\n\n$ 5,000.00\n8,000.00\n\n$54,500.00\n\n13,000.00\n$67,500.00\n\n"}
{"page": 29, "printed_page": null, "text": "REPORT\n\nOF THE\n\nBOARD\n\nINCOME\n\nOF TRUSTEES\n\nSTATEMENT\nRECEIPTS\n\nReceipts from interest\n\n$ 3,164.13\nDISBURSEMENTS\n\nPaid exchange for coupon collections\nPaid express charges on bonds\n\n$\n\n10.00\n7.45\n\nPaid rent of box. Merchants' Safe Deposit Co., Chicago\nPaid attorney's fee — Bentley & Hatfield\n\n10.00\n50.00\n\nTotal\nPaid I. C. McNeill, Treasurer\n\n$\n\n77-45\n3,086.68\n\nTotal\n\nSCHEDULE\n\n$3,164.13\n\nOF SECURITIES AND BONDS BELONGING TO THE PERMANENT\nTHE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION, JULY i, 1899\nKANSAS\n\nCounty\n\nRate of\ninterest,\n\nNumber\nof school 24\ndistrict\n143\n\nBond due\n\nWhen purchased\n\nJanuary, rgoo\n\nFebruary 24, 1893\nFebruary 24, 1893\n\npayable\nJan'y and July\n\nJuly I, 1901\nJanuary,\n1910\nJuly, 1899\n\nGarfield*\nGreenwood\nNess\nNess\nNorton\nOsborne .Reno\nReno\n\n129\n\n136\n\nFebruary 14, 1890\nDecember 23, 1889\nFebruary 24, 1893\nFebruary 24, 1893\n\nJuly, 1903\nJuly,\nigo2\nJuly,\n1899\nJuly, 1902\n\nJanuary 30, 1892\nSeptember 20, 1887\nNovember 15, 1887\n\nJuly, 1902\nJanuary,\n1902\n\nFebruary 30,\n24, 1892\n1893\nJanuary\n\n95\n\nWashington *\n\nOF\n\nBONDS\n\nInterest\n\npercent.\n\n66\n\nBarton\nCowley\n\nSCHOOL\n\nFUND\n\nJuly, 1898\n\n70\n\n52 $4,700\nSI\n* Interest or principal in default.\n\nCounty\n\nKind of bond\n\nKANSAS,\n\nCOUNTY\n\nBond\nNos.\n\nAmount\n\nAND\n\nRate\nterest,\n\nMUNICIPAL\n\nBONDS\n\nInterest\n\nWhen\nBond due\n\ncent.\nof\ninpayable\nCloud\nDouglass ■\nGrant*\nHodgeman\nKingman Lane*\nMarion*\nMcPherson\nMontgomery\nReno* Seward*\n\n-\n\nCity of Concordia\nEudora City\nCounty\nCounty\nAid bonds\nCounty\nCity of Marion\nSharp's Creek Tp.\nCaney Tp.\nCity of South\nHutchinson\nWith Bentley &\nHatfield, Wichita,\nKan.\n\n6\n6\n\n35\n8 toto 2040\nI to\nI 7\n\n1,300\n$3,000\n2,000\n\nII47,48\nto 13\n\n1,000\n\nI\nI\nI, 2\nI, 2\n\n1,000\n7,000\n1,000\n1.\n3,000\n\n6\n6\n7\n\nJan'yMarch\nand July\nJan'y and July\nJan'y and July\nJan'y 31 and July\nJan'y and July\nMar. and Sept.\nJan'y and July\nApril and Oct.\nFeb. and Aug.\n\n1,000\n1,000\n\n$22,300\n\n* Interest or principal in default.\n\nper\n6\n6\n6\n6\n\nobtained\nJudgment\n\npurchased '\nSept. 24, 189s\nOne\neach\nJuly due\nI, 1918\nFeb. 1920\nyear March i\nJuly I, 1919\nAug. 31, 1919\nMarch i, 1900\nJuly, 1,1918\nSept.\n1916\nOct. I, igi6\nApril, 1908\n\nSept. I, 1892\nDec. 3,\nJune\nI, 1894\n1891\nSept. I, 1892\nOct. 7, 1890\nOct.\nDec. 7,12,1890\n1895\nDec. 12, 1895\nSept. I, 1892\nMarch 5, 1890\n\n"}
{"page": 30, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\nILLINOIS,\n\nEDUCATIONAL\nINDIANA,\n\nAND\n\nRate of\ninterest,\nCounty\n\nMISSOU«I\n\nASSOCIATION\nSCHOOL\n\nBONDS\n\nWhen\nInterest\n\nBond due\npurchased\n\npayable\nJackson, Kansas City, Mo.\nNoblesville, ind.\nDeKalb, 111.\nCook, Village of Morgan Park, III. ■\nLcmont, 111., School Nos. 4, 6, 8, 12,\n14, 16, 18, 20, 22, 24, 30, 32\n\n$2,000\n\nJan'y and July\nJan'y and July\nper\n\n5,000\n3,000\n6,000\n3.S00\n\nMarchApril\nand I Sept.\n\nJuly I, igoi\nJuly\n1900\nApril\n1900\nSept.,I,I, 1905\nIssue $16,000,\n\nJune and Dec.\n\n$1000 due each\n\nMay 7,20,1896\nApril\n1896\nOct. I,2o,1894\nApril\n1896\nNov. 18, 1897\n\nyear, June i\n\n$19,500\nREAL\n\nESTATE\n\nProvidence real estate, first mortgage\nFirst mortgage, 1919 Wabash ave.,\nChicago\nFirst mortgage, 5136 Hibbard ave.,\nChicago ■\nFirst mortgage, 428 W. Adams St.,\nChicago\n\n6\n$3,000\n\nI May and Nov. i\nMay and Nov, 1\n\nNov. I, 1903\n\nMay and Nov. i\n5,000\n5,000\n8,000\n\nMay, 1885\nMay 1, 1903\n\nMar. and Sept. 15\n\nMarch 15, 1904\n\nMay 1, 1898\nOct. 31, 1898\nMarch 15, 1899\n\n$21,000\n\nRECAPITULATION\nMortgages on real estate\nKansas school and municipal bonds\nIllinois, Indiana, and Missouri school bonds\nCash on hand for investment\nTotal Permanent\n\n$21,000\n27,000\n19,500• 6,500\n\nFund\n\n$74,000\nRespectfully submitted,\nAlbert G. Lane, Chairman,\nNicholas Murray Bittlkr,\nF. Louis Soldan,\nE. Oram Lvte,\nTrustees,\n\nThe foregoing securities were examined at the Merchants' Safety Deposit Vaults, Chicago, September\nII, 1899, and I certify that the thirteenth annual report of the Board of Trustees is a correct statement of\nthe investments belonging to the Permanent Fund of the National Educational Association in the custody\nof A. G. Lane, chairman of the Board of Trustees.\n(Signed)\nL. D. Harvey.\n\n"}
{"page": 31, "printed_page": null, "text": "JOURNAL\n\nOF PROCEEDINGS\nOF THE\n\nTHIRTY-EIGHTH\n\nANNUAL\n\nMEETING\n\nOF THE\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\nLOS ANGELES,\n\nGAL., JULY\n\nASSOCIATION\n11-14, 1899\n\nFIRST DAY'S PROCEEDINGS\nOPENING\n\nSESSION. — Tuesday, July ii, 3 p. m.\n\nThe association met in Hazard's Pavilion, and was called to order by Hon. F, Q.\nStory, chairman of the Local Executive Committee, Los Angeles.\nInvocation by Rev. Charles Clark Pierce, of Memorial Baptist Church.\nMusic — \" N. E. A. March,\" Mackenzie (composed by a Los Angeles high-school\nstudent) — rendered by the Woman's Orchestra, under the direction of Mr. Harley Hamilton.\nAddresses of welcome were made by Hon. Henry T. Gage, governor of California,\non behalf of the state ; Hon. Thomas J. Kirk, state superintendent of public instruction,\non behalf of the educational interests of the state ; Professor Elmer E. Brown, University\nof California, state director, on behalf of the state management ; Hon. Fred Eaton, mayor\nof Los Angeles, on behalf of the municipality ; and J. A. Foshay, superintendent of\nschools, Los Angeles, on behalf of the educational interests of the city.\nThe conduct of the meeting was then transferred to Dr. E. Oram Lyte, President of\nthe National Educational Association.\nResponses to the addresses of welcome were made by N, C. Dougherty, superintendent ofschools, Peoria, 111.; Emerson E. White, Columbus, O.; and J. H. Phillips, superintendent ofschools, Birmingham, Ala.\nJohn Swett, of California, was then introduced, and spoke as a representative of\nnational educational interests, both past and present.\nMusic — Overture, \"Don Juan,\" Mozart — by the Woman's Orchestra.\nPresident E. Oram Lyte delivered the annual presidential address.\nThe President then announced the following Committee on Resolutions :\nNicholas Murray Butler, New York, chairman.\nN. C. Dougherty, Illinois.\nJohn S. Locke, Maine.\nR. B. Fulton, Mississippi. William E. Wilson, Washington,\nJoseph Swain, Indiana.\nW. H. Bartholomew, Kentucky.\nMusic — Paraphrase of Melody in F, Rubinstein\n23 — by the Woman's Orchestra.\nAdjourned.\nSECOND\n\nSESSION. — Tuesday, July ii, 8 p.m.\n\nThe meeting was called to order in Hazard's Pavilion by President Lyte.\nMusic by the Aoedean Club, under the direction of Mrs. Gertrude B. Parsons.\n\n"}
{"page": 32, "printed_page": null, "text": "EDUCATIONAL\n\nNATIONAL\n\n24\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nDr. W. T. Harris, United States Commissioner of Education, delivered an address on\n\"An Educational Policy for Our New Possessions.\"\nMusic by the Aoedean Club.\nHenry S. Townsend, inspector general of schools, Hawaii, addressed the association\non the subject, \"The Educational Problem in Hawaii.\"\nThe meeting then adjourned.\n\nSECOND\nTHIRD\n\n^\n\nDAY'S PROCEEDINGS\n\nSESSION. — Wednesday, July 12, 9 130 a. m.\n\nThe association met in Hazard's Pavilion, President Lyte in the chair.\nPrayer was offered by Rev. Romaine S. Cantine, D.D., pastor of the First Methodist\nChurch.\nMusic — \" Spring Song,\" Henschel — by Miss Eisenmayer, of Los Angeles.\nL. D. Harvey, state superintendent of public instruction, Wisconsin, delivered an\naddress on \" Fundamentals in Teaching.\"\nMrs. Helen Grenfell, state superintendent of public instruction, Colorado, read an\naddress on the subject, \" Quo Vadimics ? \"\nSuperintendent J. H. Hinemon, of Arkansas, was introduced as the authorized representative of the Southern Educational Association. He invited the members of the\nNational Educational Association to unite with the teachers of the South in their next\nconvention at Memphis, Tenn.\nSuperintendent Frank Rigler, Portland, Ore., addressed the association on \"The\nAverage Scholarship of the Average Pupil.\"\nMiss Canady, of Los Angeles, rendered a violin solo.\nWill S. Monroe, State Normal School, Westfield, Mass., spoke on \"Fatigue among\nSchool Children.\"\nThe Committee on Nominations, appointed by President Lyte in accordance with\nsec. I of the By-Laws, was announced by the Secretary, as follows :\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nNOMINATIONS\n\nAaron Gove, chairman.\nNorth Atlantic Division\nMaine\nNew Hampshire\nVermont\nMassachusetts\n\nJohn S. Locke\nChanning Folsom\nW. O. Wheeler\nCharles H. Keyes\n\nRhode Island\nConnecticut\nNew York\nNew Jersey\n\nHorace S. Tarbell\nE. N. Kendall\nA. S. Downing\nJ. H. Hulsart\n\nPennsylvania\nDelaware\n\nGeorge Howell\nA. H. Berlin\n\nWest Virginia\nNorth Carolina\n\nJ. R. Trotter\nG. A. Grimslee\n\nMaryland\nDistrict of Columbia\nVirginia\n\nW. H. Shelley\nW. B. Powell\nE. C. Glass\n\nSouth Carolina\nFlorida\n\nF. Q. O'Neal\nWilliam N. Sheats\n\nSouth Atlantic Division\n\nSouth Central Division\nKentucky\nTennessee\nGeorgia\nAlabama\nMississippi\n\nMcHenry Rhoads\nM.M.Ross\nW. F. Slaton\nJames K. Powers\nR. B. Fulton\n\nOhio\nIndiana\nIllinois\nMichigan\nWisconsin\nIowa\n\nJohn A. Heizer\nRobert A. Ogg\nAlfred Bayliss\nD. W. Springer\nWilliam George Bruce\nH. E. Kratz\n\nLouisiana\nTexas\nOklahoma\nArkansas\nIndian Territory\n\nWarren Easton\nG.T.Winston\nS.N.Hopkins\nGeorge B. Cook\nL. W. Williams\n\nNorth Central Division\nMinnesota\nMissouri\nNorth Dakota\nSouth Dakota\nNebraska\nKansas\n\nF. V. Hubbard\nF. B. Tharpe\nJ. G. Halland\nMiss Ada F. Hatch\nJ. W. Dinsmore\nJ. W. Spindler\n\n"}
{"page": 33, "printed_page": null, "text": "JOURNAL\n\nOF PROCEEDINGS\n\n25\n\nWestern Division\nMontana\nWyoming\nColorado\nNew Mexico\nArizona\nUtah\n\nJ- P- Hendricks\nMiss Estelle Reel\nAaron Gove\nC. M. Light\nF. A. Cooley\nJ. M. Tanner\n\nNevada\nIdaho\nWashington\nOregon\nCalifornia\n\nThomas F. Brown\nMiss Doris McMasters\nR. S. Bingham\nFrank Rigler\nJ. W. McClymonds\n\nThe meeting then adjourned.\nFOURTH SESSION. — Wednesday, July 12, 8 p. m.\nThe association was called to order by President Lyte.\nMusic — \"Thorough Brier,\" Tonnah — by Mrs. Grace Miltimore Stivers, Miss Abbie\nOilman, Mr. J. P. Dupuy, and Mr. D. H. Morrison.\nAn address on \" The United States Exhibit at Paris \" was delivered by Howard J.\nRogers, director of education and social economy, United States commission to the Paris\nexposition.\nMusic by the quartet.\nDr. Elmer E. Brown, University of California, Berkeley, addressed the association\non \"Art in Education.\"\nAdjourned.\n\nTHIRD\nFIFTH\n\nDAY'S PROCEEDINGS\n\nSESSION. -Thursday,\n\nJuly 13, 9 : 30 A. m.\n\nhazard's pavilion\nThe meeting was called to order by Vice-President R. S. Bingham, superintendent\nof schools, Tacoma, Wash.\nPrayer was offered by Dr. Nathan C. Schaeffer, of Pennsylvania.\nMusic by the Queen Vocal Quartet.\nAn address on \"The Religious Element in the_ Formation of Character\" was given\nby Rt. Rev. George Montgomery, bishop of Los Angeles.\nProfessor G. W. A. Luckey, University of Nebraska, spoke on \" The Development\nof Moral Character.\"\n\"Evolution and Ethics\" was the subject of an address by Sidney T. Skidmore, City\nNormal School, Philadelphia, Pa.\nR. H. Webster, superintendent of schools, San Francisco, Cal., addressed the association on \"The Scholar and the State.\"\nAdjourned.\nSIMPSON\n\nTABERNACLE\n\nVice-President E. B. McElroy, of the University of Oregon, presided.\nRev. Warren F. Day, D.D., pastor of the First Congregational Church, offered prayer.\nVocal solo by Mr. D. H. Morrison.\nPresident R. B. Fulton, University of Mississippi, addressed the meeting on \"Growth\nof Confidence between High Schools and Colleges.\"\nMrs. Josephine Heermans, Kansas City, Mo., read a paper on \"The Spirit of the\nClassics.\"\nVocal solo — \"Ninon,\" Tosti — by Mrs. Florence F. Bruce.\nFrank J. Barnard, superintendent of schools, Seattle, Wash., spoke on the subject,\n\" Let Pupils be so Classified as to Allow Unrestricted Progress or Unlimited Time, According to Ability.\"\nThis paper was discussed by J. W. McClymonds, superintendent of schools, Oakland, Cal.\nThe meeting then adjourned.\n\n"}
{"page": 34, "printed_page": null, "text": "26\nMINUTES\n\nNATIONAL\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nhazard's\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nANNUAL\n\nBUSINESS\nMEMBERS\n\npavilion, THURSDAY,\n\nASSOCIATION\nMEETING\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nACTIVE\n\nJULY I3, 12 : 20 P. M.\n\nThe annual meeting of the active members of the National Educational Association\nwas called to order by President Lyte.\nPresident Lyte : The first order of business is a communication from the Board\nof Directors.\nSecretary Shepard read the communication, as follows :\n\"The Board of Directors, at its annual meeting held on Tuesday, July il, passed a\nresolution recommending to the active members that the following amendment be made\nto By-Law No. i :\n\" That the last sentence which reads, 'The meeting of active members to nominate\nmembers of the nominating committee shall be held at 2 P. M. on the second day of\nthe meeting, at such place as shall be announced in the general program,' be amended by\nstriking out the phrase ' at 2 P. M on the second day of the meeting,' and inserting\n' at 5 : 30 P. M. on the first day of the meeting.' \"\nPresident Lyte : The Secretary will be kind enough to explain briefly the object\nof this change, so that the members may vote intelligently.\nSecretary Shepard : The by-law which it is proposed to amend provides that\nthe President shall, at the third session of each annual meeting, appoint a committee on\nnominations consisting of one member from each state. It also provides that the active\nmembers of the several states shall meet at 2 p. M. on the second day to nominate to\nthe President members of the. general nominating committee. Under the arrangements\nthis year, by which the fir^t session was held .at 2 P. M., you will clearly see that the\nsession at which the President is ordered to appoint the nominating committee was held\nbefore 2 p. M. on the second day of the meeting, and therefore the operation of the\nby-law would be impossible. It was, therefore, necessary to make an arbitrary change in\norder to carry out the purpose of the by-law by setting the meeting for the active members\nat 5 : 20 p. M. on the afternoon of the first day, in order that such meeting should be held\nbefore the President, by the terms of the by-law, should appoint the nominating committee.\nThe change proposed brings the different parts of the by-law into harmony and makes it\npossible to observe them all.\nDr. E. E. White, of Ohio : I move that the amendment proposed by the Board of\nDirectors be adopted.\nThe motion was duly seconded.\nMr. Weber, of Tennessee : The by-law provides that there shall be a member of\nthe nominating committee from each state, but in fact we have a member of that committee named from each state and territory.\nSecretary Shepard : The by-law reads \" from each state.\" It does not read\n\"from each state and territory;\" but I believe every territory has been by custom represented as well as every state.\nThe President put the question of the adoption of the amendment proposed by the\nBoard of Directors, and the same was carried unanimously.\nMr. Weber, of Tennessee : Do I understand the word \" territory\" is inserted ?\nPresident Lyte : The word \" territory \" is not inserted.\nMr. Bingham, of Washington : I move that the word \"territory\" be inserted, so\nthat the by-law shall read \"one member from each state and territory.\"\nThe motion was duly seconded and carried.\nPresident Lyte : Is it the wish of the association that the report of the Treasurer\nbe read ? It is a very interesting report. Has the report been circulated among the\nmembers ?\n\n"}
{"page": 35, "printed_page": null, "text": "JOURNAL\n\nOF PROCEEDINGS\n\n2?\n\nMr. Greenwood, of Kansas City, Mo. : It has, and the members are in possession of the report.\nMr. Coy, of Ohio : I think we should hardly be rendered familiar enough with this\nreport by simply having it read. We need to have it in our hands. Therefore I move\nthat the reading of this report be dispensed with.\nThe motion was duly seconded and carried.\nE. O. Vaile, of Chicago, 111. : I make a motion, in which I am sure all will concur,\nthat we pass a vote of thanks to our retiring Treasurer for his long and valuable services\nto this association.\nThe motion was seconded by various members and carried unanimously by a rising\nvote.\nPresident Lyte : The next order of business is the report of the Board of\nTrustees, by the chairman.\nChairman A. G. Lane of the Board of Trustees : The printed report is being\ndistributed to the members. There is nothing new in the situation compared with the\nreport made last year. I shall be very glad to answer any questions that any member of\nthe association may wish to ask with reference to it.\nPresident Lyte : You have heard the remarks of Chairman Lane of the Board\nof Trustees. This report is also very interesting, and we are all glad to have the opportunity to look thoroly into the financial management of the association. I myself have\nexamined the reports of the Treasurer and of the Board of Trustees with a good deal\nof care, and find that every cent of the money of the association is fully accounted for.\nL. E. Wolf, of Kansas : A year ago, when the report was made, the interest on\nsome of the invested funds was in default. I think it might be well to give Chairman\nLane an opportunity to explain the condition of those funds now.\nChairman Lane : There has been no change in the amount of bonds that were in\ndefault of interest since the last report. Quite a number of them have been paid. The\ntotal amount which is in default of interest is $9,300 ; but many of these represent\nschool districts where there have been changes of officers. In the changes of officers\nthey have neglected to provide for the payment of interest on the bonds of the district.\nWe have been able to make collections on quite a number of the bonds that were in\ndefault of interest. Recently we received payment on some bonds that have been in\ndefault three years. The fiscal agency at New York failed to follow up those cases,\nand we found it necessary to go to the district officers to reach them. In conferring\nwith those who are familiar with the situation in Kansas we find that there is more\ndoubt about the bonds known as the \"Grant county bonds\" and the \"Lane county\nbonds.\" The Board of Trustees accepted a compromise in the case of the city of South\nHutchinson. We have a thousand-dollar bond issued by that city. The city of South\nHutchmson was organized some years ago. Soon disasters befell their schoolhouses\nand public buildings. The result was that they moved quite a number of buildings\nover into Hutchinson ; and I am informed, and observed as I passed thru there, that\nall that is left of the city of South Hutchinson is three or four salt plants, a few railroad tracks leading to them, and a few scattered houses. The information we received\nwas such that we voted to accept a compromise of fifty cents on the dollar on that bond.\nIn the case of the Seward county bond we obtained a judgment a year ago, and it has\nresulted in a compromise on the rate of interest, and a provision by which they have\nagreed to levy an annual tax to provide for the retirement of a certain portion of the\ntotal indebtedness. So that I think we shall get the full amount of the principal in the\ncase of the Seward county bond. In the case of the Lane county bonds suit has been\ninstituted on about thirty thousand dollars' worth of those bonds. We did hot join in\nthe suit, but ultimately we will join in it. Our interests are being looked after carefully. From the best estimate that I can make, and from reliable information obtained.\n\n"}
{"page": 36, "printed_page": null, "text": "28\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nI do not think there is likely to be any very considerable loss of the principal fund.\nIn some of the counties in the remote western part of the state, where villages were\norganized and schoolhouses built, the people have moved away, and there is not much\nleft excepting the schoolhouses, with no one to pay the interest on the bonds. We may\nfind that it will be some years before we shall be able to collect the principal. In the\nmeantime compromises have been made on a very low rate of interest, with the hope that\nwe may keep the bonds good until such time as they will be able to pay them. These\ninvestments were all made some years ago, after the Topeka meeting in 1886, and the\nsubsequent meeting at Chicago in 1887, when there was quite a large sum of money to be\ninvested. No member of the present Board of Trustees was a trustee at that time ; but\nwe have every reason to believe that those who were trustees used what they considered\ndue care in these investments. They were advised by the Kansas school people at the\ntime that these bonds were substantial securities. That was before the panic of 1893.\nSince that time there has been such a continued failure of crops that these western\ncounties have defaulted. I believe that covers substantially all that can be said. I will\nsimply say in reference to the recent investments, which you will see noted on another\npage of the report, that they have been made with great care, at a lower rate of interest\n— 5 per cent. — where the land alone, without the buildings, is equal in value to the\namount of the loan. The Board of Trustees is exercising the utmost care to see that\nevery new loan is made on a conservative basis and without incurring any risk. I shall\nbe glad to answer any other questions that may be asked.\nOn motion of W. A. Bell, of Indiana, the report was adopted without dissent.\nPresident Lyte : Before calling for the report of the Committee on Nominations,\nis there any other miscellaneous business to be presented ?\nDr. Nicholas Murray Butler, of New York : I wish to offer for the consideration of the active members the following resolution, which was passed at the meeting of\nthe Board gf Directors on Tuesday, and at the suggestion of my friend, Dr. White, of\nOhio, is again offcTred here :\nResolved, That the President of the National Educational Association be requested to send the following\ntelegram of congratulation on behalf of the association to the American delegates to the peace conference now\nin session at The Hague :\n\"Andrew\n\nD. White,\nChairtnan American\n\nDelegation to Peace Conference, The Hague, Holland:\n\n\" The National Educational Association, in convention assembled, tenders American delegation to peace\nconference heartiest congratulations on success which has attended their noble efforts in behalf of principle of\narbitration.\"\n\nI move the adoption of the resolution.\nThe resolution was duly seconded and unanimously adopted.\nPresident Lyte : Is there any other business to be brought before the association\nbefore calling for the report of the Committee on Nominations, which will be the last\norder of business for the morning ? The chair hears none. It is then in order to call\nfor the report of the Committee on Nominations.\nIs the committee ready to report ?\nSuperintendent Gove, of Colorado, chairman of the Committee on Nominations,\nread the following\nREPORT\n\nOF THE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nNOMINATIONS\n\nThe Committee on Nominations, pursuant to call, met in the Directors' Room, Board of Trade Building,\nand was called to order at 4 p. m., July 12, by the chairman, Aaron Gove.\nOn motion, A. S. Djwning, of New York, was made secretary of the committee.\nUpon motion, nominations were made for the office of President. John A. Heizer, of Ohio, placed\nin nomination O. T. Corson, of Columbus, O. ; Mr. Bruce, of Wisconsin, and Mr. Powers, of Alabama, seconded the nomination.\nBy unanimous vote Mr. Corson was nominated as President.\nUpon motion, the following were chosen by ballot as Vice-Presidents:\n\n"}
{"page": 37, "printed_page": null, "text": "JOURNAL\nFirst Vice-President\nSecond Vice-President\nThird Vice-President\nFourth Vice-President\nFifth Vice-President\nSixth Vice-President\nSeventh Vice-President\nEighth Vice-President\nNinth Vice-President\nTenth Vice-President\nEleventh Vice-President\n\nOF PROCEEDINGS\nE. Oram Lyte\nJ. A. Foshay\nH. M. Slauson\nE. B. McElroy\nJ. P. Hendricks\nJ. M. Green\nW. H. Bartholomew\nW. A. Bell\nW. F. Slaton\nL. W. Buchholz\nMrs. Gaston Boyd\n\n29\n\nPennsylvania\nCalifornia\nMichigan\nOregon\nMontana\nNew Jersey\nKentucky\nOhio\nGeorgia\nFlorida\nKansas\n\nTwelfth Vice-President\nGeorge H. Conley\nMassachusetts\nUpon motion, the committee proceeded to ballot for a nominee for the position of Treasurer, and the\nresult of such ballot was the nomination of C. G. Pearse, of Omaha.\nThe following persons were nominated as directors for the ensuing year :\nNorth Atlantic Division\nMaine\nNew Hampshire\nVermont\nMassachusetts\n\nJohn S. Locke\nChanning Folsom\nMason S. Stone\nWill S. Monroe\n\nRhode Island\nConnecticut\nNew York\nNew Jersey\n\n.'\n\nGeorge E. Church\nE. N. Kendall\nAugustus S. Downing\nH. Brewster Willis\n\nSouth Atlantic Division\nPennsylvania\nDelaware\nMaryland\nDistrict of Columbia\nVirginia\n\nH.W.Fisher\nA. H. Berlin\n\nWest Virginia\nNorth Carolina\n\nJ. N. Deahl\nE. A. Alderman\n\nE. B. Prettyman\nW. B. Powell\n\nSouth Carolina\nFlorida\n\nF.C.Woodward\nW. N. Sheats\n\nE. C. Glass\nSouth Central Division\n\nKentucky\nTennessee\nGeorgia\nAlabama\nMississippi\n\nMcHenry Rhoads\nH. C. Weber\nWilliam M. Slaton\nJ. H. Phillips\nR. B. Fulton\n\nOhio\nIndiana\nIllinois\nMichigan\nWisconsin\nIowa\n\nJ. A. Shaw an\nJ. W. Carr\nJ.H.Collins\nD. W. Springer\nL. D. Harvey\nW. M. Beardshear\n\nMontana\nWyoming\nColorado\nNew Mexico\nArizona\nUtah\n\nSamuel D. Largent\nEstelle Reel\nL. C. Greenlee\nElizabeth Jackson\nF. A. Cooley\nF.B.Cooper\n\nLouisiana\nTexas\nOklahoma\nArkansas\nIndian Territory\n\nWarren Easton\nAlexander Hogg\nD. R. Boyd\nJ. R. Rightsell\nC. W. Goodman\n\nNorth Central Division\nMinnesota\nMissouri\nNorth Dakota\nSouth Dakota\nNebraska\nKansas\n\nF. V. Hubbard\n... W. T. Carrington\nW.S.Hoover\nFrank Crane\nJ. H. Miller\nFrank R. Dyer\n\nWestern Division\nNevada\nIdaho\nWashington\nOregon\nCalifornia\n\nJ. E. Stubbs\nJ. W. Daniels\nO. C. Whitney\nE. D Ressler\nJohn Swett\n\nOn motion, it was ordered that the chairman be permitted to fill the vacancy in nomination for the directorship ofany state upon request of the member of the nominating committee representing such state, provided\nsuch request were made prior to the report of this committee.\n(Signed)\nAugustus S. Downing,\nSecretary.\n\nMr. Barnard, of Seattle, Wash.: I wish to ask whether anyone is named as\ndirector for Hawaii. Chairman Gove : Your committee was not authorized to nominate a director for\nHawaii, because it is not even a territory, and there are no provisions for colonies.\nMr. Barnard : I wish to say that I am emphatically a believer in expansion, and\nbelieve that expansion should be followed in the matter of directors. I move, if it is in\norder, that the report of the committee be amended by adding the name of Professor M.\nM. Scott, of Honolulu, to the list of directors, as director for Hawaii.\n\n"}
{"page": 38, "printed_page": null, "text": "30\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nDr. E. E. White, of Ohio: I like expansion — in order. Our constitution and\nby-laws determine who shall constitute the Board of Directors. As you are aware, Congress has taken no action as yet on the report organizing a government for Hawaii, and\nI think under our constitution we could not fill that place until a government is authorized\nby Congress and the status of Hawaii determined. Let us wait a year, and then we can\nexpand intelligently.\nPresident Lyte : Evidently the motion of Mr. Barnard is not in order.\nDr. White : Mr. President, I move that the report of the Committee on Nominations be accepted and approved, and that the Secretary be authorized to cast the ballot\nof the active members electing the persons named as officers of the association for the\nensuing year.\nThe motion was seconded and carried unanimously. The Secretary' cast the ballot,\nand the President declared the persons named by the nominating committee duly elected\nto the respective offices for which they were named.\nPresident Lyte : With a modesty becoming to Ohio, I think the newly elected\nPresident has hidden himself away. The chair appoints Dr. White to find him and co»duct him to the platform.\nDr. White : Mr. President, an Ohio man is easily found when wanted to fill an\noffice (conducting the President-elect to the platform).\nPresident Lyte : Ladies and gentlemen^ I have great pleasure in presenting to\nyou a representative of the Buckeye State, large in body and large in heart. I take pleasure in introducing your newly elected President, Hon. O. T. Corson, of Ohio.\nO. T. Corson : Mr. Chairman, and Members of the Association : I have no desire so\nearly m my official career to show my absolute unfitness for the office to which you have\nelected me by attempting to make a speech. I therefore have nothing further to say at\nthis moment, except to thank you for the courtesy of your call, and to pledge you my\nhighest endeavor, with your aid, to further as best we may the important work of this\ngreat association.\nOn motion, the meeting adjourned.\nIrwin Shepard,\nE. Oram Lyte,\nSecretary.\nPresident.\nSIXTH\n\nSESSION.— Thursday, July 13, 8 p. m.\n\nThe meeting was called to order in Hazard's Pavilion by President Lyte.\nMusic by the St. Cecilia Quartet.\nAn address on \" The Outlook in Education \" was delivered by Dr. Nicholas Murray\nButler, Columbia University, New York, N. Y.\nMusic by the St. Cecilia Quartet.\nAn address on \" Progress in Public Education \" was delivered by F. Louis Soldan,\nsuperintendent of schools, St. Louis, Mo.\nAdjourned.\n\nFOURTH\nSEVENTH\n\nDAY'S PROCEEDINGS\n\nSESSION.— Friday, July 14, 9:30 a.m.\n\nThe association met in Hazard's Pavilion, Vice-President Greenwood in the chair.\nRev. A. C. Smithers, pastor of the First Christian Church, offered prayer.\nMusic by the choir of the Temple Bnai-Brith.\nAaron Gove, superintendent of schools, Denver, Colo., gave an address on \"Usurpation of Home by School.\"\nMusic — duet — by Mrs. Haralson and Mrs. Scarborough.\nE. A. Bryan, president of State Agricultural College, Pullman, Wash., read an\naddress on \" The Economic Interpretation of History.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 39, "printed_page": null, "text": "JOURNAL\n\nOF PROCEEDINGS\n\n31\n\nE. E. White, of Ohio, submitted the report of the Committee on Necrology, and\nmoved that the report be accepted and the sketches included in the report be printed in\nthe proceedings.\nSeconded and carried.\nJohn MacDonald, editor of Western School Journal and president of the Educational\nPress Association, addressed the association on \" Educational Journalism — Its Tribulations and Triumphs.\"\nGeorge P. Brown, editor of School and Home Education, Bloomington, 111., asked to\nhave his paper on \"The Function of Educational Journalism\" printed in the annual\nvolume without being read.\nBy common consent the request was granted.\n\" Is the Educational Press Educational ? \" was the subject of an address by William\nGeorge Bruce, editor of American School Board Journal, Milwaukee, Wis.\nOssian H. Lang, editor of The School Journal, New York city, spoke on \" Ideal and\nPractical Considerations in Educational Journalism.\"\nAdjournment.\nEIGHTH\n\nSESSION.— Friday, July 14, 8 p.m.\n\nThe association met in Hazard's Pavilion, President Lyte presiding.\nMusic — \"O, Every Joy on Earth is Mine,\" Schnecker — by the Immanuel Church choir.\nDavid Starr Jordan, president of Leland Stanford Jr. University, delivered an address\non \" The Usefulness of the University.\"\nMusic — selections from \" Robin Hood\" — by the Immanuel Church choir.\nAn address on \" The School in Relation to the Higher Life \" was given by Nathan\nC. Schaeffer, state superintendent of Pennsylvania.\nAn address on \" Professional Sentiment \" was ^iven by A. E. Winship, editor of\nJournal of Education, Boston, Mass.\nDr. Nicholas Murray Butler, as chairman, read the report of the Committee on\nResolutions, which was unanimously adopted, as follows :\nREPORT\n\nOF COMMITTEE\n\nON RESOLUTIONS\n\nThe National Educational Association, assembled in its thirty-eighth annual convention and representing in the largest sense the teachers of the United States, makes the\nfollowing declaration of principles :\nWe reaffirm our belief that the course of education, despite difficulties, doubts, and\ndiscouragements, is steadily upward and onward. The year which has passed has been\none of genuine progress. Sound educational ideals are more firmly established, the benefits\nof school and college education are more widely diffused, the work of teaching is more\nintelligent and successful, the teachers themselves constantly grow more earnest and\nmore studious. The one dark page in the history of the year is that which records interference with the work of public education and attacks, successful and unsuccessful, made\nupon it by political traders and spoils-seekers. We appeal to the public and to the press\nto resist, to resent, and to punish these attacks, and we pledge our best efforts to the\nabsolutely non-political and non-sectarian conduct of the work intrusted to us.\nWe record with gratitude our sense of obligation to those noble men and women\nwho have held out a generous hand to education north, south, east, and west, and who,\nby their gifts and endowments, have added so much to the strengthening and upbuilding\nof the various types of educational institutions, general and special, elementary and\nhigher, thruout the land. The influence of their example is widespread, and the effectiveness oftheir gifts is incalculable.\nWe emphasize once more the function of the school, as a community center, to draw\nto itself the children and the parents for gatherings which reflect the life of the people\nand which give it inspiration. Particularly, in close association with the library, the\nschool should make itself felt in shaping the thought of the people in ways and by\nmethods which lie outside of the scope of formal instruction.\n\n"}
{"page": 40, "printed_page": null, "text": "32\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nWe support cordially every effort to elevate the profession of teaching by raising the\nstandards for entrance to it, by promoting educational scholarship, and by providing for\nstability of tenure, and for adequate compensation. We are prepared to accept the complementary principle that inefficient and incompetent teachers must yield to the professional judgment which asks their retirement, and we deplore any and every attempt,\norganized or other, to protect such teachers in their posts by influence, whether personal\nor political.\nWe wish by every legitimate means to aid the invaluable work of the Bureau of\nEducation, and we ask that it be given such support by Congress as will enable it to\nperform, with fullest efficiency, the tasks intrusted to it. We recognize, perhaps more\nfully than do others, the value of the statistics of education collected in the census of 1890,\nand we earnestly urge upon the director of the forthcoming census the desirability of\ncarrying on anew the lines of inquiry then pursued, together with such additions and\nimprovements as experience has shown to be needed.\nThis association has long insisted, and continues to insist, upon the full recognition\nof all educational agencies as essentially undertakings in the public interest, whether\nthey are supported by public taxation or by other means. All alike are and should be in\nheartiest co-operation, and any attempt to array one institution, or one form of educational effort, against another is little short of treason to the nation's highest interests.\nThe past year has brought new and grave responsibilities to our common country,\nand has opened before it new and difficult opportunities. With a courage born of high\nhope and of confidence in democracy, the nation's schools and schoolmasters will assume\ntheir full share of the burden so suddenly imposed upon our citizenship, and will con- •\ntribute by every means in their powder to the wise, patriotic, and democratic solution of\nthe problems which confront us as a people.\nNicholas Murray Butler, of New York, Chairman,\nNewton C. Dougherty, of Illinois,\nRobert B. Fulton, of Mississippi,\nJoseph Swain, of Indiana,\n«\nJohn S. Locke, of Maine,\nWilliam E. Wilson, of Washington,\nW. H. Bartholomew, of Kentucky,\nCommittee on Resolutions.\nresolutions of thanks\nThe following resolutions were offered by Dr. Butler, on behalf of the Committee on\nResolutions, and, upon motion, were unanimously adopted :\nResolved, That the National Educational Association hereby tenders cordial and hearty thanks to those\nindividuals, committees, and other agencies which have united to make the meeting at Los Angeles unsurpassed in comfort, in interest, and in size. In particular may be mentioned our obligations to F. Q. Story,\nEsq., chairman, and his associates upon the Local Executive Committee; to Superintendent J. A. Foshay,\nand the principals and teachers who have so warmly and so generously seconded his efforts for our entertain ment and welfare; and to all who have co-operated with them.\nTo the citizens of Los Angeles for their sincere and heartfelt welcome ; to the press for its unusually full\nand accurate reports of all our gatherings ; to the various transportation companies for their generous co-operation in perfecting the plans for the meeting ; and to Messrs. Wyckoff, Seamans & Benedict, proprietors of the\nRemington typewriter, and to their efficient representative, MissOrr, for typewriter service freely placed at the\ndisposal of the association and its officers, we are under obligations which will not be forgotten while the\nmemories of this great meeting themselves last.\n\nDr. Butler then, on behalf of the Committee on Resolutions, offered the following\nresolution, which was, upon vote put by the Secretary, unanimously adopted :\nResolved, That to the retiring President, Dr. E. Oram Lyte, of Pennsylvania, and to the retiring Treasurer, Mr. L C. McNeill, of Wisconsin, we make expression of our high personal regard and of our sincere\nappreciation of the ability, devotion, and unselfishness with which they have served the association.\n\n"}
{"page": 41, "printed_page": null, "text": "JOURNAL\n\nOF PROCEEDINGS\n\n33\n\nPresident Lyte : It becomes my duty as the retiring President of the association\nto introduce the newly elected President to you and to transfer to him the emblem of my\nauthority. Before doing so, let me return my personal thanks to the members of the asso.\nelation, and particularly to the Secretary, for the kindness uniformly shown to me during\nthe year. The resolutions adopted by this body express somewhat of the feelings of all\nthe visiting members of the association with respect to our reception by Los Angeles and\nCalifornia, but words utterly fail to tell fully how delighted we have been with the cordiality with which we were met as we descended upon this city from the Rockies, from\nthe great middle West, from the Atlantic's rock-bound coast, from the St. Lawrence, and\nfrom the Rio Grande. I am sure that you do not fully realize how kind you have been to\nus and how much you have aided in making this meeting a success. The memory of this\nvisit to your charming city, of your sunshine and perfect weather, of your fruits and\nflowers, of your open-hearted, refine'd, cultured hospitality, will remain with us as a\ndelightful recollection long after this beautiful south-land has passed from our vision. It\nwill not be uninteresting for you all to know that the enrollment at this meeting is the\nlargest in the history of this association, and that every one of the multitude which has\ncrossed the borders of this golden state has fallen in love with it. I can only wish that\nthe influence of this meeting for good may be as deep as the memory of its pleasures, and\nthat the good people of Los Angeles and vicinity will think of us in days to come with\nsomewhat of the same pleasure with which we shall think of them.\nI now take pleasure in transferring to my successor in office the guidance of this body\nof educators, the greatest and most influential educational association in the world. I am\nsure that under the leadership of my distinguished friend from Ohio this organization will\nmake rapid strides onward in the great work in which it is engaged. Permit me to introduce to you your newly elected President, Hon. O. T. Corson, of Ohio, to whom I now\nsurrender the gavel.\nPresident O. T. Corson :\nMr. Chairman, Members of the National Educational Association, Ladies and Gentlemen :\nIn expressing to you my grateful appreciation of the honor which comes to me with\nthis introduction, I am not unmindful of the fact that along with that honor come grave\nresponsibilities — responsibilities that I would neither care nor dare to assume if I did not\nhave an abiding faith in the unswerving loyalty of the membership of this great association to its highest and best interests — a loyalty which I know is a positive guaranty\nthat you will extend to the incoming administration that helpful sympathy and cordial\nco-operation without which failure is inevitable, and with which success may be possible.\nI thank you /or the confidence you have reposed in me, and beg you to give to us your\nco-operation, so that this great association may continue its great work.\nI feel, Mr. President, at this moment that there is but one appropriate thing for me\nto do, and that is to return to you this emblem of power, that you may close this association, over which you have presided with such honor, such dignity, and such satisfaction. Ibeg to assure you, sir, that along with this return go the best wishes of the teachers\nof the United States ; and along with this return go also our congratulations upon the\ngreat success of this great meeting.\nAfter the singing of \" America \" by the audience, the benediction was pronounced\nby Dr. Nathan C. Schaeffer, of Pennsylvania, and the meeting was adjourned by President Lyte.\nIrwin Shepard,\nE. Oram Lyte,\nSecretary.\nPresident.\n\n"}
{"page": 42, "printed_page": null, "text": "MINUTES\n\nCHAMBER\n\nOF THE BOARD OF DIRECTORS\nFOR 1898-99\n\nOF COMMERCE,\n\nLOS ANGELES,\n\nCAL. — Tuesday, July ii, 12 m.\n\nThe Board of Directors of the National Educational Association met in the Directors'\nRoom of the Chamber of Commerce, and was called to order by President E. Oram Lyte.\nThe following directors were present :\nE. Oram Lyte, Pennsylvania; I. C. McNeill, Wisconsin; Nicholas Murray Butler, New York; Aaron\nGove, G)lorado; J. M. Greenwood, Missouri; Albert G. Lane, Illinois; F. Louis Soldan, Missouri; A. R.\nTaylor, Kansas ; E. E. White, Ohio; Will S. Monroe, Massachusetts; W.B.Powell, District of Columbia ;\nW. H. Bartholomew, Kentucky; J. L. Holloway, Arkansas; L. D. Harvey, Wisconsin; Miss Estelle Reel,\nWyoming; L. C. Greenlee, Colorado; Mrs. E. R.Jackson, New Mexico; F. S. Hafford, Arizona; O. C.\nWhitney, Washington; Elmer E. Brown, California; Irwin Shepard, Minnesota.\n\nDirector Gove moved that the reading of the minutes of the last meeting be dispensed\nwith, and the minutes be approved as printed in the Washington volume, with a correction\ninserting record of the action of the board at its last meeting appropriating $75 for the\nexpenses of the Committee on Forms of Reports for School Statistics. Seconded and\ncarried.\nThe resignation of Director Gastman, of Illinois, was read, and upon motion was\naccepted. The informal resignation of Director Kirk, of Missouri, was read, and upon\nmotion accepted, and W. G. Carrington was elected to fill the vacancy. Director Gove\nmoved that the resignation of Director Bass, of Mississippi, be accepted, and that R. B.\nFulton, of that state, be elected director in his stead.\nCarried.\nTreasurer L C. McNeill presented his annual report.\nDirector Butler called attention to the increased revenue of the association thru the\noffice of permanent Secretary.\nThe Secretary reported that two of the terminal lines at Washington, D. C, had not\nyet closed their accounts for last year, and that an additional $1,000 could be expected\nfrom that source.\n. Director Bartholomew moved that the Treasurer's report be accepted and ordered\nprinted in the minutes.\nSeconded.\nChairman of the Board of Trustees, A. G. Lane, stated that the report of the Treasurer had been examined by the trustees and found to be correct.\nDirector Bartholomew's motion was then carried\nDirector Lane, chairman of the Board of Trustees, presented the report of the Board\nof Trustees, explaining the various items in effect as follows :\nAltho there has been default in the payment of interest on $9,300 of Kansas bonds, upon careful investigation, inwhich we have been greatly aided by J. N. Wilkinson, of Emporia, Kan., we are convinced that the\nfinal loss on the principal will not be very great.\nThe Board of Trustees has voted to accept a proposition to receive 50 per cent, of the amount due from\nthe city of South Hutchinson, its bond being for $1,000. South Hutchinson is a disorganized city. Business\nhouses have been removed, and it is impossible, under the existing laws, to raise revenue enough to pay the\ninterest on the bond. The boqrd also reports that judgment has been obtained against Seward county for\ninterest on a bond of $1,000, and has voted to accept a compromise on the past interest due and on the rate of\ninterest, on condition that an annual levy be made to retire a part of the principal. It is believed that the\nfull amount of the principal of the Seward county bond will be obtained.\nThe Grant county bonds, amounting to $2,000, and the Lane county bonds, amounting to $3,000, are in\ndefault in payment of interest, and suit will probably be necessary to secure payment.\nOn motion of Mr. Gove, of Denver, the report of the Board of Trustees was approved, and ordered\nprinted in the volume of proceedings.\n\n34\n\n"}
{"page": 43, "printed_page": null, "text": "PROCEEDINGS\n\nOF THE\n\nOLD\n\nBOARD\n\nOF DIRECTORS\n\n35\n\nAt the suggestion of Director Butler, it was ordered that the statement of the compromises incases of defaulting bonds, as made by Mr. Lane, be inserted in the minutes.\nDirector Fulton suggested that the date of purchase of each bond be entered in the\nreport.\nThe suggestion was accepted without dissent.\nDirector Greenwood moved that the report of the trustees be received and approved,\nand printed in the next annual volume.\nPending action, Director Lane reported that Director L. D. Harvey, of Madison,\nWis., had been appointed as auditor to examine all of the securities held by the association, and that he would make his report later.\nDirector Gove called attention to the obligation which was due to the Board of Trustees\nby the association for its careful management of the financial matters of the association.\nDirector White, of Ohio, suggested that the motion of Director Greenwood be\nchanged by inserting the words \"subject to the approval of the auditor.\" The suggestion\nwas accepted by Director Greenwood, and the motion, as so modified, was duly carried.\nL. S. Thompson, of New Jersey, by permission, addressed the board concerning\nthe Committee on Course of Study in Art Education, which had been appointed at\nWashington by the Art Department, and asked that an appropriation be grafited to\nenable it to complete its work. Upon request, the Secretary read the resolution passed\nby the board at its last meeting concerning the reference of applications for appropriations to the Council. Director Gove moved that the proposition be put into written form\nand referred to the Council for recommendation.\nCarried.\nDirector Lane offered the following :\nResolved, That the President of the National Educational Association is hereby instructed to convey\nthe thanks of the directory of the association to the Central Woman's Christian Temperance Union of Los\nAngeles, Cal., for the beautiful national flag presented by that organization to the National Educational\nAssociation.\n\nThe resolution was adopted.\nDirector Butler announced that ar^ unofficial message had been received from the\npeace conference at The Hague, stating that it had been successful in its labors in behalf\nof arbitration, and offered the following resolution, which was adopted :\nResolved, That the President of the National Educational Association be requested to send the following\ntelegram of congratulation on behalf of the association to the American delegates to the peace conference now\nin session at The Hague :\n\"Andrew\n\nD. White,\nChairman American\n\nDelegation to Peace\n\nConference,\n\nThe\n\nHague,\n\nHolland:\n\n\"The National Educational Association,-in convention assembled, tenders American delegation to peace\nconference heartiest congratulations on success which has attended their noble efforts in behalf of principle of\narbitration.\"\n\nMiss Estelle Reel presented a petition, signed by twenty-five active members, for the\nformation of a department of Indian education. Secretary Shepard read the petition\nand the names of the signers, as follows :\nTo the Honorable Board of Directors of the National Educational Association:\nWe, the undersigned active members, respectfully petition that the Indian School Service Institute be\nmade a department of the National Educational Association, to be called the Department of Indian Education.\nC. W. Goodman, Superintendent Nicholas Murray Bittler, Colum- L. C. Greenlee, Denver, Colo.\nChilocco\nIndustrial\nSchool, bia\nUniversity,\nNew\nYork, J. M. Greenwood, Kansas City,\nArkansas City, Kan.\nN. Y.\nMo.\nH. B. Peairs, Lawrence, Kan.\n. Ossian H. Lang, New York, N. Y. W.\nT.\nHarris,\nWashington,\nEdgar A. Allkn, Albuquerque, L. M. Dillman, Chicago, 111.\nD. C.\nN. M.\nJ. H. Collins, Springfield, 111.\nE. W. Coy, Cincinnati, O.\nS. M. McCowAN, Phoenix, Ariz. J. A. Foshay, Los Angeles, Cal. C. H. Ames, Boston, Mass.\nI. C. McNeill, West Superior, Edward T. Pierce, Los Angeles, J. F. Keating, Pueblo, Colo.\nWis.\nCal.\nJ. H. Miller, Lincoln, Neb.\nA. G. Lane, Chicago, III.\nEd. F. Hermanns, Denver, Colo. G. W. A. Luckey, Lincoln, Neb.\nA. W. Clancy, Chicago, 111.\nG. B. Morrison, Kansas City, Mo. F. A. Fitzpatrick, Boston, Mass.\nE. O. Lyte, Millersville, Pa.\n\n"}
{"page": 44, "printed_page": null, "text": "36\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nDirector Butler explained that the government allowed a sum for an annual convention of Indian schools which was sufficient for the expenses of the new department.\nDirector Greenwood moved that the petition be allowed and the department created.\nThe motion was duly seconded.\nDirector Soldan wished time for further consideration of this petition, and suggested\nthat the matter be referred to the Executive Committee with power to act.\nDirector E. E. White stated that, if the new department was created, the proceedings\nshould be printed in the volume as those of any other department.\nMiss Reel replied that Congress empowered her to print the proceedings of the Indian\nschool convention, and that she would furnish copies to all members of the National Educational Association.\nDirector Gove asked what real advantage it would be to the Indian schools if a new\ndepartment was created under these conditions.\nMiss Reel answered that there would be a great advantage to the Indian school workers in the fact of being members of the National Educational Association, and in being\nassured of the fellow-feeling and sympathy of other teachers.\nDirector Carrington asked if there was anything to prevent the Indian teachers from\nbecoming members of the National Educational Association under the present conditions.\nDirector Greenwood spoke of the advantage to them with respect to railroad rates,\nproviding they were a part of the National Educational Association.\nDirector White made a suggestion to insert the word \" affiliated \" before the word\n\" department \" in Director Greenwood's motion.\nDirector Fulton urged that it should be a full department, if created at all.\nDirector Gove explained that an \" affiliated department \" would be a department\nwithout official connection with the association, similar to the relations at present sustained\nby the National Herbart Society.\nDirector Beardshear, of Iowa, claimed that the additional expense to the association\nshould not be considered in this matter ; the National Educational Association is large\nenough to include all departments of educational work.\nDirector White moved to amend Director Greenwood's motion by inser^ng the word\n\"affiliated.\"\nSeconded.\nDirector Bartholomew asked the chair if a proposal to create an \" affiliated department \"was in order. The chair ruled that, according to the constitution. Director White's\namendment was not in order.\nThe original motion of Director Greenwood was called for and carried.\nDirector Taylor introduced the following resolution and moved its adoption :\nResolved, That the Board of Directors of the National Educational Association learns with profound\ngrief of the deplorable railway accident at Newman on yesterday morning, whereby Mrs. Lena Thomas, of\nSeneca Falls, N. Y., and Miss Addie Harris, of St. Louis, Mo., members of the association, lost their lives,\nand many others were severely wounded, and which has passed such a pall over the deliberations of the association.\n\nResolved, That the Secretary of the association be instructed to express to the bereaved and suffering\nfriends the heartfelt sympathy of the profession in all parts of the land.\n\nThe motion to adopt was carried by a rising vote.\nThe Secretary reported that By-Law No. i, which provided for the appointment of a\ncommittee on nominations at the third session of the meeting, and also for a meeting of\nthe active members to nominate members of the nominating committee at 2 P. M. on the\nsecond day of the meeting, were conflicting provisions, since, under the arrangement of\nmeetings for the present year, the third session occurred before 2 p. M. on the second day.\nHe had, therefore, acting under the advice of some members of the Executive Committee,\ntaken the responsibility of changing the time for the meeting of the active members to\n5 : 30 P. M. on Tuesday, the first day of the convention, subject to the approval of the\nBoard of Directors.\nHe asked the board to take action upon this matter.\n\n"}
{"page": 45, "printed_page": null, "text": "PROCEEDINGS\n\nOF THE\n\nOLD\n\nBOARD\n\nOF DIRECTORS\n\n37\n\nDirector Gove recommended. that alterations in the by-laws be made, and moved that\nthe Secretary be instructed to formulate the same and present them to the active members\nat the annual meeting.\nSeconded and carried.\nDirector Bartholomew moved to approve the action of the Secretary in making the\nannouncements in the program of the time for the meetings of active members. Seconded\nand carried.\nDirector Butler offered the following resolution as a standing order, and moved its\nadoption :\nResolved, That the following standing order be adopted, until further action by the Board of Directors,\nto govern the printing and distribution of special reports on educational subjects issued by authority of the\nNational Educational Association:\nOf all such reports there shall be printed an edition of i,ooo copies, to be distributed by the Secretary of\nthe National Educational Association, in conference with the chairman of the special committee making the\nreport ; such distribution to be without charge.\nAdditional editions shall be printed under the direction of the Secretary and offered for sale at a price\nsufficient to cover the cost of printing and postage ; such price to be fixed by the Secretary in conference with\nthe Executive Committee and the Board of Trustees.\n\nDirector Taylor, of Kansas, suggested that some provision should be made whereby\nlarger editions for gratuitous distribution might be published when it seemed desirable.\nDirector Butler modified his resolution, with the consent of the second, by introducing\nthe words \"unless the Executive Committee otherwise orders \" after the words \"an edition\nof 1,000 copies.\" ' Carried.\nDirector Lane moved that J. H. Collins be elected as director from Illinois, vice E. A.\nGastman, resigned.\nSeconded and carried.\nDirector Butler presented the matter of a division of the Department of Manual and\nIndustrial Education, and submitted documents relating to the same, moving to lay these\nupon the table, expressing the hope that some action might be taken upon them at a later\nmeeting of the Board of Directors.\nCarried. '\nA motion to adjourn was made, seconded, and carried.\nIrwin Shepard,\nSecretary.\n\nE. Oram Lyte,\nPresident.\n\n"}
{"page": 46, "printed_page": null, "text": "MINUTES\n\nOF TJ-IE BOARD\nFOR\n\nOF DIRECTORS\n\n1 899-1 900\n\nFIRST MEETING\nDIRECTORS'\n\nROOM,\n\nCHAMBER\nOF COMMERCE,\nLOS\nThursday, July 13, 4:30 p. m.\n\nANGELES,\n\nCAL.—\n\nThe Board of Directors was called to order by President-elect O. T. Corson. The\nfollowing directors were present :\nO. T. Corson, Ohio; C. G. Pearsc, Nebraska; Nicholas Murray Butler, New\n\nYork; Newton C.\n\nDougherty, Illinois; Aaron Gove, Colorado; J. M. Greenwood, Missouri; W. T. Harris, District of Columbia; Albert G. Lane, Illinois; E. Oram Lyte, Pennsylvania; F. Louis Soldan, Missouri; A. R. Taylor,\nKansas; E. E.White, Ohio; Will S. Monroe, Massachusetts; A. S. Downing, New York; J. N. Deahl,\nWest Virginia; F. C.Woodward, South Carolina; W. N. Sheats. Florida; McHenry Rhoads, Kentucky;\nH. C. Weber, Tennessee; W. M. Slaton, Georgia; J. H. Phillips, Alabama ; R. B. Fulton, Mississippi;\nAlexander Hogg, Texas; J. R. Rightsell, Arkansas; J. A. Shawan, Ohio; J. W. Carr, Indiana; J. H.\nCollins, Illinois; D. W. Springer, Michigan; L. D. Harvey, Wisconsin; W. M. Beardshear, Iowa; F. B.\nHubbard, Minnesota; W. T. Carrington, Missouri; J. H. Miller, Nebraska; Samuel D. Largent, Montana; L. C. Greenlee, Colorado; Mrs. Elizabeth R. Jackson, New Mexico; F. A. Cooley, Arizona; J.\nW. Daniels, Idaho; O. C. Whitney, Washington ; E. D. Ressler, Oregon; John Swett, California; Irwin\nShepard, Minnesota.\n\nThe minutes of the last meeting were read by the Secretary, and on motion approved.\nThe President announced that the first business of the meeting was the election of a\nmember of the Board of Trustees to succeed A. G. Lane, of Illinois.\nDirector Harris nominated A. G. Lane to succeed himself. Director Greenwood\nseconded the nomination. Director Carrington, of Missouri, moved that the Secretary be\nauthorized to cast the ballot of the Board of Directors for Mr. Lane. The motion was\nseconded and carried. The ballot was so cast, and Director Lane was declared elected\nas trustee for the ensuing period of four years.\nDirector E. E. White moved that Dr. W. T. Harris be elected to succeed himself as\na member of the Executive Committee for the term of one year. Seconded and carried.\nThe Secretary read the following extract from the minutes of the meeting of the\nBoard of Directors held in Washington last year, and, on request of Director White,\nexplained the purpose of the amendment suggested :\nEXTRACT\n\nFROM\n\nMINUTES\n\nOF BOARD\n\nOF DIRECTORS,\n\nJULY\n\nn, 1898\n\nDirector L. D. Harvey, at the request of the Wisconsin delegation of active members, offered the following resolution, which was ordered to lie over for one year under the rule :\n\" Resolved,\nthe Board of Directors recommend to the general association that the constitution be\namended\nas follows That\n:\n\" Amend Art. Ill— Membership — by striking out sec 3, and substituting therefor the following :\n\" ' Any associate member eligible for active membership may become an active member upon the payment of the annual dues for the current year.' \"\n\nDirector Butler moved that consideration of the amendment be indefinitely postponed. Seconded and carried.\nThe President announced the Committee on Nominations of members of the Council\nas follows :\nF. Louis Soldan, of Missouri.\nN. C. Dougherty, of Illinois.\nAaron Gove, of Colorado.\n\n"}
{"page": 47, "printed_page": null, "text": "PROCEEDINGS\n\nOF THE\n\nNEW\n\nBOARD\n\nOF DIRECTORS\n\n39\n\nThe President announced the next order of business to be the selection of place of\nmeeting for 1900.\nDirector Greenwood moved that the speeches in presentation of the invitation from\neach city be limited to ten minutes.\nSeconded and carried.\nThe roll of states was called by the Secretary.\nJ. H. Hulsart, of New Jersey, presented an invitation from Ashbury Park.\nDirector F. C. Woodward, of South Carolina, presented an invitation for the association to meet in Charleston. Director Fulton, of Mississippi, seconded the invitation.\nDirectors Carr, of Indiana, and Phillips, of Alabama, also spoke in favor of Charleston.\nD. S. Anderson, of Tennessee, invited the association to meet in Chattanooga.\nE. W. Coy, of Ohio, presented an invitation from Cincinnati.\nD. W. Springer, of Michigan, invited the association to meet in Detroit in 1901.\nA. E. Winship, of Massachusetts, invited the association to meet in Boston.\nThe Secretary reported that he had received communications from the city of Montreal inviting the association, and that a committee of delegates from that city was\npresent in Los Angeles for the purpose of personally extending such invitation.\nAs no one had appeared to present the invitation of Montreal, Director Lane moved\nthat the matter be passed, and the letters of invitation, which had been received,\nreferred to the Executive Committee with the invitations from other cities.\nDirector Greenwood moved that an informal ballot be taken, each director expressing his first, second, and third choice. Seconded. Director Pearse moved to amend the\nabove motion to read that each director vote for but one place, as his first choice. After\nsome discussion, both motions were withdrawn, and Director Gove moved that the Board\nof Directors proceed to take an informal ballot for choice of meeting place, each director\nvoting for one place, with the understanding that the matter would be referred to the\nExecutive Committee for final decision.\nSeconded and carried.\nThe chair decided that each member should cast his ballot as the roll of directors\nwas called, and appointed Directors Greenwood and Phillips as tellers.\nThe vote to express a choice for the next place of meeting was then cast.\nThe Committee on Nomination of members of the National Council then made the\nfollowing report :\nTo the Board\n\nof Directors of the National Educational\n\nAssociation:\n\nYour Committee on Nominations for membership of the National Council of Education submits the following :\n1905.\n\n1904.\n1902.\n1901.\n1900.\n\nW. H. Bartholomew, to succeed himself ; term to expire in 1905.\nF. A. Fitzpatrick, to succeed himself; term to expire in 1905.\nE. Oram Lyte, to succeed himself; term to expire in 1905.\nJ. M. Greenwood, to succeed himself; term to expire in 1905.\nI. C. McNeill, to succeed Henry Sabin; term to expire in 1905.\nJames H. Canfield, to succeed himself ; term to expire in 1904.\nAniold Tompkins, to succeed E. C. Hewett; term to expire in 1902.\nCharles M. Jordan, to succeed Charles A. McMuriy; term to expire in 1902.\nR. B. Fulton, to succeed J. R. Preston ; term to expire in 1901.\nJames A. Foshay, to succeed C. C. Rounds; term to expire in 1900.\nF. Louis Soldan, Chairman,\nN. C. Dougherty.\nAaron Gove,\n\nUpon motion, the report was adopted, and the nominees were declared elected to\nmembership in the Council for the terms indicated.\nDr. E. E. Brown, of California, by permission, spoke of the proposed millennial celebration of King Alfred in October, 1901, and asked that a committee be appointed to\nconsider this matter. Director Harris moved that the communication presented by Dr.\nBrown be made a part of the minutes, and Professor Charles Mills Gayley be made the\nrepresentative of this body in this matter.\nSeconded and carried.\n\n"}
{"page": 48, "printed_page": null, "text": "40\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nUniversity of California, Berkeley, Cal., July lo, 1899.\nTo the President and Members of the National Educational Association:\nGentlemen : It is undoubtedly known to your honorable body that it is the intention of the various learned societies of the Anglo-Saxon race to celebrate the onethousandth anniversary of King Alfred's death, which will fall on October 26, 1901.\nIt is expected that representatives of every side of Anglo-Saxon life, and from every\nclime in which there flourishes a branch of the race, will then gather at Winchester, the\nancient seat of King Alfred's monarchy, to do this hero, saint, king, and teacher of our\ncommon race the honor that is his due ; and so to make the international commemoration \"a real festival of the industry, art, order, union, peace, and religion \" that we all —\nEnglish, Canadian, American, Australian, Anglo-Indian, or Anglo-African — have inherited from the prudence and the valor of our common sire. King Alfred.\nI have been requested — probably because it was my good fortune, while in England\na year ago, to assist at the inception of this enterprise — to lay the matter before the\nNational Educational Association.\nSince Professor Bright, of Johns Hopkins, in making this request, enters into certain\nexplanations of the intention of the governing committee, I will ask you to listen to his\nletter, which is here inserted :\nMv DEAR Professor Gavlev :\n\nModern\n\nLanguage\n\nAssociation of America, May 31, 1899.\n\nI have accepted the appwintment of honorable secretary for America of the Alfred memorial celebration.\nYour name is already on the English list of patrons ; I hope now to place it on the American committee. You\nknow that it is hoped to have a meeting of the learned societies on the occasion, and we shall have to consider\njust what can be done in that way. The month of October will not be favorable to have regular meetings of\nthe American societies, but it may be possible to have all the leading organizations send a delegate or two to\nbe present. This delegate should be prepared to give a brief historic account of the society he may represent.\nMoreover, each society should deposit at Winchester, at that time, a complete set of its publications.\nAfter my visit to England this summer (I leave June 15) I shall have this matter formulated, I hope. But\nin the meantime I wish the matter to be presented before all the important learned societies that may meet this\nsummer. My special request at this time, therefore, is that you lay the subject before the National Educational Association at its meeting, July 11-14, at Los Angeles. Commissioner Harris agrees with me that you\nare the proper person to do it. Inasmuch as there will not be time to receive a letter from you before my\ndeparture, I beg you to take the matter in hand ; and if it is quite impossible for you to be present at the\nmeeting, I hope you will secure the service of someone to read your appeal.\nMy hope is that you will co-operate with me in representing the cause on the Pacific. We shall have to\nget the most prominent men on the committee, and we shall also have to get contributions of money from the\nricher ones.\nPlease think over the entire subject, and let us discuss ways and means when I return in October.\nYours very truly,\nJames W. Bright.\n\nI acceded to Professor Bright's request, and had intended to present this matter in\nperson, but unfortunately, at the last moment, I am confined to my bed and am compelled\nto inflict upon you a written statement of the case.\nMy personal acquaintance with the movement for celebrating the millennary of\nKing Alfred is as follows :\nOn October 18, 1897, an address was delivered in Birmingham by Frederic Harrison, the well-known writer and positivist philosopher, calling attention to the approaching thousandth anniversary in 1901, and urging co-operation for its proper observance.\nSeveral of my Oxford friends, notably Mr. Louis Dyer and Professor Dicey, becoming\ninterested in Mr. Harrison's suggestion, thought that I might be of service in supplying\ninformation concerning the learned societies of the United States whose interest should\nbe enlisted ; hence a correspondence with Mr. Harrison, and an interview with the\nmayor of Winchester, in whose town the anniversary is to be celebrated. I had also the\nhonor of representing the universities of California and Michigan, as their delegate at\nthe first preliminary meeting for the consideration of an Alfred memorial, which was\nheld at the Mansion House in London, March, 1898.\nAt this meeting it was determined\n\n"}
{"page": 49, "printed_page": null, "text": "PROCEEDINGS\n\nOF THE\n\nNEW\n\nBOARD\n\nOF DIRECTORS\n\n4 l\n\nto organize the proper committees, and to solicit the interest of the representative societies\nof the Anglo-Saxon race. The most notable, Englishmen have been placed upon the list\nof patrons. Colonel Hay expressed his approval of the movement, and it is not improbable that some recognition of the anniversary will follow from America as a nationality.\nThe purpose of the movers is the reverse of sensational. In a letter which I received\nfrom Mr. Harrison on- February 12, 1898, he says:\nLike yourself, my own interest in this is very largely anti-jingo; and, without controversial question, it\nserves to direct the minds of Englishmen to the idea of a true patriotism, and to an enthusiasm for a great\nchief, whose memory can unite all English-speaking races and nations, and can arouse not a spark of soreness\nin men of any nation, race, or creed. It caught my fancy to hold up the memory of the greatest name of our\ncommon race — of almost the only English hero whose name is without offense to us all — English, American,\nScotch, Irish — Catholic, Presbyterian — soldier or sailor.\n\nThe opportunity of participation in this international celebration of the common\nachievements and ideals of the mighty race of which we are a scion should certainly\nappeal to our National Educational Association, meeting as it does this year at the far\nwestern gate of Anglo-Saxon civilization. And how proper it is that the largest, and\nprobably the most influential, educational body of the Anglo-Saxon world should join in\nhonoring the millennary of the greatest of Anglo-Saxons and the first of English teachers,\nwill appear upon consideration of the life and character of King Alfred.\nYou will certainly agree with me that no one can better state the merits of the king\nthan he who is the prime mover in this celebration of his anniversary. I consequently\nborrow from Mr. Frederic Harrison's Birmingham address, adapting it, when I please, to\nthe conditions of the present paper :\nI trust [says Mr. Harrison] that in the first year of the twentieth century the English-speaking world\nmay unite in its tribute of homage to the hero-saint who was the true father (if any man can be so styled) of\nour common literature, \" the model Englishman,\" as Freeman calls him, the herald of our civic and religious\norganization. Do we, English or American, even yet measure at its full height the supreme glory of this\nhero of the race ? It is a commonplace with historians that our English Alfred was the only perfect man of\naction recorded in history; for Aurelius was occasionally too much of the philosopher; Saint Louis usually\ntoo much of the saint; Godfrey too much of the cru.sader; the great emperors were not saints at all; and of\nall more modern heroes we know too much to pretend that they were perfect. Of all the hyperboles of praise\nthere is but one that we can safely justify with the strictest canons of historical research. Of all the names in\nhistory there is only our English Alfred whose record is without stain and without weakness — who is equally\namong the greatest of men in genius, in magnanimity, in valor, in moral purity, in intellectual force, in practical wisdom, and in beauty of soul. I have been studying of late the whole series of the authentic sources for\nhis recorded career from infancy to death, and I have found no single trait that is not noble and suggestive,\nnor a single act or word that can be counted as a flaw.\nIt is true that the field of Alfred's achievements was relatively small, and the whole scale of his career\nwas modest, indeed, when compared with that of his imperial compeers. He inherited a kingdom which covered only a few English counties, and at one time his realm was reduced to a smaller area than that of some\nprivate landlords of modern times. But it is quality, not quantity, that weighs in the impartial scales of history. True human greatness needs no vast territories as its stage, nor do multitudes add to its power. That\nwhich tells in the end is the living seed of the creative mind, the heroic example, the sovereign gift of leadership, the undying inspiration of genius and faith.\nTurn to the Chronicle and to Asser's Life, with the help of Pauli, Freeman, and Green, and mark,\nlearn, and inwardly digest those miracles of patience, valor, indomitable energy by which the great king rescued from the savage Norsemen the England of our forefathers. Watch him as he returns to the charge after\nevery repulse, rallies his exhausted men, gathers up new armies, plans fresh methods of war, and at last wins\nfor his people prosperity, honor, and peace.\nThe annals of war have nothing grander than the long record of sagacious heroism by which Alfred\nsaved England for the English. Then note the genius with which he saw that the Norsemen must be met on\nthe sea, with which he organized a navy of ships built on a new design of his own. Alfred is not only the forerunner ofMarlborough and Wellington, but he is also the forerunner of Blake and of Nelson.\nBut the civil and literary achievements of Alfred's reign are even more brilliant than his feats in war,\nthough he must always rank with the first warriors of the English name. The skill with which he organized a\nsort of regular militia to take the place of hasty levies from time to time, the wise and cautious form of his\nlaws, the reform of the judicial service, the discipline of his own household, his zeal for art, his enthusiasm for\nbuilding, his passion for poetry, his profound love of history ; his dignity, his grace, his tenderness, his manly\npiety — all are alike great, spontaneous, and beautiful; all are in harmony; none are in excess. In a true\nsense he is the founder of a systematic army for purposes of defense.\nAnd he is the inventor, if not the\n\n"}
{"page": 50, "printed_page": null, "text": "42\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nactual founder, of a national navy —of that sea power which is the birthright of the Anglo-Saxon race, whether\ninsular, colonial, or American.\nThe mark of Alfred as king is the creative mind. He created in men's minds, from the Severn to the\nHumber, the sense of solidarity as a nation. By incorporating the conquered Danes as Christian allies, he\nvirtually created the composite England of history. His whole conception of the ruler, as related in the\nChronicle and in his own writings, has the stamp of insight, practical wisdom, devotion to duty. It is at\nonce creative and conservative ; prescient of a distant future, yet averse to all violent change. His legislation\nwas deeply infused with a conservative, and even a biblical, spirit ; but in the administration of justice he\nshowed the most trenchant energy and a passionate zeal for reform. His relations to the church and to education were wholly without a cloud or a blot — alike free from the violence or the impolicy which too often discredited even the noblest sovereigns of his age. They present the normal relations between the temporal and\nthe spiritual powers. How beautiful, how wise, how beneficent were the king's call to his side of Asser, the\nBriton, from Wales; of Grimbald, the Frank, from St. Omer; of John, from Westphalia; of Plegmund of\nMercia, his archbishop of Canterbury ! To Alfred religion, culture, intelligence had no local limits. He was\nessentially European, even cosmopolitan, in his genius. Freely to learn and freely to teach — these were the\ntwin ideals of his intellectual life. What nobler evidence of the teacher bom to the profession ! And shall\nwe, teachers of King Alfred's race, today — descendants in a far-distant clime of those whom he lived to teach\nand for whom he built the island-home into a fortress of freedom and truth — shall we hesitate to join with our\nbrethren overseas in honoring the great teacher of the common race?\nFreely he learned ; freely he taught. He had known all that was foremost in the civilization of the\ncentury ; he resolved to transplant it to England. His mission to the Christians of India, his frequent missions\nto Rome, his voyages of discovery to the North Cape and the Baltic under Ohthere and Wulfstan, were his\nmessage to the world that Britain was no longer an ultima Thule, but henceforth was to march in the van of\nprogress.\nHe was, says Freeman, \" the spiritual and intellectual leader of his people.\"\nYes, it is in his own writings that we come to love Alfred best. No ruler of men has left us so pellucid\na revelation of his own soul. Like the Meditations of Aurelius and the Psalms of David, he has given to\nmen the outpourings of his aspirations and his sorrows. Here, indeed, we are in the presence of one who is\na teacher as much as a king — who recalls to us Augustine and a Kempis, or Bunyan and Jeremy Taylor. His\nBoethius served him as texts whereon he preached to his people profound sermons on the moral and spiritual\nlife. Read his homily on Riches — \" that it is better to give than to receive;\" on the true Ruler — \"that\npower is never a good unless he be good that has it ;\" on the Uses of Adversity — \" no wise man should desire\na soft life.\" Few men ever had so hard a life ; but amidst it all we have the king In his silent study pouring out\npoetic thoughts on noble themes, composing pastoral poetry, or casting into English old idyls from Greek epic\nor myth, ending with some magnificent TV Deutn of his own composition.\nAnd with all this spiritual fervor, this literary genius, this passion for culture, how wonderful is the\nmany-sided energy of the man — his skill and delight as a huntsman, his love of ballad, anecdote, and meriy\ntale, his love of all noble art, his zeal as a great builder, his ingenuity in mechanical contrivance, his invention for measuring time, his planning a new type of battleship — his supreme foresight in refounding the desolated city of London I In the multiplicity of gifts, the hospitality of interest, the fertility of mind, the\npromptness of action, the never-wearied zeal, this king was surely a Yankee before the \" Mayflower; \" an\nAmerican before Edison or the city of Chicago! Still no life better than that of King Alfred can teach us,\nthe restless and driven American descendants of his race, that the rush of life is the ruin of it. For no man\never so perfectly fulfilled the rule, \"Without haste, without rest.\" \"I have desired,\" he wrote, \"to live\nworthily while I lived, and after my life to leave to the men that should be after me a remembrance in good\nworks.\"\nAnd Alfred the \"Truth-teller\" — as an annalist calls him — never uttered words more true.\nLet me sum up all these qualities and deeds In the words of a brilliant historian — in words as true as\nthey are eloquent. \"Alfred,\" says Mr. Green, \" was the noblest, as he was the most complete, embodiment of\nall that is great, all that is lovable, in the English temper. He combined, as no other man has ever combined,\nIts practical energy. Its patient and enduring force, its profound sense of duty, the reserve and self-control that\nsteadies In It a wide outlook and a restless daring, its temperance and fairness, its frank geniality, its sensitiveness to affection, its poetic tenderness, its deep and passionate religion.\"\nOn October 26. 1901, about two years hence, a thousand years will have passed since the death of the\ngreatest ruler of the race. That will be no ordinary occasion, for It will be the thousandth anniversary of him\nto whom the race — British and American, monarchical and republican — owes an incalculable debt of gratitude;\none whom our best teachers describe as the noblest Anglo-Saxon in our history. Alfred's name is almost the\nonly one in the long roll of the worthies of the race which awakens no bitter, no jealous thought, which com^\nbmes the honor of all ; Alfred represents at once the ancient monarchy, the modem state, the army, the navy, ;\nthe law, the literature, the poetry, the art, the enterprise, the industry, the religion of our race. Men of all\ncreeds and climes; parties, factions, provinces, nationalities; of every trade, profession, or class, may unite\nin celebrating the common hero of the race. For Alfred was a victorious wartior whose victories haveleft no\ncurses behind them; a king whom no man ever charged with a harsh act; a scholar who never became at\npedant ; a saint who knew no superstition ; a hero as bold as Launcelot, as spotless aa Galahad.\nThe commemoration of this glorious founder of our liberty, law, and learning — of a man so close to the\nvery roots of the throne, so dear to the sympathies of the people, at home or abroad, monarchical or republican, bound up with all our traditions and institutions, the inspiration of our early literature and language —\n\n"}
{"page": 51, "printed_page": null, "text": "PROCEEDINGS\nsuch a commemoration\nnational.\n\nOF THE\n\nNEW\n\nBOARD\n\nshould be a national, not a private, concern.\n\nOF DIRECTORS\n\n43\n\nIt should, indeed, be international, not\n\n1 would suggest, Mr. President, that the National Educational Association proceed\nat once to the election of a delegate who shall represent the association at the King\nAlfred memorial celebration in Winchester, in October, 1901. This delegate should be\nchosen now, that he may have leisure to prepare himself properly to present the history\nof the association in written form, and to make the other arrangements necessary for the\noccasion. I would suggest, also, that the Secretary and the Treasurer of the association\nbe appointed to act with the delegate as a committee of three to confer with the proper\nauthorities in charge of the anniversary, to report methods and means to the National\nEducational Association at its next annual convention, and to take charge of the representation of the association until occasion for its continuance shall have ceased.\nYours, very respectfully,\nCharles Mills Gayley,\nProfessor of the English Language and Literature, University of California.\nDirector White, of Ohio, introduced a resolution to amend the action taken last year\nin regard to the amended spelling by adding \" except when the author of a paper formally\nrequests the use of the standard spelling therein.\"\nDirector Gove expressed himself as in favor of standing by the reform spelling.\nDirector White questioned the authority of the board to adopt this spelling for the\nassociation.\nIn the vote upon this amendment a division of the house was called for, and the\nresolution was adopted by a vote ot 25 to 13.\nDirector Taylor, of Kansas, presented a communication from the Council asking for\nan appropriation of ^1,200 as prizes for essays upon school architecture and hygiene.\nEXTRACT\n\nFROM\n\nMINUTES\n\nOF THE\n\nNATIONAL\n\nCOUNCIL\n\n.\n\nThe following resolution by Dr. White, of Ohio, was carried :\n'^Resolved, That this Council hereby approves of the thoro investigation of the subject of school\nhygiene as proposed by the report of the Department of Superintendence submitted by its committee, and it is\nrecommended to the Board of Directors that an appropriation not exceeding $1,200 be made for this purpose,\nfor the expenses of a special report or for prize essays, as may be hereinafter determined.\"\nDr. Harris offered the following resolution, which was also carried :\n\" Resolved, That in case of the appropriation by the Board of Directors of the sum of $1,200 for the\npurposes named in this report, two prizes be offered for essays on each of two topics named, to-viiit: a first\nprize of $200 and a second prize of $100.\"\nResolution of George P. Brown, of Illinois :\n\"\n\" Resolved, That a committee of five, of which the president of the Council shall be one, be appointed\nto present this matter to the Board of Directors, and to arrange for the securing of the prize essays referred to\nin the above resolutions, provided the Board of Directors grants the appropriation.\"\nThe committee was appointed as follows : President A. R. Taylor, Dr. W, T. Harris, George P. Brown ,\nDr. William F. King, Superintendent Aaron Gove.\n\nAfter discussion. Director Carr, of Indiana, moved that an appropriation of $1,200\nbe made for this purpose, in accordance with the plans outlined by the National Council.\nSeconded and carried.\nThe Secretary reported the result of the vote on place of meeting in 1900 as follows :\nCharleston\n\n22\n\nAsbury Park\nCincinnati\nChattanooga\nBoston\nMontreal\n\ni\n3\n2\nII\ni\n\nDirector Dougherty moved that, when the board adjourn, it adjourn to meet Friday\nafternoon at 4 : 30 o'clock in the same place.\nSeconded and carried.\nOn motion, the Board of Directors adjourned.\n\n"}
{"page": 52, "printed_page": null, "text": "44\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nSECOND\nDIRECTORS'\n\nROOM,\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nMEETING\n\nLOS\nOF COMMERCE,\nCHAMBER\nFriday, July 14, 4 : 30 p. m.\n\nANGELES,\n\nCAL.—\n\nThe meeting of the Board of Directors was called to order by President-elect Oscar\nT. Corson.\nThe following directors were present :\nO. T. Corson, Ohio ; C. G. Pearse, Nebraska ; Nicholas Murray Butler, New York ; Newton C.\nDougherty, Illinois; A. R. Taylor, Kansas; E. E. White, Ohio; John S. Locke, Maine; A. S. Downing,\nNew York ; W. N. Sheats, Florida ; McHenry Rhoads, Kentucky ; J. A. Shawan, Ohio ; D. W. Springer,\nMichigan; W. G. Carrington, Missouri; O. C. Whitney, Washington; John Swett, California; Irwin\nShepard, Minnesota.\n\nBy consent, the reading of the minutes of the last meeting was dispensed with, and\nthe Secretary and President were authorized to approve the same for publication.\nThe Secretary read the following communication from the Council :\nTo the Board of Directors of the National Educational\n\nAssociation:\n\nIn accordance with a provision of the constitution, the Council directs me to submit to you the following\nreport:\nOne year ago a committee of fifteen, with President W. R. Harper, of Chicago, as chairman, was\nappointed by the Council to investigate and report on the subject of a national university. Said committee\nfoucd it impossible to present even a preliminary report at this meeting, but will probably be able to report\nat the meeting in igoo.\nSeveral members of the Council and of the Library Department insisted that the minutes of the Council\ndid not show the exact nature of the motion providing for the appointment of the committee to report on the\nrelation of libraries to the public schools, the preliminary report having already been made after a year's\ninvestigation. After some correspondence, it was finally agreed by the Executive Committee of the Council, in\naccordance with the plan suggested by President Lyte, that the Library Committee should proceed with its\ninvestigations and make its final report at this meeting, using the funds appropriated for that purpose by\nthe Board of Directors. The report was presented to the Council thru the chairman of the committee,\nLibrarian J. C. Dana, of Springfield, Mass., at its meeting on Tuesday morning. It is regarded as one of\nthe most valuable reports ever submitted to the Council, and it is hoped that the Executive Committee of\nthe association will provide for its liberal distribution and sale.\nThe Committee on Normal Schools appointed by the Normal Department four years since, thru its\nchairman. President Z. X. Snyder, also presented an exhaustive report on the functions and organization of\nnormal schools. It is agreed that nothing else in our literature so completely and so clearly covers these\nproblems, and its circulation in pamphlet form will undoubtedly be provided for by the Ejcecutive Committee.\nThe preliminary report of the Committee of the Department of Superintendence on School Hygiene was\npresented thru its chairman, Hon. W. T. Harris. It recommends an appropriation of $1,200 for securing\nprize essays on the four phases of the subject, as already outlined to you and approved at your meeting\nyesterday.\nYou are referred to the minutes of the Council for information concerning the other papers presented.\nSpecial attention is called to the report of Dr. Nicholas Murray Butler on \" The Educational Progress of\nthe Year.\"\nIt will be found invaluable for reference and suggestions.\nThe paper on \" Do We Need a University Trust ? \" was referred to the Committee on the National\nUniversity.\nThe petition of the Art Department for an appropriation of $600 for completing the report of its special\ncommittee on a basis for a course of study in elementary art education, referred to the Council yesterday, was\nreferred to a special committee, with Principal A. S. Downing, of New York, as chairman, to report at the\nnext meeting of the Council.\nThe Executive Committee of the Council was allowed $250 for expenses for the year. The total\nexpenses were $14.69, which have been properly certified. I offer the suggestion that the balance of the $250\nbe placed at the disposal of the Executive Committee of the Council for the coming year.\nRespectfully submitted,\nA. R. Taylor,\nPresident.\n\nDirector Dougherty moved that the communication be received and the recommendations beconcurred in. Seconded and carried.\nSecretary Shepard read a communication from the Department of Manual and\nIndustral Education :\n\n"}
{"page": 53, "printed_page": null, "text": "PROCEEDINGS\n\nOF THE\n\nNEW\n\nBOARD\n\nOF DIRECTORS\n\n45\n\nLos Angeles, Cal., July 13, 1899.\nTo the Board of Directors of the National Educational Association:\nGentlemen: The Department of Manual and Industrial Training has voted to request your honorable\nbody to change the name \" Manual and Industrial Department \" to \" Manual Training Department,\"\nsecretary of the department was instructed to communicate this action to you.\nVery respectfully yours,\n\nThe\n\nJ. E. Addicott,\nSecretary,\n\nDirector Butler explained that this communication covered the same ground as the\nmatter which he had presented at the first meeting of the board this year, and moved\nthat the Department of Manual and Industrial Education be hereafter known as the\nManual Training Department.\nSeconded and carried.\nThe following communication from the director from Pennsylvania was read :\nWestminster\nTo the Board of Directors of the National Educational\nGentlemen:\n\nHotel, Los Angeles, Cal., July 14, 1899.\n\nAssociation:\n\nLast year the National Educational Association allowed Professor Skidmore, director for\n\nthe state of Pennsylvania, $50 for advertising the Washington meeting. The number of teachers at Washington from Pennsylvania did not exceed 250. The number of teachers at Los Angeles will at least reach 400.\nI think we can safely say that we have twice as many people from the state of Pennsylvania at Los Angeles as\nProfessor Skidmore took to Washington. I well know that the law allows us only $25 for expenses, but if you\ncan see your way clear to approve of the bill which we have presented, state director and district managers of\nPennsylvania will appreciate your kindness.\nLarge states like New York and Pennsylvania should receive a larger donation than the smaller states.\nPostage alone will amount to $50. Hoping you can approve the bill presented, in order that Secretary\nShepard may audit it, I am.\nYours truly,\nGeorge Howell,\nDirector for Pennsylvania\n\nfor i8<)8-Qq.\n\nDirector Downing, of New York, moved that the matter be referred to the Executive\nCommittee with power to act. Seconded and carried.\nBy consent of the board, Dr. S. P. Robbins, of Montreal, explained the reason for the\nabsence from the meeting yesterday of the Montreal delegation, and presented an invitation for the association to meet in Montreal in 1900. Questions were asked of Mr.\nRobbins by Directors White, Pearse, and Downing. Dr. Robbins' invitation was seconded by other gentlemen of the Montreal delegation.\nDirector Downing asked that an amount equal to that of former years be set aside\nfor the Department of Superintendence.\nDirector Pearse moved that an appropriation be made for this purpose, not to\nexceed ;?300. Seconded and carried.\nOn motion, the Board of Directors adjourned sine die.\nIrwin Shepard,\nO. T. Corson,\nSecretary,\nPresident,\n\n"}
{"page": 54, "printed_page": null, "text": ""}
{"page": 55, "printed_page": null, "text": "GENERAL SESSIONS OF THE ASSOCIATION\nADDRESSES\nHENRY\n\nT.\n\nGAGE,\n\nOF WELCOME\n\nGOVERNOR\n\nOF\n\nCALIFORNIA\n\nMr. Chairman, Members of the National Educational Association, Ladies\nand Gentlemen:\nWe should never forget the great debt of gratitude which we owe to\nthe memory of the sturdy pioneers of the East, West, North, and South,\nwhose heroism, industry, and perseverance hewed, in the primeval forest,\n'blockhouses and established villages, forming the barriers against savage\nattacks, and there created the nucleus of American civilization. The ax,\nthe shovel, the pick, and the plow, in the hands of this vanguard of\nprogress, removed the cumbersome obstacles left by nature, put fertile\nfields and fruitful orchards in the dark recesses of the backwoods, and by\ntheir rugged trails prepared easy routes for the railway engineer, whose\nworks now attract the wonder and admiration of the modern traveler.\nThese achievements, tho under the direction of high intelligence, nevertheless represent in the history of our American people the era of matter\n— the era of physical strife.\nBut man's needs are mental as well as physical. Shelter, food, raiment,\nand rest constitute a portion only of our desires. The great Creative\nPower which spoke amid the darkness and solitude at the world's birth,\nsaying, \"Let there be light !\" likewise spoke into the senseless clay the\nmightier words: \"Let there be mind!\" And, thus inspired by that\ndivine injunction, man, since that first electric current of thought sped\nthru his brain, finds daily need of intellectual development.\nTherefore, in the track of the hardy pioneer followed the teachier and\nthe scholar. The blazed forest trees and monuments of rock marked the\npathway of the frontiersman ; the book, the tablet, and the pen showed\nthe teacher's line of march. While the ground was plowed, the minds of\nthe man, the woman, and the child were taught to reason and to know.\nThe blockhouses were transformed by the wizards of education into\nschoolhouses. The humble house of worship, formed of unshapely\ntimber, was changed into the pretentious church, with its chaste tapering\nspire piercing the sunlight in its heavenward course, and attesting the\nmarvelous growth of mind and morals. The log cabin of the forester\nbecame the elegant villa of the merchant. The scholar, statesman, artist,\nsculptor, and mechanic — all better housed and better fed — sprang up\n47\n\n"}
{"page": 56, "printed_page": null, "text": "48\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\namid the scenes which once knew only the toils and perils of the Indian\nfighter.\nThus was eyolved in our American history the era of mind.\nTo you, ladies and gentlemen of the National Educational Association,\nwhose noble profession imposes the duty of cultivating the minds of the\nfuture men and women who will labor, instruct, and adorn in the fields of\nAmerican art, letters, and government — to you, earnest and devoted disciples of learning, and worthy successors of the American pioneers of\nknowledge, the people of California look with confidence for the advancement of the splendid educational work of your predecessors.\nOn behalf, therefore, of the people of this state, I, as the executive, am\nafforded the high honor of greeting you each and all, and bidding a\nsincere and hearty welcome to our coast ; and, trusting in your matured\nintelligence, wisdom, and scholarship, I fervently hope that our own\nschools, as well as the schools of other states, will reap the fruits of your\ntimely visit and your wise deliberations.\n\nTHOMAS\n\nJ.\n\nKIRK,\n\nSTATE\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\nCALIFORNIA\n\nOF\n\nPUBLIC\n\nINSTRUCTION,\n\nEducators of America:\nGreeting from the teachers of California. All the gates of the golden\nWest are flung wide open to you. Our mountains part to admit you, the\nvalleys smile at your approach, the evening breezes whisper their approval,\nall nature sings together for joy, and all our people join in the chorus of\nwelcome. Even old Sol beams upon you with a warmth of affection\nwhich he rarely bestows upon those native here and to the manor born.\nIf you are weary from travel, here find refreshment and repose. If the\nheat and sands of the desert have made you thirsty and covered you with\ndust, our streams and fountains sparkle with the water of life, and our\nsurf removes all stains but those of conscience. Tarry with us as long as\nye may, visit every portion of our state — a vast empire on the Pacific\ncoast. The grandeur of our mountains and the quiet beauty of our valleys\nwill delight your eyes ; the murmur of our pines and the music of our\nocean will charm your ears. The world has heard the big guns of our\n\"Oregon,\" \"Monterey,\" and \"Olympia;\" it will be your privilege during\nthis meeting to hear other big guns of California — our Jordan, Brown,\nFoshay, and others.\nOur climate will rejuvenate your entire being. Los Angeles realestate dealers will sell you this climate at $io per square foot.\nYou have seen small specimens of our fruits in the East ; here you will\nfind the real article, such as we ourselves use or keep for distinguished\nguests. All things grow to great size here, even our prices and our stories.\nThose are not pumpkins hanging on yonder trees ; they are the golden\n\n"}
{"page": 57, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nADDRESSES\n\nOF\n\nWELCOME\n\n49\n\nfruit of Hesperides, the far-famed oranges of California. No dragon\nguards them ; the dog is chained ; the barbed wire is down \\ approach and\nhelp yourselves. Take a siesta under our fig tree, pluck the fruit of\nour vine. Sip our vintage, if you wish — just a taste, that you may know\nwhereof you speak. Visit our raisin vineyards, our orchards of prune,\npear, peach, almond, apricot, walnut, olive. Soil and sunshine have been\ngenerous beyond measure to our people ; they wish to be equally generous to you.\nOur broad acres of grain, stretching beyond the reach of eye, feed\nthe hungry multitudes of the Old World ; our bean fields furnish brains for\nBoston \\ our forests are housing the dwellers on all the boarders of the\nvast Pacific ; our mines of gold and silver still fill with strength and vigor\nthe veins and arteries of your commerce ; our copper mines are supplying\nthe commercial and intellectual world the nerves along which flashes the\nelectric spark, binding forty-five states into one great nation, uniting the\npeoples of earth into one universal brotherhood ; and, most valued of all,\nour educational system, crowned by two great universities, is training the\nbrains which shall give mental and moral guidance to the entire body\npolitic.\nOn this western shore, separated in large measure by the mountains\nand desert from the influences of the East, cut off from the traditions of\nthe past, education has taken on some new phases of development and\nhas had phenomenal growth. Our system of raising revenue for school\nmaintenance is unique. It is what we believe to be a happy blending\nof the state, the county, and the district system. We maintain school\nin all the districts of the state an average of 8.7 months. We pay to\nteachers of all grades an average annual salary of $659. Twenty-seven\nin every hundred of our teachers are professionally trained, twentythree of these being graduates of our own universities and normal\nschools.\nDuring the last ten years secondary and higher education have had an\nunprecedented growth. By the beneficence of Senator Stanford and the\ncontinued generosity of his wife, the great university bearing the name of\ntheir lamented son has been established, and now enrolls 1,100 students.\nIts endowment is over twenty millions of dollars. Within the same period\nour colleges at Berkeley have increased their enrollment from 350 to\n1,700. Including the affiliated colleges located in San Francisco, our\nstate university now has a total enrollment of 2,438. But numbers do not\ntell the whole story. There has been an enlarged curriculum to meet the\ngrowing demands of modern life. The university at Berkeley, looking\nout from her hills thru the Golden Gate and beholding beyond the Pacific\nnew fields for peaceful conquest, has established a school of mechanical\narts and a college of commerce. We are among the first of the universities\nof the world to recognize and act upon the fact that business pursuits as\n\n"}
{"page": 58, "printed_page": null, "text": "50\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nwell as the learned professions demand special preparation and broad\nculture.\nIn 1889 there were but sixty-two high schools in the state. Today\nthere are 125. With increase in numbers the standard of the work has\nbeen raised. The majority of our high schools are changing, or have\nchanged, from a three- to a four-year course. Our elementary schools,\nthe people's colleges, have advanced pari passu with our high schools.\nThey are rightfully recognized as the basis upon which the whole superstructure ofour educational edifice is erected. Our rural schools are the\nspecial pride of California.\nFor the preparation of teachers pedagogical departments have been\nestablished in both our universities, and our normal schools have been\nincreased from two to five.\nAll this advance and interest in education is in response to the demands\nof the spirit of progress that pervades the people of California. And yet\nwe have fallen short of our ideals. According to Commissioner Harris,\n82 per cent, of the attendance in the public schools of the United States\nis in the first three years. Our records show a great advance over this\naverage ; still, we realize that we are giving the masses of children inadequate preparation for the best citizenship. This presents us with two\nproblems — how to increase the number of years of attendance at school,\nand how to continue education after school.\nWhy is the schooling of so large a majority limited to three or four\nyears ? For this there are several reasons. The first is poverty, real or\nimagined, which demands the labor of the child for the support of the\nfamily. The remedy for this is compulsory education. The child is the\nward of the state, and the state, for its own preservation, must insist upon\nintelligent citizenship. The state, therefore, must furnish all that is\nnecessary to the education of the child, even tho that should be its entire\nsupport. The second cause is failure on the part of the parent and the\ncommunity generally to appreciate the value and importance of education. Frequent parents' and teachers' meetings, discussions of educational\nquestions thru the public press, will create an enlightened criticism of\nschool work. A good school is the product of the community, not the\nsole work of the teacher. A third reason for children leaving school at\nso early an age is failure of the school to take hold of the vital interests\nof the child. We need a better knowledge of children. The difference\nbetween the adult and the child mind is not one of quantity, but rather\nof quality. We have too long considered the child the miniature man,\nwhereas he is a different being. We must know the child as he is, that\nwe may educate him from what he is to what he should become. The\nchild soon wearies of that subject which does not arouse his present\ninterest. School is not merely a preparation for life, it is actual living.\nLife properly begun in school will continue beyond its door.\n\n"}
{"page": 59, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions!\n\nADDRESSES\n\nOF\n\nWELCOME\n\n51\n\nThe present century has been called the age of public schools; the\nnext may be the age of public education. The nations of antiquity had\ntheir great scholars and profound learning, while the masses were left in\ndense ignorance. The Middle Ages established great universities, but all\npreparation for them was at private expense. Only the favored son of\nwealth or the special beneficiary of charity could become an educated man.\nToday all grades of schools are open alike to the prince and the pauper.\nThe democracy planted in America has diffused its spirit even into the\nmonarchies of the Old World, and their governments are being popularized in everything but name. Free public schools and popular government must ever go hand in hand. The system of free public schools\nhad its origin and growth in America; it is fast establishing itself in\nevery country of Europe. But education is never completed in* schools\n— not even in the halls of the college.\nis constantly\nproblems,\nboth demands\nfor the individual\nand Life\nfor the\nnation. presenting\nThe correct new'\nSolution\nof these\ncontinued\nstudy. The public as well as the children need educating A free press\nis a powerful educator to him who has been trained to discriminate and to\nthink as he reads. Public parks, museums, libraries, art galleries are\ngreat educational agents. It is for us, the teachers, so to connect school\nwork with these institutions that the intellectual growth begun in school\nmay continue thru life. We shall thus make the twentieth century the\nage of public education.\nAmong other problems which confront us in California are the relations of the various parts of our educational system to one another — of\nthe high school to the university, of the high school and university to the\nnormal schools ; the scope and place of manual training ; the value of\nkindergartens and how to secure it ; continuous sessions in our higher\ninstitutions and vacation schools in our lower ; improvement of the\nteachers while in service ; employment of teachers and their continuance\nin positions solely upon merit ; the education of the masses to a higher\nand fuller appreciation of what is truest and best in education.\nWe appeal to you for aid in the solution of these problems. You\nbring to us the experience of the older states, joined to your own wisdom\nand ripe scholarship.\nWe welcome you, members of the National Educational Association,\nto all the bounty and hospitality for which California has long been\nnoted. Take from us all that you can bear away. We will ever be your\ndebtors for the good counsel and lofty inspiration which you will\nleave us.\nIn the name and on behalf of ten thousand teachers and a million and\na half of people interested in education I bid you thrice welcome. Aloha !\nAloha ! ! Aloha ! ! !\n\n"}
{"page": 60, "printed_page": null, "text": "52\nELMER\n\nNATIONAL\nE.\n\nBROWN,\n\nFellow-members of\nGentlemen :\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nthe National\n\nOF\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nCALIFORNIA,\n\nEducational\n\n[General\n\nSTATE\n\nDIRECTOR\n\nAssociation,\n\nLadies\n\nand\n\nI am sure that all Californians who look upon this company feel like\nsaying, with Miranda :\nO wonder !\nHow many goodly creatures are there here !\nHow beauteous mankind is ! O, brave new world\nThat has such people in 't !\n\nThe city of Los Angeles has long been trying to live up to its name\n— Los Angeles, \"City of the Angels.\" Its efforts in that direction\nreached their climax when it invited the National Educational Association\nto meet here ; and it has never before been so well worthy of the name\nas it is today. We of California are all of us Angeleiios today ; and we\nall unite in saying : Welcome to you, angels, messengers of education !\nAnd yet I must say that we have already somewhat against you. You\nare all too prone to encourage us in telling big stories. Any one of us,\nthe poorest story-teller among us, can stand around the hotel lobbies\ntelling even the smallest truths about California, and you listen so attentively that you tempt us to tell more ; and so we go on, and I don't know\nwhere we shall stop. I beg leave to call a halt in this matter right here at\nthe beginning. We don't want to tell you about California. There is a\ngreat deal here to tell you about, to be sure, but we will not tell it. We\nteachers think that there is a great deal to tell about the educational\nsystem of California. We have here, for instance, perhaps the finest provision for country schools to be found outside of Massachusetts ; but we\nare not going to tell you that. We shall restrain ourselves from speaking\nabout our magnificent system of county school supervision, one of the\nbest — but never mind; we will not tell you that. We have some normal\nschools here that have been growing magnificently. And we have some\nuniversities, with tremendous endowments, that have been showing their\nenterprise by keeping poor in spite of their endowments. But we won't\ntell you about these things. We have important supplementary institutions\nhere. We are proud of our institutions for the defective classes ; of the\nbeginnings that we have made in education of an industrial character. But\nwe are not going to tell you about these things. We want to give you\na chance. So please don't listen so patiently when we start on these\ntopics.\nDon't encourage us.\nYou are messengers of the wisdom of this great country. You come\nto us in our isolation. You thought we were isolated after you got over\nthat desert, did you not ? You have come to us away off here to correct\nus of our provincialism. You come to us from thp great world. You\ncome from educational communities where teachers are appointed only\nfor merit, and we are glad to know it. You come from those parts of the\n\n"}
{"page": 61, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nADDRESSES\n\nOF\n\nWELCOME\n\n53\n\ncountry where school funds that were intended for the payment of teachers\nare never diverted to any other use — and we are glad to see you ! Teach\nus these things, for we want them here. And so I say it in all earnestness,\nand not merely in jest : You come to us from this great country, with all\nof its wealth of educational knowledge and inspiration. We want to have\nyour message. Come to us as angels indeed. Education in California,\nwe trust, will never from this time forth be what it has been, and that\nbecause you have come among us with the best of educational influence.\nBut if I go on, I shall be tempted to fall into stories again. Let me\nsimply say, in so far as I may, for the teachers of this great state of\nCalifornia, who have been looking forward with intense interest to this\nmeeting, who have been pulling together — state, county, and city superintendents, the individual teachers in the ranks, assistant state managers,\nand friends of education generally — to make this meeting a success; let\nme say that all of us unite in bidding you, as frankly and heartily and\nearnestly as we know how: Welcome to Los Angeles !\nHON.\n\nFRED\n\nEATON,\n\nMAYOR\n\nOF\n\nLOS ANGELES\n\nMr. Chairman, Ladies and Gentlemen :\nOur state superintendent has given you all our valleys and rivers, our\noranges, and about everything else we raise down here in the south ; and\nabout all that is left for me to give you is the right of way thru the city.\nI think I am perfectly safe in giving you that, because Professor Brown\nsaid you were all angels. Of course, we know what angels are — our kind\nof angels. I hope you are all of the same kind, and that you won't all\nflap your wings and fly away too soon.\nNow, ladies and gentlemen, we are really glad and appreciate very\nmuch that this organization decided to hold its convention in this city.\nWe know better than anyone else the real advantage of this convention\nto ourselves. Our people are never so much in their element as when\nthey are surrounded with lots of company. We like company. We are\nout here to enjoy ourselves.\nThat is the principal part of our business.\nOur people take a great interest in educational matters. I think our\nschoolhouses here are evidence of that fact. We are just now preparing\nto vote $420,000 to increase our school accommodations, which have never\nbeen up to the requirements of this community, owing to the rapid growth\nthat has taken place in this city during the last ten years. The city has\ngrown since 1890 from 50,000 to about 115,000 or 120,000. So you see,\nwith all the other municipal improvements, it has been hard for us to keep\npace ; that is to say, in quantity; in quality we are all right. Our principals here are up to the standard, I believe, of any place in the country.\nThis does not reflect at all upon you folks who come from other parts of\n\nthe country.\n\nI have that information from some of you ; I don't know\n\n"}
{"page": 62, "printed_page": null, "text": "54\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nmuch about school business, and am relying upon the opinion of these\npeople who have come from abroad that we are all right on schoolmasters.\nNow, there is a material side. We know that no people coming to this\ncity will do us more good than you will ; provided, however, that we make\nyou go away from here feeling pleased. And it is our whole aim to make\nyou enjoy yourselves while here. If we accomplish this, we have laid up\na whole lot to the credit of our future. You know we are inclined to\ndeal in futures a good deal in Los Angeles. That has been the principal\nbusiness here ever since the boom. But we have a sure future, as the\nwhole community is engaged in storing up good opinions for Los Angeles\nwith everybody that comes here, and it is going to result in building up\nthis city and the surrounding country.\nWe occupy an isolated position here in the United States with reference\nto the market, as you all know. You passed over several hundred miles\nof desert east of us that is very sparsely populated. We have a great\nexpanse of ocean west of us, which has no commerce to speak of that\ntouches this point. There is nothing out there but suckers, and,\nof course, we don't invite suckers here. Now, the good opinion we are\nlaying up is going to be the means of building up this country. You see,\nunless we have a domestic market to rely on, we cannot engage in manufacture, even to the extent of our own necessities, because we cannot\ncompete with the East. The freight rates are too expensive across this\nexpanse of unproductive country over which the railroads have to transport our goods. The only thing we can raise to ship you folks in the\nEast is something you cannot raise yourselves, such as oranges and fruits\nof other kinds. But we must have manufactures. We have all the native\nresources here. We have a greater variety of natural resources in the\nshape of minerals within a short distance of this city than any other city\nin the United States. But we must have railway communication, and\nfirst we ndust have the people. When we get the people we will have the\nrailways built and these resources developed. So you see how we are\ninterested in a material way, aside from the fact that we want to have a\ngood time with you.\nThat is the first consideration. We want to have a good time with\n^ou, and we intend to have it. I want you to feel, ladies and gentlemen,\nperfectly at home in this city. Consider that you have the freedom of the\nstreets and parks, and everything in town, and just go wherever you please.\nJ. A. FOSHAY,\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nLOS\n\nANGELES\n\nMr. Chairman, Ladies and Gentlemen :\nWe extend to you a hearty greeting on behalf of the teachers and\nfriends of the educational interests of Los Angeles. We hail the presence\nof this vast body in our beautiful city as a token of increased zeal\n\n"}
{"page": 63, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nADDRESSES\n\nOF\n\nWELCOME\n\n55\n\nand activity in the great cause of education. We welcome you as the\nrepresentatives of a work which ranks first and is the noblest of today.\nWe who are so far from the great centers, but who have eternal spring\nand healing air to compensate us, greet you as bringing to us the wisdom,\nexperience, and latest thought which are being contributed to the educational world.\nAt Milwaukee in 1897, and at Washington in 1898, it was my privilege and pleasure to present the invitations from California and our city,\nasking you to partake of our hospitality. Our people were glad to have\nyou accept these invitations, and began at once to make preparations for\nyour reception. Many different estimates were made of the number we\nmust entertain, and in order that there might be no question of our\nability to care for the large number, we added to our territory by annexing Garvanza on the northeast and University on the southwest. Now,\nwith our forty-eight square miles of territory, our hospitable homes\nthrown open to you, our spacious parks, and the assurance that no rain\nwill fall, on the just or unjust, during the vacation months, we feel that\nwe have plenty of room for you.\nLos Angeles has an excellent corps of teachers, one of the best\nnormal schools in the country, private schools and colleges, and a public\nlibrary which is a prominent educational factor for the training of her\n28,000 children. We regret that our schools could not be in session, so\nthat you might see our work in progress ; but we have prepared an exhibit\nof work which may be seen at the Spring street school building. We\nhave learned that the whole child must be educated ; the eye must be\ntrained to accurate observation, the hand to deft manipulation, and thus\ncall into action judgment, attention, comparison; in short, we accept\nPlato's idea of education, which is to give to the body and to the soul all\nthe beauty and all the perfection of which they are capable.\nThe teacher is proud of his noble name. The great master Agassiz\nwould be called by no other. And you who have come from the North,\nthe South, and the distant East, who have taken the time from your vacation to come here and discuss methods and inquire how to increase the\nteaching power of our country, show your interest in your profession.\nThe thought of training the minds and bodies and molding the characters of the coming generation seems at times overwhelming. Today you\nare planning and working for the future which must shape the destiny of\nour nation.\nYour work is great ; there is no greater.\nA story is told that Jupiter offered the crown of immortality to the\none who had given the greatest service to mankind. Different applicants\nclaimed the prize: first the soldier, then the historian, the poet, the\npriest ; and last of all came one who said : \" I have nothing to offer, but\nthese are my pupils, and I am their teacher.\" \" Crown him,\" said Jupi\nter, \" crown him with the laurels of life.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 64, "printed_page": null, "text": "56\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nI presume you have changed your minds in regard to our location as\ncompared with that of Chicago, Boston, and New York. We are accustomed to think of the distance, and not of the time. Many of the older\npeople of our city came across the plains, and it required six months to\nmake the journey. Many of you have just made the same distance in\nless than six days. Chicago is only sixty-six. New York eighty-nine,\nand Boston ninety-two hours from Los Angeles. The telegraph and\ntelephone bring your homes and cities in close communication with us ;\nremember this fact, and instead of writing your letters to eastern friends,\nuse these agencies or dictate your letters to the typewriters, and so save\nyour time to attend the meetings and enjoy the many receptions and\nexcursions we have prepared for you.\nWe are anxious to hear your discussions and receive your recommendations regarding the vital issues of our schools ; and in order that we may\nretain them in permanent form for every teacher's desk, we have given as\nmany memberships from this city as there are teachers.\nAs the large reservoirs of our mountains give forth their water in the\nwarm, dry summer, to refresh the productive orange groves of California,\nso may this meeting of the largest educational organization in the world\npour forth its influence to strengthen and invigorate the intellectual forces\nof our state ; may it enrich the home life of the ranch, the school life of\nthe pueblo, the college life of the universities of this, the Golden State of\nthe far West ! You are welcome to the far West, to the Golden State, to\nthe City of the Angels, to our hearts, and to our homes !\n\nRESPONSES\nnewton\n\nc. dougherty,\n\nsuperintendent\n\nof\n\nschools,\n\npeoria,\n\nill.\n\n[stenographic report]\n\nI am glad, indeed, ladies and gentlemen, to meet with this great\nNational Educational Association as it gathers for the second time upon\nthe shores of the sundown seas, and to become for the time being a citizen\nof these Islands of Delight which your own Professor Barnes depicted in\nsuch glowing language to us at Buffalo four years ago. We thank you for\nthese kind words of welcome which have been spoken by your representatives of this great state and of this magnificent city.\nWhen we met on this coast a decade ago, you were the great western\nempire of our nation ; but as I glance over this program I am reminded\nthat today there are islands west of us and northwest of us and southwest\nof us, over which the flag of our nation floats and to which we must carry\nthe blessings of popular education and of free institutions.\n\n"}
{"page": 65, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nADDRESSES\n\nOF\n\nWELCOME\n\n57\n\nWe are glad, indeed, to meet again in this great state, whose educational institutions are the peers of any in our country; we are glad to\nenjoy your wholesome and invigorating climate, and to see on all sides\nthe evidence of your prosperity. What a busy hive of human industry\nyou have become ! Whithersoever we turn we see evidence of your development. We behold streaming in the air the black pennon of the mighty\nlocomotive, bearing across mighty mountain ranges the glorious fruit of\nyour soil to our own people in the far East, and even to those beyond the\nsea.\nAnd as we see all this, there wells up in my heart, and I think in the\nhearts of all those here, thanks to God that our fathers back in '47\nwere such expansionists that they saved this great empire to the AngloSaxon race and to Anglo-Saxon civilization. That race has had in its\nveins the blood which for more than a thousand years has nourished\nthe hearts of conquerors and subduers. It has never surrendered before\nhostile man or forbidding nature. It has never acknowledged any\nsuperior save Almighty God himself. It has kept open the avenues of\nknowledge to all its children. It has been anxious that its children\nshould be members of>that empire which comes not by numbers nor by\nphysical power. It has had for its highest ideal the transmuting of\nmaterial wealth into the fiber of heroic men and heroic women. And so\nwe thank God today that this great commonwealth\n\nof California is under\n\nthe dominion of Anglo-Saxon civilization and of the Anglo-Saxon race.\nWe are here as the representatives of 350,000 teachers, who are\nengaged in the great work of saying to the youth of this land that wisdom is above rubies. We are, of course, expansionists as educators. We\nfeel that there is illimitable room upon all sides before we can touch the\nboundaries of knowledge. During the past fifty years we have expanded\nthe old curriculum of our colleges from four years into such courses that\nnow it would require sixty years, if you take them all. We have taken this\ngreat association, born as it was for the elementary school of the city,\ntown, and country, and have united with that the college, the university,\nand the kindergarten ; so that today its representative is the representative of all educational culture and of all educational work.\nWe come here, ladies and gentlemen, in order that we may have\nkindled within us aspirations for the highest scholarship. We come\nhere to gaze upon the treasures of wisdom until we recognize nothing\nworthy in ourselves save the dream, the thirst — \"the wild desire, delirious, yet divine, to know.\" We come seeking that knowledge, that culture,\n\"that power, which will make us worthy members of the noblest profession\non earth. We wish like Moses to be carried up, during this week, into\nthose heights where we may look out broadly over the land and forget\nour vexations, our trials, and our troubles. And we are not unmindful\nthat we meet in one of the most beautiful cities in the world.\nWe are\n\n"}
{"page": 66, "printed_page": null, "text": "S8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nnot unmindful that the material wealth of this city is surpassed only by\nthe educated heads and hearts and hands of her own fair sons and\ndaughters. As we look down these magnificent avenues, as we see these\ncultured homes, as we look into these noble churches, as we see these\ngreat public buildings and this great public-school system, we know that\nCalifornia and Los Angeles have been true to the Anglo-Saxon idea of\ntransmuting material wealth into spiritual power, and of worshiping the\nthings which cannot be seen rather than the things which are seen. We\nrealize that we are among those who stand for all that is noblest and\ntruest and best in humanity, and we thank you once more for your kind\nwords of welcome.\n\nEMERSON\n\nE.\n\nWHITE,\n\nCOLUMBUS,\n\nO.\n\nRepresentatives of California and Los Angeles :\nWe receive with hearty thanks the words of welcome which you have\nso eloquently spoken. We fully realize that we are to leave the state your\ndebtors. We are anticipating professional revelations, and our spirits are\nopen to your quickening inspiration.\nSome thirty years ago I watched with interest the development of the\nschool system of California. If my memory serves me, California was\nthe first state in the union to adopt a graded course of study for its\nrural schools. I examined this state course of study with much interest,\nand especially the accompanying manual prepared by the state school\ndepartment for the guidance of teachers.\nWhile this early movement unduly emphasized the principle of\nuniformity in school administration — a principle that has everywhere\nbeen the source of serious evils in school affairs — the \" California experiment,\" as it was called, inspired efforts in different sections of the country\nto provide graded courses of instruction for rural schools, resulting here\nand there in the adoption of town or township courses, county courses,\nand, more recently, a few state courses.\nIn 1872 the National Educational Association met in Boston, Mass.\nIn arranging the program for that meeting, I desired to see California\nrepresented by its foremost educator, and so I invited Hon. John Swett to\ngive one of the principal addresses. He kindly accepted the invitation\nand crossed the continent to render the service. In their appreciative\nnotices of Mr. Swett's address before the association, the Boston papers\nreferred to him as the \"Horace Mann of the Pacific coast\" — a high and'\nfitting honor.\nAt the time of the centennial exposition, in 1876, California gave high\npromise of being one of the leading, if not the leading, state in school\nprogress.\nMy present information does not permit me to say to what\n\n"}
{"page": 67, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nADDRESSES\n\nOF\n\nWELCOME\n\n59\n\nextent this promise has been realized. The impression of some educators\nat a distance — an impression due, it may be, to their ignorance — is that\nthe leadership of California in public education has been somewhat sacrificed by an undue development of the state system and an over-organization of the principle of state uniformity. If this impression be incorrect,\nit is but another illustration of the fact that the brilliancy of early\nreputation often dims the luster of later achievement.\nI am not wholly ignorant of the high professional spirit of California\nteachers, and their individual and organized efforts to promote the educational interests of the state. We shall all be happy to learn here on the\nground how far the efforts of their voluntary associations and movements\nhave vitalized the mechanism of the state system and resisted the grooving\ntendency \"of state uniformity. There is no school policy to be more\nresisted in a free state than the policy that enthrones the state machine in\neducation — ^too often manipulated in the interest of party politics;\nthat overrides the judgment and interests of individual communities, and\nreduces school progress to a dead-level uniformity — a policy that kills\nvital educational spirit by putting the more progressive communities into\na lock-step with the laggards whose pace is only quickened by the spur of\nstate authority and help. The weakness of uniformity as a school policy\nis most clearly shown in its demand for average measures and average\nresults, as average courses of study, average school sessions, average teaching appliances (usually much below a proper average), average requirements\nfor promotion of pupils, and so on to the end of imposed mediocrity.\nAll that is needed to complete this dreary grind of averages, which possesses\nso many school systems, is a statutory mechanism that will fill the schools\nwith mediocre teachers on average wages! It does not need the ken of a\nseer to realize that one of the greatest dangers that now threaten the\nAmerican school is the sacrifice of its best possibilities to this Moloch of\nstate and city uniformity.\nTwo opposing spirits are struggling to dominate American education\n— on the one side the spirit of mechanism and uniformity, and on the\nother the spirit of individual opportunity and attainment. True school\nprogress lies in neither of these extremes, but in their harmonious correlation and blending. The vital conditions of fruitful progress in education\nare (i) the possibility of individual communities freely realizing their\nhighest school ideals ; (2) the freedom of teachers to teach according to\ntheir best judgment, conscience, and power ; and (3) the wise subordination of the demands of uniformity and system to the interests and rights\nof pupils.\nWe meet at a time of wide agitation and sharp conflict of opinion in\nall departments of human thought and endeavor. The century is closing\nwith a bold challenge of all existing beliefs and institutions, with even\norganized effort to destroy the very foundations, .not only of present\n\n"}
{"page": 68, "printed_page": null, "text": "6o\n\n•\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nsocial order, but of civilization itself. Even university chairs are confidently evolving from their inner consciousness a civilization in which no\nhuman being shall be better off than his neighbor, a result hitherto unrealized except by industrial conditions in which no man has anything which\nhe can call his own — the hopeless equality of poverty.\nNor is the school escaping this flood-tide of criticism and assault.\nPartial and narrow theories of education are seeking enthronement as\nultimate ends, and childhood's opportunity is too widely sacrificed to new\ntheories of education. The feasibility of common courses of study, which\nmake the school possible, is not only denied, but the value of the most\nfundamental studies is questioned, if the child has not inborn interest in\nthem. Shallow philosophizing is burdening teachers with hobbies and\nfads. Amid all this clash of opinion and practice the schools are\nmaking hopeful progress ; but the ark of public education needs to be\nsteadied by sound policies and wise counsels.\n\nJ. H. PHILLIPS,\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF SCHOOLS,\n\nBIRMINGHAM,\n\nALA.\n\nMr. President, Ladies and Gentlemen :\nI can scarcely hope to add anything to the eloquent addresses that\nhave already been given in your hearing. Since your worthy mayor has\ngiven us the right of way thru your municipality, I think the majority\nof us are very anxious to utilize that privilege.\nAbout ten days ago I sat in my distant Alabama home and wondered\nwhat I could possibly find to say in response to the probable welcome\nthat California and Los Angeles would extend to us on this occasion. I\nassure you that to formulate in words a response to an imaginary welcome more than three thousand miles away is a sorry task, and I was\nforced to give it up in despair. Since our arrival in Los Angeles, however, things have somewhat changed. Ten days ago the one essential\ncondition of the response was wanting — the expression of a California\nwelcome. We have today looked into your faces ; we have read your\ncordial greetings in your eyes ; we have been thrilled by the eloquent\nwords of a genuine California welcome.\nThe National Educational Association is not altogether a stranger\nin California. Those of us who had the pleasure and the privilege\nof attending the memorable San Francisco meeting in 1888, eleven\nyears ago, have not forgotten California's idea of hospitality, and we felt\nno misgiving in crossing the continent again to partake of the royal\nfeast you have prepared for us. I need hardly assure you, ladies and\ngentlemen of California and of Los Angeles, that we are truly thankful for\nwhat we have already enjoyed, as well as for what we are about to receive.\n\n"}
{"page": 69, "printed_page": null, "text": "SessionsJ\n\nADDRESSES\n\nOF\n\nWELCOME\n\n61\n\nWe have no flowers of rhetoric, no words of eloquence, into which to weave\nthe gratitude and the appreciation of this great association, but we trust\nthat our appetites, whetted by the long transcontinental journey, will soon\nconvince you of the sincerity of our appreciation, should our words fail\nto do so. We have already shown our faith in your promises and in your\nhospitality by accepting your invitation to come to Los Angeles and to\nCalifornia, and we expect, while we are here, to prove our faith by our\nworks. We are glad that we are in Los Angeles. We have looked forward for several days with pleasing anticipation toward Los Angeles. To\nthe weary, way-worn pilgrim, traveling from afar over the deserts and\nacross the mountains, it was a great comfort and a source of reviving\nstrength and inspiration to know and to feel that his destination was\nparadise — the City of the Angels.\nFor this glad welcome, I assure you, we are thankful. I beg to thank\nyou on behalf of the teachers of this great country of ours, north and\nsouth, east and west ; but especially do I wish to thank you on behalf of\nthe teachers of that great section which I have the honor more immediately to represent; that land which you may call the land of the\npine and ever-blooming flowers, if you will ; but also the land of brave\nmen and fair women ; the birthland of Washington and of Lincoln, of Fitzhugh Lee, of Hobson, and of Joe Wheeler ; the birthland of hundreds of\nheroes and patriots, whose names adorn the pages of our national history.\nThe teachers of the South are already at home in Los Angeles, because\nthey find here the orange and the vine, the fruits and the flowers, of their\nown sunny land, transplanted and flourishing in a climate as genial as\ntheir own. The teachers of the South are at home in Los Angeles, because\nthey find here a new South, with resources as abundant and as rich as the\nold, inhabited by a people as true as they are brave, and as patriotic as\nthey are limitless in their hospitality. The teachers of the South are\nat home in Los Angeles, because they feel at home always wherever the\nstar-spangled banner floats in the breeze above them.\nBut, my friends, the teachers of this great nation, assembled now in\nLos Angeles, are not here simply to test your hospitality. They are not\nhere merely for physical recreation and diversion. They are not here,\nmoreover, in the interests of governmental imperialism, or of territorial\nexpansion ; but they are here to testify to their faith in the imperialism of\nthe common schools of America. They are here in the interests of intellectual and professional expansion. They are here to counsel together\nand to discuss the most momentous question that can possibly engage the\nattention of any body of men and women on earth : how to develop the\nGod-image in the soul of man. This, my friends, is the ideal of the\nNational Educational Association. In upholding this ideal it does not,\nby any means, ignore the more practical and more immediate affairs of\ndaily experience.\nThe higher ideal in education does not necessarily\n\n"}
{"page": 70, "printed_page": null, "text": "62\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nexclude the lower. This great organization stands today near the shores\nof the great western ocean, as it stood a year ago near the shores of the\nAtlantic, and heralds to the world the gospel of the free public school,\nthe divinity of childhood, and the ultimate redemption of the race thru\nthe agency of right education. This great organization stands here today\nin Los Angeles and re-echoes the words of the divine Master, when he\nsaid: \"Whose image and superscription is this? Render unto Caesar\nthat which is Caesar's, but unto God that which is God's.''\nThe restoration of the God-image in the soul of man, I repeat, is the\nhigh ideal of the National Educational Association of America. This is\nthe divine mission and calling of the teachers of our great country. When\nwe shall leave Los Angeles, when this meeting is ended, when we have\nenjoyed your hospitality, when we have listened to the great papers that\nshall be presented on this occasion, we shall return to our homes and\ncarry with us higher ideals of life, of duty, and of country. We shall\ncarry with us into the schoolrooms of this great land greater zeal, greater\nenthusiasm, and a larger faith in the possibilities of the American public\nschool. We shall learn in California, not only lessons in geography, but\nlessons in patriotism as well, and we shall carry these high ideals of duty\nand of patriotism into our homes and our schools. We shall leave Los\nAngeles with our hearts attuned to the anthem of the angels : \" Peace on\nearth, good will to men ! \"\n\nJOHN\n\nSWETT,\n\nOF\n\nCALIFORNIA\n\nMembers of the National Educational Association and Fellow- Teachers of\nthe United States of America, now, thank God, united, never to be divided\nagain : I appear before you as one of the last survivors of the early educational circle in California. I have no doubt that the President introduced me as an awful example, an awful monument, of the conservatism\nof the past, and the antedeluvian condition of California years ago. I\nreally don't know exactly where I belong. I was born in New England,\nand thought I was a New Englander. I lived there until I was twentyone, and then I came to California, and have lived here fifty years. Last\nyear I went back to New England again, and, altho I thought I had\nforgotten all about it, having been away so long, after spending three\nmonths there studying up New England history, I thought again that \\\nwas a New Englander. Then I crossed the continent, coming from one\nside to the other, and by the time I reached San Francisco I had been\nborn again in California. Now, I only know that I must be getting very\nold. The other day, in Los Angeles, a bald-headed man said to me :\n\"You don't know me, do you?\" \"No,\" I said, \"I don't know you,\nI have never seen you before.\"\n\"Oh, yes, you have,\" he saidj \"I went to\n\n"}
{"page": 71, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nADDRESSES\n\nOF\n\nWELCOME\n\n63\n\nschool to you.\" And I looked at him and said: \"You must be mistaken.\" But he insisted : \" When I was a very little boy I went to\nschool to you, and then you were a very old man.\"\nI am willing to be taken as an example of the early days in California.\nWe worked hard, but we were ambitious. We had a good time. A good\nmany of us came out here expecting to make our fortune in the mines.\nWe didn't. And then we turned in and did some pretty good work in\nthe public schools.\nIt gave me great pleasure to hear from Dr. White, who represents the\nstate of Ohio. He gave us a statesmanlike paper, and we ought to thank\nhim for the words of wisdom and caution he has given us here today.\nThere is a growing tendency toward state uniformity and state centralization, which, if continued, would make our people a sort of Californian\nChinese. I have no love for the uniformity of the Chinese empire. I\ncame originally from New England, and so did Dr. White's ancestors.\nThey went out west, and he grew a good deal taller than I did, because\nhe had more to eat out there. But the old principles of personal, individual responsibility and democratic love of individual freedom sticks\nin his blood, and will as long as he lives. And I trust it will remain in\nmine until I cease to breathe, and return to the Mother Earth of\nCalifornia.\nI will not take up your time further; but if the President of this\nassociation thinks that I am going to disappear from the National Educational Association because I belong to the age of Methusaleh, he is\naltogether mistaken. You will see me again and again, whenever I have\nmoney enough to cross the continent to attend the sessions.\n\n"}
{"page": 72, "printed_page": null, "text": "64\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nADDRESSES\nPRESIDENT'S\nBY\n\nELIPHALET\n\nORAM\n\nLYTE,\n\nADDRESS\n\nPRINCIPAL\n\nMILLERSVILLE,\n\nSTATE\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nPA.\n\nThe National Educational Association, which assembles this week in\nthe beautiful city of Los Angeles, was first called the National Educational\nAssociation in 1870, at Cleveland, O. Previously to that time it was known\nas the National Teachers' Association. This body was organized in 1857\nin Philadelphia, with an enrollment of thirty-eight members. Its first\nannual meeting was held at Cincinnati in 1858, and at the opening session\nthere were five members present, but these five were greeted by a large\naudience, and the membership subsequently reached seventy-five. The\ngrowth of this organization may be seen by comparing this number with\nthe enrollment of more than ten thousand at Washington last year. In\nother respects also great progress has been made. The first constitution\nof the association provides that any gentleman regularly occupied in educational work shall be eligible to membership, and that ladies engaged in\nteaching may become honorary members, and thus possess the right to\npresent their views in writing, so as to be read by the Secretary or some\nother regular member. Today there is no sex in the constitution of the\nNational Educational Association.\nThe objects of the National Educational Association are stated in the\npreamble to be : to uplift the character and advance the interests of the\nprofession of teaching, and to promote the cause of popular education in\nthe United States. These objects the association has never lost sight of. It\nhas elevated the character and advanced the interests of the profession of\nteaching as no other agency has done. It has promoted the cause of public\neducation, not only thruout the United States, but thruout the civilized\nworld. The contributions to pedagogy made by this body fill many large\nvolumes, and are of great and lasting value. No educational library is\ncomplete without these volumes. Within the past few years the work has\nbeen made more practical by several reports on schools of different kinds,\nthat have served as guides to school officials in many parts of our country.\nThese contributions have been made by some of the most prominent men\nin the profession of teaching in the United States, who recognize the\nNational Educational Association as an organization to which they are\nproud to belong, and as the medium by which they reach large numbers\nof teachers.\nI do not wish to say that all the great leaders of educational\n\n"}
{"page": 73, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nPRESIDENTS\n\nADDRESS\n\n65\n\nthought are members of the National Educational Association. That\nwould not be true. There are educators of great promise who have\nnever joined the ranks of this army. I do wish to say, however, that\nmany of the great educators of the country are members of this association. The field of their labors has been widened by their becoming\nmembers, the numbers they have been able to reach are larger, and they\nhave become greater in influence, and more potent factors in the solution\nof the educational problems of our country.\nFortunate it is for the youth of our land that there exists an organization which commands the respect of the wisest and greatest of the\nteachers of today; and that these men are willing to devote their time to\nthe solution of educational problems that otherwise would remain\nunsolved. Many of these problems have been solved, and their solution\nhas in many localities revolutionized courses of study and methods of\nteaching. Many await solution. Some of the unsolved problems are too\ngreat to be solved by an individual, and can be mastered only by the\ncombined and continued efforts of a large body of teachers, located in\ndifferent parts of our land, and filled with a common purpose to aid in\nthe improvement of the schools of the nation.\nIt was my intention to say a word concerning some of the unsolved\nminor problems, relating especially to elementary schools, which, it\nseems to me, will shortly demand the attention of the National Educational Association. The lateness of the hour, however, will prevent\nme from more than briefly, and to a great extent extemporaneously,\nreferring to one or two topics which, it seems to me, are of immediate\ninterest.\nA subject to which we might devote our attention with considerable\nprofit is the subject that, for want of a better name,. may be termed \"con\ntinuation schools.\" K\\\\ our elementary schools are necessarily intended\nfor children. Public schools are conducted for children of school age,\nand not for those of a more advanced age. Persons with means for pursuing their work, or with a burning desire for knowledge, may be able to\ncontinue their studies in higher institutions, but the large mass of men\nand women practically stop their conscious education when they leave the\nschoolroom. Is it not possible for a plan to be prepared that could be\nput into practical operation in all our larger cities, and in many of our\nsmaller ones, so that young men and young women who are compelled by\ncircumstances to go to work to earn a livelihood would at the same time\nhave the opportunity of continuing their intellectual work under proper\nguidance ?\nOf course, we all know that in most cities there are night schools, and\nmany of them do considerable good; but often these schools are not\norganized so as to reach everyone, nor do they do more, as a rule, than\nmerely give the dry elements of a common-school education.\nThe young\n\n"}
{"page": 74, "printed_page": null, "text": "66\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nperson who has left school needs to have the opportunity of learning\nsomething about the work in which he is engaged ; and he needs also to\nhave the opportunity of wider reading and of continuing the literary\nculture which may have been begun before he left school. Young Men's\nand Young Women's Christian Associations are endeavoring, in part, to\nfill the place to which I refer when I speak of continuation schools. Why\nshould \"Yiot schools organized somewhat as Young Men's Christian Associations, but with a wider and more definite purpose, be established under\nstate or city control ? The great good that these associations do is apparent to all. Cannot we learn from the results that they have accomplished\nthat there is a real demand for schools to do intelligent work, adapted to\nthe needs of persons from twenty to thirty, or older ? Still further, in\nevery neighborhood, certainly in every large city, there are many isolated\neducational institutions, or institutions that are working toward a general\neducational end. There are lyceums, libraries, lecture courses, singing\nschools, farmers' associations, mechanics' clubs, established by individuals\nand working for the good of those belonging to them. Would it not be\npossible to have all these educational forces harmonized and directed, in\na general way at least, by experts ? The university-extension idea reaches\nout in one direction. Why should it not become a part of a general plan\nto direct in every way the education of a community ? The success of\nthe circulating library, when it has been intelligently tried, shows what\ncan be done in another direction ; while the Chautauqua movement, representing another phase of the question, has been the means of bringing\nculture and refinement and a taste for knowledge into the homes of thousands that would otherwise have remained, to a great extent, ignorant of\nmany of the simple facts of history, literature, and science. It should be\npossible to prepare a \\vorking plan for the establishment of schools that\nwould be within the reach of nearly everyone, and would be adapted to\nthe wants and needs of nearly everyone.\nMay I say parenthetically that I wish that a body of teachers that are\nfond of athletic sports would consider the whole question of games and\nplays for the American youth of both sexes, and particularly for American\nboys ? The characteristics of a nation are largely revealed in its sports.\nWhat sports that are enjoyed by the American boy tend toward manhood ?\nTo particularize : The study of baseball, in its effect upon the national life,\nwould not be unworthy of the efforts of anyone ; how it leads a boy to do\nhis best and yet to yield to others, to make constant sacrifices for the good\nof the community — the nine he is playing with. To do one's best, and\nyet to help others to do their best — whatever demands this of a boy must\nhave in it much that is educationally good. I am not entirely sure that\nthe churches would not be benefited as well as the schools by a careful\ninvestigation of the games that have become a part of the life of the AngloSaxon race, and that appeal strongly to robust manhood.\nChristianity\n\n"}
{"page": 75, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nPRESIDENTS\n\nADDRESS\n\n67\n\nis manly as well as godly. The Christ that wept at the grave of Lazarus\nis the same Christ that drove the speculators from the temple with a whip.\nHe was brave as well as tender, and his bravery merits our imitation as well\nas his tenderness and love. To ignore the games which call for the exercise of bravery, even if they occasionally seem rough, is to ignore an\nelement in human nature which is too strong to be subdued, and which\nshould not be subjugated even if it were possible. Here is a field for the\ninvestigator which is biit partly explored.\nNot long ago our country was thrilled with a sudden burst of patriotism\nthat proclaimed us one people, possessing the elements of a mighty military nation, peaceable because of our might, and unconscious of our real\nstrength. Much as the Spanish-American war did for the struggling\nislands that were freed from the Spanish yoke, I have questioned whether\nit did not do more for our own nation in making it acquainted with itself\nand with its power to adjust itself to new conditions. What the National\nEducational Association has done to nationalize our country — to mold\nits heterogeneous elements into homogeneity — it would be impossible to\nestimate; nor can anyone tell what it has done to make peaceful progress\nthe high object of our people. With us war is the unusual, peace 'the\nusual condition. It will be remembered by many of the older members\nof this audience that at the close of the Civil War, a generation ago, our\narmies, north and south, melted away before the sweet sunlight of peace,\nand the citizen-soldier of one day became the law-abiding soldier-citizen\nof the next day — an act unparalleled in the world's history. So it was\nlast year ; our soldiers became citizens without a disturbance of any kind.\nOur history has demonstrated that we have no need of a great standing\narmy. It has demonstrated that in every school district may be found a\ncompany, in every township a regiment, in every county a brigade or\ndivision, in every state a corps, if not an entire army, ready at a moment's\nnotice to defend our flag against every foe. And this army is not marshaled by military chieftains, but by educational chieftains. A strong\nnation is made, not by barracks for troops, but by schoolhouses for children ;not by recruiting officers, but by schoolmasters ; not by rifled cannon and Mauser bullets and war vessels, but by books and newspapers\nand churches. That nation is strong whose citizens obey the law without\nseeing a standing army behind the law. That nation is strongest whose\nlaws are based on divine law, and whose citizens obey both divine and\nhuman laws because they know them to be right. A child obeys his\nteacher, who to him is the law. To the child law must be concreted. As\nthe abstract is the result of a higher form of thought than the concrete,\nso a republic is a higher type of government than a monarchy. We may\nneed an army to subjugate the Filipinos, but the United States would be\ndistinctly lowered in moral tone if it should ever become necessary to\nmaintain permanently within the states a great standing army to secure\n\n"}
{"page": 76, "printed_page": null, "text": "68\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nto its inhabitants the blessings of peace. If this is true, how great is the\nresponsibility of the American school-teacher! Patriotism is in the air;\nit is the normal condition of living under our flag. As a child does not\nneed to be taught to think, but only how to think, so the American youth\ndoes not need to be taught to be patriotic, but only how to be patriotic;\nand this is largely the work of the schools. How well this work has been\ndone let history answer.\nOur horizon, however, is widening. Whether we will or not, the\nproblem of carrying the benefits of our public institutions to the islands\nbeyond the sea must be solved, in part at least, by the men and women\nof this association. Since the last meeting in Washington it has become\nplain that the great underlying influences that have made this nation the\nfreest and greatest of the globe can no longer be bounded by the sands\nof the sea or the waves that dash against our shores. \"Thus far shalt\nthou go and no farther,\" was not spoken to the schoolmaster. The hand\nof destiny points the way across the waters today as unerringly as it\npointed the way for Columbus to cross the unknown seas four centuries\nago. Let us protest if we must, but we must bear our share of the \"white\nman's burden.\" While 1 recognize fully the right of others to disagree\nwith me, I confess that I so thoroly believe in the institutions of our\ncountry, and in the dignifying influences that follow our flag, that I\nrejoice to watch the onward progress of our ever-conquering republic,\nand the triumphant march of the Anglo Saxon race.\nSome of the burdens we now assume are new to us. We have not\nstepped far beyond the land upon which our forefathers settled when\nthey began the conquest of the wilderness; but the sea is no longer a\nbarrier, it is no longer a trackless waste. It is a great highway on which\nwe can convey the material and spiritual benefits of a Christian civilization to the benighted children of our enforced adoption. Cuba and\nPorto Rico are almost a part of our mainland, and the Philippines are\nmuch nearer the United States in this year of grace 1899 than were\nthe fair lands that form the great western states of our union half a\ncentury ago. The bounding virility#of the men and women that have\nmade our land what it is will be needed in the solution of this newer\nproblem, and it will be freely used in solving it. Are the schoolmasters\nready ?\n\nIt is not necessary for me to occupy your time further in suggesting\nwhat may yet be done by this organization. In the brief and somewhat\nrambling remarks that I have made I have purposely avoided referring to\nmany of the greater educational problems which, under the general\ndirection of this association, must be so'lved by our educational experts.\nThese great problems force themselves upon us, and we cannot escape\nthem. But the minor questions, of which I have mentioned one or two as\nsomewhat typical, are likely to be overlooked, and it is for this reason\n\n"}
{"page": 77, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nPOLICY\n\nFOR\n\nOUR\n\nNEW\n\nPOSSESSIONS\n\n69\n\nthat I have briefly hinted at them.\nA full discussion of them would be\nout of place in, this address and at this lime.\nAs you all know, no effective work requiring the combined efforts of a\nnumber of men can be accomplished without organization. Organization\nproduces system, demands economy of effort, and avoids waste of time and\nenergy. An organization of schoolmen and -women makes it possible to\nhave an effective school system. It strengthens the weak places of the system ;it cultivates what is good and weeds out what is bad in the system.\nIt develops individuality and promotes harmony. A strong organization\nlike the National Educational Association makes each individual stronger\nand more independent of the influences, found nearly everywhere, that\nwould use the schools for private ends and would sacrifice the teacher or\nschool officials who resist the demands of the place-hunter and spoilsman.\nBut it does more than this. This organization is a guide to a great body\nof teachers who are anxious to know what its members thilik and say. It\nmolds the educational thought of communities, and even states. It is a\nsource of inspiration to our fellow-laborers in every department of educational thought, and it brings dignity and permanency to the vocation of\nteaching. To the meetings of this organization it is my duty, as President,\nto invite you. Every effort has been made to prepare a program that\nwould represent the leading educational questions of the day and all\nsections of our great country. Let us trust that the present meeting, held\nin this charming place, may make its influence felt in every section of our\nland. May it catch something of the sunlight of this land of sunshine,\nand aid in carrying the divine rays of a useful education into every\ncommunity of every state ! If this is accomplished, the object of this\nmeeting will have been accomplished.\n\nAN\n\nEDUCATIONAL\nBV W. T. HARRIS,\n\nPOLICY\nUNITED\n\nFOR\n\nSTATES\n\nOUR\n\nNEW\n\nCOMMISSIONER\n\nPOSSESSIONS\n\nOF EDUCATION\n\nEach nation has had its own policy with regard to the management of\nnew territory acquired by war. The conquests of Persia destroyed the military power of the subdued peoples, but left them their manners and customs,\ntheir industries and laws. Even when^ as in the case of the Jews, a too\nstubborn nation was transported to the Euphrates, its essential traditions\nwere not much changed by the Babylonians. But the Persians hastened\nto send back the captives whorn they found weeping by the waters of\nBabylon, and a new temple was soon built in Jerusalem.\nThe Greek conquest of Alexander shows the same toleration of religion and of manners of life, altho Greek science and learning took the\nplace of the previous intellectual life thruout eastern Persia and Egypt.\n\n"}
{"page": 78, "printed_page": null, "text": "70\n\nN'ATIOI^AL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nBut the Roman conquest meant something far more thoro. The people of Europe, Asia, and Africa who yielded to Roman legions were\ncompelled to change, not only their political forms, but their administration of justice; even their religious worship and their family and tribal\nforms were changed. For their gods were carried off to Rome and placed\nin the Pantheon, to be worshiped henceforth as gods of Rome and no longer\nas the protectors of their own people. The subjugated people had to send\nto Rome to make offerings to the gods whom they had looked to for their\nsupport, from generation to generation, thru untold ages. The consequence was the necessity of loyalty to Rome on the part of conquered\npeoples, because of the fact that Rome had become the custodian of their\ngods.\nBut Rome had another hold upon its new possessions. It conscripted\nthe young men of a province as soon as it had obtained control over it,\nand sent them into the ranks of the army to fight for Rome. But it did\nnot make the mistake of leaving the conscripts where they could lead a\nrevolt and assist their people to recover their independence. It sent the\nnew conscripts to some far-distant frontier, where their safety depended\nupon their loyalty to the legion in which they were placed. Only by loyalty to Rome could they expect ever to see again, or even to hear from,\ntheir dear ones in the family left behind in the native land. Thus young\nmen from Gaul and Britain, from Spain and Germany, were sent to frontiers of Egypt and Greece, Parthia and the Nabathean wilderness, to serve\nin the armies of Rome ; while on the other hand the young men of the\nEast were sent to the West to hold in subjection the peoples of Spain,\nBritain, Gaul, and the Rhine.\nThis was an education in cosmopolitanism — the mixing up of nations\nby means of the Roman army.\nBut Rome had still another and a more important education for its\nnew possessions. It set up everywhere its praetorian courts, and, in the\nplace of violence or mere princely authority, brought forward principles\nof jurisprudence openly promulgated before all men. There was the\nRoman advocate who would take advantage of all the subtleties of the\nlaw to get for his client a favorable verdict. The praetor had in the\nmain to decide in such a way as to secure justice. The civil law was\nestablished by countless praetorian decisions, and has become the priceless possession of all modern civilization. The nations conquered by\nRome and held for one or two centuries learned to live under Roman laws,\nand could never after rid themselves of that necessity.\nThe Roman taught each individual pf his world-empire a twofold\nconsciousness : first, of his right to the acquirement of private property\nin land, and his right of protection by the courts in his property and in\nhis person against violence ; secondly, his duties as citizen to support the\nstate by risk of his life and property.\n\n"}
{"page": 79, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nPOLICY\n\nFOR\n\nOUR\n\nNEW\n\nPOSSESSIONS\n\n71\n\nThis was a training in individualism, and at the same time in citizenship, so that Rome may be said to have made individuals into persons in\na way that had never before been known.\nCharlemagne finished the work of Julius Caesar in the conquest of the\nTeutonic tribes by a thirty-years' war with the Saxons. The states of\nmodern Europe are governed substantially by Roman law, but they do\nnot adopt, without important modifications, the Roman policy with their\nnew possessions. To be sure, they all seek to obtain a revenue by taxation\nor otherwise from the conquered province, and this is right so far as it\ngoes to pay the expenses-of a just government and for institutions established for the enlightenment of the people. New possessions in farther\nAsia, central and southern Africa, or in the islands of the Pacific are also\ninitiated into the Roman jurisprudence in its latest development. More\nthan this, they are made acquainted with the arts and inventions for use,\ncomfort, and luxury, and with science to a greater or less degree. In\nfact, up to a certain limit there is an altruistic attempt to lift the people\nthat do not possess the arts of life into civilization, at least so far as the\nconquest of nature for food, clothing, and shelter is concerned. And\nthe missionary movement of the Christian church is unremitting in its\npurpose to enlighten those people in the matter of the divine destiny\nopen to all men to whom is revealed the doctrine of the divine-human\nnature of God.\nTo the United States, as a nation proclaiming freedom and equality to\nall men, one looks for a new step in the general direction taken by civilized Europe with its conquests. One expects more altruism, more government of the people for the benefit of the people.\nIt is a strong presentiment of this that has led to the party of opposition which declaims against imperialism and sees no just road to the\nacquisition and government of territory that is not inhabited by people\nthat have reached the stage of self-government, and capable of becoming\nindependent states in our union. Notwithstanding a quite general\nadherence of our people to the principles enunciated in the Declaration\nof Independence, there is almost equal distrust in the practice of admitting into the union any people who are not fully ripe for self-government. This means that they shall have arrived at a sense of fair play and\ntolerance for those who differ in opinion, and, besides this, a ready submission to those legally in authority. It means, moreover, that there\nshall prevail among the people of the new possessions a conviction that\nleads to productive industry and to the creation of an enlightened public\nopinion. Would any of our cities allow its slums to vote, and thereby\nlower the standard of righteousness in the community, if it were not for\nthe fact that it is believed that the privilege of voting is in itself an educative force in the state, and that it constantly increases the self-respect\nof th-e voter ? It is feared by the opposition that the restriction of the\n\n"}
{"page": 80, "printed_page": null, "text": "72\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nright to vote will end by creating a social barrier obstructive to the development of humanity. It has seemed, therefore, to be a new departure\nfor the United States to acquire colonies that must not be admitted to\nfederal representation. It must involve an imperialistic relation to a\nportion of our people, and this will gradually react on our form of government, and in the end deprive us of cherished privileges.\nWe see, however, that expansion is unavoidable in some form. The\ngreat powers of Europe have divided Africa among themselves. They\nhave moved upon Asia, until it seems only a question of months when\nChina, the greatest aggregate of people with an indigenous government\nthat has ever existed, will be partitioned. There is no territory of uncivilized people that will remain long out of the possession of these great powers.\nNor is there a long future for any of the decaying political powers, wherever they may exist. This fact causes every thoughtful American to look\nseriously to the question whether it is not a duty devolving upon us as a\npeople to have our hand in this work of division and show that we can\nhold conquered nations for their own benefit — that we, in short, can lift\nthem toward self-government.\nOther nations, notatly Germany, Austria, Russia, and France, will\nteach their colonists to be industrious and to adopt civilized habits in the\nmatter of food, clothing, and shelter.\nGreat Britain will go farther and establish universities in India, and\neven in Africa, so as to permit exceptional individuals to reach great careers ;\nbut the United States will put before the whole people the opportunity\nof schooling. It will give whole nations an apprenticeship in an industrial civilization. Is not this better than to draw a Chinese wall around\nour present territory and make no new acquisitions, on account of the\ndanger of diluting our already thin national blood ? Let us have an\napprenticeship for all people within our nation in the art of local selfgovernment. In this, then, is hope, not only for peoples on a lower\nstage of self-government, but also for ourselves. For if the other people\nof the world, to the number of some fourteen hundred millions, are\nunited under the five great powers of Europe, while we, in turn, have\nonly one hundred millions, our national idea will be threatened abroad\nand have more dangers than ever at home.\nAnd, again, it is absurd to suppose that, if our democratic government\nof the people comes to have under its protection people who are not equal\nto the task of self-government, it will be necessary for us to tyrannize\nover them and enrich ourselves on their substance, cruelly neglectful of\ntheir. best interests.\nWe must accept the charge of as many of these colonies as come to\nour hand. We must seek to give them civilization in the highest sense\nthat we can conceive it.\nMeanwhile, what is civilization ?\nAnd\nwho are we that feel so\n\n"}
{"page": 81, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nPOLICY\n\nFOR\n\nOUR\n\nNEW\n\nPOSSESSIONS\n\n73\n\nsatisfied with our own form of living that we dare to wish it imposed on\nother people ?\nWhat right, it is asked, has one nation to impose its forms on another\nby force, on the ground that it is a higher form of civilization ? What\ninfallible criterion have we, asks another, by which we may be entitled to\nconclude that we have a higher civilization than the neighboring nations ?\nWhy is not the Indian civilization as good as ours ? Why is not the\nChinese civilization or the civilization of the Philippine Islands as good\nas the civilization that calls itself the United States, or Great Britain, or\nFrance, or Germany? This is a serious question, and needs to be understood ifone is going to sit in judgment upon national achievements.\nLet us consider the answer which can be made to this question : What\nis it that makes one civilization higher than another ? What is a high\ncivilization, and what is the highest civilization ?\nLet us pause and consider a definition of civilization. For we must\"\nhave such a definition that its bare statement will lead to its instant adoption. It must be clear on the face of it. Such a definition, too, cannot\nfail to help us as to the kind of education which we must give to the\npeople of our new possessions, if we accept the responsibility.\nI offer as such a definition the following :\nA people is civilized when it has formed institutions for itself which\nenable each individual to profit by the industry of all his fellow-citizens ;\nwhen it enables each individual to profit by the experience and wisdom,\nthe observation and the thoughts, of his fellow-citizens ; wh^n it encourages each individual to enter upon a rational self-activity by which he\ncontributes, either thru his industry or thru his observation and his\nthoughts, to the benefit of the people with whom he lives.\nThis, too, will apply not only to the highest forms, but it will indicate\nthe degree of advancement all along the line, from the lowest grade to\nthe highest. If one nation allows one-half of its citizens to grow up\nilliterate, and in consequence not able to profit, thru means of books, by\nthe experience of the race, nor enter into the thoughts of their fellow-citizens, that nation is surely inferior to another that gives these privileges to\nthree-fourths of its people. So, too, a nation that can earn only twenty\ncents per day for each inhabitant is inferior by so much in its civilization\nto the nation that can earn thirty, or forty, or fifty cents a day for each.\nBut this definition-can be stated in a more technical manner to bring\nout all that it contains.\nCivilization enables man to conquer nature and make it his servant ;\nto command the services of heat, light, electricity, and of all the inorganic elements ; to command the plant world or vegetation for his uses;\nto command also the animal kingdom for the same service ; in short, to\ncommand the services of nature for food, clothing, and shelter. Besides\nthis control over nature, civilization should give man\naccess to the\n\n"}
{"page": 82, "printed_page": null, "text": "74\n\n-NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nhistory of his race ; access to its literature ; access to its scientific discoveries ;access to its various inventions; and, above all, access to its moral\nand religious ideals. Civilization, in short, should give man command\nof the earth, and likewise command of the experience of the entire\nrace.\nThis shows the goal ahead of us, and not merely our partial realizations.\nIn the light of this definition we may approach the civilizations as\nthey actually exist, and inquire how far they have realized the ideal, how\nhigh they have climbed on the ladder of civilization. At once we see\nhow low the tribal civilization is as compared with the civilization of\nGreat Britain, or France, or Germany. There is no tribal civilization on\nthe face of the earth, and never was one, which could compare with these\nnations in its knowledge of the uses of minerals, chemical substances,\nand the natural forces, such as heat, light, electricity, gravitation. No\ntribe can possibly command the complete resources of the world as\nregards its vegetable and its animal life, the products of agriculture and\nthe mines. The reason for this is that the tribe is too small, and the tribe,\nfrom the very nature of its constitution, cannot co-operate with other tribes\nor receive their help. It stops at a view of nature which is a mere\nsuperstition. The tribe can climb only a little way up the ladder ^hich\nleads to the control and command of all the substances and forces of\nnature. Consequently the tribe cannot participate, to any great degree,\neither in the. productive industry of the whole world or in its intellectual\ninvestigations and discoveries.\nOther forms of civilization above the tribe take rank as higher or\nlower, according to the degree in which they realize this ideal of conquest\nover nature and complete intercommunication with the rest of the world.\nNo nation that lacks a great commerce can be so high in civilization as\nGreat Britain or France. No nation that lacks railroad communication\ncan be so high in civilization as the United States. No nation that lacks\nsteam engines to perform its drudgery can be so high as the nation which\nhas. these things.\nHence it is obvious that we and all other nations were a century ago\nfar below what we are now on the material side of our civilization, and\nif we are no worse off than then in the matter of spiritual communion\nwith our fellow -men, then we are higher in our civilization as a whole.\nA nation that has no printing presses, and that cannot buy or read\nthe books of the world, cannot be said to have a high civilization. And\non this scale the nation that has the most printing, that makes the most\nbooks, and that reads the great books of the world, is higher than the\nother nations. The ideal in this respect is that civilization should make\nit possible for each man to know the experience of all the past thru\nscience and literature, and that he should be able to see, thru the\n\n"}
{"page": 83, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nPOLICY\n\nFOR\n\nOUR\n\nNEW\n\nPOSSESSIONS\n\n75\n\ncolumns of a morning newspaper, history as it is making day by day in\nall the lands of the world.\nIt is a surprise to us all to consider the enormous advance made in a\nhundred years in this matter of knowing what all humanity is doing. We\ncould know, in 1799, much of the great world-history before it was half\na year old, but not nearly so much as we can now know within six hours.\nThere is another criterion by which to try a civilization, and it is a very\nimportant one. A nation may be very far advanced in its ability to control nature and to command access to the wisdom of the race. But it may\ndo this only for some classes of its citizens and not for all. Such a\nnation is not so highly advanced in its civilization as one that allows each\nof its citizens to participate in the product of the whole. The nation that\ngives schools to the humblest classes of its people as well as to its highest\nclasses, and the nation which allows the humblest people to govern themselves under just laws, is a higher nation than one which separates the ruling\nclass into a government apart from and above the mass of the people.\nThe highest ideal of a civilization is that of a civilization which is\nengaged constantly in elevating lower classes of people into participation\nof all that is good and reasonable, and perpetually increasing at the same\ntime their self-activity.\nPursuing this same line of thought, we must note that with the\nincrease of individual self-activity along the lines of science and productive\nindustry, there is an increase of creature comforts to each and every inhabitant, as well as increase of his ability to enjoy spiritual intercommunication by means of books, magazines, and newspapers.\nI am aware that many persons think that an industrial civilization\ndevoted to money-getting and the accumulation of capital is a spurious\ncivilization, and that it is a lower stage of human society than the tribal\nstage and the village community. This, is the reason why I am explicit\non this point of the importance of man's conquest of nature. For without this machinery for the creation of wealth, and without the combination of individual savings into vast masses of capital, there would not\nexist, as there does now, a bond of commerce extending around the\nworld and uniting all peoples. For this material bond must exist before\nthe spiritual interaction can exist which makes each nation participant in\nthe experience of all others.\nWhen we look at the accumulation of wealth and the combinations of\ncapital, we must see how essential they are to the conquest of nature.\nThe inventions of any one people are converted by means of commerce\ninto an active help to all other peoples. The ships of the commercial\nmarine of Great Britain help to cheapen the cost of the productions of\nall nations to each consumer.\nin\n\nThe capitalist who invests ten millions of dollars in tenement houses\nany city helps all of the citizens of that place to obtain better\n\n"}
{"page": 84, "printed_page": null, "text": "76\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\ndwellings at cheaper rents. The capitalists who build railroads lower the\nprices of freight, and in doing this add something to the wealth of the\ndistant producer as well as cheapen the cost to the consumer.\nThe amount of money earned on an average to each inhabitant of a\nstate measures its rank of civilization, so far as the conquest of nature is\nconcerned. A nation that does not use machinery and steam engines\ncannot afford for all its people a full participation in the world's market.\nA nation like the English that commands the most machinery will command the most comfort for its people. Thirty families out of a hundred\nin Great Britain report an income of one thousand dollars and upward,\nwhile only three families in Italy out of each hundred report the same\namount of income.\nSide by side with the conquest of nature, as we have seen, develop the\ntwo classes of knowledge, the knowledge of nature and the knowledge of\nman. The mining for silver and iron, and the other metals, is not the\nonly kind of mining. Civilized man is mining continually into the history\" of peoples, excavating buried cities and exploring their monuments\nand the remains of their literature, and trying to discover what motives\ngoverned the civilizations of the Nile valley and the Euphrates, and learn\nwhat was the nature of the institutions with which the people of the\npast governed themselves. This spii^itual method of mining brings up\nto light human life as it was in the past, and more and more every day\nwe come to understand how civilization has been evolved out of savagery.\nWe can understand better and better what is our real status in our progressive development toward the ideal of civilization. And we can\nunderstand better and better our shortcomings. We can see the ideal far\nabove us and beyond us.\nIf we cannot come into contact with lower civilizations without bringing extermination to their pepple, we are still far from the goal. It\nmust be our great object to improve our institutions until we can bring\nblessings to lower peoples and set them on a road to rapid progress.\nWe must take in hand their education. We must emancipate them from\ntribal forms and usages, and train them into productive industry and the\nindividual ownership of land. We must take them out of the form of\ncivilization that rests on tradition and mere external authority, and substitute for it a civilization of the printed page which governs by public\nopinion and by insight rather than by mere authority. Such a civilization we have a right to enforce on this earth. We have a right to work\nfor the enlightenment of all peoples and to give our aid to lift them into\nlocal self-government. But local self-government cannot exist where\nthere is no basis of productive industry and book-learning.\nHere we have the answer to our question : What is the right one civilization has to substitute itself in the place of another form of civilization\nalready existing ?\n\n"}
{"page": 85, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nPOLICY\n\nFOR\n\nOUR\n\nNEW\n\nPOSSESSIONS\n\n77\n\nWe have read with great interest the new and higher definition of the\n\"white man's burden,\" as stated by the greatest of living poets. The white\nman proves his civilization to be superior to other civilizations just by\nthis very influence which he exercises over the peoples that have lower\nforms of civilization — forms that do not permit them to conquer nature\nand make the elements into ministers of human power; forms of civilization which do not sum up for each individual the ideas of all mankind\nthru all ages, but, rather, which limit him exclusively to the experience of his own tribe, and which fail to give him an understanding even\nof that.\nLet us suppose that, in particular, we, the people of the United States,\nagree that it is our burden to take up the education of the people in\nour new possessions. We shall also agree that there are two lines of\neducation — one in productive industry, and one in letters and science.\nOur definition makes it clear that the school is to be a great feature in\nthe government of the new possessions. All the inhabitants must be\neducated, and not the few alone. There must be opportunity for all, not\nonly to learn letters in school, but also to learn the trades and commerce\nand agriculture.\nThat education should be such as to enable the inhabitants to develop\nto the full the resources of their islands.\nSo much being settled in advance, we may now make a few specific\ninquiries as to the first step to be taken. In all these new possessions\nthere have existed school systems, or at least the rudiments of such.\nThat of the Hawaiian Islands has been so wisely and efficiently organized\nthat it needs no help from the outside, and I do not speak of it in what\nfollows.\nIt seems to me that there are three simple steps in the inauguration\nof an educational scheme for Cuba and Porto Rico.\nFirst, I take it for granted that the government will leave the management of the islands for several months, or even years, in the hands of\nmilitary commanders who will govern thru provost-marshals assigned\nto districts — these being instructed to take all proper steps to interest\nsubstantial citizens, citizens possessing educated intelligence or successful in the management of property, to come forward and assist in restoring social order and in re-establishing schools and business in the proper\nchannels. By a gentle pressure on the part of these provost-marshals old\nschools could be re-established and perhaps new ones opened. It is\nimportant that the United States government should do something as\nsoon as these schools have been reopened, namely, it should furnish\nsupervisors to visit these schools and suggest improved methods of\ninstruction, giving the teachers of these new possessions the benefit of\nthe experience in the United States that has accumulated during the\nmany generations that our common-school system has been in operation.\n\n"}
{"page": 86, "printed_page": null, "text": "78\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nLGeneral\n\nThe supervisors should consist of one general superintendent of schools\nand a sufficient number of assistants to make possible a weekly visit to\neach of the schools on the island.\nIn the next place, something should be done with regard to the\ninstruction of the natives in the English language. Great care should\nbe taken not to attempt too much. If the United States government\nshould employ teachers of English (and these must all be acquainted\nwith the Spanish language) to make weekly visits to the several schools\nand give model lessons in instruction in English and direct the instruction in this branch, one lesson a day being required in each of the\nschools, the native teachers would soon become good instructors in this\nbranch, and the English language would very soon come to be taught in\nan effective manner, and this with a minimum of outlay from the public\nfunds.\nAfter the military rule, of course, civil rule must come.\n\nIndeed, it\n\nshould be the policy of the government to make the military rule a system of nurture to develop civil rule and self-government on the part of\nthe people of these possessions. While the military rule lasts, it will\ngive opportunity for the national government at Washington to become\nacquainted with the peculiarities of these islanders, to learn their strong\npoints ahd their weak points, and, so to speak, acquire a fund of experience necessary for the formation of proper civil codes and the organization of a system of government for them.\nIt is evident that the first step on the road to prosperity must be the\nre-establishment of the various industries and civil vocations of the\npeople. The establishment of schools should proceed step by step with\nthis settlement of civil and industrial vocations, so that the youth growing up may understand the rationale of the things that they practice ;\nand when they grow to manhood and womanhood they will be qualified to\nenter into a new order of citizenship, which our national government will\nhope to encourage and succeed in bringing to a vigorous maturity in\nthese islands.\nTo summarize these outlines of an educational policy for our new\npossessions : They involve, first, the action of provost-marshals, under the\ndirection of the generals commanding these islands, to re-establish in\ntheir old channels the industries and the educational institutions ; secondly,\nthe appointment of expert supervisors to inspect the schools and train\nthe teachers in the most advanced methods of instruction ; thirdly, the\nappointment of Spanish-English teachers who are able to lay out a course\nof instruction in English and introduce it into the programs of the\nschools so as to have in all cases one lesson a day in English, and to\nsupervise the teaching of this work as performed by the regular teacher\nof the school. Under this arrangement both teachers and pupils will\nvery soon attain a considerable familiarity with English.\n\n"}
{"page": 87, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nPROBLEM\n\nIN HAWAII\n\n79\n\nIt is all-important that only one lesson per day should be given in\nEnglish. More than this would be liable to the suspicion that we desired\nto substitute English for Spanish in our new possessions, and such suspicion would embarrass, and even render futile, all our efforts at improving\ntheir schools.\nThe experience in Porto Rico since January of the present year has been\nvery nearly on these lines, and has met with success. General John Eaton,\nmy eminent predecessor in the Bureau of Education, has been the chief\nexecutive officer in the educational department of Porto Rico, and has\nlatterly had one assistant. The able general in command of the department (General Henry) supported his policy and made it possible, not only\nto revive and continue the schools of the island, but also to establish new\nones. No adequate provision has been made for many years in that island\nto pay the teachers' salaries, and this was one of the first evils that met a\nremedy. The revenues of the island collected by the United States are\nto support the teachers and the supervisors. But one assistant superintendent isnot enough. There should be a corps of assistants sufficiently\nlarge to visit each of the schools weekly.\nBesides the literary work there should be, as I have suggested, schools\nof industry, with special teachers, in every considerable town and village.\nThe general manual-training school, as it exists with us, would do\ngood work there, but I think that special trade schools are better. They\nshould fit all who desire instruction for their special vocations.\nIn conclusion I refer once more to my extended discussion of the\nnew duties which devolve on our nation at this epoch — when it becomes\nresponsible for new territories whose people have been brought up under\nolder forms of civilization. It is our duty to make a system of education\nthat will develop in their people an ability to conquer nature and to enter\ninto an all-sided spiritual communion with mankind.\n\nTHE\nBY\n\nHENRY\n\nS.\n\nEDUCATIONAL\nTOWNSEND,\n\nINSPECTOR\n\nPROBLEM\nGENERAL\n\nIN HAWAII\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nOF\n\nHAWAII\n\nWhile deeply appreciating the honor of an invitation to address this\nassembly, I have not for a moment allowed myself to consider it a personal matter. The invitation came to nie as a representative of the\neducational workers in one of the nation's new possessions ; and as such\na representative I thank the President for this honor and this opportunity.\nI assume that the President and this assembly desire to hear about educational questions connected with Hawaii, rather than the thoughts of an\nHawaiian educator on the more general questions usually discussed at\nsuch meetings.\n\n"}
{"page": 88, "printed_page": null, "text": "8o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nIGenera!\n\nThe very existence of a science of education presupposes that minds\nin general develop in accordance with certain fixed and ascertainable\nprinciples and laws. Yet the very first and most important principles of\nthe science imply that no two persons can develop alike. No man can\nthink again the thoughts of Homer or of Shakespeare, in all their completeness and all their limitations, since no man has the environment or\nthe temper of either. In like manner it follows that no two persons can\nthink or feel or will-alike; and hence, that no two can have exactly the\nsame course of development. Yet great sections of the world's population, having developed for many generations under the influence of\nsimilar environment, animated by similar incentives, and struggling thru\ncommon difficulties toward common ideals, are comparatively homogeneous. Thus different races and different localities come to have their\nown peculiar educational problems — corollaries, as it were, of the world's\ngreat educational problem.\nBefore proceeding to discuss the peculiarities of the problem which\nconfronts Hawaii, it may be well to spend a moment considering this\ngreat general educational problem. It may be granted that the great\nend of all institutions is the highest possible development of the individual— that education, social and political organizations, and even the\nchurch of God on earth, are but means of this one great end, the development of the finite in the image of the Infinite, of the relative in the\nlikeness of the Absolute. Yet it has been established that \"no man\nliveth unto himself,\" that man is a social being and cannot develop except\nin societ}'. So we have no quarrel with those who look at the other side\nof the shield and say that the work of education is to fit a man for his social\nenvironment — for the civilization in which he is to live. Education, in\nthe sense of work consciously done to promote this development, is but\none of a number of forces working toward the same end. Still further\nrestricted to the work of the schools, it occupies a still smaller part of\nthis field of labor. It is only in this narrow sense that I shall attempt to\ndiscuss our educational problem today, tho it may be necessary to look\nbriefly over the whole work in which our schools are bearing and are to\nbear a part. It must be borne in mind, also, that the forces which work\nto this end vary in relative importance under different conditions. The\nteacher has forced upon her attention every day the manner in which the\nhomes of her pupils do, or fail to do, their part. And she must give up\nmuch time to work which ought to be done by others. Thus the educational work of the schools and their importance vary under differing\nconditions inversely as the efficiency of other allied , forces. Only one\nmore general proposition demands immediate attention. No civilization\nis absolutely fixed. Even in China great forces are irresistibly producing\nchanges in the civilization of that most ancient and most conservative\nstate.\nIn what civilization any child now attending school will spend\n\n"}
{"page": 89, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nPROBLEM\n\nIN\n\nHAWAII\n\n81\n\nthe prime of his manhood is not yet determined. It is a question of\ndevelopment ; and in the development of the civilization that is to be\neducation must play its part. How great changes a generation may\nbring forth, and how absolutely and relatively great the influence of the\nschools may be, depends much upon local conditions.\nThus we return to the proposition that different races and localities have\ntheir own peculiar educational problems, and to the consideration of the\npeculiarities of the problem which confronts Hawaii. Since every race has\nits own past, present, and future to consider, and since individual peculiarities complicate every educational problem, no such problem can be\nsimple. But when peoples of different races, different civilizations, different ideas, and different ideals become mingled, the problem becomes\nespecially complicated.\nAt first glance it might seem to an outside observer that in so small\na country as Hawaii, extending over so few degrees of latitude, whatever\nthe heterogeneity of the adult population, the children, under the influence of homogeneous environment, would readily approach homogeneity.\nBut, in spite of appearances to the contrary, the environment of the children of Hawaii is exceedingly diversified ; for it must not be forgotten\nthat environment is both physical and spiritual, of things and of man,\nor that it is the spiritual element which produces the quickest results.\nIt is easy to believe that our emerald isles, our perpetual summer, our\nbalmy breezes, and our beryl seas will exert an influence upon the characters of our boys. But one bad boy makes his influence more evident in\nfive hours than our physical environment does in a generation. While\nthe physical environment of the children of Hawaii is, in a general way,\nhomogeneous, their spiritual environment is the direct opposite. The\nmost powerful of all the influences which surround the child, whether\nphysical or spiritual, are those of the home ; and homes and home life\nand influences are especially diversified in Hawaii. And religion, at\nhome and abroad, is the most potent influence in the child's spiritual\nenvironment. In Hawaii the Buddhist temple and the Christian church\nstand on the same street, and the family altar and the shrines of ancestors\nare to be found in adjacent homes.\nBut when we speak of the influence of environment upon the individual, we speak in metonymy. It is the psychical response to the stimulus of environment which really influences development. This response\nis determined, in turn, by the temper of the individual concerned. And\nthat temper comes down to him mysteriously from all his ancestors, thus\nmaking him in a peculiar and just sense \" the heir of all the ages \" thru\nwhich he has, in regular order, descended. Thus race differences are\nseen to be deep-seated and not dependent upon present environment.\nSo at every turn we of Hawaii find ourselves face to face with the\nrace problem.\nFor it is necessary that our heterogeneous population be\n\n"}
{"page": 90, "printed_page": null, "text": "82\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nLGeneral\n\nmade comparatively homogeneous. It is hard for those living in other\nparts of the country to appreciate the magnitude of this part of our\nproblem. The ends of the earth meet in Hawaii, and no one race is\npredominant in numbers. A careful study of the situation at the time\nthe islands were annexed to the United States led me to believe that*\nbarring immigration, the future population of Hawaii would consist of\nPolynesians, Asiatics, and whites in nearly equal parts. But since that\ntime there has been such activity in the matter of Japanese immigration\nthat these estimates of proportions have been seriously disturbed. Present\nindications are that the Asiatic element, again barring immigration, will\nbe almost half of the generation next to be born in Hawaii.\nBut quality as well as quantity must be considered in discussing such\na race problem. And there is a very radical difference in quality between\nthe. white, the brown, and the yellow races. The white race is pre-eminent\nfor active, self-assertive, strong individuality. It is in this race that\nindividualism is found in its extreme form. On the other hand, the\nHawaiians are of the extreme passive type, influenced somewhat by their\ncontact with the white race. The Hawaiian \" ancient regime \" was based\nupon and fostered absolute submission to authority; and all authority\nwas fortified with the strongest religious sanctions. Men of the passive\nraces wish to be governed well. Those of the active races wish to take\npart in their own government and in the government of others. From\nthe time of King John till the present, part in the government of England has been reluctantly yielded from time to time to the demands of\never-increasing sections of the population. Kauikeaouli, the third of\nthe Kamehameha dynasty, gave to the people of Hawaii, without coercion\nand without demand, or even desire, on their part, practically all that the\nEnglish people have won during all these centuries. The people sought\nno part in the government, and have never magnified their office as voters.\nThey have been content with a government which fulfilled its purpose to\ntheir satisfaction, without question as to their importance or their rights\nin the matter of legislation or of administration. They have acquiesced\nin the enforcement of the law by the regularly constituted authorities,\neven when they have considered rank injustice to have been done, trusting to the constituted courts of the country eventually to right the present\nwrongs. And they have never attempted to force the hand of justice.\nThat species of anarchy facetiously called lynch law has never been, even\ntemporarily, the law of the land among the Hawaiians. It develops as\nan extreme manifestation of active tendencies. Such are some of the\nmore notable race characteristics of these two elements of the population\nof Hawaii. The problem of adjusting these two elements to each other,\nunder a common civilization, is a part of the larger problem which the\nschools of Hawaii must solve. The adjustment of cognate races and the\nassimilation of relatively small incongruous elements is a comparatively\n\n"}
{"page": 91, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nPROBLEM\n\nLN HAWAII\n\n83\n\nsimple matter. But here we have two elements of most diverse character\nin almost equal numbers. And our problem is still further complicated\nby a still larger Asiatic element, not closely allied with either of these,\nand which cannot be and ought not to be united with the other elements\nof our population to form a common people. It involves at least two\nraces of men in nearly equal numbers, living side by side within our\nnarrow boundaries, without uniting. In some respects ours is the problem with which our brethren of the South have been struggling with so\nmuch of courage and so little of satisfaction.\nLanguage has been considered a solvent of racial incongruities ; and\nin this there is a large element of truth. Those who have a common\nlanguage understand one another better than those who have not. And\n\"to know is to forgive,\" as the proverb has it. To teach all our people\nthe English language, and thus make Anglo-Saxons of them, would,\nindeed, be a very simple solution of our race problem ; and it would have\nthe virtue of laying out very definitely the work of our schools in such\nsolution.\nBut the educated Irishman of today is more Irish in everything else\nthan in language. He may not be able to speak the Keltic tongue, but\nhe thinks and feels and acts as an Irishman. French blood is recognized\nby the \"Gallic temperament in Americans of French descent Jong after\nthe last trace of the foreign tongue has been lost. The despotisms of\nEurope reason but superficially when they attempt to crush the Polish\nspirit by crushing the Polish speech. Altho English education for\nHawaii has everything in its favor and is an absolute necessity, it offers\nbut a small part of the solution of this great problem. Polynesians and\nAsiatics cannot be made to think and feel as Anglo-Saxons by the simple\nprocess of teaching them the English language, or by any other process\nwhich does not involve evolution thru generations. It will be a long time\nbefore we have a homogeneous people, even in the sense that the cognate\nraces become homogeneous in the ordinary American community. Yet\nin the meantime we must live together.\nWhat, then, is this great race problem in Hawaii? It is this: To\ndevelop a truly Christian civilization, a civilization which, like the love of\nChrist, is broad enough to embrace all peoples — so broad that all the\nraces may find prosperity under its benign sway. Our Hawaiian civilization should be based upon broad charity and universal good will. The\ncivilization which the active race has developed, and in which it has been\ntrained, based upon an assumption of universal selfishness, has precipitated a struggle in which the passive race is at a great disadvantage. It\nis a melancholy fact that the influence of the white man and his civilization, in contact with aboriginal races, is generally the influence of the\nfabled upas tree. From the time of the ancient Hebrews, who shut out\nfrom the blessings of their civilization practically all other peoples, down\n\n"}
{"page": 92, "printed_page": null, "text": "84\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nTGeneral\n\nto the time of the Americans, who have not yet developed a civilization\nsufificiently broad and sufficiently Christian to bless the white man and\nthe red, comes the same monotonous story. Hawaii's problem is the\nworld's problem. And its solution is pressing upon her most urgently.\nShe has three races, no one of which should be withered beneath a hostile\ncivilization. This is especially true of the sons of the soil. If the worst\ncome, the Japanese can return to Japan and the Chinese to China; but\nwhere shall the Hawaiians go ? Here they were born and here they will\ndie. They call for more than toleration. Who are we that we should\ntolerate this remnant of the people to whom God gave those fair isles\nfresh from his creative hand, and who for nearly fifty generations have\nknown no other home ? They are now Americans in spite of themselves,\nand for these reasons their silent appeal to their neighbors of the active\nrace is especially strong.\nIt may be well for the exigencies of oratory to say that we can bless\nany people on earth by extending our institutions over them ; but the\nman who makes such a boast leaves a suspicion that he is better at getting\nvotes than at interpreting history. The case of \" Poor Lo \" should serve\nas a warning against believing anything of the kind. No; the problem\nis more difficult than this. It is Hawaii's good fortune to have many of\nthe world's great problems in comparatively simple form and in small\ncompass. This problem is a case in point. Its solution is at once her\nurgent necessity and her sublime mission ; for it will be her contribution\nto the whole world.\nIn what measure can she succeed ?\nThe question whether any great attainments in the way of civilization\ncan be made in the tropics has been seriously discussed in the United\nStates by men of recognized ability. Unfortunately some of them have\nfollowed a course of deductive reasoning from premises not well established, reaching conclusions notably at variance with historical facts.\nEgypt, the home of that ancient civilization to which, thru Greece,\nEurope and America are so much indebted, lies south of the isothermals\nof Hawaii ; and it is climate rather than mere latitude which has been\nheld to prohibit the development of civilization in the tropics. And,\nnotwithstanding their homes in the tropics, in the matter of civilization\nthe Incas and the Aztecs were by all odds the leaders of all the peoples\nfound in America at the time of its discovery to the Europeans. Of\ncourse, the temperate zones are the homes of the highest orders of civilization. If there were any doubt of this, it would be necessary only to\nask those who live in those climes ; and who should know, if not they ?\nBut in view of the facts of history, and of that of Hawaii especially, I\nrefuse to consider the possibility of the development of civilization in the\ntropics as an open question. If we of the tropics fail utterly to solve our\nproblems in civilization, we shall have no right to attribute our failure to\nthe effects of climate.\n\n"}
{"page": 93, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nPROBLEM\n\nIN HAWAII\n\n85\n\nThe problem of school education in Hawaii, then, is to take a just\npart in the development of this civilization so necessary to the future\nprosperity and happiness of the people, and to prepare individuals for\nits duties and privileges. Reverting to the statement that the magnitude\nand importance of the work of the schools vary inversely as the efficiency\nof the other agenciesof civilization, it follows that the responsibilities of\nthe educational workers in Hawaii are exceedingly great. On the one\nhand, the usual social and religious institutions which serve to unify peoples, or to bring them into pleasant relations, are either entirely lacking here,\nor they fail to reach at once all of the important elements of the population.\nOn the other hand, the schools maintain a position of such dignity in\nour communities as they seldom attain elsewhere. Teachers worthy of\nrespect command an unusual degree of deference among the people. It\nis rarely, indeed, that it is given to schools in the same degree to reach\nthe parents thru the children. The responsibilities thus thrown upon our\nschools can be inferred very readily.\nThe problem of giving these elements of our population a common\ntongue has been mentioned, and the absolute necessity of its solution has\nbeen recognized already ; but it requires a word more, lest its magnitude\nbe not fully appreciated. According to our latest census, that of 1896,\nbut little, if any, over 5 per cent, of our school population are of English-speaking parentage. In most schools of Hawaii there are children\nwho speak at home from two to seven different languages, and yet none who\nspeak English — the language of the schools. Yet, as a means of further\neducation, a common language is all-important. This is almost exclusively\nthe work of the schools.\nOur schools are, in a special sense and most emphatically, social institutions. The great art which our pupils of the various races must learn\nis the art of living together in peace and harmony. Their most important lessons are those of mutual respect and forbearance. While it is our\nprime work to exercise our pupils in those virtues upon which the peace\nand stability of society in our land so especially depend, it is also important that these virtues be fortified with the reasons which make them\nsuch. As the importance of our teaching these lessons is so great, it is fortunate that our opportunities are equally great. There are few countries\nwhere the foundation principles which underlie social order develop so\nplainly before the very eyes of school children.\nSuch are the chief peculiar features of the educational problem in\nHawaii. It will be seen that some of the great differences between it and\nthe general educational problem are of degree rather than of kind. An\nabsolute solution of our problem is not to be hoped for until some of\nour brethren of some other part of the world shall have solved theirs.\nYet, under our peculiar and great difficulties, the educational workers of\nHawaii are taking up their task with such wisdom, strength, and courage\nas the God of peace has given them.\n\n"}
{"page": 94, "printed_page": null, "text": "86\n\nTHE\n\nBY\n\nNATIONAL\n\nAVERAGE\n\nFRANK\n\nRIGLER,\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nSCHOLARSHIP\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nOF THE\n\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nAVERAGE\n\nPORTLAND,\n\n[General\n\nPUPIL\n\nORE.\n\nThere is an old principle of arithmetic that, if several quantities have\nthe same numerical value, the multiplication of this value by their number will produce the numerical value of all. Further, tho the separate\nquantities differ slightly, or even considerably, in their values, if, by previous operations of addition and division, their average value has been\nascertained, this may be taken to be the numerical size of each, without\nsensible error in the result. This, then, is the original and legitimate\nuse of averages. They enable us to substitute multiplication for addition\nin obtaining large results. When employed in an opposite way, i. e.,\nwhen, by the addition and division of a great many numerical values which\ndiffer considerably from one another, an average has been obtained, and\nan attempt is made to use this average as a numerical value of any single\nquantity, the result is apt to be disappointing. Who, for instance, could\nhave ascertained the temperature of this room on this particular morning\nby consnlting the carefully computed average of the weather bureau ?\nThe average wages of the workmen in a large factory give no idea whatever of the income of the great majority of the employes, for the reason\nthat a few superintendents, foremen, and skilled workmen receive very\nmuch more than the others. Their salaries make a notable increase in\nthe dividend without greatly affecting the divisor. The average age of\na class of pupils gives, for similar reasons, scarcely any idea of the ages\nof the majority of its members.\nIn the business of teaching I have noticed that most, if not all, of\nthe uses of the average are of the wrong kind. If it has been determined\nby the manipulation of tables set down in superintendents' reports that\nthe average age of a class is ten years, it is at once assumed that a quantity\nof work sufficient for a ten-year-old child should be exacted of every\npupil in that class ; and if some of the pupils show a disposition to do\nmore than the allotted portion, they are to be restrained, to prevent a\nprecocious development which must lead to premature decay. Now,\neven if all ten-year-old children learned with the same facility, the\nfact that a large majority of the members of the class will be older or\nyounger than ten years would make the assignment inappropriate ; but\nno one can say what quantity of work is just sufficient for any particular\nten-year-old child. Some will do more than others, and again the average is used. Nor is this all. Not only must the total quantity of work\nbe the same for all, but the portion meted out in each subject must be\n\n"}
{"page": 95, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nAVERAGE\n\nSCHOLARSHIP\n\nOF THE\n\nAVERAGE\n\nPUPIL\n\n87\n\nthe same. It matters not that a pupil learns arithmetic easily and grammar with difficulty. He must do the same work in each as does his\ncompanion who comprehends grammatical relations without trouble,\nbut blunders in his mathematics. True, this purpose is thwarted by\nthe varying natural aptitudes of individuals, and when the term is\nended, pupils are found who have run beyond the limits in some subjects\nand have fallen lamentably short in others. And now what is done ?\nTo determine whether or not a pupil should advance, his attainments\nare averaged, as if, by a brief computation, his superfluous knowledge in\none or more subjects could be cut up and distributed over his points of\nweakness.\nThe immediate results of the errors just enumerated are bad enough,\nbut the indirect effects are worse. The long series of years during which\nthe pedagogical mind gave unfaltering assent to these doctrines witnessed the evolution of the average ideal child, for whom not only\ncourses of study must be made, but, what is infinitely worse, to whom all\ninstruction must be addressed and all devices adjusted. In many a\nschoolroom today most of the teaching is directed, not to the living\nchildren who sit at the desks, but to the composite average of them all —\na mere figment of the teacher's imagination. I am aware that to correct\nthis last-named evil strenuous efforts have of late been made ; but it seems\nto me that these efforts, to be successful, must be reinforced by an\nattempt to amend the doctrines out of which the evil grows.\nIn the first place, the course of study ought not to be made for the\nso-called average child, but for a child somewhat slower than the average, with some provisions by which quicker children may advance more\nrapidly. That this can be done, and done in several ways, is demonstrated bythe methods of classification and promotion now in use in a\nnumber of cities of considerable size. In Portland our standard rate of\nprogress would take a pupil thru the work of the elementary school in\nnine years, without repeating the work of any grade ; but a faster rate is\noffered which, if continued, would finish the course in six years. A child\nmay take the fast rate one year and the slow rate the next, for the organization isthe same at the beginning of each year. A child of good mind,\nbut delicate body, may attend school seven months and do as much work\nas a slower child does in a year. Each year about one-third of the pupils\ntake the faster rate; this makes the average eight years — just what it is\nwhere only one rate is maintained, but with advantages to individuals\nwhich are not difficult to perceive.\nI know there are those who deny the desirability and question the\nfeasibility of any plan which gives results such as those just named. It\nhas been asserted by men eminent in the educational world that, so far\nas mere acquisition of knowledge is concerned, the problem admits of\neasy solution ; but when thought-development, toward which\nmodern\n\n"}
{"page": 96, "printed_page": null, "text": "88\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\ncourses of study tend more and more strongly, is taken into consideration, the problem becomes serious and difficult — so much so, I- infer,\nthat all attempts to solve it would better be abandoned.\nLet us consider this a moment. It is assumed in recent pedagogical\ndiscussion that in the psychical development of the individual fairly\nwell-marked epochs may be discerned, corresponding in their essential\nfeatures to similar epochs in the development of the civilization of the\nrace. Just what these epochs are, and just what psychical activities in\neach are necessary to prepare for the next, has not as yet been clearly\nstated ; possibly it would be more accurate to say that concerning both\nthese propositions various conflicting statements have been made. Let it\nbe assumed, however, for present purposes, that the study of this problem will, in the future, be prosecuted to a successful conclusion, and that\npractical schoolroom exercises will be devised adequate to stimulate sufficiently each instinctive activity at the time when its waking power begins\nto assert itself, without continuing such stimulus long enough to suppress related instincts which arise later and need a different form of exercise.\nWhen this is done, it will be found, doubtless, that children reach the\nsame epoch at different ages, that the time spent m a particular epoch\nvaries with individuals, and that the same child will pass promptly thru\none stage, while he tarries an unexplainably long time in another in\nwhich many other children neither halt nor falter. The future scientific\ncourse of study will have, therefore, to ascertain by addition and division\nthe average age at which children reach a particular stage of mental\ngrowth, and the average time required to pass thru that stage. It will,\nlike all its forerunners, have to deal with that phantom of the pedagogical\nbrain, the average child, a being no more to be found among the real\nchildren who coine to our schoolrooms to be taught than the average\nphysical man, whose height, weight, proportionate size of parts,' and distribution of tissues have been computed with so much nicety, is to be\nfound in this audience.\nIt seems to me that the new course of study, because of the closeness\nof its contact with the child's necessities, will demand, more strongly than\nits predecessor, varying rates of progress for those who take it.\nMy second arraignment of the average is that it is used as an instrument for enforcing what is generally called close gradation.\nIf A and B possess nearly equal knowledge and ability in arithmetic,\nthey should recite in the same class in that subject ; but it does not follow that they should receive the same instruction in all other branches of\nstudy, in some of which, without doubt, their power and attainments will\nbe found to vary greatly.\nAn ideal arrangement would permit each pupil to be classified in\neach study or group of allied studies according to his ability to work\n\n"}
{"page": 97, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nAVERAGE\n\nSCHOLARSHIP\n\nOF THE\n\nAVERAGE\n\nPUPIL\n\n89\n\nin those studies and without reference to his knowledge of other subjects.\nNumerous objections will, of course, be raised to a plan which violates\nso flagrantly as this does all the cherished traditions of the graded school.\nIt is said that the equalization of a pupil's progress is necessary for a\nwell-rounded development. I understand vaguely what is meant by this\ntrite phrase, and I understand how keeping a pupil back in the studies\nin which he is strong may prevent the formation of hummocks in those\ncortical areas whose growth such studies may be supposed to stimulate ;\nbut I do not understand how crowding the pupil forward in those studies\nin which he is weak — and this is common in close gradation — will help\nhim to a proper comprehension of them, and thus secure the cortical\ngrowth which such comprehension may be supposed to imply. The\nrotundity of his cerebrum is impaired, after all, and all that has been\naccomplished in preventing further impairment is the lopping-off of its\nbetter parts, much as the nihilist proposes to equalize the possession of\nproperty by destroying it, thus reducing all to the level of a common\npoverty.\nIt will be further objected that such a plan will interfere with the correlation ofstudies; that the modern scientific course of study, whatever it\nmay turn out to be when it gets itself finished, is composed of delicately\nrelated parts, which must be taken in due proportion and in fixed order ;\nso that at any point of the pupil's progress his apperceiving mass may be\njust right properly to receive and to relate the next morsel. I can answer\nonly (i) that there are some items in the apperceiving mass of each pupil\nnot suggested by any course of study ; that these vary with individual\nexperience out of school, and are as potent as any others in determining\nthe character of the reception to be given to new ideas; (2) that putting\nan item in the proper place in the course of study does not insure that\nthe corresponding idea for which it stands will be in the pupil's mind at\nthe time demanded by correlation ; (3) that, in order to assimilate knowledge of any subject, what the pupil needs more than related knowledge\nof allied subjects is knowledge of the preceding parts of the same subject; (4) that the fact that new ideas find different attachment in different minds, because of differences in antecedent experience, is the cause of\nthat mental attrition which is the chief superiority of class instruction\nover individual teaching.\nAnother objection, more serious than either of the others, but not, in\nmy judgment, unanswerable, is the following : The thing most needed by\nan immature boy or girl is the personal oversight of a wise teacher. To\nplace in a room suitable for either recitation or study such a number of\nchildren as an intelligent teacher could become thoroly acquainted\nwith, to make them reponsible to her for every act of their school lives,\nwas the prime thing which those who established\nthe graded\ngchool\n\n"}
{"page": 98, "printed_page": null, "text": "90\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nsystem sought to accomplish. That this end is too valuable to be lightly\nsacrificed needs no demonstration ; nor is any such sacrifice necessary.\nEvery pupil may still have a room in which he answers roll-call, in which\nhe does all of his studying and the greater part of his reciting ; but when\nexercises are coming on which do not fit him, he will leave that room\nand find his appropriate class. He will still be responsible to one teacher\nfor all of his work, and of any bad exercises not occurring under her eye\nthe report of the teacher to whom the recitation is made will give her\nample information.\nWe have tried this tentatively and to a limited extent in Portland,\nand we are able to detect nothing but beneficial effects upon the pupils\nirregularly graded. The difficulties of program-making are not worth\nconsidering. Far greater ones are constantly being met and overcome in\nevery high school in the land. Promotion from the elementary school\nto the high school is not hindered at all. Irregular pupils may do part\nof their work at the high school and part at a near-by grammar school.\nIt is not to the point to say that the average school principal is barely\nable to execute the existing system, whose extreme simplicity is threatened by these innovations. My experience satisfies me that such assertions are unwarranted slanders against the men and women who manage\nour elementary schools. I believe them capable of executing a system\napproaching in complexity the really complicated facts with which it\ndeals. If I am mistaken in this opinion, that fact should not prevent\nsuch changes of system, or managers of systems, as will give to the child,\nfor whom the schools have been created, a better opportunity for that\ndevelopment toward which his natural aptitudes impel him.\n\nFATIGUE\nBY WILL\n\nS. MONROE,\n\nAMONG\nSTATE\n\n[abstract\n\nSCHOOL\n\nNORMAL\n\nprepared\n\nCHILDREN\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nby the\n\nWESTFIELD,\n\nMASS.\n\nauthor]\n\n\" Under the strains and exhausting calls of modern civilized life,\"\nremarked Sir Francis Gal ton some years ago, \" the power of endurance\nis rising continually in importance. Men and women have nowadays to\nact rapidly for many hours, and to act exceptionally well. It therefore\nseems very reasonable that teachers should direct their attention to some\nfair way of determining the relative power of endurance among school\nchildren.\"\nThat educators are beginning to feel a measure of their responsibility\nin the matter of ascertaining causes conditioning mental fatigue is made\napparent by the numerous exhaustive investigations carried on during the\n\n"}
{"page": 99, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nFATIGUE\n\nAMONG\n\nSCHOOL\n\nCHILDREN\n\nQi\n\npast twenty-five years. It is only necessary to recall the studies of fatigue\nby Binet, Henri, Fere, Coutier, Vaschide, and Grasset, in France ; Hodge,\nLombard, Delabarre, MacDougall, Gilbert, and Miss Holmes, in our own\ncountry ; Mosso, Maggiora, and Patrizzi, in Italy, and the long line of\nGerman investigators — Kraepelin, Ebbinghaus, Burgerstein, Griesbach,\nFriedrich, Kemsies, Amberg, and Leser — to be convinced of the activity\nin investigation and research in this department of educational thought.\nAll sorts of methods have been employed — counting the letters in given\nparagraphs, adding and multiplying numbers, reading aloud, and writing\nfrom dictation ; and instruments both numerous and complicated — ergographs and sphygmographs, sesthesiometers and dynamometers — have\nbeen devised in order to give exact mathematical measurements to fatigue\nresults.\nThe problem is not to eliminate normal fatigue, but to prevent extreme\nforms of exhaustion. It is the latter which is so detrimental to efficient\nmental work.\n\nBut that exhaustion is a condition altogether too common\n\nin American schools is already apparent to students of the physical conditions of childhood. To except a few cautious and conservative physicians, the medical profession is convinced that the demands of modern\neducation are made in ignorance of the mental capacity of youth ; and\nthat, in consequence, excessive fatigue, with its attendant appalling consequences— chorea, hysteria, neurasthenia, and the numerous school\npsychoses — are directly traceable to the modern public school. The\ncharge is, in part, just, and it is the purpose of this address to suggest\nsome of the more common factors conditioning excessive fatigue among\nschool children.\nI. Infrequent recesses. — Kraepelin found in his tests that,when the work\nwas interspersed with brief rest periods, it was distinctly noticeable that\nthe work after each pause was more rapid than in the preceding period.\nThis would hint that practice generates skill, and that marked fatigue is\ncounteracted during the brief rest pauses. In consequence, Kraepelin\nstrongly urges the insertion of short rest pauses between periods of school\nwork, in order that the working power of the children may be increased\nand the destructive effects of excessive fatigue counteracted. He believes\nthat the school must provide more frequent recesses, even tho the length\nof the session must be increased. Kraepelin's conclusions are fully corroborated bythe investigations of Friedrich at Wiirzburg. Briefly summarized, his conclusions may be stated as follows : (i) School work\nsuffers in quality with the length of the school sessions, that done at the\nbeginning of the sessions being uniformly the best and that at the close\nthe poorest; (2) the forenoon work is always better than that done in\nthe afternoon ; (3) the quality of the work is always better when there is\na recess during the half day ; and (4) still better when the half-day\nsession has two brief recesses.\n\n"}
{"page": 100, "printed_page": null, "text": "92\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\n2. The introduction of gymnastics as a substitute for recess. — No one\nfamiliar with the proper forms of systematic physical training today questions the utility of gymnastics. But most forms of educational gymnastics call for degrees of sustained attention altogether inconsistent with ,\nrelaxation and recuperation. Kemsies found that of all school studies\ngymnastics was the most fatiguing, and Betmann's study shows that gymnastics always lowers the quality of the mental work, and logically suggests that with young and growing children free, spontaneous play in the\nopen air is the best method of recuperation.\n3. Extended recitation periods. — In the more advanced grades of our\nschools there is a growing tendency to decrease the frequency of recitations in a given study and to increase the length of the recitation periods.\nThat this tendency is mischievous alike in elementary and secondary\nschools is clearly apparent when one studies the factors conditioning\nfatigue. Burgerstein found that the children tested by him did the least\nwork and made the most mistakes during the closing part of the recitation period ; and the tests of Zimmermann conclusively prove that more\nis gained by six half-hour lessons in arithmetic per week than in four\nwhole- hour lessons.\n4. Monotonous character of school work.- — In our enthusiasm for the\ncorrelation of studies and the express determination to have one \" core \"\nabout which all the studies must be co-ordinated, we are apt to lose sight\nof the fact that all monotony of thought and feeling is a source of fatigue\nwhich is real and profound, and if it continues for a considerable length of\ntime, grave results must follow. Kraepelin's experiments conclusively\nprove how speedily monotonous work will produce fatigue, and Crichton\nBrowne expresses the belief that acute dementia is especially developed\nunder the influence of emotional and intellectual monotony.\n5. Rapid physical growth. — It is a well-known fact in anthropometry\nthat the growth of the child during his school life is marked by periods\nof activity and rest, and that during the periods of accelerated growth\nthere is a noticeable diminution in the power to resist fatigue. Acceleration in growth with the American girl ordinarily manifests itself at the\nage of eleven, and with the American boy about two years later. And yet,\nin most schools, during the periods of accelerated growth there is often\nan increased demand made on the mental powers of the child.\n6. Failure to recognize individual variations. — All modern child study\nemphasizes the great individual differences among school children, close\ngrading of our town and city schools to the contrary notwithstanding.\nFailure to recognize mental and physical variations necessarily causes\nmuch undue waste of individual energy.\n7. Insufficient and irregular hours of sleep. — The vasomotor centers are\nin interrupted activity during the waking hours, and must in consequence\nproduce a condition of fatigue in the brain centers which is proportioned\n\n"}
{"page": 101, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nSOME\n\nFUNDAMENTALS\n\nIN\n\nTEACHING\n\n93\n\nby the amount of stimulation. As expressed by Howell, three factors\ncombine to produce normal sleep : (i) a diminution of irritability, caused\nby fatigue of large portions of the cortical area; (2) voluntary withdrawal\nof sensory and motor stimuli involved in the preparation for sleep ; and\n(3) a diminished blood supply to the brain, owing to a relaxation of tone\nin the vasomotor center and the fall of general arterial pressure thereby\nproduced. The recent investigations made by Professor Patrick and Dr.\nGilbert in the University of Iowa show that in loss of sleep the memory\nbecomes defective, and that the power of attention is thereby largely lost.\nRecognizing, as we all do, the necessity of sleep for beings possessed of\na central nervous system, the unmindful conduct of parents in many communities is simply personified cruelty. The more actively a child exercises, the more sleep he requires ; and much more sleep is necessary in our\nnorthern climate than in warmer countries. During the winter months,\nwhen juvenile social dissipations are most numerous, children need more\nsleep than at any other season of the year, and they usually get less. If\nundue fatigue is to be averted, there must be ample sleep periods^for the\nprocesses of nutrition and reconstruction of the worn-out tissues.\nSome of these conditions, it is true, are beyond the reach of the school,\nbut much may be done — much must be done — if mental fatigue is to be\naverted, and if young and growing minds are to be normally developed.\n\nSOME\nBY L. D. HARVEY,\n\nFUNDAMENTALS\nSTATE\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nIN TEACHING\nOF PUBLIC\n\nINSTRUCTION,\n\nWISCONSIN\n\nWhile the educational philosophers and pioneers are working out new\neducational systems and new schemes of educational policy, and inviting\nattention to them, it is still good educational policy to remember that the\nboys and girls in the schools today will be men and women before the\npresent conditions shall entirely give way to and be replaced by the\nsupposed superior conditions of some new educational gospel.\nAccepting the fact that what shall be taught in the schools is determined, for the most part, not by those who are to do the teaching, but by\nthose above them in authority, and that the teachers are held responsible\nfor doing the work set them to do, it follows that whatever can be done\nto improve the quality of the teaching in the subjects to be taught will be\nfor the best interests of those being taught.\nIn our professional schools for the training of teachers, in our teachers' institutes, teachers' meetings, and conventions of various sorts I\nbelieve that an undue amount of time and effort is given to the consideration of methods of teaching, methods of testing, and methods of drilling\n\n"}
{"page": 102, "printed_page": null, "text": "94\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\n— in short, the method of the How, and too little time and effort to the\nconsideration of the method of determining What shall be taught in any\ngiven recitation, what drill exercises are needed, and what testing shall be\napplied at any given time and for any given class, group, or individual.\nIn this determination of the What, I do not mean what subjects shall\nfind a place in the course of study, for, as I have already said, these are\nin the main determined for the teacher, whether he will or not. With\nthe fact settled that a given subject is to be taught, there still remains a\nvery large field for the careful determination of what facts and relations\nare to be taught, and what it is unnecessary to teach because already\nknown.\nI firmly believe that failure at this point is responsible for more of the\npoor results rightly charged against our schools than failure at any other\npoint. The How in teaching always depends upon the What of the subject, the What of the pupil, and the What of the teacher. Volumes are\nwritten presenting in elaborate detail the method of the How. Educational lecturers discourse learnedly upon it to bodies of wondering or disgusted teachers, and educational journals furnish a department of methods\ndealing with the How, in order to meet a long- felt want. All this is well,\nbut the fundamental thing, the method of the What, is at best merely\nalluded to as of importance, but left for the teacher to elaborate.\nI venture to offer a few suggestions as a guide for the teacher who is\ninterested in determining what is to be taught before deciding upon how\nit shall be taught.\nFour things are to be determined with reference to any given recitation and in advance of the recitation, if anything is to be taught by the\nteacher in that recitation, or learned by the pupil as a preparation for the\nrecitation. These four things concern themselves with the teacher's determination of what is to be done for and in the next recitation :\n1. The teacher must have in mind a definite purpose, or purposes, to\nbe realized in the next recitation.\n2. The teacher must have in mind the things which must be known or\ndone in order that the purposes may be realized.\n3. The teacher must determine what of the things falling under 2 the\npupil now knows or can now do.\n4. He must determine what of the things enumerated in 2 the pupil\nstill has to learn or to do, and the order in which they should be known\nor done.\nNo. 2 demands an enumeration of particulars of what must be known\nor done. We may suppose that a, b, c, d, e, /, g, h are the particulars.\nThese particulars are not dependent upon the pupil in any way. He cuts\nno figure here. They depend upon the nature of the knowledge. They\nare the things which the child, or the adult, or anybody must know in\norder that he may have that knowledge.\nSo that concerns itself with a\n\n"}
{"page": 103, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nSOME\n\nFUNDAMENTALS\n\nIN\n\nTEACHING\n\n95\n\ncareful consideration of the subject-matter, and what is essential to its\nknowledge. No. 3 is a determination by the teacher today, before the\nwork for tomorrow is assigned, of what among a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h the\npupil now knows. That examination may determine that a and c and e\nand g are known, that b is partially known, and that / and h and d are\nentirely unknown, or that the pupil is unable to do those things. No. 4\nis a determination of what remains to be known or done of the things\nenumerated in No. 2 : b, added knowledge in that ; d, f, and h entirely\nunknown ; those are the things remaining for tomorrow's work. The\norder in which these things shall be known may or may not be essential.\nIf it is a subject logical in its unfolding, then the order is an essential,\nbecause certain things must come before the next thing can be known.\nIf it is a subject that is not logical, it is not so material, altho there\nmay be some one arrangement that is better than another.\nWhen these four things have been determined, the teacher is ready to\nconsider the question of how these things shall be taught or learned, and\nuntil these four things are determined any consideration of the How is a\nputting of the cart before the horse. Other things being equal, the best\nteaching is always done when this order of procedure is followed by the\nteacher, either consciously or unconsciously, perhaps best when unconsciously followed. Let us see whether these four steps are fundamental\nor not.\n1. Without a definite purpose in the teacher's mind there can be no\ndefinite assignment of work to be done by the pupils. This purpose must\nbe, not so much matter, so many pages to be learned, but what added knowledge, power, or skill is to be the result of the recitation and the preparation for it. Without a definite purpose the teaching will be vague,\nindefinite, and unrelated. In either case the work of the teacher is fundamentally poor.\n2. A broad general purpose in the teaching of the entire subject is\nessential, but a specific, definite purpose for each day's recitation is necessary, that the general purpose may be realized without waste. The general purpose may be to acquire knowledge or to develop power or skill ;\nthe specific purpose must be to acquire certain knowledge today, or to\ndevelop power or skill in a certain direction. If the specific purpose is\nto master a mathematical process, to master the reasons for the various\nsteps in the mathematical process, to teach the drawing of a map, to\ndevelop a clear idea of a mountain system, to master a principle, or the\napplication of the principle in physics, or a lesson in reading, in Latin,\nor in English grammar, it is essential that the teacher have clearly in\nmind what truths, facts, and relations must be comprehended by the mind\nin order that the purpose in each case be realized.\n3. With this knowledge clearly in hand, it is evident that the next step\nfor the teacher is to determine what of these requisite truths, facts, and\n\n"}
{"page": 104, "printed_page": null, "text": "96\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nrelations the pupil is already master of. It will not do to assume that he\nis master of none of them, for it \"may develop that he is already master of\nmost of them, in which case the work remaining to be taught or learned\nis not sufficient to occupy the available time. Neither will it do to assume\nthat he is master of most of these truths, facts, and relations, as that\nassumption may be very wide of the mark, and so more remains to be\ntaught or learned than can be mastered in the time available.\n4. There remains for the teacher to determine in what order the\nthings to be mastered shall be taken up.\nUntil these four steps are taken by the teacher, either consciously or\nunconsciously, he is not prepared to assign a lesson for preparation nor\nto teach one.\nIn the testing process these four propositions are equally applicable :\n1. There must be a definite purpose in the testing.\n2. There must lie closely in the mind of the teacher the things which\nmust be known or done in order that the test may be met by the person\nbeing tested.\n3. There must be a proper arrangement in the order in which the\ntesting is done. This in the preliminary process already outlined is the\nfourth thing to be determined.\n4. \"The actual testing determines what of the things necessary to be\nknown or done the, pupil now knows or can now do. This in the preliminary process already outlined is the third thing to be determined.\nIn drill work to secure skill these four propositions are also applicable : ■\n1. There must be a definite purpose as to the kind of skill to be\ndeveloped.\n2. There must be clearly in the teacher's mind the different things\nwhich must necessarily be done in order that the skill may appear.\n3. The teacher must determine what of these things the pupil can\nnow do so well as to need no further drill.\n4. The teacher must determine the order in which the drill work\nmust proceed.\nNow, let me appeal to your experience as teachers. Is it not truet\nwhen you have assigned work to be done, that in numerous cases, when\non the next day the pupils arose and said they were not prepared, and\nyou asked why, they said that they did not quite understand what they\nwere to do ? Or, when they arose and attempted to recite, or to answer\nyour questions, it very soon developed that they had not done what you\nhad expected them to do, and on questioning you found that which you\nexpected them to do did not lie clearly in their consciousness ? That is\ntrue in your high school, is it not ? That is true in your normal school,\nis it not ? I suspect it is true with some classes in the university. I know\nit is true with all classes below the high schools, because the immaturity\n\n"}
{"page": 105, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nSOME\n\nFUNDAMENTALS\n\nIN\n\nTEACHING\n\n97\n\nof the pupils, their lack of knowledge of what the content of the subject\nis, makes it impossible for them to know what is in the teacher's mind,\nunless that teacher does present clearly and definitely the precise points\nupon which the preparation is to be made. Now, later on, with the more\nadvanced students, when the mode of assigning work has been of such a\ncharacter as to develop a mental habit, on the part of the students, of\nclose and practical analysis along these lines, we may assign a lesson to\nstudents, and say to them : \"Your work now is to determine what in\nthat lesson it is essential to know, and then to know it.\" But the pupils\nin the common schools are unable to do that. There must be, if there is\nto be good teaching, definiteness in the assignment of work. There is\nmore waste of time and energy in the schoolroom, all along thru the district\nschool and beyond, because of the failure of teachers to do the things\nindicated in those four propositions, than in any other place where failure\noccurs. If you will stop to think a moment, it will occur to you that in\nany subject it is not a matter of so many pages. A student is out of\nschool for a week, or two weeks. What has he lost ? Fifteen pages —\nso many square feet of paper and printer's ink ! What has he lost ? He\ncomes back today, to enter his class. Is he prepared to do it ? Here is\na boy who comes from the district school into the high school, and he\nhas not studied all the subjects that the pupils in that high school have\nstudied, or he has not had them in their entirety. Shall he go over that\narea which they have gone over ? Must that be done ? Or is the\nquestion. What has he to know or to do in order that he may do this piece\nof work that his class in the high school is doing ? That is the first\nquestion. When you have settled that, the next question is : What of those\nthings does he now know, or can he now do ? And then you settle the\nquestion whether or not he is prepared to enter that class. And if you\nfind that he is not prepared to enter that class, because he does not know\nenough of those things, then this follows, that you have before you\ndefinitely and in a clear-cut form the precise things which he must know,\nand you can focus his attention upon them, and he will do in a month's\ntime on those essentials that which will enable him to do the work\nof his class ; whereas, if you take the surface plan, the area system, it will\ntake him a year to get ready to do it. What is true of him is true of the\nstudent* who has been absent for a week thru sickness, or whatever\ncause. It is a misfortune that he was absent, but perhaps it is not worth\nwhile to punish both him and the teachers for his absence, if the loss can\nbe remedied without such punishment.\nIs it feasible to use this plan ? You will say : \" I always have a\nDurpose in teaching, but I do not formulate and write out all the things that\nhave to be known or done in order that the purpose may be realized.\"\nNo, I know you do not, but it would be a very excellent piece of mental\ngymnastics to do it. If anyone doubts it, let him make the attempt, and\n\n"}
{"page": 106, "printed_page": null, "text": "98\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nbefore he has worked out half a dozen lessons it will dawn upon him\nthat it needs an organization of his knowledge such as he has never\nattempted before. The teacher may say that he does not have time to\ndo it. He hasn't time not to do it. The doing of it will soon put the\nteacher into such an attitude that unconsciously his work will take that\ndirection ; and the best teaching, of course, is always done when the\nmethod does not come into consciousness. But we never reach that point\nwith any certainty until we have consciously worked the matter out, and\nmastered it, and it becomes a habit of thought. That is what is needed\nin the schools. Try the experiment of formulating and putting into\ngood English your purpose in a recitation in arithmetic with a primary\nclass, an intermediate, or a grammar- or high-school grade, or a class of\nteachers in an institute. What more are they to know when they have\nfinished the recitation than when they began ? Get something definite\nthere. Try it in a reading lesson in the primary class, in the Fifth\nReader, the class reading some piece of standard literature. Have you a\npurpose definite enough so that it can be stated ? If not, then bear with\nyour pupils in the recitation, when they fail to state definitely what you\nthink ought to be stated, and you tell them, \"The reason you can't do it\nis because it isn't clear in your own mind.\" The very effort to formulate\nthis purpose will clear up and make definite the purpose. Then, when\nyou have it formulated, go back along the line, and see what knowledge\nis essential to the mastery of it. Suppose, for instance, that it is the\nprimary child standing here facing an intermediate or grammar-grade\nlesson. What knowledge must that pupil have along this line so that he\nmay do the things which are to be done, or learn the things which are to\nbe learned in this lesson tomorrow ? You may say that that requires an\nenumeration of all the knowledge the child has up to date, and of the\nadded knowledge coming from a mastery of the lesson. In a large sense,\nyes ; but in a practical sense, no. Because this is true, your work each\nday with the pupil in that and other subjects is putting you in possession\nof the things which that pupil knows, and enables you to assume with\nreasonable accuracy the scope of his knowledge ; and so you do not have\nto go back and enumerate everything which must be known. As your\nacquaintance with the pupil extends, it becomes more and more an\nenumeration of the things which must be known, and which ^ou are\nreasonably sure are new to the pupil, or which contain some elements to\nhim unknown. To make this enumeration is a very valuable piece of\ntraining for the teacher. I have seen, and you have seen, again and\nagain, a recitation prove a failure, the students being unprepared,\nbecause neither teacher nor pupils had recognized that there were things\nlying back there, and unknown to the pupil, which had to come into his\nmind before he could do the work, and because an effort had been made\nto have it done with that element left out without which it could not be\n\n"}
{"page": 107, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nQUO\n\nVADIMUS?\n\n99\n\ndone. If we determine and formulate definitely and clearly what has\nto be known or done, in each lesson, in order that the lesson may be\nmastered ; if we then follow this by such tests as are necessary to\ndetermine what of these things the pupils now know or can now do; if we\nthen teach or assign to be learned in their proper order the things\nremaining to be known or done — we shall put our teaching upon a basis\nfundamentally correct.\n\nQUO\nBY\n\nMRS.\n\nHELEN\n\nL. GRENFELL,\n\nVADIMUS?\nSTATE\n\nINSTRUCTION,\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF\n\nPUBLIC\n\nCOLORADO\n\nThe strength of the nation depends upon the strength of the individual, just as the strength of a chain depends upon the strength of the\nlinks. The perfection of the character of the individual thru a harmonious and systematic development should then be the subject of the\nclosest study, and, since in our own nation we must endeavor to evolve a\nhigh grade of national character from a conglomeration of apparently\ndiverse forces and conflicting social conditions, we must be sure that we\nare misdirecting no energy, and, as we have accepted the fact that education means the proper training of the youth, morally, physically, and intellectually, so that he may be prepared to act well his part in life, in our\ncommon -school system we must establish an ideal wholly American.\nThe school is weak in that it does not foster the paternal spirit, or the\nclose personal relation existing between parent and child. There is perhaps nothing more hopeful and helpful to the child than the realization\nthat, come what may, there are those in the home who are on his side and\non whom he may depend in all emergencies. He knows that they are\ninterested in his work, that they watch his movements, are proud of his\nsuccesses, and sympathize with him in his failures. To hold and keep\nthis strong bond of sympathy is sufficient reward for his toil, and for it\nhe is willing to suffer and labor thru all difficulties. This is virtually all\nof life to him, and well-nigh sufficient reward for every difficulty. It is\nalmost impossible to secure this reciprocal feeling in schools, but the more\nnearly the school approaches this relationship, the more nearly will it\nhave removed one of the great obstacles to efficiency. A good home is\nnot only typical of the relationship that should exist between teacher and\nchild, but it is prophetic of what we shall be to each other in the great\nhereafter. The home is the oldest organization of mankind on earth. It\nis the unit of all organization, and in many respects the highest and\nmost beneficial; all other organizations — community, state, nation — are\n\n"}
{"page": 108, "printed_page": null, "text": "lOO\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Genera\n\nfounded on it and could not exist but for it. \"There is no place like\nhome ; \" there never has been ; there never will be.\nAll government in early civilization was carried on thru the family.\nThe family was not only the highest, but the only source of authority.\nThe association spread by kinship and was enlarged to tribes ruled by\nthe oldest. Common danger and common interest caused tribes to be\nassociated together for their common welfare and protection, and the\nmultiplication of these associations developed the state and the nation.\nThus from the family came all government.\nOur common school grew out of the home and its necessities in much\nthe same way. The child needed to be taught, and in the early settlement of this country, the whole time of the parents being taken up in\nproviding the necessities of life, they hired a tutor. This tutor or pedagog went from house to house and taught, and finally his employers\ncombined their interests and provided a place where all could be taught,\neach bearing his proportionate share of the expense. Naturally, those of\nthe same attainments were taught together, and thus was developed the\nclass ; out of the class grew, in course of time, the grade, and from the\ngrade the graded school, and from the graded school the graded-school\nsystem that is the source of this large convocation, and by which fifteen\nmillion children of the United States are taught today. The school,\nthen, in all its greatness, is the outgrowth of the home. It touches and\nis upheld and maintained by all the families of the United States. It is\nman's providence against ignorance and for wisdom in the child. It is\nthe home's way of working out the best interests of the child. It is the\ncreation and creature of the home, and not the home its creature.\nLet us consider the relation of the family, of the home, and of the school.\nThere is in certain sections, in certain schools, and in the minds of certain people the idea that the school should be dominant over the home,\nthat parents should yield all their authority and obligations to the\nschool ; aYid again, there is, in certain sections, in certain homes, the\nidea that the school is a usurper of authority, and that it encroaches in\nmany ways upon the rights of the home.\nWhat are these lines of encroachment ? That we may understand\nthem better, let us outline to a certain extent the rights of each, and\npoint out where each is strong or weak, where each makes for a better\ndevelopment of the child ; for it must be admitted that the school has no\nright to exist except as it affords better conditions for the child and his\ndevelopment. The home has and can defend the priority of right, and\nwe can only plead the cause of the school in so far as it can do more for\nthe child than could be accomplished without it.\nIt has been customary for some parents to view the child as their sole\nproperty. To the parents, they claim, belongs the right to decide in all\ncases as to the disposition of the child ; that there is no authority beyond\n\n"}
{"page": 109, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nQUO\n\nVADIMUS?\n\nthem. If they choose to educate the child, well and good ; if they\nchoose that he should grow up in ignorance, their right there is none to\ndispute. This idea seems to place the child as a mere chattel to be disposed of to the hfghest bidder for the sole benefit of the parent. It is a\nbelief that degrades the very idea of parentage. The child is viewed\nfrom a commercial standpoint, as being able to produce so much for the\nfamily.\nThe conception of the state seems to be that the child does not exist\nentirely for the parents' good, but for the good of all. That if the child\nsuffers the whole state suffers, that if the child is benefited the whole\nstate is benefited, is this conception. In ancient times, when the boundary of government coincided with the boundary of the family, perhaps\nthey held, with some right to acceptance, that the benefits to be derived\nfrom the child belonged only to those within the immediate family; but\nas the idea of obligation spread beyond the bounds of family to other\nfamilies, and from families to neighborhoods, and from neighborhoods to\nstates, and finally to nations, the interdependence of the whole world\nwas established, and the enlightened man looked upon all mankind as his\npeople.\nNow, does the parent lose in this case, or is he not rather the gainer,\nsince he receives in return for his good will toward others the good will\nof all others toward him ?\nMan is naturally a gregarious animal. He thrives best and comes to\nthe highest state of perfection in association. Living alone he meets no\nthoughts or wants higher than himself ; therefore his aspirations soar no\nhigher than himself. The moral law has little or no application for him\nwhen living alone. He cannot love his neighbor as himself. He cannot\nhate his brother, nor can he heap coals of fire on his head, nor do unto\nothers as he would they should do unto him. A large part of the blessings, as well as the curses, that are the heritage of man come from association. Ina large sense \"it is not good for man to be alone.\"\nA large part of the intended environment of man is man. Hence,\none of the main points of strength in the school is the fact of association\nor a common purpose. There is an advantage in being taught in numbers— the advantage of a variety of ideas and expression, the advantage\nof good-natured competition, the advantage of the inspiration lent by\n'\nassociation.\nIt may properly be claimed that the school is the place where the\ncitizen is developed. The regard for the rights of individuals and of the\nhome, respect for the feelings of others, a realization of one's own significance and insignificance, can hardly be attained without the daily contact\nwith many fellow-creatures of our own kind.\nTherefore, an unquestionable advantage for the school is the fact that\nit affords a larger society in which to educate the child than does the\n\n"}
{"page": 110, "printed_page": null, "text": "I02\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nfamily, and, in consequence, the education will be broader than if the\nchild is trained alone. This larger society fits him for a larger usefulness\nand gives him a preparation for citizenship in his country without which\nhe would be illy fitted. I here take it for granted that one of the great\nduties for which we should seek to fit the child is his duty as a citizen —\nhis duty to others outside of his immediate relations. Any method that\nlooks toward education and fails to do this would be futile. In this\nlarger society of the school the child begins his education in citizenship\nin a manner he never could reach in the home. In the presence of an\nassembly the individual is aroused, agitated, swayed, and inspired. The\nthrill of numbers is electric. All impressions are deepened and intensified. In the community life of the school the child learns lessons of\nothers' rights, of truthfulness, of patriotism, of the duty of sustained\neffort, that he could not get at home. Where else could he be brought\nto such a realization of the effectiveness of united action ? The school\nis the great necessity of a free democracy. It is indispensable in bringing up the citizens of a republic. But because this is so, it does not follow that it is the only necessity in the education of our youth.\nIt is weak in that it does not respond to the property right or desire.\nIn a large measure \" mine \" and \" thine \" are obliter-ated in the school.\nIt is \" our teacher,\" \" our school,\" \" our holiday,\" and there is nothing\nin the school to which exclusive ownership can be claimed by the child.\nIn the family community of ownership this is true at first, but it is not\nthe intention of the family that this shall hold good for any length of\ntime. The child will gradually develop beyond this as he is given\nobjects which are a pleasure to him, largely because of his exclusive\nownership. This idea of individual property right is a fundamental one,\nand is closely associated with individual responsibility. The child must\nbe taught individual responsibility before he can be taught collective\nresponsibility. If there is no \" mine,\" there can be no \"ours\" to the\nchild. The exclusive idea of \" ours \" leads to communism. According\nto the latter doctrine there is no individual right ; all right is associated ;\nevery individual is subservient in all things to the mass. Organization\ncarried too far becomes communism. Individual rights, if carried too\nfar, become nihilism. Both the individual and the associated right must\nbe kept inviolate. Let the school recognize and know the one and the\nhome maintain and promulgate the other.\nThe home, likewise, has its advantages over the school. It has the\npower of the parental influence, and therefore lays the foundations of\nvirtue — obedience, self-control, and integrity. While their cultivation\nshould be carried on both at home and at school in an orderly, harmonious way, has not the all-wise Creator, in giving each child two parents,\ndesignated its primary instructors ? It appears to me that the most\nnatural thing would be for parents to rear and train their own children ;\n\n"}
{"page": 111, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nQUO\n\nV A DIM\n\nUS?\n\nIO3\n\nand, in reality, nearly all that the school does could be done by the intelligent parent in the home. And, in considering this subject, the first\nproblem that presents itself is this : Should the school continue to\nassume gradually all the responsibilities of the child's education, encroaching more and more upon the duties of the home ?\nIs it a possible thing for the public school to equip the pupil intellectually, todrill him physically, to train him manually, and to develop\nhim morally ? It seems to me that it is manifestly impossible to do all\nthis during five or six hours out of twenty-four. Education is the result\nof the work of all the hours of all the day, and the three-fourths of the\n\"child's out-of-school life contains fully as powerful formative elements as\nthe one-fourth in school. The tendency of all our new methods in\nteaching is toward individual work. The ideal is the all-round development of the child. The ideal is true. The tendency is just. But the\nmechanical conditions hampering the work are slow in reforming, and\nwithout the most effectual co-operation of all the educative influences\ncannot be even approximately realized.\nAre we not making a mistake in assuming to be all things to all children ? Is it not too often taken for granted that, if the excellence of. a\ngiven feature of education can be shown, then it it proven that that\nfeature should be included in the public-school system? Because it is\nwell that boys and girls should learn the use of tools, the accomplishments of sewing, cooking, drafting, typewriting, and many more useful\narts, it is thought that all these things should find a place in the school\ncurriculum. Is the tendency not a similar one to that of paternalism in\nthe government ? The socialist would have poverty and anxiety abolished\nby a leveling-down and leveling-up process that would place all people\nbeyond the reach of want and below the possibility of ambition ; and\nsome of our foremost thinkers prophesy the necessity of the country's\ngoing thru a period of trial of some form of socialism before a higher\nand truer solution of our economic problems will be attained. It is\npossible that such a transition period is inevitable in the educational\nsystem.\nWe already have a seeming conflict between home and school in our\ncompulsory-education laws, which, to a certain extent, take from the\nparent the right to decide whether the child shall attend school or not,\nbut which at present are unfortunately a necessity on account of the nonfulfillment of their natural, duties by certain parents thru ignorance or\nindifference. It has been decided in a number of states that the school\nhas charge of the pupil from the time he leaves home for school until he\nreturns, and even that the teacher has the right to punish the pupil for\nmisconduct during days out of school.\nIt may be that we must proceed from the step of providing free textbooks in the schools to supplying the indigent with clothing suitable for\n\n"}
{"page": 112, "printed_page": null, "text": "I04\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nattendance, and then with baths and matrons, and then with hygienic\nfood ; and the nation awake at some future day to the knowledge that\nall responsibility has been gradually removed from parents, and every\nencouragement is offered for the continued reproduction of berieficiaries\nof the government. Then a halt will be called and a revolution precipitated, from which we shall doubtless emerge with a wholesome lightening\nof the community burden and a wholesome individual distribution of\nresponsibilities. Still, even as the reorganized government, after its\nsocialistic experience, may need a century of struggle toward independent\ncitizenship, so the debilitated home condition may require years of bitter\ntraining in order to recover its responsible tone. Is it not a serious duty\nof this generation to avoid such disaster ?\nThere is nothing new under the sun, and one advantage in this fact\nis the opportunity afforded to profit by the mistakes of those who have\npreceded us. We should not follow in the footsteps of Sparta, whose\nsystem of state monopolization of the training of its youth exaggerated\nthose defects of national character which proved its undoing.\nThe socialist doctrine assumes that men do not wish to do their duty\nand should be protected from the results of their own inefficiency and\nweakness. It should be our aim to educate our children for responsibility, not for shifting their burdens upon the government; for ever\nloftier and nobler ambitions, not for the destruction of all ambition.\nThe little child is led in taking its first steps, not to make it dependent\nupon the elder who is leading, but to give it courage to step alone. All\nthe means for its independent action are there, but it has not yet learned\nthe skill for their use. The tender but wise paternalism furnishes only\nthe right aid for the winning of independence.\nThat hackneyed, but no less excellent, bit of advice given by Oliver\nWendell Holmes, to begin a child's education with his grandmother,\nshould be the watchword of our own work. Holmes was right. It is\nour duty to begin with the grandmother, for we are educating now the\ngrandmothers and the grandfathers of the future. Shall we teach them\nto banish the charge of their offspring to the regions provided by the\npublic, to consider that taxes will cover a multitude of cares, and that\nschool boards, superintendents, and teachers will turn their children out\ncreditable members of society, while they go on their way rejoicing?\nInstead of this, in the home, and especi^.lly by the mother, should the\nsleeping individuality of the child be awakjened. Every individual has\nsome especial bent. To discover and intelligently aid in the development of the child's native talent, as well as by example and precept to\nmold his character, is the duty of the parents, and for them to miss\nsuch work is to place the child forever at a disadvantage in the world.\nWe need individuality and independence of character. Each person\nis a separate unit, and must act first as such, and should never lose his\n\n"}
{"page": 113, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nQUO\n\nVADIMUS?\n\n105\n\nconsciousness of his separate existence and responsibility. Next comes\nthe existence as one of a number. Home has the first chance to impress\nthe child and to make study a necessity to his own understanding. The\nhome can increase the worth of his school training to the child by showing him the practical value of his studies and their relation to life.\nIt may be inferred from what has been said that neither home nor\nschool is a complete organization in itself for the development of the\nchild. Each, when taken alone, lacks some of the essentials of effectiveness.\nTo assure properly the reciprocal effects of home and school, by the\nadjustment of the two into an effective whole, is a delicate and difficult\ntask. The relation may be compared to that of state and nation. The\nstate is self-governing, and receives no interference from the nation until\nits action encroaches upon the rights of the nation. Then the fact is\nmade evident that the nation is the larger power. In the same way the\nschool is conducted without interference, unless it encroaches upon the\nsupreme power of the home. The difficulty lies in each one's claiming\ntoo much. There is room for -both, and instead of opposing each other\nthey should be made to work in harmony. Each is imperfect and should\nbear with the imperfections of the other. Each is necessary and can\nsupplement the other. It would be next to impossible to have a good\npublic school without the influence of the home. It would be almost\nimpossible to have a good home without the influence of the school.\nThey have been wedded so long that we cannot separate them. The\nquestion is: Do they appreciate each other now? I believe that this\nappreciation has at last begun, for, despite the socialistic tendency in\nour more and more crowded course of study, another tendency is also\ngaining ground, and that is the drawing together of the home and the\nschool. The establishment in nearly every state and city of parents'\nmeetings is significant of a widespread awakening on the subject of the\neducation of the children ; and a hopeful sign of progress toward the\nideal union of home and school is to be found in the sympathy and\nco-operation with educational work on the part of city officials, clergymen, newspapers, women's clubs, individuals — all the important agencies\nof the community. All friends of humanity should rejoice that a bridge\nis now building across the gulf once fixed between home and school.\nBegun on one side with fear, and on the other with trembling, it has\ngone on and on, and the final closing of that separation will extricate us\nfrom our perplexity. It is the working together of the two means of\ngrace given by providence to this age — the home and the school —\nwhich will mean salvation. The powers that be in the child's world are\ntaking counsel together, and two powers are better than one, if one is the\nchild's own parent.\nThe school can be a great factor for good in the child's development.\n\n"}
{"page": 114, "printed_page": null, "text": "loD\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nbut it can never be the leading factor. Let us acknowledge its true\nplace and thus strengthen its influence; for if we insist on making it\nchief, we may ruin its possibilities. If we allow the school to encroach\nupon the inborn, God-given right of the home, we shall have upon our\nhands the wreck of both. But we shall not. We shall establish upon a\nbasis of common-sense, justice, and truth the scientific co-operation of\nhome and school, and upon that rock we shall build character that will\nneed no support from piaternal government, but will nobly maintain the\nindependence which is America's birthright.\nThere are two things, amidst all the difficulties thru which we may\npass, of which the American may feel justly proud — the American home\nand the American school. These, united and harmonious, will develop\nfor us citizens who realize for what they are called on the world's stage,\nand that their call must not be for self alone, but for humanity.\n\nTHE\n\nBY HOWARD\nUNITED\n\nUNITED\n\nJ. ROGERS,\nSTATES\n\nSTATES\n\nDIRECTOR\n\nCOMMISSION\n\nOF\nTO\n\nEXHIBIT\n\nAT\n\nPARIS\n\nEDUCATION\n\nAND\n\nSOCIAL\n\nTHE\n\nPARIS\n\nEXPOSITION\n\nECONOMY,\nOF\n\nI90O\n\nI am here under orders from the commissioner-general of the United\nStates commission, and from the President of this association — for a\nrequest from your honored executive is at all times equivalent to a command— to report progress concerning the preparation of the educational\nexhibit of the United States at the Paris exposition of 1900.\nAnd it may be, I sincerely hope it will be, that, in the midst of the\nmighty flow of wisdom from this platform and the plentitude of theories\nrained down upon you, a few plain and dry facts may prove a not unwelcome variation from the purely scholastic program.\nThe twenty-second universal exposition falls in the closing year of the\nnineteenth century. The French authorities have, therefore, in view not\nonly the collection of the best and most ingenious products of the brain\nand hand of creative man, but a retrospective exhibit of the growth and\ndevelopment of each group of material products during the century.\nThe nineteenth century — what a stride in the march of civilization do its\nlimits mark ! Ushered into existence at the close of the great struggle\nfor liberty and equality, it has been distinctively a century of liberty for\nperson and emancipation for mind. From the colonies of Britain, from\nthe steppes of Russia, from the plantations of America, and from the\njungles of Africa, shackles have been stricken from the limbs of men.\nNot less rapid has been the advance of mind and the conquests of\ninventive genius.\n\nFulton's \"Clermont\"\n\ncreeping slowly up the Hudson,\n\n"}
{"page": 115, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nUNITED\n\nSTATES\n\nEXHIBIT\n\nAT\n\nPARIS\n\n107\n\nMorse's telegraphic key ticking off the messages which mocked at space,\nBessemer's process which has linked the world in iron bands, are great\nachievements which stand like monuments along the pathway of the century ;but surrounding them and relating to them are thousands of ingenious discoveries and brilliant inventions, in every branch of science and\nof art, which stamp this century as pre-eminently the scientific age. To\nsum up these achievements, to place them graphically before the world,\nto illustrate their development, and to blazon their present high excellence, isthe motive of the French exposition of 1900.\nNo science has made more satisfactory progress during the century*\nor during a half century, than the science of education. This proposition\nneeds no demonstration to this audience. Should it need practical illustration to others, we might point with pardonable pride to the assemblage\ngathered in this city, and ask what other profession could bring these\nnumbers over such distances for an interchange of ideas and a renewal of\nfriendships.\nThe theory of public education, in its relation to the state, has\nadvanced from the education of the few and the select, at personal expense\nor by church aid,. to the education of all at state expense.\nThe science of teaching has advanced from its chance dependence on\nthe personality of the instructor to the certainty of skilled teachers\ntrained in the principles and philosophy of education.\nThe material development and equipment of the school have kept\npace with the advance in architecture and hygiene.\nThe literature of education has grown from a few scattered classics to\na magnificent library which boasts its Spencer, its Froebel, its Mann, its\nHopkins, and its Harris. To portray this growth, to bring it out in\nbold relief in all its relations to the other groups, is the work of the\ndepartment of education at the exposition.\nThe French authorities in their classification recognize education as\nthe source of all progress and give it the place of honor. The building\ndevoted to it is one of those erected in the Champs de Mars. To those\nwho recall the magnificent distances at Chicago and the opportunity presented for bold combinations of landscape gardening and architectural\neffects, the space treatment at Paris may be a disappointment. Yet in\nthe space at their disposal the very highest artistic conceptions are being\nwrought, and the result will be a gem with an incomparable setting.\nThe two chief areas available for exposition purposes are the Champs de\nMars and the Esplanade des Invalides, parallel with it, nearly a mile\naway ; connecting their southern extremities, like the arc of a large circle,\nis the river Seine, both banks of which are now public parks and a part\nof the exposition grounds. In all three hundred and thirty-six acres lie\nwithin the grounds, as compared to seven hundred and seventy-five acres\nat Chicago in 1893.\n\n"}
{"page": 116, "printed_page": null, "text": "io8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nNaturally there is a proportionate cutting down of available space\nwithin the buildings, and the problem has become, not what we may\nshow, but how we can show what we must show. The French have\nestablished the ratio that 60 per cent, of exhibition space belongs to the\nhome country, and the other 40 per cent, is to be divided among the\nvisiting nations. I do not know that there is any particular reason\nunderlying this division ; probably the all-sufficient one for which the\nblacksmith thrashed the parson — because he wanted to and because he\ncould ; but you will readily see that the exposition is first and foremost a\nFrench exposition. Expansion for Americans is not permitted to be the\norder of the day in exposition circles. When the assignments were made,\nI railed as loudly as the best of them over the inadequacy of space, but I\nmust confess that it has some mitigating circumstances ; for while it does\nnot permit .us to show to the best advantage the development of our\npublic-school system, and even compels the omission of many desirable\nfeatures, it nevertheless checks the tendency to pad out an exhibit with\nuseless repetitions, and bars out the admission of many questionable features which a natural leniency might tempt us to admit, were space abundant. Those of you who studied carefully the educational exhibit of the\nvarious states at the Chicago exposition will know quite well what I\nmean. I deem it not too hazardous a statement to say that, if that exhibit\nhad occupied 50 per cent, less space, it would have been a 50 per cent,\nbetter exhibit.\nAs a result of the limitations of space a retrospective exhibit on the\npart of the United States is impracticable. We shall leave to our hosts,\nthe French, the responsibility of showing the advance from the crude conditions of early times to the improved facilities of today. We have no\ndoubt they will do it well. They have the space required and the genius\nrequisite. But in the United States exhibit there will be no log schoolhouses, no Webster's spelling-books, no bundle of birch rods, no Ichabod\nCranes ; nothing but the best material and the best equipment which the\nschools afford today.\nA word as to the theory which underlies the arrangement of the\nUnited States exhibit. It is distinctively national. States or any parts\nthereof are not recognized as units, simply as contributors. VVe are\nexhibiting in a foreign nation. It is a matter of no moment to a foreigner\nwhether Kentucky has a better or a worse educational system than Virginia, or whether California is on an equality with Ohio. We present\nthe best work and the most improved methods in every department of\neducation which our country affords, irrespective of its source. At the\nsame time any piece of work contributed from any locality is credited to\nthat locality, and as such will be cataloged and judged for an award.\nBut in arrangement it is simply one factor in the national exhibit of the\nUnited States.\nThe same general plan is followed in higher education,\n\n"}
{"page": 117, "printed_page": null, "text": "SessionsJ\n\nTHE\n\nUNITED\n\nSTATES\n\nEXHIBIT\n\nAT\n\nPARIS\n\n109\n\nof which I will speak later. I desire to say here, however, that not one\nperson from Boston to San Francisco whose advice we valued or whose\naid we desired but has fully indorsed the plan. A president of a\nprominent eastern university said : \" If you will tell us what you need, or\nwhat you want from us, in any department of the. university, we will prepare it for you, whether it is much or little.\" That has been the exact\nattitude of every college and university president, and every city superintendent, with whom we have come in contact. And it is my great\npleasure, as well as my duty, publicly to acknowledge the debt which the\nUnited States commission owes to the patriotism and loyalty of these\nmen ; for we recognize that it is no small matter to make only a partial\nand incomplete exhibit of the resources of a university or the equipment\nof a school system, even tho it be to bring toward perfection the\nexhibit of the nation.\nIn the arrangement of the net space at our disposal 50 percent., upon\nthe counsel of the advisory committee of this association, has been\nassigned to elementary and secondary education, and 50 per cent, to\nhigher education. In the division of the former space the kindergarten\ncomes first and occupies 5 per cent, of the 50 per cent. In this section\nwill be gathered all the statistics and material illustrative of the work of\nthe kindergarten. The elementary schools, divided into two sections,\nprimary and grammar, come next and occupy 65 per cent. ; lastly the\nsecondary school, occupying the remaining 30 per cent.\nIn the primary section will be found the entire exhibit of the primary\nschools of the country. A similar grouping follows in the grammar section and the secondary section. The exhibit, for example, of the city of\nDenver may be found in four different sections, but in each section the\nwork belonging to Denver will be placed together. In the cataloging\nthe four sections referred to will be indicated as containing the work of\nthe Denver schools, and their combined work will be entered for awards\nin accordance with the classification of the French authorities. The\nexhibit will be a collective exhibit, classified by grades and aiming to\nshow in each grade, step by step, the work which our best schools can\nturn out. In contributing work to the public-school section scores of\nlocalities are forwarding material to a greater or less degree, but the following cities are preparing a carefully graded exhibit from kindergarten\nto high school : Boston, New York, Newark, Albany, Chicago, Omaha, and\nDenver.\nIn exhibiting the work of our colleges and universities, a radical\ndeparture from accepted traditions has been made. There was not enough\nroom to grant the institutions which could in equity demand a representation at the exposition space for an adequate presentation of their resources\nand equipment. Had there been such space, it would have resulted in an\nendless repetition of exhibits, tiresome to us and bewildering to the\n\n"}
{"page": 118, "printed_page": null, "text": "no\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nfGeneral\n\nforeigner. It was, therefore, determined to arrange the exhibit by departments, and to invite each university to contribute to one or more departments as they might choose, with reference, perhaps, to those in which\nthey deemed themselves particularly strong, or well fitted to bring out some\nspecial and salient features. This was not necessarily the case, however,\nand many universities are preparing special work at our request, in order\nto round out certain departments and preserve the symmetry of the\nexhibit. The departments under the classification adopted are as follows :\nGeneral courses : philosophy, sociology and history, language and\nliterature, pure science, fine arts.\nSpecial and technical courses : education, law, medicine, theology,\nengineering, architecture, agriculture, and other special courses.\nAs a result of this arrangement we shall have in series illustrations of\nthe most advanced work and processes in all of the great faculties or\ndepartments of our universities. The foreigner who is interested in pure\nscience, or in medicine, for example, can find grouped in one place a\nconcise statement of the extent to which this work is developed, with as\nmuch illustrative work in addition as the space assigned us will permit.\nThe whole will give a comprehensive view of the field occupied by our\ngreat universities.\nOf what might be termed exhibits allied to our main educational\nscheme, such as university extension, schools for defectives, commercial\nschools, Indian schools, library work, school supplies, etc., time will not\npermit an extended mention. They are being prepared by the best talent\nprocurable, and will be represented just as completely as the space at our\ndisposal will allow. I will, however, give notice of the preparation for\ndistribution of a series of monographs on education in the United States,\ndesigned for two purposes : first, as the connecting thread running\nthru the exhibit, giving it logical sequence; and I might add that the\nexhibit will be designed to supplement the monographs and illustrate\nthem very fully ; second, as a concise presentation of the educational\nconditions existing in the United States at the close of the nineteenth\ncentury, and their historical development. They will be nineteen in\nnumber, and are being written by the best specialists in their respective\nlines to be found in the United States. The series will be edited by Dr.\nButler, of Columbia University.\nInasmuch as my connection with the series rests entirely in an advisory\nand managerial capacity, I think I may be pardoned for saying that it\nwill be the most distinctly valuable contribution- to the educational literature of this country, from a scientific as well as a historical standpoint,\nthat has yet been published. The entire series is contributed by the state\nof New York to the educational exhibit of the United States.\nNo pains or expense will be spared to make the United States exhibit\nartistically worthy of its surroundings.\nThe installation will be of\n\n"}
{"page": 119, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions!\n\nTHE\n\nUNITED\n\nSTATES\n\nEXHIBIT\n\nAT\n\nPARIS\n\ni ti\n\nquartered oak, and the hanging surface covered with fine burlap of correct\nshade. The facade is designed by one of the most noted architects in the\ncountry, whose name I am not now at liberty to mention, and the interior\ndecorations are in charge of an equally eminent artist. The director's\noffice cannot of necessity be very commodious, but its doors will always\nbe open to the National Educational Association, whose members will be\nmade preferred guests.\nIn the series of international congresses which are being arranged for\nthe summer of 1900 by the French exposition officials education has a\nprominent place. Already official notices have been received of forty\nand more congresses, including those on secondary education, higher\neducation, art schools and schools of design, and teaching of modern languages. Many others are in prospect. It is the firm intention of Commissioner General Peck, in these congresses, and his positive orders to\nhis directors concerning their respective congresses, to permit no person\nto represent the United States who does not have the authorization of the\nUnited States commission, and that authorization will be given no man\nor woman who cannot, in our opinion, represent our country with honor.\nA word as to the purpose which underlies the educational exhibit ; its\ndominant motif, if I may use a musical term.\nA new type of American has recently attracted the attention of the\nnations of Europe. It has caused admiration, not a little envy, and some\nconsternation. The type is not new to us. We found it in the Civil War,\nwe found it in the Spanish war, we have found it in every emergency which\nhas ever confronted our republic. Were I fond of metaphors, or writing,\nmay be, for the newspapers, I might term him, as he often has been termed,\n\"the man behind the gun ; \" but I prefer to designate him as the product\nof our public school. He is the direct opposite of the machine-drilled\nman ; for, tho they may have in common the same grim courage, and the\nsame implicit obedience to orders, the former has the initiative and the\ngenius which act where orders fail to reach, and where conditions unforeseen arise. It makes no matter to what quarter of the globe he is sent, or\nwith what mission he is intrusted — he can adapt the training which\nhis country has given him to any variation of conditions, and make success where others fail. To show clearly to the nations of the world the\nschool system which produces this type of self-reliant and well-equipped\ncitizen, and to demonstrate that his existence is not the fortune of chance\nconditions, but the inevitable result of our free institutions, seems to me\nnot only the advisable, but the imperative course to follow.\nFor this reason, and because it is an appeal to your patriotism and\nloyalty, teachers, principals, and superintendents, the United States commission feels justified in asking you to contribute your time and your\ngenius to any portion of our exhibit where you may be of service in\nbringing it to a successful completion.\n\n"}
{"page": 120, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nART\n\nBV\n\nELMER\n\nE.\n\nBROWN,\n\nOF\n\nEDUCATION,\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nIN EDUCATION\n\nPROFESSOR\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nOF\n\nTHEORY\n\nAND\n\nPRACTICE\n\nCALIFORNIA\n\nThe word \"culture\" is often heard at educational meetings. What\nmeaning attaches to it ? A much-abused word it is, undoubtedly ; yet\nthere is some sense of a common significance running thru the thousand variations of its use. If I mistake not, whatever we mean by culture— be it learning, discipline, enlarged association of ideas, increased\nnicety of discrimination or depth of insight, training of human faculty —\nthe word carries with it into all of these diverse uses some suggestion or\nconnotation of the beautiful. A cultivated person is one who is not only\nlearned, but whose learning is touched with a certain fineness of quality\nwhich renders it peculiarly significant and human.\nSo, when we speak of art in education, I do not understand that we\nare speaking simply of a division or an ingredient of education — a unit\nadded to some definite number of other units ; but we are speaking of\none of those vital elements which pervade the best education, and make\nit worthy of the name of cult'ure.\nThis subject verges upon a somewhat technical topic in the general\ntheory of education. A question which has been rather more minutely\nconsidered in Germany than in this country is that which has been stated\nas the question of formal culture. It is assumed that instruction in a\ngiven branch of knowledge yields educational results which are farther\nreaching than is a mere knowledge of the facts that are learned ; in other\nwords, that the study of a given subject furnishes the student, not only with\na knowledge of that particular subject, but also with certain universal gains\nwhich are common coin, and may be freely used in any other realm of\nthought.\" Such acquisitions, which may be transferred at will to other\nfields than those in which they were first acquired, and used therein with\nfull freedom and command, are designated by the phrase \"formal culture.\" Our theory of instruction has varied greatly in the claim to such\nculture which it has put forth. We were told at one time that the mastery\nof any subject yields returns which are of equal value in all domains.\nThis view tended to exalt the method and to depreciate the materials of\ninstruction. In later years, with closer scrutiny of the subject, we have\nbecome skeptical as to the possibility of formal culture beyond a very\nnarrow range. In consequence we have paid relatively more attention to\nthe course of study, and less to the spirit and form of instruction. But\nin this, as in many another subject, close analysis has defeated its own\n\n"}
{"page": 121, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessionsl\n\nAR T IN\n\nEDUCA\n\nTION\n\n1 13\n\nends. In detecting fine distinctions we have failed to see large significances in which the elements that analysis discovers are enfolded. In\nthe sense of the beautiful, and whatever gives it strength and clearness,\nthere is a subtle and pervasive sort of culture which goes with its possessor wherever he may go, and which pervades, invigorates, and vitalizes\na man's thought, whatever it be that he thinks about.\nWe can have no patience with an education which merely affects a\nman piecemeal. We demand of the schools that they shall transform\nand ennoble the human mind, so that one who is educated shall be different in everything that he does, in his whole make-up, from what he would\notherwise have been. We are constrained to seek for those things in\neducation which are far-reaching, universal, re-creating.\nThe aesthetic quality has been strongly marked in historic systems of\ninstruction. We are sometimes at a loss, as we study the history of education, to understand why it is that so large a place has been given to\npurely artistic subjects. Music was one of the chief divisions of the\nAthenian curriculum — music, including the study of the Greek poets.\nPoetry held an important place in the later Roman education. In all of\nthe courses of instruction which grew out of the great Renaissance the\nancient classics were studied for their value as literature : Cicero and\nDemosthenes for eloquence ; Homer and Virgil for the charm of elevated\nnarration ; the Greek tragedians for moral sublimity. Even the education\nof that eminently practical people, the Chinese, is chiefly literary in its\ncharacter, and the beauty as well as the moral quality of literature is\nemphasized. It is not likely that there has been a clear consciousness\nof the educational service of beauty running thru all of these systems, but it is significant that things artistic have been held in such\nesteem by peoples so diverse. A practical education which sets up an\nartificial opposition between the beautiful and the useful is in danger of\ndefeating itself. Beauty is a permanent human need. An education without due attention to things beautiful fails to give flexibility, elevation,\nfreedom — -qualities which are necesary to the full attainment of the useful. It fails to give a certain buoyancy and interest which tone up\nendeavor and refine the temper of enterprise for all of the activities of\nlife. A practical education fails to be practical when it concerns itself\nonly with \" things done, which take the eye, and have the price.\"\nLet us consider a little further the notion that good taste lies at the\nheart of true culture, and that it is peculiarly universal in its character —\ncapable of unlimited transference. I take it that men differ very greatly\nin their ability to carry the products of one range of thought into other\nand distant fields. A genius has been described as a person whose ideas\nfind ready association with a great abundance and variety of related ideas.\nThe peculiar endowment of a genius is, in this view, the capacity for\nunlimited transference and interchange and recombination of mental\n\n"}
{"page": 122, "printed_page": null, "text": "114\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nacquisitions. It is not part of the business of the schools to undertake\nthe making of geniuses; but a recognition of the value of this attribute of genius may open our eyes to one necessary function of education. The great majority of men fall into narrow rounds of thought\nfrom which they do not readily escape. We are to seek to render the minds\nof our pupils mobile, ready to put this and that together, free to make\nunlimited use of all their possessions. There is, to be sure, a kind of\nmobility and freedom which is characteristic of those who are alert for\ntheir own interest ; but education seeks for a different kind of mobility\nfrom this, a mobility which is unselfish in its aims, which finds its stimulus\nand its reward in purely ideal conditions. It is characteristic of a refined\ntaste that it is not self seeking. It is sensitive to differences of value, but\nit is ideal values with which it concerns itself ; and every increase in one's\nclearness of apprehension and warmth of appreciation of ideal values\nbrings with it new command of one's spiritual possessions, new freedom\nof movement among the most varied forms of knowledge, and*so new\ncapacity for the ordinary business of life.\nThe taste which has been quickened by the sight of a noble picture\nis a new power for the appreciation of other pictures. A physician from\nthe prairies of Illinois once visited the Dresden gallery. The sight of\nthe Sistine Madonna roused him from a mere tourist attitude, and gave\nhim a sense of the beautiful in art of which he had never dreamed before.\nHe spent many hours before the picture, visiting it day after day; \"and\nwhen I went away from there,\" as he said long afterward, \" I found that\nI could see the beauty in other pictures.\" And so this man became the\ncenter of a lively and elevated interest in true art in that little town on\nthe prairies in which he lived. The appreciation of the beautiful in landscape-painting gives new appreciation of the beautiful in nature. As\nBrowning has said :\nWe are made so that we love\nFirst when we see them painted, things we have passed\nA. thousand times and never cared to see.\n\nI suspect that more than half of the beauty that we see in the ocean is\nwhat the painters have taught us to see. We think the Yosemite is one\nof the the grandest works of God on this earth, but it is only by the help\nof some heaven-taught artist that the most of us can see all the beauty\nthere is for us in that valley of wonders.\nIt is great gain to anyone when fine music has taught him to appreciate other fine music ; and still greater gain when it has fairly introduced\nhim to the exquisite and majestic harmonies of nature. The biographies\nof musicians are full of instances of inspiration caught by them from\nnature, and their interpretation of nature's hints has brought a new revelation of the world to countless hearers.\nArchitecture, too, has been influenced by the appreciation of beauty in\n\n"}
{"page": 123, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nART\n\nIN EDUCA TION\n\n115\n\nnature. We no longer attempt to explain the origin of the Gothic arch\nby supposing it to have been suggested to mediaeval artists by the interlacing of branches in a forest; but there is abundant evidence that architects who had the full artist spirit have caught inspiration from the forms\nof nature.\nThen there are connections without number — very subtle, it may be,\nbut significant, too — between the several arts. Here, again, the history\nof music is full of instructive instances. We find Liszt, for example,\nwriting to Wolff in these words : \" Here is a whole fortnight that my mind\nand fingers have been working like two lost spirits — Homer, the Bible,\nPlato, Locke, Byron, Hugo, Lamartine, Chateaubriand, Beethoven, Bach,\nHummel, Mozart, Weber, are all around me.\nI study them, meditate\non them, and devour them with fury\nAh ! provided I don't go\nmad, you will find an artist in me! Yes, an artist, such as you desire,\nsuch as is required nowadays !\"\nAn appreciation of the several arts goes farther. I remember\n\none\n\nwhose life was given to the service of his fellow-men, who declared that he\nhad been awakened from a listless, happy-go-lucky existence by seeing\nMcCullough play the part of Macbeth. We all know how music has both\ncalmed and energized the noblest souls in the highest human endeavors.\nThat is a fine passage in the autobiography of John Stuart Mill in which\nhe declares his indebtedness to poetry at a critical period of his life:\nThis state of my thoughts and feelings [he says] made the fact of my reading\nWordsworth for the first time (in the autumn of 1828) an important event in my life.\n.... These poems addressed themselves powerfully to one of the strongest of my pleasurable susceptibilities, the love of rural objects and natural scenery\nAt the conclusion of the poems came the famous ode, falsely called Platonic, \" Intimations of Immortality,\" inwhich .... I found that he too had had similar experiences to mine\nThe\nresult was that I gradually, but completely, emerged from my habitual depression, and\nwas never again subject to it. I long continued to value Wordsworth less according to\nhis intrinsic merits than by the measure of what he had done for me. Compared with\nthe greatest poets, he may be said to be the poet of unpoetical natures, possessed of\nquiet and contemplative tastes. But unpoetical natures are precisely those which require\npoetic cultivation. This cultivation Wordsworth is much more fitted to give than poets\nwho are intrinsically far more poets than he.\n\nWe may be pardoned from dissenting from Mill's final estimate of\nWordsworth ; but his acknowledgment of indebtedness to the poet is\nimportant. We cannot but wish that he had gone on to analyze the\n' influence of Wordsworth's poetry upon his later thought. It does not\nseem at all likely that the aesthetic sense has been altogether absent from\nany of the transcendent works of human reason. There is an architectonic grandeur, or, if you will, a mighty organ music, in the logic of\nHegel. It could not be found there if it had not first been in the mind\nof the master. Its sublimity and noble harmony seized upon the human\nimagination. Here is doubtless one ground of the imperial sway which\nthat system exercised over the minds of a generation of men.\n\n"}
{"page": 124, "printed_page": null, "text": "ii6\n\nNational\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCtATtOM\n\n[General\n\nThe current demand for a larger artistic element in the instruction of\nthe schools ought not, then, to be apprehended simply as the demand for\none thing more in our crowded school curriculum. It is rather to be\nregarded as a growing recognition of one of the essential and universal\naspects of all instruction. In a truly aesthetic treatment of education we\nare seeking for results which are manifest in a finer temper of the whole\nhuman spirit — a universal excellence which shall reappear in everything\nwhich the educated man shall do. One other aspect, nearly related to\nthis, may be mentioned in passing. Art is the free expression of the inner\npersonality. A quickened sympathy with art and an artistic ideal give\nnew motive for the working out of one's inner self into forms that have\nsocial value. The exuberant spirit of art prompts to expression, and\nartistic ideals tend at the same time to refine and moderate expression.\nOne who has been really touched with the artistic spirit will seek continually for adequate means of giving out his best. The desire for mastership is aroused — -the desire for perfected skill. So the artistic spirit,\ncarried into the little details of school life, is found to have everywhere a\nfar-reaching significance.\nNow, there is a kind of restless seeking after that which is superlatively beautiful which is hardly in keeping with these educational ends.\nWe do not want, for the purposes of the school, objects of art which are\nover-exquisite. What permanent place is there in a world of substantial\nrealities for anything like ravishing loveliness — unless it be, indeed, in\nmatters millinery ? No man who has any appreciation of the dainty creations with which the better half of our people adorn their precious heads\nwill presume to set any limits in that direction. But the art which educates is not millinery art. It is art that has to do with the deepest and\nmost serious things in life.\nThere is a kind of petty prettiness about some of the pictures now\nfinding a place in our schoolrooms which does not promise well for the\nfuture of American taste. Real masterpieces are, after all, what we want ;\nnot necessarily the works of the older masters, but real master-works,\nsurely.\nAnd yet there is some reason for the spirit which seeks among the\nthings which have come down from former generations, expecting to find\nthere, if anywhere, sure ground for unreserved admiration. For all high\nhuman endeavor takes on the form of a struggle on the part of a man to\novercome the limitations of time. There is a deep world-pathos in the\nsense, which has been felt in all ages, of the shortness of human life.\nMen have exerted themselves mightily to add to the span of their earthly\nexistence ; but a nobler endeavor has appeared in the effort to do works\nwhich shall outlast the worker's term of life. In such a work lies the\nvery essence of mastership. Here is a man who has been able to produce\na thing which shall outlive himself.\nSo far forth we acknowledge him to\n\n"}
{"page": 125, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nART\n\nIN EDUCATION\n\n-\n\n117\n\nbe a master. Assuming that what he has made survives him because of\nsome intrinsic excellence which renders it worthy to survive, the production is an evidence that the man has come off conqueror in his struggle\nwith time. If time must wait until the man is dead before it can efface\nthe good that he has done, the victory rests with the man in spite of death.\nAnd what is this but to say that the man has put some line, or note, or\nword of eternal reality into his work ? Surely, without such elements\nnothing is worthy to be called a masterpiece. A real masterpiece i&\nsomething which is found worthy to live. Accordingly, it is something\nsuited to nourish the real, the more than temporal, life of man.\nAnd one way that the true masterpiece proves its title is by becoming more beautiful to us the better it is known. The things which are\nsuperlatively lovely at first sight are seldom the things which steadily\nadvance in our estimation ever afterward. A masterpiece is a work\nwhich is found continually surpassing itself.\nWe are changing continually, from childhood to youth, from youth to\nmanhood, from prime of life to old age. And our tastes change with\nour years. When we become men we put away childish things. But it is\nsad fortune for us if we must put away everything that belonged to our\nchildhood. You have seen examples of this sharp separation of the\ntastes and aspirations of adult life from all the associations of earlier\nyears; and you know how painful a case it is. The man who has nothing\nleft but pity or contempt for all that his childhood held dear is one who\nlives a broken life. I fear that innocence has lost its charm for him ;\nthat all the \" trailing clouds of glory \" have become to him but a vapor of\nearthly mist. Some sort of continuity of vital interests \"there must be, if\nthe best things of our boyhood are to live on in our manhood. Such a\ncontinuity may be sought in many ways, but it is no small thing that the\nobjects of beauty with which childhood is made familiar should be such\nas wi'll grow up with the child's own growth. And this is a characteristic\nof the real masterpieces of art. They have power to grow with our growth.\nAt each epoch in the advance of life, even \" down to palsied, age,\" they\nmeet us with new and larger meaning. Happy is the lot of those children who have learned to know and love the old English ballads, the old\nScotch melodies, Landseer's dogs and Rosa Bonheur's sheep and horses,\nthe tale of Troy, and, better yet, the stories of the Old and the New Testament, and the noble hymns of the church. Their childhood has given\nthem treasures which they will only value the more when their power of\nappreciation shall be enlarged and refined.\nIt is not desirable that a schoolroom should be so decorated as to\nseem like fairy-land when the child first enters it. Better that he should\nnot find it bewilderingly enchanting. Quiet in coloring ; not too great a\nmultiplicity of things in sight, no matter how good each may be in itself ;\na few carefully chosen\npictures — nothing\ncrowded, nothing\nhurried,\n\n"}
{"page": 126, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 18\n\nNA\n\nTIONAL\n\nED\n\nUCA\n\nTIONAL\n\nASSOCIA\n\nTION\n\n[General\n\nnothing overwrought. Let him find in the schoolroom things which will\ngrow upon him as he continues to live with them. Do not let the effect\nof wholesome surroundings be neutralized by a different spirit in the daily\ninstruction. Let there be no singing of cheap and catchy songs, or, worse\nyet, of excessively emotional melodies. Let there be no straining after\nelaborate grace of gesture, or undue expressiveness in reading. Let there\nbe no honeyed sweetness in the intercourse of the teacher with the pupils.\nIf art is to have any place at all in our scheme of education, let it have\nopportunity of teaching its own proper lessons — lessons of quietness and\nconfidence, of harmony, of proportion, of clear-grained truthfulness.\nTo this end it is eminently desirable that the teacher shall have learned\nthe message of true art before attempting to teach the children. It would\nbe well if, before a new picture is hung in the schoolroom, the teacher\nmight live with it for weeks or even months — long years of association\nare better yet. Not at all that the teacher must talk much about the\nbeauties of the picture. In fact, one who knows well a work of art can\nsay the most about it in the fewest words. It is not well in any case to\nforce the picture upon the attention of the pupils in a set lesson or at a\nprearranged period. A teacher who knows both the picture and the\nchildren can watch for the time when the pupils' minds are open to\nreceive the new message ; then, by admitting them to some share in the\nmore mature pleasure which the picture has given himself, he may prepare\nthem for independent appropriation of what it has for them. If beauty\nhas already taught the teacher its deeper lessons, so that his daily\nwork has in it some of the elements of true art, there is hope that the\npicture which he brings before his class may do somewhat more for their\neducation from the mere fact that he presents it to them.\nIf the perfection of heauty is of such great value in education, the\ntreatment of imperfection is its counterpart and supplement. The imperfect comes before us most commonly and obviously in the comic. One\nof the shrewdest tests of the quality of one's culture is found in the things\nwhich appear to one as laughable. The immaturity of little children\nshows itself in the whimsical and surprising ways in which their sense of\nhumor breaks forth. Monstrosities and abnormalities which appear to\nadults as painful, or as simply insignificant, sometimes impress children\nas irresistibly ludicrous ; and the delicate humor which appeals most\npowerfully to a refined sensibility may readily be passed over by a growing\nboy, as unworthy of notice. Humor undoubtedly has a very important\nplace in purely artistic culture, and also in the more general culture to\nwhich fine art is minister. It is not mere chance that comedy and tragedy\nhave come freely from the same writer, or that the same actor often\nappears to well-nigh equal advantage in comic and tragic parts — for\nhuman imperfection in some of its manifestations is intensely ludicrous,\nwhile it passes over readily into that which is pathetic, or, in more extreme\n\n"}
{"page": 127, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nART\n\nIN\n\nEDUCA\n\nTION\n\n119\n\nform, into that which is profoundly sorrowful. Some of the most delightful passages of literature are those which play about the border line\nbetween the comic and the pathetic, passing freely from the one side to\nthe other, and with fine discrimination avoiding the false rendering of\neither. Dickens was comforted by the criticism of the Pickwick Papers\nthat the reader laughed at Mr. Pickwick in the earlier part of the narrative and sympathized with him at the last. We have faith in the soundness of heart of an author whose characters call forth both our smiles\nand our tears. There is something very human about such art. The\nschools, will profit greatly from their association with the artists, if they\nmay thereby help the children to a better appreciation of what is truly\nhumorous and what is truly pathetic. The laugh has a large place in our\nsociety of all grades. There is a certain play — I forget what it is called\n— which is advertised on the bill-boards as promising \" 100 laughs in 100\nminutes.\" Particularly among the less educated, there is a great craving\nfor the things which are laughable. Humor is the great aesthetic possession of the multitude. With all of its vulgar manifestations, we cannot\ndeny that it is a kind of saving salt in everyday life. Ridicule does much\nwrong ; but it does, on the whole, a great deal more of good. It is rarely\nin place in the relation of teacher to pupil ; but as between children or\nbetween adults it has undoubted use. There is a spirit in man which\nprompts him to quiz into things that are preternaturally correct, and see\nwhether they are sound at the core. A good deal of apparent irreverence is really no worse than this. It assumes that if the object of ridicule is all right at bottom, it will be none the worse for the test that\nrollicking audacity knows how to apply. I doubt not that some of you\nin the presence of unusual and oppressive dignities feel a childish impulse\nto poke with your finger and say \"Boo!\" This is substantially what the\ncartoonist does, and his work strikes a responsive chord in the American\nheart. We touch upon this subject with much caution here in California,\nfor our legislature has recently taken it in hand, and one doesn't exactly\nwish to be regarded as an aider and abettor of lawbreakers or other dangerous characters. I hasten, then, to say, in order to save myself, that\neven caricature may be carried to an extreme which good men would not\nwish to commend; yet a lurking suspicion remains that the ultimate correction of that evil must be found in the achievement of a more genial\nand less volcanic sense of humor — that is, in a general improvement of\npublic taste.\nIn the informal association of public-school children there is much\nlaughter. There is the vulgar laugh, the unkind laugh, and the petty\nsimpering and tittering with which we are all familiar. The instinct is a\nsound one, but it sadly needs direction. Then there is, even among little\nchildren, a great liking for that which is pathetic, and among uncultivated\nyouths this often develops into the most unwholesome sentimentality.\n\n"}
{"page": 128, "printed_page": null, "text": "120\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nThe school has done a noble service to our society when it has taught\nthe children to enjoy the laugh of refined appreciation. It will do no\nhurt, too, if it laugh down morbid sentimentality, provided it does not\nshame away with it the true feeling which weeps with others' woes.\nWhat is our conception of the relationship between goodness and\nbeauty ? This question has much to do with the real attitude and influence of the teacher, and it is not an easy one. We cannot look with any\nsatisfaction on a school where loveliness and grace are exalted above the\nessential qualities of truth, of industry, of everyday fidelity and honesty.\nIf these things are in necessary opposition, beauty must go to the wall,\nand righteousness must have supremacy. There should be no doubt about\nthat. But the opposition seems to belong rather to the outer surface of\nthings, and not to their essential character. So long as we find opposition we may be pretty sure that our conception of beauty is too superficial ;and it may be that our conception of morals is too superficial as\nwell.\nThe latter half of the nineteenth century has taught us some lessons\nwhich bear upon this question. There has been a marked tendency in\nrecent thought to get nearer to the heart of moral character, and to judge\nit somewhat less by outward and conventional signs. And painters and\nsculptors have been showing us the beauties hidden in the common things\nof nature and of human life. We have learned to turn away from pink\nVenuses and pretty Cupids to find a deeper pleasure in studies of sand\ndunes and fishermen and laborers in the field. These are changes of\nvast significance in the history of human culture, and they bring our\nideas of beauty and of righteousness nearer together.\nMay we not sav that the end of all aesthetic culture is to attain unto a\ntrue appreciation of the \" beauty of holiness \" ? Someone remarked of\nArchbishop Laud that when he spoke of the \"beauty of holiness,\" \"he\nmeant no more than decorum in public worship, the beauty of a wellordered church and of proper intonation and genuflection.\" It may be\nthat in different ways our own conceptions are as superficial and inadequate. But the moralists and the artists are little by little leading us to a\nmore perfect understanding.\nAnd it is to be hoped that the scientists and philosophers are leading\nus by slow degrees to a fairer view of the relation of truth to the other\nends of the highest human endeavor. The nearer we get to the ultimate\nheart of things, the more intimate union do we find between the good,\nthe true, and the beautiful. It is only by drawing near to the heart of\nthings that we can gain that pervasive kind of culture which goes forth\nwith the man into every field of activity which he may enter ; because it is\nonly in this way that we can transform the man himself, rather than some\nmere patch or province of his being. Essential goodness and essential\ntruth belong to the heart of things, and in them we find elements of such\n\n"}
{"page": 129, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nRELIGIOUS\n\nELEMENT\n\nIN CHARACTER\n\nFORMATION\n\nI2I\n\nuniversal culture. But essential beauty has a charm all its own — a\npeculiar freedom and vitality which we cannot do without. Let it have\nfull and free recognition in the education of our people. It will help us\nto escape from the dull erudition of the schools. It will help us to transform our crude wealth of material goods into things of spiritual value.\nIt will ennoble all departments of individual and national thought. Let\nit work out with us its proper work.\n\nTHE\n\nBY RT.\n\nREV.\n\nRELIGIOUS\n\nGEORGE\n\nELEMENT LN THE\nOF CHARACTER\n\nMONTGOMERY,\n\nBISHOP\n\nFORMATION\n\nOF MONTEREY\n\nAND\n\nLOS ANGELES\n\nAs a citizen of Los Angeles it affords me particular pleasure to welcome you to our city and state. Many of you have crossed the continent\nto visit us. I hope that after the labors of the convention are over your\nstay among us may be sufficiently prolonged to make your visit both\npleasant and profitable. And I beg leave to thank the association for the\nhonor of being one of those to address so distinguished a body of earnest\nand intelligent men and women engaged in the great cause of education.\nI have selected as the 'subject of my paper \"The Religious Element in\nthe Formation of Character.\" I have done so, first, because I believe it\nis the settled conviction of all true educators, as well as of all other\nintelligent and thoughtful peisons, that the formation of character is the\nmost important part of education ; that, in fact, no amount of merely\nintellectual or scientific training is of much real value without it. I have\nchosen this subject, in the second place, because I believe that the religious element is the most essential factor in the formation of character.\nA third reason for choosing\" it is the fact that, as I am speaking to the\nlargest and most representative body of teachers in the country, I can\nexplain to the whole country, thru them, the reason why the church\nto which I belong feels it necessary to establish and maintain a system of\nprivate schools.\nI believe this explanation is useful.\nLadies and gentlemen, we have honest differences, along with strong\nand common ties that bind us forever into a common fraternity. We\nhave here a common country toward which, and for whose institutions, we\nare bound together by the bond of undying love, and whose great strength\nis found in the harmony and good will of all its citizens; and I feel that\nwhat I shall say will serve to cement that love and concord.\nI believe that every child in the land should receive an education ; I\nbelieve that a system of public instruction such as ours should be absolutely non-sectarian./ From these principles I infer the necessity of\nprivate schools.\n\n"}
{"page": 130, "printed_page": null, "text": "12 2\n\nNA TIONAL\n\nED UCA TIONAL\n\nASSOC I A TION\n\n[General\n\nIt is a fact known to all well-informed persons that in the beginning\nof our government all schools imparted religious instruction along with\nsecular training ; and that non-sectarian schools were a compromise,\nseemingly rendered necessary for the sake of peace, and to maintain\nreligious liberty among us. But the non-sectarian school was never\nintended by its originators as a protest against private schools, or to\nundervalue religious instruction in education. Like the freedom of\nspeech and freedom of the press, religious freedom is one of the cornerstones of the republic. Our revolutionary forefathers, the framers of our\nconstitution and the builders of the republic, were almost invariably men\nof strong religious convictions; and while they prized religion as they ought\nfor themselves and for others, realizing that some of their fellow-citizens\nset less store than they did upon dogmatic religious training, and that\namong believers themselves there were many honest differences, they felt\nit necessary to make this compromise upon a secular and non-sectarian\nsystem of public instruction, leaving it optional with those who might\nwish to do so to establish and maintain private schools, in which, along\nwith identically the same secular training as that given in the public\nschools, religious instruction might be imparted 'according to their\nrespective beliefs.\nThat education is best which best fits men to discharge the duties of\nlife. Among those duties are the duties we owe to society ; and these are\ncommon to us all, no matter how much we may differ upon other subjects.\nTo discharge these duties well education is necessary ; and as in our form\nof government we all, at least theoretically, share in governing, that education should be as widely diffused as possible ; hence we try to make it\nuniversal. My contention is that in the education fitting us for these\nduties religious training is the most essential element. I think the\nproof that a non-sectarian system of public instruction is no evidence\nto the contrary is found in the significant fact that, from end to end\nof the land today, a cry goes up from the ablest statesmen among us\nthat there should be more religious instruction in the schools. But\nthe moment that religious instruction is attempted, that moment they\ncease to be non-sectarian, for there is no such thing as a non-sectarian\nreligion.\nWhen we of the United States speak of society, and our duties to it,\nwe mean the society which we see and know in daily life, the society of\nwhich we are a part; and our duties are duties which have to be discharged\nhere and now. Our government declares that we are, as men, entitled to\ncertain privileges, such as life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness, and it\npromises to secure these things to us. But as government is simply\nsociety in its active, concrete form, we have to create such a society that it\nwill make good its promises.\nIn our idea of government we substitute the ruling of the many for\n\n"}
{"page": 131, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions!\n\nRELIGIOUS\n\nELEMENT\n\nIN CHARACTER\n\nFORMATION\n\n123\n\nthe ruling of the few, in order to bring government close to the people.\nWe have brought it as close to them as any government on earth. Theoretically the government is in the hands of the people, but practically this\nis only partially true, for, after all, the business of governing is delegated\nto a few. The farmer, the merchant, the mechanic, the day laborer, the\nprofessional man have to delegate their share of the actual work of governing to representatives. This they do by the ballot. Once we have\nchosen our representative, the legislator or the judge, our dictation ceases.\nWe have to depend upon their integrity, their honesty, their character,\ntheir conscience, in doing our work.\nThere is, therefore, something higher than and anterior to law, to\ncourts, to written constitutions, to which we must look for faithful service.\nThat something is character, or conscience. If our representative misrepresents us, we may retire him at the next election, but we cannot take\nhis place and do the work ourselves, tho radically any one of us has\nthe right to do so. But we have to select another representative from the\nsame body politic ; and so this universal round goes on, and we have\nabsolutely no other guarantee than that of his conscience that our new\ndelegate will fulfill his trust any better than his predecessor.\nNow, I say, this sort of conscience or character is built upon the\nfoundation and framework of religion. The authority that I shall quote\nto maintain my thesis no man can call in question.\nIn his farewell address to the American people Washington asserts all\nthis most clearly and most forcibly.\nHe says :\nOf all the dispositions and habits that lead to political prosperity, religion and\nmorality are indispensable supports. In vain would that man claim the tribute of\npatriotism who should labor to subvert these great pillars of human happiness, these\nfirmest props of the duties of men and of citizens. Let it simply be asked : Where is the\nsecurity for property, for reputation, for life itself, if the sense of religious obligations\ndeserts the oaths which are the instruments of investigation in courts of justice ? And let\nus with caution indulge the supposition that morality can be maintained without religion.\nWhatever may be conceded to the influence of refined education on minds of peculiar\nstructure, reason and experience both forbid us to expect that national morality can prevail without religion.\n\nHere Washington does not tell us that the protection for property, for\nreputation, for life, depends upon extent of territory, fertility of soil, salubrity of climate ; or upon commerce, trade, large standing armies, and\ngreat navies ; or upon our matchless constitution and the laws made in the\nspirit of it ; or upon universal and refined education. No, not upon any\nof these, nor upon all of them together ; but upon the simple, silent principle within the soul — the religious obligations of an oath. Every official selected by us to do our work raises his hands to heaven and solemnly\npromises God to be true to the trust reposed in him, and we have no\nother guarantee that he will be true than the religious obligations that\nhe attaches to that oath.\n\n"}
{"page": 132, "printed_page": null, "text": "124\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nWhat is the meaning of an oath ? What are its religious obligations ?\n1. An oath means that there is a God.\n2. That he is a living, all-seeing, personal God.\n3. That men owe him obedience and service.\n4. It means, above all, that there are future punishments and rewards\nin the next world.\nThe sanction of an oath is that God will punish the perjurer. No\none expects to see him visit the perjurer with instant and condign\npunishment ; but the very idea of this sanction is punishment hereafter.\nWhat value has an oath in a court of justice, if the one who makes it\ndoes not believe these things about it ? What security does it offer to\nproperty, reputation, and life ? According to Washington, absolutely\nnone ; and the making of an oath under such circumstances is done under\nfalse pretenses and becomes a blasphemous fraud. When Washington\ntells us that in the religious obligations attaching to an oath is our only\nsecurity for property, reputation, and life, he speaks as a man of religious\nfaith, and declares to be true all that I claim.\nThe religious element, then, is a most potent factor in the formation of\ncharacter.\nI know there are those who speak beautifully of religion today, but\nwho want religion without theology, or a creed. Ladies and gentlemen,\nwhen we can have mathematics without the multiplication table, and\nliterature without the alphabet, we may have religion without a creed. A\ncreed is simply a dogmatic truth, or a series of dogmatic truths. The\nman that believes in God has a creed. The man that believes in the\nreligious obligations of an oath has a creed, and no small one at that,\ndogmatic and binding upon his conscience.\nTo teach religion it must be taught with authority, because it carries\nmoral obligations with it. It has been well said that, if the theorems of\nEuclid carried moral obligations with them, men would be found to doubt\nor deny them. The authority that teaches religion must be able to say:\n\"Thus saith the Lord God of Hosts.\"\nSociety is not a mere compact between men to live together after a\ncertain fashion, for certain purposes, as two or more men enter into a partnership to conduct a certain business. We hold that society is divine in its\norigin ; that God is its author, and that there is no power but from God.\nWe believe that God has left men free to choose whatever form of government suits them best, but that, having once chosen it, he confers upon the\nselected rulers the right to rule ; for, radically, no man has an inherent right\nin himself to rule over other men ; and while it is true that governments\n\"derive their just powers from the consent of the governed,\" it is true\nbecause God has been pleased that power should come to the ruler from\nhim thru the people. No matter what the form of government may be,\nthe purpose of it is the general good, and this society being divine, God\n\n"}
{"page": 133, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nRELIGIOUS\n\nELEMENT\n\nIN CHARACTER\n\nFORMATION\n\n125\n\nhas established it and rooted it in conscience, and conscience based upon\nreligious teaching. Here I speak not as a religionist, but as a simple\ncitizen.\nThe state, as such, having no religion, has wisely declined to teach\nreligion ; but as its founders and promoters have recognized and do recognize the absolute necessity of religion for the welfare of the state, for the\nprotection of property, reputation, and life, the private school, where\nreligious instruction is imparted along with proper secular training, must\never be regarded as a strong bulwark of the nation.\nMan is made up of a complex nature. He is a physical, intellectual,\nand moral being, all in one ; and the man perfectly educated is the man\neducated in his whole being ; and as God has united these elements\nof his being, we feel that we cannot separate them without detriment to\nthe individual and to society; and education being so much a matter of\nyouth, we feel that their development must go hand in hand.\n■ Ladies and gentlemen, we are passing thru a critical period of our\nnational life. We began as a nation imbued with the right principle that\nthe laws of God's eternal justice are the basis of that equal and exact\njustice that must be meted out to the humblest citizen in it ; and there is\ntoday, on the part of the vast majority of our people, a strong and growing persuasion that we have departed from it, and that selfishness and\ngreed are the gods that have a controlling influence. We must be able\nto disabuse them of this, if it is not a fact, or correct it, if it is a fact ; else\nno man can foresee the ruin that shall overtake us. It cannot be denied\nthat material wealth is the god of many.\nManhood and virtue do not count for what they once did. That these\nmay regain their rightful sway, this generation, and those to come after\nus, must be taught that there is a higher life than this material world. If\nwe are but a part of this great material universe, we differ from the inert\nclod of matter only by some chemical combination. This furnishes no\nground for pride or ambition. The dignity of man is not in what he\nhas, nor in what he knows, but in what he is ; and he is something more\nthan this. More than two thousand years ago the wise man said of the\nmaterialists : \"They have said,\" reasoning with themselves, but not rightly,\n\"the time of our life is short and tedious, and in the end there is no\nremedy. For we are born of nothing, and after this we shall be as if we\nhad not been : for the breath in our nostrils is smoke, and speech a spark\nto move the heart\nCome therefore and let us enjoy the good things\nthat are present. Let none of us go without his part in luxury, for this\nis our portion and this our lot.\"\n(Wisdom 2 : 1-9.)\nThis reasoning, the wise man tells us, is not right. Man is not this,\nor this is not man. There is a prototype after which he must strive with\nhis whole being. Man is of both earth and heaven. He is an animal,\nbut a rational animal.\nInto his body there has been breathed a living\n\n"}
{"page": 134, "printed_page": null, "text": "126\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nsoul. That soul is made after the image and likeness of God. That soul\nmust be made as nearly as possible like to God, after whom it is imaged.\nThat cannot be done on intellectual lines only. He is intellectual, but he\nis much more. He is an intellectual, a moral, a religious being, all in\none, and this moral nature is superior to his intellectual nature. The\ncommon voice of mankind attests it. The laws of his moral being must\ncontrol his whole life, else anarchy will reign in the individual and thru\nthe individual in the social body. To love is higher than to know. To\nlove is the end of the law. \"Thou shalt love the Lord thy God with thy\nwhole heart, with thy whole soul, with all thy strength and with all thy\nmind, and thy neighbor as thyself.\" From these spring the laws of God's\njustice, between man and man, and no human contrivance can substitute\nthem.\nWe claim, and justly claim, that our civilization is a Christian civilization ;and if we wish to perpetuate it, we must keep the principles out of\nwhich it has grown.\nChrist came into the world in the golden age of Rome. Grecian and\nRoman civilization had exhausted the resources of merely intellectual\nculture, and yet Roman civilization was rotten, because it had no moral\nbasis. Christ found mankind the slave of false principles. He came to\ngive man new hope and to point to new purposes. He came to elevate\nthe race. He did so by becoming one of the race. He assumed human\nnature and united it to the divine nature. What he did, then, for man was\nnot as man, but as the God-man. This is the fundamental principle of\nChristian faith, the fundamental principle of Christian civilization.\nChrist found labor degraded. He elevated labor and the laborer, by\nbecoming a laborer himself. He found the home and family, the wife\nand mother degraded. He dignified home and family, wife and mother,\nby choosing for his own mother, in becoming incarnate, one of the race.\nHenceforth the home and family were sacred.^ Henceforth the wife and\nmother should no longer be the pagan slave of a pagan husband, but she\nwas to be the queen of his household and the honored mother of his\nchildren.\nLadies, whenever you see a picture of the Madonna and child, put\nupon canvas or sculptured in marble, you see the emblem of your emancipation and your redemption.\nThese are leading characteristics of Christian civilization, and these\nare truths that must be taught, if we hope to perpetuate Christian civilization.\nThe man that proclaims Christ as man only undermines the very fundamental principle upon which Christian civilization is based. Nay more,\nhe proclaims Christ himself an impostor, for Christ declared himself to be\nboth God and man. And, furthermore, Christ held out to man a new\nhope in this : He promised that the wrongs done by men in this world\n\n"}
{"page": 135, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nDEVELOPMENT\n\nOF MORAL\n\nCHARACTER\n\n127\n\nshould be righted in the next world, at least, by a species of rewards\nand punishments. He made the cause of man his own cause, and the denial\nof future rewards and punishments cuts away the foundation of Christian\ncivilization. The man that denies these sacred truths and yet proclaims\nthe glories of our civilization knows not the foundation on which it rests.\nTake out of man's heart and soul the belief in these sacred truths, and the\ncivilization that has been built upon them must fall.\n\nTHE\nBY\n\nG.\n\nW.\n\nDEVELOPMENT\n\nA. LUCKEY,\n\nPROFESSOR\n\nOF MORAL\nOF\n\nPEDAGOGY,\n\nCHARACTER\nUNIVERSITY\n\nOF\n\nNEBRASKA\n\nProgress in civilization is the result of man's continual effort to realize\nhimself in higher and nobler conceptions of life. Change is written\neverywhere, stability nowhere. Life means change from within ; death,\nchange from without. From this law of nature there is no escape ; but\nthru it man is to become free indeed.\nThere are periods in which the forces of nature and of mind seem to\nbe acting in closest harmony, and these are the periods in which the\nonward movement is most pronounced. It is well for the individual if\nthru all these changes he continues in harmony with the highest conceptions of his age and brings his efforts to bear in the direction of true\nprogress.\nAmong the encouraging features of the present social movements is\nthe greater interest manifested in the development of the child, including\nthe closer scrutiny of all human actions. This has led in part to the\nso-called moral revival which is spreading thruout the country and bringing into closer alliance the various reforming forces. Our schools are to\nbecome something more than institutions for the turning out of intellectual prodigies ; they are to be instrumental in making men and women.\nBut how can the struggle for existence be lessened and the individual\ngiven time to make himself and others happier ? This leads us to the\nthought of the hour — \" The Development of Moral Character.\"\nIn the United States upon the public schools alone we are spending\nnearly two hundred million dollars annually for the education of the\npeople, and this does not include the large sums expended upon the\nmany private and higher institutions of learning. Why all this expenditure of money and of time, if not in the hope of making individuals\nbetter, more efficient in life, more considerate of others, purer, and truer ?\nIf the purpose of education is to give skill and power without increasing the individual's nobleness of character, it will not in any way relieve\nthe struggle for existence which is becoming so intense, but, on the\n\n"}
{"page": 136, "printed_page": null, "text": "128\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\ncontrary, will increase it — simply removing the burden from one by\nplacing it upon the shoulders of others.\nAll education should tend to make the individual more of a man, as\nwell as more efficient and more useful both to himself and to others.\nFor this reason, whatever be given as the true aim or ideal of education,\nthe development of moral character will always play an important and\never- increasing part.\nIn that series of commendable articles on \"Modern Education\" published in the Cosmopolitan for the year 1897-98 the principal idea of\nmodern education, as set forth by the various writers, may be summed up\nin the following words of the editor, John Brisben Walker : \" There is\nno other basis upon which any tenable theory of education for youth may\nbe built than that the training received tends, in the highest degree,\ntoward those conditions of mind and body which will best serve to bring\nhappiness to the individual educated and to those about him.\" This\nalso calls attention to the importance of character, for true happiness\ncomes as the result of overcoming real difficulties and of bettering the\ncondition of others.\nThe term character, like so many other words in the English language,\nhas grown to include such a variety of meanings that it is difficult of\nexact definition. At first the word meant simply the stamp used for\nengraving ; next, the mark or figure engraved ; then, the separate letters\nor figures ; and later still, the peculiar or distinguishing features of letters,\nfigures, or objects. It is in this latter sense that the term has come to be\napplied to individuals. Looked at from this broader standpoint, character represents all that combination of qualities, traits, and habits which\ndistinguishes one individual from another. Under this head come health,\nphysical features, form of body, attitude, manner of movement, disposition, voice, intellect, sensibility, judgment, will. Character represents\nwhat the individual really is, in feelings, in thought, in action, determined by heredity and by what he has been. It is the living personality\nor individuality of a man ; in other words, the distinguishing qualities of\na man in action.\nWe often hear it said that the character of the people is becoming\nweaker, that the men of our times lack decision, purpose, courage, perseverance, discipline, and religious convictions. It is said that in China,\nwhere the conditions of society show a more primitive stage of civilization, there is more marked obedience and greater respect shown to\nparents, to superiors, and to the aged ; that in mediaeval times men\nshowed more indomitable wills and followed more tenaciously the path of\nduty as indicated by their leaders. Even our New England ancestors\nare frequently quoted as examples of men and women showing greater\nstrength of character. Their faithful adherence to what they thought\nwas right, their self-reliance and severity of discipline, their indomitable\n\n"}
{"page": 137, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nDEVELOPMENT\n\nOF MORAL\n\nCHARACTER\n\n129\n\npurpose and religious zeal are all given as indications of their superiority\nof character.\nBut before accepting these statements as final we should consider the\nage in which we live. Ideals and conditions of life have changed. We\nare living in a different age, under a new sky, and breathing a different\natmosphere. Civilization has carried us forward. We could not go back\nif we would, and we would not if we could. It is our duty to adapt ourselves to the conditions that exist, bettering them when we can, and our\ncharacter is shown by our ability to do so.\nThe servitude of the past has given way to individual freedom. Belief\nin the divine rights of kings and of self-constituted leaders has given\nplace to individual conscience. In that earlier time the character of the\npeople was represented by the character of their leaders ; the masses knew\nbut little and usually cared less :\n\" Theirs not to make reply,\nTheirs not to reason why,\nTheirs but to do and die.\"\n\nToday all are leaders, and the individual conscience, as rightly understood\nand properly developed, is justly considered to be the only true guide.\nAs individuals we are free, and our success or failure is to be determined\nby our own action. This conception of life has greatly increased the\nversatility of the people and the strength and importance of character.\nThe masses have become individualized, and the motive for action has\nchanged from the voice or authority of the leader to the promptings of\nthe individual conscience.\nEvery change in ideals or the breaking away from old and established\ncustoms to accept new and untried conditions is sure to bring about a\nperiod of unrest, a vibrating from the one condition to the other. It is\nthis readjustment of society, this changing of ideals, that many have\nnoticed and mistaken for weakness of character, when in reality it is only\none of the natural processes of growth, an overcoming of difficulties, a\nbreaking away from the dead or decaying forms of the past, that indicates\nstrength rather than weakness of character. If character really means\nthe distinguishing qualities of individuals, the personality, the originality,\nthe independence of thought and of action, the nobleness of purpose, the\npersistence of effort, the faithfulness to duty, and the loftiness of ideal,\nthen there is a greater degree of character manifested today than in any\nother period of the world's history.\nIt may seem that we do not have as many distinguished leaders today\nas in some of the more favored periods of the past, but this is more\napparent than real, and is due to several causes ; first, under the changed\nconditions of life the occasion has not demanded such leadership ; second, where the individual opportunities are so great, and where all have\nequal chance of becoming leaders, the difference between the few and the\n\n"}
{"page": 138, "printed_page": null, "text": "130\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Geneta\n\nmany is not so apparent ; and, third, in a state of society where the\nmasses have become imbued with such an amount of versatility and individuality itrequires much more talent and skill to become an efficient\nleader.\nHe who would be a leader today must bring his thought and life\nin touch and harmony with the highest ideals of the people, and it is only\nwhen we touch great truths or rise to lofty conceptions of life that we can\nhope to have any unanimity of action.\nBut when such occasions arise,\nas was the case in our recent war with Spain, we do not need to fear for\nthe necessary leaders, nor for the strength of the.character of our people.\nThe great diversity of opinion\nmanifested\non nearly every subject\nof conversation is lost for the moment in the unity of thought and feeling which comes from touching a higher and more vital conception of\nlife. Heroes are not made in a day, but the opportunity to give expression to their character may occur without a moment's warning.\nHe who\nthru years of thoro preparation, self-denial, and honest living has laid\nthe foundation for true greatness, like a Dewey or a Hobson, is ready for\nsuccess whenever the opportunity offers.\nTho we should not forget the\ntrue hero is as courageous in battling against small as against great evils.\nThe character of every community, as well as of every nation, depends\nupon the character of the individuals of which it is composed.\nIt can\nneither be better nor worse.\nWould you know the character of any society, determine the character of its members ; would you better the condition of any community, begin by bettering the condition\nof the\nindividual members.\nHe who would reform others may well begin by\nreforming himself, for society is so constituted that every change in the\nindividual character is sure to continue until it has permeated the whole.\nAs to the time when we should begin to develop the character of our\nchildren, I agree, in part, with Aristotle when he says the state should\nbegin the education of children before the marriage of their parents.\nBefore birth and before prenatal life the formation of the character of the\nchild rightly begins. Common-sense in selecting life-companions, proper\ncultivation of mind and heart, congeniality of home surroundings, andcareful observance of the laws of health all tend to strengthen the\ncharacter of the offspring.\nOf the two great factors in education, heredity and environment, the\nformer is but slightly under the control of even the parents, while the\nlatter may be almost wholly so ; besides, the latter is usually far more\ninfluential in affecting the life of the individual. Thru the accumulated\nexperiences of many generations we have inherited a certain form and\nconstitution of body, a special arrangement of muscle and nerve fibers, certain physical features and ancestral traits, peculiar forms of tissue, muscle,\nand nerve cells, and such further changes of body and brain as are purely\nsomatic in character. But these represent only the form of life and the\npossible direction which education is to take.\nThe real spirit and breath\n\n"}
{"page": 139, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nDEVELOPMENT\n\nOF MORAL\n\nCHARACTER\n\n131\n\nof life is not to come thru heredity, but thru nutrition and environment.\nWhat is often attributed to heredity is nothing more than a weakened\ncondition of certain organs or groups of nerve cells, which has resulted\nfrom insufficient nourishment at the proper moment. This weakened\ncondition or predisposition, if taken in time, may usually be overcome by\ncareful attention to diet and surroundings.\nWere I to name the three most vital periods in the life of the individual,\nI should designate them as the prenatal period, the period from infancy\nto five or six years of age, and the period of adolescence. During prenatal life, when the various cells of the body are developing, and when\nevery change in nutrition is sure to be felt in the delicate and rapidly\ngrowing nervous system of the child, it is all-important that the general\nhealth and happiness of the mother be preserved with the greatest care.\nPassing to the next important period of the child's life, the one\nextending from birth to at least the fifth year, we enter upon the first\nperiod that is usually taken into consideration in education, and even\nhere the lack of attention is almost criminal. During the first five years\nthe individual has lived faster, learned more, and established a greater\ndegree of character than will be possible again in any other five years of\nhis life. He has grown to nearly six times his size at birth, and his brain\nhas reached almost its full size ; he has acquired the power of balancing\nhis body and of easy locomotion ; he has learned to use his muscles and\nhis special senses with considerable accuracy ; he understands his mothertongue and can use it almost as fluently as those about him ; he can converse on a great variety of topics, and can mimic the calls of familiar\nanimals more successfully than his adult companions ; he has learned to\nobserve and interpret nature and to adjust himself to the conditions of\nhis environment ; he has developed a certain degree of secrecy, of\ninhibition, and of will-power ; he has become somewhat sympathetic in\nhis actions, or the reverse. Thru imitation he has taken on many of the\nhabits and much of the character of the life about him ; his imagination\nhas become aroused and can no longer be confined to its local surroundings. Thru fable, thru story, and more thru his innumerable questions,\nhe shows to the world the intensity of the life he is living. What years\nthese have been in the formation of character, and how cruel to allow\nthem to pass with scarcely a thought of their importance ! The years of\nchildhood come but once, but the lessons they teach and the experiences\nthey give can never be eradicated.\nCharacter represents the whole man, and true character means the harmonious development of body, mind, and soul. The importance of this\nstatement is only half appreciated. It means, first, that character, like\nmorality and religion, is not something which can be assumed or rejected\nat will. It is the very essence of the individual's life, and can only be\nchanged or modified with the life itself.\nIn the second place, it means\n\n"}
{"page": 140, "printed_page": null, "text": "132\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nthat the physical condition, the health, growth, and strength of body\ngreatly affect the individual's character. Everyone must have noticed\nhow much more irritable he becomes during times of fatigue and illhealth. Indigestion, if persistent, will turn a saint into a sinner. Would\nyou establish noble characters in your children, begin by laying foundations for strong and healthy bodies. Food, clothing, exercise, sleep, rest,\nand sanitary surroundings are of more importance to the child's future\nlife and character than most of his school exercises combined.\nEveryone who has given the subject thought must have been convinced of the physical basis of character. Not only the physical features,\nbut all the muscles of our bodies indicate the lives we have lived. An\noft-repeated act becomes a habit, and habits determine character. The\nsoul has no other means of expression than thru the muscles of the body.\nNot only what we see and hear, but every lesson, every play, every movement, every feeling, and every thought leave their permanent impress.\nThis is not a discouraging feature, but the reverse. It means that all our\nfuture activity may be made to strengthen our characters and purify our\nlives.\nThe molding of character takes place more rapidly under conditions\nof health and of interest. The latter becomes an important factor in all\neducation, and furnishes the best means of approach to the real life of the\nindividual. It is for this reason that play and the street life of children\nexert such powerful influence. More study must be given to the interests\nof children, if we desire to become efficient in our teaching.\nHaving indicated the importance of good health and of a sound body\nin the development of character, I desire next to mention the necessity of\nhaving well-trained senses. As all of our knowledge of the external world\ncomes thru the senses, it is important, first, to know that they are normal ;\nif not, the extent of the defect, and how best to counteract it ; and, second,\nto have them so cultivated that they give us quickly and accurately the\nknowledge for which they are adapted.\nThe first steps in the training of the senses naturally belong to the\nparents in the home, but the work must be further continued and brought\nto a higher degree of perfection by the teacher in the school. The\nprocesses, however, in so far as they cover similar ground, should remain\nthe same in both cases. The method by which the child, under favorable\ncircumstances, reaches such a high state of development in his powers of\nobservation during the first five years of life should be continued when\nhe enters the schoolroom. Surround him with material, stimulate his\ninterests, make subtle suggestions, but allow him to do the rest.\nThe character of the individual is affected, not only by the nature of\nthe senses, but also by their state of cultivation. In the schoolroom,\nbesides the training in observation, must be the careful training in the\nclassification and expression of knowledge.\nThis leads naturally to the\n\n"}
{"page": 141, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nDEVELOPMENT\n\nOF\n\nMORAL\n\nCHARACTER\n\nI33\n\nnext step in the process — the proper development of the intellect. Perception, memory, imagination, judgment, and reason are but so many\nparts of the individual's life and character. Strengthen these and you\nstrengthen all. Teach the child to become a careful observer of the\nphenomena of nature, to classify and remember the important features, to.\ndiscover present relations and invent new ones, to make accurate generalizations, and finally to express his knowledge in clear but terse English,\nand you will have given the foundation for a strong character. A highly\ndeveloped intellect will not by itself produce a man of sound morals ;\nnevertheless, no matter how pure the individual's intention, unless he possesses sound judgment he is sure to become a weak member of society.\nAnother important consideration in the development of character\nwhich should not be overlooked by the teacher is the culture of the feelings. At the foundation of all sensation, deeper and more subtle than\nintellect itself, is feeling. Intellect without feeling is cold and dead, while\nsensation without feeling would be an anomaly. In actual life it is impossible to separate the feeling element from sensation, intellect, and will ;\nnevertheless we often find the sensibility — the primitive source of all\nmind and the present mainspring of human action — so perverted in the\nprocess of education as to be wholly untrustworthy and out of harmony\nwith the rest of the individual's life.\nThe proper cultivation of the feelings is as legitimate a part in the\nproblem of education as the development of the intellect, and usually far\nmore essential to the future happiness of the individual. It is neither sentimentality on the one hand nor lifeless reason on the other, but a proper\ncommingling of both, that produces the highest form of character.\nIt is usually when under the influence of deep emotional excitement\nthat men obtain glimpses of higher ideals. Such moments are termed\nmoments of inspiration, and are usually the result of great struggles, of\nintense interest, or of long-continued effort, in which the real self is lost\nin the ideal, or when the subconscious life becomes for the moment the\ncontrolling influence. Having once gained a view of a nobler ideal, it is\nnext necessary to bring the mind, and, in fact, the whole life, into harmony with it. Herein lie the elements of true genius.\nBut how shall we know that these moments of struggle or emotional\nexcitement have given us higher, instead of lower, conceptions of life ?\nWe must now fall back upon judgment and reason ; if the ideal is higher,\nthe reason will recognize it and endeavor to conform to it ; if lower, the\nintelligent reason will reject it. Here, again, we see the importance to\ncharacter of a well-trained intellect. While reason itself may never\nbecome the factor thru which noble ideals are divined, it is the means by\nwhich they are truly recognized and maintained. Thru the feelings and\nemotions we commune with God, but it is thru the will and the intellect\nthat we bring our lives into harmony with what is noble in our ideals.\n\n"}
{"page": 142, "printed_page": null, "text": "134\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nThe ethical and religious emotions are all subjects of education. It is\nby surrounding the child with what is beautiful in nature, and pure and\nnoble in life, and by stimulating his interest in observing and describing\nthe same, that we teach him to love the beautiful, the good, and the true.\nIn all education the teacher must be guided in her efforts by the interests\nof the child. It must be a growth from within ratiier than a filling up\nfrom without, an assimilation and an appreciation rather than the mere\naccumulation of knowledge. The teacher must become familiar with the\ncontent of the child's mind upon the particular subject in hand before\nshe can hope to guide him logically and intelligently to the next step.\nWe approach next in the development of our subject to what has wisely\nbeen termed the greatest power on earth — the human will. Thru it man\nharnesses the forces of nature, removes mountains, builds cities, connects oceans and continents, overcomes space, controls society, and conquers self. Without it he becomes a mere tool in the hands of others,\nunable to rise above the influences of his immediate environment and\nincapable of individual progress. It is the will that gives force to character, strength to manhood, and purpose to life. No permanent success\nis possible to him who lacks in courage and self-determination. The will,\nhowever, has its beginning, its growth, and its more or less perfected state.\nThese facts must be taken into consideration in the development of character.\nThe first movements of the child are involuntary — spontaneous, reflex,\nor instinctive — and devoid of anything that can be properly attributed\nto will. But these early involuntary movements produce sensations, leave\nimpressions, and furnish ideas by means of which the will comes to be\nestablished. Will, therefore, is the outgrowth, first, of involuntary or\naimless movements; second, of sensations, perceptions, and ideas accompanying or called forth by these movements ; and, third, of a desire to\ncontinue or to reproduce the pleasurable states and to avoid the uncomfortable ones resulting from the above changes. Again, will is not only\nthe cause of action, but is itself strengthened and developed thru action\nin which the individual is compelled to take the initiative and decide with\nreference to the course to be pursued.\nAs voluntary movements always depend upon former involuntary ones,\nthe first step in the development of the will is to surround the child with\nproper conditions of life. Sufficient nutrition and healthy environment\nare sure to call forth innumerable movements, both natural and pleasurable,\nlaying the foundation for versatility and evenness of disposition. In the\nsecond place we must religiously avoid all duplicity of character, and prevent as far as possible such conditions of the environment as produce in\nthe child confused or irritable states of mind. Will is the directing force\nof the individual, and manifests itself alone in action (inhibition being\nbut a form of action) ; but in order that this action may be wisely planned\n\n"}
{"page": 143, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nDEVELOPMENT\n\nOF\n\nMORAL\n\nCHARACTER\n\n135\n\nand properly executed, it is necessary that the will be tempered with\ngenuine sympathy and intelligent judgment. Strength of character, as\nindicated before, depends upon the harmonious development of the\nwhole man.\nThe factor that has most to do with all voluntary action is imitation.\nWe grow to think, to feel, and to act like those with whom we have been\nclosely associated. For this reason it is of vital importance that we place\nbefore the child such lives and such examples as we would have him\nimitate. The mother whose actions belie her words may be ignorant of\nthe result, but she is laying the foundation of duplicity and double dealing in her child. The teacher whose words to the superintendent or\nvisitor are such as to indicate to the children that she is misrepresenting\nthe truth is sowing the seed of falsehood and dishonesty which will ripen\nsoon into an abundant harvest. Every thought, every word, every movement of the teacher is weaving itself into the warp and woof of the individual character of the children. Set no examples, either in private or in\npublic, that you would not have your children follow.\nHaving thus outlined as requisites of an ideal character good health,\na sound body, a thoroly trained intellect, keen sensibility, pure motives, and\na well-developed will, I should add at least one other requirement — a\nlofty ideal, with sympathy and love for humanity\nThe best measurement of character is the individual's ideal, but we\nare not always safe in measuring his ideals by his outward professions, for\nhis actions frequently belie his words, and the truth lies deeper and is\nonly partially revealed by the surface indications. No one's character\ncan be re'presented by a single act, neither does a good man fall thru a\nsingle temptation. Could we look closer into the lite, we should find that\nit was because evil thoughts were permitted to take refuge in the brain\nthat they became sufficiently strong to work the ruin of their master in\nsome unguarded moment. Permanent ideals are not obtained thru mere\nfancy, but are the results of the slow processes of growth, in which the\nexperiences of the individual have furnished the foundations, and the\ncreative imagination has accomplished the rest.\nIt is well to remember that the principal material from which our\nideals are obtained is furnished us thru the lives of others, whether it be\nthru actual associations, or as recorded in history, or sung in story. From\nparent to teacher, from teacher to companion, from companion to typical\ncharacter, or back to parent again, the ideal of the child is vibrating.\nWhoever, for the time being, is the embodiment of the child's better self,\ntho possibly unconsciously, yet nevertheless truly, is shaping his future\nlife and character.\nNo one need be ashamed of his position on any subject if it represents\nhis highest ideal, and he cannot afford to have it represent less. He who\nwould succeed dare not be untrue to his ideals and live a dual life, and\n\n"}
{"page": 144, "printed_page": null, "text": "136\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nneither is it necessary, if his ideal be formed in accordance with divine harmony. With conscience and right on our side, why need we fear for the\noutcome, when we measure our strength in battle with evil ? If our ideals\nare right, and our God be God, we need not fail. If we do fail, our ideals\nmust be wrong, or we lack force and are unworthy of them.\nNo one ever dreamed himself into a noble character; for character is\nactive, not passive ; but by patient and untiring effort he may make of\nhimself what he will and remain secure in the face of storm and of danger.\nWould you overcome a fault, substitute a higher activity in its place, and\nguard well that there be no reversion until the new has firmly taken the\nplace of the old.\nI do not believe that God has given to man a nobler or more responsible calling than the teacher's profession, but all labor that has for its aim\nthe amelioration of mankind is honorable and worthy of man's highest\nendeavors. The carpenter at his bench, or the shoemaker with his last,\nmay be serving God and benefiting mankind as truly as the minister in\nthe pulpit or the teacher at his desk.\n\" By their fruit ye shall know them.\"\nLife is a transition. The generation that is has gathered its inspiration from the generation that was, and must give in turn its spirit to the\ngeneration that is to be. For the time being we hold in our possession\nall that there is of life and of character, and we can offer to posterity only\nwhat we possess. To gather, to conserve, and to extend the best thought,\nlife, and character of the present generation to peoples yet unborn is the\nhighest mission of the race.\n\nEVOLUTION\nBY PROFESSOR\n\nSYDNEY\n\nAND\n\nT. SKIDMORE,\n\nETHICS\n\nPHILADELPHIA\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\nEvery person normally conditioned has an abiding faith in the fact of\nprogress. The optimist and pessimist may differ widely in interpreting\nevents, but both alike believe that Omnipotence walks eternity with\npositive steps and does not merely execute a round-dance upon it.\n\" I hold it truth with him who sings\nTo one clear harp in divers tones.\nThat men may rise on stepping-stones\nOf their dead selves to higher things.\"\n\nSeldom, however, does this faith shine out with undimmed ray. There\nis a companion doubt which arises from human limitations and, in a\nmeasure, obscures it :\n\" But who shall so forecast the years,\nOr find in loss a gain to match.\nOr reach a hand through time to catch\nThe far-off interest of tears ? \"\n\n"}
{"page": 145, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nEVOLUTION\n\nAND\n\nETHICS\n\n137\n\nThus expressed in the finest form of poetic art we have a matter of\nvery common experience and one of the strongest tones in the murmur of\nhumanity. We believe in progress, but we may not, alas, enter fully into\nthe fact of it because its peiriods are too long for the measure of our years.\nWe give much attention to retrospects and know but little of forecasts,\nand so miss the meaning ; for nearly all interpretation of the past lies in\nthe future. But little relating to our kind has filled out into fully rounded\nbeing, because our race is still very youthful. Its main history is yet to\nbe written. Its career is of the future and not of the past, since the\nbloom of the cheek does not more surely indicate physical youth than\ndoes the bloom on the generic soul of this faith in progress indicate that\nit is young and looking forward to an expanding rather than a contracting future.\nThe signs all point one way. So long as the effort is to transmit\nmore to posterity than has been received from priority, and individual\nambition for wealth and power overrides all other considerations ; so\nlong as justice, equity, and honor are conjuring terms in the service of\narrogance or rascality; so long as government is so crude that it must do\nthe things for which it punishes its subjects, in robbing robbers and\nmurdering murderers ; so long as the nations, like jealous wolves, are\nparceling out among themselves the cowering flock ; so long as the\nworld's population is doubling each century, and almost the whole of\nnature's resources are still unutilized, we may fairly believe that the end\nis very remote. Matters like the foregoing are growing pains rather than\neffects of disease, and indicate rudiments rather than infirmities.\nAdvanced civilization is a long distance from savagery, when regarded\nin one way, but, as compared with the road yet to be traversed, it has not\nadvanced very far. The test appears in its pleasures. Its gratifications\nstill reach after trinkets, ornaments, odors, sounds, colors, and fantasies of\nthought and form, which it is pleased to deify and adore as Beauty.\nThe much-discussed \"problems of evil\" grow out of our ability to\nthink of better things than either do or can exist as uniform reality.\nThere are no evil things. Some things are better than others, and most\nthings are better in ideal than can appear in the garb of material circumstances.\nThat there is a duality in human nature is a matter of the commonest understanding. How it has come' about, and how the combination is\nto be interpreted and treated, are not matters of such common agreement.\nIn a general way, and for purposes of discussion, we may term that factor\nwhich appears dominant in animals, animalism, and that which confers\ndistinctiveness on the best-developed humanity, humanism.\nThese form an inseparable blend in human nature, and the tone of\nthis blend depends on the proportion of each which it contains. As\npractical educators we seek to strengthen the humanism and make it\n\n"}
{"page": 146, "printed_page": null, "text": "138\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\n^ absolute in the type, and this strengthening is what we term in this writing\nethical development. The large responsibility which rests with us is due\nto the fact that our lot falls in the opening chapters of the race. We are\nco-workers in the dawn of the human day, and view directly the advancing train of that ethical Eos which shall brighten to its perfection. When\nit shall have reached high noon, moral development as a part of the\nteacher's work must end ; then will be the time for the teachers to turn\nthe race over into the hands of its doctors and undertakers.\nMeanwhile, let us either agree, or agree to disagree, about the cause\nof these things in humanity for which we now seek remedies. Our ethical doctrines and practice must be profoundly modified by our understanding of such cause. Is it rudimentariness or sin ? Is it because of\nsomething that the Lord has not yet done in creation, or something that\nthe devil has done ? Is it human nature ungrown or human nature in\nruins? I am compelled to vote for the first of each of these propositions. Is the fundamental task of morals the formation of human\nnature or its reformation? I believe that ethical process is generative and\nnot regenerative. All facts of being seem to support this view, and none\nappear against it. Diminishing qualities of the savage run forward into\nthe civilized, just as do those of the anthropoid into the anthropos. The\nascent is gradual, and wherever in the civilizing process men have\nmerged portions of themselves into social pools, these pools still retain\na suggestiveness of the former savage man and his more remote antecedents, the animal.\nOne illustration must suffice. What we know as stealth and protective mimicry in animals becomes cunning in the savage, and strategy or\ndiplomacy in the civilized. From coarse to fine, it all belongs to one\npiece, to which lying, as a generic term, aptly applies.\nAs with persons, so also is it with institutions. We have laws and\ncourts ; but as the colossal figure of the goddess of justice comes before\nus on the screen, she seems to be of a substance so shadowy that the tattoed forms, the wild eyes, and the stolid victims of impulsive blows appear\nwrapped within the folds of her gauzy drapery.\nThe savage autocrat punished his slave by hurling at him the nearest\nmissile. If the slave dodged it successfully, his deftness did much in\nappeasing the royal wrath; but if he stood and took it, he was stubborn\nand stupid ; and, with us, the criminal at the bar who makes the truthful\nplea of guilty stands much lower in the eyes of the court and the eyes\nof the world than does he who makes the lying plea of not guilty, and\nmaintains it with every device and deception with which legal art can\ndelude a jury or becloud testimony.\nWe have schools for the training of character, and they are resonant\nwith the music of moral maxims ; but the movement does not follow the\nmusic.\nThere is too much primitive instinct in mental plasma and motor\n\n"}
{"page": 147, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nEVOLUTION\n\nAND\n\nETHICS\n\n139\n\nfiber for that. Practially the schools follow the scheme of the arena.\nIt must be a wrestling match or an archaic contest of some sort in which\nthe powers of children are matched against the wild beasts of mathematics, language, and science. How else could children be stimulated to\nactivity, or how else could the judges rate the performance minutely on\nthat percentage scale without which school-keeping could not be?\nIf the moral aptitudes and institutions of our race do not sufficiently\naffirm generic infancy, the geological records give strong affirmative testimony on the same question. As we turn over their stony leaves we read\nthat a few thousand years have but little significance in making up the\nwhole history of a genus. The remains of man are nowhere identified\nwith any but the most recent formations. Geologically he is a newcomer upon the earth, and his genius has the time potentialities of millions\nof years before it.\nOur most ancient history is but a thing of yesterday, yet it carries us\nback to times when there was only a little human seed scattered in wildernesses where great nations now exist. Never were people multiplying so\nrapidly as at present (about i per cent, per annum). This growth seems\nalmost like an effort of nature to fill a vacuum ; and still the earth is\nlargely vacant. Our eighty millions may rise to six hundred millions\nbefore the United States will become as densely peopled as Great Britain,\nGermany, or France, and their increase — eight-tenths of i per cent, per\nannum — shows that they are not nearly full. There is room enough on the\nearth for the race to continue its numerical increase a hundred fold. «\nCivilization is rapidly taking possession of the world, and for those\nwho will not accept it extermination is the fateful lot; but civilization is\nnothing other than the aggregated development of the power and significance of each human uttit.\nTurn to whatever field of evidence we may, we find the same thing\naffirmed. Our race is in its formative period. It is now struggling with\nits birth limitations; a new type of being is in process of creation, of\nwhich the like has never been seen in the world, and concerning which in\nfuturity we can only speculate. In this worldwide growth of civilization\nan incessant remodeling affects everything. In nothing has the energy\nof the process worked out to a finish ; of nothing does it seem to say,\n\"This is very good ;\" \"This is the end.\" Does not this ceaseless transforming mightiness rather affirm in effect, as it works toward its far future\ngoal, that nothing that now is contains more than a remote suggestion of\nthe finished humanism that it is creating ? To those who listen it says :\n\" Watch me while I work, and see, as one creative day follows another,\nhow the ideal of humanism will appear, and the predominance of animalism will as gradually withdraw from the product until the perfected\nhumanism shall display those definite qualities of being that make it as\ndistinct from animalism as animalism is distinct from chemism ; each\n\n"}
{"page": 148, "printed_page": null, "text": "14°\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nbeing in order of development the crown of the other, and resting upon\nits brow with regal significance.\"\nIs not perfection the ultimate and universal dream, and can that perfection be any other than the focus of those lines along which intelligence\nand will are working thru ethical processes? They all point even now\nto a being that shall be supreme over the conditions and forces of nature\nwithin its sphere ; not a flotsam being — mere driftwood of inherencies;\nnot a slavish vessel of circumstances, with no control over them ; but a\nregnancy that creates circumstances, rules over material manifestations,\nand is royally immune in nature from such assaults and peltings as the\nslave gets from the master, but never the master from the slave.\nThe worst delusion and enemy of ethical evolution is the doctrine of\nhuman degradation. Worst, because it gives to ethical sway neither room\nnor recognition. It construes the situation as holding a matured divinity\nenslaved by animalism, and thru redemption from its thraldom, by beating down the animalism, the nobler nature becomes restored to power.\nThat is the ethical malpractice which the doctrine of degradation promotes but\n;\naias ! the nobler nature is not there, except rudimentally, and\nwhen developed by its own appropriate nutrients, it will reduce the\nanimalism to its own proper and useful function. This is the true process\nof ethical evolution, the development of the human over the animal,\ninstead of the coercion of the animal in the human.\nThe medicine that makes a sick person well makes a well person\n• sick. Take up the teacher's burden. Is it a thing ethically sick, \"born\nin sin and shapen in iniquity,\" and so morally diseased as to demand\ncauteries and antiseptics ? Will goodness be developed in it by an\nawakened sense of its own badness and shame ? Will it be lifted to\nnobility by flattery and threats, by rewards and punishments ? Commands, threats, punishments, and petting are suitable in training dogs\nand horses ; as applied to human beings such means are less successful\nthan with animals, because human beings are more resourceful in deception and disobedience than animals. The animalism of the human may\nbe somewhat ethically improved by such means, but its humanism not a\nbit, and they are no factors in ethical evolution.\nAs the move is made from selfishness, and the despotism that selfishness make% necessary, toward selfhood and the perfect liberty of law\naffirmed by the sovereignty of each person, the maxims of that despotism\nmust die and all that promotes selfhood live and increase. More knowledge of things that are and less belief in things that are not; more\nenlightened will, less darkling wont; more love of truth and less untruth\n- of love ; more communion with nature and less sentimental gush over it ;\nmore beauty of holiness and less holiness of beauty ; more rulership of\nbeing and less being of rulership ; more of legitimate thought process\nand less hysteria of thought fantasy.\n\n"}
{"page": 149, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nEVOLUTION\n\nAND\n\nETHICS\n\nI4I\n\nTrue ethical evolution is essentially the unfolding of a better understanding of the human as a principle distinct from the animalism organi\ncally associated with it; of a better understanding that this principle has\nits own nutrient elements, which are known and properly administered ;\nthat as it grows it dominates more completely the type in which it is contained, and that the best road to the goal of perfection is by maximizing\nthe development of the humanism and minimizing to the utmost practicable degree the criminal treatment of the animalism.\nAt some point in the future those who then live will know what our\nthoughts were, and they will marvel that the curtains could have been\ndrawn so closely around our understanding. To them our ideas of crime\nand sovereignty will appear as huge dark gnomes, standing together in\nthe far-away dawn and stretching their black arms over a slumbrous earth.\nWith the teachers of the future reposes the hope of the remoter future.\nHere is the strange confluence of animality and rationality, the former\nlosing and the latter gaining predominance as the centuries go by. An\nevolutionary process is acting i5pon and gradually transforming the likeness of the being out of the one and into the other. Whose mission is it\nto keep the way of this development open and free ? The teacher's. Who\nother than the teacher will disappoint the hope and trust of the future if\nsodden ideas shall clog and institutional debris shall dam the course of\nthis river of life, which should flow tranquilly between its banks of\nthought, and water as it goes the roots of those trees whose ulti-mannered\nfruit and foliage are for the healing of the nations ?\nTo whom can we look for the operation of better laws ? Not to jurists;\nfor they have no deal with causation. They must make and interpret\nlaws that shall match actual conditions and established facts. To whom\ncan we look for better theologies ? Not to the theologians ; for theology,\nfrom an internal point of view, is not susceptible of improvement or\nrevision. To -whom can we look for better philosophies? Not to the\nexpounders of philosophy ; for they deliver their messages to the world,\nand the world dues not understand them, and the world says to them :\n\" Go up, you bald heads ! \"\nThese things are only possible to the teachers, who meet the coming\ngenerations at the threshold of the world and lead them into its habitations. If they know no better principles of government than can be\ngathered from legislatures and courts and old-fashioned concepts of sovereignty, and if they can devise no better incentives than are presented\nin the swinish scrambling of the world for personal advantage, they are\nneither priests nor priestesses of ethical evolution. If, still lower, with\nrecreant selfishness and unworthy ambition they urge their charges along\nsuch ways and to such ends as will attract to themselves the greatest\napprobation of unskilled or thoughtless patrons, be they school officers\nor parents, such vassals and patrons are worthy of each other ; they\n\n"}
{"page": 150, "printed_page": null, "text": "142\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\ncreate each other, and surround the holiest places of education with their\nmiserable kennel of animality.\nIt is the right and the opportunity of teachers to know what none\nothers can have the chance to know. Experience in the profession gives to\nthem, or ought to do so, keys to ethical problems that ar? withheld from\nall others. Whatever is truest and best in the organic relations of human\nbeings the schools are in a position to discover and put in practice, and\nthe profession should maintain that steady, resistless power of expert\nknowledge in ethics which alone can face and bear down the conditions\nand vagaries of all the rest of the world. There is no scheme or doctrine\nof moral government that has the right to withstand the deductions of\npedagogical science.\nIt may well be said by others, \"We are confronted with conditions,\nnot theories, and so we must act;\" but it is not well for that to be said by\nany in the one profession whose business it is to mold humanity and\ncreate conditions. As well might soldiers say : \" We are confronted by\narmed men, and so we must retreat.\" To submit tamely to conditions,\nand not strive to rule them by righteous reason, is to be an animal,\nstraight out and out. Suppose Columbus had said: \"I have to deal with\na condition, not a theory.\" Suppose Galileo had said it. Suppose the\nmen of '76 had said it. Leave that to be said by those who work by the\nhour and watch the clock.\nThis is addressed earnestly and feelingly to those who have now, or\nwill have, some part in making the issues of the future. The quality of\nwhat such will do will be determined by the quality of their theory and\nthe fidelity with which they work to its lines. What may be affected\nquantitatively is another matter ; that, of course, is subject to conditions.\nFor which of these is the ambition set ? Is it for quality ? The faces\nof such are fixed toward the glorious gates of ethical day. Is it for quantity ? They have turned to their muck-rakes and their gauds — they are\nonly commercial material, so much for so much ; it is quality alone that\nadvances evolution and crowns all sublimities.\nTo develop superior quality there must be a theory to work by and to\nlive by. It must cover the essentials of being, and rest so directly and\ntruthfully on the facts of being that it never loses its identity, however\nmuch it may grow or become modified. A properly held theory is one\nthat best interprets and unifies the products of experience with the processes of reason and continually leads to more knowledge. In it that\nwhich is possible and that which is righteous meet together and set forth\nthe best thing in act, so that righteousness is not everlastingly held under\nthe hoofs of those brutal dynamics which work only for present advantage. It rises in absolute purity out of that to which it pertains, and is\nuncorrupted by the exhalations of irrelevant things far gone into decay,\nbut still sending their effluvia up into human brains.\n\n"}
{"page": 151, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nSCHOLAR\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nSTATE\n\n143\n\nTo those who are shaping theory concerning \" evil \" and its remedies\nthe principal points of this paper are offered for consideration :\n1. We rise in the scale of ethical being on stepping-stones within ourselves, and not by climbing over others.\n2. Evil has no positive reality. The present is the early dawn of the\nhuman day. The true human type is largely undeveloped, and its\nimperfections are phases of a rudimental condition.\n3. The genus is emerging from animalism, from which it is distinct\nby reason of its intellectual supremacy over material conditions,\nand the degree of its emergence is measured by the development of this\nsupremacy.\n4. This development is promoted by all that promotes selfhood, as\nself-illumination, self-respect, self-responsibility, self-control, and selfdirectiveness ; and it is hindered by applying to humanism that which\nfitly applies only to animalism, as the despotic assertiveness of external\nmastery, humiliation, pain, penalty, fear, and favor.\n5. The teaching profession is the trustee of this evolution and should\nbe the high expert commission of the world for framing its moral codes.\nIt should be guided by what it finds directly in the ever-present problem,\nand be in no degree subject to prejudices, traditions, dogmas, or deceitful\ninterpretations that ignorance has given to human nature. In this, sphere\nits peculiar mission is to originate and set forth the latest, best, and most\nsaving gifts of intelligence to the world.\n\nTHE\nBY R. H. WEBSTER,\n\nSCHOLAR\n\nAND\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nTHE\n\nSTATE\n\nOF SCHOOLS,\n\nSAN\n\nFRANCISCO,\n\nCAL.\n\nAllegiance to learning and citizenship impels to this discussion. We\nneed the college to connect the present with the past. There is no such\nthing as a full and complete existence for the individual, or for the state,\nif that existence does not join itself to the whole life of humanity. For\nus ancestry has labored. Solemn and inspiring it is to review the\npast ; to trace the progress and development of that knowledge which we\nhave inherited ; to see how, thru passing centuries, the noblest intellects were laboring in the mines of thought, that we might stand upon a\nvantage-ground and become the heirs of treasures which were the products of their strivings.\nCould modern civilization afford to be deprived of a knowledge of the\nlearning and culture of the past ? \" When ancient opinions and rules of\nlife are taken away, the loss cannot be estimated. From that moment\nwe have no compass to direct us; nor can we know distinctly to what\nport to steer.\"\n\nLost are the influences of the illustrious dead, the heroic\n\n"}
{"page": 152, "printed_page": null, "text": "144\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\ndeeds that kindle and feed the flame of valor and self-devotion, the\nquickening and instructive annals of history, the songs of the bards, the\nteachings of philosophy wrestling with the great questions of truth, and\nthe painful, resolute steps of discoverers leading the ages after them up\nsunlit heights of science. But the guardianship and transmission of this\ndowry of the past are in the hands of the world's scholars as trustees for\nmankind. The halls of liberal culture open backward into galleries of\nantiquity and onward into the life of the present, giving to the exploring\neye, beneath their arches, the long vista of the progress of the race.\nWe request no undue homage for the wisdom of the elders ; but more\nreverence for the ancients would benefit us in our personal and national\ndevelopment. It is needed to correct that flippant self-sufficiency that\ntinges with arrogance our confident and often vain American energy, and\nthe smattering of universal knowledge that conceives it has nothing to\nlearn.\nWe need the college and the college man in alliance with the life of\nthe state, for the security and honor of republican principles. We believe\nin a government, not of despotic force, nor of kings enthroned by divine\nright, nor of privileged classes ; but in government of equal laws framed\nby popular will, defining and guarding popular rights, administered by\nrepresentatives elected by universal suffrage. Despotism can maintain\nitself only in the unreasoning debasement of its subjects. Ignorance\nsupports iniquitous and oppressive political systems. These are familiar\nsayings, yet they demand continued and emphatic iteration. Popular\neducation inspired by the college and college-bred man is the one invincible foe of special privilege and political absolutism. It is a liberator\nfreeing thought and inquiry.\nLiberal culture does not merely proclaim republican equality, but\nworks out the practical elevation of the lowly. It lets down a ladder to\nthe very lowest grade of social life on which the humblest may climb to\nthe highest. New men are ever rising out of the stern schools of want\nand hardship to the charge of great enterprises and to tasks of public life.\nThis is the promotion of the only true aristocracy — the peerage of intellect.\nIt is true that the ambitious demagog is created where the many are\nstimulated by uncontrolled aspirations and the prizes of advancement.\nAnd in opposing this class the greatest service of the scholar is needed to\nindicate the councils of reason, to thrust and destroy the cunning sophistry set forth, with the sword of experience and logic. The demagog\nfinds no comfort save with those whom he can deceive and beguile. Selfgovernment with us is a government of a nation of readers, thinkers, and\ndebaters.\nPatrioiism. — Fear is often expressed that the scholar and the college\ncannot be relied on in the supreme stress of some great crisis to furnish\n\n"}
{"page": 153, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nSCHOLAR\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nSTATE\n\n1 45\n\nthe military arm to defend the republic against the weapons of war. \"We\nare not enfeebled by philosophy.\" These words of the great Athenian\ncommander and orator are as true today as when he uttered them. When\nthe clarion has sounded \" to arms \" in the republic, among all the clearbrained and strong-limbed that rose at the call none have given a more\njubilant response or rendered more valiant service than the scholars of\nour nation, both within and without our peaceful academic shades. No\nquestion can now be raised concerning the alliance of letters with loyalty and courage, for our college halls are hung with laurels of valor, the\nhonor of heroes whose blood crimsoned battlefields for union, liberty,\nand national glory.\nAnother office of the college in its influence upon the state is to correct the tendency to materialism, against which all communities have to\nguard. In the daily grind of life, this tendency appears inseparable from\nour tasks, and it is difficult to wing our minds above material interests or\nto cultivate ideals. Material interests must be and should be fostered,\nand the capabilities of a people should be tried to the utmost in furnishing wealth, not only for the bodily comfort of all individuals, but for the\nadornment of science and art. But it is the function of the college and\nthe scholar to direct the use and enjoyment of this wealth into channels for the exaltation of mankind, to arrest the tendency to employ it\nfor merely sensual gratification leading to vice and decay. Material\nprosperity should be the handmaid of refinement, the promoter of intellectual ideals. The very presence of an institution of learning suggests\nother than purely material interests. It declares man's higher needs and\nmore exalted capacities. From the vantage of its dome the outlook is\nwider over the domain of man's being. Within its walls are the books of\nknowledge. Art is wooed as a mistress ; statues leap forth from marble,\nand life looks from canvas. Tuneful hands take the lyre, poets sing, and\nliterature is born.\nThe college is thus the court of the ideal. Under its shadow material\nlife is exalted to the higher nobility of serving truth and right.\nIn the needs of practical life the scholar must continue to occupy a\nposition of growing importance. The ideal leads the practical ; men of\nthought go before men of action ; the scholar is the older partner of the\ncraftsman, furnishing him his tools and supplying his models. All the\ntriumphs of human progress, all the increments of practical growth, are in\nthe inspiration of ideals. The signal triumphs of man over matter during\nthe last fifty years are but the results of the patient toil of the scholar.\nThe expansion of the college curriculum from the traditional classic\ncourse to embrace every department of human activity and science has\nresulted in those splendid achievements of naval architecture, of civil*\nmechanical, and electrical engineering, that make the closing century the\ngrandest epoch of the worjd.\nThe noblest practical growth of the state,\n\n"}
{"page": 154, "printed_page": null, "text": "146\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nits truest wealth, and its fairest honor are not only conditioned upon, but\nidentical with, its highest intellectual advancement.\nThe duty of the scholar in aiding to maintain the permanent, peaceful, yet progressive order of society is most imperative. The scholar\ncraves a quiet atmosphere. The college demands a settled public tranquillity, and therefore for its own sake favors peace and public composure,\nthat its morning and evening bells may ring clear on the quiet air. It,\ntherefore, asks for restful times, and seeks to insure settled civil order\nand the steadfastness of the state.\nAnd what it asks it helps to give.\nWhen intelligence is diffused, revolutionary thoughts may be started,\nbut they have to be canvassed. In an enlightened community each individual feels competent to ask questions and try issues. Appeals must\nbe to reason, not to passion. All public measures are put on trial by\nscholars.\nThe necessity of the college and its product — scholars — has thus\nfar been indicated in our discussion. Attention will now be briefly\ndirected to the duty of the scholar to the state.\nProbably there never was an age so crowded with thought, emotion,\nsentiment, purpose, and utterance as the present ; and never an age that\ncalled so solemnly for teachers of right thought, noble purpose, and wise\nand temperate speech.\nThe patient toil of the student in his laboratory has resulted in signal\ntriumphs of human genius ; of splendid achievements in subduing the\nelements and compelling the powers of nature to work for man. The\nocean waves, the mountain streams, even the rays of the sun and the\nforceful combinations of the elements, are being harnessed to 'toil for\nman in perfecting the earth for his occupation.\nRapid transit is erasing state and even international boundaries, and\nreducing the peoples of the earth to a commonwealth. The struggle for\nexistence, as experienced in material competition, is leveling mankind in\nsocial and economic life. The people of America, who have hitherto\n'enjoyed comforts resulting from well-remunerated toil, are feeling the\npressure of competition with the underfed millions of Europe and Asia.\nDiscontent is prevalent, and is finding expression in outbreaks against\norganized government and existing social states. Obligations to the\nstudious have been most gratefully acknowledged. Millions of dollars\nhave been given to the support of the college, ajid the people have a\nright to demand that it shall engage in the solution of the grave social\nproblems of the hour.\nIt has been charged that schoolmen are either indifferent to all movements toward social amelioration or regard them with a cold, critical eye,\nand consider themselves as mere spectators in the drama of human strife\nand suffering. It is alleged, and with some cause, that this attitude is\ndue either to lack of instruction in these vital questions or to the manner\n\n"}
{"page": 155, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nCONFIDENCE\n\nBE TWEEN\n\ntilGH SCHOOL\n\nA ND COLLEGE\n\n14 7\n\nin which they are often treated in the class-rooms of our colleges and\nuniversities. It does seem, at times; as tho the scholar's path is narrowing as he advances. As the world enlarges, the student should broaden\nwith the rest. He should grow to the size of a statesman, and not shrink\nto the stature of a critic. Scholarship is weakened unless united with\ncharity and sense. The need of the hoiir is the correction of political,\nsocial, and ethical errors that are being advanced continually, and the\nactive aid of those who are willing and able to attempt and effect it. If\na plague is raging, the call is not for one to tell how it could have been\nprevented, but for help to stamp it out. One fighter on the spot is\nworth a hundred critics at a distance. It is the great duty of scholars to\nthrow themselves into the midst of social movements with the same\nenergy and persistence with which they pursue intellectual ends. The\nstudents of this age have grand opportunities for good. They are possessed of trained mental powers to discern, and the critical judgment to\nlead. Every scholar should enter politics, not for personal preferment,\nbut for the public weal. His views of men and affairs would be modified,\nhis charities broadened, while the gain to the commonwealth would be substantial and permanent. There are abuses to be corrected ; nothing will correct them but intelligent work. It is unfortunate that the schoolman lacks\nthe enthusiasm to place himself foremost in the field of action. Enthusiasm and intelligence are irresistible. The scholar must not allow himself to become a pessimist. He should not only consider what education\nhas done, what educators have accomplished, but be ever mindful of his\npossibilities. With the power of the educator should be associated the\nduty of the citizen, a duty that demands a more patient and thoughtful\nambition than the unschooled possess — a duty to plow for others to sow ;\nto sow for other hands to reap. Thus will the representatives of our\nschools and colleges league the state with the ultimate issues of human\nprogress.\nGROWTH\n\nOF CONFIDENCE\nAND\n\nBY R. B. FULTON,\n\nCHANCELLOR\n\nBETWEEN\n\nCOLLEGES\nOF THE\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n'\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nOF MLSSISSIPPI\n\nIt is not the purpose of this paper to discuss theories of co-ordination,\nor college entrance requirements, as they are or ought to be. On each\nof these topics every member of the Departments of Higher and Secondary Education, if not every member of the National Educational Association, is presumed to \"hold views,\" which, of course, depend largely upon\nhis standpoint, his experience, and his personal equation. Your speaker\nwill firmly hold himself back from a theme so prolific of discussion as\n\n"}
{"page": 156, "printed_page": null, "text": "148\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nco-ordination, even if he finds it necessary to invoke that spirit of altruism\nwhich finds its broadest expression in the terse colloquial phrase, \"There\nare others.\"\nEven laymen know how interesting, exciting, and debatable a theme\ncould readily be found in this field. Those really interested in such matters are invited to attend this afternoon's joint session of the Departments\nof Higher and Secondary Education, in which the elaborate report of the\nspecial committee on college-entrance requirements, of which the distinguished Dr. A. F. Nightingale is chairman, will be under consideration,\nand will present the maturest tho.ught of American educators along these\nlines.\nNo American ever studied more enthusiastically, or discussed more\nearnestly, educational problems and policies than did Thomas Jefferson.\nProbably more of his untiring energy and vast intellectual power was\nspent in this direction than in any other. We find him as early as 1779\ndrawing plans for a system of general education in Virginia. In these\nhis first plans it was proposed that the details of even elementary education thruout the state should be directed by a central power, the faculty\nof William and Mary College. Only in his later years was he led to the\nconclusion that no institution, unless controlled entirely by the state, could\nfully meet its demands for higher education. Even William and Mary\nCollege had inherited too much of ecclesiasticism to be the agent of the\nstate.\nIn his original plans Jefferson proposed to connect the three great\nbranches of education, the primary, the secondary, and the higher.\nIn this system, by a process of selection of the fittest, the more highly\nendowed and intelligent children of the people' were to have the opportunity for acquiring the highest education the state could afford, and at\nthe public expense. \" For more than forty years his mind moved along\nthese three lines of institutional reform for his state : (i) subdivision of\ncounties into hundreds, wards, or townships, based upon militia districts,\nwhich should become school districts ; (2) grammar schools, classical\nacademies, or local colleges; (3) a state university.\"\nOf these three Mr. 'Jefferson held that the first and the third, the\ncommon schools and the university, were of the highest importance to\nthe state and required the highest legislative care. The second, the\nclassical academies, could be left with greater safety, he thought, to private enterprise and philanthropy.\nIn 1823 he writes : \"Were it necessary to give up either the primaries\nor the university, I would rather abandon the latter, because it is safer to\nhave a whole people respectably enlightened than a few in a high state\nof science and the many in ignorance. This last is the most dangerous\nstate in which a nation can be. The nations and governments of Europe\nare so many proofs of it.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 157, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nCONFIDENCE\n\nBE TWEEN\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\nAND\n\nCOLLEGE\n\n1 49\n\nRealizing thus in the first years of this century, as fully as many do at\nits close, the importance of co-operation in the three parts which make a\ncomplete system of education in any commonwealth, and working for the\nfull establishment of such a system in Virginia, as Mr. Jefferson did thruout forty years of his life, he was compelled at the last unwillingly to adapt\nhis theories to actual conditions and to the laws that have ever controlled\neducational forces. Tho holding the notion that elementary education was\nmore essential to the safety of the state than was university education, he was\nnevertheless compelled to what seemed a paradoxical course, and yet was\nthe very course which development in education has followed thruout all\nhistory. At the last he was led to devote all his energies to the building\nof that crowning glory of his life and of the state, the University of Virginia. The work and influence of this institution have permeated every\nhamlet in the state, and thus are hastening the full realization of his wider\nhof)es.\nWhat Jefferson planned to be accomplished by legislative co-ordination, voluntary and hearty co-operation is now largely securing in many\nstates.\nThis co-operation is having the largest practical test under the wellknown system of accrediting schools, as now practiced by a majority of\nthe colleges and universities in the Mississippi valley and westward.\nThe fact that more than one hundred colleges and universities in the\nUnited States have each within the last ten years entered into a formal\nalliance with from ten to more than one hundred high schools each,\nrepresents an educational movement of extent too great to be ephemeral.\nIt is an evolution, and can never lead back to former conditions. If\npresent plans and results are unsatisfactory, out of these something new\nand something better will be developed.\nNaturally the state universities have been foremost among the higher\ninstitutions in this movement, and the public high schools make up the\nlarge majority of the accredited schools in all the states.\nThe extent of this co-operation is shown by the fact that the University of Michigan, deservedly honored in having first achieved a plan that\nyields satisfactory results, has now two hundred upon its list of formally\naccredited schools. The University of Wisconsin reported last year 137;\nthe University of Indiana, 123; the University of Nebraska, 71; the University of Mississippi, 53 ; the University of Tennessee, 45 ; the University of Minnesota, 43 ; South Carolina College, 36 ; the University of\nAlabama, 29; the University of Colorado, 23; the University of South\nDakota, 22; Alabama Polytechnic Institute, 22 ; West Virginia University, 13; the University of Washington, 11; Tulane University, 10; the\nUniversity of Missouri, 70 ; the University of Illinois, 135 ; the University\nof California, over 67; Lake Forest University, 35; the University of\nKansas, 128; the University of Iowa,^i46.\n\n"}
{"page": 158, "printed_page": null, "text": "150\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nBesides the institutions above named, the following have each a wellorganized system of co-operation with preparatory schools, rnost of which\nare public high schools : University of North Carolina, University of\nPennsylvania, University of Vermont, University of Utah, Ohio State\nUniversity, Cornell University, Washington and Lee University, University of Texas, University of Nashville, and Vanderbilt University.\nA quarter of a century ago but few institutions claiming to stand for\nhigher learning, and having any entrance requirements, dared to risk the\ncharge of educational heterodoxy by admitting students without formal\nexamination.\nThe writer will ever vividly remember his first experience with collegeentrance examinations. In one of the years immediately succeeding the\nCivil War, with other unfortunate novices, he was ushered into the presence\nof a college professor of mathematics, a graduate of the United States\nMilitary Academy, an ex-confederate soldier and general. Mercilessly\nwere plied questions apparently intended to allow the survival of none\nbut the fittest. The group of would-be sophomores were held in suspense\nas to their fate until the next day, tho everyone was conscious of having\nbeen frightened out of his wits, and of having, for this or other more\nserious cause, given absolutely no proof of mathematical attainments.\nWhen again in the presence of the military professor to learn our fate,\nthe procedure took a new and patriotic turn.' Those who had served as\nconfederate soldiers were admitted without condition. Those who for\nany cause had not seen such service were required to enter a lower class,\narid make up all deficiencies.\nCan it be shown that the majority of college-entrance examinations as\nnow held give any better classification of students as to power to\naccomplish the college curriculum than did this arbitrary and patriotic\nscheme ? On the other hand, can the modern system of admission to\ncollege on certificate from accredited schools accomplish the desired end\nby admitting only those who are able to do successfully the college work ?\nThe effort to secure with certainty this result has led to a large\ndiversity of plans for the more confidential or official connection of school\nand college. State supervision or regulation of high-school work,\nwhether organized as in New York, or Indiana, or Michigan, can do much\ntoward keeping up a fair standard of scholarship in the schools without\nnecessarily drawing colleges and schools closer together in friendly interest. This friendly interest, the very basis of confidence and effective\nco-operation, can only thrive on mutual acquaintance — an acquaintance\nthat shall thoroly inform the school as to the. progress and power needed\nby the student who aspires to work thru a college course, and shall give\nthe college assurance that the certified freshman has this power.\n\"Supervision \" is a term, more or less acceptable, by which the function\nof the university in this relationship is frequently designated.\nIt is a\n\n"}
{"page": 159, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions!\n\nCONFIDENCE\n\nBETWEEN\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\nAND\n\nCOLLEGE\n\n151\n\nterra, however, which does not attract a considerable number of school\nsuperintendents who magnify the office of the high school apart from its\nfunction in preparing students for college. And yet a certain amount of\nsupervision and work of organization is absolutely necessary, if any\nefficiency is to be secured.\nIn the large majority of cases the supervision or directing power of\nthe higher institution is exercised thru the personal visitation of its professors. Ordinarily this has proved to be the simplest, the most direct,\nand the best method.\nBesides the official work of the professor who thus visits a distant\nhigh school, there are valuable concomitant benefits belonging to this\nsystem. University professors always learn something worth knowing\nwhen they wander outside of college w^alls during term time, and especially\nwhen they visit outlying communities as the earnest apostles of higher\neducation. These communities also can, thru their influence, often be\nhelped to a higher appreciation of all thoro educational work.\nRecently the employment of special high-school inspectors has been\ntried with much satisfaction by the Universities of Missouri, of Nebraska,\nof Illinois, of Minnesota, of Wisconsin, and of Kansas ; and this plan is\nbeing undertaken in several other states where the large number of\nschools on the list renders visitation by members of the university faculty\nalmost impracticable. It remains to be proven that this newer plan, not\nyet fully tested under all conditions, will be altogether as fruitful in\ncordial good will, clear understanding, and hearty interest as inspection\nby university professors. There is no substitute for the advantage that\ncomes naturally from personal intercourse between those who represent\nthe school and those who represent the college. Co-ordination may be\narranged on paper. Co-operation requires a degree of interest and\nenthusiasm which only personal contact can fully develop. However\nperfect the scheme or plan of co-ordination which may be adopted, its\nperfection is that of a machine. The energy of a motor, and the direction\nof intelligence, must come in before results that are valuable can be\nwrought.\nWhile the state universities have been foremost among the higher\ninstitutions in encouraging and aiding public and other high schools to\nproperly fit pupils for college work, the state universities have neither\nsought nor acquired any exclusive claim upon all the students thus prepared. Whatever of educational uplift or advantage may result belongs\nalike to every college or university that aims at thoro work.\nBut what is there of real advantage in the system of accrediting high\nschools and receiving into college classes pupils upon -certificate without\nexamination ? When a school has been duly inspected, a report made,\nand a vote taken which places it upon the honored list, has anything\nmore been accomplished for the school than would have resulted if the\n\n"}
{"page": 160, "printed_page": null, "text": "152\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\ncollege had expressed its good will by adopting complimentary resolutions regarding the school, or by conferring the honorary degree of\ndoctor of laws upon the principal ? Have the colleges and universities\nreceived benefit proportionate to their efforts to attain higher standards\nin their work, and to reach larger numbers ?\nWith the purpose of finding correct answers to questions such as\nthese, a few months ago the writer made inquiries, by correspondence, of\nthe presidents of the state and other universities which have had largest\nexperience with the system. Replies received from most of the institutions addressed show, practically with unanimity, that from the college\nstandpoint the following conclusions are well founded :\n1. The universities regard co-ordination of some sort with institutions\nof higher learning as giving valuable prestige to any ambitious high\nschool.\n2. Wherever co-ordination has been made in any form, under conditions involving careful inspection and close supervision, hearty mutual\nconfidence and co-operation have surely followed, resulting in better\npreparation of students for college and an increase in the numbers entering college.\n3. The working of the system has proven in many cases to be the\nvery best practical means for spreading the university beyond its own\nwalls — a most profitable kind of \"university extension.\"\nSome universities have been quite chary and cautious in bestowing\ntheir confidence upon high schools, placing a very considerable burden\nof proof upon even the most favored schools, and evidently inclining still\nto the policy of examining all applicants for admission. Other institutions\nhave gone to the opposite extreme in throwing wide open their doors and\noffering to admit the graduates of any high school that has credit anywhere. It is worthy of note that to the institutions in neither of these\ngroups has come that hearty spirit of co-operation, based upon intelligent\nappreciation of merit, which alone can produce satisfactory results.\nRecently other letters of inquiry have been sent to the accredited\nhigh schools in twenty-five states where the system of accrediting is most\nin vogue. These inquiries were intended to elicit frank criticism by the\nhigh -school principals of the methods used to secure co-operation and\nthe results achieved in the various states. Replies have been received\nfrom over three hundred principals of high schools in the twenty-five\nstates, most of these representing public high schools. Eighty per cent,\nof the replies declare distinctly that the system of co-operation in use has\nled to an increase in the number of pupils entering college from the\nseveral schools ; that it has a marked effect in stimulating pupils in their\nhigh-school work, and that the policy has proven of special advantage to\nthe general cause of education in the community. Eight per cent, of the\nreplies emphatically state that no such favorable results have been\n\n"}
{"page": 161, "printed_page": null, "text": "I\n\nSessions]\n\nCONFIDENCE\n\nBE TWEEN\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\nAND\n\nCOLLEGE\n\n153\n\nachieved within the experience of the schpol reporting. Twelve per cent,\nconsider the general outcome to be of doubtful value.\nFrom the states of Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Nebraska, Michigan, Minnesota, and Wisconsin large numbers of replies have been received, and\nthe writers are practically unanimous in claiming the very best results.\nIt is worthy of remark that these are the states in which co-operation is\nthe most hearty and supervision apparently the most rigid. Many principals urge the importance of more careful supervision, and more rigid\nexclusion from the lists, of those schools which fail to show satisfactory\nwork.\nProminent criticisms coming from the high schools are to the effect\nthat colleges which maintain preparatory departments lower the standards\nthat are possible in high schools, and tha^t lax supervision and failure\nby the universities to cut off from the accredited list inefficient schools\nhave the same result. It seems to be generally accepted among the high\nschools that the maintenance of preparatory departments in colleges is\none of the greatest obstacles to the development of hearty co-operation\nand the growth of efficient high schools. The statistical reports of the\nCommissioner of Education for 1896-97 — the latest available — show\nthat, in 256 colleges and universities reporting, 34 per cent, of the\nfreshmen were prepared by the preparatory departments of colleges,\n20 per cent, were prepared by private preparatory schools, and 43 per\ncent, by public high schools. Because as many as 34 per cent, of all the\nfreshmen reported were prepared in college-preparatory departments, it\nby no means follows that such departments are necessary, or that higher\neducation needs their continuance. The friction which they naturally\nengender between colleges and high schools represents a large waste of\neducational power. If there is present today the president or any professor in any college maintaining in itself a preparatory department, I\nrespectfully urge that he trace the college course of a group of students\nin the senior preparatory class, and compare results with those achieved\nby an equal number entering college from other schools, and then\ndecide whether the college-preparatory school really prepares pupils for\ncollege.\nFor many years the authorities of the University of Mississippi\nseriously regarded a preparatory department as a necessity; and for many\nyears, in spite of friction arising therefrom, such a school was maintained\nin the belief that it was needed as a feeder for university classes. A few\nyears ago an appeal to the records was made, with results that were startling and that led immediately to the abandonment of preparatory classes.\nIt was found that, out of 182 students who in a certain period were in\nthe sub-freshman or senior preparatory class, not more than one-half\nbecame freshmen, and that out of the total number of 182 only four\nfinally graduated from the university, two of these being sons of professors\n\n"}
{"page": 162, "printed_page": null, "text": "154\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nLGeneral\n\nin the institution. I am confident that careful examination will show\nequally surprising results in other institutions.\nThe requirement made of its members by the Southern Association of\nColleges and Preparatory Schools, and the other organizations of similar\npurpose elsewhere in the union, that college work and preparatory work\nshall be dissociated, goes a long way toward removing a long-established\nhindrance to hearty co-operation between colleges and the best preparatory and high schools.\nThere has never been witnessed a more decided nor a more general\nadvance in educational work than that which has been exhibited during\nthe last decade in the earnest efforts made by high schools, colleges, and\nuniversities, notably in the South and West, by hearty co-operation,\nmutual concessions, and mutual confidence, to bridge the gap between'\nsecondary and higher schools. Co-ordination has assumed various forms,\nand will continue to change. But the workers on both sides are surely\nrealizing the hopes, verifying the prophecy, and exemplifying the patriotism of Mr. Jefferson when he wrote these words, near the close of his life,\neighty years ago : \"A system of general instruction which shall reach\nevery description of our citizens, from the richest to the poorest, as it\nwas the earliest, so will it be the latest of all the public concerns with\nwhich I shall permit myself to take an interest. Nor am I tenacious of\nthe form in which it shall be introduced. Be that what it may, our\ndescendants will be as wise as we are, and will know how to amend, and\namend it, until it shall suit their circumstances. Give it to us, then, in\nany shape, and receive for it the inestimable boon, the thanks of the\nyoung and the blessings of the old who are past all other service but\nprayers for the prosperity of our country, and blessings for those who\npromote it.\"\nTHE\n\nSPIRIT\n\nBY MRS. JOSEPHINE\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nHEERMANS,\n\nCLASSICS\n\nKANSAS\n\nCITY,\n\nMO.\n\n\" The soul of man is widening toward the past,\nMore largely conscious of the life that was.\"\n\nDoes the summer manifest a trace of springtime ? Has the autumn\nany evidence of bursting buds ? Has the thought of the twentieth century any blossom of permanent truth whose root lies buried in Hellenic\nsoil ? \" Some thoughts always find us young and always leave us so.\"\nIs it because they reach across the centuries to the youth of the world —\nto that past when creative faculties were more productive, when critical\nsense was less strong than now ?\nNo one would change the present.\n\nIts strenuous labor for the' right\n\n"}
{"page": 163, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nSPIRIT\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nCLASSICS\n\n155\n\nis sublime. If there is greater unrest in this age, it is because the chrysalis of freedom has given place to the winged state of liberty. And those\nsouls of tender sensibilities who cry out for the beauty and repose of\nGreece, for the glory of Rome, have but to consider existing institutions\nto find both in immortal youth.\nIn this miracle of California it is not difficult to restore Hellas. We\nhave the sea and the mountains, the wheat, the fruit and flowers, the\nevergreens, the palms, the orange groves, the vine lands, the hum of bees,\nthe changeless skies, the climatic peace. Even mythology is easy here.\nGreat Pan is not dead. The twelve gods of Plato's vision seem to rise —\nnot ghosts, but deities. Mars sits 'neath the olive shade, Athene's gift.\nDemeter mourns Persephone no more. Phoebus-Apollo drives his gilded\ncar of day. Flowers born of Aphrodite's tears, of Adonis' blood, nod in\neternal beauty. Diana's beams project a pathway heavenward, and serene\nharmony crowns all.\nTo the extent to which harmony is realized is an individual or a\npeople influential. Harmony is continuity. By spirit is meant the element of continuity asafactor in human progress. Continuity is spirit, if\nwe may define it at all. It is that quality that is most ascending and most\nenduring. It is without physical embodiment, because it is all substance.\nIt is a paradox fitly illustrated by Vulcan, who «vas lame because all limbs,\nand by Cupid, who was blind because all eyes. The spiritual dominion\nof Greece embraces the round world. Every land, every condition, every\nmedium of expression, is vivified by her intangible force. This dominion\n. is as old as mythology.\nMythology possesses the germ of intellectual products of whatever\nnature. Each myth has something vital in it, for which reason it became\nidentified with the various thought developments. It gave us epics,\ndramas, statues, philosophies. No theory can explain all there is in\nmythology. The thought- and feeling-content is what eludes theories and\nis what is without beginning of years or end of days.\nThru Homer's song the gods became alive in a nation's belief, and he\nof poets is still the chief. Thru Socrates' interpretation, muscularity\ngave way to spirituality, and he of moral philosophers is still the acknowledged leader. The hand of Phidias became the medium thru which a\nnation's tendency to recognize the divine in humanity was manifested,\nand he of sculptors is without a rival. Thru and by interpretation all\nthe arts and the sciences were derived from the Iliad.\nMarx says : \" It is much easier for us to find the earthly kernel of the\nreligious nebulosities of the early Greeks than to develop the sublimated\nform from conditions of everyday life.\" And that is all we shall try to\ndo — to find the earthly kernel that has fed, with its beauty, or grandeur,\nor intensity, the thought of all succeeding ages.\nWe pass from Apollo and his chariot, thru geometry and dynamics, to\n\n"}
{"page": 164, "printed_page": null, "text": "156\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nastronomy ; from Olympian Jove's thunder-bolts, thru electricity and elemental forces, to physics. Mythology gave to Democritus his hypothesis\nof the indefinite divisibility of matter ; it gave to Pythagoras his apprehension of ihe whole universe as number ; it gave to Anaxagoras the conclusion that mind was the really potent force. It gave to the venerable and\nawful Parmenides the problem of the world in multiplicity; and the battleground of modern theological dispute was defined. It gave to Xenophanes\na disbelief in the evidence of the senses ; and modern ontology is his\nlegacy. In every line of thought, not excepting government and\neconomics, the modern mind is in indissoluble bondage to the service of\nthe Greek spirit.\nThe spirit of mythology, thru the careers of goddesses, created the\nmatriarchal ideal, which has had its influence in developing republics,\nthe states being a family owing allegiance to the central government, the\nunion of all ; the home and central government corresponding. Conference, councils, and arbitration are the fruits of this matriarchal influence.\nSparta affords an illustration of this : Lysistrata, during the Peloponnesian\nwar, summoned the women for the purpose of managing the state and putting an end to the devastating war. These things they accomplished.\nThe liberty and importance and social status of Spartan women are a prototype of woman's position today — understand, liberty and social status;\nnot an independence that is absolute. The classical spirit is opposed\nto that. The influence women have had in forming modern republics is\neasily demonstrable. This ideal was present \"at the sowing of the seed\nof the world,\" and it lives on.\nIn economics Hesiod began the work. His Works and Days constitute the basis of direct ethical philosophy. His is the first expression\nof man's introspection, questioning the laws under which he lives and\npondering upon his destiny. He saw the wrong and the woe of the\nunhonored earners of bread, and worked out for them a line of daily conduct submissive to environment. The Thetes whom Achilles envied in\nElysium were the peasants of Hellas. These people formed an estate too\nlow for Homer to consider, but Hesiod's high morality and love of justice\nconstrained him to plead their cause. 'Tis Hesiod that declares that\nsomewhere in the universe justice is enthroned. This is echoed down\nthe lapse of years by Plato, Empedocles, Lucretius, Virgil, Tasso, Ruskin.\nIt is not only in our own day that justice seems conspicuous by her absence ;\nit was even so then ; and the question arose then as now : Shall the\noppressed demand redress, or shall they suffer ? Shall they endure ?\nHesiod idealized peace. That was his answer ; and he made it permanently attractive because of the contrast its tranquillity offers to the warfare of life. Not in vain shall human justice wait on the divine. The\nmoral poetry of succeeding ages is but the flower of this root. Hesiod\nsurrounded toil with honor.\n\nHe says : \" Before excellence the immortal\n\n"}
{"page": 165, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nSPIRIT\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nCLASSICS\n\n157\n\ngods have placed toil and labor ; afar and steep is the road that leads to\nher, and rough it is at first ; but when you reach the height, then truly it is\neasy, tho so hard before.\" The spirit of Hesiod took tangible proportions\nin the guilds of Calvin's time and in the trades unions of our own dayIt is no uncommon thing for the membership of a trades union to number 300,000 men. With such strength, the \"somewhere\" of Hesiod's\njustice is almost always found. His moral attitude gives place to a legal\nattitude, over Avhich the spirit of peace still broods. To summarize : The\nHesiodic spirit manifests itself in the brotherhoods, the united orders,\nthe trades unions, in all the arguments advanced by labor, in all righteous\nrevolt against the tyranny of injustice. The spirit of intense earnestness,\nof immense vigor, of splendid effort, that turns despair's mists into a rainbow of hope, that \"passes power to the potency o'er it,\" is Hesiod's.\nIn economics our questions are the same, comparatively, that the\nGreeks sought to answer. They dealt with the economical aspects of the\nbody politic, and in explanation had to seek aid of history, philosophy,\nand psychology. They realized that states contrive to live in spite of bad\nrulers and bad laws. Custom, that bond between society and state the\nlaws of which we call sociology, which seemed an instinctive growth to\nthem, and still seems so, was really an outgrowth of political philosophy.\nAs \" the first wheat sown in the earth was the germ of empires,\" so the\nGreek conception of economics is not abolished but preserved thruout\nthe changes necessary for its development to maturity. Let me illustrate :\nPlato prized agriculture above all other industries. Quesnay, 2,000 years\nafter, considered commerce and agriculture not two co-ordinate sources of\nwealth, but commerce as only a branch of the tree of agriculture. From\nthe writings of the school to which Quesnay belonged the theory of taxation and that of free trade, and the notion of natural order, natural rights,\nand natural government, such as Jefferson and Lincoln enunciated, were\ndeveloped.\nWe have today no more careful division of skilled labor than was suggested byPlato and Xenophon. Also the early writers clearly held that\nwhat a man produces society has helped him to produce, and society\ntherefore has a claim as well as the individual. Emerson reiterates this\nin a beautiful way when he says that the impulse of a nation directed\nthe hand of Phidias, and the thought of Dante and of Shakespeare.\nPlato's economics were subordinated to the ethical, and that spirit, by\nwhatever name, permeates the writings on this subject from Mandeville to\nMill. What on this subject to Plato was obscure was less so to Aristotle.\nAristotle came very near to the notion of capital, and he recognized the\nfunction of money. Much of the spirit of Aristotle's ethics had its germ\nin Solon's ideal of government, realized \"when the people obey the\nrulers, and the rulers obey the laws\" — the attainment of which we still\nindulge the hope.\n\n"}
{"page": 166, "printed_page": null, "text": "158\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nThe Stoics and the Epicureans laid the basis for individualism. This\ngreatly influenced Roman law, and led to a claim for equal rights for all,\nas typified in the highest phase of modern government. We speak of\nthe highest phase of modern government, but we can find every phase\nthat the past has known. Polybius, speaking of the Athenian constitution, said : \" Its highest perfection, owing to its essential instability, was\nattained in a single career.\" Has not France in modern times furnished\nits replica? Of the Spartan constitution he said that \"for guarding\ntheir country with absolute safety and for preserving their own freedom\nthe legislation of Lycurgus was entirely sufficient, and for those content\nwith these objects there neither exists nor ever has existed a constitution\nsuperior to that of Sparta.\" Is not this the dream of our fathers? And\nof Rome : \"If one is seeking aggrandizement, the constitution of Rome\nis superior and better constituted for obtaining power.\" Did he refer to\nthe power of the consuls, the power of the senate, the power of the people, that could all oppose, or could all support, each other ; that was a\ndespotism, or an aristocracy, or a democracy, just as it happened ? Is\nthat a condition that ceased to exist when Rome fell ? Or does the spirit\nof the Roman constitution in a distinct, definite, and realistic way still\nwalk ? One is tempted to think that the Roman spirit is represented in\nthese days by the \" man on horseback.\"\nAfter this brief consideration of government we will turn to the more\nrestful theme of philosophy. If Socrates did not anticipate Bacon's\nInductive Method, there is certainly a parallel between the spirit and purpose of their methods. Socrates, \" from the conceit of knowledge without the reality,\" and Bacon, from \"primary notions,\" tested men's\nmental defects. Socrates gave us inductive reasoning and definitions.\nPlato added analysis and synthesis. Plato's theory of ideas differs very\nlittle from Emerson's philosophy, and his doctrine of recollection is\nvoiced again by Wordsworth, in\nNot in entire forgetfulness,\nBut trailing clouds of glory do we come.\n\nPlato's Republic, where each one loves the perfect, we recognize again\nin the dreams of later idealists. Blakesley says : \"Aristotle's logical\nworks formed the basis of that extraordinary phenomenon, the philosophy\nof the schoolmen. An empire like this, extending over nearly twenty\ncenturies of time, more or less despotically, but always with great force,\nis assuredly without a parallel.\" The spirit of Aristotle's psychology\nrested upon Hobbes, who also made experience the basis of all knowledge. Hegel admits that the greatest number of philosophical sciences\nowe to Aristotle their separation and commencement. Our principle of\ncorrelation began with him when he mapped out human knowledge in its\nseveral provinces, of which each part led on to the next, and all made one\n\n"}
{"page": 167, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nSPIRIT\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nCLASSICS\n\n159\n\norganic whole. Should the spirit of his suggestions actuate the makers\nof courses of study, what would be the result? About this: (i) persuasive speech — prose; (2) poetry — epic and tragic; (3) ethics; (4) politics ;\n(5) sciences ; (6) metaphysics. Suppose we take the prose, poetry, and\nethics in our elementary schools, the politics and sciences in our high\nschools, and the logic and metaphysics in our universities. This would\nlessen to a very considerable extent the number work, and would change\nthe existing conditions of literature in elementary schools, which is\nundoubtedly the present tendency.\nWith Aristotle began our principle of combination. This principle,\nso prominent in our economics and in our political institutions, is emphasized in matters educational. Each division of the work, from the kindergarten to the university, essential as it is in itself, is but a part of the\nmagnificent whole — the great educational system.\nIn the science of being, Pyrrho thought he had destroyed all grounds\nof certitude ; and Hume, too, felt the boundaries of inquiry ; and Goethe\nsaid : \" Let us not attempt to demonstrate what cannot be demonstrated.\"\nSchopenhauer, full of a Platonic love of intellectuality, yet with selfish\ncynicism, wailed over the emptiness of existence. His was a Greek soul,\nbut it. was the soul of the Cynics. On the other hand, Euclid taught\nthere was one unalterable Being, to be known by reason only — not the\nOne, neither Intelligence merely, but the Good ; and everything opposed\nto it had nothing but a phenomenal existence. And very recent metaphysicians define Good as God, and God as Good, and maintain that Good\nis natural and primitive and All.\nThe practice of the Sophists of \"making the worse appear the better\nreason\" is repeated every day in the disputations of our legal profession.\nFrom philosophy to science is a step which the classic spirit bridges.\nAges ago minds of excessive acuteness existed — minds which distinguished general principles among a multitude of objects enveloping\nthem. This spirit reappears in Newton and Lagrange. Newton's theory\nof undulatory motion is but a development of an analogy drawn by\nDiogenes and Vitruvius between the propagation of sound and the\nspreading of waves on the surface of water when disturbed by a stone.\nAs in the days of Hipparchus, who prepared his first catalog of new\nstars because a single new star was observed among those nightly visible,\nexceptional phenomena are the points from which new explorations of\nscience are made.\nThe Copernican system was a generalization ; astronomers have\ninferred that, as on earth, so in heaven, or space.\nLucretius sang :\nThe flame has weight, though highly rare,\nNor mounts but when compelled by heavier air.\n\n.\n\nArchimedes,\n\nthru\n\nexperiments proving\n\nthe buoyancy\n\nof bodies in\n\n"}
{"page": 168, "printed_page": null, "text": "l6o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nwater, understood clearly that all matter is heavy, leading down by an\nunbroken succession to Thompson, Stokes, Maxwell, Helmholtz, and\nothers.\nPlato generalized ; Aristotle generalized ; Darwin was the boldest of\ngeneralizers. He thought out his theory of the origin of coral reefs\nbefore he saw one. His son says : \" It was as though he were charged\nwith theorizing power ready to flow into any channel on the slightest\ndisturbance, so that no fact, however small, could avoid realizing a stream\nof theory, and thus the fact become magnified into importance.\"\nThe aurea mediocritas was highly esteemed in ancient philosophical\nand scientific reasoning. It seemed an intuition with them, and they\nmay not have been able to give an analytical reason for using it ; but\neven our profoundest modern mathematicians, Laplace, Lagrange, De\nMorgan, and Leslie, have hardly exhausted the subject. The existence of\nerror in all measurements is the normal state of things. Disturbing influences must be balanced off against each other ; and all one can hope to\ndo is to come near the truth — to apply the method of the mean, in\nshort.\nJevons says : \"All scientific processes are grossly approximative.\nAll is hypothetical. We infer of anything what we know of similar\nobjects, and all deductive and inductive reasoning is on this principle.\nBetween generalization and analogy there is a difference of degree only.\"\nOccasionally the classical spirit makes for error, as in the case of\nKepler, Comte, and Huggins, regarding their belief in the fatalities of\nnumber. But this is not frequent. In all modern science the Aristotelian\nspirit is like the crystal dropped in a saturated solution : the solidifying\nparticles cling to it by preference, and this thraldom makes for truth.\nIn government, economics, philosophy, the sciences of today, there\nare \" witnesses, cohorts about us, to left and to right, angels, powers, the\nunuttered, the unseen\" — the spirit of Hellas.\nGreece gave us many ideals. The Hesiodic and Platonic have been\nbriefly sketched. I shall as briefly touch upon the Homeric spirit, to\nwhich the highest expression of civilization is indebted. What is the\nhighest expression of civilization? Loyalty in men, honor in women,\nand a literature that glorifies both. Achilles reflects the freedom, both\nintellectual and spiritual, of the Greek race. Of chivalry and honor he\nwas the type. For three thousand years he has stood the symbol of\nfriendship. All the legends of great friendships that rush to the mind\ngo back for their motive to the Iliad, to Achilles and Patroclus. Here\nwe gather the first fruits of equality in friendship, of fervor, courage, passionate faith, sacrifice, constancy. Thru Achilles, the creature of a poet's\nbrain, friendship became an institution among the Greeks. This line of\nreflection is instinct with suggestion. The modern attitude of detachment, of diplomatic distrust between friends, is not Homeric. What kind of\n\n"}
{"page": 169, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nSPIRIT\n\nOF THE\n\nCLASSICS\n\nl6l\n\na man is capable of an Achillean friendship? A man who, like Achilles,\nis physically, intellectually, and spiritually great. Brutus loved Caesar, but\nBrutus was not spiritually great. He was weak-willed. Wolsey loved\nHenry VIII. , but Henry VIII. was not spiritually great. And there are\nmore modern examples. Tennyson emulated this model, perhaps. His\nmonument to friendship, \" In Memoriam,\" involved the labor of sixteen\nyears. It stands almost unique. We shall indulge the hope that the\nAchillean spirit lives in examples more obscure. Achilles stands for\nmore than the highest type of friendship. Athene in her counsels to him\nis the god in the man externalized. He stands for the truth that the soul\nis exterior to man. Beethoven, after long contemplation of the character\nof Achilles, wrote his \"Eroica\" symphony. What can we say of an epic\nportraying the ardent energy of anger and of love so intensively that\nafter three thousand years it impels such expression as this symphony ?\nAnd of Homeric inspiration Leonardo and Correggio and Lord Leighton\ngave evidence in their lovely conceptions of Helen. The Helen of Stesichorus, who assailed her ; of ^schylus, who judged her ; of Euripides, who\nregarded her as degraded, is not the revered Helen of Homer that lives\nin story, statue, and painting, of whom Marlowe says :\nOh, thou art fairer than the evening air\nClad in the beauty of a thousand stars.\n\nWith Goethe this \"daughter of the gods, divinely tall and most\ndivinely fair,\" lives again in allegory; and Tennyson, under the spell of\nher immortal eyes, gave us, not only \"The Dream of Fair Women,\" but\n\" Ulysses,\" \" The Lotus Eaters,\" \" Oenone,\" and \" Enna.\" Hers is purely\na symbolic figure which has given to every age one argument : the perpetuity of youth, the universality of beauty, the irresistible force of harmony,\nand the impossibility of displacing these.\nNaturally, when we are talking of Helen we are thinking of love —\nand that was such an inclusive thought with the Greeks, who, loving proportion in everything, gave to each phase of love boundaries which it\nmight not with impunity transcend. Sentimental love had very small\nspace. Such love the Greeks regarded as madness. Sentimental compulsion had little weight with Plato ; love had small attraction for JEschylus. In Sophocles' opinion love was like glittering ice held in a child's\nhands, and Euripides called it a god-sent curse. When Byron sang,\n\"Love has no gift so grateful as his wings,\" he was voicing a Greek\nthought. The excessive devotion of Laodameia for her husband was a\ncrime against moderation, and she paid the penalty of death. Perhaps\nWordsworth in retelling this story reached his greatest excellence.\nIntensity always led to fatality. It does yet. The disregard of a positive\nlaw of the nation was always avenged. In modern literature this spirit is\ngenerally manifest.\n\nBrowning's \"In a Balcony,\" where Norbert says,\n\n"}
{"page": 170, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 62\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\n\"And what this horror that grows palpable? Some death will run its\nfinger round this spark and sever us,\" is an instance. The poetry of\nArnold, Moore, Hunt, Shelley, Longfellow, Poe, affords similar instances.\nOutside of literature this spirit of moderation is seen today in the subordination ofthe emotional nature to the more rational elements of a harmonious life.\nThe permanence of the Doric spirit is evidenced in modern imitations\nof Theocritus, Bion, and Moschus, who gave us the idyl. We need not\ngo back to Virgil ; we find its embodiment in the nineteenth century.\nIn \"Wordsworth's solemn-thoughted idyl, Howitt's ballad-verse, or Tennyson's enchanted revery, or from Browning — some 'Pomegranate,'\nwhich, if cut deep down the middle, showed a heart within, blood-tinctured, of a veined humanity !\" Shelley, too, reflects it, and in Emerson's\n\"Threnody\" we find a close imitation of the lament of Moschus. Mrs.\nBrowning and Jean Ingelow, Coleridge, and our own Lowell and Aldrich\nmount higher on the poetic ladder by means of the idyl, and in it Tennyson has excelled himself.\nIt would be impossible within the limits of this paper to speak of the\ninfluence of Greek lyrics on modern poetry. How few the poetic creations, epic or lyric, of two thousand years ! Dante, Shakespeare, portions\nof Browning, perhaps. Extracting the thoughts of others, elaborating,\nquoting, our modern writers are but humming-birds feeding upon the\njuices of classic blossoms. Would we tell a tale of love ? Homer is the\nmaster of the human heart ; Sappho exhausted love's metaphors ages\nsince. Would we write a hymn of praise to the light that guides ? Stesichorus pointed the way. Would we represent the whole of human life,\nwith its web of tragic and comic threads, its lighter graces, its darker\nhazards ? Then we must turn to the drama whose law of righteousness\n^schylus pointed out. Self-sacrifice, lost honor, generosity, overwhelming reverses, Sophocles delineated ; Euripides, \" the human,\" struck all\nthe chords of tenderness and sorrow; satire, pleasantry, banter, burlesque,\nhumor, wit, were the legacy of Aristophanes. The spirit of this perfect\ndrama \"burns on thro' time and ne'er expires.\" It is still a child of the\nold eternal soul.\nGreece realized her dream of the perfection of reason and taste in\nher literary creations, original, clear, and high. Plutarch, Lucian,\nMusaeus, Tasso, brought this perfection to us, and with indefinite expansion the Greek influence is being carried by us to future ages.\n\n"}
{"page": 171, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nLET\n\nCLASSIFICATION\n\nACCORDING\n\nTO ABILITY\n\nPUPILS\n\nBE SO CLASSLFLED AS TO\nSTRICTED PROGRESS OR UNLLMLTED\nING TO ABILITY\n\n[practical\n\nresults\n\nBY\n\nJ. BARNARD,\n\nFRANK\n\nof\n\neight\n\nyears'\n\nexperience\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nwith\n\nOF SCHOOLS,\n\n163\n\nALLOW UNRETIME, ACCORD-\n\nthe\n\nSEATTLE\n\nSEATTLE,\n\nPLAN]\n\nWASH.\n\nA high authority, an expert in military matters, in an elaborate report\non the administration of our army in the Philippines, says that the\ninspector-general's department is a failure ; that the engineers' department is composed of untrained and unqualified officers, so inefficient that,\nhad the city been stormed, the loss of life would have been enormous and\nsuccess doubtful; that our troops suffered greatly in landing; that stores\nwere lost in the surf, including all the ammunition of the Astor battery;\nand that great injustice is done our soldiers by making them the victims\nof inexperienced staff officers holding commissions by virtue of political\ninfluence.\nOf the privates he says: \"These troops displayed a spirit of intelligence and obedience, combined with individual willingness to perform\ntheir duty, that may be rivaled, but could not be surpassed, .... a\nbody of men of magnificent physique, possessing perfect discipline, and\nyet without any discipline at all^ — -a military paradox.\" And also : \"Had\nit not been for the splendid energy of the troops, inspired by a magnificent spirit,\" the whole army would have been demoralized, our stores and\nlaunches would have fallen into the hands of the enemy, and the artillery\nwould have been useless.\nSimilar reports by other experts were written of the campaigns in\nCuba. Such conditions, and the imperative need of trained men in the\nadministration of our affairs at home and in the government of our new\npossessions, suggest the thought that in the organization of our schools\nwe may find the cause, and perhaps the solution, of these conditions.\nAs school officers we command great armies, but, except in comparatively few instances, our plans of organization are as obsolete and inefficient as are those so sharply criticised. True reform begins at home.\nThe beauty of the blossom and the quality of the fruit depend upon the\nproper cultivation of the soil about the roots. The foundation work of a\ntowering building determines the stability of the superstructure.\nThe future of this great republic is in the hands of the teacher. \"As\nthe twig is bent the tree is inclined.\" The vast majority of the pupils of\nour grammar schools today will not enter the high school ; a greater\nmajority will not enter the college or university ; but that minority, the\n\n"}
{"page": 172, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 64\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\ngrammar- and high-school pupils, will shape the destiny of our country,\nmake its laws, govern it, and solve the problems of a new foreign\npolicy.\nThe drum-beat and march-step of our soldiers in Sunset land have\ntheir echo in the music of the piano and march of 15,000,000 pupils in\nSunrise land. Think of it: an army of 15,000,000 souls commanded\nand \"licked into shape\" by 400,000 officers — the teachers, principals,\nand superintendents !\nHow do we organize and manage our army of pupils, its corps, divisions, and brigades, its regiments and companies, its cavalry, infantry, and\nartillery? Do we keep an accurate record of each private from the time\nof his first enrollment to the time he is mustered out ? As a matter of\nfact, which we should be brave enough to acknowledge, of every one hundred \"twelve-room schools\" in this country, in command of a principal\nand twelve subordinate officers — the teachers — ninety are organized on\nan absolutely rigid, red-tape basis, in which the individuality of the pupil\nis lost. If there are four captains — primary teachers — in charge of the\nnew recruits in September, the chances are as ten to one that each will be\nassigned an equal number, regardless of individual ability or mental alertness. The bright-eyed fellow — a born cavalryman — with ability to gallop ahead, is forced to march with the heavy artillery; while the regular\ninfantry — the average pupil, the backbone of the class — is not only\nhindered by the presence of the cavalry, but actually halted in its march\nand made to \" mark time \" while the heavy Krupp guns are brought into\nine with it. What a spectacle a company of soldiers would present, if\nformed of, first, a few pieces of heavy artillery, then a squad of infantry,\nthen one of cavalry, a few pieces of light artillery, and so on — every branch\nof the service being represented in the one company, under the command\nof a single officer !\nWe are all familiar with the story of Rear-Admiral Sampson's search\nfor the Spanish fleet and his struggles with the heavy, slow-going monitors\nof our navy, so unwieldy, so unsuited for deep water, that the \"New York \"\nand \" Iowa \" had to tow them, and the speed of the entire fleet was decreased\none-half. He states that for lack of speed the .monitors could not have\ncome into action at all, had the enemy been met at that time.\nSo, too, in the organization and direction of our army pf pupils, every\nindividual new recruit in September should be assigned to his proper\nplace. He may be a slow-going monitor, never intended to get into deep\nwater, and hence must not be placed among the fast cruisers ; for, should\nhe attempt to keep up, he simply goes under and is lost; and, on the\nother hand, should the cruisers \"slow down\"\nness would be lost.\n\nto his speed, their useful-\n\nThe heavy plow-horse has his work to do, has his place, but it is in\nthe furrow and not on the race-track.\n\n"}
{"page": 173, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nCLASSIFICATION\n\nACCORDING\n\nTO\n\nABILITY\n\n1 65\n\nWould any sane man select for his team, or span, a lithe-limbed trotter and a heavy but magnificent Norman draft-horse, and expect to drive\nthem together ? Such a team would be absolutely useless. It could\nneither trot nor haul heavy burdens. But place each with its kind, in its\nproper class, and both will succeed. And yet we have been classifying\npupils on that same plan for fifty years. It is difficult to break away\nfrom old traditions. Our politics and religion today are the politics and\nreligion of our ancestors, and the Chinaman still plows with a stick\nbecause his great-grandfather did..\nThe basic idea in the education of our youth is mental activity. Continued mental and physical activity produces mental and moral growth\nand a long life; the absence or suppression of these activities results in\ndecay. Is it not, then, our bounden duty so to classify our pupils as to\npromote and foster these activities, not suppress them ; to shorten the way\nfor the quick-witted and permit him to enter new fields, and give more\ntime and attention to the slow thinker — -restraining neither, but enabling\nboth to make progress, altho advancing at different rates of speed? How\ncan pupils be so classified ? Let me illustrate : Suppose there are four\nseparate but parallel railway tracks extending from this city to Boston,\nwith a train on each track ready to start today ; some having started yesterday, and others to start tomorrow. The train on track No. i is to\ntravel fifty miles an hour ; on track No. 2, forty miles an hour ; on track\nNo. 3, thirty miles an hour ; and on track No. 4, twenty miles an hour ;\nor at such speeds as those in charge find it possible and advisable to\nmaintain. Suppose, furthermore, that eighty of our Boston friends\ndesire to return home. Some, to reach their destination as quickly as\npossible, take train No. i ; others, to travel less rapidly, take train No. 2\nor 3 ; others, to fill the entire vacation time with profit and pleasure,\ntravel on the slowest train of all — No. 4. Now, is it not evident that\ntrain No. i, leaving today, will soon overtake and pass train No. 4, that\nleft yesterday, and that train No. i, to leave tomorrow, will soon overtake and pass train No. 4, leaving today? So, too, will train No. i,\nleaving today, overtake and pass trains Nos. 2 and 3 that started yesterday. As the trains go thundering along, on the separate tracks, at different rates of speed, all bound for home, many of our friends may change\ntheir minds and desire to be transferred to other trains. Some, unable to\nendure the too rapid travel of train No. i, transfer to No. 4, as soon as it is\novertaken. Those who started on train No. 4 yesterday, sick and discouraged, may have become strong enough to transfer to train No. i or\nNo. 2, leaving today, either by stopping off to wait for the one wanted,\nor by continuing on No. 4 until No. i overtakes it, when transfers are\nquickly made. So the journey continues, all traveling toward Boston,\nnot one taking the back track, but transferring, when advisable, from\none train to another, either by overtaking\nthe one next ahead, no\n\n"}
{"page": 174, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 66\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nmatter on what track it may be, or by waiting for the first one that\ncomes along.\nThe application of the illustration to the classification of pupils in\nour schools is plain. The route is the course of study ; the mile-posts\nare the successive chapters of the same, usually designated \"first half,\"\n\"second half\" of D, C, B, A primary and D, C, B, A grammar schools.\nThe parallel tracks are the different \"divisions\" into which the total\nnumber of pupils in a class may be grouped, on the basis of twenty\npupils in each division, and assigning two divisions to each teacher. It\nis clear that under such an arrangement two primary teachers can take\ncharge of four parallel tracks, or \"Divisions\" i, 2, 3, and 4, allowing\neach \"division\" (train) to go ahead at such speed as the ability of the\npupils comprising the \"division\" will permit.\nAs such a plan was inaugurated in Seattle in 1891, and has been followed uninterruptedly for eight years, will you permit me to quote from\nthe Seattle School Report for 1891-92, p. 64?\nThe course of study, promotions, and classifications are questions so intimately connected that a discussion of one naturally involves the others.\nSchoolmen have, for years, been attempting to answer the questions : \" How shall we\nshorten the course of study ? \" \" How enrich it ? \" One proposed solution is to abolish\nalmost entirely arithmetic, grammar, and geography, thereby shortening it, and bringing\ndown into the grammar schools such high-school studies as German, French, Latin,\ngeometry, algebra, etc., thus \" enriching \" the course of study below the high school.\nThese solutions are obtained by but one rule, viz.: \"Save time by the sacrifice of quantity.\" That is, win the race by throwing overboard part of the cargo. We all admit that\nfor a large number of our boys and girls eight years is too long a time for the work\nbelow the high school. Many could do the work in six years, some in less time, while\nothers, naturally slow, although sure thinkers, would require full eight years.\nThe questions of time and quantity are entirely different factors. Quantity is the\ncourse of study itself, while time is the number of years necessary to complete it. If,\nthen, a certain factor, quantity, made up of more or less arithmetic, grammar, geography,\nspelling, reading, etc., etc., is required for admission to the high school, why not so\nclassify the pupils as to enable them to take the quantity and enter the high school in\nthe shortest possible time ? The time of the course of study can thus be shortened for\ndifferent pupils. Pupils thus enabled to enter the high school in less than eight years\ntake up the enriching studies of German, French, Latin, etc., under the instruction of\ncompetent and experienced teachers, but in the high school, not below it. That is to\nsay, the pupils hasten forward toward the \"enriching \" point, but the \"rich \" pabulum\nis not brought down to them.\nSuch a plan would permit many pupils to complete the entire course of study in the\nelementary schools, and take two years in the high school by the time they are fourteen\nyears of age. Pupils having once entered the high school would be apt to remain in\nschool, and that department would thereby be greatly strengthened and enlarged.\nHow can such a plan be put into practical operation ? Stated times for promotions\nwill not accomplish it ; semi-annual promotions will not solve it.\nIn my opinion, the only solution is to classify pupils strictly according to abilities\nand qualifications, and then allow them to master the quantity (the course of study) in\nsuch time as they can do the work well.\nTo illustrate : Suppose there are, in a certain school, eighty pupils in the A primary\n\n"}
{"page": 175, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nCLASSIFICATION\n\nACCORDING\n\nTO ABILITY\n\ngrade. I would divide them into four divisions of twenty pupils each, classifying them\nstrictly according to abilities. To one teacher I would give the first and second divisions,\nto another the third and fourth divisions.\nTo the teachers and pupils of all the divisions I would say : \" Now, the theory upon\nwhich the course of study for the fourth year is constructed is that it will take one year\nto complete it ; but if you can do the work thoroughly and easily in less time, why, do so,\nand then at once begin the work of the fifth year, overtaking the lowest division of that\nclass, if possible.\" This means daily promotion. Progress is constant. The \"first division \" of one class will overtake, for a time work with, but finally pass, the lowest division\nof the next higher class, while the lower divisions will go steadily forward, many of the\npupils working up to higher divisions of the same class. In large schools where there\nare more than two teachers to a grade, the classification can be still more thorough by\nhaving a greater number of divisions in each grade.\n\nAs the pupils of the Seattle schools have been classified under this\nplan for eight years, as stated above, we have some practical and interesting results, as shown by our records.\nThe statistics here given are based upon the records of pupils registered this past year, by grades, and cover a period of time for each\ngrade, reckoned from the date of entry to D primary — or first year to\ndate of last recorded promotion,\nThe records of 7,090 pupils were studied. Of these 6,576 are pupils\nbelow the high school, and of this number 3,271, or about one-half,\nrequired additional time to do the work, 792 did the work in the regular\ntime, and 2,513 did the work in less than the time allotted. The total\ntime gained to date, by all the primary and grammar schools, is 1,352\nyears and three months, reckoning ten months for the school year. The\ntotal time lost to date is 2,731 years and three months.\nPROMOTION\n\nSTATISTICS\n\nGrammar schools\n\nPrimary schools\nItems of record\nNumber belonging whose\nrecords follow\nNumber of pupils who have\ngained time since entering D primary Number of pupils who have\nlost time since entering\nD primary Number of pupils who have\nneither gained nor lost\ntime since entering D\nprimary\nTotal months' time gained\nby entire grade\nTotal months' time lost by\nentire grade\nBalance — Months' time\ngained by entire grade\nBalance — Months'\ntime\nlost by entire grade\n\nL\n\nD\n\nC\n\nB\n\nA\n\n1,105\n1,342\n\n104\n\n951\n\n582\n\n1,451\n\n4,794\n788\n3,496\n\n4,979\n5,330\n3,«79\n\n2,708\n\n508\n\n302 2,164\n\n2,191\n\n2,273\n4,464\n\nTotals\n\n6.576\n\n2,513\n210\n\n122\n\n414\n\n361\n82\n\nA 29\n\n268\n\n105\n\n595\n\n1,915\n1,026\n\n64\n\n230\n\n390\n120\n\n280\n\nB\n\n821\n\n1,126\n\n687\n335\n\n656\n406\n\nC\n279\n239\n\nD\n\n381\n\n1,043\n1,237\n2,280\n\n2,900\n\n3,054\n\n8\n307\n\n3.271\n13.523\n27.313\n\n1,708\n1,401\n\n13,790\n792\n\n3,768\n\n50\n\n736\n\n"}
{"page": 176, "printed_page": null, "text": "i68\n\nNATIONAL\nTABLE\n\nSHOWING\n\nEDUCATIONAL\nPER\n\nCENT.\n\nOF\n\nGAIN\n\n64\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nSINCE\n\nENTERING\n\nD\n\n25\n\nD\n\n15\nB\n\nC\n\n25\n\n17\n17\n14 Grammar schools\n13\n3\n1\nD\nC\nB\nA\n\n25 schools\nPrimary\nItems of record\n\n[General\n\nPRIMARY\n\n2\n\n7 for each class)\n(on basis of ten months' time\n\nA\n\n28\n18\n\n33\n20\n\nage\nAver-\n\n20\n26\n\n12\nII\n\n12\n\n10\n\n9\n\n6\n\n9\n\n8\n\n7\n\n8\n\n5\n\n7\n\n5\n\n4\n\n4\n\n3\n\nI\n\n3\n\n3\n\n4\n\nHIGH\n\n15\n\n13\n\n80\nPer cent, of class who gained 5 per\ncent, or more in time\nPer cent, of class who gained 10 per\ncent, or more in time\nPer cent, of class who gained 15 per\ncent, or more in time\nPer cent, of class who gained 20 per\ncent, or more in time\nPer cent, of class who gained 25 per\ncent, or more in time\nPer cent, of class who gained 30 per\ncent, or more in time\nPer cent, of class who gained 40 per\ncent, or more in timej\n\n23\n\n17\n\n43\n\n35\n\n34\n\n16\n\n10\n\n12\n\n7\n\n8\n\n8\n7\n4\n6\n38 3\n40 2\n2\n384\n\n5\n3\n\nSCHOOL\n\n19\nItems of record\n\nFirst year\n125\n\nSecond year\n\n276\n\n126\n60\n\nNumber belonging whose records\nfollow\n....\nNumber of pupils who have gained\ntime since entering D primary\nNumber of pupils who have lost\ntime since entering D primary\nNumber of pupils who have neither gained nor lost time since\nentering D primary\nTotal months' time gained by entire grade Total months' time lost by entire\n....\ngrade\nBalance — Months' time gained\nby entire grade Balance — Months' time lost by\nentire grade\n\nThird year\n\nFourth year\n\n82\n\n69\n10\n\nTotals\n\n266\n514\n108\n\n74\n\n26\n\n77\n699\n\n264\n\n7\n\n]\n\n1,073\n4\n\n140\n120\n\n882\n1,626\n\n10\n\n1,004\n927\n\n1\n7IIO\n\n618\n\n2,659\n1,042\n30\n\n3,701\n\n69\n40\n\nTABLE\n\nSHOWING\n\nPER\n\nCENT.\n\nOF\n\nGAIN\n\nSINCE\n\nENTERING\n\nD PRIMARY\n\n15\n\n(on basis of ten months' time for each class)\n1\n\n7\n\nItems of record\nPer cent, of class who gained\nper cent, or more in time\nPer cent, of class who gained\nper cent, or more in time\nPer cent, of class who gained\nper cent, or more in time\nPer cent, of class who gained\nper cent, or more in time\nPer cent, of class who gained\nper cent, or more in time\nPer cent, of class who gained\nper cent, or more in time\nPer cent, of class who gained\nper cent, or more in time\n\nFirst year\n5\n\n15\nSecond\nyear\n\nThird year\n14\n\nFourth year\n\nTotals\n\n43\n33\n\n10\n35\n\n33\n66\n\n15\n\n6\n\n18\n12\n\n12\n7\n\n6\n\n10\n\n7\n\n4\n\n5\n\n46\n\n6\n\n4\n\nI\n\nI\n\n30\n40\n\n39\n\n39\n\n20\n25\n\n6\n\nI\n\n48\n\n"}
{"page": 177, "printed_page": null, "text": "CLASSIFICATION\n\nSessions]\n\nACCORDING\n\nTO ABILITY\n\nThe results are here given by grades, but, as time is limited, 1 refer\nto but one grade to show the practical working of the plan, and as the A\ngrammar or eighth-grade pupils entered the D primary after this system\nwas adopted, their records are of great value.\nEight years, or eighty months, being the theoretical time allotted for\nthe completion of the course required for admission to the high school,\nthat time was taken as a basis for calcula'tions, with these results :\n80 2per\n3 cent, of the pupils gained\n43\n34\n\n15\n\n'\n\n7\n2\n\n\"\n\n4 months or more in time\n8\n\n\"\n\"\"\n\n12\n20\n16\n24\n\n\"\n\n32\n\n\"\n\nA study of the tables will show approximately the same results for all\ngrades; as, for example, the A primary, of which class 14 per cent, have\ngained 15 per cent, or more in time, and the first-year high-school class,\n12 per cent, of whose members have gained nearly two years in time,\nhaving entered the D primary class in 1893.\nThe advantages of such a system are evident. The slow thinkers are\ngiven unlimited time. Those who work — paper carriers and others —\ncan make progress. The quick-witted can forge ahead, and not only be\nkept mentally active, but be made to save the cost of unnecessary time,\nwhich to many parents is a very important item. The slow pupil who,\nwhen classed with brighter ones, becomes discouraged and -leaves school,\nif classed with those of equal ability, ranks relatively higher, may become\na leader, thrives intellectually, and continues in school to the end. The\nquick pupil gains time, completes the course, makes room for new pupils,\nand saves the school district many dollars.\nThe most gratifying evidence of the value of such a plan is the constant increase in enrollment in the high school, compared with the total\nin all schools, the percentage of enrollment for 1899 being more than\ndouble that of 1891, or, to be exact, an increase in the percentage of 118\nper cent. Self-reliance, individuality, thoroness, attention to details,\nstudious habits, respect for law and order, a high per cent, of attendance,\nand a substantial decrease in per-capita cost are the products of a school\nsystem organized and planned to give all a chance to win.\nLet me say, in conclusion : Study the capacities of the child. Some\nare dull, but it is not a crime. As well punish your pupils for being sick\nas for being dull. You cannot foresee' ultimate results. Some minds\ndevelop early, others late. Some may appear stupid because they have\nnot been cared for, have not been given their opportunity. With the\nhuman mind we must work with nature, not against it ; and, if we would\ndo it justice, we must find out its peculiar characteristics, and adapt\n\n"}
{"page": 178, "printed_page": null, "text": "170\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATIOA\n\n[General\n\nourselves to its individual wants. Do not make the dull boy the bright\nboy's burden ; for then you suppress the mental activities of both. Do\nnot sacrifice the bright pupil to your ambition to have a pupil who will\nenable you to shine — a sort of reflected glory — but rather grasp him by\nthe hand, wish him success, and push him along. He will keep going,never fear, and in the years to come you will rejoice that you had the\ncourage of your convictions.\nLet us not forget the dull, disheartened fellow, but rather give him\nour sympathy and our best endeavor, cheering, helping, leading, sustaining; for the dunce of the school may turn out in the end the living, progressive, wonder-working genius of the age.\n\nTHE\n\nBY\n\nNICHOLAS\n\nMURRAY\n\nOUTLOOK\n\nIN\n\nBUTLER,\n\nCOLUMBIA\n\n[STENOGRAPHICALLY\n\nEDUCATION\n\nUNIVERSITY,\n\nNEW\n\nYORK\n\nREPORTED]\n\nThis eventful nineteenth century of ours, now slipping so silently into\nhistory, has seemed to grow increasingly self-conscious and introspective.\nIts literature, its art, and its music are evidence of this tendency. Decade\nafter decade they have tended more and more to analyze emotion, to calculate purpose, to weigh ends ; and the century closes with the completest interpenetration of life and of nature by mind that has been known\nsince human history began. Nature has been conquered; its forces are\nbended in a myriad ways to human will and to human purpose, and\nincreasingly, year after year, that will and that purpose have come to\nknow themselves. All this, so striking to the observer of the movement\nof thought in our time, is in part a cause and in part an effect of education. As a result, education in all its forms has become the dominant\nhuman interest, and the most potent force in shaping our multiplex and\nmany-sided civilization.\nEducation in its largest sense — that of the school, to be sure, but\neducation thru the printed book, thru the newspaper, thru travel and\nobservation, and thru the mingling of men with men and thru the contact of man with nature — all this has made mankind increasingly selfconscious, and has provided a vastly increased content for his consciousness. When we try to sum up or to estimate this educational movement in\nall its forms, we are, indeed, dazzled and perplexed. The lines of development cross hither and yon. They draw together and again separate ; and\nwe have no machine and no device which can weigh and measure a growth\nand show a movement so illusive. But we must feel — we cannot help\nfeeling — the vast impressiveness of it all.\n\n"}
{"page": 179, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nOUTLOOK\n\nIN\n\nEDUCATION\n\n171\n\nEducation, which has become universal and so largely free, manifests\nitself over every foot of the earth's surface occupied by civilized man.\nWhere a cultured nation goes, whether with Kitchener to Khartoum or\nwith Wood to Santiago, there the school and the schoolmaster are the\ncommander's chiefs of staff. They represent the tools with which our\nmodern men most love to work and the instruments upon the result of\nwhose operation they are accustomed to depend with greatest certainty.\nEvery American must recall with pride a splendid instance of this, that\nAmerican college which sits high on a dark cliff beyond the Sultan's\ncapital, and silently forms character all along back thru the Balkan peninsula, and sheds its light across the thin gray line that separates Europe\nand Asia, and penetrates the darkness of the Turkish empire — Robert\nCollege at Constantinople, with its devoted band of teachers, perhaps the\nmost conspicuous successful instance of an outpost of our American\ncivilization. I cite it as a type of that which has been done and of that\nwhich is yet to be done in pushing forward the lines of intelligence, of\ncivil order, of industry, and of learning. The vastness of our newer\neducational literature, the variety and the multiplicity of our educational\ninstitutions, the immense financial outpouring from public tax and from\nprivate purse ^— all this dazzles the imagination and paralyzes the power\nadequately to understand and to estimate.\nBut however difficult is an understanding of all this which lies behind\nus, what shall be said of that which lies in front ? If the development of which we are the product is such, what is the message which\nthose who scan the horizon and seek to peer into the future, near or\nremote, can bring to the men and women of this country ?\nMen are optimists or pessimists by temperament. They are born\nwith faith or with despair ; and while the events of life may modify and\nshape those temperaments and alter the course and the form of their\nexpression, yet those events are not responsible, I take it, so much as is\nnatural form and bent, for the view which one takes of the movement about\nhim or of the flow of the stream way down toward the far-distant future.\nBut if we study history broadly, sanely, with painstaking and with scholarship, we cannot be pessimists. Mankind, when viewed over any considerable period of time, has been steadily marching up hill. To be sure, the\nman who is most concerned with some aspect of the moment may have\nhis attention chained by imperfections, weaknesses, and evils, and he may\nby temperament exalt them until they give him the rule of life.\nThere is enough, to be sure, in some of the aspects of our contemporary education to discourage and to distress. Many of those aspects have\nformed the subject of long consideration and careful debate by this body.\nIt is discouraging, for instance, to be told by the friends of public education in France that the state schools are so routine, so wooden, and\nso much at war with the religious instincts of a large portion of the\n\n"}
{"page": 180, "printed_page": null, "text": "172\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\npopulation that the children are turning from them in increasing numbers\nto attend the schools maintained by religious bodies. It is discouraging\nto be told on high authority that the schools of Prussia are weaning the\nchildren of the people in an undue degree, and to what some consider\nan alarming extent, from agriculture and the mechanic arts. It is still\nmore distressing to be told by those who have read the reports of education in England during the past year that two out of every eleven children\nhave not been in attendance upon any school of any kind at any time ;\nor that every child in attendance upon an elementary school absented\nhimself one day in every five when the schools were in session ; or that\nonly 35 per cent, of the elementary-school population is made up of\nchildren over ten years of age, and that that proportion is steadily decreasing ; or to be told that in some thirty of the largest and richest boroughs of\nthat country the number of enrolled children to each certificated teacher\nis more than one hundred, and that in the great manufacturing county\nof Lancashire it is 120, and in the great mining and agricultural county\nof Durham it is 124.\nThese are distressing facts. They chain the attention ; they challenge\ncriticism. In the mind of the pessimist they invite despair; in the mind\nof the optimist they are problems demanding instant and courageous\nsolution.\nIt is distressing to remember some of the events of the year in our\nown country. We have seen during the past twelve months something\nlittle short of an organized political assault upon one portion after\nanother of our educational system. We have seen honored superintendents and teachers driven at the behest of the party organizer and of the\nspoils-hunter from posts of honor and responsibility which they competently filled. Happily we have seen some of these attacks ignominiously fail thru the force of an aroused and avenging public opinion.\nBut the situation is in many respects one which is not to be met by\nargumentative attack, or even by public exposure. Those methods are\ngood. Recourse to statutory protection is helpful. But unless the educational forces of this country make it their especial business during the\nnext decade to arouse and instruct public opinion so that it will demand,\nand keep demanding, and ever demand, the absolute divorce of our\npublic schools, higher and lower, from partisan politics and from private\nintrigue, then the future of education in this country is not yet secure.\nIn our democracy we have happily a court of last resort and of final\nappeal in the intelligence and in the conscience of the American people ;\nand I hope the day will never come when any of us will cease to believe\nthat, if only that intelligence and that conscience can be reached directly\nand without the intervention of the demagog and the time-server, the\nresponse will be direct and uplifting. That has never failed, so far as I\nknow, in American history, and, for one, I do not believe that it ever will.\n\n"}
{"page": 181, "printed_page": null, "text": "SessionsJ\n\nTHE\n\nOUTLOOK\n\nIN EDUCA\n\nTION\n\n173\n\nThe immediate question, then, that seems to me most to concern the\nteacher who really cares for education and the children, is this question\nof making both secure in the protecting strength of intelligent public\nopinion. At times we underestimate its force. We overestimate its lack\nof interest. We often fail to get results hoped for, because our own\nmethods are imperfect and our own courage falters. It is within the\npower of this association to make this question a burning one in every\ncommunity in the United States, from the far-away Atlantic to this\nPacific slope. It is within our power, should we use it rightly and wisely,\nto rouse the avenging hand of honesty and honor, alike in the largest\ncity and the smallest rural community, where a sin has been committed\nagainst childhood. I know of no question now of equal importance\nbefore teachers, before the press, and before the public of this country.\nThe next aggressive, affirmative step must be taken by the teachers\nthemselves. We need — to be perfectly frank — a higher code of professional ethics. There are some proceedings of which no teacher can afford\nto be the beneficiary, and there are some ambitions which we dare not\nfulfill by means that are often provided for us. Until the ethics of the\nteaching profession leads us to refuse to take advantage of political or\npartisan or purely personal attack upon another, that other will not himself be secure. Where there is a teacher ready to enter in by the door of\nself-seeking or of corruption, that door will be held wide open. We need\nnot, we may not, make our appeal to others until we have responded to it\nourselves.\nAnd that response takes, as I indicated, two closely related forms.\nFirst, that high professional sense which holds aloof from the temptation\nto profit by the disadvantage of another, when that disadvantage has\ncome about for unw'orthy purposes and by unworthy means. There are\nsome school superintendencies in the United States which ought to be\nvacant for a period of years, thru the successive declinations of men\nqualified to fill those positions. The second method is^ that of applying\nourselves directly and persistently to the formation of public opinion\nabout us. Too often these attacks are covered up and kept quiet for fear\nof injury to our reputations. The time is coming when it will be to the\ncredit of a man or woman to stand up before the public and to say : \" I\nam being driven from my life-work because I will not permit myself to\nbe made the tool of politicians.\" And there are few communities to\nwhich that appeal would be made more than once in vain.\nThese forms of surreptitious attack upon childhood and upon education always flourish in the dark. The newspaper press, the public forum,\nopen.discussion, stamp them out and kill them as the sunlight does the\nseeds of disease that spring from filth. When we turn the bright light of\npublicity onto the administration of public education in those cities and\ntowns and rural communities of which just complaint may be made, we\n\n"}
{"page": 182, "printed_page": null, "text": "174\n\nNATI0NA1> EDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nhave taken the first needed step toward the education of public opinion\nto the plane where it demands, and will demand, education solely for\neducation's sake. This means that the profession of teaching must\nspeedily become more professional, more scholarly, with broader preparation, higher ideals, and more insistence upon our professional co-operation\nand our professional pride.\nWe, all of us, have to combat in some form or other the conception of\npublic education as philanthropy — one of the most corroding attacks\nthat can be made upon the common school. If a community supposes\nfor one moment that it supports its schools for the education of those\nwho cannot educate themselves at private expense, it has begun by placing\nits schools on the lowest possible level, and it has been false to a primary\ntenet of our American democracy. It is a corollary to that conception\nthat the schools exist to provide places for someone ; and when that\nideal enters, the interest, of the child disappears. We teachers are in no\nsmall degree to blame for that impression that the schools exist for us.\nOne may admit with both candor and truth that teachers have in a\nmeasure been driven to that attitude by attacks from without, but it is\neasy to carry that plea too far ; and when we band ourselves together for\nany other than high educational purposes, we are ourselves interfering\nwith the purpose of the school and with the development of sound public\nopinion, on which the efficient democratic school must finally rest. We\nmust come face to face, and at close quarters, with these questions, not\nonly as a body, but as individuals. In their individual, concrete form\nthey are not easy of solution. They present distressing material and\npersonal features. They are often the source, and may be made the\ncause, of much hardship and suffering. On the other hand there are the\nchildren of this nation, helpless so far as school instruction is concerned,\nsave as we help them ; and that which we are bartering away, if we do\nbarter it, is not ours, but theirs. No teacher worthy of the name and\ncalling can loolc that situation or proposition frankly and fully in the\nface and enter consciously upon a wrong course of action.\nOne who travels across this continent and questions his fellows as he\ngoes, finds that it is not so much a question of methods of teaching, of\ncourse of study, of emphasis upon this ideal or upon that, which is at\npresent attracting attention ; but it is this question of the right of the\npeople to have their schools managed for the children without interference, without inefficiency, without corruption ; and one cannot listen\nto that unanimous expression of opinion from shore to shore and be\nindifferent to the lesson which it conveys.\nWe cannot reach this public opinion of ours by scholarship alone.\nScholarship is helpful. It commands, and deservedly commands, respect.\nIt is the source of one sort of power. But unless we can go before public\nopinion with that high type of power which life, and only life, can give,\n\n"}
{"page": 183, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nOUTLOOK\n\nIN\n\nEDUCATION\n\n175\n\nwe shall find ourselves making our appeal in vain. The teacher of today\nneeds scholarship, needs efficiency, but, most of all and together with\nthese, he needs power. There have been scholarly men and women by\nthe score, efficient and inefficient, who failed in the attribute of power.\nWhat is its source, and where are we, peering into the future, to find\npower with which to do that work which is intrusted to us, and to reach,\naffect, and uplift our surrounding public opinion? There is only one\nsource of permanent power, and that is in a life of service and of sacrifice. It is alike the teaching of the Christian religion and of the wisest\nphilosophy of modern times, that he who loseth his life shall find it.\nInterpreted in terms of our problem this means that thru sacrifice and\nservice comes that strength which is power. One may grasp and accumulate everlastingly for self, may gain scholarship and produce efficiency,\nand yet lack that element of power which is the most human, the most\nlasting, and the most influential of the teacher's attributes. Given that\npower thru service, and almost any load may be lifted. There is no force\nlike it in our education. There is no force like it in our civilization.\nAnd whether it be in some village Hampden, or some mute, inglorious\nMilton, or whether it find expression in more conspicuous and obvious\nforms, that is the secret of the usefulness which we seek, and of the\nindependence from other than professional trammels and professional\nstandards which we demand and rightly demand.\nI am an optimist. The larger movement is upward and onward. It\nis sweeping, and has swept, before it greater obstacles and imperfections\nthan these of which I speak. That movement will continue to be onward\nin France, in Prussia, in England. It will continue to be onward here.\nIt cannot be held back. But optimism may be conscious and judicious,\nor it may be blind and unreasoning. If blind and unreasoning, we contribute thru our indifference and our carelessness to the postponement of\nthe completion of the particular task which lies directly in front of us at\nthe moment. If, on the other hand, our optimism be sane, critical, and\ncourageous, we are arming ourselves to contribute to this forward movement. Therefore I urge those who may at the moment be attracted to\nthe dark side of the picture, as it is presented here and there, by this writer\nand by that, by this speaker and by that, to remember that, taken in longer\nperiods of decades, of generations, of centuries, these little backward\nmovements in the current seem insignificant. Remember, also, that\nthe next step depends, not upon some irresponsible force or some\nabstract person, but upon ourselves. There is no more individual and\ndefinite responsibility resting upon us teachers than that. It is the\npeculiar burden of our profession at this time. We may afford to pass\nover for the moment, or the year, every other question which would otherwise excite our interest, and provoke animated discussion, and divide our\nopinions and our convictions.\nBut on this one single point,.right straight\n\n"}
{"page": 184, "printed_page": null, "text": "176\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nin front of us, we must be unanimous. The school must be free, and it\nmust be for education, and not for politics or for cliques. Whether it\nshall be so or whether it shall not, depends upon the effectiveness with\nwhich we gain power and reach public opinion.\n\nTHE\nBY F. LOUIS\n\nPROGRESS\nSOLDAN,\n\nIN PUBLIC\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\n[STENOGRAPHICALLY\n\nEDUCATION\n\nOF SCHOOLS,\n\nST.\n\nLOUIS, MO.\n\nREPORTED]\n\nThe admiring eyes of the traveler on his way to California from the\nEast see the desert change almost suddenly to a paradise. All this beauty,\nall this wealth, of palm tree, of flower and fruit, of orchard and vineyard,\nowe their existence to the creative intelligence of man. He found this\nregion a desert, and he changed it to a garden. He touched the arid\nsand with the magic wand of intelligent industry, and the springs of\nwater began to flow, and the gray dust of the desert changed to green\nfields and smiling gardens. In the older countries man found nature\nready to receive him, and his environment made man what he grew to be.\nHere, on the Pacific slope, the opposite is true ; man made nature. He\nshaped her to suit his wants. He made the water flow over the dry\nland and brought from the ends of the earth the seed and vine that he\nwished her to bear. Elsewhere his environment made man, here man\nmade his environment.\nIt is frequently said that education is the adjustment to environment,\nand that the child must be taught to conform with the demands which\nlife, as he finds it, makes upon him. He must learn to adjust himself to\ncustoms, laws, and institutions, and become a citizen ; he must learn to.\nadjust himself to the demands of industrial life of the community, and\nbecome a worker.\nYet, all these considerations notwithstanding, it would be a mistake to\nsuppose that education is nothing but the adjustment of the child to the life\nthat surrounds him. Adjustment to environment is certainly one of the\ngreat tasks of the school ; but education means infinitely more. Another\ntask of education is at least as important : that man should learn to\nadjust in turn his environment to the ideals of his own soul. In fact,\nman adjusts himself to his surroundings, in order that he may learn to\nadjust his surroundings to his own spiritual and physical needs. He is\nthe master, not the slave of nature. Without the modifying influence\nwhich man exerts on his environment there could be no progressive\ngrowth, no development of culture, no external realization of man's ideal\nworld.\n\n"}
{"page": 185, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nPROGRESS\n\nIN PUBLIC\n\nEDUCATION\n\n\\11\n\nThe pioneers of this state created a new world out of the desert ; similarly the destiny of man makes it the task and duty of education to lead\nthe individual to observe the world, and to learn its lessons in literature,\ngeography, history, and all the lore of the school; and, above all things,\nto train him for thoughtful action, so that he may learn to give expression, in words and deeds, to the ideal world within him — to the world of\naspiration and duty.\nThe fullness of life for which education is to prepare is not found in\ntraining young minds in habits of contemplation, but in training for\nthoughtful action. Education must build up, not only the impressible\nbrain, but more particularly the impressive will and creative intelligence.\nThe current of life does not flow merely from the world inward, in impressions received and experience gained, but from the soul outward, in words\nspoken and deeds done. It is the constant task of education to make\nthe real the ideal, and, in turn, to make the ideal real. In other words,\neducation must lead the child to form correct ideas of life within and\nnature without, and also to cultivate the ability to form purpose and plan,\nand give to these ideas external reality thru action. The demand that\neducation should train in thoughtful, creative, and spontaneous activity\nforms a higher demand on education than the acquisition of information. There is no child, no matter how humble, but has a share in the\nshaping of the destiny of the world.\nAll progress of education, as far as inner education is concerned, must\nbe in the directions of rational adjustment to environment, in the building up of an ideal world of convictions, and of the stimulation of thoughtful activity. There is, however, a line of external progress, which is of\nthe greatest importance in educational work, namely, progress in the\nmaterial appliances which make' effective educational work possible, a\nliberal supply of the financial means of sustenance, the unifying and systematizing ofeducational efforts, and the like.\nThe progress of public education, as far as external growth is concerned, has been stupendous during the last fifty years. Schoolhouses\nhave been built everywhere and have almost kept pace with the needs of\nour rapidly increasing population. In the sanitation and comfort of\nschoolhouses, in matters of lighting and ventilation, a steady progress\ntoward more perfect conditions is noticeable everywhere, altho much\nremains to be done. The great cities take pride in providing schools\nwhich will give the best opportunities for the physical as well as the\nspiritual welfare of the coming generation.\nThe investment of national wealth in schoolhouses and property\nneeded for the conduct of education is enormous and is increasing in\nratio. Better schoolhouses are being built everywhere ; progress has\nbeen made in their type. All the cities of the land, east and west, vie\nwith each other in giving to the growing generation — to the child, to the\n\n"}
{"page": 186, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 78\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nman that is to be, to the men and women who will form the future of this\ncountry — the best external appliances in education. In traveling thru\nArizona, New Mexico, and California, wherever town or village greeted\nthe speeding train, there the most prominent building was the country\nschool or high school.\nThe average number of children assigned to each teacher in our\ncrowded city schools is less today than it was twenty years ago, and the\ntendency is clearly in the direction of further reduction. This means\ngreater influence of the teacher on the training of character. It means a\nbetter chance to individualize the work. The duration of the annual\nschool term is steadily growing in the rural schools, and education is\nbecoming more effective thereby. Salaries of teachers are moving upward,\nand the profession is thereby made more attractive to men and women of\ntalent.\nThe work of the teacher is conducted on the basis of a more permanent tenure. Teaching has become a profession. It is no longer an\navocation for the great mass of those engaged in it, but a vocation. It is\nless frequently a stepping-stone for young men, on their road to the ministry, the law, or the medical profession, but their final and highest aim.\nThey shape their college course so as to fit themselves for teaching. No\nmore important progress in this direction can be recorded than the fact\nthat the curricula of the most important colleges take cognizance of\nthe existence of teaching as a profession, by providing carefully arranged\ncourses of educational study, including the psychology of childhood and\nthe philosophy of pedagogics.\nIn the administrative department of education, too, progress toward a\nhigher plane is visible. Until recently the appointment of teachers, the\nselection of text-books and apparatus, the determining of courses of\nstudy, rested exclusively in the hands of the layman, the school trustee\nor school-board member. In many cities the professional advice of the\nsuperintendent was considered, but often it seemed of no great consequence. Of late the view has been gaining ground in some of our cities\nthat the educational expert, the teacher, should have a deciding voice in\nthese matters, not only by courtesy, but by law. In many of the large\ncities, such as Cincinnati, Cleveland, New York, St. Louis, and others,\nnew laws give the expert, trained for the profession of education, a voice\nin the management of school affairs; the superintendent of instruction\nhas a voice in the selection of teachers and of text-books, in the arrangement of the course of study, and in all that appertains to the conduct of\ninstruction. While the details of this experiment will be modified by\nexperience, the principle underlying this legislation marks a progressive\nmovement. It is, that the professional teacher is to be the expert in all\neducational matters. It involves a new duty for the profession and a new\nresponsibility.\n\n"}
{"page": 187, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nPROGRESS\n\nIN\n\nPUBLIC\n\nEDUCATION\n\n179\n\nThe progress made by the common schools in external appliances is\ngreat and inspiring. Yet the progress made in the instrumentalities of\ninstruction by the higher institutions of learning is greater still. A new\nera in university work has begun. Chicago University, the young giant\nof the West, has sprung within the last decade from the mind of its founders, fully equipped, like Minerva from the head of Zeus. California's\ngreat universities are practically the creations of the last twenty years. All\nthis immense educational growth and development, there and elsewhere,\nis owing, not to the fostering care of a powerful government, but to the\nmunificence of a few noble-minded American citizens, who evidently\nbelieved that the best use that can be made of wealth is to make it serve\nthe noblest cause. They have devoted it to education. There is no\nparallel to such princely gifts to the people in the whole world's history.\nMaecenas' great deeds for culture and letters dwindle into insignificance\ncompared with Leland Stanford's gifts to the great university of this\nstate.\nWe are so close to a process which is going on, of which the whole\nworld has never seen the like, that we forget that we are in the midst\nof a world-historic time in education, the founding of great universities\ndestined to last thru ages.\nAll classes of society in our country are imbued with the importance\nof education in the building of our nation's future. Noble men and\nwomen, prompted by the desire to devote their wealth to some public aim\nthat might be most beneficial to their country and people, have selected\nfor their aim the promotion of higher education. There can be no nobler\ncommemoration of individual human existence than to create a source\nand center of spiritual light that will purify and quicken the pulsation of\nour national life now and forever. The endowment of universities, the\ncreation of centers of culture in your midst and thruout the land, belong\nto the history of the last twenty years.\nThe various classes and ranks of schools, universities, colleges, high\nschools, and common schools, have followed of late, with clear-sighted\npurpose, the idea of mutual adjustment to each other. Schools devoted\nto higher or elementary education have grown up, as a rule, as independent institutions. The university was founded for one purpose, based on\none historic idea; the high school and academy for another, the common\nschool for a third purpose. The thought that education in all its phases\nshould be a unit has given rise to a process of adjustment which marks\na most important step in the process of education. The university opens\nits doprs to the citizen by offering courses of popular instruction, or university extension. It invites and enrolls the common-school teacher\nthru university summer courses, and thru lectures and instruction on the\nscience and art of education ; it recognizes thereby the value of the\nteaching profession as such.\nThe university, once more in its historical\n\n"}
{"page": 188, "printed_page": null, "text": "l8o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\ncourse, influences education in all its phases thruout the land. In turn,\npreparation for the university has become a leading task in the high\nschool.\nThis adjustment of the schools to each other denotes the ascendency\nof the idea that education is a unit, and that all the kinds and classes of\neducational institutions serve one grand purpose in common.\nOur common schools have at all times devoted their best service to\nthe cause of American institutions, and have adjusted their work to the\ngreater interests of our nation. You all remember the inscription of the\nbeautiful coat-of-arms of our nation, E pluribus unum, which, translated\nfreely, is : \" Out of many, one.\" It is a fitting motto of the common\nschools of America. All classes of society, the rich and poor, all religions\nand denominations, all nationalities, send their children to those schools ;\nand in the short time of a school life — in four or five years — this heterogeneous mass is welded into one common type, and they leave the school\nas enthusiastic Americans. E pluribus unum — out of many the common\nschool makes one ; out of many nationalities, out of many tongues, out\nof many aspiT^tions, the common school creates one grand nation, to\nwhich we hope the future shall belong. No more important adjustment\nto environment can be found than the one made in this direction by the\nAmerican common school.\nLife, to whose demands education is to adjust the youth, is not a fixed\nfact or steady condition, but is in itself a changing process. Hence, if\nthere were no other reason for the demand of progress in education,\nthe adjustment to an ever-changing environment would necessitate it.\nIn our political life, the changes which the last thirty years have brought,\nboth within and also in the relations of the republic to the world at\nlarge, are deep and far-reaching. We have become more of an industrial\nand commercial people than we were thirty years ago ; the products of\nour workshops and factories are competing in the markets of the world\nwith the great commercial nations. The commercial product means so\nmuch raw material with brains and labor added to it, that is to say, intelligent labor. Good taste and honest care, the knowledge of practical\npurposes, are embodied in every product of industry, and a nation's industrial power is directly enhanced by public education.\nBuffon has said that the style that a man writes is his character ; as\nthe one is, so, he thinks, is the other. It may be said, with much more\ntruth, that the goods which a nation produces are a direct representation\nof its character. There are the grace and lightness of France in the merchandise itsends to the markets of the world, and the conservative and\nreliable character of the English shows itself in the goods it produces.\nIn its commercial products the character of a nation is embodied. It is\nimpossible that the general spread of public education, the progressive\nexcellence of the public schools, should fail to find expression in the\n\n"}
{"page": 189, "printed_page": null, "text": "I\n\nSessions]\n\nTHE\n\nPROGRESS\n\nIN PUBLIC\n\nEDUCATION\n\nl8l\n\nenhancement of our nation's manufacturing ability and the readier access\nand control of the markets of the world.\nWe have witnessed the change in social, in commercial life, during\nthe last few years. Unless all indications mislead, the changes just begun\nin economic conditions will continue, and will become far-reaching and\nsweeping. Already to American products the markets of the world are\nopen ; already the leading business houses of the United States lay plans\nfor taking their stand in the markets of Europe and Asia. The goods\nproduced by the American people will find a place all the world over.\nIf you consider this possibility or probability, you will find that a new\ntask arises for education — the adjustment of the common school and\nadvanced school to these demands. I do not mean that any school could,\nor should, educate the skilled workman ; or debase its educational aim\nto the lower level of utilitarianism. No public school can undertake to\nprepare for any specific commercial or business pursuit. You will find\nthat our advantage in the market of the world will be the fact that in\nthe American goods, brains, industry, taste, and honesty have been\nembodied ; those ingredients, added to nature's raw material, make the\nvaluable articles of commerce, and the world is bound to respect and buy\nthem. One hundredth part of the commercial article is produced by\nnature, and the other 99 per cent, are the result of the education of the\nmasses. The new economic needs of our nation demand an adjustment\nto life by the cultivation of ready intelligence, the cultivation of good\ntaste, and of thoughtful and spontaneous activity. How, in view of our\neconomic conditions, some can persist in speaking of drawing, for\ninstance, as a fad is incomprehensible. There is no more important\nstudy in the whole curriculum of the public schools, if our nation is to\nbecome the commercial and manufacturing nation of the world.\nOur political future will be peaceful ; that is both the hope and desire\nof our nation. The inevitable growing complexity of economic and\npolitical conditions will lead to problems of government which the citizen\nand voter will be called on to decide. One of the most interesting spectacles in the political campaign of a few years ago, when the difficult\nproblem of the currency arose, was the educational feature connected\nwith it. It showed the readiness and eagerness of our people to inform\nthemselves on new and difficult political or economic issues. The newspapers became teachers and text-books of economics. You remember\nin your own town — in this city — the curbstone school which each\ncurbstone orator assembled. He kept a listening and thoughtful crowd\naround him, and public judgment was slowly formed. Our public school,\nand the habits it engenders, have had something to do with the ability\nof our people to inform themselves thoughtfully on the current issues\nof the day.\nWhenever you, teachers, require from your pupils not simply the\n\n"}
{"page": 190, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 82\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nrecollection and recitation of the data of information, but insist on\nthe ready and thoughtful assimilation of such knowledge, you are doing\na service to education. When you draw out the pupil to think of the\nsubjects you teach, independently, you train future citizens in one of the\ncharacteristics which furnish the very foundation of our free institutions,\nnamely, in the ability to reason readily and quickly on given propositions,\nand to arrive at independent conclusions; these form the sole basis on\nwhich strong convictions can grow.\nGeorge William Curtis said : \"The great argument for popular government isnot the essential rights of a majority, but a celestial law which\nsubordinates the brute force of numbers to intellectual and moral ascendants.\" There is no instrument, no agency in American public life on\nwhich our government rests in a higher degree than on the kind of culture which the teacher gives to the rising generation in the schoolroom.\n\nUSURPATION\n\nBY AARON\n\nOF\n\nHOME\n\nGOVE, SUPERINTENDENT\n\nBY\n\nSCHOOL\n\nOF SCHOOLS, DENVER,\n\nCOLO.\n\nThe American home is giving way more and more to the encroachments of the public school. The paternalism that is so evident in other\nlines of social and political economy casts its light and shadow across the\nthreshold of the home. The changes under way in the administration of\nlocal and national government, the progress in the arts and practices of\ncommon life, demanding modified surroundings, extended conveniences,\nelaborate decoration, and richly varied cuisine, appear as an influence\nupon child life as the pupil reaches the age for continued and regular\nintercourse with teacher and school.\nMore than ever the chief function of the parental relation is acquisition of material wealth. Little by little that which pertains to the far\ngreater and more important features of life — -the training and cultivation\nof the spiritual and the intellectual — is relegated to the schoolmaster and\nthe schoolhouse. Who shall say whether or not this modern movement\ntoward a radical change in society be a real step toward advanced power\nand culture with the nation, or the turning-point in history when the\nsevere religious and effective discipline of the early American home shall\ndisappear? Whatever be the opinion, the condition is upon us. Active\nschoolmasters are compelled to seek for measures competent to the\noccasion ; to consider steps that, taken, shall prevent retrogression.\nIn the beginning the school was avowedly for religious and intellectual\ntraining. No thought of our fathers is apparent that the school had any\nrights, was to perform any of the duties in the teaching and rearing of the\n\n"}
{"page": 191, "printed_page": null, "text": "SessionsJ\n\nUSURPATION\n\nOF HOME\n\nBY\n\nSCHOOL\n\n183\n\nchild, that pertained to the parental ownership. The boy belonged to the\nfather, belonged to him in all that is material and essential, covering all\ntime to his twenty-first birthday. Whatever of income inured to the son,\nfrom any source whatever, belonged to and was appropriated by the father,\nwith the thought that it had been legitimately acquired by the rearing\nand training of the boy.\nSoon a more sentimental and, to the present mind, humane method\nof treatment of the child obtained, until now, frequently at an early age,\nownership is exchanged, and the boy or girl often appears as the dictator\nin important management of the household, and absolute dictator of his\nown individual desires. This changed condition of home relations\naccounts in part for a necessity for changed school relations. The school,\non its part, has not been slow to accede to and even to ask for increased\nauthority. For a teacher to require, under a rule of the board, and that\nrule declared valid by the court of justice, that a child not only render\na written excuse for absence from school, but in addition to demand the\ndetails as to the cause, thereby requiring and compelling a personal knowledge, on the part of the teacher, of private, domestic, and family affairs,\nwould have aroused in our fathers the spirit of rebellion that follows a\nviolation of the rights of free American citizenship. By quiet and persistent encroachment the school is usurping the functions of the home.\nIt must be noticed, however, that the concession seems to be quite readily\nand somewhat cheerfully made.\nThe typical home is made up of father, mother, and children. Most\nfathers of the present have turned themselves away from the supervising\nof any detailed training for the children. They reserve the right of counsel in a general way, with no intention of inspecting the execution ; they\nare in at the initiative and the conclusion, but not during the process.\nThe notion is prevalent that the bread-winner should be chiefly the breadwinner; that the charms and blessings of connubial life are, when not\nequal, second to the necessary and important business interests, upon the\noutcome of which all else seems to depend ; for, should the latter fail of\naccomplishment, all other interests fail or are crippled. The same fondness, pride, and ambition for the children exist now as before ; in many\ninstances they have assumed a different form of expression.\nTo the mother of the household are intrusted the immediate management and direction of the youth. Some of the mothers of the present\nhave chosen to enter the field of direction in governmental affairs and\nbecome actors, as they believe, on an advanced stage of woman's life.\nWhether one agrees that the helpfulness or. betterment of society accompanies this change is unimportant here. Mr. Peck and Mrs. Stetson are\narguing that issue. The fact remains that women have entered as active\nparticipants in the conduct of public affairs. Many of them will continue\nalong that line of activity, and prosecute, with all the intensity, virtue, and\n\n"}
{"page": 192, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 84\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nearnestness of the sex, the many enterprises, political and social, with\nwhich they are now engaged or upon which they will hereafter enter.\nThis new life for woman means a necessary relaxation from what has\nbeen a part of the accepted traditional duty of the mother. It does not\nfollow that society is not the gainer thereby. Sparta was not alone in\nasserting that the state was the wisest and best trainer and custodian of\nthe youth of the country. It concerns the purpose of the present paper\nto suggest the means by which the school shall take up with efficiency and\nwisdom the tasks and duties of traditional home training, the relinquishment of which appears to be the tendency of present times.\nWhen, at the beginning, home and school were both occupied with\nthe child, six hours a day was assigned to the latter, for a small part of the .\nyear; all the rest of the hours belonged to the supervision of the home.\nNow, with the increased duties assigned to the school, the enlargement of\nthe study field, the increased lines of culture demanded, including art,\nscience, and athletics — even sports and games — amid unprecedented\nand unlooked-for requirements, covering the large part of the pupil's\nwakeful day, the time of association with the teacher is often less than six\nhours. With the recession of the parent must come the accession of the\nteacher. The pupil, if allowed to drift into trouble or impotence, on\naccount of the transfer from the home of duty and responsibility, must\nbe saved by a corresponding transfer of time. The state has assumed\nmore completely to train the youth, or the home has demanded that the\nstate, at the expense of the public purse, take more intimate and direct\ncontrol of the youth.\nIf to any of my readers this position seems to be extreme, I have\nto reply that, while one will insist that his home is not the kind mentioned,\nhe will recognize others within his knowledge that are. The position of.\nthis paper is not that the demand is universal that the state assume this\nwork, but that we have seen this movement grow until, especially in cities\nand large communities where incidental tasks and duties in the domestic\nlife are impossible of assignment to the boys and girls as in former times,\na life of idleness, coupled with neglect by the home, must follow, unless a\nrigid and regular regime be established and enforced for the individual\nchild. This leads to the necessity of more extended association with the\nteacher or tutor.\nFrom six hours a day the association must be extended to eight or\nten hours, but not necessarily in a schoolhouse or schoolroom. The\nmodern course of study includes outdoor work, field work, and inspection\nand observation of nature in place. Intellectual tasks, as such, have been\nlightening too much for a few years past. The average ten-year-old pupil\ntoday is not so strong in reasoning power as was his grown-up brother\nat the same age. Observation, so called, too often superficial and trivial,\nis now cultivated to an extreme, and the training of reason and memory\n\n"}
{"page": 193, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nUSURPATION\n\nOF HOME\n\nBY\n\nSCHOOL\n\n185\n\nand calculation has lapsed. This, however, is but temporary ; we shall\nsoon, very soon, swing back to the reasonable course. The tide of softness that has extended to mellowness and ease, the misinterpretation of\nHerbart, or rather the misapplication of \"the doctrine of interest,\" while\nunfortunate for a few teachers and more pupils, together with that harmful notion that the pupil should chiefly do that which is agreeable and\nrefrain from the unpleasant, has nearly, if not quite, reached its height.\nThe ebb is near at hand.\nI am trying to say that the present disposition to relinquish the home\ntraining of children and the enlarged field of elementary instruction\ndemanded require a changed condition in the mechanism of the schools;\nthat so far the amount of effort on the part of the teacher in the training\nof the child has been much increased, while the time for that work has\nremained the same. It may be true that six hours a day is quite long\nenough for formal teaching. The other kind of instruction, not necessarily a rigid adherence to the performance of the assigned task, is quite\nas important, and means must be forthcoming for attention to that part\nof the training of youth.\nAt this time, on the morn of impending revolution, or in process of\nevolution, in the school system, one dare not venture to name exact\nmethods for the accomplishment of this purpose. The field, as you and\nI must see it, forces the conclusion that the school, in its formal state,\nhas remained chiefly as our parents instituted it, while every other phase\nof thought and action in the social, industrial, and political world has\nchanged. No pessimistic idea is involved in this view. It means that, as\nwe have waked up in the important work of methods and are classing\nphilosophy with pedagogy and are improving the manner of approaching the child for training, so we shall be forced to modify the times and\noccasions of contact with the teacher. It may be that two sets of\ninstructors or tutors are to be furnished daily by the state ; one for distinct intellectual drill, with the use of apparatus and text-books, and\nanother for field work, for instruction in the forest, on the playground, in\nthe public garden, and amid collections of animals. It may be that the\nstate will be required to furnish this sort of tutoring at the respective\nhomes of its people. It is certain that, unless the present tendency\ntoward relinquishment by the home of the instruction and training of the\nchild be modified — for which modification a prospect is not within view\n— the state must assume these duties for self-protection. One cannot\nassume that such a process would be harmful to the state or to the home.\nThe unpopularity, and perhaps the monstrosity to some people, of the\nideas presented compels an arousal of sympathy with a sentiment\napproaching to horror at the disappearance of home training for boys and\ngirls in our cities. One need not be miserable, however, over the prospect of change, simply because that change involves the leveling of\n\n"}
{"page": 194, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 86\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\npreviously erected beautiful structures or the destruction of cherished\ntraditions.\nThe state is ready now to connect with each schoolhouse a public\nlecture-room, free to all the people and convenient for use during the\nentire waking day, warmed and lighted every evening, as the people may\ndesire. It is also ready to furnish necessary instruction during all these\nhours. This step will be taken — in truth, it is well under way, as demonstrated by the free \" school-board lectures,\" during the winter, in so\nmany of our cities.\nThe whole scheme laid out involves an increase in expenditure for\npublic education, consequently an increased tax for the support and\nmaintenance of schools. That will follow as a matter of course when\nthe people are ready, because the genius of our government presumes\nthat a wish of the people, consistent with their ability, will be gratified\nat demand.\n\nBY\n\nTHE\n\nECONOMIC\n\nE.\n\nBRYAN,\n\nA.\n\nINTERPRETATION\n\nPRESIDENT\nCOLLEGE,\n\nSomeone\n\nOF\n\nWASHINGTON\nPULLMAN,\n\nOF HISTORY\nSTATE\n\nAGRICULTURAL\n\nWASH.\n\nhas said that the two chief concerns of mankind have been\n\nwealth and religion ; that the entire course of human history has been\ndetermined by these two elements. If to the term \"religion\" we give a\nsomewhat liberal interpretation, as including the relations of the human\nsoul to its present environment, as well as to its origfn and its ultimate\ndestiny, the epigram would seem to be true. This is but another way of\ncalling attention to the materialistic and the spiritualistic sides of man's\nnature. All his concerns have to do with his body on the one hand, or\nwith his soul on the other. The reaction of mind upon body and of\nbody upon mind, the impossibility of the separation of the physical and\nmental activities, or of dealing with these as distinct phenomena, are\nfundamental facts of human observation, not to say of the teacher's\nobservation. Any consideration of the one set of forces which neglects\nthe other will necessarily lead to untrustworthy results. It is impossible\nto account for any fact of human history without taking into account\nboth of these elements of human nature. The part that religion has\nplayed in human affairs, whether we use the term in its narrower sense as\nexhibited in sect, in dogma and ceremonials, or in its broader sense as\nincluding everything relating to the growth and activities of the soul, be\nthese activities good or be they evil, has been amply set forth in the pages\nof history. The function of wealth, on the other hand, has been by no\nmeans so fully examined into and described by the historian.\n\n"}
{"page": 195, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions!\n\nTHE\n\nECONOMIC\n\nINTERPRETATION\n\nOF HISTORY\n\n187\n\nThere is little need that I should guard the term \"wealth\" from misapprehension. Myexcuse for doing so is the popular application of the\nterm only to a vast accumulation of wealth. Wealth is any product of\nhuman labor which is capable of ministering to human want. The term\nis not applicable to natural agencies upon which no labor has been\nexpended to fit them for human use ; it is not applicable to those things,\nhowever useful, which exist in such abundance as to be equally available\nto all ; but it is applicable to all commodities, however insignificant,\nwhich are capable of gratifying human want and of being owned and\nexchanged. The beggar clothed in rags and eating the food bestowed\nby charity is nevertheless for the moment possessed of wealth ; of\ninsignificant value, but nevertheless wealth. The cottager, with his rude\nhut, his few square feet of garden, his spade and hoe, is possessed of\nwealth, just as much so as is the rich man with his mansion and broad\ndomain of land. The quantity of it is not the essential thing about wealth.\nIndeed, it is the small accumulations of it thruout the world that not only\nin the aggregate but in its effects upon the race assume transcendent\nimportance. When I speak of wealth, then, do not think of rich men, of\nglittering palaces and shining equipages and costly apparel ; think rather\nof the vast multitudes of tools and implements in the hands of toiling\nmillions; think of flying spindles and turning wheels; think of\nponderous engines and swift ships; think of flocks and herds;\nthink of stores of food, from the scanty cupboard to the elevators\nalmost bujsting with their store of golden grain ; think of coarse\nhomespun as well as silken robe ; think of the tent of the lone Indian as\nwell as of the palaces of the king. All these are wealth. All that man\nfeeds upon by day, wears, lives in, ornaments himself with, employs to\ngratify his ear, eye, taste; to promote his development or to ruin his\nbody and soul ; all of these material surroundings with which he gratifies\nhis insatiable want constitute his wealth, x^ll who live possess and use\nwealth. The difference is in the quantity of it and in the use of it. All\nmust have it or die. All must have enough of it to afford a material support to the physical and spiritual being sufficient for their effective\nactivities, or the soul will consciously or unconsciously cry out : \" Who\nwill deliver me from the body of this death ?\"\nI need not say that the production, exchange, and distribution of this\nwealth, in order to its consumption, form one of the chief concerns of\nmankind. The science which accumulates the facts and ascertains the\nlaws of wealth we call economics. And all those facts of individual life\nor social organization which relate to the production, distribution,\nexchange, or consumption of wealth we call economic facts. The history\nof man in relation to these facts we call economic history. I have chosen\nthe title of Thorold Rogers' very useful and interesting book as the\nsubject of my address, not because of any purpose of following his method,\n\n"}
{"page": 196, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 88\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nnor because of acquiescence in his conclusions, but because the phrase\nseems happily to reveal a point of view from which I would for the\nmoment\n\nhave you look upon human history. There has been no theoretical undervaluation of the importance erf history for the instruction of\n\nthe race. Was it Bacon who said : \" History is philosophy teaching by\nexample \" ? But, as in the guidance of individual action we r.ely more\nupon experience than upon reason or philosophy, so the experience of\nthe race, that is, history, becomes the most perfect guide to wise and\nregulated action — alike individual, national, and racial. But human\nhistory is a very broad subject. It involves all of human experience. No\none, so far as I am aware, has attempted a treatise upon it, or even\nsketched in rude outline what such a treatise should include. It presents\nmany aspects : dynastic, political, constitutional, juridical, social, the\ndevelopment of philosophic or religious thought the physiological condition and physical environment of man. The central theme of history\nis perhaps man's self-realization, and the importance of the respective\npoints of view is measured upon their bearing upon that self-realization.\nThe effect upon him of his material environment, of mind, of political\nand social institutions, of religion, determines the value of viewing history\nfrom that standpoint. Hitherto history has been viewed chiefly from the\npoint of view of dynasties, states, laws. Dynastic history has fastened\nitself deeply upon the imagination of the historian. And by dynastic\nhistory we refer not merely to the successive hereditary lines of chiefs,\nkings, and emperors — to the Pharaohs, the Caesars, and the. Kaisers —\nbut to that of the men, of whatever title, into whose hands, temporarily or\npermanently, have fallen the political destinies of a people. Moses,\nMohammed, Napoleon, Mirabeau, Cromwell, Washington, Count Cavour,\nBismarck, as well as the Stuarts, the Tudors, the Carlovingians, and the\nMerovingians, belong to dynastic history. A strange fascination in all\nages have these men exerted. Whether flung into sudden power by the\nvolcanic forces of society, or ruling mankind by the chance of birth ;\nwhether as a subaltern manipulating king, court, and parliament, or as a\nconqueror snatching the scepter from the nerveless hand of some imbecile\nmonarch; whether king or courtier, warrior, priest, or statesman, a strange\nfascination, I say, has this one man exercised over society and over the\nhistorian. Society has consisted of two classes — the heroes and the heroworshipers. Historians have incidentally referred to the latter by way\nof illustration of the careers of the former.\nAfter all, it is perhaps not strange that government should have filled\nso 'large a space in the eye of man, and that the history of government\nshould have arranged itself with especial reference to the central figure in\nit — the monarch. As the broader significance of law and governmental\narrangements has become apparent, and these have been observed to be\nthe development of the entire national life, political and constitutional\n\n"}
{"page": 197, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nECONOMIC\n\nINTERPRETATION\n\nOF\n\nHISTORY\n\n189\n\nhistory have become the subjects of deeper investigation. And such\nexamination of the functions and machinery of government has led to a\nsomewhat broader study of history, which has been termed \"the history\nof civilization,\" which, while retaining political history as the central\nfeature, has not ignored \"social history,\" nor the history of educational,\nreligious, and philosophic thought. But all of these have been\nviewed chiefly from their bearing on dynastic or political history, and\n\"history\" still, in the main, is the history of rulers and governments.\nHuman concerns are so many and so varied as to render it impossible\nto give to all of them due attention, to say nothing of viewing them in just\nproportion. But at best political arrangements are devices for effecting\ncertain more primary ends. They are by no means themselves the end\nof society, not to say of life. This function of society has been unduly\nexalted. Government is to be looked upon as an important tool of society, perhaps the most important. Sometimes it is a very bad instrument,\nindeed, and sometimes it is better. But history should regard it as\ninstrumental. And even to understand the history of government, economic conditions must be understood. In fact, to secure good economic\nconditions is perhaps the chief function of government. Hence I have\nno hesitancy in advancing my principal proposition, namely : \" The most\nimportant forces in determining human history have been economic.\"\n\"I do not deny,\" says Thorold Rogers, \"I gladly acknowledge, that the\nsolid study of history has made considerable progress. The narrative is\nno longer one of war and peace, of royal genealogies, of unrelated dates,\nof those annals about which the adage was uttered : * Happy is the nation\nthat has no history.'\" It is gratifying to note that within the last decade\nor two so large a number of writers have devoted themselves to the study\nof economic history. And, indeed, not only must the results of political\nand constitutional history be untrustworthy without it, but society would be\ndeprived of an important source of information for its practical guidance.\nNo one will deny the fundamental importance of wealth to society, nor\nits powerful reaction upon intellectual or spiritual conditions. The passion for wealth has been the strongest of human passions. I do not refer\nto the passion for amassing great riches nor to the greed of the miser for\ngold. I mean that passion which in all ages has driven men to secure a\nsupply for their wants, primarily to provide the means for sustaining life.\nTake hunger, for example. What can stand in the presence of the rage\nfor food ? Before this mighty passion go down all the conventions of\nsociety, all regard for law, all rights of property, respect for human life\nitself ; even parental instinct may yield to the frenzy and the fountains of\nlove and hope and faith in the human heart be dried up. It is to the\nmad greed for wealth that most of the crimes of society may be traced.\nFraud, theft, robbery, embezzlement, piracy, murder have their economic\nside.\nFor the material supply of his wants man will brave any danger,\n\n"}
{"page": 198, "printed_page": null, "text": "I go\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Genera\n\ncommit any crime, prostitute the most sacred of human relations. The\nlife of any individual is an image of the life of the community and of the\nrace. In getting a proper perspective for historical values we can do no\nbetter thing than study the individual. In the life of your nearest neighbor the chief concerns are economic; namely, how to make a living; how\nto provide food, clothes, shelter, the necessities and comforts of life on\nthe scale that he has laid before himself. His thought by day, his dream\nby night, is upon this. It modifies his every relation in life, his selfculture, his governmental opinions, his course as a citizen, his religious\nactivities, his family ties, even his love for his wife. Follow the censustaker in his rounds from the meanest tenement house to the palatial\nmansion of the merchant prince, and what do you find everywhere occupying the largest place in the affairs of all classes ? The making of a\nliving, the creating, or at least the getting, of wealth. So it has always\nbeen with the race. We read the wars that were going on with the sword,\nbut history is silent in regard to the fiercer wars that were going on with\nthe plow-share and pruning-hook. With by far the larger part of the\nrace in every age and in every land life has been a struggle to get enough\nto eat and to wear and to afford shelter. Go into the streets of this fair\ncity tomorrow and read the story in each eager or despondent face. It\nis an economic story. No one would for a moment think that the material\nbasis of life has been a matter of small concern. It is the more to be\nwondered at that this, the chief element in the history of every individual,\nshould have been the neglected element in the history of the race. No\none would deny that the action and reaction of wealth upon the social,\nethical, and political fortunes of the race have been of great importance.\nBut few have recognized their real significance. The determining forces in\nmost political and social phenomena have been economic. The former\ncannot be understood without a knowledge of the latter. In the words\nof Dr. Cunningham : \" Wars, revolutions, court intrigues, as well as religious movements, have all had an industrial side.\" The successive stages\nof human industry have not come by chance. The economy of nature,\nwhich always causes a force to follow the line of least resistance, holds\ngood of man. The hunting and fishing stage yielded a competency of\nwealth for man's simple wants, with little expenditure of labor. It necessarily was the first stage. With the increase of 'population the area was\ntoo narrow to supply a subsistence from the fruits of the chase, and the\npastoral stage followed naturally. The same area that supplied a scanty\nsubsistence to the hunter yielded abounding wealth to the shepherd and\nherdsman. But with the growth of population pastures must fail, for the\narea in native pasturage that will keep one ox producing 500 pounds of\nfood in three years will when tilled produce twenty tons of wheat in three\nyears. Thus man was driven to agriculture. It was inevitably an extensive agriculture — the rude cultivation of a large area while in its virgin\n\n"}
{"page": 199, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nECONOMIC\n\nINTERPRETATION\n\nOF HISTORY\n\n19 1\n\nfertility, and the abandoning of this in a few years for a more distant and\nmore fertile territory. As the land all became settled and the less fertile\nsoil did not yield enough for the population, the period of intensive agriculture ensued, with more thoro tillage, the use of fertilizers, and a\nmixed husbandry. With this also came a greater division of labor, and\nthe age of manufacture and commerce with its wider industrial organization.\nThe governmental forms following these successive stages of industry\nwere equally inevitable. The patriarchal family and the tribal organization were necessary accompaniments of the hunting and pastoral stages.\nFrom tribal to manorial system, from manorial system to national monarchy, and from this to constitutional government, were the inevitable\naccompaniments of the economic changes in our racial history. The\nstatus of the laborer and the system of productive labor are likewise economic questions. And one may follow the course of history just as surel}^\nthru the status of the laborer, as slave, serf, regulated labor, and free contract labor, as he can in the charters of liberty.\nHow intensely we have conned the pages of history to find the sayings\nand doings of heroes and demagogs who have helped forward human\nprogress, but how ignorant we are of the history of industries which have\nmade life, happiness, and progress possible ! The great basic industry is\nagriculture. As it has flourished, life, health, comfort, opportunity, hope,\nhave filled the land. As it has failed, despondency, gaunt famine, and\ndespair have stalked abroad. But what do you know — what does the\nrace know — about the development of agriculture ? A gentleman from\nIndia told me a few days ago of the methods of wheat-raising in India :\nthe same kind of forked stick for a plow, the same primitive methods\nthruout that were practiced in the days of Abraham. You who wish to\ndevote your intellect and genius to the welfare of the race, have you\nthought of the possibilities of this method, namely, by improving the\nmeans of the food supply thru the progress of the science of agriculture ?\nWhat do you know of the history of manufacturing industry, of transportation, ofdomestic and international trade, with all their paraphernalia\nof moneys, and banks, and systems of credit ? Is it that all these things\nare so simple, or so well known, or that the history of these things has\nhad no lesson for man ? Is it that we should solve all the problems of the\nvast and complex systems of production and commerce on a priori prmciples ? Has the past no lessons for us in these things which so nearly\nconcern our daily life and happiness ? Modern revolutions are industrial\nrevolutions. Modern wars are commercial wars. Statecraft and diplomacy, legislation and administration, are determined by industrial considerations. Shall the one who undertakes these tasks do so without the\npreparation which economic history alone can bring? The statesman\nwho follows the deductive system of determining his course by reasoning\n\n"}
{"page": 200, "printed_page": null, "text": "192\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nfrom a few accepted dogmas is a very seductive and a very destructive\nstatesman ; but the intimate relation between political and economic conditions isno new thing. The great revolutions, the great migrations, the\ngreat discoveries, the great reformations, the great charters of human liberty have their economic interpretation. Magna Charta itself was chiefly\nan economic document, as the few who have read it well know. The barons\nwho led in the attempt were prompted largely by economic considerations, and the support of the city of London, without which it would have\nbeen next to impossible to get it, was based upon purely economic considerations. The fundamental questions of the American revolution\nwere economic. The independence sought was chiefly an economic independence. The determination of the British government to take a part\nof our wealth without our consent, the navigation laws, the repression of\nAmerican industry, the burden of supporting foreign troops and foreign\noffice holders, the stamp tax and the tea tax — all were economic questions.\nThe sacred rights invaded were, chiefly and most important of all, rights\nof property. Our Civil War had at basis an economic question ^the\nslavery question. A vital question in the production of wealth is the\ncost of labor and the status of the laborer. The dogma, \" The government can never exist one-half slave and one-half free,\" did not depend\nhalf so much upon any conflict of abstract principles as upon the economic impossibility of production going on within the same economic\nunity on principles as directly opposed as that of slave labor and free\nlabor. The question with the slaveholder was the giving up of his\nwealth and his source of wealth.\nThe great English Reformation had its economic side. The resistance\nfor generation after generation to the payment of a tax to a foreign\npotentate — the pope — thus taking money not only out of the people's\npockets, but out of the country, was by no means the most insignificant\nforce leading up to that great historical movement. In all the wars of\nthe Protestant revolution industrial questions are so inextricably united\nwith religious ones that any account that neglects the former must necessarily invalidate the conclusions. The migration of the Flemish weavers\nto England produced almost as profound an effect on the political and\nreligious history of Europe as it did on the industrial. Even the discovery\nof the New WorW is to be explained by economic facts. It is well known\nhow important a bearing upon the welfare of all classes of western\nEurope was the India trade of the twelfth, thirteenth, and fourteenth centuries. The importance of pepper and other spices, not to speak of\nother commodities, assumed an importance in commerce which no one at\nthe present day would ever suspect. The meats consumed by all classes\nwere cured meats, and for this as well as for other articles of the coarser\ndiet of the day this seasoning was a prime necessity. By means of this\na great commerce with India had sprung up, which was carried on over\n\n"}
{"page": 201, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions!\n\nTHE\n\nECONOMIC\n\nJA TEH\n\nPRE\n\nTA TION\n\nOP\n\nHlSTOR\n\nY\n\n1Q 3\n\nmany caravan routes to the Black and Mediterranean seas, thence thru\nGenoa and Venice, over the Alps and down the Rhine, enriching the\ncities along the line, and quickening commerce of every kind thruout\nEurope. But by the fifteenth century the Turkish conquests had closed\nall these routes except that by way of Alexandria, and this was threatened.\nThis led to the most zealous efforts to find a sea route to the rich eastern\ntrade, thus avoiding the danger and cost and possible destruction of the\noverland route. This resulted in the doubling of the Cape of Good\nHope by the Portuguese and the discovery of America by Columbus.\nNot a moment too soon — not soon enough, for Selim the Magnificent\noverran Egypt, and closed the last route to eastern commerce before the\nnew path had become a commercial one. Cities were ruined, the course\nof trade diverted, thousands rendered unemployed, and a peasant war\nwas inflicted upon Europe, the Reformation arrested, while the malign\ninfluence at work seemed to sweep down from the great unknown.\nBut I need not multiply illustrations to convince you of my proposition that history cannot be rightly understood unless it is examined from\nthe point of view of the industrial development of the race.\nMy third and last proposition is that the historical investigation of\nindustrial phenomena opens up a new and useful sphere for history and\naffords a great opportunity for the betterment of present human conditions. We are now in the midst of a great social ferment. Economic\nquestions are multiplying in number, and the discussion of them is growing in intensity. The money question is being bitterly fought over.\nThe labor question is creating uneasiness in some quarters, and stirring\ndeep passions in others. The method by which corporate power may be\nmade a useful tool of society, on the one hand, and may be prevented\nfrom becoming a destructive force, on the other, is being sought for.\nThe problem of pauperism hangs over us like a hideous nightmare.\nThese questions seem now, but they are not, new. Society has for ages\nbeen struggling with them. History can throw light upon them. Too\nmany of these problems we have tried to solve upon abstract principles.\nWe have laid down and assumed as true an abstract principle or set of\nprinciples, and have followed a purely deductive method in their solution. The conclusions have been generally distrusted, and in too many\ninstances the practical teachings based upon them have proved absurd.\nNow, history gives us the opportunity of employing the inductive system\nin dealing with social problems, if we approach it aright. Even if we do\nnot arrive at a' set of general propositions universally true, we shall arrive\nat a sound practical wisdom of the highest consequence. What a flood\nof light would be thrown on the labor problem by an examination of the\nhistory of labor and of labor legislation for the past five or six hundred\nyears ! Even the analysis and comparison of the successive systems of\nindustry teach a valuable lesson : our present factory system, where many\n\n"}
{"page": 202, "printed_page": null, "text": "194\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\noperatives are gathered under a single roof, with a minute division of\nlabor ; where production is for a world-market whose fluctuations can\nonly be surmised from the faintest indications ; where employers and\nemployes are removed in interests, sympathies, and manner of life; where\ncombination is easy and misunderstanding is certain ; or its predecessor,\nthe domestic system, where a master workman, in his own house, with his\nown tools, toiled by the side of his one or two journeymen and two or three\napprentices, who labored with the same tools, were clad in the same kind\nof garments, and produced commodities for customers whom he knew, or\nwho at least were so near that production kept in the rear of consumption ;or the still earlier guild system, with its regulations to secure good\nworkmanship and control competition ; or the primitive family system,\nwhere each little community and nearly each household was economically\nself-sufificient, even if it was scantily supplied. Or take the progressive\nstatus of the laborer as revealed in labor legislation. Take, for example,\nthe Statute of Laborers of 23 Edward III., 1349, after the black death\nhad swept away from one-third to one-half of the laboring population\nand produced economic changes of the profoundest significance. An\ninevitable rise in wages and prices followed. This the king and his\ncouncil undertook to prevent by law. Every laborer was required to\naccept the wages current during the five or six years prior to the plague,\non pain of the direst punishment. Employers were forbidden to pay\nmore, on pain of similar penalties. Any unemployed man was compelled\nto labor for anyone who might call on him to labor, and he must accept\nonly the wages current before the plague. If any laborer ran away from\nhis employer, he was to be brought back and branded in the forehead\nwith a hot iron with the letter \"F,\" for Falsitie. Or examine the great\nStatute of Apprentices of 5 Elizabeth, 1563, which remained on the\nstatute books of England until 1841 — a period of almost three centuries.\nHere we have one of the finest opportunities to study the results of the\nattempt of legislation to determine wages and consequently the prices of\nfood, as well as the attempt to determine the trend of labor. A seven years' apprenticeship was required in every trade and handicraft ; labor\nwas compulsory — if not in some trade or handicraft, then the laborer must\nserve in husbandry ; courts must annually fix wages, and in doing so\nmust have regard to the price of food ; the laborer might not leave his\nemployer nor the employer discharge his laborer in less than one year,\nand then not without three months' notice on either side. The length of\ndaily labor was fixed at twelve hours. Here was a statute made avowedly\nin the interest of the laborer and of agriculture, and the study of its\noperations and the social conditions under it for two or three centuries\ncould not but be helpful to one who would equip himself for dealing\nwith the greatest living issues of the day — the labor question. So the\nstudy of the rise of the monopolies, of the great trading companies of the\n\n"}
{"page": 203, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nECONOMIC\n\nINTERPRETATION\n\nOF HISTORY\n\n195\n\nfifteenth and sixteenth centuries, the history of money and instruments of\ncredit, would be wonderfully instructive. How much do you know of the\nbrief but momentous history of our own country ? Much, I take it, but\nnot yet enough.\nI but weary you to insist upon a view of the subject whose very\nstatement carries conviction. The ministry of wealth is one of the most\nwonderful facts of history. Its necessity to existence and to happiness,\nits power of influencing the intelligence and moral growth of mankind,\nits destructiveness when perverted in use — these have been the themes\nof moralist, poet, and philosopher. The presence or absence of wealth\ndetermines the fate of the race. Intellect shrivels in the presence of\nwant. Energy evaporates. Poverty is the parent of vice and crime.\nEducation, morality, and social gladness thrive under the influence of a\ncompetent material support. Great hoards of wealth are even more\ndestructive upon the nobler qualities of man than scanty supplies. They\nshrivel the heart of the miser ; they debauch the prodigal ; they drive\nhumility and human love and human sympathy from the heart of the\nmillionaire.\nIn this constant action of mind upon matter, and reaction of matter\nupon mind, we have a splendid example of nature's method of securing\nthe progress of the race. I cannot consent to the reasoning of modern\nsocialistic thought. It runs thus: Poverty and misery abound. Vice\nand crime follow. Wealth is not properly distributed. Some have too\nmuch, some not enough. Hence our entire social system is wrong.\nSurround each with sufficient wealth. Give to each a competency. In\nthis way you take away the chief motive to vice and crime. He that hath\nwill not steal. Give to each enough, and poverty and misery will flee\naway. Intelligence and virtue will spring up under this benign influence.\nGive to each a competency of wealth, and you will regenerate the race.\nThe socialistic philosophy is pre-eminently a materialistic philosophy.\nGiven the proper material environment, and you may regenerate mankind. But I reply in brief : Mere wealth has no virtue in itself. In\nitself it has no power to elevate and strengthen the faculties of man —\nrather the opposite. Give this human being plenty to eat, and to wear,\nand to deck himself withal, gratify every want, relieve him from the\nnecessity of enduring soreness of muscle and weariness of brain to\nsecure wealth, and its magic power over him seems to vanish, as the\nslothful human animals of the tropics and the helpless offspring of the\nwealthy leisure class abundantly demonstrate. The power of wealth to\nquicken the activities and develop the physical and intellectual faculties\nof man, and to contribute to his happiness, comes only when that wealth\nexists in response to his own energies, onlv when he has produced it.\nMarvelous is the reflex influence upon a man of the wealth which he\nhimself has created.\nBut if you merely distribute to him the wealth of\n\n"}
{"page": 204, "printed_page": null, "text": "196\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nOthers, feed him with the wealth that other brains and other hands have\nproduced, it is like poison to him. Hence no social scheme is adequate\nwhich does not take advantage to the full of the individual ownership of\nthe wealth which he himself has produced and saved.\nI have pointed out one method of approach to the most interesting\nand momentous question of the day. Some think we are on the eve of a\ngreat social revolution. We are in the midst of a great social revolution ;\nif not a violent, at least a gradual and peaceful one. That it may continue to be gradual and peaceful should be the desire of every lover of\nhis kind. I believe that only by knowledge, by the discovery of fundamental truth, can social problems be solved. I point to the neglected\nside of history — economic history — as the source of the greatest body of\nknowledge, the surest means of practical wisdom for the guidance alike\nof the statesman, the citizen, and the teacher in their joint task of bettering society and the individual man.\n\nED UCA TIONAL\n\nBV\n\nJOHN\n\nMACDONALD,\n\nJO URNALISM— ITS TRIE ULA TIONS\nAND TRIUMPHS^\nPRESIDENT\nOF\nTION OF AMERICA,\n\nTHE EDUCATIONAL\nTOPEKA,\nKAN.\n\nPRESS\n\nASSOCIA-\n\n\" If one may judge from the average papers presented at our more\nimportant educational gatherings, or from the articles contributed by\nteachers of more or less prominence to the literary periodicals, the most\nunusual step in the writer's preparation is to consult the literature of the\nsubject, and to weigh carefully the results of experience at home and\nabroad.\"\nThus speaks fhe editor of the Educational Review in his May number.\nThe subject of this paper has no literature ; hence none could be consulted.\nThe last part of the title of this discourse has been chosen mainly for\nalliterative purposes. The triumphs of educational journalism are just\nbeginning to appear as a haze on the distant horizon, but unto tribulations we have been born as the sparks fly upward.\nFor rhetorical purposes and to follow the time-honored custom established bythe fathers — peace to their ashes !-— our address may be divided\ninto three heads, but it is thought advisable at the outset to state that these\nheads are to be used solely as points of departure, in which particular also\nit may be seen that the traditions of the elders are closely followed. A\ncertain distinguished statesman in Kansas once said that the platform of\n' By request of the author, the amended spellings adopted by the Board of Directors do not appear in\nthis address. [See resolution of Board of Directors adopted at Los Angeles meeting, July 13, 1899.]\n\n"}
{"page": 205, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\n'\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nJOURNALISM\n\n197\n\na political party was like that of a railway train — a convenient place to get\non or off. Thus, too, with texts.\nIn the first place, inquiries may be made as to the source and nature\nof the tribulations ; in the second place, what triumphs, if any, are now\nvisible to the naked eye; and, in the last place — if the gavel permits — a\nconclusion of some kind will be reached.\nThe days in which educational journalism was painfully groping its\nway through the valley of humiliation, or possibly floundering in the slough\nof despond, are not so remote that we are likely to forget them. Those\nwere the days when our so-called friends, Eliphaz the Temanite, Bildad\nthe Shuhite, and Zophar the Naamathite, gathered around us, analyzed\nand dissected us, held up on high our sins and shortcomings, and caused\nus to curse the day whereon we were born.\nIf somebody with abundance of leisure and a taste for the curious\nwere to make a list of all the educational periodicals — national, state, and\nlocal — which have come and gone during the last thirty-five years, the\nfirst part of our text would be fully illustrated and illuminated. Each of\nthem came in to fill a vacuum which in the form of \"a long-felt want\"\nhad long been depressing the state. A few months, perhaps a year,\npossibly two or three years of fightings without and fears within, and\neach passed away in a valedictory to join the innumerable caravan. Like\nthe corals of the Pacific — those hapless zoophytes, which were doubtless\nworked to death in similes, even as we are killing them now — the periodicals of the past died, leaving fragmentary skeletons as foundations for\nthe journals yet to be.\nBreaking away at this point, lest we become lost in the intricacies of\nfigurative speech, it may be suggested, in passing, that these constant\nstruggles to establish educational journals were simply the efforts of a\nclass, that for centuries had been despised and rejected, to make itself\nheard in its own defense. Let thanks be given to educational papers,\nfirst of all, that the schoolmasters of the past — the Holofernes, the Dr.\nBlimbers, and the Ichabod Cranes — are disappearing from our literature;\nthat for the word schoohnaster — with a heavy and sometimes tremendous accent on the master — we have substituted teacher ; that he who in\nour day instructs youth is both in the world and of it, does not walk\nwith apologetic feet, nor attract to himself the scornful gaze of gods and\nmen because of fantasticalness in dress or gait, or pedantry in speech.\nIn a word or two — for a gavel hangs over this paper like a sword of\nDamocles — the teacher whom the educational journals have brought to\nlight in these latter days has no apologies to offer for living, moving, and\nhaving his being in schoolrooms or elsewhere ; walks erect, and in the\nspirit of the great apostle makes the glorious words, \" I magnify mine\noffice,\" the keynote of his work.\nIf educational\njournalism ever reaches the stars, it will be through\n\n"}
{"page": 206, "printed_page": null, "text": "198\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\ndifficulties which confront no other class of periodicals. The religious\npaper soars along on flowery beds of ease. The young woman who subscribes to a religious paper — -Presbyterian, for instance — may be expected\nto persevere unto the end. She may change her name and her abode, but\npresumably retains her religion, and her support of her church paper\nremains constant. The young man, too — Baptist, let us say — may with\nwestern adaptability deal successively in groceries, hardware, notions,\nlightning-rods, charts, or petroleum ; but his church beliefs have no variableness nor shadow of turning, and his subscription to his religious paper\ngoes on forever. But the typical school-teacher, — today she is with us\nradiant as a celestial vision ; as a flower of the field she flourisheth ;\ntomorrow she is off with young Lochinvar, and the school over which she\npresided so briefly and so gracefully knows her no more forever — unless,\nperadventure, in the course of human events she becomes a widow. Her\nname is changed, or is articulated with another by hyphens ; her occupation is gone; her interest in educational journalism abruptly dies ; her\nsubscription ends, and the editor, like Rachel weeping for her children,\nmourns because his subscriber is not. It was Brother George P. Brown\nwho, as he, at the close of a school year, stood gazing wistfully and sadly\nafter these battalions of departing subscribers, in a moment of inspiration\nconceived the brilliant idea : Go to, let us follow these vanishing hundreds\ninto their homes. And thus it came to pass that the Public School Journal\nbecame the School a^id Home Journal.\nOnce upon a time a journal whose columns were devoted mainly to\ndiscussions of questions in the third heavens of the profession — infinitely\nhigh above the thousands of teachers who toil and struggle and painfully\ngrope their way through the drudgeries of class-work — scornfullv referred\nto other journals which were laboring close to the earth, cheering the faint\nand preaching good tidings to forlorn and well-nigh shipwrecked teachers,\nas educational journals of the \"mere newspaper variety.\" And a certain\neditor whose temperature was suddenly increased by this contemptuous\nremark felt moved to place one of the \"newspaper variety\" over against\nthe other for purposes of contrast and comparison. In the journal edited\nby our critical brother there were three articles — one on the teaching of\nLatin, a second on secondary schools, a third on German universities.\nOnly these and nothing more. In the journal alleged to be of the \"newspaper variety\" there were many helpful suggestions how to teach reading,\nspelling, arithmetic, history, geography, language, manual training; how\nto study birds, flowers, and plants ; and, more important than all these,\nteachers, out of the depths and riches of their long experience, told in the\ncolumns of this paper their younger brothers and sisters how the heart\nof that bad boy might be reached, and what tactful ways and means\ncould be devised to infuse more wisdom and righteousness into discipline.\nBesides these, there may have been a column or two or three of news, a\n\n"}
{"page": 207, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nJOURNALISM\n\nreport or two of educational meetings.\n\n199\n\nCurious ideas prevail among\n\nsome of the brethren in regard to reports of the \"newspaper variety.\"\nIt seems to be thought that divine truth can be set forth in journals only\nin large print, under some ponderous heading. Is it necessary to say to\nthis intelligent audience — every audience is intelligent when one is\naddressing it — that in the educational editor's report of the address\nof some divinely gifted man or woman, some brother or sister, ready to\nperish for lack of knowledge and guidance, may find a single truth which\nshall remain in the heart forever as a fountain of living water, springing\nup unto all good purposes and deeds? Which of these editors — each of\nthem typical of a class — think ye went down to his house justified rather\nthan the other? He who brought cheer and hope, guidance and help to\nthe ninety-and-nine, or he who concentrated all his energies and talents\nupon the building up of the one who safely lay in the sheltered folds of\nsome college or university? To prevent misunderstandings it should be\nsaid that the critical journal referred to is published west of the Alleghanies.\nBut there should be no jealousies nor small rivalries existing between\neducational journals. The days when simple-minded editors, with a zeal,\nnot according to knowledge, tried to discuss in every issue every department which lies between the gutter and the university are passing away,\nand the editor who still tries to act all these parts will some day find\nhimself, like Bottom the weaver, \"translated.\" For there are diversities\nof gifts and diversities of operations. As one star differeth from another\nin glory, so doth one educational journal differ from others in its sphere\nof influence. To some it is given to set forth the prosaic things, the\ndrudgeries of the profession; the mission of others seems to be to \"let\nobservation with extensive view survey mankind, from China to Peru ;\"\nwhile a select few, like Milton's lost spirits, sit on a hill retired in\nthoughts more elevate, and reason high of nature's methods, the \" sensed total,\" and adolescence. For neither in educational journalism nor in\naught else can, as the Scripture hath it, \"the eye say unto the head, I\nhave no need of thee, nor again the head to the feet, I have no need of\nyou. Nay, much more those members of the body which seem to be more\nfeeble are necessary.\" Between which scriptural lines brethren who\nimagine they dwell on mounts of transfiguration may find a whole system\nof philosophy.\nSo, too, educational editors have been censured for giving time to a\ndiscussion of the business side of their work. Huxley somewhere said\nsomething like this : \" In order to do good work in this world, one must\nbe a good animal.\" Which is to say that he must eat well, sleep well,\nkeep his nervous machinery and digestive apparatus in harmony with the\nsolar system. And the educational editor who is to do any work worthy\nof the name must have a rich base of supplies in the form of advertisements and subscriptions.\n\n"}
{"page": 208, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n[General\n\nCertain of the brethren deplore the fact that the Educational Press\nAssociation spends so much time in discussing these prosaic things ; but\nas time in its inexorable way is passing, it may merely be suggested here,\nas we fly to the next paragraph, that even the great apostle, after finishing\nhis sublime discourse on victory over death and a glorious immortality,\nimmediately added : \" Now concerning the collection for the saints.\nTherefore . . . .\"\nIt is comparatively modern history, too, that an important eastern\nmagazine once upon a time, or twice upon several times, turned its intellectual searchlights on educational journalism, and pronounced it \"flat,\nstale, and unprofitable,\" and recommended that the editors be placed at\nthe foot of the calendar, subject to amendment and debate. And some\nof us, after absorbing into our several systems the indiscriminating unjustness of the criticism, could not refrain from expressing our emotions in\nthe sarcastic language of Job : \" No doubt but ye are the people, and\nwisdom shall die with you.'\"\nDwelling in this miscellaneous way on the tribulations that so easily\nbeset educational journalism, even the wayfaring man can see that the\nsecond part of the text — the triumphs — has been pushed far toward the\ndead line or time limit which the management of this body has in the\nplenitude of its wisdom established. It is unquestionably among the\ntriumphs that the representative journals of the United States are today\nassociated in fraternal bonds ; and that for the first time in the history\nof education the management of this National Educational Association\nhas placed the names of five of these educational editors on its program,\nand has virtually said to each, \"Thou art permitted to speak for thyself,\"\nwhich same we are doing with such ability and grace as hath been given\nus from on high. It is among the triumphs, too, that journals which\nwere ten, fifteen, or twenty years ago living from month to month at a poor\ndying rate, their editorials a continuous pathetic wail for support and\nsustenance, have now become an important and an essential part of school\nsystems.\nIn the West (could one know where the West is ; I thought I lived in\nthe West, but after traveling several days westwardly, it seems I must\nhave come from the East), but let us say in the Mississippi valley, there is\na saying among newspaper men that a paper never prospers until after it\nhas been sued a time or two for libel. Assuming this to be true, there\nare bright days ahead for educational journals. Recently, as you all\nknow, one of our number was placed on the defense for alleged libel.\nThe indictment hath gone where the woodbine twineth, but there remains\nto enrich our educational literature that sonorous phrase, \"a fine old\neducational mastodon\" — a phrase which long after we have passed from\nthis terrestrial ball will be used with deadly effect by editors yet unborn.\nAnd\nsurely it is an indication of better days to come that Brother\n\n"}
{"page": 209, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nJOURNALISM\n\n201\n\nW. A. Bell, of the Indiana School Journal — may his Hoosier shadow never\ngrow less! — is able after thirty years of service to retire under the shade\nof his own vine and fig tree — or, more probably, sugar-maple and hickory\n— to meditate leisurely and comfortably over his past life.\nIt is clearly a triumph that the educational journal in its chosen field\nhas become a controlling and persistent force in pushing forward needed\nschool legislation and in retarding the opposite; in blocking the schemes\nof the demagogues — or, as Brother Brown in a moment\n\nof perspiration\n\ncalled them, \"demigrogs\" — those pestiferous creatures who imagine that\nthe path to political glory lies in devising small things for schools and\nuniversities. A triumph it is, too, that the educational editor promotes\namong the teachers within the reach of his pen or pencil what our French\nbrethren, the great phrase-makers of the universe, call esprit de corps — that\nspirit of pride and enthusiasm in one's profession which makes all things\npossible. Which reminds me that some years ago, in a certain circular\nreceived from a certain, or, more truly speaking, uncertain, superintendent, there was the sepulchral statement that \"we have the finest corpse\nof teachers in the state.\" The superintendent might possibly attribute\nthe melancholy condition of the teaching force to the printer, but there\nwas evidence enough that the statement was solemnly correct.\nAnd were it not for the modesty and humility which are the towering\ncharacteristics of all educational and other journals, it might truthfully\nbe said here and now that the phenomenal growth of this National Educational Association from its small beginnings to what we now see is due,\nlargely and mainly, to the efforts and urgings and persistent proclaimings\nof educational editors.\nBut the greatest glory and triumph of educational journalism is in\nthe fact that it comes periodically with its evangel of encouragement and\nhope and strength to the teacher ready to perish among the solitudes.\nNo principal across the hall to send her reinforcements in case of mutinies,\nor to give her counsel in hours of doubt. She must see, decide, act,\nand conquer for herself. To the tens of thousands of teachers who, at\nthe heads of creeks on lonely prairies, in the obscurities of backwoods, or\nin the remote recesses of mountains, are daily grappling with the powers\nand principalities of perverseness and obtuseness in school, or asking\nwhat they must do to be saved from the contradiction of sinners in the\nshape of boards, the monthly journal is library, department of pedagogy,\nand school of methods, and, infinitely better than all these, a sympathetic\nfriend.\nDoubtless, though, those of you who are still awake are by this time\nfervently praying to be delivered from the educational editor with his\ntribulations and triumphs. Be of good cheer ; the hour of your deliverance\nis at hand.\nBut, before\n\nthe\n\nspeaker who is now afflicting\n\nyou\n\nterminates\n\nthis\n\n"}
{"page": 210, "printed_page": null, "text": "202\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nsingular discourse, and abruptly takes his form from off the floor, he feels\nimpelled to express his belief that, in spite of sins of omission and commission, in spite of occasional shallowness and crudeness, the words of\nGeorge Herbert, the quaint singer of other days, are still and ever true\nof educational journalism in its leadership of teachers and people to the\ncrowning slopes of achievement : \"Thy torch doth show the way.\"\n\nTHE\n\nBY\n\nGEORGE\n\nFUNCTION\n\nP.\n\nBROWN,\n\nOF THE\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nEDITOR\n\"SCHOOL\nAND\nBLOOMINGTON,\nILL.\n\nHOME\n\nPRESS\n\nEDUCATION,\"\n\nChristendom has been for some years slowly but consciously entering\nupon a new stage in human thought and life. Centuries have been spent\nin unconscious preparation for it. The seed of this new order was Darwin's discovery that the process of creation is the process of evolution\nthru the principle of self-activity. This discovery is ushering in a new\nepoch in human affairs.\nIt takes a long time to get an idea into the heads of the race, and still\nlonger for it to become active in the hearts and lives of men. Copernicus\nwas the beginning of a new epoch in the thought of mankind. The\nchurch, the state, and every other human institution was compelled by\nhis discovery to readjust itself to the new truth which was seen to be\nmore fundamental and commanding than anything previously known in\nphysical science.\nThe established thought denied and resisted; but the sweet reasonableness ofthe larger truth prevailed, and a new view of the world and of\nlife has been gradually supplanting the old.\nEach new epoch, I take it, begins with the utterance of some new\ntruth more fundamental than any yet known. It works a revolution in\nsystems of thought and practice ; for every idea entertained by man must\nfind its place in the system of which the new truth is the fundamental\nprinciple. The more fundamental the principle, the more complete and\nfar-reaching is the revolution.\nThe law of evolution discovered by Darwin is more fundamental than\nwas the law of the planetary system discovered by Copernicus. It works\na radical change of view from that which has been established for generations. In no institution will it work, or is it working, greater changes\nthan in education.\nI am asked to consider with you, but only for a moment, and while\nyou are taking breath between what has preceded and what is to follow, what is the function of an educational press in this transition period\n\n"}
{"page": 211, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nFUNCTION\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nPRESS\n\n203\n\nto a new view of the origin and history of man's physical and spiritual\nnature.\nHorace Greeley used to say that the public press ought to give the\npeople what they wish to read, and as much of what they ought to read\nas they will endure without stopping the paper. This sounds like a good\nrule, but it leaves the difficult questions, what the educational public\nwish to read, and what they ought to read, unanswered.\nThe student of these problems soon discovers that the number who\nare consciously hungering and thirsting after distinctively educational\nreading of any kind is not \"so wide as a barn door nor so deep as a well.\"\nSome have a relish for news, especially for that kind called personals,\nand particularly for those in which mention is made of the reader. They\nalways begin to read the last journal at the minor ?nentio/is, and the editor\nis in luck if they do not stop there. What editor has not provided some\neditorial or communication with special care, and with a certain class of\nreaders in his eye, only to learn later that none of them have ever read\nit ? One of our most prominent school superintendents cut the wrapper\nof his school journal in the presence of the editor, spent five minutes in\nrunning thru the news items, and laid it aside with the consoling remark :\n\"That is the way I read school journals.\" Now, the editor expected that\nhe would find several good things in that number that he would like to\nread, and a firm conviction burdened his soul that there were some other\nthings he ought to read.\nNext to news the average journal reader, whether superintendent or\ngrade teacher, is interested in a new process of arriving at an old result.\nHe likes the mechanics of his business. A cute way of solving a problem, or a new device for attracting spontaneous and involuntary attention,\nfills him with temporary delight. The question of the educational value\nof the process, or of the result, never arises. He is impatient with the\never-recurring demand for the reason of things. \" Let it be taken for\ngranted that the reasons are good.\" The all-important question is how\nto arrive at required results by a new route. The old path is worn\nsmooth, and the flowers that bloomed beside it have all been plucked.\nHe may be fascinated by a \"Johnny story \" by which to teach the \" fishbone \" sounds used in pronouncing words. The danger of arrested\ndevelopment he knows nothing of. Whether, in learning to read, the\nchild's mind is more interested in fish-bone sounds than in images of\nideal living he does not stop to consider.\nHis school journal may lay bare these dangers, and show the educational value as well as defects of his mechanical device in ways the editor\nthinks this particular patron ought to read, and he hopes will want to\nread, only to learn that what has been offered as a help is rejected as a\nhindrance. The reader declines to continue his\" subscription to a paper\nthat it makes him angry to read ; and no one can blame him for that.\n\n"}
{"page": 212, "printed_page": null, "text": "204\n\n■\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nAgain the educational editor rubs his eyes and re-examines the situation to discover, if possible, what the few who will read at all wish to\nread and ought to read.\nHe may find incidentally, while seeking to follow Horace Greeley's\nadvice, that there is a growing and already encouragingly large class of\nthe educational public who are pursuing the study of education in the\nspirit of scientific investigation.\nThey are hospitable to new ideas and rejoice when a new truth crowds\nout an old error from their practice.\nIt is this class of teachers and stu\ndents that is the hope of the country.\nThe common school is proclaimed as the hope of the country, but\nthis hope is to be realized only when the spirit of these few has become\nthe spirit of all, and the goal of a more abundant life has been substituted for that which the general public calls schooling.\nAn intelligent representative of this public in my own state declares\nthat schooling is one thing and education is another and different thing,\nand he proposes to mend matters by six months' schooling each year, and\nsix months' education in learning the theory and art of living by pursuing\nsome useful vocation. The school is regarded by him as the place for\nmastering the symbols and scholastic forms of civilized life. His ideal\nschoolmaster is he who discovers some short-cut, or \" improved method,\"\nof mastering these forms. His motto, if he should formulate on.e, would\nbe : \"First fill the mind with forms in the school, and then fill these\nforms with ideas outside.\"\nHis ideal school journal would resemble a journal of mechanics. It\nwould describe new devices and processes ; educational machines for\nfixing forms in the memory.\nMy opinion is that he is wrong, and that this has ceased to be the\nfunction of educational journalism, as it has ceased to be the true function of the school. The study of educational values is of recent origin,\nand has come in with the recent demand for a re-examination of the purpose of the school and a new definition of education.\nA new education has dawned because a new view of the world, and a\nnew history of the origin, development, and purpose of man, have been\nrevealed in the docrine of evolution. It may disturb some of the numerous claimants to the authorship of the new education for one to declare\nthat Charles Darwin first promulgated it in his Origin of Species and his\nDescent of Man. But we have gotten far enough along in the readjustment of our system of thought to the fundamental law by him revealed\nto settle this important question finally as to the real authorship of the\nnew education.\nWhen we comprehend the fact that the entire animate and inanimate\nworld is built up of the stepping-stones of our dead selves by which we\nhave achieved the power to consider questions of this sort, and others on\n\n"}
{"page": 213, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions!\n\nTHE\n\nFUNCTION\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nEDVCAT20NAL\n\nPRESS\n\n205\n\nthe program of this convention, the problem of education takes a new\nform, and methods of solution are suggested that make good their claim\nto newness, thru the new relations in which they are seen. The conditions\nof the problem are changed.\nIt is not thru contemplation, but thru action, not by reflection, but by\ndeeds, that man has risen and must ever rise.\nMan's chief glory is not, as the philosopher used to declare, to know\nabsolute and eternal and universal truth; the use of his intellect for\npractical affairs being, therefore, subordinate matters. Theoretic life is\nnot, alone nor chiefly, the soul's genuine concern. Popular belief and\nthe doctrine of evolution both concur in the view that his chief glory is\nthat he is a willing, active being who makes his reason a real, substantial,\nconcrete thing in the world. Evolution establishes the truth of the popular belief, and leaves the ancient philosopher stranded because it displaces\nhis fundamental principle by one still more fundamental.\nMan's intellect, instead of being his \" crowning glory,\" came as a\nmore effective instrument for better douig. The best doer was the fittest\nto survive, even while his evolution was purely physical. When in the\nprocess of the ages evolution changed to the psychical basis, then the\nintellect in the form of cunning became the most powerful director of\nthe will, and came eventually to look upon itself as the crowning glory\nof man. But the ideal man in every age has been and ever will be, in the\npopular belief, the man of deeds. Not rest, but action ; not thought,\ncontemplation, reflection, but effort, execution, will. We will not change\nour terms reason and rational, but we will put a new meaning into them.\nReason is good will, and good will is the only perfectly good thing in the\nworld. Conduct, behavior, is more than three-fourths of life. It is all\nof life that is worth living. Whatever of contemplation there is that does\nnot in some way modify or emphasize the deed is mere waste. To know the\ntruth is nothing if it does not mean the doing of the truth. Attainments\nthat do not realize themselves in the life are without value. Knowledge\nthat rests in contemplation, feeling that never rises to deed, is, according\nto the gospel of evolution, less than sounding brass and tinkling cymbal.\nIn deciding the function of the educational press from this point of\nview, we can give but little consideration to the seeker after news of\nwhere his friend is located this year, and what salary he is receiving ; nor\nto the manufacturer of new and strange devices for doing what, perhaps,\nought not to be done at all. These need not be entirely disregarded,\nbut a small amount of this ingredient will go a long way. Its quantity\ncertainly ought not to be regulated on the principle on which Bridget used\nher eggs. The story goes that Bridget had received careful instructions\nabout the ingredients of her cake, in the construction of which two eggs\nwere to be used. The cake appeared in due time, and its peculiarities led\nto a cross-examination of the cook.\n\n"}
{"page": 214, "printed_page": null, "text": "266\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n\" How many eggs did you use, Bridget ? ''\n\"You said I was to use two, mum ; but they were not very good, and\nI thought it would be safer to use five, mum.\"\nThe study of psychology in the light of this principle of evolution\n[Ge\nhas revealed many things to us that were concealed from the wise and\nprudent of a former generation who had not this key. Education must\nbe readjusted to a new psychology, as well as to a new history of man's\norigin and growth. Time will not permit me to enumerate the changes\nof view in almost every department of life that this new principle\ndemands.\nThe educational press must be the standard-bearer rather than the\ncamp-follower of the educational host, if it shall perform its function. It\nmust gather and circulate the material by which public opinion shall be\nmolded, and serve as the herald, at least, of the leaders of the educational army. It seeks to publish the observations, experiences, and tentative conclusions of men and women who write with varying degrees of\nconsciousness of the transition in educational philosophy and practice\nthat we are now entering upon. The less conscious one is of the philosophy of the movement, the more valuable, sometimes, is his contribution,\nprovided he is sensitive to the new atmosphere. Those who are not\ninfluenced by it may be good priests and scribes for recording what is\ndone under the law, but they are not prophets of the coming time.\nI have said that we are at the beginning of a new readjustment of our\nintellectual view of the world to a new fundamental idea, called evolution. It reaches down nearer to the core of things and must influence\nman's life more profoundly than did the discovery of Copernicus. It\nwas inevitable that it should produce a fermentation in the educational\nworld as well as in the world of physical science. Psychology was among\nthe first of the metaphysical sciences to feel its influence, and, as a consequence, pedagogy began to reach out its tentacles in every direction in\na blind sort of way for a practice that should be an adequate form for the\nnew thought.\nEducational journalism, as has already been suggested, if it is to be of\nany considerable service,' must be active in diffusing among its readers\nthe best thought and practice of the best minds of the nation. It must\nextract from the great mass of tentative views and opinions what seems\nto be of permanent value, and give it out in brief, condensed paragraphs\nto its busy readers. The journal has a mission different from the book.\nThe book gives a complete exposition of either the doctrine or the method\nof the writer, who is a single individual. The periodical informs its\nreaders of what many intelligent people are thinking and doing in their\nefforts to find answers to the questions all are asking.\nOf course, the educational press must see and state the problems, and\nbe quick to discover the trend of general educational thought from the\n\n"}
{"page": 215, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nFUNCTION\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nPRESS\n\n207\n\nmultiplicity and variety of the thoughts of individuals. Hence the need,\ngreater than any other, that a larger number of those recognized as\nleaders in the readjustment of education to changing conditions shall\nconnect themselves with it by making free use of its columns to record\ntheir observations and reflections. They must do this in an altruistic\nspirit and without expectation of pecuniary reward. The educational\npublic must join hands with the educational editor in helping him in his\nmissionary work of diffusing knowledge among the people. The man\nor woman who is not willing to do this for the cause, at least until the\ngeneral public has awakened to the consciousness that they have souls as\nwell as pockets, cannot, as a rule, write anything that will be of much\nservice to the cause. It is the spirit in which things are uttered, as well\nas that which they contain, that makes their publication of value.\nThe short time of fifteen minutes gives little opportunity for more\nthan a few disjointed suggestions of what should be considered by this\nassembly as the function of the educational press. For some years the\nmagazines addressed to the general public have been discharging some of\nits functions. The time may not be so far distant as we think when what\nthe teacher wishes to read^and ought to read, will be the things which the\ngeneral public will wish to read. There is little in education that is not\nof vital interest to the home. When the school shall realize its full\nfunction for the children, and they shall have become active citizens,\nthey will be both able and willing to read what now they cannot read for\nthe reason that their schooling has done so little to assist in their education.\nThe reason why so few are really interested in the study of education,\nor of religion, or of art, or of politics, is that their powers have not been\ntrained to think these subjects. They learn to think business by the\npersistent study and practice of it. There is no other way for them to\nbecome interested in what makes for the higher life of the soul.\nIt is the doctrine of this paper that the educational press must seek to\ndiffuse the kind of ideas among the educational public that will tend to\nthe creating of a rational theory and practice of educating children in the\nschools and the homes. It must seek to unite the school and the home\nin this study. It must reorganize the ideas and forces at work in the\nworld for the higher evolution of the race, and direct attention to them.\nIt must seek to improve the thinking of teachers and parents as persistently asit seeks to improve their practices. Education is an art that\ncan never be mastered unless the principles of the art and its purpose\nare well understood.\nThe educational press ought to learn, from the history of the past,\nthat all education must have behavior, conduct, deeds, as the direct aim\nof its endeavor. The speaker has been declaring for some years that\nthese things should be the aim of the endeavors of this National Educational Association as a body, and that it ought to set itself persistently\n\n"}
{"page": 216, "printed_page": null, "text": "2o8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nto work to make its ideals prevail among the people. Contemplation and\nerudition are good things. Deeds are the best thing. They are the\nfruition of all educational doctrine and effort.\n\nARE\nBY\n\nWILLIAM\n\nEDUCATIONAL\nGEORGE\n\nBRUCE,\n\nJOURNALS\n\nEDITOR\n\nJOURNAL,\"\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nMILWAUKEE,\n\nEDUCATIONAL?\n\"AMERICAN\n\nSCHOOL\n\nBOARD\n\nWIS.\n\nA leading educator recently made the public statement that he would\nrather be crucified than read half the educational journals which come^\nno doubt gratuitously — to his desk each month. No class of men\nengaged in a profession have more printed matter flung at them than the\nschoolmaster. Were he to attempt to read all the educational journals,\nreal and alleged, that are brought to his notice, his career would be at an\nend.\nIt is a phase of alleged educational journalism — as against the legitimate effort — that I mean to discuss.\nConsidering the number of persons engaged professionally in educational work, as against those in other professions, and the number of\npublications representing their interests, the educational journals outstrip,\nin number at least, all others.\nThe professional journalist is a writer without being a schoolmaster.\nThe average schoolmaster is a writer without being a journalist. But the\nstep from the profession of teaching to that of journalism is more frequently attempted than is the reverse. While the journalist, on the one\nhand, does not try to be a professional schoolmaster, the schoolmaster, on\nthe other hand, only too often enters the domain of journalism without\neven that preparation which is so necessary to fit a man for any vocation.\nBut he goes farther. He jumps into the whole thing at once ; becomes\na publisher and editor, advertising and subscription solicitor. The result\nis that we are confronted today with too much amateur educational\njournalism. Not only are there journals that are national in character or\nrepresent the educational interests of a state, but there are numberless\nlittle sheets that aim to cover smaller territory. Their publisher holds\nthat the county, town, or village must have its own school journal, even\nif the latter furnishes nothing more than four small pages of wishy-washy\npersonal matter.\nIt is a remarkable fact that no class of journalism is more closely\npursued by the scribbling parasite, the camp-follower, than is legitimate\neducational journalism of the present day. Let me give you an illustration of, at least, one class of these so-called amateurs, and show you the\n\n"}
{"page": 217, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nARE\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nJOURNALS\n\nEDUCATION AL\n\n?\n\n209\n\neffect they have, not only upon the publishing business, but upon educational tendencies.\nThis class consists of the cheap schoolmaster who is ambitious to rise\nin his profession, and who sees the opening in printers' ink rather than\nin meritorious effort on his part. He may be a writer, good, bad, or\nindifferent; but he does know something of the value of publicity. He\nfinds that he can enter the publishing business as a side issue, while he\ndraws his salary as a teacher. In the great number of meetings —\nnational, state, and county — he gathers a little material for publication.\nExchanges also are cheap.\nThe result is a small sheet, without color, without policy, which bears\nhis name as editor and publisher, and which gives him an opportunity to\nput his own feeble products, together with such material as he may gather,\ninto cold type. He can, if necessary, afford to nurse this amateur enterprise even at a loss. But he prefers to prey upon his fellow-teachers for\nsubscriptions, and upon the business community for advertisements ; he\nmakes his friendship with his colleagues go as far as possible, and lets it\nbe known that it will be dangerous to ignore him. The result is obvious;\nthe numberless sheets which are thus fastened upon the schoolroom\nworkers of the United States represent that much scattered energy. The\nfield becomes less promising for the strong, fearless, high-classed educational journalist. Those milk-and-water sheets seldom traverse beyond\ntheir own county limits, but they nevertheless prevent the better journals\nfrom receiving the recognition in that field to which they are entitled.\nThus the number of educational journals printed and published as a\ndistinctive business enterprise is not large. Few of these — -indeed, very\nfew — possess the financial strength to cope successfully with abuses in\neducational life, or to champion reforms, when their patronage, be it\nadvertising or subscriptions, is at stake. I do not mean to infer here\nthat the men who manage these legitimate enterprises lack either in energy\nor experience, or that they are wanting in high ideals.\nMany journals, in order to make both ends meet, or to give the\npublisher an adequate income, become the agents for educational books,\npublish small books on their own account, conduct teachers' bureaus, or\nsell school supplies. The journal in such cases simply waves as a sort of\nadvertising banner over an educational junk-shop.\nYou will ask how these evils which beset educational journalists can\nin any way concern you. They are simply evils, you will say, which\naffect the financial condition of certain enterprises only. But they do\nconcern every loyal worker who has the educational interests of the nation\nat heart. Educational journals are an important factor, as has been\ndemonstrated here today. They should be strong and fearless — combat\nthat which is superficial and misleading, champion that which is'worthy,\nnoble, and true.\n\n"}
{"page": 218, "printed_page": null, "text": "2IO\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n[General\n\nIn order to make them so, they must have adequate support. There\nshould be on the part of the educator a greater discrimination between the\nchaff and the kernel, between the meritorious and the worthless. It lies\nin your power to create a strong educational press, by recognizing only\nthat which is worthy, and in permitting the law of the survival of the\nfittest to take its natural course.\nIn pointing out present evils, let us not undervalue the good that has\nbeen accomplished by the educational press. Who does not remember\nwith gratefulness the men who have worked loyally in the cause of education thru their journals ? Who can forget such schoolmasters as a Barnard, aWinship, a Kellogg, a Vaile, a Brown, and the many others who\nhave taught for years and continue to teach large classes thru their periodicals ? God bless them !\n\nIDEAL\n\nBY\n\nAND\n\nOSSIAN\n\nPRACTICAL\n\nH. LANG,\n\nEDITOR\n\nCONSIDERATIONS\nTIONAL JOURNALISM\n\nOF\n\n\"THE\n\nSCHOOL\n\nJOURNAL,\n\nIN\n\nEDUCA-\n\nNEW\n\nYORK\n\nThe privilege of addressing large audiences of educational workers\nfrom ten to fifty times a year carries with it responsibilities of considerable magnitude. The periodical edited solely with a view to the\npromotion of selfish interests can hardly be considered educational, notwithstanding the claims contained in its name or its prospectus. There\nmust be some educational aim, or aims, to begin with, some »«<?///\" which\ngives character to a paper and reveals the editor's conception of his mission. For as the editor, so is his paper. This point might be very\nstrikingly illustrated by reference to the annual crop of failures of educational journals which spring up simply because someone feels himself\ncalled upon to address an audience and to put himself into a position of\nprominence. I believe that no educational paper can hope to survive if\nit puts its personal, selfish interests first. It must go down, tho it may\nflourish for a while. A paper without a policy, a paper without a mission,\nmust die, no matter what its journalistic qualities may be.\nI believe, further, that the highest efficiency in educational journalism\nis unattainable without a clear insight into the present status and the\ntheoretical and practical possibilities of rational educational endeavor.\nLack in this direction implies instability of editorial policy and an unreliable judgment ; new discoveries of lasting importance may then receive\nbut scant attention, while insignificant matters and ephemeral sparks of\nsuccess are magnified beyond all bounds of pedagogic reason ; the beginnings of movements which promise better things are scoffed at or ignored,\n\n"}
{"page": 219, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nSOME\n\nCONSIDER\n\nA tlONS IN ED UCA TIONAL\n\nJO URN A L ISM\n\n211\n\nwhile passing fads are heralded in with the sound of trumpets and cymbals ; a person who discovers some glittering pedagogic bauble, or finds\na new trick in teaching or school management, is praised as a benefactor\nof the race, while real contributions to educational progress are allowed\nto win their way unaided ; revolutionary measures are advocated without\nany regard to their practical effects or dangers ; vague illusionings are\nadmired as new truths ; juggling with pedagogic half-truths — \"blanket\nterms,\" as Dr. White has very aptly termed them — is described as educational philosophy. The paper lacking here has no perspective, and can\nnever hope to be a leader of the country's educational forces.\nHonesty and consistency of purpose are other essentials; so are fairness and strict conformity to the principles of truth and righteousness.\nWith it, and within it all, there must be a broad sympathy that can distinguish, below imperfections and mistakes, the sincerity of effort to work\nin the best light. An editor is occasionally accused of being \"after\nsomething\" when he points out commendable features in the work of an\nindividual who may have come into his position by methods not exactly\nrighteous on the surface, or whose early record has made him a lifelong\nvictim of prejudice, or who happens to have the support of a clique of\nunscrupulous politicians. A rule of caution in this and similar instances\nis to consider the editorial attitude toward persons and measures in general, and to avoid hasty criticism of isolated cases.\nOn the other hand, the searching for commendable things must not\ndegenerate into flattery of the undeserving. Here is where educational\njournals are more apt to sin than in any other direction. Why this is\ndone can be answered with the same reason which explains why reform\nmovements, rich with promise of better things, receive so little support as\nlong as they are in their infancy or appear to prove unpopular.\nEvery journalistic effort represents an investment of money. The\npublisher must derive at least a small interest from this capital, and even\neditors require food, and terrestrial food at that. The publication of\nanything that is offensive to advertisers, or which does not meet with the\napproval of subscribers, is speedily followed, in most cases, by a reduction\nof the sources of revenue. Suppose that a reform is advancing which\nthreatens to sweep away certain books or other apparatus now on the\nmarket, and involves a temporary increase of work for the teacher — study\nor what not — how do you suppose the advocacy of this measure will\naffect the income of an educational journal ? I can leave this to you to\nanswer for yourselves. The superintendent who has had the courage to\nintroduce needed reforms in his schools will be able to form a particularly vivid picture of the result, especially if he considers that his teachers\nmay' bow to his new plans for fear of losing their positions, while most\nadvertisers and subscribers believe their support to be essential to a\nperiodical's subsistence.\n\nAnd\n\nthe reason\n\nfor supporting\n\nundeserving\n\n"}
{"page": 220, "printed_page": null, "text": "iti\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n[General\n\nmen who happen to be in a position of power, or have been, are, or may\nbe of use to publisher or editor? Well, \"you can catch more flies with\nhofiey than with vinegar\" would not be an evasive answer.\nIt is a mistake to conclude that an educational journal cannot afford\nto give offense to anyone. A publication of high intrinsic worth can\nmake itself professionally indispensable to those who wish to keep abreast\nthe times. Moreover, the excellence of its journalistic features will\nattract many. The style, alertness, illustrations, and general typographical arrangement are all important matters. The editor with ever-ready\njournalistic resources can accomplish more than one who is lacking in\nthis direction. Being sure of the power to hold his audience, he can\nafford to be more courageous and to put the good of the cause ahead of\nall lesser considerations. Finally, with the growth of professional feeling\namong teachers, there will come a higher regard for truly representative\nperiodicals. The multiplication of uncalled-for papers will be discouraged. Established publications of acknowledged soundness and leadership will be given universal support. There is no need of keeping one's\n\"ear to the ground\" in order to make a success of educational journalism. Leadership is the great requirement.\nThe educational journal ought to point the way to better things in\neducation. It ought to uplift all along the line. Above all it ought to\ninspire readers with lofty ideals and an abiding faith in the elevating\npower of honest educational effort. I believe that it can and ought to be\nmade the greatest agency of spreading an ennobling civilization. This\nit may do by judiciously pointing out where present educational practice\nadmits of improvement. It must pour hot shot, if necessary, to drive\nthe self-satisfied out of their trenches into the light of day. The paper\nthat acts merely as a soporific in its attitude toward evolutional efforts\nand as a palliative in treating of specific cases of retrogression is a mere\nparasite on the profession. The magnifying of the teacher's office is not\naccomplished by hurrahing and sycophancy. I am reminded here of the\n.incisive words of the secretary of the Massachusetts Board of Education,\nMr. Frank A. Hill : \" One of the strongest signs of an unhealthy state\nis perfect satisfaction with an existing state. Perfect satisfaction means\neasy satisfaction ; easy satisfaction, a low ideal ; a low ideal, cessation of\ngrowth; and cessation of growth, retrogression and stagnation.\" Here\nis set forth a measure by which to test true worth.\nThe educational journal must lead upward. It must lead teachers to\ngain a higher outlook upon the needs of humanity, to make steady\nprogress in professional knowledge and skill, and to strive constantly for\ngreater usefulness.\n\n"}
{"page": 221, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nAN\n\nAPOLOGY\n\nAN APOLOGY\nBY DAVID\n\nSTARR\n\nJORDAN,\n\nFOR\n\nTHE\n\nFOR\n\nTHE\n\nPRESIDENT\n\nAMERICAN\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nAMERICAN\nOF LELAND\n\n213\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nSTANFORD\n\nJR. UNIVERSITY\n\nNow and then in these days some successful business-man raises his\neyes from his counter to question the American university's right to\nexist. \"Does higher education pay?\" he asks, and from his own experience of tireless energy, and from his own contact with thin-legged,\nwhite-faced collegians seeking a job, he gives to this question a qualified\nnegative. He further claims, should he care to pursue the subject at\ngreater length, that opportunities for higher education are too widely diffused, and that the American masses are victims of over-education.\nIf all this is true, it is time to call a halt and take account of stock.\nWe have invested too much in universities — love and devotion, as well\nas bonds and gold — for us to be indifferent to their usefulness. In any\ncase, it may be worth our while to spend half an hour in considering this\nquestion, even tho to you and me, who are not in success as a life\nbusiness, such statements of men of business may seem belated and\nabsurd.\nIt is certain, in the first place, that to speak of \"over-education\" is a\nmisuse of terms. If education is rational and effective, there cannot be\ntoo much of it. It is not men frained and efficient who enter into\ndestructive competition. It is the ignorant and ineffective who make the\nstruggle for existence so dire a battle. Whatever leaves men weak and\nineffective cannot justly be called education. There is nothing more\nuseful than wisdom, nothing more effective than training, nothing more\npractical than sunshine. Surely no one can claim that the American\npeople are too wise, too skillful, or too enlightened for their own good.\nYet to give wisdom, skill, and enlightenment is the main function of\nhigher education. It cannot give brains, courage, and virtue where these\nqualities were wanting before. It cannot make a man, but it furnishes\nthe best known means to help a man to make himself. The gain thru\nself-building often outweighs in value the original material. It may\nbe more important even than the finished product, as effort is a greater\nsource of strength and happiness to man than final achievement.\nWhat these critics usually mean to attack is misfit education — the\ntraining or straining of the memory rather than the acquisition of power\nto think and act. They mean that the colleges give schooling rather\nthan training. They \"teach young people how to talk rather than how\nto live.\" This is still true to some extent, in some places, but the whole\ntendency of university movement is toward reality and practicality.\nThese critics have not watched this movement.\nThey do not draw their\n\n"}
{"page": 222, "printed_page": null, "text": "2 14\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nidea of a university from the powerful, well-organized institutions of the\nday, which lav hold of every various power of humanity and seek to\ndraw it into effective, harmonious action. Rather they picture to themselves the starveling colleges of their youth, where callow boys were\ndriven, against their will, over race-courses of study, no part of which\nappealed to their own souls or was related in any way to their lives.\nSuch colleges and such ideals of education exist in our time, in certain\nforgotten corners, but they are in no sense typical of the American university of. today. Harvard and Cornell, and the great and growing\nstate universities of the West, are as firmly and thoroly devoted to the\nneeds of American democracy as the modern harvester is to the needs of\nthe American wheat fields.\nNo doubt inferior methods, dull, stupid traditions, can be found here\nand there under the name of higher education, as rusty or worn-out\nmachinery exists under the name of agricultural implements. It is not\nby these that the best we have should be judged. No one knows better\nthan our college authorities the misfits and failures of education. No\none strives half so hard to prevent them, tho in all large enterprises no\none can avoid a certain percentage of failure.\nNot all the critics in business life taken together have done one-tenth\nas much to make education practical as has any one of the great university presidents of our time. Let us mention, for example, Eliot and\nWhite and Angell and Tappan. Under the hands of these men, and\nothers like these, the whole face of higher education in America has\nchanged in the last twenty years, and the change has been in every way\ntoward greater usefulness and practicality. As the limited express of\ntoday compares with the cross-roads accommodation train, so does the\nAmerican university we all know, or ought to know, compare with the\ncollege of twenty years ago. The little curriculum of the college, its\nLatin verses, mythology, mathematics, and dilute philosophy covered but\na small arc in the. grand circle. The entire range of the activities of\nmen constitutes the field of the university.\nThe keynote of railroad progress has been usefulness to the traveling\npublic. The limited express carries well, carries quickly, carries comfortably, accurately, and safely the multitudes of people who demand\ntransportation. Its fresher paint, handsomer cars, and softer cushions\nare only incidental to this. So with the university of today. It aims to\nmeet the needs of all men, whatever these needs may be, and of all\nwomen, too — all to whom higher training or higher outlook is- possible.\nIt meets these needs accurately, safely, and without waste of time or\neffort. Its greater size and greater impressiveness of buildings, libraries,\nand laboratories are only incidents. Its purpose is direct, practical, and\nunflinching. Those who criticise its results must take a broad view of\nits purposes.\nBecause a Harvard man once drove a street-car in San\n\n1\n\n"}
{"page": 223, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nAN\n\nAPOLOGY\n\nFOR\n\nTHE\n\nAMERICAN\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\n215\n\nFrancisco, or because some despondent invalid from Yale is seeking a\nthird-class clerkship, is no indictment of Harvard or Yale any more than\na chance tramp on a brake-beam is an impeachment of the management of\na great railroad.\nIf the passengers in general rode on the brake-beams in preference to\nthe coaches, it might give rise to an indictment. If the Harvard man of\ntoday cannot, as a rule, make use of his knowledge, if he cannot take\ncare of himself and open the door of opportunity to others — if the more\nof Harvard, the less of man — then we rnay question Harvard's right to\nher*endowments. But, as a matter of fact, this is not true. Among men\nin every walk of life, among our bridge builders, our preachers, and our\nmechanics, our teachers, our statesmen, and our naturalists, our bookmen,\nour physicians, our financiers, our electricians, our lawyers, and our\njournalists, the university men stand everywhere at the front. They are\neffective, enlightened, practical. They have had some one thing clearly\nin view; they have striven to do it, and to do it so well that their work\nneeds no afterpatching.\nIt is true that this has not always been so to the degree that it is\ntoday. Once the college education was not related to life. It did not\npretend to be. It had nothing to do with action. It was not even the\nfoundation of scholarship. The scholars of the early days were as much\nself-taught as the merchants. The school training was discipline only, a\ndrill in memory and discrimination, the things memorized and the things\nstudied to be forgotten when real life began. The original investigator\n— that is, the real scholar, in any field, in language even — had to begin\nat the bottom when his college course was finished. He had to find his\nown materials, devise his own methods, and forge his own implements,\njust as the self-taught scholar had to do. The man with definite purposes saw his way to his goal outside of college, for the college would\nnot swerve from its mediaeval English ideals a hair's breadth to meet the\nneed of the student.\nLearning breeds vanity, someone has said ; while wisdom is the parent\nof modesty. The Old-time college student had learning. He learned\nrules by heart, and lists of exceptions. He learned the propositions of\nEuclid, and could repeat every corollary by number. If he studied\nscience, this too was made a matter of names, definition, and exceptions.\nThe best botanist was the one who knew the most Latin names of plants.\nThe best historian knew the names and dates of most kings and the\ndetails of the greatest number of campaigns.\nThe college education was once valued for the feeling of superiority\nwhich it engendered. The bachelor of arts was as good as the best\nof men and better than most. \"Of- all horned cattle,\" said Horace\nGreeley, \"commend me to the college graduate.\" He meant the kind\nwhich is filled with learning, with a fatuous vanity, which sprouted like\n\n"}
{"page": 224, "printed_page": null, "text": "21 6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n.\n\n[General\n\nthe calf's horns. If we define an educated man as one who has learned\nthe secret of power in nature or life, he is not classified with horned\ncattle. He becomes a man, and to send forth such is the work of the\nuniversity of today.\nIt is said by someone that the greatest joy on earth with certain\nwomen — greater even than the pleasures of hope and even the consolations of religion — is the \"well-dressed feeling.\" We know what this is\nlike and how it affects its possessor, even tho we do not share it ourselves. Isaw an example the other day on a railway train. A lady, not\ngraceful nor gracious nor beautiful, was dressed to her own perfect satisfaction. Icould not describe the details, which had no special charm for\nme, but the aggregate was the sure feeling of being well-dressed. This\nshowed itself in the expression of her face, at once haughty and beatific.\nThe college degree of bachelor of arts conferred on our fathers the welldressed feeling. They were at once haughty and beatific in the possesion\nof it, and to gain the degree, not to enter into the gathered store of\nintellectual power, was their purpose in running over the prescribed curriculum.\nBut whatever we may say of outworn methods, they were not without\ntheir successes. In these the old college found ample justification.\nMental keenness follows mental friction. The spirit of comradery led\nto a higher spirit of friendliness and mutual help. The debating society,\nwhere alone — outside of school hours — real subjects were under discussion, laid the foundation of many a statesman's prominence on the floor\nof the Senate.\nTo spend four formative years in life not sordid has a moral reflex on\nthe character. The weakest and most illogical college course may be\nfar better than no college training at all. Men can make up for lost\ntime. It is harder to make up for lost inspiration. The American college of the past was a feeble copy of the colleges of England. The\nAmerican university of today draws its inspiration from the deeper,\nstronger currents of German scholarship.\nAn Oxford man criticises the great English aggregation of boarding\nschools, which modern needs are slowly and reluctantly molding into\nOxford University. \"Our men,\" he says, \"are not scholars; our scholars\nnot men.\" The old ideals of education still cherished at Oxford lead to\nthis. Those called scholars — the dig, the grind, the pedant — are not\nmen. Their worth is not related to life, and they are not trained for living. The other class — the athletes, the good fellows, the robust British\ngentlemen — these are not scholars. For the lines of thought and action\nwhich interest the live man are not yet reckoned as scholarship in\nEngland.\nTo know nature, life, art, one must go outside the tripos or three\nsacred pedestals of learning — Latin, Greek, mathematics — recognized by\n\n"}
{"page": 225, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nAN\n\nAPOLOGY\n\nFOR\n\nTHE\n\nAMERICAN\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\n217\n\nthe conventional college. To the university of Germany we go, or to the\nuniversity of America, and in these institutions of reality every man in\nsearch of wisdom or power will find his efforts strengthened, his success\nhastened. The ideal of the American university of today is expressed in\nthe words constructive individuality. It would build up scholarship and\ncharacter, but always on the basis of the powers which nature gave the\nindividual. It is no abstract or ideal man with which it deals, but real\nmen, just as they are, the individuals as created — no two alike, each\nwith his own divine gift of personality, which separates the man that\nis from all the men that are, or were, or ever will be.\nI have used the words \" college \" and \" university \" in an interchangeable\nsense. This I have done on purpose, for I do not believe that the distinction, which seems to exist, and on which some writers have laid great\nemphasis, is one which can or ought to be permanent. From the extension of the college the American university has sprung, but every.one of\nthese institutions still includes, and must include, the college, which is\nthe germ. Every successful college points toward the university, and, so\nfar as is possible, it strives to become such. The university is the expression of thoroness of training, and without thoroness in something no\ninstitution can live.\nIt is said that the college is for the average man, the university for the\nexceptional one. But this is not true, as a matter of fact. The average\nman, the exceptional man, and the man below the average are found in\nall institutions. The \" bemoostes Ha-upt,'' the moss-grown head, grown\ngray in the struggle for a degree, is well-known in the universities of\nGermany, while the smallest college of the prairies has been the cherishing mother of many a distinguished scholar.\nThe fact is that the college is a temporary feature of American educational history. The college is a small university, antiquated, belated,\narrested, starved, as the case may be, but with university aspirations to be\nrealized in such degree as it can. The strongest of these find an assured\nplace by the side of the universities — Brown University and Amherst\nCollege, Wesleyan University and Williams College, Colgate University\nand Bryn Mawr College. These belong to a single general class, and\ndiffer only in name. Each gives the best and broadest undergraduate\ncourses its finances afford, with as extended a course in graduate study as\ncircumstances make possible. Harvard is the same in kind, tho its extension is greater, while the ambition of the college of the prairies is not less\nnor different.\nAs time goes on, the college will disappear in fact, if not in name.\nThe best and richest colleges will become universities, following the\nexample of Harvard, Yale, and Princeton. The others will return to their\nplaces as academies, fitting men for college, as they now try to fit them\nfor the university.\nEvery year shows both these forms of transition. In\n\n"}
{"page": 226, "printed_page": null, "text": "2l8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nthe last ten years at least a half dozen of the California colleges have\njoined the ranks of the high schools, ceasing to grant academic degrees.\nIn other western and southern states the same change has taken place.\nOn the other hand, twenty institutions,, which have prided themselves on\ntheir contentment as \"mere colleges,\" have reached out, in one way or\nanother, into graduate work, and many rest their best fame on the influence of some teacher whose originality and thoroness gave his work the\ntrue university character.\nSince Eliot became president of Harvard University, the number of\ncollege students in the United States has increased perhaps, a hundred\nfold. This is due to no educational fad, no passing whim of the hour.\nYoung men and young women do not rush by thousands to the universities every fall because they seek social recognition, because their fathers\nwent to college, because they need a college degree in their business,\nbecause of the glory of the football team, nor for any one of a hundred\nside reasons which might be conjured up. They go to the university\nbecause the university offers training which they want and which they\ncannot do without, except at a cost which will narrow and cramp their\nwhole after-lives.\nThe student of today is far more advanced in thought and action than\nthe student of thirty years ago. The graduate of Harvard under any of\nEliot's predecessors cou^d barely enter the freshman class in the Harvard\nof today. Not that he had not studied enough things or spent time\nenough on them, but because the work of earlier times lacked thoroness,\nbreadth, and vitality. In one or two narrow lines some great teacher might\nmake his work thoro and real, but that a student should actually know\nanything, so as to be able to make a place in life by means of such knowledge, was to most of Eliot's predecessors a new and dangerous notion.\nThis condition of things was changed, not by outside criticism, the\nchance slurs of men of business or men of leisure, but by inside growth.\nIt was thirty years ago that Agassiz told his associates that Harvard\nwas no university — \"only a respectable high school where they taught\nthe dregs of learning.\" . He recognized that for most men the sacred\ntripos was not the foundation of culture, but the dregs of culture. Its\nplace of importance was assigned, not by hope, but by tradition. It was\nthe same good old Harvard which Emerson blamed for never having led\nhim to the tree of life. But even Emerson was appalled when the study\nof realities invaded Harvard College, and men began to give themselves,\nnot to ideal and tradition, but to serious preparation for the work of life.\nOnce he hinted that \" a check rein should be placed on the enthusiastic\nyoung professor who was responsible \" for the destruction of Harvard's\ntime-honored symmetry.\nIn Agassiz' answer we touch the keynote of university progress — not\nto check the current of effort for symmetry's sake, but to stimulate all\n\n"}
{"page": 227, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions)\n\nAN\n\nAPOLOGY\n\nFOR\n\nTHE\n\nAMERICAN\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\n219\n\npossible forms of intellectual growth. \" If symmetry is to be obtained\nby cutting down the most vigorous growth,\" he said, \" it would be better\nto have a little irregularity here and there.\"\nIt is thirty years since Herbert Spencer startled the English educational world by his question : \" What knowledge is most worth ?\" P'or\nthe men of Oxford and Cambridge did not value knowledge for its worth,\nbut rather for its traditional respectability. They defined a university as\n\" a place where nothing useful is taught,\" and they had only contempt\nfor \" bread-and-butter learning,\" or knowledge related to daily life. This\nmight do for the learned professions — law, medicine, and theology — but\neven for these the college gave no hint of direct preparation. Herbert\nSpencer answered his own question in favor of science, the facts and laws\nof human life and of external nature. These have a real worth to man,\nwhich the sacred tripos did not possess. On the belief that knowledge of\nall kinds has real worth to someone the modern university rests.\nAt Champaign, ten years ago, I had occasion to say : \" The university should be the great refuge hut on the ultimate boundaries of knowledge from which daily and weekly adventurous bands ,set forth on voyages of discovery. It should be the Upernavik from which polar travelers\ndraw their supplies. As the shoreless sea of the unknown meets us on\nevery side, the same house of refuge and supply will serve, for a thousand\ndifferent exploring parties, moving out in every direction into the infinite\nocean. After countless ages of education and scientific progress, the true\nuniversity will stand on the verge, its walls still washed by the same\nunending sea, the boundless ocean of possible human knowledge.\"\nThe college of the past dealt chiefly with record and tradition. It\nsought no new truth and coveted no action. The college life was a\nperiod of restful growth, to be cherished for its fragrant memories. It\nwas not a time of forceful struggle for heightened power and deeper\nwisdom.\nThe university of today is alert to all the problems of social and political development: The poorhouse, the jail, the caucus, the legislature, the\narmy, the discordant demands of freedom and order — all these call for\nclosest attention of the university student. While one man studies the\nlaw of heredity as shown in the structure of the body cells, another gives\nequal attention to the fate of the tramp and the pauper. One spends his\nstrength on the economical transference- of electric force, while another\nworks on the conservation of honesty in the public service. There are\njust as many classical scholars today as there ever were, but they no longer\nbar the way to men of other powers and other tastes. The classics no\nlonger close the door to other forms of culture. He who writes Latin\nverses still finds his place in the university, provided only that his verses\nare good enough to be worth writing. But he no longer occupies the\nsole place of honor, or even the front seat in the lecture hall. The man who\n\n"}
{"page": 228, "printed_page": null, "text": "i\n220\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nknows the steam engine has an equal place in the university and an equal\nshare in the honors of scholarship. With the advent of realities, spurious\nhonors disappear. It is not for the university to decide on the relative\nvalues of knowledge. Each man makes his own market, controlled by\nhis own standards. It is for the university to see that all standards are\nhonest, that all work is genuine. To do this, it must cast off many of its\nown shams of the past. Its titles and privileges, its prizes and honors, its\ndistinctions and degrees, its caps and gowns, and chaplets of laurel berries— all the playthings and millinery of its youth it must cast away with\nits full maturity. These prizes of learning are but baby toys to the man\nof power.\nTo send forth men of power the university exists.\nThe value of the university has been under discussion ever since the\ndays of Alfred and Charlemagne, and each nation in each century has\nformed its own answer. Its value to a monarchy is not the same as its\nworth to a republic. Its value to the all-embracing church is not the\nsame as its use to the individual man and woman. The church looks to\nthe university for its defender and its apologist ; the individual man for\nhis own enlightenment and strength. The king looks to the university\nfor agents and advisers, to democracy for the antidote to the demagog\nand spoilsman. Emperor William is reported to have said that \"Bismarck and von Moltke were but the tools by which my august grandfather worked his will.\" To furnish the emperor with tools of such\nedge and temper is the function of the imperial university. Tools of a still\nmore august ruler are the statesmen of America. Our Washingtons and\nLincolns, our Sumners and Hoars, our Lowells and Emersons — all these\nare the tools by which the people of the republic work their will\nTo such needs the modern university is fully alive. Edward Everett\nHale tells us that in i860, when Robert Todd Lincoln entered Harvard\nCollege, bringing letters of introduction from Abraham Lincoln and\nStephen A. Douglas, there was but one man in Harvard who had ever\nheard of Lincoln. This was Professor James Russell Lowell, who said at\nthe time : \"I suppose that I am the only man in this room who has ever\nheard of this Abraham Lincoln, but he is the person with whom Douglas\nhas been traveling up and down in Illinois, canvassing the state in their\nnew western fashion as representatives of the two parties, each of them\nbeing the candidate for the vacant seat in the Senate.\"\nThat Harvard was not long indifferent to what Abraham Lincoln\nstood for is shown by the roll of names in her Memorial Hall ; the list of\nthose whose faith and truth\n\nOn war's true touchstone rang true metal.\n\nOnce awakened to her public duty, our great university has never since\nslept. Her hand is in all public affairs. Whatever is well done is permeated byher wisdom and zeal, -and the courage and force of her sister\ninstitutions.\n\n"}
{"page": 229, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nAN\n\nAPOLOGY\n\nFOR\n\nTHE\n\nAMERICAN\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\n221\n\nOne can count on his fingers today, taking every one, university men\nwithout public office or likelihood of any, investigators and professors, who\nexert a greater influence in any political crisis than presidents and cabinets, than orators and agitators, than admirals and generals. The immediate responsibility for action rests with the temporary official, but behind\nthe investigator is the power of eternal truth. Whatever men do or say or\npretend, it is the truth that has the last word. This is so sure in the\naffairs of men that when truth appears plain before them they throw up\ntheir idle weapons and call her God or fate. And these, indeed, are\nother names for truth. For the worship of truth the university must\nstand, and there is but one formula for her ritual. He shall seek her\npatiently, untiringly. If perchance he find her, then shall he proclaim\nher without fear and without reserve.\nThe American university serves the American republic in several\nways.\nIt intensifies individual force and effort. It takes a man's best abilities and raises them to the second or third or tenth power, as we say in\nalgebra. The value of the college-bred engineer is recognized in the\nrailroads, in the mines, in the factories. With the same willingness to\nwork as the man who has learned engineering by rule of thumb, he has\na far greater adaptability, a far wider command of resources. This fact\nmay not appear in a day or a year ; hence some men prefer the ordinary\npractical man, because he is less ambitious and can be had cheap. Sooner\nor later, however, a condition arises which shows the difference. The wise\nemployer forecasts this and puts the responsibility on the man who is\nsurest to carry it when the real trial comes.\nWhat is true of the educated engineer is equally true in other trades\nor professions. The ignorant physician makes money because he deals\nwith ignorant men, and the grave covers his blunders. But sooner or\nlater truth turns her searchlight on pretense, and the educated physician\nand the fraudulent healer are no longer in competition.\nThe university of today has no new mission in these regards. Its\npurpose has simply broadened year by year till it covers the needs of every\nman with brains and conscience. Not only for the Greek-minded and\nRoman-minded men, but for the men of dynamos and sewer trenches, the\nbreeders of sheep and the importers of silks; for the singer of songs and\nthe writer of histories; for all men, of whatever calling, the university has\nits word of welcome, its touch of power.\nThe university should give to each man or woman a broader outlook\non the world, the horizon of the scholar. No one has the right to the\nname of scholar till he knows some one thing thoroly, and enough of\nother things to place this special knowledge in right perspective. The\nmore deeply one enters into his own thoughts, the more effective he is\nin accomplishing his own ends.\nThe more broadly he enters into the\n\n"}
{"page": 230, "printed_page": null, "text": "22 2\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nthoughts of others, the more clearly will he understand his own relation\nto nature and society.\nThru the medium of the university the student is brought face to face\nwith great thoughts and great problems. The wise men of all ages and\nall climes become his brothers, and the consolations of philosophy to him\nare not meaningless words, but living and helpful realities.\nThe university is a source of personal acquaintance with the men and\nwomen who shall mold the times to come. Thq university \"gathers\nevery ray of varied genius to its hospitable halls, by their concentrated\nfires to strike the heart of youth in flame.\" Each university has some\ngreat teacher, at least some one who is relatively great. A great teacher\nleaves a great mark on every student whose life he touches. In my own\neducation nothing meant so much to me as the contact with a few great\nmen whom I knew face to face. Of these I place first Agassiz, with his\nabounding life, his fearless trust in man and God, and his vital interest\nin everything that man or God had done. \"There is no hope for you,\"\nsays Thoreau, \"unless this bit of sod under your feet is the best for you\nin this world, in any world.\" Of such robust optimism was the spirit of\nAgassiz. No obstacle could break his courage, no failure could dim his\nfaith. To feel the influence and to share the help of such men far outweighs the cost of any college course, even tho the college gave nothing\nelse.\nBut there were many more among my teachers, each great in his\ndegree. I cannot take the time to speak of each in turn, nor would it\nprofit you to listen. Two names may suffice : Andrew Dickson White, the\nformer high-minded and enlightened president of Cornell, the ideal of\nour class, the pioneer class of his administration in the new university of\nhis hands. To us he embodied all that a scholar should be in the life of\nthe republic. And such an ideal of the scholar in statesmanship President White remains to us today.\nThe other name is that of James Russell Lowell. I can hardly claim\nhim as my teacher, for he did not know me by name or face. I was too\nyoung and too raw in his day to be knowable. Yet his rich voice and\nmanly figure are indelibly fixed in my memory, and his noble face rises\nbefore me whenever I try to think of the duty of the scholar in the crises\nof the day.\n\" Once to every man and nation comes the moment to decide,\" and to\nhave known Lowell brings a pledge for at least a conscientious decision.\nBut it is not alone thru the teachers that the university educates. The\n\" fellow-feeling among free spirits,\" which has been called the essence of\nthe German university, arises among the students as well. Among the\ncollege students are the best young men and women of our time. They\nshape each other's characters and mold each other's work. If the university does nothing else, it finds its justification in the friendships which\n\n"}
{"page": 231, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nAN\n\nAPOLOGY\n\nFOR\n\nTHE\n\nAMERICAN\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\n223\n\nit gives. In Agassiz' eulogy on his friend and helper, Humboldt, he\ngives a most striking account of the influence picked men exert upon\neach other. Teachers and students alike in the University of Munich\nused to gather in Agassiz' own chamber, \"muSeum, laboratory, library,\nbedroom, dining-room, fencing-room, all in one.\" Students and professors called it \"the little academy.\"\nHere they worked and talked and thought, and the discovery of one\nbecame the property of all, with the same cheerful generosity by which\nthey shared their meals and their earnings. In the college you find the\nmen you trust in after-life, and one who does not fail you there will never\nafter give you cause for regret.\nTo the university we must look for the promotion of true democracy.\nIts function as a part of public education is to break up the masses that\nthey may be masses no more, but living rnen and women ; to draw forth\nfrom the multitude the man. The mass is the real foe of democracy, for the\nslave in all ages has woven his own lash. Where men are driven or sold\nlike sheep, there the tyrant rules. It matters not whether the tyrant be a\nking in velvet and satin, or a ward boss in a slouch hat and striped\nwaistcoat; when individual intelligence does not rule, men are governed\nby brute force.\nThe function of democracy, as I have said many times, is not good\ngovernment. Its effect is to stimulate the people to broader outlook, to\ndeeper interest in public affairs. It is not to make good government, but\nto make good citizens, that public affairs are confided to the common\nman. The feeling of caste is fatal to democracy. The fundamental\ntenet of civil freedom is equality before the law. In other relations it\nmatters not what inequality develops ; the more unlikeness among men the\nbetter, because the more varied the power and talents. But unlikeness is\nnot inequality. As \"God is no respecter of persons,\" so the law must\nnot be. The state must show no favoritism. It knows no black nor\nwhite, no wise nor simple, no bond nor free. If it place one class\nabove another, it is a democracy no longer, and it is not a democracy\nwhen any class of men tamely accept an inferior place as theirs by right\nof birth.\n'The old education seemed to accentuate the inequalities among men.\nThis was because it took its traditions from aristocratic England, tho ils\nreal effect was to promote democracy. The great service of the state\nuniversity, the cap-sheaf of the public-school system, is that it carries the\nuniversity into democracy without impairing the essential qualities of\neither. It furnishes a plain way for every student, the highest as well as\nthe lowest, from the commonest schooling to the training that gives the\nhighest power. So long as the grass does not grow in the path from the\nfarm house to the university, to borrow Ian MacLaren's phrase, so long\nis the republic safe.\nSo long as the people can become enlightened and\n\n"}
{"page": 232, "printed_page": null, "text": "22 4\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nwise, rich and poor alike, so long shall government of the people, by the\npeople, and for the people endure upon the earth.\nThe need of democracy makes a special demand upon the scholar.\n\" Eternal vigilance is the price of liberty,\" and to the scholar on his\nwatch-tower the people look for this vigilance. It is the scholar's duty\neverywhere, in season and out of season, to uphold the sacredness of\ntruth. He must possess, to quote Huxley's words, \" some knowledge, to\nthe certainty of which authority could add or take away neither one jot\nnor tittle, and to which the tradition of a thousand years is but as the\nhearsay of yesterday.\" The truth it is the scholar's privilege to speak,\nhis duty to proclaim, and that he does this is the best justification of the\nuniversity from which he drew his inspiration.\n\"Above all sects is truth.\" Above all parties and conventions, above\nall pride and prejudice and passion, arise the teachings of nature, the\nlessons of human experience. To hear these teachings, to learn these\nlessons, is the function of the university. To proclaim them wisely is the\nfunction of the scholar, and it is his mission to help permeate the republic\nwith his scholarship. The university must place as fixed beacons in the\nswaying tides of democracy those men and women who can never be\nmoved by feeble currents, who know what to do, who have the will to do\nit and the courage to abide the consequences.\nAnd now, in a final word, I touch the university's highest value.\nThere is no good in a man's work unless the man himself be good. The\nhighest force of the university lies in its moral training. Not in its precepts and in its sermons, not by ceremonies and formulae, are men influenced for good. If they were, moral culture would be the easiest of all\nteaching. Nothing costs less than words. But the experience of the\nages shows that words count for little in matters like this. It is the contagion of high thought, of noble purpose, of lofty deed that \" strikes\nthe heart of youth in flame.\" \"Science,\" says William Lowe Bryan,\n\"knows no source of life but life. If virtue and integrity are to be\npropagated, it must be by people who possess them. If this child world\nabout us that we know and love is to grow up into righteous manhood\nand womanhood, it must see how righteousness looks when it is lived.\nThat this may be so, what task have we but to garrison our state with men\nand women ? If we can do that, if we can have in every square mile of our\ncountry a man or woman whose total influence is a civilizing power, we\nshall get from our educational system all that it can give or all that we can\ndesire.\"\nWisdom, as I have said elsewhere, is knowing what to do next. Virtue is doing it, and religion is the heart-impulse that finds reason for\nwisdom and virtue in harmony with the first cause at the heart of things.\nTo these matters the university can never be indifferent. Wisdom, virtue,\nand religion alike it is its province to cultivate and intensify.\nIt can\n\n"}
{"page": 233, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nSCHOOL\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nHIGHER\n\nLIFE\n\n225\n\naccept no shams in wisdom, still less in virtue or in religion ; but a life\nwithout these is the greatest sham of all. The university cannot promote\nvirtue and piety in any machine fashion. If the college stand in loco\nparentis, with rod in hand and spyglasses on its nose, it will not do\nmuch for moral training. It will not make young men moral nor religious\nby enforced attendance at church or at prayer-meeting. It will not\nawaken the spiritual element in their natures by any system of demerit\nmarks. This the college of our fathers in English fashion tried to do,\nand with such ill success that the university of today bears among the\nignorant the reproach of godlessness.\nWhat the university can do is along manly lines. It can cure the boy\nof petty vices and childish trickery by making him a man, by giving him\nhigher ideals, more serious views of life. It may win by inspiration, not\nby fear. It must strengthen the student in his search for truth. It must\nencourage manliness in him thru the putting away of childish things.\nLet the thoughts of the student be as free as air. Let him prove all\nthings, and he will hold fast to that which is good. Give him a message\nto speak to others, and when he leaves the university you need not fear\nfor him, not the world, nor the flesh, nor the devil.\nThe universities of America have grown enormously in wealth and\npower within the last twenty-five years. The next twenty-five years will\ntell the same story. They have the confidence of the people because they\ndeserve its confidence, and the good citizens of the republic must give\nthem trust and support. In the university, at last, the history of democracy must be written.\n\nTHE\n\nSCHOOL\n\nBY HON.\n\nIN ITS RELATION\n\nNATHAN\n\nTO THE\n\nC. SCHAEFFER,\n\nSTATE\n\nINSTRUCTION,\n\nHARRISBURG,\n\nHIGHER\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nLIFE\n\nOF PUBLIC\n\nPA.\n\nThe best of French kings cherished it as the ambition of his life to\nmake every one of his subjects so well off as to be able on Sunday to\nhave roast fowl for dinner. Had he lived in our day, he would have\nincluded among the objects of his ambition a new bonnet for every\nwoman at least twice a year. Roast fowl and new bonnets cost money ;\nand money indicates the plane from which very many people look at\nevery question of government and education. Money stands for what we\neat and drink, for the garments we wear and the houses we live in, for the\nthousands of creature comforts which we deem essential to our well-being\nand happiness. Perhaps the school has not done all it is destined to\naccomplish in fitting the pupils to win these, but there is abundant\n\n"}
{"page": 234, "printed_page": null, "text": "2 26\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nevidence to show that a good school intreases the earning power of the\nindividual, and thereby makes possible a- fuller development of the higher\nlife. The untutored red man eked out a scanty existence in spite of\nunparalleled advantages in soil and stream and climate ; the intelligence\nbegotten by the modern school has enabled our people to utilize and\ndevelop the material resources of the New World to such an extent that\nCarlyle sneeringly said: \"America means roast turkey every day for\neverybody.\" I accept the remark as an acknowledgment that the American people are better fed than those of England or continental Europe ;\nand yet Carlyle was right in hinting that there is a life higher than that\nwhich turns upon what we eat and drink and wear. The greatest Teacher\nof all ages did not despise the arts that win bread, for he worked at the\ncarpenter's bench, and multiplied the loaves and fishes ; but when he told\nthe tempter that man shall not live by bread alone, he clearly pointed to a\nhigher life, in default of which men and women can never fill their places\nas the lords of creation. The higher life rests upon the other as a basis.\nWhere the vital energies of the people are exhausted in the struggle for\nbread, the very mention of education is a mockery. The school lays the\nfoundation for the higher life when it increases the average earning power\nof the industrial classes, and thereby makes it easier for them to gain a\nlivelihood. Here is the first point of contact between the school and the\nhigher life. I know of no language sufficiently strong to condemn the\nspirit of the professor who, when he had demonstrated a new theorem in\nhigher mathematics, exclaimed, \"Now, that is true, and, thank God,\nnobody can use it !\", just as if knowledge gains in value as its usefulness\ndiminishes. (He was at the time drawing an annual salary of $5,000 in\ngold.) Only professors filling well-endowed chairs at our universities\ncan afford to speak disparagingly of Brotstudien, and to advocate theories\nof education which would sunder the school from practical life. An education that unfits the pupil for bread-winning in case of necessity cannot\nbe too severely condemned ; among other reasons, because it fails to lay a\nproper foundation for the higher life. On the other hand, the school\nthat does not aim at something higher than dollars and cents deserves\nequally severe condemnation. For that which makes life worth living\ncannot be bought with money. If you are rich, you may buy a fine house,\nbut you cannot buy a happy home; that must be made — made by you\nand by those who occupy it with you. With money you may rent a pew in\nsome fashionable church, but you cannot rent a good conscience ; that\ndepends upon your manner of living and dealing with others. Money will\nenable you to buy a fine copy of Shakespeare, but it cannot purchase\nfor you the ability to appreciate a play of Shakespeare ; that is the\nresult of education. Wealth will enable you to cover the walls of your\ncostly mansion with beautiful pictures ; and the sewing girl, if she has\nbeen properly taught in our public schools, will get more enjoyment out\n\n"}
{"page": 235, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nSCHOOL\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nHIGHER\n\nLIFE\n\n227\n\nof them than the neglected sons and daughters of wealth and luxury.\nPlato wrote above the door of the academy : \" Let no one enter here who\nis destitute of geometry.\" Why did he value geometry so highly ? Not\nmerely as an introduction to the study of philosophy, for in one of his\ndialogues he says : \" God geometrizes.\" He had an idea that a youth in\nthinking the theorems of geometry is thinking divinje thoughts. When\nKepler discovered the laws of planetary motion, he exclaimed in ecstasy:\n\" O God, I think thy thoughts after thee ! \" When a pupil learns to think\nthe thoughts which the Creator has put into the starry heavens above us\nand into all nature about us, he is thinking God's thoughts and tasting\nthe enjoyments of the higher life. When he is taught the right use of\nbooks and given access to a public library, he may acquire the power to\nthink the best thoughts of the best men at their best moments. In nature\nstudy, in the reading lesson, in the teaching of science and literature, the\nschool fosters the higher life of the pupil by enabling him to think God's\nthoughts and man's best thoughts as these are enshrined in creation and\nin the humanities. The objection is sometimes heard that the school\nmakes the working classes discontented with their lot. \" Teach a man to\nthink,\" says the opponent of universal education, \" and you make him\ndissatisfied with what he has and knows.\" If the school fixes the eye upon\nwealth, fame, glory, official position, and other things which can be\nattained only by a few, and which, when sought as the chief end of life,\nresemble the apples of the Dead Sea, turning to ashes on the lips as soon\nas they are tasted, then, indeed, the school may doom its pupils to a life of\ndiscontent and disappointment. But if the school fixes the eye upon the\nthings of the higher life, things which are within the reach of every boy\nand girl at school, it lays the foundation for a contentment far transcending the possibilities of a life that turns upon feasting, office-holding, and\nthe things that can be bought with money. It must be admitted that the\nexercise of the higher powers carries with it a certain feeling of discontent,\nbut it is a feeling that conditions true progress and is not doomed to\nultimate disappointment. The true test of what is preferable is the testimony of those who have knowledge of both modes of existence. Who\nthat knows both does not value the pleasures of thinking above those of\neating ? Who would exchange the joy of doing right for anything attainable by the man who, for the sake of financial success, banishes ethics\nfrom his business or his politics ? \" Few human creatures,\" says Mill,\n\"would consent to be changed into any of the lower animals for a promise\nof the fullest allowance of a beast's pleasures. No intelligent human\nbeing would consent to be a fool, no instructed person would be an ignoramus, no person of feeling and conscience would be selfish and base, even\nthough he should be persuaded that the fool or the dunce or the rascal is\nbetter satisfied with his lot than they with theirs\nIt is better to be a\nhuman being dissatisfied than a pig satisfied, better to be a Socrates\n\n"}
{"page": 236, "printed_page": null, "text": "2 28\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\ndissatisfied than a fool satisfied. And if the fool or the pig is of a different\nopinion, it is only because they know only their own side of the question.\nThe other party to the comparison knows both sides.\" Who would not\nrather be an intelligent working-man, seeking to better his condition, than\nan ignoramus contented with little because he knows nothing of the joys\nof the higher life ? Life is full of contradictions and incongruities and\ndisappointments. Over against these the school in its relation to the\nhigher life has a duty to perform. For the discontent which springs from\nlife's contradictions and incongruities a safety valve has been given to\nman in his ability to laugh. The person who never laughs is as one-sided\nand abnormal as the person who never prays. The comic is now recognized as one form of the beautiful, and the beautiful is closely allied to\nthe true and the good. Without going into the philosophy of this matter,\nallow me to draw attention to the fact that beauty is at home in the\ndomain of art as well as of nature ; that the queen of the fine arts is poetry ;\nthat the greatest poet of all the ages was Shakespeare ; that Shakespeare's\nliterary genius reached its highest flights in tragedies and comedies;\nthat, while tragedy and comedy are two forms of the beautiful in art,\ncomedy is the highest form of the comic, and tragedy is the highest\nform of the sublime. In teaching us to appreciate the plays of Shakespeare the school not merely teaches us when to laugh and when to weep,\nthereby furnishing the safety valve to let off our discontent and to reconcile us anew to our lot, but puts us in possession of that which money cannot buy, namely, the ability to appreciate the beautiful in its subtlest and\nsubiimest forms. Who owns the moon-lit skies, the millionaire or the poet?\nWho owns the hills and the valleys, the streams and the mountains — he in\nwhose name the deeds and mortgages are recorded, or he whose soul can\nappreciate beauty and sublimity? Beauty has a home in nature and in\nart. It is the province of the school to put us in possession of the beautiful,\nthe sublime, and the comic, for these, quite as much as the true and the good,\nbelong to the things of the higher life. How about life's disappointments?\nHigher than the life of thought is the life of faith and hope and love —\nhigher because these are rooted and grounded in the life of thought,\nripen above it as its highest fruitage and efflorescence. The nineteenth\ncentury has been an age of faith. Every scientific mind has profound\nfaith in nature's laws, in the universal efficacy of truth ; and, like Agassiz\nand Gray and Drummond, multitudes of the best minds have made the\nstep from faith in natural laws to faith in the laws which govern the\nspiritual world.\nThe common people evince a faith almost bordering on credulity in\nthe readiness with which they accept the results of scientific research and\ninvestigation. Faith lies at the basis of great achievements. Bismarck\ndeclared that, if he did not believe in the divine government of the world,\nhe would not serve his country another day.\n\n\"Take away my faith,\" he\n\n"}
{"page": 237, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nPROFESSIONAL\n\nSEN\n\nTIME\n\nN7\n\ni2<)\n\nexclaimed, \"and you take away my country too.\" While no religious\ntest can be applied to those who teach in our public schools, our best\npeople prefer teachers who have faith in the unseen, profound faith in the\ntruths of science and revelation. In ways that escape observation the\nspirit of faith passes from teacher to pupil, and gives the latter a sense\nof something t(J live for and something to be achieved.\nFaith begets hope. The hope of glory, of rewards in civil and\nmilitary life, of immortality on the pages of history, has stimulated to deeds\nof heroism and self-sacrifice, and will continue to do so to the end of time.\nThe higher life knows of higher objects of hope than these. Immortality on the»pages of history is only an immortality in printers' ink. I\nwish my children and my pupils to cherish the hope of an immortality\nfar more real than an immortality in printers' ink ; I would implant in\ntheir hearts the hope of an immortal life in a world where the soul shall\nbe robed in a body like unto Christ's risen body, which Stephen saw in a\nvision of glory and Paul beheld in a manifestation of overwhelming\nsplendor.\nFinally, that which makes life worth living is the life of love. Love of\nhome and country, of kindred and friends, of truth and righteousness, of\nbeauty in all its forms, of goodness of every kind up to the highest forms\nof the good — love of these makes life worth living.\nThe school makes possible the higher life when it lays the foundation\nfor physical well-being and lifts the individual above an unceasing struggle\nfor existence. It promotes the higher life when it teaches the pupil to\nthink the thoughts of God as expressed in all his works, and the best\nthoughts of the best men as embodied in the humanities. It fits the\npupil for complete living when it develops in him the power to appreciate beauty in nature and art, power to think the true and to will the\ngood, power to live this higher life of thought and faith and hope and\nlove.\n\nPROFESSIONAL\nBY A. E. WINSHIP,\n\nEDITOR\n\nOF THE\n\nSENTIMENT\n\n\"JOURNAL\n\nOF EDUCATION,\"\n\nBOSTON,\n\nMASS.\n\nMy theme is \"Professional Sentiment.\" Sentiment is the relish of\nlife. Your entertainment thru the bountiful supply of fruit on the\nincoming trains, the wealth of beauty, the royal heartiness of Los Angeles,\nwill help us to relish our work in the fifty states and territories, and the\nLord only knows how many colonies. Teachers need the relish of professional sentiment for the good of the schools, for the advancement of\ntheir interests, and for individual satisfaction, prosperity, and influence.\nSentiment is all aglow.\nIt kindles life and imparts spirit.\nPhysically it\n\n"}
{"page": 238, "printed_page": null, "text": "230\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nis a rejuvenating force. Intellectually it is scintillating. Emotionally it\nthrows a halo over all duty and responsibility.\nTeaching more than any other vocation needs the physical, intellectual, and emotional benefit of the relish of .sentiment. The juiciest steak\never grilled makes better fiber and force if it has the relish of pepper and\nsalt, of Worcestershire-or Tabasco. So teaching, the highest if not the\nholiest of professions, does most for the child, for the country, and for\nGod when one teaches with a relish.\nTeaching is a frightful strain. An overburdened curriculum, an unduly\nstimulating intellectual tonic, unreasonable financial demand, with the\nterrors of political interference, are a combination which m^y well make\nany teacher desperate.\nWhatever adds to the flush of health of body, buoyancy of confidence,\nrest, peace, and joy to the emotional life, is of incalculable value. Sentiment may do this.\nAll the setting of a teacher's life is against sentiment, especially of\nthe professional variety. Toward pupils, in the nature of the case, she\nassumes an air of superiority, and officially, toward principals, superintendents, and school board, an air of inferiority. With pupils her word\nis law. With officials their word is law. Both of these attitudes are\nantagonistic to sentiment, which demands freedom of action, thought,\nand emotion. Equality is indispensable to sentiment. This is foreign\nto the general life and experience of the teacher.\nLegal documents class all persons in the great trio of occupation,\ntrade, or profession. The specification always is that A. B. is by occupation, trade, or profession a blacksmith, banker, teacher, etc.\nAn occupation is primarily that which we occupy ; secondly, that which\noccupies us, our time and energy, for a living. Man first occupied the\nland, took possession of the fruit of the soil for a living. Anything that\nis done for the sake of a living is an occupation. So long as man's\ndesire and hope are merely that he may have for himself and for those\ndependent upon him the necessities and comforts of life, he is engaged\nin an occupation. If one teaches primarily for a living, he is spending\nhis life in an occupation the^same as tho he were grooming horses.\nTrade is that in which one engages for the purpose of having something more than a living. He expects to put more time and energy into\nit than he would into an occupation. It never enters his mind that he is\nworking for a living. He takes out of his business a good living, as\nmuch as he is entitled to on the volume of business done. A man failed\nrecently, and the creditors met for consultation. He reported that he had\ndrawn $30,000 a year for a living, and all said that was all right. Whatever a man does when his main purpose is to accumulate something, he is\nin general a trader. It may be banking or railroading, but it is in essence\ntrade.\nThere is little liability that teachers will become traders, and yet\n\n"}
{"page": 239, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nPROFESSIONAL\n\nSENTIMENl\n\n231\n\nwithin a few days a teacher in one of our cities advertised that he was\nshort on stock, and must raise money immediately, and would sell his\nlibrary at a great sacrifice. That man is evidently more of a trader than\na professor.\nLaw is the grandest profession. A lawyer may do some things that a\nclergyman would not do, but the moment he does what lawyers think is\nunprofessional he is summarily debarred — it makes no difference who\nhe is, how great his wealth or influential his position ; and once out he\ncan only get back to the profession or the practice of law by bringing\nforth fruits meet for repentance. No other profession has such reverence\nfor precedent. To doubt precedent is a professional sin. Sentiment is\nsacred with the lawyer. He may not have half a living for several years,\nand yet he struggles on courageously and hopefully, dreaming of the\ngreat pleas of Randolph, Webster, and Choate. From law the professions grade downward.\nTeachers cannot enjoy the luxury of professional sentiment until the\nremuneration is such that anxiety about a living is removed ; until the\npossibility of being unceremoniously and unrighteously deposed is a thing\nof the past. The base line must be security in position, with a salary\nthat shall remove all anxiety. Teachers cannot enjoy the inspiration of\nprofessional sentiment so long as there is reasonable doubt that capacity\nand merit will be the test of employment and promotion. The whole\nnation should rise up as one man and insist that elections, re-elections,\nand promotions shall be for merit. Then may we expect and insist that\nteachers shall prepare themselves for their high calling ; that they shall\nstudy in their profession as do lawyers and physicians.\nOf all the forces contributing to the relish of professional sentiment,\nno one thing is doing more than such a gathering as this, the largest and\nthe best in our history. Fifteen thousand teachers, learning from nature\nand hilman nature, feasting upon a multitude of unusual luxuries such as\nLos Angeles has never given to politicians, bankers, or editors, inspired by\nthe intellectual and professional contagion of a common cause and a\nnoble purpose, are in position to send flashing across the continent, and\nringing down the ages, as their motto : \" Love and loyalty, for the child,\nour country, and our God.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 240, "printed_page": null, "text": "2 32\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nIReport of tbe Committee on IRecrolOG^\nTo the Members\n\nof the National Educational Association:\n\nYour committee respectfully reports that twenty-six of our active members\npassed away since our last meeting.\nMemorial sketches are submitted herewith.\n\nhave\n\n^The following are the names of these twenty-six, some of whom have been very\nprominent in the affairs of this association ; these we shall miss especially, while we\nmourn for all.\nGeorge Sumner\nJoseph Baldwin\nElizabeth\n\nAlbke\n..----.\n\nBaumgartner\n\n.\n\nOshkosh, Wis.\nAustin, Tex.\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\nSpringfield, 111.\n\nHampton Bennett\n---...\nKing's Mills, O.\nLeroy Decatur Brown\n...\nSan Luis Obispo, Cal.\nAnna McCombs Christy\nEast Grand Forks, Minn.\nHenry Clarke Coon\nAlfred, N. Y.\nLuther W. Day\nCanton, O.\nJohn T. Gregory\nMobile, Ala.\nHosea Edson Holt\n......\nBoston, Mass.\nWilliam Jenkins\n.......\nDaniel Winfield Jones\nFrederic Allison Lyman\n....\nR. M. Manly\nReuben McMillan\nHiram Orcutt\nGeorge L. Osborne\nSilas Saddler Packard\nMrs. Frank\n\nStuart\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\nParker\n\n.\n\n-\n\n.\n\n-\n\nChicago, 111.\nBoston, Mass.\nSyracuse, N. Y.\nSan Diego, Cal.\nCanfield, O.\nBoston, Mass.\n\nWarrensburg, Mo.\nNew York, N. Y.\n-\n\nChicago, 111.\n\nJohn K. Rassweiler\nDowner's Grove, 111.\nAndrew J. Rickoff\n......\nCleveland, O.\nWilbur Vernon Rood\nAkron, O.\nEdward Searing\nMankato, Minn.\nJames F. C. Sickel\n.....\nPhiladelphia, Pa.\nWells Hawkes Skinner\n....\nNebraska City, Neb.\nEllen G. Weeks\n- Sheboygan, Wis.\n\nRespectfully submitted,\nEdwin C. Hewett, Chairman,\nEmerson E. White,\nAlbert R. Taylor,\nAlbert E. Winship,\nNathan\nLos Angeles, Cal., July ii, 1899.\n\nC. Schaeffer,\nCommittee on Necrology.\n\n"}
{"page": 241, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nREPORT\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nNECROLOGY\n\n233\n\n©corge Sumner aibec\nGeorge Sumner Albee, late president of the State Normal School at Oshkosh, Wis.,\nwas born in Allegheny county, N. Y., May 23, 1837. He was a descendant of Thomas\nClark, mate of the \"Mayflower\" and last survivor of that dauntless band, whose sturdy\nqualities were in his blood. He partook of the character of that wheat which was sifted\nas the living seed of a nation. He inherited a strong constitution and vigorous frame.\nHis boyhood was spent on a farm, where he early developed a love for reading and study.\nWith such advantages as the common schools afforded, he prepared himself to teach at\neighteen years of age. He studied and taught in New York and New England until the\nfall of 1861, when he matriculated at the University of Michigan, and completed a full\nclassical course in 1864. In the fall of that year he went to Peoria, 111., as principal of\nthe high school, and remained one year. He then took charge of the high school at\nKenosha, Wis., and three years later accepted a call to Racine, where he rendered most\nefficient service as city superintendent.\nAt a special meeting of the board of regents of Wisconsin normal schools, held\nJune 6, 187 1, Mr. Albee was elected first president of the Oshkosh Normal School. He\nopened the school with a faculty of six members and a normal department of forty- six\nstudents, thus beginning at the age of thirty-four what may well be termed his life-work.\nFrom that time till September 4, 1898 — an unbroken period of twenty-seven years —\nhe served with far-seeing judgment and untiring devotion the interests of the Oshkosh\nschool and of normal education. Under his administration the building received three\nimportant additions, the faculty grew to thirty-four members, and the student body of the\nnormal department to an annual enrollment of seven hundred — all constituting the largest\nnormal school in the state.\nNo full discussion of the qualities of administration and character by which this\nresult was achieved can here be made. First, but not greatest, among the few that may\nbe briefly stated were sound and broad scholarship and a well-balanced sense of educational values. President Albee's own mind had been disciplined and cultivated by a\nliberal and well-rounded education that was psychologically complete. As a result of\nthis he had an understanding of the methods and sense of the values of different fields\nof knowledge which led him to seek to develop equal strength in the different departments\nof his own school. To that end he selected the faculty with the utmost care and held\nsteadily before the students the scholarly ideal.\nTo these qualities he added remarkable open-mindedness. He held that all results\nand all conclusions in every field of knowledge are related to an unknown increment that\nwaits to be revealed. Openness to new truth and the wish to learn from events were,\ntherefore, distinguishing traits of his administration. He never regarded new things as\n\" fads,\" but saw beyond the mere fashion to the educational principles involved. Hence,\ntho he was never led away, he knew not whither, by an undue valuation of each new\nphase of education, he nevertheless welcomed each as a fresh and helpful guide to a completer application of fundamental educational ideas.\nThe quality of constructiveness was a strong element in his character. His thinking\nand effort along every line were distinctly cumulative. He had the architect's love of\nstrong foundations, and the builder's sense of responsibility for rearing a structure that\nshould be enduring and worthy to endure. He early felt the need of laying state-wide\nfoundations for normal work in the interests and affections of the people, and sent out\nin 1872 the first normal-school institute conductor in Wisconsin to meet teachers and\npeople in remote sections with a message regarding the foundation of principles of\neducation and the character and purpose of normal training. He was the pioneer in\nmany forward movements in the normal work in Wisconsin, and probably more than any\n\n"}
{"page": 242, "printed_page": null, "text": "234\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n[General\n\nother one man helped to make teaching a profession in the state. He was always active\nin teachers' associations, always in sympathy with educational reforms, and in good fellowship with educational men. His ideals were ever growing, but they were never those\nof the sentimentalist and the dreamer. They were characterized by intellectual saneness,\nand back of them was the virtue of action. His knowledge of his own school was intimate and thoro ; his administration direct and simple ; his relations with his faculty\nclose and friendly ; and his desire to serve his students unbounded even by the limit of\nhis physical strength.\nThe greatest of his powers was moral earnestness, that quality without which no\nteacher was ever truly great. His moral insight was deep and clear. He saw right and\nduty in the concrete, and his influence was tonic in that he expected others to see them\nso. Work became more interesting and purpose took a deeper hold in the presence of his\npersonality. He had that heart power which transfigures work into a missionary enterprise for improving the lot of those within reach.\nPerhaps the culmination of his successful career lies in this, that, after many years of\nvaried and unresting energy expended in the cause of better education, he passed on into\nthe unknown future with ardor for his work still warm, his hope of clearer vision still\nundimmed. Life was still fresh to him ; the world still offered novelty and the joy of\npursuit. He died as he had lived, a strong, patient, earnest, quiet man. His works live\nafter him.\nRose C. Swart.\n\nJosepb JBalDwln\nThe paternal ancestors of Joseph Baldwin were Quakers, and came from England\nto America with William Penn. His maternal ancestors were Scotch-Irish, his mother's\ngreat-grandfather being a Murray, whose lineage ran back to the unfortunate Mary,\nqueen of Scotland. The father of Joseph Baldwin was a native of Virginia, and he\nserved as a volunteer of that state iathe war of 1812. In 18 18 he moved from Virginia\nto New Castle, Pa., where, October 31, 1827, Joseph was born. His death occurred\nJanuary 13, 1899. He had been a prominent member of the National Educational\nAssociation since 1883.\nFrom his father, who was a farmer and a teacher, the son acquired the habits of hard\nwork and the love of learning which characterized his life. His early education was\nobtained in the district school, and he prepared for college at Bartlett Academy, New\nCastle, from 1846 to 1848. In the autumn of 1848 he entered Bethany College, Virginia,\nwhere he was fortunate indeed in having Alexander Campbell, then at his best, and other\ndistinguished scholars as his teachers. He graduated from Bethany College July 4, 1852,\nwith the degree of A.B.\nIn August, 1852, he married Miss Ella Sophronia Fluhart, of Ohio, who, with seven\nchildren, still survives him. Immediately after his marriage he took charge of the\nPlatte City Academy, Platte county, Mo. He next taught at Savannah, Mo., for three\nyears, leaving there in 1856. In 1857 he helped to organize the Missouri State Teachers'\nAssociation in St. Louis, and was elected vice-president. This meeting was rendered\nfamous by the presence of Horace Mann, from whom Joseph Baldwin received helpful\ninspiration.\nAfter teaching four years in Missouri, the subject of this sketch decided to go back\nto his native state, and for a year he conducted very successfully the Lawrence County\n(Pa.) Normal School, and, having received the degree of A.M. from his alma mater, he\nattended the Millersville Normal School, then under the able management of James P.\nWickersham.\nFrom 1857 to 1867 he conducted\n\nprivate normal schools in Indiana — two years in\n\n"}
{"page": 243, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nREPORT\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nNECROLOGY\n\n235\n\nBurnettsville, four years at Kokomo — discontinuing in 1863 to enter the army; and\nagain, in 1864 to the beginning of 1867, at Logansport. During this period of ten years\nhe worked incessantly to promote the cause of education in Indiana by teaching hundreds\nof young men and young women, conducting institutes, and delivering public addresses.\nIn the spring of 1867 he again turned his attention to Missouri, and in April he\nmoved with his family to Kirksville, Mo., where he opened a private normal school in the\nSeptember following, having associated with himself W. P. Nason, J. M. Greenwood, Mrs.\nAmanda A. Greenwood, Frank L, Ferris, and Mrs. Kate Ferris. This school was\nwonderfully successful from the beginning, and in two and a half years was adopted by\nthe state as the First State Normal School of Missouri. In 1874 this was the largest\nschool west of the Mississippi river, with a boundless field of usefulness before it. For fourteen years Mr. Baldwin lived and labored in Missouri. During this period he delivered\nmore than a thousand addresses to the people of the state, and aided in every possible\nway to make Missouri a leader in all educational movements in this country. He filled\nthe teachers of Missouri with enthusiasm which has never waned. He planned, wrote,\nand spoke always for better schools, and always urged that the children of Missouri were\nentitled to the best. For fourteen years, during the prime of his life, he put his whole\nsoul into the school system of Missouri, and accomplished more for the cause of popular\neducation than any other man in the state during that period.\nIn 1 88 1, with many regrets, he resigned his position at Kirksville to accept the\nprincipalship of the State Normal School at Huntsville, Tex. He said: \"I go to\nTexas to aid in building up one of the best school systems on the continent.\" Here he\nworked, with his accustomed vigor, for ten years in the interest of the State Normal School.\nIn 1 89 1 the regents of the University of Texas created the chair of pedagogy and\nunanimously elected Joseph Baldwin professor, which position he ably filled till 1897,\nwhen he was made professor emeritus of pedagogy, which position he occupied at the time\nof his death.\nIn June, 1891, the degree of LL.D. was conferred on Joseph Baldwin by Bethany\nCollege, Virginia. Of the distinguished American educators none has left a deeper\nimpress on any three states than did Dr. Joseph Baldwin on Indiana, Missouri, and Texas.\nHe marked out as a pioneer the normal-school systems of these three states. He spent\nthirty-four years in his special line of work, training teachers to teach the children.\nJ. M. Greenwood.\n\nI6ll3abetb :®aumgartner\nMiss Elizabeth Baumgartner was the second daughter of her parents, and was born\nJanuary 14, 1857, in Jo Daviess county. 111. She died, after a painful illness, at the home\nof her sister, in Warren, 111., on June 17, 1898. At a very early age she was thrown upon\nher own resources, and made her way by her own industry, pluck, and good sense. She\nworked for her board while pursuing her studies at the high school in Apple River, 111.\nAfter graduating there, she taught country schools for several terms in Wisconsin and\nIllinois.\nFrom her meager compensation she saved enough to attend the State Normal University, atNormal, 111., for one year. She then taught for a time in the high school at\nShullsburg, Wis. Returning to the normal school, she graduated with high honor, in the\nclass of 1880. After teaching for a time in Gardner, 111., she was appointed training\nteacher in the schools in Springfield, 111. This position she filled with great credit for\nfourteen years, till she was struck down by fatal illness. She was excused from service\nfor one year, during which she made quite an extensive tour in Europe, She became a\nmember of the National Educational Association in 1896.\n\n"}
{"page": 244, "printed_page": null, "text": "236\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nMiss Baumgartner was a woman of physical vigor, bright intellect, happy disposition,\nand great energy and force. As a teacher she was earnest, untiring, and successful.\nHer early death leaves a void in the ranks of true educators and in the hearts of a multitude of devoted friends.\nE. C. H.\n\n■fcampton JBennett\nHampton Bennett was bom in Union county, Ind., February 2, 1832, and died at his\nhome in Carlisle, O., June 5, 1898. He was a life member of the National Educational\nAssociation for nearly twenty years.\nHis father moved in a cart from Virginia to Indiana, then a new state, where he\nbecame a large landowner. At the age of nineteen Hampton could scarcely read or\nwrite, but he determined to obtain an education. From the district school he went to\nHaughton's Academy, at Liberty, Ind., and from this school to Antioch College, Ohio,\nthen presided over by Horace Mann, who ever remained Mr. Bennett's ideal of manhood\nand his model teacher.\nHe remained about four years in Antioch, and then took charge of the schools of\nGermantown, O. While there, the Civil War broke out, and he enlisted in the army. He\nserved in the signal service four years, a part of the time under General John A. Logan.\nOn his return from the war he again took charge of the Germantown schools, but\nsoon resigned to accept the superintendency of the schools of Franklin, O., a position\nwhich he filled with efficiency until 1895 — twenty-nine years- — when he resigned, owing\nto failing health.\n*\nHe was one of the examiners of Warren county for thirty years, being chairman of\nthe board for twenty years. As county examiner he took an active part in the examination and graduation of pupils completing the course of study in the rural schools, an\nexperiment that led to the enactment of the \"Boxwell Law\" — a unique feature of the\nOhio school system.\nMr. Bennett was a man who had the courage of his strong convictions. He believed\nthat a teacher's habits should be worthy examples for his pupils, and every male applicant for a certificate was asked the question : \" Do you use tobacco ? \" — a question that\nwould have delighted Horace Mann.\nHampton Bennett was a man of sterling integrity and high character, and an educator who honored the profession.\n\nXe1?0B Decatur JSrown\nThe subject of this sketch was born in Noble county, O., November 3, 1848, or\nabout the time the world was hearing of the glories of California ; and, a half century\nafter, in that land of gold and flowers, he rested — life's fitful fever over.\nThe secret of his success, dependence upon himself, he learned in the school of\nhard labor in the shop and on the farm. Here, also, he learned that love of nature which\nwas one of his clearly marked traits.\nBrought into close contact with a modest township library, a habit of reading took\na fixed hold upon him. After getting what the country school had to give, he entered the\ngraded school of the county seat.\nIn 1866-67 he began teaching. Soon after he became a student of the Ohio Wesleyan\nUniversity, at Delaware, O., leaving at times to earn by teaching the money needed to\ncontinue his college course.\nIn good time he was graduated from this institution.\nMr. Brown filled with credit a number of responsible places in his native state, among\n\n"}
{"page": 245, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nREPORT\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nNECROLOGY\n\n237\n\nthem the superintendency of the schools of Eaton and Hamilton. From 1884 to 1887\nhe was state commissioner of common schools.\nIn 1888 he became a life director in the National Educational Association.\nGoing west in the vain search of health, he served the Nevada State University, at\nReno, as president, and the public schools of Los Angeles as superintendent.\nIn a memorial service of the Ohio Teachers' Association, several speakers who in\ntheir early life had been brought into close association with Mr. Brown made mention of\nthe exceeding helpfulness to them of that companionship.\nJ. J. Burns.\n\nanna lb. (/DbcCombs) Cbrists\nAnna H. (McCombs) Christy, the wife of Professor A. B. Christy, died in St. Paul on\nMarch 31, 1899. She was born in Portage county, O., May i, 1845, and was married in\n1872.\nShe became a member of the National Educational Association in 1897.\nShe was possessed of an \"acute and ready understanding and excelled in her\nstudies\" from childhood. After her marriage she joined her husband in his studies and\nin his professional work. They graduated together from Mt. Union College, and taught\ntogether for some time. For seven years he was superintendent of schools, and she was\nprincipal of the high school, in East Grand Forks, Minn. \" Mrs. Christy was highly\ncapable and successful as a teacher. Working hand in hand with her husband, she\nachieved a position of recognized eminence, and left an enduring name in educational\ncircles.\"\nE. C. H.\n\nIbcnrs Clacfte Coon\nHenry Clarke Coon became a member of the National Educational Association in\n1897. He was the son of Ezra and Cyrene (Burdick) Coon, and was born in Otsego\ncounty, N. Y., January 28, 1828. He was of Scotch-Irish descent, and his ancestors\ncame to New York from Rhode Island. Like many another boy who has risen to eminence and usefulness, he spent his early days in the activities of farm life, and got his\nearly education in the district school. He afterward studied in De Ruyter Institute and\nAlfred University, from which he graduated in 1868. He took postgraduate work in\nCornell University, and in extended private study, for which he received several honorary\ndegrees.\nHe taught three years in De Ruyter Institute, and in 1872 he was placed at the head\nof the department of physics and chemistry in Alfred University. This position he held\nuntil his death. May 9, 1898. He was a member of several scientific associations, among\nthem the American Association for the Advancement of Science and the American\nMicroscopical Society. Professor Coon was twice married, and his second wife survives\nhim.\nHe was a faithful and earnest teacher, amiable and benevolent in his daily life, an\nactive worker in the church, and a citizen interested in all the questions of social and\npolitical life. Just before his death he published a manual of civil government, which\nhas been received with much favor.\nE. C. H.\n\nXutbcr M. 2)as\nLuther W. Day was born in Richland county, O., November 24, 1839. 'He entered\nthe district school at the usual age, and had the advantages which the average country\nschool then furnished.\nWith the determination to obtain a better education, though he\n\n"}
{"page": 246, "printed_page": null, "text": "238\n\nNATIOI^AL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nTGeneral\n\nmust work for it, he left home at fourteen years of age and entered the high school of\nGallon, O. At the end of three years he completed ^e course, and began teaching in\nMonroe county, O., when only seventeen years of age. He continued teaching until he\nwas able to enter Hillsdale College, Michigan.\nBefore finishing his college course he enlisted, on August 6, 1862, as a private in the\nlooth Ohio Volunteer Infantry. He was engaged in the campaigns of Murfreesboro, Knob\nGap, and Stone River. For his gallant conduct in the battle of Stone River he received\npromotion on January i, 1863 — a richly merited New Year's gift. In 1863 he was assigned\nto General Garland's staff as a topographical engineer, with the rank of lieutenant. On\nDecember 17, 1893, he was honorably discharged on account of disability — a disability\nfrom which he never fully recovered.\nIn 1866 he accepted a position as teacher in Marion, O. Soon after he was elected\nto the principalship of the Gallon High School — the school in which he had prepared\nfor college. Two years later (1868) he was called to the principalship of the Heights\nGrammar School, in Cleveland, O. A short time after this he was made supervisor of the\ngrammar schools of Cleveland, holding the position until 1882, with the advantage of\nbeing under the supervision of Superintendent Andrew J. Rickoff. From 1882 to 1886\nhe was supervisor of grammar grades and assistant superintendent under Superintendent\nBurke A. Hinsdale.\nIn 1886 Mr. Day succeeded Dr. Hinsdale as superintendent of the Cleveland schools,\nfilling the position with great fidelity and success until 1892. Among the wise reforms\nin the conduct of the schools instituted by Mr. Day was the abolishing of promotion\nexaminations in the lower grades, substituting in the primary grades the recommendation\nof the teacher.\nWhile in Cleveland, Mr. Day was closely identified with educational work in the\nstate and in the nation. He was a member of the Northeastern Ohio Teachers' Association, of which he was at one time chairman ; of the Ohio Teachers' Association, of which\nhe was\" president, and of the National Educational Association, of which he became a\nlife director in 1888. For several years be was secretary of the Department of Superintendence ofthe National Educational Association. Mr. Day received the degree of A.B.\nfrom Hillsdale College in 1866, and the honorary degree of Ph.D. from one of the colleges of his native state.\nAfter the severance of his connection with the Cleveland schools he was offered the\nsuperintendency of the Lancaster Reform School, of the city schools of Omaha, Neb.,\nand of the schools of Yonkers, N. Y. — all of which positions he declined.\nIn 1895 he accepted the superintendency of the public schools of Canton, O., doing\nvery successful work, and receiving the highest commendation of the board of education and of all persons interested in the work of the schools.\nAfter a long period of sickness Mr. Day departed this life March 16, 1899. His\nremains were taken to Cleveland for interment, and the funeral afforded an opportunity\nfor his former associates and friends to show the high appreciation in which he was held\nThe public schools of the city were closed, their flags were at half-mast, and the church\nwas filled with teachers, members of the board, and other associates and friends. The\nservices were conducted by the Forest City Commandery, Knights Templar, of which\nMr. Day was a past commander.\nMr. Day was a Christian gentleman. His whole life bore testimony to this truth.\nOne of the strong characteristics of his personality was the purity of his thought and\nlife. He saw what was beautiful and true in his surroundings and' in all with whom he\nwas associated.\nHe was always loyal to his high ideals.\nE. E. White.\n\n"}
{"page": 247, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nREPORT\n\n'\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nNECROLOGY\n\n239\n\n5obn Z, (Bregori^\n\nIn the death of John T. Gregory the cause of education, not only in his own state,\nbut in the national councils, lost one of its ablest and most progressive young leaders.\nAnd for that leadership he was eminently fitted by high native endowments, thoro education, strong enthusiasm for his profession, and lofty Christian character.\nHe was born in Lauderdale county, Ala., March 6, 1866, and died September 14,\n1898, at the home of his parents in that county, after an illness of several weeks, of fever\ncontracted on the visit to the meeting of the National Educational Association in Washington.\nMr. Gregory's early education was under the tuition of his father, E. S. Gregory, a\nschool-teacher from Philadelphia, who at an early date emigrated to the state of Alabama.\nHe entered the State Normal College, Florence, Ala., in 1880, graduating there in 1884.\nOf him at that period President M. C. Wilson of the State Normal writes : \" He was\nalways apt in his studies and fond of play ; ambitious beyond his strength ; of a singularly\nlovable temper, always smiling, even in defeat. He was firm in his stand for a principle,\nregardless of consequences. He was a devout member of the Methodist church, a dutiful\nson, and especially thoughtful of his invalid mother. His most prominent trait was his\nmodesty; he would blush like a girl at any coarse language, and was altogether one of\nthe purest young men I ever knew.\"\nHe entered the Alabama Polytechnic Institute, Auburn, Ala., in 1886, graduating\nwith distinction in 1888. Thruout his course in this institution his career was of the same\nhigh character as described by President Wilson. He was a painstaking, accurate scholar\nin all that he attempted, enjoyed the confidence and esteem of all the faculty, and finished\nhis course near the head of his class.\nIn October, 1889, he went to the city of Mobile as assistant in the Boys' Senior\nGrammar School, which position he held for four years. He finally became principal of\nthe Boys' Junior Grammar School, which position he held at the time of his death. Of\nhim Superintendent Yerby writes : \" I never saw a better organizer or a more progressive teacher.\"\nMr. Gregory was active in Sunday-school work, and for several years was a member of the official board of the Government Street Methodist Episcopal Church.\nHe became an active member of the association in 1895. For 1897-98, and again\nfor the present year, 1898-99, he was state director of Alabama by election. His years,\ntho few, were crowded with good work, and the future lying out before him seemed to\nhold still better things. He fell in the full vigor of young manhood, and in the first\nflush of his robust faculties. The educational profession of his native state laments his\nimtimely death.\nCharles C. Thach.\n\nIboeea BDson Dolt\nMr. Hosea Edson Holt was born in Ashburnham, Mass., February 17, 1836. His\nparents, like many other New England people, were refined and well bred, but, having a\nlarge family, had to struggle against poverty. Of fourteen children, eleven lived to grow\nup. All the children were musical in a high degree.\nMr. H. E. Holt learned the trade of a piano tuner, and was considered excellent in\nhis calling. He was very mechanical, and when hardly more than a boy was often called\nupon to set up new machinery which others failed to adjust properly.\nAt the age of seventeen he began to teach evening singing schools. After a day's\nlabor he would drive to some town several miles distant to teach. He played the violin\nin his schools.\n\n"}
{"page": 248, "printed_page": null, "text": "240\n\nNATTONAL\n\neducational\n\nassociation\n\n[General\n\nHe enlisted as a private in the Forty-fifth Regiment of Massachusetts Volunteers, during the Civil War, and served nine months. On his return from the war he decided to turn\nhis whole attention to music, and went to Boston and studied at the Boston Music School.\nMr. Holt taught in Wheaton Seminary, Norton, Mass., several years ; four years in the\nState Teachers' Institutes, and four years in the normal school at Bridgewater, Mass., at\nthe same time giving private instruction. While teaching at Bridgewater, he applied\nfor the position of instructor of music in Boston public schools, and was appointed in\n1868.\nThis was at the suggestion of Mr. John D. Philbrick.\nThe personality of Mr. Holt was always felt, and none the less in this new capacity\nas instructor of music in thg schools of Boston. He began to improve the methods of\nteaching music in public schools, and continued this until the day of his death. He\nwas one of the owners of the Mason National Music Course. He originated the Normal\nMusic Course, Mr. John W. Tufts writing the music to conform to Mr. Holt's pedagogical\nideas.\nMr. Holt had no vices and few faults. He was a true husband, a loving father, upright,\ntender-hearted, and honorable in his dealings. He was one of the teachers that are born,\nnot made. Hampered by the lack of complete school education, he was, nevertheless,\nable to conceive grand possibilities, founded on the best educational principles. His education was derived from a study of man and the laws which govern his being, rather\nthan from a study of books. He was essentially a self-made man. Mr. Holt was always an\nenthusiast in his profession. Few men have had equal power in teaching either teachers\nor children. He was always a man of ideas and of ideals, and he would never compromise\neither for personal advantage. He died ardently beloved by thousands who had been\nbenefited by his intense personality as a teacher and leader in the musical world. He\npassed into the higher life October 18, 1898, at his home in Lexington, Mass. where he\nhad resided for twentv years.\n\nTimilUam 5enTtin0\nWilliam Jenkins, the son of Thomas and Mary (Davis) Jenkins, was born November 25, 1844, near Rome, N. Y. He died, after a brief illness, in Chicago, August 29,\n1898. He fitted for college at Rome Academy, and graduated in 1867. He taught two\nyears in New York, and then removed to Illinois. For six years he taught in the schools\nof Ottawa, and then became superintendent of schools in Mendota, West Side, where he\nremained eighteen years.\nIn 1893 Mr. Jenkins had charge of the educational exhibit of the world's fair at\nChicago, and afterward wrote a history of that exhibit. He then took charge of the\nschools in Dixon, 111., where he remained three years. He was always active in the\nschool affairs of the state, and served one term as president of the Principals' Association\nand one term as president of the State Association. He became a member of the\nNational Educational Association in 1886. He was married, in 1870, to Miss Cornelia\nThayer, of Princeton, 111. She, with one son and one daughter, survives him.\nMr. Jenkins was a careful student of educational subjects, was tactful and skillful\nas a manager of schools, and was generally a social favorite.\nE. C. H.\n\nDaniel mintielO Jones\nDaniel Winfield Jones was born in Lee, N. H., November 7, 1829. He was educated in the district schools of his native town, and later graduated from the Putnam High\nSchool of Newburyport, Mass.\nFor four years he was engaged with his father in the lumber business, but the duties\n\n"}
{"page": 249, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nREPORT\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nNECROLOGY\n\n241\n\nbeing too arduous for him, he turned his attention to teaching, for which he had an especial liking, taking charge of the town school of South Newmarket, N. H.\nIn 1854 he went to Portsmouth, N. H., as master of the grammar school. October\nII, 1859, he was married to Miss Emma Cleaves, of Portsmouth, and came' directly to\nRoxbury as master of one of the schools. In due time Roxbury was annexed to Boston,\nand he became a Boston master.\nHe became a life member of the National Educational Association in 1870.\nWhen the Lowell School was organized, in 1874, he was transferred to it, and made\nthe Lowell one of the best schools in the city. He remained the principal of this school\nuntil his death, November 27, 1898.\nMr. Jones was an enthusiastic, devoted, and eminently successful schoolmaster. For\nforty years he was a force among the Boston teachers. He came to Boston in the days\nwhen capacity counted for more than training. Altho without college or normal-school\neducation, he was a natural student, an intelligent reader, and a clear thinker. He\nblended in an unusual way professional independence and loyalty.\nIn Boston alone more than four thousand boys and girls came under the sway of his\nleadership, and practically no one of them failed to carry out into life the impress of his\ncharacter. Few Boston teachers of his years took so many special courses of study in the\nInstitute of Technology and under specialists. He was a student to the day of his death.\nNo professional movement in Boston, in Massachusetts, or in New England failed to\nreceive his hearty indorsement or to enlist his ardent championship. No Boston teacher\nwas more respected by the school board, by the teachers, and by the public, as none was\nmore beloved by his pupils.\n\nIfreDcric auieon X^man\nMr. Lyman was born April 22, 1864, at Columbia, Conn. He died July_i7, 1898.\nHe became an active member of the National Educational Association in 1897. At the\ntime of his death he was musical director in the schools of Syracuse, N. Y., a position\nwhich he had held since 1888.\nHe showed a decided talent for music at an early age, and pursued his studies in\nthat subject in Hartford, Providence, and for four years with John W. Tufts, of Boston.\nAt the age of sixteen he taught school in Rhode Island ; he also had charge of music in\nthe schools of Woonsocket, in the same state, for two years just before he went to Syracuse.\nHe taught music extensively in the summer schools at Martha's Vineyard and Lexington,\nMass., and in the state of New York. He also did much as choir director and soloist in\nchurch services. He lectured much and wrote upon his chosen subject, completing a\nbook during the severe sufferings of his last sickness. \" His work in Syracuse will stand as\na lasting monument to his ability as a teacher.\" Mr. Lyman was an enthusiastic member\nof the Masonic fraternity and of the Sons of Veterans. He leaves a wife to mourn his\nloss.\nE. C. H.\n\n1R. /IB. /Ilbanli^\nR. M. Manly was born in Dorset, Vt., in 1822. He was educated at Wesleyan University, Middletown, Conn. He began his life-work of teaching as principal of the\nTroy Conference Academy, Poultney, Vt., and subsequently at Conference Academy,\nSanborntown, N. H.\nDuring the Civil War he served as chaplain of the Sixteenth Regiment of New\nHampshire Volunteers, and later as chaplain of a Virginia colored regiment.\nAt the close of the war he became state superintendent of education of Virginia,\n\n"}
{"page": 250, "printed_page": null, "text": "242\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n[General\n\nunder the Freedman's Bureau. His chief life-work consisted in establishing and conducting for twenty years the Normal School for Colored Teachers at Richmond, Va.\nIn 1885 Mr. Manly and his wife accepted positions as teachers of English composition in Wellesley College, Massachusetts, where they continued to teach for seven years,\nuntil Mr. Manly's failing health forced their removal to a milder climate. They resided\nfor three years among friends at Dalton, Ga., and subsequently at San Diego, Cal., where\nMr. Manly died September 16, 1897.\nHe had been a life member of the National Educational Association since 1870.\nMr. Manly was known by his associates, friends, and pupils as a teacher of rare\nscholarship and culture, and of noble Christian character. Chief among his comforts\nduring his last illness was the knowledge which came to him of the noble work which\nwas being done thruout the South by the four hundred colored teachers who had graduated from the normal school in Richmond which he had founded and fostered.\n\nIReuben /nbc/flbiUan\nReuben McMillan, a life member of the National Educational Association since 1879,\nwas born in Canfield, Mahoning county, O., October 7, 1820. His father was bom\nnear Burlington, N. J.; his mother in Cumberland county. Pa.; both were of Scotch-Irish\ndescent. His early education- was largely due to his own determination. Having\nreceived, in the public schools and by private tuition, some instruction, at the age of\nthirteen years he commenced to learn the trade of harness-making, and continued so\nengaged for four years, within which time he also studied Latin and other branches.\nIn 1837 he determined to obtain an academic education, and during the following\ntwo years taught school to obtain means to meet his expenses while in the academy.\nFrom 1839 to 1843 he employed his time in a similar manner, and in the latter year\nentered as an assistant in a private academy, and continued thus engaged until 1845.\nDuring the winter of 1845-46 he, under private tuition, engaged in the study of anatomy\nand physiology, also geology. Then he commenced the work of teaching and studying,\nand such were his occupations until his retirement, twelve years ago.\nMr. McMillan never entered college, never sought college honors, but the honorary\ndegree of master of arts was conferred on him by the Western Reserve College, without\nhis solicitation or knowledge. In 1869 he was elected superintendent of the Union\nSchools in Hanoverton, Columbiana county, O., and subsequently he filled the same position at New Lisbon, in the same county, for two years. Being troubled with ill health,\nhe tried farm life in summer time, and during the winter season was principal in an\nacademy.\nMr. McMillan's first connection with the public schools of Youngstown was in 1853.\nFrom that year until 1855 he superintended the public schools in that city, and in the\nlatter year took charge of the schools at Salem, where he remained until 1861 ; then,\nreturning to Youngstown, he acted in the same capacity until 1867. In this year he was\noffered the superintendency of the city schools of Cleveland ; but, in consequence of failing health, he declined, and retired from active life for the five years following. In 1872\nhe again took charge of the schools of Youngstown, and remained at the head of that\ncity's educational institutions until he retired permanently, March 31, 1886.\nMr. McMillan was a Presbyterian, being a member and an elder of that denomination for many years prior to his death. As proof of the high esteem in which he was held\nin the city of Youngstown, with which the larger part of his life was identified, its beautiful public library bears his name. He was a noble man, upright and lofty in character\nas he was in stature, for he towered six and one-half feet in height.\nHis was a venerable form going in and out among his people and his friends with\n\n"}
{"page": 251, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nREPORT\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nCOMMITTED\n\nON\n\nNECROLOGY\n\n243\n\nactive step. His conversation was of a rare order. The hospitality of his beautiful\nhome, where, with his beloved wife, fitting companion of Such a man, he received his\nfriends and most fully disclosed his inner life and self, was something which, when once\nenjoyed, was not likely to be forgotten by the recipient. Rarely is to be found a finer\ntype of that distinguished, courtly bearing which we associate with generations gone by.\nHaving completed more than the scriptural span of life, and having, indeed,\n\" redeemed his time,\" he quietly \" fell on sleep \" and has been \" gathered to his fathers.\"\n\" Life's race well run,\nLife's work well done.\nNow Cometh rest.\"\n\nF. Treudly.\n\n■fcfram ©rcutt\nDr. Hiram Orcutt, one of New England's eminent educators, died at the residence of\nhis son, William Dana Orcutt, in Brookline, Mass., April 17, 1899, in his eighty-fifth\nyear.\n\nHiram Orcutt was born at Acworth, N. H., February 3, 18 15, the youngest son of\nJohn Snell and Hannah (Currier) Orcutt. He was the typical ambitious New Hampshire\nfarmer's boy, with slight means and indomitable energy. He worked his way thru the\nacademy and thru the first two years in Dartmouth College by teaching a summer and\na winter school in order to study in the spring and autumn. His last two years in college\n(class of '42) were devoted uninterruptedly to study.\nAltho he had been teaching more or less for nine years, he really began his life-work\nas the head of the New Hebron Academy the year of graduation, and in 1843 became\nthe principal of Thetford Academy, Vermont, where he remained for twelve years, making for himself and the institution an enduring name. From 1855 he was for five years\nprincipal of the North Granville (N. Y.) Ladies' Seminary; from i860 he was for eight\nyears principal of West Brattleboro (Vt.) Ladies' Seminary; and from 1863 he was for\neighteen years principal of Tilden Seminary, West Lebanon, N. H. In all more thanl\nfive thousand different students came under his instruction. In his nearly forty years of\nacademy and seminary life, he always occupied some position of public or professional\nhonor, and his counsel was always shaping educational affairs in Vermont and New\nHampshire.\nAt sixty-five years of age he entered upon a new career, as a business-man, by establishing one of the first teachers' bureaus in the world, and for sixteen years he was its\nactive, energetic, and successful manager.\nHe\n\nwas the author of several successful books, among\n\nwhich may be mentioned\n\nClass Book of Prose and Poetry, 1847; The Teacher's Manual, 1871; Hovie and School\nTraining, 1 874; School Keeping, 1885; Among the Theologies, 1888; Personal Recollections, 1897.\nHe was twice married; his second wife, Mrs. Ellen Orcutt, a son, and three daughters survive him.\nA. E. WiNSHiP.\n\n©eorac %. ©sbornc\nGeorge L. Osborne was born in Fayette county. Pa., December 18, 1834, and died\nin Kansas City, Mo., November 17, 1899.\nHis father, Abraham Osborne, was of Scotch-Irish descent, and his mother, Jane\nGregory, of English descent. George L. was the youngest of six sons, all of whom were\nreared on a farm.\nHe received his early education in the common schools of his native\n\n"}
{"page": 252, "printed_page": null, "text": "244\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n[General\n\ncounty, and at the age of nineteen became a teacher in the public schools. With the\nmoney earned he was enabled to enter Waynesburg College, where he remained for a con\nsiderable time, being obliged to stop and teach to defray expenses. However, before completing his college course he enlisted in Company C, Fifty-eighth Pennsylvania Volunteer\nInfantry, but was soon mustered out, when he resumed teaching. Waynesburg College\nconferred the degree of A.M. on him as a recognition of his work as a student and\nteacher. He rose rapidly from a country-school teacher to a superintendent, first of\nUniontown, and later of Bridgeport and Brownsville. While at Brownsville he was elected\nprofessor of mathematics in what is now the State Normal School at California, Pa.\nOn November 27, 1 861, he married Sarah V. Swisher, of Uniontown, Pa., who died\na few years ago. From this union two daughters were born, who are still living.\nIn 1867 he organized the public schools at Macon, Mo., where he remained till 1872,\nwhen he was elected superintendent of the schools at Louisiana, Mo., and continued there\nthree years. He was then unanimously chosen president of the Second Missouri State\nNormal School, at Warrensburg, Mo., in 1875, which position he held uninterruptedly\nuntil his death.\nA little over thirty years ago the writer first met George L. Osborne in Kansas City\nat a session of the Missouri State Teachers' Association. His appearance made a deep\nimpression on me. So striking was iie in his bodily movements, speech, deliberation*\nphysical features, that, had I not known otherwise, I would have said : *' A full brother\nto Abraham Lincoln ! \" The subject of his paper was the qualifications of teachers,\nand in his own dry, humorous, incisive manner he related some of the experiences that\nhad occurred in Macon county, where he then resided. The presiding officer laughed\ntill his eyes filled with tears, and the audience went wild; but Mr. Osborne read on unmoved,\napparently unconscious of the mirth he had created — a course which was pre-eminently\ncharacteristic of the man.\nNotwithstanding the flashes of wit which he occasionally indulged in — always seasonable, always considerate — he was a serious man. The great questions which come\n. to all in the calmer moods laid deep hold of his mind. Every one he turned over and\npondered upon time and again, and his faith in the consolation of the Christian religion\nwas deep, abiding, and steadfast to the end. In times of trial the motto adopted by Luther\nwould apply to him exactly : \" Hier stehe ich, ich kann nicht anders ; Gott helfe mir ! \" He\nwas guided as fully and completely as Nelson by the words right and duty. His mind\nwas richly endowed naturally, and he had improved it by study and reflection till it was\none of the richest I ever knew. Alert and analytic, he separated the true from the false\nintuitively.\nThe simplicity and the gentleness of his nature endeared him to all with whom he\ncame in contact. Under any light in which his life is viewed, simplicity, straightforwardness, and honesty were as manifest as the clearest sunlight, and all his actions were\ninspired by the soundest principles of justice and morality.\nFrom the day he came to Warrensburg he put his whole energy into the school, and\nin it he wore his life away. He lived and died for this creation of his brain. Even in\nthe very presence of death, when I last visited him, our conversation was concerning the\nschool and its prospects. As I held his hand in mine, looking into my eyes as if to read\nmy innermost thoughts, he said : \" I have always tried to do my best.\" Greater heroism in\nthe presence of death I have never seen. His whole life was summed up in this one\nshort sentence.\nHe cast great thoughts abroad all over the state, and they found a congenial soil\n•which will retain them till time is no more. Missourians revere the name of Dr. George\nL. Osborne for his honor, his integrity, his truthfulness, his high and controlling sense of\nduty — his genuine nobility of character.\nHe combined in a high degree tact, s«perior skill, and judgment in organizing,\nclassifying, and controlling large bodies of students.\nHis manner was mild, firm, and\n\n"}
{"page": 253, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nREPORT\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nNECROLOGY\n\n245\n\ndecided. Under whatever aspect his character is contemplated, it shines with equal\nradiance. Above all, he was an honest man — straightforward, simple, direct, strong,\nversatile, resourceful, and profound. He was one of the most quiet men in the educational\nwork of America. His mind was cast in a large and liberal mold. He grasped facts and\nprinciples quickly and turned them in his own way to the solution of the practical affairs\nof life. There was nothing small, narrow, or fanatical in his character, but a harmonious\nblending of all those traits which constitute the chief glory of manhood.\nThus passed away a noble, generous man, who was ever frank, helpful, and\nsympathetic. He who was with us is not dead. He lives in the hearts of a grateful and\ngenerous people, and the monument which he erected in the affections of those whom he\nknew and loved so well is more enduring than any inscription carved on marble or tablet\nof brass.\nJ. M. Greenwood.\n\nStlas SaD&lcr pacfiarD\nMr. Silas Saddler Packard, the founder, and for many years the president, of Packard's\nBusiness College, died October 26, 1889. He was an educator in the truest sense of the\nword, and there have been few more widely and more favorably known in general, and\nprobably none superior to him in his own branch of educational work.\nMr. Packard was born in Cummington, Mass., April 28, 1826, making his age at the\ntime of his death seventy-two years. Altho a New Englander by birth, his early life was\nspent in Ohio, where his father's family moved in 1833. At that time it was a month's\njourney from New England to what was then the far West. Mr. Packard's early days were\nspent in a log cabin. He was an earnest student, altho his education, so far as school was\nconcerned, was only rudimentary. Along the line of grammar and mathematics he possessed unusual talents.\nHe had also the reputation of being the finest penman in school.\nAt sixteen he began teaching penmanship, and in 1848 he became teacher in the\nBartlett Commercial College. Three years later he was appointed teacher of writing,\nbookkeeping, and drawing in the Union School at Lockport, N. Y. In 1856 he helped\nIJryant & Stratton to establish a business college in Buffalo, and two years later in company with them established the Bryant & Stratton Business College in New York city.\nThis institution was the first tenant of the Cooper Union Building, where it remained\nfor several years. Mr. Packard finally bought the interest of his partners, and the school\ntook his name. It was later moved to its present finely appointed building. Fourth\navenue and Twenty-third street. New York ; and there it has been blessed with great\nprosperity.\nMuch of Mr. Packard's life was devoted to the writing of text-books for use in\nbusiness colleges. He was author of the Bryant & Stratton series of works on bookkeeping published in 1859. He also wrote the Manual, the Arithmetic, the Method of Bookkeeping, and Bank Bookkeeping and Business Practice which bear his name.\nMr. Packard's methods were so successful and his name became so widely known\nthat the business schools of Paris and Rouen were founded upon his system, after a\ncareful personal examination on the part of those having the matter in charge. Packard's\nBusiness College has graduated more than 15,000 students, about two-thirds of them from\nNew York city.\nAbout two years before his death, Mr. Packard's friends celebrated the seventieth\nanniversary of his birth, at a complimentary banquet given at Delmonico's. He was\npresented at that time with a beautiful loving cup as a testimonial of the affection of his\nfriends, the presentation being made by Mayor Strong.\nAmong Mr, Packard's characteristics may be mentioned a strong personality. He\nwas a man who made many friends and kept them all. As a writer he had a capacity for\nclearness of thought and felicity of expression that rendered his literary efforts delightful\n\n"}
{"page": 254, "printed_page": null, "text": "246\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nreading.\nHis unusual talent for organization was one of the main forces of his success.\nHis life in general has been an inspiration to all friends of business education.\nO. H. L.\n\nifRrs. jfranft Stuart parltec\nOn April i, 1899, Mrs. Frank Stuart Parker, wife of Colonel Francis W. Parker, passed\nfrom this life quietly and beautifully, from the home at Englewood, 111., that she graced\nand blessed for sixteen years.\nFew women have been privileged to be of so much service to the cause of education,\ndirectly and indirectly, as was Mrs. Parker. Her own tastes and talents, her personal\nopportunities and those that came to her as the wife of an educational leader whose\nposition and characteristics made him the hero of a large class of teachers and young\npeople thruout the United States, all conspired to a life of great usefulness. She was as\nwidely known, probably, as any woman in educational circles has ever been. She was\ngreatly admired for what she was, and she added materially to the efficiency of her husband\nin all his public and professional life. But, aboVe all, she was eminently lovable and\nadmirable as a wife and mother. No home could ask more than she gave, despite her\npublic service.\nM. Frank Stuart was born in Charlestown, Mass., April 19, 1848 ; was educated in the\npublic schools of Boston ; graduated from the Boston School of Oratory under Lewis B.\nMunroe, and entered upon her professional career as a teacher in that institution. She\nwas one of the first to make the Martha's Vineyard Summer Institute eminently successful.\nIt was in this work that she and Colonel Parker came to appreciate and enjoy each other ;\nand when he was elected principal of Cook County Normal School, she advised his going\nand went with him as his bride.\nFor several years she had charge of the departments of physical culture and elocution\nin the normal school, and was before the public so far as her school and home duties would\npermit.\n\"Correct dress\" was her chief theme, altho her voice was heard in many questions thit\nconcern woman.\nHer husband and two accomplished daughters survive her — Mrs. Mabel Rolfe, of\nCambridge, and Mrs. Edna Shepard, of Brookline. During her protracted illness one or\nthe other of these daughters was always by her side.\nIn her sickness she was peculiarly and beautifully comforting to her loved ones.\nShe made no draft upon their sympathies, but rather inspired them with faith and hope\nto the last.\nA. E. Winship.\n\n5obn !{. \"Raeswellcr\nMr. Rassweiler became a member of the National Educational Association in 1897.\nHe w ,s born in Millersburg, Pa., September 10, 1852, and died at his home in Downer's\nGrove, 111., September 18, 1897. He graduated from Northwestern College, at Naperville. 111., in 1876. Previous to his graduation he had taught in the country schools ;\nand, after graduating, he was principal of Downer's Grove schools for eight years. He\nwas elected superintendent of the schools of Du Page county. 111., but ill health compelled him to resign after two years' service. In 1884 he became principal of the schools\nin Wheaton, in the same county, where he remained eight years. He then returned to\nDowner's Grove and took charge of the schools of that city for the second time. Here\nhe labored till his death.\nE. C. H.\n\n"}
{"page": 255, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nREPORT\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nNECROLOGY\n\n247\n\nBnDcew 5achson IRicliofE\nAndrew Jackson Rickoff was born in New Hope, N. J., August 23, 1824, and died\nat Berkeley, Cal., at the liouse of his daughter, March 29, J 899. He obtained his early\neducation in the public schools of Cincinnati, O., to which city his parents had moved in\n1830. Later he attended and graduated from the University of Ohio, from which institution he received, in later life, the honorary degree of LL.D. He began his life-work as\na teacher at the age of seventeen in the rural schools of Ohio. He served for some time\nas a school principal in Cincinnati and later became superintendent of schools of that\ncity. His most notable educational service was as superintendent of schools of Cleveland, O., from 1867 to 1882. Subsequently he served for several years as superintendent\nof schools at Yonkers, N. Y. He was regarded as one of the best school superintendents\nin the country, and has often been called the father of the graded-school system. He\nbecame a member of the National Educational Association in' 1 871, a member of the\nCouncil of Education in 1880, and a life director, in 1881.\nAt the Los Angeles meeting of the National Council, in July, 1899, Superintendent\nAaron Gove, of Denver, Colo., spoke of Dr. Rickoff as follows :\n\" I have been asked, without time for preparation, to say something of the life and\ncharacter of the late Andrew J. Rickoff. The request comes from one who was his very\ndear friend, and who hesitates to undertake the task on account of a fear of expressing\nundue admiration. I accept the task as an honor — whatever inability may accompany\nit — because in all my life, and in all my study and observation of the schools and school\nsuperintendents of the country, no one character stands out more prominently in my mind\nthan that of Andrew J. Rickoff. It is especially appropriate that his name be honored\nby this Council, because he was a charter member of this organization, and was never\nabsent from a single meeting nor a single session, from the time of its organization to the\ntime of his physical disability which prevented his regular appearance.\n\"One may say, without reflection upon other cities, that the schools of Cleveland durmg his superintendency of fifteen years — from 1867 to 1882 — occupied a pre-eminent\nposition in our educational history. It is not easy today to appreciate the educational\nsituation during that time. Few school systems had acquired a name for excellent\nadministration. Dr. Philbrick was in Boston, and in a few cities of the middle country\nintelligent and excellent efforts were making ; but we learned at that time, many of us,\nto look to Cleveland for counsel and advice. Personally he was to me one of a few\ncherished advisers, like Dr. Hager and Dr. Philbrick, of Massachusetts, and the other dear\nfriends from the western states who have already passed away. The private correspondence embodying the advice which I, as a city superintendent, received from Mr. Rickoff\nand others would make an interesting volume, of as much use to the present young superintendent asit was to me in those years. You and I, ladies and gentlemen of the Council,\ncan understand the value of- tljat sort of advice which one receives in his early career\nfrom those who have previously traversed the ground. The obstacles which we meet and\nundertake to overcome are not new to our elder brothers. A few words from them assist\nin the contest and in the victory. These are intimations of the relations which I held\nwith Superintendent Rickoff. In visiting the Cleveland schools and studying his methods\nand his work, I remember how overwhelming was my admiration for the painstaking and\ncareful study which he had daily given to the manipulation of the great educational\nmachine of that city.\n\" His work was scarcely accomplished when, in the unthankfulness of that community,\nhe received the intimation that his services were no longer needed. When, in 1882, Andrew\nJ. Rickoff left the Cleveland schools, he laid down the task of a life that has never been\nexcelled in efficient execution in the history of the schools of our country. Personally I\nlearned to love him as dearly as one man can love another. I remember him as one of\nmy models of knowledge, skill, and power in the administration of a city-school system.\n\n"}
{"page": 256, "printed_page": null, "text": "248\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nSome of us know what it means to spend an entire lifetime in undertaking to realize the\nambition of erecting a school system that shall live and be helpful to the community\nafter our services are discharged. The present generation of schoolmasters cannot be too\nintimate with his work. He left Cleveland for literary work in New York. When later\ngood health left him, he lived an exceedingly quiet life ; but he never forgot us or our\nmeetings ; and whenever his physical condition permitted, he was found present at rollcall. 1 saw him at the meeting of the Department of Superintendence in Cleveland in\n1895, feeble and worn with disease, but with a heart and countenance full of love for those\nwhom he met, and of zeal and courage for educational progress.\"\n\nIDlilbur Demon IR00D\nMr. Rood was born July 28, 1848, at Elyria, O. When he was yet a child, the\nfamily moved to North Amherst, O. In the fall of 1867 he entered Oberlin College,\nfrom which he was graduated in 1873. For three years after graduation he filled accept\"\nably the position of principal of schools at Granville, 111. During the next four years he\nhad charge of Parker Academy, at Woodbury, Conn. In 1880 he was elected principal\nof the high school in Akron, O. This position he held till the time of his death, which\noccurred June 21, 1898. He was twice married. His second wife and six children\nsurvive him.\nMr. Rood was a true man and a good teacher. The most important work of his life\nwas done in Akron. During all the eighteen years of his principalship the Akron high\nschool was very prosperous. More than a thousand pupils were graduated in that periodTo these and other pupils and teachers his life and work are a precious memory. He\nbecame an active member of the National Educational Association in 1896.\n\nBDwarD Searing\nThe subject of this sketch was born July 14, 1835, in the village of Aurora, on the\neastern shore of Cayuga Lake, N. Y. His father was at first a mechanic and then a\nfarmer. The thirst of the son for knowledge was early manifested in his careful reading\nof works of history and literature, and in his diligent application to the branches pursued\nin a country district school. Here his proficiency in the latter became so marked that, at\nthe age of sixteen, he taught successfully a public school in the town of Locke, near\nMoravia, south of Owasco Lake, about twenty miles to the west of his home.\nThen he entered, almost unaided, upon a protracted struggle to obtain a higher\neducation. He was soon admitted to Homer Academy, in Cortland county, where he\nremained two years ; and afterward he was, for eighteen months, a student and an\ninstructor in Cazenovia Seminary, in Madison county. Both these institutions were, at\nthe time, among the most efficient of their kind in his native state. His attendance upon\nthem was occasionally interrupted by his efforts at teaching to earn money so that he could\ncontinue his studies. For a year following the summer of 1856 he was employed as the\nprincipal of the schools in Bay City, at the southern end of Saginaw Bay, Mich. He\nnext conducted, until 1859, an excellent select school in the town of Union, Rock county,\nWis. During the subsequent two years he completed the classical course in the University of Michigan. Then he resumed his teaching at Union, leaving the position in the fall\nof 1863, when he was engaged as professor of the Latin and French languages in Milton College, Wisconsin.\nHere he acquired reputation as a superior scholar, an admirable instructor, and a\npolished writer.\nHis alma mater conferred upon him, in course, the degree of master of\n\n"}
{"page": 257, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nREPORT\n\nOF THE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON NECROLOGY\n\n249\n\narts. He delivered a widely known address on the character and services of President\nLincoln, immediately after the assassination. He also wrote standard articles on the\nvalue of a classical education. He prepared his admirable edition of the first six books\nof Virgil's ^neid, which was published in 1869 in New York city. He nearly completed a similar work on the first six books of Homer's Iliad.\nIn 1873 he was elected by the Democratic party of Wisconsin to the office of state\nsuperintendent of public instruction, and was re-elected two years afterward. In his incumbency he was everywhere received as an impressive public speaker on educational topics ;\nhe acted as the secretary of the Normal Board of Regents of the state ; he was the principal\neditor of the Wisconsin Journal of Education ; he collected the materials from the schools\nof the state for the Centennial Exposition at Philadelphia in 1876 ; he secured the passage\nof the law whereby the public schools of Wisconsin can, at their option, furnish the pupils\nwith free text-books ; and he organized the system b}' which the state provides aid for its\npublic high schools, and directly superintends their operations.\nAt the close of his office, in January, 1878. he returned to his work in Milton College, prosecuting it until the summer of 1880, making his instruction here to cover nearly\nthirteen years in all. He was then elected to the presidency of the State Normal School,\nat Mankato, Minn., and held the office over eighteen years, until his sudden death by\nheart failure, October 22, 1898, at St. Paul, Minn. The state regents of his school have\nadopted this testimonial of his labors and character : \" As a man, he was always gentle,\naffable, open, and kind, scorning everything that savored of deception or dissimulation;\nas a scholar, he was accurate, learned, and replete in his specialties ; as a teacher, he was\nconcise, lucid, and apt ; and as an executive officer, he was able, energetic, firm, and efficient. His influence over the Mankato Normal School will be felt for many years to\ncome.\"\nW. C. Whitford.\n\n^amcs jfenimore Cooper Sfcftel\nJames F. C. Sickel was born in Bucks county. Pa., October 10, 1834. He was educated in the public schools of Bucks county and of Philadelphia, and at Plainfield\nAcademy, Carlisle, Pa. He taught ungraded and graded schools in Bucks county and in\nMontgomery county. In 1861 he was appointed principal of the high school in Milford,\nDel., and in 1862 he entered upon his career as teacher and educator in the public schools\nof Philadelphia. Here he soon took rank with those who most earnestly advocated educational progress and reform. He was frequently a member of committees to systematize\ncourses of instruction in drawing as a particular branch of study, and in the general\nbranches of study in elementary schools.\nHe was for many years associated with teachers' institutes of the city and of the\nstate ; he was, on two or three occasions, the representative of Philadelphia in the\nNational Educational Association ; he was a member of the Committee on Educational\nAffairs at the Centennial Exhibition, and was charged with the preparation and the\nproper display of the Philadelphia educational exhibits at the Columbian Exposition in\nChicago.\nWhen the Department of Superintendence of the Philadelphia Schools was organized,\nunder Dr. James MacAlister, in May, 1883, Mr. Sickel was among the first selected for\nthe important post of assistant superintendent. He brought to the discharge of his\nduties in this position a large and valuable experience as teacher. He was progressive\nin his views, and possessed tact in the supervision of the work of principals, teachers,\nand pupils.\nHe thoughtfully studied the complex problems of school education, and sought\nthe best means of improving the work of teachers, so as to insure that general mental\n\n"}
{"page": 258, "printed_page": null, "text": "250\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\ndevelopment and those correct habits on the part of the young that result in upright and\nintelligent citizens, qualified to discharge the varied duties of social and political life.\nBy his sympathy, intelligence, and fairness in directing the work of the schools, Mr.\nSickel won the esteem and the friendship of teachers and principals; and for faithful and\nconscientious performance of official duty he secured the high respect of members of the\nlocal and the central boards of education.\nEdgar A. Singer.\n\nTKHells \"fcawftcs Sftinncr\nMr. Skinner was born in Virginia, 1855, and died in Omaha, September 21, 1898.\nHe studied at Bethany College, in West Virginia, and also at the University of Nebraska.\nHe came to Nebraska in 1884 and entered upon the work of a school superintendent, in\nwhich he continued till his death. He was two years at David City, five years at Crete,\nand seven years at Nebraska City.\nHe was one of the most active and enthusiastic workers in the state, in demand as a\nwriter, a public speaker, and especially in teachers' institutes, where he is said to have\nhad no superior. He held several responsible offices, among them those of treasurer\nand president of the State Teachers' Association, and president of the State Association\nof Superintendents and Principals. His early death removes one of the most efficient\nand promising educational men of the state. He became a member of the National\nEducational Association in 1895.\nE. C. H.\n\nBllen (3. TKflcefts\nMiss Weeks was born on Martha's Vineyard, June 5, 1845. When three years of age\nshe moved with her parents to Sheboygan, Wis. She received her education in the Sheboygan schools, graduating from the high school in 1867. She was the first graduate of\nthat school.\nImmediately after graduating she became assistant to the principal of the hi^\nschool, and remained as such for seven years. She then went to Massachusetts and\ntaught for one year. Upon her return to Sheboygan she began teaching in the grades of\nthe city schools. She had great love and zeal for her life-work. Her death occurred at\nSheboygan, January 24, 1898. She became a member of the National Educational Association in 1897.\nAgnes J. Weeks.\n\n"}
{"page": 259, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF SUPERINTENDENCE\n\nCOLUMBUS\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nMEETING\n\nMINUTES\n\nFIRST DAY\nMORNING\n\nSESSION. — Tuesday, February 21, 1899\n\nThe Department of Superintendence was called to order at 9 : 30, in the auditorium\nof the Commercial Club, by the president, E. H. Mark, of Louisville, Ky.\nAfter music by pupils of the eighth grade of the First Avenue School, Columbus, an\ninvocation was offered by Dr. Washington Gladden,\nDr. James H. Canfield, president of Ohio State University, and Dr. J. A. Shawan,\nsuperintendent of schools, Columbus, O., welcomed the convention.\nment.\n\nPresident E. H. Mark responded to the words of welcome on behalf of the depart-\n\nE. B. Prettyman, state superintendent of public instruction, Baltimore, Md., read a\npaper on \"Public Lands and Public Education.\"\nSuperintendent R. C. Barrett, of Iowa, opened the discussion of Superintendent Prettyman's paper, which was further discussed by Dr. George T. Fairchild, Berea College,\nKentucky; Dr. B. A.Hinsdale, University of Michigan; John MacDonald, of Kansas, editor of the Western School Journal, and Superintendent H. G. Weimar, of Maryland. Superintendent Prettyman closed the discussion.\nSherman Williams, Glens Falls, N. Y., read a paper on the subject, \" Relation of\nPublic Libraries to Public Schools.\"\nThe paper was discussed by State Superintendent L. D. Harvey, of Wisconsin ; Dr.\nArthur Allen, University of Colorado; Superintendent W. C. Martindale, Detroit, Mich.;\nSupervisor R. C. Metcalf, Boston, Mass.; Superintendent Aaron Gove, District No. i,\nDenver, Colo.; Superintendent Eugene Bouton, Pittsfield, Mass.; Principal A. S.\nDowning, New York city ; Superintendent L. E. Wolfe, Kansas City, Kan.; Superintendent Orville T. Bright, Chicago, 111.; Superintendent George Griffith, Utica, N. Y.\nThe president appointed the following\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nRESOLUTIONS\n\nSuperintendent H. S. Tarbell, Rhode Island.\nSuperintendent E. P. Seaver, Massachusetts.\nSuperintendent G. R. Glenn, Georgia.\nSuperintendent W. C. Martindale, Michigan.\nOssian H. Lang, New York.\nSuperintendent F. B. Dyer, Kansas.\nSuperintendent W. H. Hershman, Indiana.\n\nAFTERNOON\n\nSESSION\n\nThe afternoon session was devoted to round tables, as follows : round table for state\nsuperintendents, conducted by John W. Abercrombie, state superintendent of public\ninstruction, Alabama ; and round table of the National Herbart Society.\n251\n\n"}
{"page": 260, "printed_page": null, "text": "2^2\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\nEVENING\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Columbus\n\nSESSION\n\nSupervisor George H. Martin, Boston, Mass.j read a paper entitled \"The Unseen\nForces in Character-Making.\"\nThe paper was discussed by Superintendent S. B. Laird, Lansing, Mich.\nThe next number on the program, \" Shall the Sexes and Classes Have the Same\nCourse of Study in the Schools ? \", was omitted on account of the absence of Superintendent David K. Goss, who had been appointed to present that subject.\nMrs. Alice White Duval entertained the department by reciting from \" The Blessed\nDamosel.\"\nThe department then adjourned.\n\nSECOND\nMORNING\n\nDAY\n\nSESSION. — Wednesday,\n\n'\nFebruary\n\n22\n\nThe department was called to order at 9 : 30 by President Mark.\nMusic was furnished b)' pupils of the Columbus City Normal School.\nPrayer was offered by Dr. E. E. White.\nDr. James E. Russell, dean of Teachers' College, Columbia University, N. Y., presented a paper on \" The Training of Teachers for Secondary Schools.\"\nThe paper was discussed by Joseph H. Stewart, president of North Georgia Agricultural College, and by Mr. Thorndike, of the Cleveland High School.\nHon. Howard J. Rogers, director of education and social economy, United States\ncommission to the Paris exposition, was accorded the floor to explain the plans for\n\"The United States Educational Exhibit at Paris in 1900.\"\n\nHe spoke as follows:\n\nMr. President, Members of the Association:\nI come before you this morning thru the courtesy of your president, not having a\ndefinite place upon the program, but interpolated, as it were, owing to the present interest\nin my subject. I assure you that I shall not keep you long from the enjoyment of the\nregular program, as what I have to say can be stated briefly.\nThe Paris exposition of 1900 is avowedly to be one of excellence and selection, and\nthe best products of men's thought and labor in science, art, and industry will be on view\nto the world. Education and instruction are given the place of honor in the French\nclassification, because, in the language of the French commissioner-genejal, \" they are\nthe source of all progress, and thru them man enters into the work of life.\"\nIt is a matter of some regret that in their representation the French officials have not\nmade the portals to this entrance a little larger, as they have assigned to the United\nStates only about 4,000 feet to show the working of the mill which grinds out American\ncitizens. But we accept the conditions without complaint, chiefly because we find that\nwe cannot better ourselves if we do complain. We are, at least, treated as generously as\nany other foreign nation.\nThe exposition will open April 15, 1900, and continue till Nov'ember 5 of the same\nyear. The grounds are in the heart of the city of Paris, and include the Champs de Mars,\nthe Esplanade du Trocadero, both banks of the river Seine for almost a mile, and the\nEsplanade des Invalides. Education and liberal arts have a special building on the west\nside of the Champs de Mars, and the space for education proper is in the gallery of this\nbuildingv between the spaces assigned to France and Germany. Special forms of education are provided for elsewhere — as agricultural schools in the agricultural building, art\nschools in the art building, and, under the present ruling of the exposition authorities,\nschools for defectives in the social-economy building, altho we hope to bring these\nschools back to the education group.\n\n"}
{"page": 261, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nMINUTES\n\n253\n\nNow, gentlemen, I am here today for two purposes : first, your support ; second, your\nadvice. To secure the former I must outline the plan of the exhibit. I take it for\ngranted that this assemblage is a unit in recognizing the value of an educational exhibit,\nits opportunities for comparison, its convenience for investigation. I have appeared of\nlate before assemblages which have seriously questioned the advisability of spending\nany money in presenting to the world our educational resources. I will not say where, as\nit might seem to be discourteous to that distinguished body of gentlemen which presides\nso ably over the destinies of our nation. 1 will not stop to discuss with you the nature\nof the material to be exhibited, or the methods of best displaying such material. You\nare familiar with them, and at most it is a matter of detail to be worked out by the one\nin charge. There remains, then, to be considered this point — the scientific arrangement\nof the exhibit as a whole, with a view of presenting to the world most clearly the educational system of our nation.\nOf course, we have no national system. We have forty-five sets of systems, with a\nfew territorial annexes thrown in. That is our problem — to show what we have not.\nBut upon analysis the problem is not so much of a paradox as it seems. The French\nrules compel us to do that which, in our inner consciousness, we know we ought to do, viz.,\nto exhibit as a nation. States, or any part thereof, cannot be recognized. It is a matter\nof no moment to any foreigner to know that Kefttucky has a better or a worse educational\nsystem than Virginia ; or whether California and Ohio are on an equality or not. We\nare faced front, shoulder to shoulder, with nations, and as a nation we must present our\ncase and be judged.\nOur exhibit will be divided, generally speaking, into the kindergarten, elementary\nschools, secondary schools, normal and training schools, colleges and universities, and\ntechnical schools. Now, while we have not, strictly speaking, a national system in any\nrespect, we have many places in our country where the elementary schools, for example,\nare doing magnificent work ; schools that are setting the standard for the rest of the\ncountry, and to which the work of other localities is approximating. We will ask such\nschools to furnish us an exhibit in that line. There are other sections where secondaryschool work has been strongly developed and stands pre-eminent in the country. Those\nschools will be invited to contribute to that section. Colleges and universities will be\nselected with reference to their adaptability to bring out certain salient and characteristic\nfeatures of our higher educational work.\nBy this means we expect to develop an exhibit in entire harmony with the dominant\nmotive of the exposition ; and an exhibit which will be collective, scientifically graded,\nand distinctly national in character, inasmuch as it will represent the most advanced\nthought of our country in every department of education, irrespective of section or\nlocality.\nNow, I realize fully that it is no small thing to ask a man who is proud, and justly\nproud, of the school or system under his supervision, to sink his identity and join in a\ngeneral exhibit from a purely national standpoint. But we do ask it, on the grounds\nbefore stated. We believe that, if this presentation of the case does not convince you,\nupon further deliberation you will recognize the justice and sound logic of the proposition.\nOur national pride in the proper presentation of our school interests demands a sacrifice of individual preference and prejudice, as well as the loyal support of every schoolman. We must not repeat the mistake of 1889. I have not the slightest wish to criticise\nthat exhibit or those who prepared it. It is all a matter of history. I know they did not\nhave time enough, and I presume they did not have money enough ; but it is better not\nto be represented at all than to be misrepresented. It is almost painful to read the report\nof the French commission on the American educational exhibit, and see the painstaking\nway in which it seeks to find something to praise; and it even goes so far as to mention\n\n"}
{"page": 262, "printed_page": null, "text": "2 54\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Columbus\n\nthings which it knew to exist in our educational system, but for which it could find no\npresentment in the exhibit.\nI think most Americans who visited Paris in 1889 were of the opinion of Chauncey\nM. Depew. He said that when he started he was firmly of the opinion that any American was the peer of any king or emperor, and a great deal better than most princes and\npotentates, and that the proper thing to do was to get an American flag, about forty feet\nsquare, and wave it over his head as he approached every Americari exhibit. But after\nhunting closely for a day or two, with the aid of a guide, for the exhibits, and comparing\nthem with those of other countries, he did not have a bit of trouble in folding up his flag\nand bringing it home in his vest pocket.\nI said, a few moments ago, that I wanted not only your support, but your advice.\nAnd I want the latter particularly in the matter of selecting those schools and institutions\nwhich are to represent the United States abroad.\nI cannot assume the egoism, nor do I care to undergo the criticism, of arbitrarily\nselecting these schools myself, and I shall rely upon the National Educational Association, thru its constituted committees, to relieve me of this responsibility. I believe this\nplan will commend itself to you as a fair and a just one, for certainly nowhere else than\nin the ranks of our association, which contains on its rolls every prominent educator in\nevery part of our country, can competent advice be sought.\nIn conclusion I wish to say that the headquarters of the department of education,\nduring the organization of the exhibit, will be at Albany, N. Y., and its officers will welcome at all times suggestions, advice, and criticism. We ma)' not always adopt the suggestions, we may not always follow the advice ; there may be reasons why we cannot ;\nthere may be reasons why we should not. But we shall welcome it none the less. The\ndepartment of education, under the United States commission, has in view one object in\nthis exposition, and will employ every means to attain it. We believe the American citizen — the composite type, if I may use the phrase — is superior to that of any other\nnation. We wish to demonstrate this to every foreign nation, and put before them clearly\nand understandingly the system of education which produces this type. For this reason\nwe feel that we can appeal, not only to your professional pride, but to your patriotism\nand loyalty. The National Educational Association will be in the highest degree respon-sible for this outcome, and we expect from its members their good wishes, their good\nadvice, and their good help.\nDr. F. Louis Soldan, superintendent of schools, St. Louis, Mo., spoke on the subject,\n\"Efficient and Inefficient Teachers.\"\nThe subject was discussed by A. S. Downing, New York city ; John MacDonald,\nTopeka, Kan.; Superintendent Coleman, Lemars, la.; Orville T. Bright, Chicago, 111.;\nAlbert Salisbury, president of the State Normal School, Whitewater, Wis.; Superintendent\nR. K. Buehrle, Lancaster, Pa.; Superintendent J. A. Carr, Anderson, Ind.; Superintendent J. F. Keating, Pueblo, Colo.; Dr. Charles A. McMurry, Normal, 111.; Superintendent Charles W. Deane, Bridgeport, Conn.\nThe president announced the following\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON NOMINATIONS\n\nO. T. Corson, Ohio.\nA. G. Lane, Illinois.\nC. G. Pearse, Nebraska.\nG. H. Conley, Massachusetts.\nMcHenry Rhoades, Kentucky.\n\nThe department then adjourned.\nAFTERNOON\n\nSESSION\n\nThe afternoon was devoted to round tables, as follows : round table of city superintendents, conducted by J. P, Sharkey, superintendent of schools, Yan Wert, O.;\n\ni\n\n"}
{"page": 263, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nMINUTES\n\n255\n\nEducational Press Association of America, under the leadership of President John MacDonald, Topeka, Kan.\nEVENING SESSION\nThe department was called to order at 8 o'clock by the president.\nThe following addresses were made :\n\"What the Superintendent is Not,\" Dr. A. E. Winship, editor of the Journal of\nEducation, Boston, Mass.\n\" How the Superintendent can Make Good Teachers out of Poor Ones,\" Dr. W. T.\nHarris, United States Commissioner of Education, Washington, D. C;.\n\"Authority of the School Superintendent,\" Dr. E. E. White, Columbus, O.\n\nTHIRD\nMORNING\n\nDAY\n\nSESSION. — Thursday, February\n\n23\n\nThe department was called to order at 9 : 30 by President Mark.\nAfter music by the pupils of the Columbus City Normal School, Rev. Dr. Hillman,\nof Columbus, offered prayer.\nDr. Arnold Tompkins, professor of pedagogy. University of Illinois, addressed the\ndepartment on the subject, \"The Implications and Applications of the Principle of SelfActivity in Education.\"\nThe subject was discussed by Superintendent L. H. Jones, Cleveland, O.; Superintendent F. Treudly, Youngstown, O.; Professor Samuel Weir, New York University\nSchool of Pedagogy ; Dr. Arthur Allin, professor of philosophy and pedagogy. University\nof Colorado; Professor Reuben Post Halleck, Louisville, Ky.; Louis Galbreath, New\nYork city; Dr. E. E. White, Columbus, O.; Dr. J. W. Bashford, president of the Ohio\nWesleyan University.\nDr. Tompkins closed the discussion.\nSuperintendent W. L. Steele, Galesburg, 111., read a paper entitled, \" To What Extent\nshould a High-School Pupil be Allowed to Elect His Work?\"\nMr. Steele's paper was discussed by Superintendent T. J. Merrill, Cedar Rapids, la.;\nand by Superintendent Coleman, Le Mars, la.\nThe Committee on Nominations presented the following report :\nYour committee unanimously recommends the following persons for the offices named for the ensuing\nyear:\n\nFor President — A. S. Downing, New York.\nV or First Vice-President — G. R. Glenn, Georgia.\nFor Second Vice-President — J. A. Shawan, Ohio.\nFor Secretary — C. M. Jordan, Minnesota.\nBy order of committee,\nO. T. Corson, Chairman.\n\nOn motion, the secretary was instructed to cast the ballot of the department for the\nofficers so nominated.\nThis having been done, the persons named were declared elected.\nOn motion of Mr. Bright, the Executive Committee was instructed to employ a\nstenographer to report the next meeting.\nHon. W. T. Harris, United States Commissioner of Education, chairman of the Committee on Hygiene and Sanitation appointed at the Chattanooga meeting, read the report\nof his committee.\nThe following resolution was presented by Dr. Harris :\nResolved, That the preliminary report of the Committee on Hygiene be referred back to said committee\nfor further consideration and completion, and that the same committee be directed to bring the attention of the\nNational Council of Education to said report, and convey to the president of said Council the request of this\ndepartment to take up this report, if possible, at the coming meeting at Los Angeles, and consider its recomt\nmendations; and, if the same meet with approval, to ask the Board of Trustees, in the prescribed form, to seapart the sums required for the specific purposes mentioned.\n\n"}
{"page": 264, "printed_page": null, "text": "256\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Columbus\n\nSuperintendent Soldan moved that the report be received and filed, and that the\nresolution be adopted.\nCarried.\nState Superintendent G. R. Glenn, of Georgia, invited the department to hold its\nnext annual meeting in Atlanta.\nDr. E. B. Andrew^s, superintendent of schools, Chicago, 111., invited the department to\nmeet in Chicago.\nMr. Hope, member of the Atlanta city council, spoke in support of Superintendent\nGlenn's invitation. Superintendent E. B. Prettyman, of Maryland, and President Joseph\nS. Stewart, of Georgia, also spoke in favor of Atlanta.\nSuperintendents Soldan and Pearse advocated Chicago as the next place of meeting.\nThe result of the vote was as follows : Atlanta, 42 ; Chicago, 52.\nPresident Mark declared Chicago the next place of meeting.\nSuperintendent Gove, Denver, Colo., offered the fQllowing :\nResolved, That a committee of three be appointed, with instructions to report on the first day of the\nmeeting of 1900, recommendhig a place for the meetings of the department for the two succeeding years, 1901\nand 1902.\n\nThe resolution was adopted.\nThe department then adjourned.\nAFTERNOON\n\nSESSION\n\nThe convention was called to order at 2 : 45 by Second Vice-President A. T. Barrett,\nChattanooga, Tenn.\nThe Committee on Resolutions made its report thru its chairman. Superintendent\nH. S. Tarbell, Providence, R. I., as follows :\nTo the Department of Superintendence of the N^ational Educational Association :\nThe Committee on Resolutions respectfully presents for your consideration the following report :\n1. Resolved, That the thanks of this department are due, and are hereby tendered, to\nthe officers of the department for the zeal and efficiency with which they have discharged\ntheir duties; to those who have presented the valuable papers that have been read, and\nmade the eloquent and suggestive addresses that have been delivered ; to the people of\nColumbus for their generous hospitality, and particularly to the board of trade and the\nLocal Committee, which have contributed so much to the success of this meeting ; to the\npress for its extended and satisfactory reports ; and to the railroads for reduced rates of\ntransportation.\n2. Resolved, That the adequate representation of the schools of the United States at\nthe Paris exposition of 1900 is of great importance, and that the efforts being made to\nsecure such representation deserve our cordial co-operation.\n3. Resolved, That the Directors of the National Educational Association be requested\nto provide an adequate appropriation for the meetings of this department, and that the\nofficers of this department be directed to present this request at the next meeting of the\nboard.\n4. Resolved, That we are greatly gratified by the growing recognition and appreciation\nof the teaching profession, and especially by the growing tendency of school committees\nand the public to regard the competent superintendent as an educational expert, whose\nmatured opinions on questions of educational principles and processes are deserving the\nrecognition accorded to the judgment of experts in other professions.\n5. Resolved, That the tendency, widely shown, so to reconstruct the organic law governing the election and powers of boards of education as to diminish to the lowest possible\npoint the opportunity of their members to use their office for their personal interests, is an\nindication of how abhorrent to the feelings of the better portion of every community is\n\n"}
{"page": 265, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nSECRE TAR Y 'S MINUTES\n\n-\n\ni^l\n\nany attempt to use the public schools for any purpose less worthy than training the\nrising generation to honorable citizenship and efficient industrial life.\n6. Resolved, That the increasing co-operation of the home and the schools, and the\nlibrary and the schools, the establishment of vacation schools, the greater extension in\nrecent years of educational advantages to those not regularly enrolled in the schools, the\nincreasing attention to the artistic decoration of the schoolrooms and to the hygienic\nconditions of the schools, the growing interest in educational reforms exhibited by the\nmagazines and the daily press, are all evidences of educational progress, on which we\nmay sincerely congratulate ourselves.\n7. Resolved, That the growth of the attendance at the meetings of this department\nand the interest of others than superintendents in our meetings show how attractive a center of educational life we have become. We welcome most cordially our visiting friends ;\nbut feel alarmed lest numbers shall so react upon ourselves as to lead us in our papers,\nour addresses, and our debates to lose sight of the professional and technical side of our\nwork. The time has come when we can properly insist that those who speak to us shall\nrecognize the professional character of an audience of superintendents, and shall appeal\nto our deepest thought and closest attention.\n8. Resolved, That we recommend the appointment of an advisory committee on program, whose duty it shall be to assist the president in the selection of topics to be presented at these meetings, and in such careful formulation of questions for discussions as\nshall lead to most definite and fruitful debate. This committee should be practically\ncontinuous ; its members should be three in number, each holding office for three years,\nand one member retiring each year. We recommend that for the present year this committee be appointed by the retiring president, one member for one year, one for two\nyears, and one for three years ; and that hereafter the place of the retiring member\nbe filled by the Committee on Nominations.\nHorace S. Tarbell, Rhode Island.\nOssiAN H. Lang, New York.\nFrank R. Dyer, Kansas.\nW. H. Hershman, Indiana.\nW. C. Martindale, Michigan.\nThe report was received and adopted.\nSamuel Hamilton, superintendent of schools, Allegheny county. Pa., read a paper on\n\"The Director as a Factor in Education.\"\nSuperintendent C. G. Pearse, chairman of the Committee on Uniform Financial\nReports, appointed at the Chattanooga meeting, presented the report of that committee.\nAfter an animated discussion, in which Superintendents Griffith, Emerson, Bouton,\nand others participated, Mr. Pearse offered the following :\nResolved, That this form of report, presented by the committee, be approved by the department, and\nthat the directors of the National Educational Association be asked to authorize the Secretary of the National\nEducational Association to have printed a sufficient number of the forms recommended so that a copy of the\nform may be sent to the superintendent of schools in each city or village in the various states, as well as to all\nstate superintendents of public instruction, explaining to them the indorsement of this department, and the\ndesire that a report upon the form proposed be embodied in all their formal published school financial reports.\n\nMr. Pearse's resolution was adopted.\nMoved by William J. Cox, superintendent of schools, Moline, 111.,\nThat a committee of three be appointed by the President of this association to confer with the state\ndepartments and the United States Commissioner of Education with a view to securing the adoption of this\nform of statistical report by all to whom school superintendents are expected to report.\n\nSuperintendent Cox' motion prevailed.\nThe Committee on Amended Spelling made its report thru its chairman, R. K.\nBuehrle, superintendent of schools, Lancaster, Pa.\n\n"}
{"page": 266, "printed_page": null, "text": "2S8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Columbus\n\nSuperintendent O. T. Bright moved that the report be received.\nAfter listening to objections by Mr. John MacDonald and Dr. E. E. White, and to\nfurther argument by Mr. Buehrle, the department passed affirmatively upon Mr. Bright's\nmotion.\nPresident Mark announced the following committees :\nCOMMITTEE\nAaron Gove,\n\nON PERMANENT\n\nLOCATION\n\nColorado.\nGeorge H. Martin, Massachusetts.\nO. T. Corson, Ohio.\n\nCONFERENCE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON FINANCIAL\n\nREPORTS\n\nHon. William T, Harris.\n' Superintendent John W. Abercrombie, Alabama.\nSuperintendent N. C. Schaeffer, Pennsylvania.\nADVISORY\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON PROGRAM\n\nSuperintendent L. H. Jones, one year. Superintendent H. S. Tarbell, two years.\nSuperintendent L. D. Harvey, three years.\n\nThe department then adjourned.\nEVENING\n\nSESSION\n\nThe department was called to order at 8 o'clock by President Mark, in the auditorium of the Ohio State University.\nDr. T. C. Mendenhall, president of Worcester Polytechnic Institute, Worcester,\nMass., addressed the department upon the subject, \" Some Neglected Factors and Forgotten Facts.\"\nFollowing this address, President Mark introduced President-elect Augustus S.\nDowning, and presented him with the official gavel of the department, welcoming him to\nthe responsibility of the office to which he had been elected. President Downing\nresponded in a graceful speech, thanking the members of the department for the honor\nconferred and inviting their co-operation.\nThe department thereupon adjourned sine die.\nThe members then repaired to the armory of the University of Ohio, where, under\nthe leadership of President and Mrs. Canfield, a reception was tendered to them by the\nfaculty of the university, the teachers of the city schools, and the citizens of Columbus.\nJ. H. Van Sickle,\nSecretary.\n\n"}
{"page": 267, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nPUBLIC\n\nLANDS\n\nPAPERS\nTHE\nBY\n\nE.\n\nB.\n\nPUBLIC\n\nPRETTYMAN,\n\nAND\n\nAND\n\nLANDS\nSTATE\n\nPUBLIC\n\nEDUCATION\n\n259\n\nDISCUSSIONS\nAND\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\nMARYLAND\n\nOF\n\nEDUCATION\nPUBLIC\n\nINSTRUCTION,\n\nIn order to realize the relation of the public lands of the United States\nto public education, it may be well to review briefly some of the legislation and history of our country.\nCLAIMS\n\nOF\n\nSIX\n\nSTATES\n\nTO\n\nOWNERSHIP\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nWESTERN\n\nLANDS\n\nWhen, in the year 1777, the Continental Congress had framed the\n\"Articles of Confederation,\" and submitted them to the several states for\nratification, six of the thirteen states claimed the ownership of the immense\ntracts of unsettled country extending from the Alleghanies to the Mississippi. Massachusetts claimed a strip of land equal in width to the width;\nnorth and south, of the state, based upon the charterof the colony, granted\nby William and Mary in 1691, which described the lands granted thereby\nas extendi.ng \" from the Atlantick or Western Sea and Ocean on the East,\nto the South Sea on the West parte.\" (Which and where was \"the South\nSea\" the charter does not state.)\nThe claim of Connecticut was based on its charter from Charles II.,\nin 1662, which describes the territory granted as extending \"from the\nNarragansett Bay on the East, to the South Sea on the West\" (the same\n\"South Sea.\")\nNew York claimed all the lands between Lake Erie and the Cumberland mountains — in other words, what is now the state of Ohio and a\nportion of Kentucky — by virtue of various treaties with the Six Nations\nand their allies,\nVirginia claimed the entire region occupied by Kentucky and all the\nlands north of the Ohio river. Her claim was based partly upon the\noriginal charter granted by James I. to South Virginia, in 1609, which\nmakes the seacoast two hundred miles to the northward from Cape or\nPoint Comfort, and two hundred miles to the southward from the said\nPoint or Cape Comfort, the eastern boundary of the territory granted ;\n\"and all that space and circuit of land lying from the sea coast of the\nprecinct aforesaid, up into the land throughout, from Sea to Sea, West\nand North-west.\"\n\nIf it was intended that the west line was to begin at\n\n"}
{"page": 268, "printed_page": null, "text": "26o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Columbus\n\nthe southern end of the coast line, and the northwest line from the northern end of said coast line, then Virginia would have included nearly all\nof the entire Northwest.\nDr. Herbert B. Adams, in his extremely valuable paper upon the \" History of the Accession of Public Lands,\" remarks that\nIt is not very surprising that the ideas and language of the privy council should\nhave heen somewhat hazy as to the exact whereabouts of the \" South Sea,\" for Stith, one\nof the early historians of Virginia, tells us that in 1608 .... an expedition was organized under Captain Newport to sail up the James river and find a passage to the South\nSea. Captain John Smith also was once commissioned to seek a new route to China by\nascending the Chicahominy !\n\nA much stronger claim on the part of Virginia to the ownership of\nthe great Northwest, however, arose from actual conquest and possession.\nBy act of the British Parliament, in 1774, the crown lands northwest of\nthe Ohio river were annexed to the royal province of Quebec — which\nwas one of the acts complained of in the Declaration of Independence.\nIn 1778- a secret expedition was undertaken by Virginia, at her own\nexpense, under Colonel George Rogers Clarke, who was commissioned by\nPatrick Henry, then governor of Virginia ; the result of which was the\ncomplete conquest of the northwestern lands ; whereupon Virginia proceeded to annex the conquered territory under the name of the \" county\nof Illinois.\"\nThese several claims conflicted, as the lands thus claimed overlapped,\nand it is probable that, had there been no cession to the general government, disputes, and possibly serious collisions, between the claimants\nwould have occurred.\nThe Carolinas and Georgia were also encouraged by the existing state\nof affairs to advance their rights of eminent domain over all the territory\nnow included in the state of Tennessee and portions of Alabama and\nMississippi..\nMARYLAND\n\nTO\n\nTHE\n\nRESCUE\n\nIn this condition of affairs the state of Maryland, ably represented in\nthe Continental Congress, and with a state legislature composed of able\nand cultivated citizens, came to the front, and took high and strong\ngrounds against the claims of all and each of the states that asserted titles\nto the lands between the Alleghanies and the Mississippi.\nThe first move that was ever made in Congress toward the assertion\nof national sovereignty over this western country was made by Maryland. On October 13, 1777, it was moved by a delegate from Maryland\n\" that the United States in Congress assembled shall have the sole and\nexclusive right and power to ascertain and fix the western boundary of\nsuch states as lay claim to the Mississippi or South Sea as a western\nboundary, and [to] lay out the land beyond the boundary so ascertained\n\n"}
{"page": 269, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence!\n\nPUBLIC\n\nLANDS\n\nAND\n\nPUBLIC\n\nEDUCATION\n\n261\n\ninto separate and independent states, from time to time, as the numbers\nand circumstances of the people may require.\" '\nMaryland alone voted in the affirmative.\nThe original proposition that Congress should exercise sovereign\npower over the western country was a pioneer idea, and Dr. Herbert B.\nAdams tells us : \" We have discovered, by a careful examination of the\njournals of the Continental Congress, that Maryland was not only the\nfirst, but for a long time the only, state to advocate national jurisdiction\nover the western lands.\"\nRhode Island, New Jersey, and Delaware joined in seeking, either a\nshare in the proceeds of the sale of these lands, or that funds arising\nfrom such sales should be applied toward defraying the expenses of the\nwar; but they were content that the jurisdiction over the western lands\nshould remain in the states that claimed them.\nThe credit of suggesting and successfully urging in Congress that policy which\nhas made this country a great national commonwealth, composed of \" free, convenient,\nand independent governments,\" bound together by ties of permanent territorial interest,\nthe credit of originating this policy belongs to Maryland, and to her alone. (Dr. Herbert\nAdams.)\n\nThe claiming states stubbornly urged their right to jurisdiction and\nto actual ownership. Every state but Maryland virtually conceded these\nclaims by ratifying the Articles of Confederation, Delaware being last,\nratifying February 22, 1779. Maryland was thus left to fight out the\nbattle alone.\nThe Articles of Confederation could not go into effect until ratified\nby every state, and Maryland still refused absolutely to ratify until the\nwestern lands should be ceded to the general government. For two\nyears longer she maintained her position unflinchingly.\nDecember 15, 1778, the Maryland general assembly adopted the celebrated and exceedingly important document known as \" The Maryland\nInstructions to her Delegates in Congress,\" wherein, after arguing against\nthe claimants' contention, it is asserted that\nWe are convinced that policy and justice require that a country unsettled at the commencement ofthis war, claimed by the British crown, and ceded to it by the Treaty of Paris,\nif wrested from the common enemy by the blood and treasure of the thirteen states, should\nbe considered as a common property, subject to be parceled out by Congress into free,\nconvenient, and independent governments, in such manner, and at such times, as the\nwisdom of that assembly shall hereafter direct. We have coolly and dispassionately considered the subject ; we have weighed probable inconveniences and hardships against the\nsacrifice of just and essential rights ; and we do instruct you [the delegates of Maryland\nin the Continental Congress] not to agree to the confederation, unless an article or\narticles be added thereto in conformity with our declaration ; should we succeed in obtaining such article or articles, then you are hereby fully empowered to accede to the confederation.\n''^Journal of Congress, Vol. II, p. 290.\n\n"}
{"page": 270, "printed_page": null, "text": "262\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Columbus\n\nIn May, 1779, the Virginia legislature passed an act establishing a\nland office, and offered to sell the western lands which she claimed at\n^^o per hundred acres.\nDuring the same month the \" Maryland Instructions \" were read in\nCongress and referred to a committee.\nOctober 30, 1779, Mr. William Paca, of Maryland, offered the following resolution, which was seconded by his colleague, Mr. George Plater :\nWhereas, The appropriation of vacant lands by the several states during the continuance ofthe war will, in the opinion of Congress, be attended with great mischiefs ;\ntherefore,\nResolved, That it be earnestly recommended to the state of Virginia to reconsider their\nlate act of assembly for opening their land office ; and that it be recommended to said\nstate, and all other states similarly circumstanced, to forbear settling or issuing warrants\nfor unappropriated lands, or granting the same during the continuance of the present\nwar.\n\nThe influence of Maryland had by this time become so potent that\nthe above-quoted preamble and resolution were adopted, only Virginia\nand North Carolina voting in the negative, the New York delegation\nbeing divided.\nNext in order of time came the famous \" Remonstrance,\" addressed\n\"by the general assembly of Virginia to the delegates of the United States\nof America in Congress assembled,\" dated December 14, 1779. Therein\nVirginia remonstrates against the ideaof Congress exercising jurisdiction,\nor any right of adjudication, concerning the petitions of the Vandalia or\nIndiana land companies, or upon \" any other matter \" subversive of the\ninternal policy of Virginia. But in this remonstrance Virginia declares\nherself \" ready to listen to any just and reasonable propositions for removing the ostensible causes of delay to the complete ratification of the confederation.\" As Maryland was now the only state which had not ratified\nthe Articles of Confederation, it is manifest that her influence was, at last,\nbeginning to tell even upon Virginia, and that the land claims of the\nlatter were becoming less positive.\nThen followed an act of the New York legislature, which was passed\nFebruary 19, 1780, entitled, \"An Act to facilitate the completion of the\nArticles of Confederation and perpetual union among the United States\nof America.\" In this act New York authorized her delegates in Congress\nto make either an unreserved or a limited cession of her western lands,\naccording as these delegates should deem it expedient. This act was read\nin Congress March 7, 1780.\nOn September 6, 1780 — a memorable day in the history of the land\nquestion — a report of the committee was made in Congress on the\n\"Maryland Instructions,\" the \"Virginia Remonstrance,\" and the \"Act of\nthe New York Legislature of February 19, 1780.\"\nThis report earnestly recommended the claiming states \"to pass such\nlaws and give their delegates in Congress such powers as may effectually\n\n"}
{"page": 271, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nPUBLIC\n\nLANDS\n\nAND\n\nPUBLIC\n\nEDUCA7 ION .\n\n263\n\nremove the only obstacle to a final ratification of the Articles of Confederation ;and that the legislature of Maryland be earnestly requested to\nauthorize their delegates in Congress to subscribe the said articles.\"\nThese recommendations were sent to all the states.\nConnecticut soon offered a cession of western lands, provided that she\nmight retain the jurisdiction,\nJanuary 2, 1 781, Virginia offered to cede to the confederation complete\njurisdiction over all lands northwest of the Ohio, on certain conditions.\nMarch i, 1781, the offer of New York to cede all the western land claimed\nby her was formally made in Congress.\nIn this condition of affairs, Maryland, having virtually succeeded in\nthe establishment of the principles for which she had contended, ratified\nthe articles on the first day of March, 1781 ; and the first legal union of\nthe United States was complete.\nThe offer of New York was accepted, on motion of Mr. Daniel Carroll,\nof Maryland, October 29, 1782. Virginia modified her conditions, as\nrequested, and on October 20, 1783, empowered her delegates in Congress\nto make the cession, which was done by Thomas Jefferson and others\nMarch i, 1784. Massachusetts ceded her western lands, together with\njurisdiction over the same, April 19, 1785. Connecticut ceded the lands\nshe had claimed September 14, 178,6, reserving, however, all the lands she\nhad claimed lying between the western boundary line of Pennsylvania and\na north-and-south line drawn 120 miles west of said boundary line,\nknown thereafter as the \"Connecticut Reserve,\" a tract nearly as large as\nthe present state of Connecticut. The acceptance of this cession was\nstrongly opposed in Congress. After a severe struggle it was accepted\nMay 26, 1786, Maryland voting in the negative. Connecticut granted\n500,000 acres of this reserve to certain of her citizens whose property had\nbeen burned or destroyed during the Revolution. The remainder was\nsold, under an act of the Connecticut legislature, in 1795, for gi, 200,000,\nwhich sum has been used for the benefit of the schools and colleges of\nConnecticut. South Carolina ceded her western land claims in 1787,\nNorth Carolina in 1790, and Georgia in 1802.\nGRANTS\n\nOF\nFOR\n\nPUBLIC\nPUBLIC\n\nLANDS\n\nMADE\n\nEDUCATION,\n\nBY\nTO\n\nTHE\n\nCONGRESS\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nTRANS-ALLEGHANY\n\nUNITED\n\nSTATES,\n\nSTATES\n\nAn ordinance adopted by Congress May 20, 1785, provides for the\ndivision of the public lands into townships of six miles square, and for\nthe subdivision of each township into thirty-six sections, each containing\none square mile, and numbered from i to 36 ; and then provides that\n\"there shall be reserved the Lot No. 16 of every township for the maintenance of public schools within said township.\" This left open the\nquestion whether the public schools that the United States had endowed\nshould be under national or state control.\nBy an act approved March 3,\n\n"}
{"page": 272, "printed_page": null, "text": "264\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Columbus\n\n1803, Congress disposed of this open question by vesting in the legislature all lands granted to Ohio for the use of schools \"in trust for the use\naforesaid, and for no other use, intent, or purpose whatever.\"\nIn the enabling acts passed by Congress, as each state west of the\nAlleghanies was admitted into the union, substantially the same provision\nwas engrafted, until the state of California was admitted. Congress donated\nfor the maintenance of public schools to California, and to each state\nadmitted subsequently up to the present time, two sections. No. 16 and\nNo. 36, in each township. The public lands so granted by the United\nStates for public schools to the several states, beginning with Ohio, are\nequivalent, therefore, to one-thirty-sixth part of the whole area of each\nstate, until the admission of California; and in the case of California and\neach state subsequently admitted are equivalent to one-eighteenth part of\nthe whole area of each state, and amount in the aggregate to 67,893,919\nacres.\nBesides, vast quantities of public land have been granted to the transAlleghany states for state universities, and for other educational institutions.\nBy way of example, the enabling act for the state of South Dakota and\nthree other states, passed by Congress and approved February 22, 1889,\ngrants public lands to the state of South Dakota, as follows : for the\nschool of mines, 40,000 acres ; for the, reform school, 40,000 acres ; for\nthe agricultural college, 40,000 acres ; for the university, 40,000 ; for the\nstate normal school, 80,000 acres ; for public buildings at the capital of\nsaid state, 50,000 acres ; and for such other educational and charitable\npurposes as the legislature of said state may determine, 170,000 acres —\nin all, nearly 500,000 acres.\nSec. II of same act provides that \"all lands herein granted for educational purposes shall be disposed of only at public sale, and at a price\nnot less than ten dollars per acre.\" (The value of the grants aggregating\nnearly $5,000,000, besides the lands for common schools.)\nWhy should not an equitable share of the public lands of the United\nStates be granted by Congress to the states east of the Alleghanies, and\nespecially to Maryland, whose wise statesmanship (as has been demonstrated)\n\"laid the keystone of the confederation, and of the American union\" ?\nOnly one vigorous attempt has been made, until very recently, so far\nas we can ascertain, to change the national educational policy in connection with the public lands.\nThe general assembly of Maryland in 1821 adopted an elaborate\nreport, submitted by the committee to which so much of the governor's\nannual message as related to education and public instruction had been\nreferred, that concluded with the following resolutions :\nResolved, by the general assembly of Maryland, That each of the United States has\nan equal right to participate in the benefit of the public lands — the common property of\nthe union.\n\n"}
{"page": 273, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nPUBLIC\n\nLANDS\n\nAND\n\nPUBLIC\n\nEDUCATION\n\n265\n\nResolved, That the. states in whose favor Congress has not made appropriations of\nland for the purposes of education are entitled to such appropriations as will correspond,\nin a just proportion, with those heretofore made in favor of the other states.\nResolved, That his excellency, the governor, be requested to transmit copies of the\nforegoing report and resolutions to each of our senators and representatives in Congress,\nwith a request that they will lay the same before their respective houses, and use their\nendeavors to procure the passage of an act to carry into effect the just principle therein\nset forth.\nResolved, That his excellency, the governor, be also requested to transmit copies of\nthe said report and resolutions to the governors of the several states of the union, with a\nrequest that they will communicate the same to the legislatures thereof, respectively, and\nsolicit their co-operation.\n\nThe legislatures of New Hampshire and Vermont indorsed this report ;\nbut this appears to have been the end of the matter, as Congress did not\nact thereupon.\nThere are signs, however, at the pres.ent time, of a general movement\nthruout the country in favor of the principles which Maryland has advocated in the past.\nAt the annual meeting of the National Educational Association held\nat Buffalo, N. Y., in July, 1896, Judge Draper, president of the University\nof Illinois, in a very able paper, asserted that\nThe federal government has much land yet to give away, and it should be sacredly\ndevoted to the cause of education of the masses. The intervention of the government\nwould help the weak and thus equalize conditions, systematize a national educational\npolicy, promote national unity, and advance our position in the estimation of the thoughtful people of the world.\n\nThe States west of the Alleghanies that have received only one section\nof land for every township for public schools are very properly moving to\nobtain an equivalent for the other section received by the states admitted\nlater, beginning with California. As the result of this general movement,\nthree bills were introduced at the last session of Congress providing for\nthe equitable adjustment of the claims of all the states to the proceeds of\nthe public lands for public education.\nMaryland has never received from Congress a grant of a single acre\nof public lands for the benefit of her public schools.\nIn this condition of affairs, the state board of education of Maryland,\nat the unanimous request of the State Association of Public School Officers, has appointed a committee, with Governor Lloyd Lowndes as chairman, to present the claim of the state to Congress for an equitable share\nof the public lands of the United States to aid in the maintenance of the\npublic schools of the state.\nThere are other'states which have received none of the public lands\nfor public schools, and still other states that have received only one section\nin every township.\nIt is to be hoped that the members of this department will all use\ntheir influence, actively and aggressively, to bring about, thru the action\n\n"}
{"page": 274, "printed_page": null, "text": "266\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Columbus\n\nof Congress, a just and fair equalization of the distribution of the public\nlands still owned by the United States — the common property of all the\ncitizens of the union — for the support of public schools.\nThe mother states appeal to the great commonwealths that have outgrown them to join in this measure of justice.\nAfter such equalization, or contemporaneously therewith, we are ready\nto join our brethren of all the states in favor of the proposition of Judge\nDraper, that the 600,000,000 acres of public lands still undisposed of by\nthe federal government \"shall be sacredly devoted to the cause of education of the masses\" — the cause which Horace Mann declared to be the\ngreatest ever proclaimed by man.\n\nDISCUSSION\nRichard C. Barrett, state superintendent of Iowa. — The public domain embraces\nthe area of the lands now owned or heretofore disposed of by the United States in twentysix states and five territories. The thirteen original states, the District of Columbia, and\nthe \"legislative states\" of Kentucky, Vermont, Tennessee, Maine, Texas, and West Virginia are not included.\nBy the constitution \" Congress shall have power to dispose of and make all needful\nrules and regulations respecting the territory or other property belonging to the United\nStates.\" The supreme court of the United States has decided that the term \" territory \" is\nequivalent to the word \"land.\"\n\" Congress has the absolute right to prescribe the times, the conditions, and the mode\nof transferring the public domain or any part of it, and to designate the persons to whom\nthe transfer shall be made.\" The change from territorial relationship to that of statehood\nin no sense affects the right of governmental control over the lands embraced within the\nborders of the new states. \" No state formed out of the territory of the United States has\na right to the public lands within its limits, or can exercise any power whatever over\nthem.\"\nActing in accordance with the above, Congress has given nearly 80,000,000 of acres\nfor education. In round numbers, 68,000,000 acres were granted for public or common\nschools, 1,000,000 acres for seminaries and universities, and for colleges relating to agriculture and mechanic arts, 10,000,000 acres.\nThe educational land-grant policy is older than the present federal government. As\nearly as 1775 an ordinance was adopted by Congress which provided that \" there shall be\nreserved the lot No. 16 of every township for the maintenance of public schools within said\ntownship.\" Both before and after its adoption this ordinance was the subject of controversy and legislation. The government surveyed the lands and made the reservations.\nShould the schools endowed by the munificence of the government be organized, managed,\nand controlled by federal or state authority ? Not until the admission of Ohio, in 1803,\nwas the question finally determined. It was then decided that the state of Ohio should be\na trustee for all school lands within its borders, and the same were appropriated for the use\nof schools, \" and for no other use, intent, or purpose whatever.\"\nThe precedent then established has since been followed. Ohio, Indiana, Illinois,\nMissouri, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Michigan, Arkansas, Florida, Iowa, and\n\n"}
{"page": 275, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nPUBLIC\n\nLANDS\n\nAND\n\nPUBLIC\n\nEDUCATION\n\n267\n\nWisconsin were by the provisions of law entitled to the sixteenth section in each township\nfor common-school purposes.\nThese were all known as public-land states.\nWhen the act for the organization of Oregon was before Congress in 1848, there was\ninserted among its provisions a clause calculated in every way to stimulate educational zeal\nin all states thereafter admitted. Two sections instead of one were to be reserved for\nschool purposes. California, Minnesota, Oregon, Kansas, Nevada, Nebraska, Colorado,\nWashington, North Dakota, South Dakota, Montana, Idaho, Wyoming, and Utah have each\nreceived a grant of the sixteenth and thirty-sixth sections, and the same area has been\nreserved in the territories.\nIn Iowa — and presumably the same is partially or wholly true in other states — 5 per\ncent, of the net proceeds of the sales of public lands in the state, and the proceeds of the\nsales of intestate estates which escheat to the state, constitute chiefly the permanent school\nfund, the interest of which alone is used for the support of the common schools. In no\ncase may the principal be impaired or diminished.\nLand grants for higher education date from the latter part of the eighteenth century.\nFrom the admission of Ohio, in 1803, to the present time there have been given to all newly\nadmitted states two townships of lands for university purposes. In the states of Ohio,\nFlorida, Wisconsin, and Minnesota even larger grants were made, the first receiving three\nsections, the second and third, four sections, and the last, nearly four sections.\nIn 1862 Hon. Justin S. Morrell chkmpioned a measure which broadened the educational policy of the government to a still greater extent. By the provisions of the bill and\nits supplements, there were granted to all the states, for agricultural and mechanical colleges, 30,000 acres for each representative and senator in Congress to which the state was\nentitled under the census of i860.\nAll the states, including the thirteen original colonies, were embraced under the provisions ofthis act. By the conditions named Connecticut received as much as Texas, and\nDelaware the same as Nebraska, Kansas, or Colorado, while New York received ten times\nas much as any one of the last four named, and as much as Ohio and Kentucky combined.\nThe moneys derived from the sale of lands granted or of \"land scrip \" were to be\ninvested in stocks of the United States or of the^tates, or some other safe stock yielding\nnot less than 5 per cent., and the moneys so invested constitute a perpetual fund, the\nprincipal forever to be undiminished. The interest upon the principal can alone be\nappropriated to the endowment, support, and maintenance of at least one college, where\nthe leading object shall be, without excluding other scientific and classical studies, and\nincluding military tactics, to teach such branches of learning as are related to agriculture\nand mechanic arts.\nIn giving these lands to the states for educational purposes, was it intended to limit\nthe course of study to such studies only as are related to agriculture and mechanic arts,\nand military tactics ? That such was not the intention is quite evident. Sec. 4 of the\noriginal act calls for the teaching of certain branches of learning, \" without excluding\nother scientific or classical studies.\" Again, in 1884, Mr. Morrell, the author of the bill,\nin a letter to a member of the upper house of the Iowa general assembly, said : \" It was\nnot intended to limit the amount of education in any way so as to prevent a college from\nhaving the means and the efficiency of even a university as to languages and mathematics.\"\nThe national land-grant policy was established for a special purpose. This is clearly\nforth in Art. 3 of the ordinance of 1787 in the following words : \" Religion, morality,\nand knowledge being necessary to good government and the happiness of mankind,\nschools and the means of education shall forever be encouraged.\"\nThe wisdom of the policy has been questioned. The Blair bill, which provided for the\ndistribution of $100,000,000 among the states, on the basis of illiteracy, was opposed by\n\n"}
{"page": 276, "printed_page": null, "text": "268\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n[Columbus\n\nmany strong friends of education. They believed that illiteracy, while a great evil, was\nnot the worst; that ignorance should be dispelled as soon as possible, but not at the great\ncost of losing self-reliance.\nDuring the pendency of the bill a prominent southern gentleman opposed the measure strongly in these words : \" You know my deep interest in the public-school system.\nHence, I am opposed to national aid. You cannot plaster the South with this system.\nIt is a growth, and its certain and healthy growth can only be secured by each community\nproviding for its own schools.\" Again, he says it is \" the old hallucination, ' fifty acres\nand a mule,' which has caused more briars and sassafras bushes .to grow in southern fields\nthan all else.\"\nIt was contended at that time, by those opposed to federal aid, that the land-grant\nsystem was demoralizing ; that it deadened local zeal and interest. To sustain this view,\nthe following words of the Connecticut secretary of the state board of education were\nquoted :\nThe school fund derived from the sale of western lands yielded an income last year of $120,855, which\namounts to 80 cents for each person of the school age. The average expense of educating each of these persons\nthroughout that state is $10,31, so that the fund now furnishes about 8 per cent, of the total cost. In those\ntowns and cities where the people insist upon good schools no reliance is placed upon these permanent funds.\nIndeed, the history of our state shows conclusively that at the time when the fund was most productive, yielding $1.40 or $1.50 for each person of the school age, and when towns depended upon it, as they generally did,\nfor the support of their schools, the schools themselves were poor and short. In fact, this was the darkest\nperiod of our educational experience. A very striking deterioration took place as soon as the fund became\nproductive and the income began to be distributed. Before that period sfhools had been maintained at least\nsix months, and at most nearly the whole year, according to the size of the district. After, and not long after,\nthis new source of income was opened, the usual length of schools was reduced to only three months, or just\nthe time that this fund would maintain the schools. The sums which came as gratuities relieved the people of\nresponsibility and deadened their interest, until the schools were continued only so long as the charity lasted.\nHappily the danger from this direction is passed and cannot return. The fund has probably reached its greatest productiveness, and the per capita will constantly decrease. The public schools will draw their sustenance\nfrom the people who are directly or indirectly benefited by them.\n\nThe experience of Connecticut appears to be a strong argument against all national\naid. Let us inquire : Was the administration the best possible ? We do not pretend\nto say it was. However, if the educartional policy of the state is bad, the state, and\nnot the national government, is responsible. Local energy and enthusiasm may be\nstimulated if the distribution of national funds is made to depend upon a reasonable\namount of county or district effort.\nThe plan of distributing the interest upon the permanent school fund according to\nthe total school population might well be changed. If apportioned upon the average\ndaily attendance, communities would have a direct financial interest in having children\nattend school regularly.\nWhatever be the system, however, too much dependence should not be placed upon it.\nAll of the original colonies, which have never received grants of land for the support of\ncommon schools and state universities, may receive grants equal to those given other\nstates, and still not have a perfect system nor be greatly helped.\nIn Iowa the permanent fund for common-school purposes is about four and one-half\nmillion dollars. On this amount there is annually appropriated to the different school\ndistricts the interest, amounting to about ;^230,ooo. This appears to be a large sum, but,\nwhen compared with the total amount (58,451,497) expended annually for schools, is\nfound to be less than 3 per cent.\nIf the view taken by the southern gentleman be the correct one, the support of the\nschools generally should be a local affair. The natural order would then probably be :\nfirst, the parent ; second, the surrounding community ; third, the state system ; and last\nof all, national aid. We believe, however, since the government has given to all men the\nright to participate in the affairs of the government, without regard to race or color, that\n\n"}
{"page": 277, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nPUBLIC\n\nLANDS\n\nAND\n\nPUBLIC\n\nEDUCATION\n\n269\n\nit owes it to all, as well as to itself, to fit each citizen that he may exercise intelligently\nthe full privileges of citizenship. This can best be done by the universal system of educatfon.\nCan we maintain such a system ? We answer, yes. From the cotton and rice plantations of the southland, from the gold fields of Colorado and Klondike, from the corn\nfields of Iowa and Illinois, from the coal fields of Ohio and Pennsylvania, from the bluegrass region of Kentucky, from the fertile prairies of Kansas and Nebraska, from the\nNew England industrial centers — yes, from all the sisterhood of states, and even from\nthe islands of the sea, the answer comes : \" Give us a universally enlightened citizenship! \"\nDr. George T. Fairchild, Berea, Ky. — I rise, not so much to discuss the two\nadmirable papers, as to call attention to a fact or two overlooked in the consideration.\n1. Congress, by the act of 1890, under leadership of Senator Morrill of Vermont,\nrecently deceased, gives from the proceeds of public lands for the schools of agriculture\nand mechanic arts an annual appropriation of more than a million dollars. In this all\nthe states share equally, each receiving now about $25,000.\n2. While under the act of 1862 states received nominally proportional amounts of\npublic lands for the schools of agriculture and other sciences, the proceeds were far from\nproportional. The older states, having no public lands within their limits, received scrip\nto be sold without location at from 60 to 80 cents per acre ; while the newer states, like\nMichigan, Iowa, and Kansas, located the lands to be sold at from $6 to $8 per acre.\n3. Texas came into the union with public lands of her own, over which Congress\nhas had no control, and so is a notable exception to the general rule.\nDr. B. a. Hinsdale, University of Michigan. — The subject that has been presented is historically interesting, but whether it is practically important is another question. It is sometimes overlooked that the promotion of education was not the first object\nwith those who worked out the educational land-grant policy of the national government.\nSuch is the fact. This policy was finally established by the legislation attending the\nadmission of Ohio to the union in 1803, and those who carried this legislation thru\nlooked first to enhancing the value of the lands that the government retained by making\nthem attractive to purchasers, and only secondly to the educational interests of the people. Their motive was the same as in exempting lands sold from taxation by the state\nfor the period of five years. This the history conclusively shows. Again, Congress did not\nvote the thirteen old states and Maine, Vermont, and Texas common-school lands, for\nthe very good reason that the nation had no lands in those states to vote for this or any\nother purpose. The states themselves owned the public lands within their borders and\ndisposed of them as they pleased. Some of these states, as Massachusetts, New York,\nand Texas, voted lands for common schools, and some of them did not. It was a state\nmatter. Once more, it is by no means certain that the land endowments which Congress\nhas voted the public-land states for common schools are an unmixed blessing. The\ncommon-school fund of Connecticut was once accounted one of the glories of our civilization ;it has probably done more harm than good ; at least, it was discovered by deserving men as early as the third decade of this century that the fund was teaching the people\nto rely upon it and to deny the schools the support by taxation that efficiency made absolutely necessary. It is said that things are now working much the same way in Texas.\nThen, the income derived from these endowments is but a drop in the bucket of what it\ncosts to maintain good schools. The annual income from the Ohio school fund is less\nthan 2 per cent, of the annual cost of the schools, and if the fund should be wholly lost,\nthe people of the state would never feel the difference. In Kansas, I am told, the income\nfrom the state fund barely suffices to keep the fires burning in the schoolroom stoves. It\nmay be true that injustice was done to certain states in the distribution of the largesses of\nthe government, but it does not follow, even if this be true, that this injustice can now be\n\n"}
{"page": 278, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n270\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n[Columbus\n\ncorrected. I do not mean that I am necessarily opposed to the scheme brought forward\nby the gentleman from Maryland ; but I assure him, and all citizens of that state who are\ninterested in public education, that it will be far safer for them to depend on taxation,\nstate and local, for the support of their schools than to build hopes upon their proper proportion ofthe deserts and mountains of the great West.\n\nRELATION\n\nOF PUBLIC\nBY SHERMAN\n\nLIBRARIES\nWILLIAMS,\n\nGLENS\n\nTO\n\nPUBLIC\n\nFALLS,\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nN. Y.\n\nA recent number of the Cosmopolitan contained the following statement :\nWe educate the child up to the point when it is just about to begin to think. Then\nwe stop. But it is the education received after the student begins to think that is of\nmost importance to the state. It is the thoughtful study that makes the good citizen, the\ngood husband or wife, the efficient workman, and the desirable neighbor. It is the study\nafter leaving primary schools and colleges that counts most in the affairs of life, because\nthis class of study is done understandingly and usually with a direct end in view.\nWhy should the state go forward just to this point and then, suddenly, drop the student upon his own resources ? Why should not every man or woman who desires to\nimprove be provided with needed facilities, and so encouraged to rise to a higher plane of\nusefulness to the state ?\n\nThis seems a fair statement of existing conditions, of conditions that\nare likely to continue to exist. It is true, and it is likely ever to be true,\nthat the great mass of children will leave school at an early age, before they\nare old enough to reason very well. At best, school can give them only a\nlimited amount of information, and lead them to form certain habits and\nacquire certain tastes. If well done, this is no small nor unimportant\nwork, but it leaves much still to be done. The habits that have been\nformed are not fixed, and the tastes are subject to change. Much more\ninformation is to be gained. New habits and tastes are to be acquired,\nand the old ones fixed, or modified, or lost. The habit of reasoning is to\nbe greatly enlarged. The real education of the child is yet to be had.\nMuch has been done, yet but little fixed. What are to be the opportunities for the after-school education ? Business relations and associations\nwith one's fellows ? These are powerful factors, but not always helpful\nones. These always existed, and have not met the needs. So far as can\nbe foreseen, the public library, properly administered, can do more than\nany other agency. But, as children grow older, new habits are not so\neasily formed. The library has little power to reach out and bring the\nmasses within its doors. It has no means of getting a strong hold upon\nvery many of those who do come ; it can do little toward directing the\nreading that is done ; it merely meets the demand that exists and passes\nout the books that are called for. In many individual cases much more\n\n"}
{"page": 279, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nPUBLIC\n\nLIBRARIES\n\nAND\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\ncan be done, but these cases are, relatively, few in number.\n\n27 I\n\nIf more is to\n\nbe done — and more should be done — the way for it must be prepared\nbefore the pupils leave school, and this can be done only by close and\nhearty co-operation between the school and the library.\nIt is the purpose of this paper to bring this subject before you, partly\nfor the purpose of making a few suggestions, but mainly that an interest\nmay be aroused in the work of a committee appointed by the National\nEducational Association at its Washington meeting to consider and report\nupon \"The Relation of Public Libraries to Public Schools.\" The chairman of that committee is Mr. J. C. Dana, librarian of the city library of\nSpringfield, Mass. He is arranging for a very complete and elaborate\nreport, covering many phases of the work. He needs your interest and\nthe help that no one else can give so well as you. He, and every member of the committee, will not merely welcome every suggestion from anyone interested in the subject, but you are all urged to do all that you can,\neither by personal contribution or by suggesting those whose experience\nwill enable them to give assistance. The committee feels that this report\ncan be made of as great value as any ever made upon an educational\nsubject in this country ; and it also feels, and knows, that it cannot make\nsuch a report as should be made, and as can be made, without the assistance of many experienced persons.\nHaving made clear the reason why this paper has been written, your\nattention is asked to a brief statement of what is believed to be existing\nconditions and future possibilities.\nThere is, in a large part of the country, a great lack of public libraries.\nCommunities should be led to regard the public library as a necessary\npart of a system of public education, a part that directly concerns, at any\ngiven time, a larger number than does the common school ; and it ought,\ntherefore, to be liberally supp'orted. It should be regarded — and, as a\nmatter of fact, should be — the educational center of a town, providing\nfor the wants of the schools, reading clubs, debating societies, lyceums, as\nwell as individuals. For the individual it should provide information\nupon subjects in which he is specially interested, either as a matter of\nbusiness or of recreation. .It should provide for sensible recreation,\ninformation, culture, and specific knowledge on special subjects.\nMy personal experience leads me to believe that it is quite possible to\nsecure a free public library for any town, and that the superintendent of\nschools can do more to accomplish this than a man occupying any other\nposition. I feel sure that the lack of public libraries is due solely to a general lack of knowledge as to their value. If it is the duty of the state to\nsee that its citizens know how to read, it is surely no less important that\nthey be led to do the right kind of reading. The mere ability to read\ndoes not make a man a better citizen ; it simply makes him the easy prey\nof any clever demagog who has access to the public press.\nThis is shown\n\n"}
{"page": 280, "printed_page": null, "text": "272\n\nNATIONAL\n\nby the very common\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n[Columbus\n\narguments made use of during a political cam-\n\npaign.\nPublic libraries are not chiefly for scholars, but to train people to love\ngood literature, to do good reading, and to learn to think for themselves.\nThe failure — so far as it has been a failure — of schools and libraries\nto co-operate has, I think, been much more frequently the fault of teachers\nthan of librarians; at any rate, the matter has been much discussed at\nlibrarians' meetings, and very little, so far as I can learn, at gatherings of\nteachers. Be that as it may, the beginning of the work must be made\nby teachers, if much is to be accomplished. They must be thoroly in\nearnest, or little will be done. They can do considerable without the\nco-operation of the librarian, while he can do almost nothing withput their\nco-operation. To go a step farther : the teacher will do but little unless\nthe principal is interested, and he will not do much unless the superintendent has his heart in the movement. So we may fairly say that the\nsuccess of this matter rests more largely with the superintendent than with\nanyone else. In most instances he can make a success of this work, if he\nwill, and the rapidly growing interest in the matter warrants the belief\nthat it is matters of detail, rather than the general proposition, that need\nto be discussed.\nTHE\n\nteacher's\n\nWORK\n\nThe work of the teacher begins with the child's first year at school.\nHe should have stories told to him, and read to him, always with the purpose of creating a- taste for good reading. This is now done very effectively in some schools. Almost any child can be trained to love good\nliterature ; in fact, nearly every child will prefer good literature to that\nwhich is vicious, if the good is presented to him first.\nGood literature should be read in school from the time the child is\nready to read at all, instead of the \"twaddle\" that is so common in many\nof our school readers. As soon as the child can read fairly well, he should\nbe required to do some home reading. This reading should be classified\nso that he will read, not only fiction, but travels, biography, history,\npoetry, and essays. There should be groups of books from which he may\nmake his selection, thus giving him a choice; for he must choose for himself when he leaves school ; and, at the same time, in a general way, his\nreading will be directed — directed as to kind, but not as to the particular\nbooks he is to read, further than to name a number, as large as practicable,\nfrom which his choice shall be made. This plan should be continued\nthruout the school course, as should the plan of having the teacher read\nto the pupils- — reading a little from those books to which it is desired to\ncall the attention of the pupils, and more largely from books a little difficult for the pupils at that stage of their development — more difficult than\nthey would read for themselves, but not so difficult but that they may be\nlistened to and understood.\n\n"}
{"page": 281, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nPUBLIC\n\nLIBRARIES\n\nAND\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n273\n\nThe teacher should be sure that her work is such as to send the pupils\nto the public library. It is not as desirable to have all the books that\nthe pupil should refer to in the school as it is important to have him form\nthe habit of going to the public library before he leaves school.\nThe reading of good books is largely a matter of habit, and the teacher\nmust see that this habit is formed.\nThe pupils should early be trained to regard the printed page as a\nrepresentative of sights, sounds, and ideas. This is not a difficult work.\nAnything less than this is not reading ; it is merely calling words. The\nteacher must see that during his school course the pupil gets a fair idea of\nwhat good literature is, who are regarded as good writers, and the names\nof some noted books that he has not read.\nChildren must be taught what a library is, and how to use it. They\nmust be led to know what to look for in a library, and where to look for\nit. They must be able to use common reference-books. They must be\ntrained to short-cuts in reading, to read books for a single purpose, and\nto use table of contents, page-headings, etc., in order to get what they\nwant in the least time possible. They should be taught to read reviews,\nuse Poole's /«^<?.r, and card catalogs. In a wor.d, when they leave school\nthey should really be able to read, to know what a library is, and how to\nuse it. Teachers feel the need of meeting with the supervisor of drawing\nor vocal music for directions regarding their work ; still more do they\nneed to meet with the librarian and consult him. They should keep the\nlibrarian informed as to their work in history, science, literature, geography, and the like, that he may be in a position to render efficient help.\nHistory, as commonly taught, results in making the pupil dislike history,\nand so does positive harm. The text-book in history is necessarily nothing but a mere outline to be filled in, and cannot be made interesting\nwithout much collateral reading on the part of both teacher and pupils.\nThe collateral reading of the pupils may include fiction, biography, poetry,\nas well as history. All this collateral reading leads to the library. It\nmeans, also, help from the librarian, that the pupils may read just what\nthey need, and not waste time by reading much that they do not at that\ntime need, or have time for. What is true of history is true, in a greater\nor less degree, of many other subjects. Real interest comes from further\nreading ; which means the use of the library.\nIt must not be forgotten, tho, that the children must be trained in\nthe use of the library. They can no more be left to get their knowledge\nof literature without assistance than knowledge of science or mathematics.\nlibrarian's work\nThe librarian should know the school and its work well. He should\nknow the teachers. He should be on intimate terms with the superintendent, principals, and department teachers.\nHe should meet with the\n\n"}
{"page": 282, "printed_page": null, "text": "2 74\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Columbus\n\nteachers from time to time. If possible, he should occasionally address\nthe children. He should impress everyone with the fact that he considers the library a part, and an important part, of the system of public\neducation. He should make frequent bulletins for school use. In some\nway he must see that the older pupils axe trained in the use of a library.\nHe should arrange in some way to send traveling libraries to outlying\nrural schools. This may require some planning, but that is what he is\nfor. He is not to sit down and bemoan his difficulties, but to devise\nsome way of getting over or around them. He should see that there are\nsome teachers on the library committees, especially on the purchasing\ncommittee. He should see that the books in his library are freely accessible to all, and that there is the least possible amount of red tape. He\nshould feel that the books are to be used, not looked at ; that they are\nmade to be worn out, and the faster they are worn out the better, if it be\ndone by fair use.\nMUTUAL\n\nRELATIONS\n\nThere must be the most cordial relation between the library and the\nschool. The teachers must know the librarian and the library, and the\nlibrarian must know the teachers and the school. He should know the\nschool in a general way as a part of his work, as the teacher in like\nmanner should know the library. The librarian should know the children\nas well as possible, regarding them as his most important patrons, those\nwhom he can help most.\nLibrarians generally know books very much better than teachers do,\nbut children not nearly so well ; so they need to work together, that each\nmay supply what the other lacks. Children should have free access to\nthe library shelves.\nGENERAL\n\nCharles Dudley Warner has truly said that a person who has learned\nhow to read, but not what to read, is placed in a position of great danger.\nYet that is just what is being done with the boys and girls in great numbers in our schools. It is not enough that some small effort be made in\nthe high school to train the children to know and love good literature,\nfor most of them never reach the high school ; and, if they did, they\nwould have formed a taste for reading before that time, and, if left to\nthemselves, too often a taste for that which is far from desirable. It is a\nwork that must be begun with the beginning of school life — better\nearlier — and never lost sight of.\nEvery school should be well supplied with reference-books. There\nshould be a small library in every schoolroom. It might be well for the\nlibrary to supply this, changing it from time to time.\nA chief object — I had almost said, the chief object — of school is to\ntrain children to read, to use a library effectively.\n\nA child's life is not\n\n"}
{"page": 283, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nPUBLIC\n\nLIBRARIES\n\nAND\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n275\n\naffected by the ability to read, but by the use he makes of that ability.\nThe school trains for a few years, the library for a lifetime ; but the school\ndetermines, or may determine, how the library will be used.\n\nDISCUSSION\nProfessor Arthur Allin, University of Colorado. — There is a movement in\nrecent times worthy of all commendation — the movement of our library institutions\ntoward the education and higher culture of the adolescent mind. The state provides a\nliberal — even a compulsory — education for our youth up to the age of puberty. After\nthis period our high schools and colleges provide for a continuation of the culture process. These institutions, however, reach only a small fraction of the adolescent masses.\nBy the nature of their growth the high schools and colleges exclude the major part of\nour American youth on account of the high standard of their requirements.\nThe church has failed almost completely in the same respect. The theater arose\nfrom the liturgical drama of the Middle Ages. The church vacated the field. Plays,\ngames, dancing, and other forms of amusement and culture were originally religious in\ntheir origin. The church vacated this field also. Our church edifices are for six days\neach week useless capital, so falsely sacred that they are considered hardly suitable for\nthe education and culture of poor humanity.\nThe libraries, on the other hand, are branching out as distinct educational forces and\nprocesses. Rightly directed they are about the only educational forces which influence\nthe vast uncared-for masses of our growing youth. Lectures by medical men, lawyers,\nbusiness-men, schoolmen, specialists of all descriptions, might well be extended to include\ndefinite regular courses of instruction, possibly under the direction of the city superintendent or a definite board appointed for that purpose.\nThe response, without doubt, will be astonishing. Anyone acquainted with the\npsychology of adolescence knows full well the yearnings, ideals, and immense formative\ncapacities of the newly born adult. Think of Edison reading thru fourteen solid feet of\nthe Detroit free library before being stopped! Think of the long list of pioneers, discoverers, reformers, thinkers, scientists, and philosophers who started on their careers at\nthe stage of adolescent enthusiasm !\nIn short, it is not so much our privilege in this respect ; it is our plain, unvarnished,\ndemocratic duty toward the unschooled, toward the most impressionable of all school\nages, toward our immediate successors in the conduct of public affairs.\nSuperintendent George Griffith, Utica, N. Y. — First, regarding the place\nwhere libraries should be kept : Some argue that they shall be in the schools and under\nthe control of the school authorities; others, that they shall be in places by themselves,\nseparate from the schools and under other control. I unhesitatingly say, both. We need\nlibraries in both places. The functions of these two libraries are somewhat different, but\nthey should always co-operate. The library in the school will be constantly enlisting\npatrons for the larger library, and should always work toward this end.\nSecondly, regarding the control of the public library : I do not assume to speak with any\nauthority with reference to conditions in the large cities, but for the smaller cities, say those\nwith a population of from 1 0,000 to 1 00,000, 1 am very sure that better results will be secured\nif the public library is under a separate library board, rather than under the control of the\nschool board. I have watched both plans in several cities, and without exception much\nbetter results were secured after the library had been taken away from the school board\nand placed under separate control.\nWhen both the library and the schools must be\n\n"}
{"page": 284, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n276\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n[Columbus\n\nsupported from the same fund, the library invariably suffers from lack of the attention and\nthe funds which are given instead to the general support of schools. These two agencies\nshould always work in harmony, each helping the other; but their provinces and work\ndiffer in so many ways that they demand separate control. Separated, each will get more\nfunds for its support, and will be better cared for.\nThird, regarding the best ways to get school children to read good literature : They\nneed guidance, they need inspiration from the teachers. Lists of books, arranged by\ngrades, should be furnished. Inasmuch as the development of a love for good reading is\nthe end sought, rather than the accomplishment of a certain amount of reading, I would\nnot impose this work upon the children as a requirement. I would encourage, urge, guide\ntheir reading, but never make it a part of the requirements for promotion. I believe the\nteacher should talk over the book with each child after the child has read it. This\nshould not be an examination. It should furnish the opportunity for suggestion and help\ntoward more and higher reading. It will furnish opportunity to know the individual student in at least one line of his inclinations, and to guide him into purer, higher, and more\nthoughtful reading.\nEugene Bouton, superintendent of schools, Pittsfield, Mass. — In discussing the\nways and means of improving the reading of our pupils thru the agency and assistance\nof our public libraries, we recognize an important aid in our work, By^ some means our\npupils should be made acquainted with sources of information and with standard literature. In Milwaukee, and other cities where the public library is well equipped and\nco-operates with the school authorities, it is a very important factor in bringing about this\nresult. Such is the case in my own city. But the public library should be an auxiliary to\nthe regular work of the schools, rather than the main reliance in education. The daily\nreading of the pupils in school should suppl)' the need as far as practicable. If it is\ndesirable that the pupils shall read The Spy and become acquainted with Cooper, let The\nSpy be read daily in class. Let the pupils read, in like manner, in the regular reading\nclass, \" Evangeline,\" \" Enoch Arden,\" the Lady of the Lake, Julius Casar, King T^ar, and\nsuch other literary masterpieces as are found to be most desirable and most suitable for the\npurpose. The public library should be called upon to supplement and amplify what can\nbe done in the direct work of the schools. ' But the schools should hold themselves\nprimarily responsible for establishing the habits and setting in motion the influences\nthat will lead the pupils to seek the aid of the public library both during their school\ndays and in their after-lives.\n\nTHE\nBY\n\nGEORGE\n\nUNSEEN\nH.\n\nFORCE\n\nMARTIN,\n\nIN CHARACTER-MAKING\n\nSUPERVISOR-\n\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nBOSTON,\n\nMASS.\n\nCharacter grows from within, and every man is in the highest sense a\nself-made man.\nA human body is born into the world. It is chiefly a bundle of nerve\ncells and libers, plus a system of nutritive organs to promote its growth.\nAssociated with it in some mysterious way — with it, but not of it — is\nan immaterial entity that we call a human soul.\nSoon a name is given to this being, by which its identity may be distinguished inthe future, and by which it may be remembered in a future\nstill more remote.\n\n"}
{"page": 285, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nUNSEEN\n\nFORCE\n\nIN\n\nCHARACTER-MAKING\n\n277\n\nAt once this nervous system begins — to use the language of the physiologists— to react against its environment, and by this reaction a multitude\nof ideas and thoughts are generated, which constitute the early part of\neducation.\nBy and by the soul becomes aware of its own existence as something\napart from the world of sense by which it is surrounded. You recall that\ninteresting passage in which Richter describes the sunburst of his own\nsubjective consciousness :\nNever shall I forget the inward experience of the birth of self-consciousness, of which\nI well remember the time and place. I stood one afternoon, a very young child, at the\nhouse door, and looked at the logs of wood piled on the left, when at once that inward\nconsciousness — I am a Me — came like a flash of lightning from heaven, and has\nremained ever since.\nThen was my existence conscious of itself, and forever.'\n\nBy and by there is the idea of tomorrow, and then of a succession of\ntomorrows, forming a future. Then the soul sees itself projected against\nthat future.\nNow there come to be two selves, the present self and the future self.\nThere is the Me, the Not-Me, and another Me. Slowly that future self\ntakes shape in an ideal made up of specific qualities of character.\nTo realize this ideal becomes, henceforth, the work of life. With more\nor less earnestness of purpose, with more or less persistence of endeavor,\nwith more or less completeness of success, the ideal becomes the controlling motive, the supreme moral force.\nIn Hawthorne's beautiful allegory, the Great Stone Face, you remember how the man Ernest, by daily and admiring contemplation of the face,\nits dignity, its serenity, its benevolence, came, all unconsciously to himself, to possess the same qualities, and to be transformed and transfigured\nby them, until at last he stood revealed to his neighbors as the longpromised one, who should be like the Great Stone Face.\nSo in every human life the unrealized self is the unseen but allpowerful force that brings into subjection the will, guides the conduct,\nand determines the character.\nThe early life of Washington is singularly transparent as to the creation and influence of the ideal. We see how one quality after another\nwas added until the character became complete. Manly strength, athletic power and skill, appear first ; then, courtesy and refined manners,\nmoderation, temperance, consideration for others ; then, careful and exact\nbusiness habits ; then, military qualities ; then, devotion to public service.\nSteadily, but rapidly, the transforming work went on until the man was\ncomplete ; the ideal was realized. Henceforth, the character, the man,\nappears under all the forms of occupation and office. Legislator, commander, president — the man is in them all, tho he is none of them.\nCincinnatus at the plow is Cincinnatus still. Washington at sixty,\nI Life of Jean Paul (Ticknor & Fields, 1864), p. 36.\n\n"}
{"page": 286, "printed_page": null, "text": "278\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n[Columbus\n\nmoving in the clamor and confusion of the Genet episode, is the same\ncareful, prudent, patient, dignified, self-respecting, self-controlled, patriotic, masterful man that he had begun to be at twenty-one, when he went\non his mission to the French forts on the Ohio.\nHow does the soul form its ideal ? As the bird builds its nest,\ninstinctively, impelled by a law of its life, from materials at hand. The\nprocess is simple, and yet complex. Living in a world of men and women,\ncharacter is ever appealing to him, soliciting his attention and his interest, and evoking his feeling. He sees, he admires, he chooses, he begins\nto try to be. The elemental psychology of all character- making is\nsummed up in four simple sentences: \"I see, I like, I wish I were, I\nwill be.\"\nJust here heredity shows itself. If the mind is temperate in feeling,'\ndeliberate in choosing, and robust in its willing, character becomes set\nand enduring. If, on the contrary, feeling is volatile, choice fickle, and\nthe will flabby, one quality after another awakens momentary admiration\nand impulse ; ideals succeed eagh other as the vanishing visions of a dream ;\nlife is passed in a state of perpetual inward contradiction ; and at last\nthe man has earned the judgment of Reuben, \" unstable as water, thou\nshalt not excel.\"\nBut the stuff out of which the ideal is made is always character in the\nconcrete, qualities incarnate, not precepts nor codes of ethics.\nThe process I am describing is not imitation. It is more subtle, more\nfundamental. Imitation has to do with actions, external things that can\nbe seen. This deals with being rather than doing. It is spirit discerning spirit, and feeling drawn to it ; deep answering unto deep.\nThe process needs also to be distinguished from what is ordinarily\nthought of as personal influence — one mind and will consciously and purposely bearing upon another to incite to action.\nImitation and influence are seen forces. Their activity goes on in the\nlight of the sun ; they can be tracked. But the self-created ideal self\ndraws as the sun draws. This is the mystery of it, and the marvel of it ;\nit may be the horror of it. While parents yearn and teachers labor to fashion character, the character is being fashioned in a laboratory to which\nthey have no key, by a force of whose very existence they are unconscious ;\na force of which the subject himself may be unconscious.\nThe sources from which the soul draws its material, and the influences\nwhich determine its feeling and its choice, are many and varied — home,\nsocial environment, companions, books, schools, and the church.\nThe process begins with the family life, with father and mother,\nbrother and sister. The child naturally learns to admire the character of\nthose whom he loves, primarily for what they are. The force and courage\nof father and brother ; the patience, the sympathy, the kindness of mother\nand sister, are appealing traits.\nBut he comes, also, to admire what they\n\n"}
{"page": 287, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nUNSEEN\n\nFORCE\n\nIN CHARAC7 ER-MAKING\n\n279\n\nadmire. There is no deeper and no more lasting influence than that of\nideals of character held steadily before the mind by parents in whom the\nchild has confidence.\nWashington's character-making is again suggestive here. Of the influence of his father's character we know but little, but we do know how\nprofoundly he was affected by his regard for his brother Lawrence, a brave,\nmanly, high-spirited youth, skilled in all forms of athletic pursuits, and an\nardent soldier. These qualities appealed to the younger brother with\ncompelling force, and formed the most conspicuous elements in his own\nideal.\n' Later his acquaintance with the Fairfaxes added some well-known\nfeatures. Their courtly manners, their cultivated language, their business habits, their hardy manhood, impressed him deeply; and discerning\nthe inward qualities of which these were signs, we see him framing himself after the patterns they furnished.\nThe child not only tends to admire what his parents admire, but also\nwhat society admires. Thus the social ideal is both a cause and an effect.\nIt becomes' the ideal of the individual, and by becoming so is perpetuated\nas the ideal of society. So peoples acquire and retain for successive generations their distinctive character.\nTwo illustrations of this must suffice. The ideal of physical excellence and beauty became one of the dominant features of the Greek\ncharacter. How ? By being held steadily before the mind of the children\nand youth as worthy of all honor and admiration. The victor in the\nnational games, returning to his native city, was received with more than\nroyal honors. Thru a breach made in the walls for the purpose he entered\nas a conqueror. By processions and sacrifices and banquets the people\nvied with each other to do him honor. Such a reception made any boy\nof spirit eager for the training which should make him worthy to be so\nhonored, and he cheerfully submitted to all its rigors, gladly keeping his\nbody under, that it might become a more efficient instrument of the free,\nall-subduing will, and a more perfect incarnation of it.\nIn New England homes, in the eighteenth century and the early part\nof the nineteenth, two ideals of character — social ideals — were potent in\neducation. One was the religious ideal. To be a God-fearing, Biblereading, sabbath-keeping, church-belonging man or woman was held\nbefore the children as the most worthy ambition. They saw such men\nand women looked up to with respect, and having social standing. Besides\nthis, there was a practical ideal. In every community were men who, by\nindustry and thrift supplementing native sagacity and force, had acquired\nwealth. They lived in the best houses, they occupied the best pews in\nthe church, they served the parish and the town in positions of trust and\nhonor. They were looked up to by all, and their character was held before\nthe young as worthy of emulation.\n\n"}
{"page": 288, "printed_page": null, "text": "28o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n[Columbus\n\nIn almost every New England home one could have found three books,\ntho books were scarce — books which in away typified these social ideals.\nThere was the life of Payson, the mystic young preacher of Portland ; the\nlife of Henry Martyn, the ardent young missionary ; and, side by side\nwith these, in later times, the life of Amos Lawrence, the Christian merchant.\nAnd in old England, too, who can tell to what extent the contrast\nbetween the social life of the present and that of the Restoration period\nis due to the loyal reverence which her people feel toward the gracious\nwoman who has been, not only the mother of q^ueens, but also the queen\nof mothers ?\nNot only from home and society does the child get material for his\nideals, but also from books. While Lincoln lived, men marveled that\nsuch a man could have come from such beginnings. Such breadth of\nunderstanding, such loftiness of purposes, such singleness of aim, such\nrectitude, such tenderness, such patience, such charity — they seemed\neffect without a cause. But when, in after-years, men learned that the\ncompanions of his youth had not been only the rough associates of the\nfrontier life, but the men and women of the Bible, PilgrinCs Progress,\nPlutarch, and Shakespeare, they wondered no longer. He had been walking with the world's worthies, and they had made him great.\nSo our boys and girls, all unknown to us, often all unconsciously to\nthemselves, are. admiring the characters they find in the books I hey read,\nand are fashioning themselves into the same image.\nThe schools, too, are doing their part. Thru the literature and history, there is no limit to the possibilities within the reach of every teacher.\nCharacter in history, character in literature, illuminated in the portrayal\nby the enthusiastic admiration of the teacher, glows before the student\nand kindles within him a responsive emotion. As the long line of men\nand women who have lived and wrought and suffered moves before him,\nhe feels nobler impulses stirring within him, and he sees himself .living\nsuch a life ; and with the thoughts and the impulses the work of transformation begins.\nWherever their story has been told, Leonidas and Horatius have stood\nin hours of peril, \"i' the imminent deadly breach.\" They have come\nfighting down the ages. Such men never die. Rienzi and Garibaldi\nand Emmet are not dead. Havelock and Gordon and Warren live in\nthousands of young men today, who have caught their spirit and are\nbeing transformed into their likeness.\nThe men of Edinburgh are of a different fiber because they have read\nthe names of their fathers on the tablet in the old church of St. Giles commemorating the four hundred sons of Scotland who went down in the\nBirkenhead as calmly as if on parade, that the two hundred women and\nchildren might be saved.\n\n"}
{"page": 289, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nUNSEEN\n\nFORCE\n\nIN CHARACTER-MAKING\n\n'\n\n281\n\nAnd I fancy the young men of Switzerland have wrought themselves into a different type because the lion of Lucerne has reminded\nthem of the loyal heroism of the Swiss guard at the Tuileries.\nThis is Browning's meaning when David says to Saul : \" Each deed\nthou hast done dies, revives, lives again, goes to work in the world.\"\nThis is the crown of life promised to all those who are faithful unto death.\nWho can tell how many women are patiently carrying their burdens\nof domestic suffering because of the unwearied, unquenchable love of\nJennie Deans, and little Nell, and Florence Dombey?\nJust here light is thrown on the most effective way to deal with biography in school work. Modern criticism professes to respect the truth,\nand would have no glamour thrown over the characters in history; there\nshould be no aureole about the heads of the saints. But is there not\nprofoundest significance in^the fact that every year millions of children\ncome to believe that bells are ringing and flags are flying in honor of a\nman of whom the only thing they know is that he never told a lie ?\nFor all the higher purposes in the education of the young, is it not\nbetter for them to be told of Washington the True than of Paul Leicester\nFord's True George Washington ?\nHere is the most hopeful field for our child study. To ascertain by\nsyllabus and questionnaire how many children like rag dolls better than\npainted ones, and how many are afraid in the dark, is worthy of the\nhighest efforts of a university and of doctors of philosophy; but to learn\nat what shrine of human character the boys and girls are worshiping in\nthe Lararium of their own souls, what Great Stone Face is silently but\nresistlessly transforming them into its own likeness, this is work worthy\nof a teacher, and, I had almost said, nothing else is.\nThe teacher does this work by what he teaches, but infinitely more by\nwhat he is. \"How can I hear what you say,\" wrote Emerson, \"when\nwhat you are is continually thundering in my ears?\"\nThere have been some splendid examples of teachers thus building\nthemselves into the character of their pupils. Last year, in the London\nGraphic, yff&ro. \\)rmX&d. these words: \"It will be told in after-days how\nthere was once a heaven-born head-master, by name Thomas Arnold,\nwho, ruling at Rugby, taught the boys to be good Christians, true gentlemen, and be merry, mischievous boys still.\" Men have wondered at the\nmarvelous influence of Arnold over his boys, an influence reaching on\ninto their after-life, so that the Rugby boys were distinguished at college\nand beyond. But when we study his life with his boys at Laleham, as\nwell as at Rugby,- there is no marvel. When we see him sharing their\nsports, when we see him in the evening at work in the midst of his boys,\nannotating his Thucydides, writing his Roman History, composing his\npamphlets on church and state affairs, we see that the boys .learned from\nhim two profound lessons which they carried with them into all their\n\n"}
{"page": 290, "printed_page": null, "text": "282\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n[Columbus\n\npublic life — that there could be learning without pedantry, and religion\nwithout cant.\nSimilar to this was the work of Mary Lyon. Steadily, without interruption or intermission, she held before the girls at Mt. Holyoke the\nideal of a consecrated Christian womanhood. To this end, all the studies,\nall the exercises, all the influences were made to contribute. So completely did the ideal of her own life become the ideal of their lives that\nmost of the girls went out as avowed Christian women. -Wherever they\nwent, they carried this spirit. Wherever they taught, they set up a new\nMt. Holyoke, a Christian seminary. Wherever they married, they set up\na Christian home. And so powerfully did the ideal work thru the sixty\nyears of the history of the school that more than two hundred girls have\nbecome foreign missionaries.\nAnd what Thomas Arnold and Mary Lyon did, thousands of teachers\nin all spheres of influence, from the kindergarten to the college, are doing\ntoday.\nWe hear sometimes, from lips of ignorance, a charge of moral failure\nagainst the public schools. I have no hesitation in affirming that the\npublic-school teachers are doing more to help in forming ideals of worthy\nlives than all other agencies combined.\nThis too, I take it, is the exalted mission of the church : by all its\nservices and all its ordinances, by all its orders and all its offices, in all its\nindividual and collective life, to hold before the world, and especially\nbefore the children and youth, the divine life as the ideal life ; that life\nof which all noble and virtuous and self-sacrificing human lives are\nbut faint reflections ; that life which has been the supreme moral force\nin all human history for two thousand years. The ideal of that life has\nmolded the character of the world's worthies, and prompted their\nactivities. Thru them it has reclaimed wildernesses, civilized savages,\nabolished slavery, sanctified homes, founded schools, built hospitals, dignified childhood and womanhood and manhood.\nIt has been the impelling force in all great lives. It made Francis\nD'Assisi devoted, and Savonarola strong, and Bernard of Clairvaux great.\nIt transformed alike Luther and Loyola. It sent Xavier to the far East,\nand Livingstone to the Dark Continent, and John Howard to the prisons\nof Europe, and Clara Barton to the perishing in Armenia and Cuba; and\nfrom their comfortable homes in rural England it brought to the barren\nand inhospitable shores of the new world the men and women who laid\nthe foundations of the institutions we are trying to perpetuate.\nThey can only be perpetuated in the spirit in which they were founded.\nThe same qualities of character, made more brilliant by added centuries of triumph, must be wrought into the ideal of the generations which\nwill inherit thft twentieth-century problems.\nThe physical problems\ngive us no solicitude.\nMathematics\nand\n\n"}
{"page": 291, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nUNSEEN\n\nFORCE\n\nIN\n\nCHARACTER-MAKING\n\n283\n\nmechanics will take care of them all. We can build docks and ships and\ncanals. But for those other problems which concern human life and\nhuman happiness, those problems whose perplexing factors are human\ninterests and passions, we need something else. Only when the mighty\nforces that make for education — the home, society, the school, and the\nchurch — unite in placing on the noblest and most conspicuous pedestal\nin the gallery of human virtues the divine ideal of service, to the end\nthat every man may be a good Samaritan, and every woman a sister of\nmercy, will these problems be in a way to be solved. This only can\npurify politics at home, and guide to wise and beneficent issues our expanding politics abroad ; this only can allay the warring passions of employers\nand employed, and make the opulent and the vagrant co-operative ; this\nonly can sweeten city life now cursed with the tenement house, the sweatshop, and the slum.\nThe thought I am trying to present is not merely a sentiment born of\nthe school and the church : it is emphasized by the most advanced conclusions ofmodern science.\nLooking back along the line by which man has come to his present\nestate, biologists tell us that progress has always been conditioned on\nconformity to environment. As physical conditions changed, those forms\nof life survived which changed to fit them. The ever-changing environment demanded more and more complexity of structure, more and more\ndifferentiation of function ; and so advance was made from amoeba up\nthru worm and vertebrate to man, always by the inward impulse responding to the outward needs. So man himself has grown ; the inward\nimpulse no longer a blind, unconscious reaching after something to be\nphysically felt, but a conscious effort to adapt himself to an environment\nin which mind was supreme.\nAs the centuries have come and gone, the social environment has\nbecome more and more complex, demanding ever higher mental and\nmoral attributes. An ever- widening horizon has called for an ever keener\nand more far-sighted vision ; an ever-closening contact has demanded an\never-deepening sympathy.\nBut the law of evolution contains no guarantee of universal advance.\nArrest, retrogression, disappearance are as legitimate and as frequent as\nprogress. Every step in the ascent of man has been accompanied by the\ndescent of man. Herein we see the possibility of our failure as well as of\nour success.\nSo far as the co-operative forces succeed in helping any child or youth\nto fashion a self-ideal which shall fit the new and larger and more inexorable social demands, so far have we fitted him to survive, and we have\nbrought into a little clearer vision that far-off divine event to which the\nwhole creation moves.\n\n"}
{"page": 292, "printed_page": null, "text": "284\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n[Columbus\n\nDISCUSSION\nS. B. Laird, superintendent of schools, Lansing, Mich. — Character-building is the\nobjective point toward which all earnest school work tends. There are several elements\nwhich enter into the meaning of this term. The first one we will notice is industry.\nOur pupils should be taught not to look down upon work, but rather to look up to it.\nThey should learn, not only to love work, but also to regard it as God's greatest blessing\nto the race, the agency by means of which civilization has been advanced. This industry\nshould be controlled by method, by system, so that the truest economy will be practiced\nin its exercise. Another element is that of reverence. There should be a reverence for\nthe Creator which recognizes the responsibility of the creature and cheerfully pays the\nhomage due. There should also be found in his thought a reverence for mankind, which\ngrows out of the relationship of brotherhood. Reverence for self is also essential, whether\nregarded physically, mentally, or morally. James A. Garfield, whose memory in this\ncapital city must be regarded as precious, once said in effect : \" There is one person whose\ngood opinion I care more for than for that of all others, for with him I have to walk, to\neat, to sleep, and to live ; and that person is myself.\" Self-respect, fully understood and\nrightly applied, is a powerful lever in uplifting human nature. Finally there must be a\nreverence for country, for its history, institutions, and laws. Intelligent patriotism not only\nloves the flag and the principles symbolized by it, but it also holds the life true to all the\nresponsibilities as well as to all the rights, to all the duties as well as to all the privileges,\nof citizenship. It recognizes the importance of the problem of self-government which the\nUnited States is trying to solve, and lends to that solution the force and influence of a\ntrue life. Other elements might be mentioned, but the above must suffice.\nThe question now occurs : What forces, unseen, or at least unrecognized at their full\nvalue, tend to the development of the essential elements of character ? We answer :\nFirst, the personal element, or the unconscious tuition which makes itself felt thru the eye,\nthe expression of face, the voice, and the controlling spirit of the life. Undoubtedly,\neach of us can recall some teacher whose influence for good in our lives has been a known\nand positive quantity ever since we left the halls of learning as pupils. I desire to pay a\nbrief tribute to one of Michigan's noblest sons, Joseph Estabrook, who for a half century\ninspired his pupils to desire to make the most and the best of life, and hundreds of men\nand women in places of trust and honor in our state recall his noble service and declare\nhis memory blessed. Tho dead he lives in hundreds of lives, made stronger and purer\nby his example and unconscious influence. Other silent forces which are contributing\nmuch to character-building in the school are casts, pictures, and music. We are just discovering the value of these agents, and we predict that in the coming decades the teachers\nwho desire to build into the lives of pupils the grandest specimens of serviceable characters\nwill find much aid from these sources. The potent but unseen power resident in good\nliterature constitutes another source of help in the solution of this problem. The good\nbook, containing just the lesson needed for boys or girls, can often be placed in their hands\nand be left to speak to their lives in tones both strong and convincing. The results sought\nfor demand for their realization the combined efforts of the home and the school. The\nwords, \"When the heart of the home is in league with the brain of the school, it is well\nfor the child,\" find their assent in ou^ experience.\nWe have dwelt thus far upon the phase of life known as good character, and we wish\nthat none other existed. We cannot be blind to the fact, however, that, despite the influences of both seen and unseen agencies, evil characters are found in the schoolrooms,\ncontaminating the good and weakening the power of the best teaching. What forces\nthus combine to disappoint our hopes and sadden our spirits ? We answer : The cigarette,\nthe influences of the street school, obscene literature and pictures.\nImpurity of thought,\n\n"}
{"page": 293, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTEACHERS\n\nFOR\n\nSECONDARY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n285\n\nleading to impurity of action, constitutes one of the most subtle foes which we have to\nencounter. The question, \" Who is sufficient for these things ? \" finds a place in our\nthoughts very often. We may well voice the prayer of Horace Mann, who, just before\ndevoting his life to the school system of Massachusetts, which he desired to lift to a much\nhigher plane of efficiency and power, poured out his soul's desire in the following words :\n\" God grant me annihilation of selfishness, a mind of wisdom, and a heart of benevolence.\"\n\nTHE\n\nTRAINING\n\nBY\n\nJAMES\n\nOF\n\nTEACHERS\n\nFOR\n\nE. RUSSELL,\nDEAN\nOF\nCOLUMBIA\nUNIVERSITY,\n\nSECONDARY\n\nTEACHERS'\nNEW\nYORK\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nCOLLEGE,\n\nThe striking characteristic of American education is the fact that each\nschool — better said, perhaps, each school board — is the measure of all\nthings educational. And nowhere is this sophistic doctrine more apparent\nthan in the secondary realm. What constitutes a secondary school, even\nthe scope and purpose of secondary education itself, are debatable\nquestions. This condition of affairs is largely due to the radically different tendencies in the development of our educational system. Part of it\nhas come down from above in response to the intellectual and spiritual\nneeds of colonial life ; part of it has grown up from below to meet the\ndemands of an ambitious people determined to win its way in the world.\nThese two forces — one of them essentially aristocratic, the other essentially\ndemocratic — meet in the secondary school. The conflict that results\nnaturally makes extra-hazardous any attempt to apply general principles\nderived exclusively from experience either in elementary or higher education. Dictatorial college faculties too frequently join hands with ignorant demagogs in promoting evil in place of good. The secondary school\nis not merely the first four grades of the college course, nor yet is it the\nlast four classes of the elementary school ; it is at once both of these and\nneither. The training of the adolescent mind presents problems unknown\nin the primary school ; with the psychological new birth another mode of\neducation becomes imperative. And, on the other hand, it is obvious\nthat the requirements for admission to college do not exhaust the demands\nof life. The college and university can never enjoy a monopoly of higher\neducation. The peculiar function of the secondary school is the selection\nand training of leaders for intelligent service in academic, professional,\nand industrial life. In no educational work can there be greater need of\nteachers fully alive to the responsibilities resting upon them ; nowhere\ncan there be greater need of teachers fitted by nature and training to\ndischarge their duties aright.\nIt is only in these latter days that any question has arisen concerning\nthe necessary qualifications of teachers' for secondary schools. So long\nas the only secondary school of consequence was the academy or college-\n\n"}
{"page": 294, "printed_page": null, "text": "286\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n[Columbus\n\npreparatory school, so long the only teacher worth considering was the\ncollege graduate. He who would successfully fit boys for college must\nhimself know by experience what the colleges demand. Moreover, in\nthose days what the colleges demanded was chiefly Latin and Greek, and\nit would have been idle for any man to have set himself up as a teacher\nof the classical languages who had riot enjoyed the classical training.\nBut with the growth of the curriculum, and especially since the rise of the\nhigh school has introduced variety, not only in the subjects of instruction,\nbut in the purposes of secondary education as well, the former source of\nsupply of teachers has proved inadequate. It may as well be acknowledged first as last that the college graduate of the last generation could\nclaim no considerable superiority over his non-collegiate competitor in\nrespect either to special knowledge or skill in teaching many subjects of\nthe secondary course. In fact, only in the classical languages has he\nstood unrivaled. In the modern languages, English, history, mathematics,\nand the natural sciences he has often found his equal. Frequently the\nknowledge of the specialist, or the professional skill of the normal-school\ngraduate, has been preferred to the so-called \"general culture\" of the'\ncollegian who has sauntered thru the mazes of an \" elective course\" with\nno suspicion of sound scholarship attaching to him. Unquestionably the\nlack of special knowledge and of pedagogical interests in the average\ncollege graduate has had great weight in promoting the popular tendency\nto discredit a liberal education as an essential prerequisite to work in the\nsecondary schools. We may deprecate the situation as we will, it is a\nfact, nevertheless, that the college-trained teacher has but slight advantage in gaining admission to the secondary school.\nOne other fact is worth consideration. It is becoming year by year\nmore difficult for college graduates to find employment in the schools at\na living wage. Granted that the number of positions annually falling\nvacant is relatively stationary, and that the number of applicants is relatively increasing, but one result can be expected. The law of supply and\ndemand forces salaries down. And in the majority of secondary schools\nin this country today no pecuniary inducement is offered the intending\nteacher to take a college course. On the contrary, there is every reason —\nuncertain tenure of office, political favoritism, and the like — why the\naverage teacher should invest in the least possible amount of paying\ncapital. Indeed, so lightly is the higher education regarded that it is a\nquestion whether the average teacher who must depend on the average\nsalary can afford to spend the time and money necessary in acquiring the\ncollege degree. If this be true, or anywhere near the truth, then secondary education in America is in desperate straits.\nThe educational welfare of the country obviously demands that public\nopinion recognize a higher standard of professional merit. Public\nopinion, however, is a shrewd judge of merit of any kind.\nWith respect\n\n"}
{"page": 295, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTEA CHERS\n\nFOR\n\nSECOND AR Y SCHOOLS\n\n287\n\nto teachers as in other matters, Lincoln's aphorism is true : \" You can\nfool all the people some of the time, and some of the people all of the\ntime, but you can't fool all of the people all of the time.\" The college\ngraduate has been carefully weighed these many years past, and too frequently he has been found wanting. The specialist and the normalschool graduate have also been tested, and the popular verdict is that\nthey, too, are poor craftsmen. But with nbthing better in sight, and with\nno recognized standard of professional fitness, the school board and the\nwage it offers have come to be the controlling power. Moreover, it is\nevident, I think, that this condition of affairs cannot be materially changed\nso long as the chief factors in the problem remain the same. Our only\nhope lies in the introduction of a new factor more powerful than any now\nexisting — the professionally trained teacher specially fitted for secondary\nwork.\nIt may be argued that, inasmuch as the cost of a college education\neven now tends to exclude the best material from the majority of schools,\nno further expense can reasonably be expected by way of special preparation. While I acknowledge the strength of the argument and fully\nrealize that ultimately professional standards must conform to economic\nlaws, I must still insist that a distinctly good thing appeals powerfully\nto the common-sense of the American people. And if the American\npeople see that a thing is worth having, they know how to pay for it\nwithout grumbling. The better class of secondary schools the country\nover pays fair salaries and insists on getting the ablest teachers. The\nvery fact that competition for these positions is so disagreeably keen is\nthe surest guarantee of a better system of training teachers for secondary\nschools. An annually increasing number of college graduates learn from\nexperience that the best preparation they can make is none too good for\nthe places they desire to fill. They cannot afford to compete, other\nthings being equal, with those whose preparation has been less expensive\nthan theirs ; the only hope of the ambitious collegian is to put himself\ndistinctly above his competitors in his chosen field. He must do as the\nbusiness-man does under analogous circumstances — increase his capital\nand make ready for a bigger business. This is the opportunity of the\ndepartments of pedagogy and of the teachers' colleges. It is precisely\nthis condition of affairs which makes possible for the first time in America\na serious consideration of ideal methods of training teachers for secondary\nschools.\nBut what is the ideal preparation for such teachers? First let me\npremise that the only method for us is to build on what we have, meet\nthe demands of the times, while aiming at something better. Present\nconditions seem to me to indicate four qualities pre-eminently desired in\nthe teacher: (i) general knowledge, (2) professional knowledge, (3)\nspecial knowledge, and (4) skill in teaching.\nThe inability of the average\n\n"}
{"page": 296, "printed_page": null, "text": "288\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Columbus\n\nteacher to present these four qualities in due proportion is the principal\ncause of the prevailing chaos in secondary education.\n1. General knowledge. — Four years ago the Committee of Fifteen\nreported to this department that \" the degree of scholarship required for\nsecondary teachers is, by common consent, fixed at a collegiate education.\nNo one — with rare exceptions — should be employed to teach in a high\nschool who has not this fundamental preparation.\" Such a qualification\nseems reasonable enough. The liberal culture implied in four years of\ntraining in advance of the grades to be taught is surely not too much to\nrequire from every applicant for secondary teaching. The fact that the\nsecondary teacher is to some degree a specialist, that he knows his subject\nand exercises considerable ingenuity in satisfying the requirements of\ncollege entrance or some examining board, is no indication that he has a\nworld-view of sufficient breadth to justify him in attempting the training\nof youth, or an understanding of related studies sufficient to enable him\nto teach his own subject in a scientific manner. The inspiring influence\nthat comes from well-developed manhood or womanhood taught to view\nthe subject-matter of secondary education in a comparative manner,\ntrained to see the relationships everywhere existing in the various\nspheres of knowledge ^— yes, the unity pervading all knowledge — is an\ninfluence that the secondary school can ill afford to neglect.\n2. Professional knowledge. — It is equally important that the secondary\nteacher be able to view his own subject and the entire course of instruction\nin its relations to the child, and to society of which the child is a part.\nA teacher may be able to teach his subject never so well, may even have\nthe reputation of being a distinguished educator, yet his life long be a\nteacher of Latin, or physics, or history, rather than a teacher of children.\nThe true educator must know the nature of mind; he must understand\nthe process of learning, the formation of ideals, the development of will,\nand the growth of character. The secondary teacher needs particularly\nto know the psychology of the adolescent period — that stormy period in\nwhich the individual first becomes self-conscious and struggles to express\nhis own personality. But more than man as an individual the teacher\nneeds to know the nature of man as a social being. No knowledge, I\nbelieve, is of more worth to the secondary teacher than the knowledge of\nwhat standards of culture have prevailed in the past or now exist among\nvarious peoples, their ideals of life and their methods of training the\nyoung to assume the duties of life. Such study of the history of education ismore than a study of scholastic institutions, of didactic precepts,\nor the theories of educationists; it is Kultur-Geschichte, with special reference to educational needs and educational problems. It gives that\nunifying view of our professional work without which it is idle to talk of\na science or a system of education ; it prepares the way for the only\nphilosophy of education which is worth teaching.\nUnder professonial\n\n"}
{"page": 297, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTEACHERS\n\nFOR\n\nSECONDARY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n289\n\nknowledge I should also include such information as can be gained from\na study of school economy, school hygiene, and the organization, supervision, and management of schools and school systems at home and\nabroad. Some of this technical knowledge is indispensable for all\nteachers ; all that can be gained is not too much for those who will become\nleaders in the field. But the least professional knowledge that should be\ndeemed acceptable is an appreciation of the physical conditions essential\nto success in school work, and a thoro understanding of psychology and\nits applications in teaching, of the history of education from the cultural\nstandpoint, and of the philosophic principles that determine all education.\n3. Special knowledge. — The strongest argument that can be urged\nagainst the average college graduate is that he has nothing to teach.\nThe argument applies with even greater force to the normal-school\ngraduate, however well he may be equipped on the professional side.\nNeither liberal culture nor technical skill can at all replace that solid substratum of genuine scholarship on which all true secondary education\nrests. A teacher with nothing to teach is an anomaly that needs no\nexplanation. And I count that knowledge next to nothing which must\nbe bolstered up by midnight study to hide its defects from a high-school\nclass. No one who knows the scope, purpose, and methods of collegiate\ninstruction, no one familiar with the work of the normal school, will\nposit for a moment that such training necessarily gives any remarkable\ndegree of special knowledge. I say this without any disrespect either to\nthe college or the normal school ; it is not the first and foremost duty of\neither of these institutions to turn out critical scholars or specialists in\nsome small field. But special scholarship, I maintain, is an absolute\nnecessity in the qualifications for secondary teaching. Without it the\nteacher becomes a slave to manuals and text-books : his work degenerates\ninto formal routine, with no life, no spirit, no educative power, because he\nknows no better way ; the victims of his ignorance rise up -to call him\nanything but blessed, and take their revenge as citizens in ignoring altogether professional knowledge in the conduct of public-school affairs —\nbecause they, too, know no better way. Now as never before, I believe,\ndo we need to emphasize the possession of special scholarship as an\nessential prerequisite to secondary teaching. Only the other day I\nlearned that a principal of a secondary school in my own state is undertaking the teaching of Latin after a six-weeks' preparation in a summer\nschool. What a travesty on classical instruction ! It would seem that no\nargument were necessary to convince a Yankee that there is virtue in\nperfect tools ; but somehow the idea is abroad that the perfect tool is the\nperfect text-book. Now is an opportune time to convince the American\npeople that it is \"the man behind the gun,\" rather than the gun itself,\nwhich counts.\n\n"}
{"page": 298, "printed_page": null, "text": "290\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nI\n\n[Columbus\n\n4. Technical skill. — It is safe to say that no quality is more earnestly\ndesired in the teacher, or more persistently sought for, than the technical\nability to teach. The first question asked of an applicant is not, \" Has\nhe had a liberal education?\" or, \"What is his professional knowledge?\"\nor, \"Has he anything to teach?\" but this: \"Can he teach?\" The\npopular mind fails to recognize the interdependence of these qualities,\nand, failing in this, it bases judgment of a teacher's ability on the relatively nonessential. Ability to maintain order in the class-room, to get\nwork out of his pupils, to satisfy casual supervisors and examiners, to\nkeep fine records, and to mystify parents — this too frequently passes for'\nability to teach. How seldom, indeed, is a teacher tested by his ability\nto get something into his pupils, by his ability to impart his knowledge\nin a way that shall broaden their horizons, extend their interests,\nstrengthen their characters, and rouse within them the desire to lead a\npure, noble, unselfish life ! School-keeping is not necessarily schoolteaching. The technical ability to teach includes both. The art of\nteaching is mimicry, a dangerous gift, unless it is founded on the\nscience of teaching, which takes account of the end and means of education and the nature of the material to be taught. School-keeping may\nbe practically the same for all classes of pupils, but true teaching must\nalways vary with surrounding conditions and the ends to be attained.\nGraduates of colleges and normal schools alike must fail in technical\nskill, if they teach as they have been taught. The work of the secondary school is unique. It requires an arrangement and presentation of the subject-matter of instruction in a way unknown in elementary\neducation and unheeded in most college teaching ; it requires tact, judgment, and disciplinary powers peculiar to the management of youth.\nHerein is the need of that technical skill which is not, as has been well\nsaid, \"a part of the natural equipment of every educated person.\"\nA survey of the field of secondary education discloses that these four\nessential qualifications of the secondary teacher are everywhere recognized in practice. The difficulty is that few teachers unite them in due\nproportion. The thoroly trained teacher, trained by study and tested\nby experience, has no difficulty in finding employment, or holding his\nplace once he finds it. Those who have positions to fill are eagerly\nscanning the professional horizon, and are thankful for some refreshing\nsign, even tho it is no larger than a man's hand. The function of the\nteachers' college and the university department of pedagogy is to establish abetter code of professional signs and to insure more perfect realization of professional promise.\nThe experience of Germany in the training of teachers for secondary\nschools is deserving of careful study. Not, however, because the German\nsystem is perfect or directly applicable to American conditions — I have\ngrave doubts whether Germany has much to offer us by way of direct\n\n"}
{"page": 299, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTEACHERS\n\nFOR\n\nSECONDARY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n291\n\ncontribution — but because Germany has developed, during the present\ncentury, a magnificently trained body of secondary teachers, despite hindrances much more perplexing than those now confronting us. The\nlesson from German experience is that to liberal culture you must add\nspecial scholarship, and to special scholarship professional knowledge,\nand to professional knowledge technical skill; these four — no one of\nwhich may be neglected.\nThe intending teacher in the secondary schools of Germany must first\nof all be a graduate of a recognized secondary school having a nineyears' course of study strictly prescribed in every detail. At the end of\nthis period — say, when the student is nineteen or twenty years of age\nand ranks with our college juniors— the university course is begun.\nDuring the next four or five years there is unrestricted freedom of choice\nin life and study. The student, on coming up to the university, knows\nfull well what profession he is to follow ; and the intending teacher has\nhis specialties already in mind. In general, the greater part of his work\nis directed to those subjects which he expects to teach, or, better, to those\nsubjects in which he will later be examined.\nThe state examination is the sole test of a candidate's preparation for\nany professional career. Neither the degree of doctor of philosophy nor\nany other scholarly distinction can exempt him from the necessity of\nproving himself before a state board of examiners.\nThe aim of the state examination is to test (i) the applicant's proficiency in pedagogy and philosophy, including psychology, logic, and\nethics; (2) his familiarity with the German language and literature; (3)\nhis acquaintance with the doctrines of his religion, and (4) his knowledge\nof the subjects which he expects to teach. In all these lines, possibly\nexcepting religion, he will have had special training under university professors. In philosophy and pedagogy, in German and in religion, the\nrequirements are of a general nature, intended to disclose the applicant's\nbreadth of training and the nature of his religious faith ; it is the fourth\nrequirement that constitutes the crux of the examination: — viz., special\nknowledge.\nThe subjects which are taught in the higher schools — therefore those\nin which state examinations maybe taken — are classed in two general\ngroups : the language-history group and the science-mathematics group.\nThe former includes German, Latin, Greek, French, English, and history; the latter includes mathematics, physics, chemistry and mineralogy,\nbotany and zoology ; geography may be classed in either group. Of the\nfour subjects in which every teacher is examined, the first two are known\nas majors {Hauptfdcher) — those which he prefers to teach ; the other two\nare minors (Nebenfdcher).\nThe university student who looks forward to teaching as a profession\nearly selects the combination of subjects which he prefers to teach, or\n\n"}
{"page": 300, "printed_page": null, "text": "292\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Columbus'\n\nwhich is likely to bring most rapid promotion. To these subjects he\ngives his main attention for three to five years during his university\ncourse.\nThe examination is both oral and written. The written test comes\nfirst, and consists in the writing of elaborate essays on themes assigned\nby the commission.\n\nOne theme is on some topic in philosophy or peda-\n\ngogy, and is designed to test the candidate's knowledge of the philosophical basis of pedagogy and didactics, and of the development of\neducational thought since the sixteenth century. The candidate must also\nwrite e'ssays on themes selected from each of his major subjects. When\none essay will include both major subjects, the two may be combined, as\nfrequently happens in classical and modern philology, physics and mathemathics, history and geography, etc. If the applicant has published\nsomething of note, as, for instance, a dissertation for the degree of doctor\nof philosophy, it may be offered as a substitute for one of the essays.\nSix weeks are allowed for the preparation of each essay, and the commission is empowered to grant an extension of six weeks — making twelve\nweeks in all, if necessary, on the subject.\nThe oral examination is intended to test the general culture of the\ncandidate, and his ready command of philosophy and pedagogy, and to\nascertain his fitness to teach his chosen subjects in a higher school. The\nexamination in each subject is conducted by a specially appointed exam\niner, in the presence of other members of the commission. Thus it wil'\nbe seen that the examination requires the better part of a year, and is\nas searching as can be devised in a country where teachers are all too\nplentiful.\nThe intending teacher, even with his certificate in his hand, has yet\nother gauntlets to run. The certificate of itself confers no right to teach.\nSomething more than general culture and minute scholarship is required.\nIt is safe to say that Germany owes more to the pedagogical training of\nher teachers than to any other factor in their preparation. It is the professional spirit, which ever)' German teacher feels, that differentiates him\nfrom his species in other countries, and this spirit is the result chiefly of\nhis pedagogical training.\nMuch of the professional training of the German teacher is given in\nthe universities. Courses in philosophy, ethics, logic, and psychology,\nand in the history and principles of education, are everywhere given.\nBut with all the general preparation that he can make, the intending\nteacher must spend one full year in a teachers' seminar, where he is\ntrained in the special methods of presenting the subjects in which he is\nofficially declared to be proficient, in teaching under guidance, and in\nfamiliarizing himself with the practical workings of a secondary school.\nSystematic study of practical pedagogics and school economy is also\nrequired thruout the year.\n\n"}
{"page": 301, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTEACHERS\n\nFOR\n\nSECONDARY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n2^3\n\nBut even with this preparation the candidate may not begin his lifework. Another year of trial is required in Prussia, during which there\nis constant practice in teaching in a public school, under the criticism of\nregular teachers designated for that purpose. Thus at the end of sixteen\nyears' continuous preparation — nine in a secondary school, four in the\nuniversity, one in examination, and two in practical training — the successful candidate may enroll his name on the official lists and await his\nturn for permanent appointment. There ought to be no doubt of his\nqualifications.\nBut in America few states make any specific requirements of highschool teachers over and above what is required of teachers in the grades.\nThe result is that the weaker schools are filled with teachers inadequately\ntrained for their work. It is probably true, however, that such schools\nget all they pay for. Economic conditions, as I have already indicated,\ndo not permit the best teachers to enter these schools. And, on the\nother hand, the unseemly scramble for places in the better grade of schools\ntends to provoke unprofessional conduct and to place even the thoroly\nequipped teachers at the mercy of partisan school boards. Fortunately\nthis tendency is held in check by the good sense of many patrons of our\nsecondary schools, and by the good offices of far-sighted superintendents\nand principals of schools. The fact remains, however, that it is not\nbecause of state regulations, but in spite of them, that secondary education in America is upheld in its integrity.\nI am not of those who believe that legislation is the only remedy, or\nthe best remedy, for existing evils — social or educational. In face of the\nprevailing economic conditions, and with the present supply of secondary teachers, it is useless to urge the enactment of laws requiring a\nhigher standard of academic or professional qualifications. Change the\neconomic conditions, or improve the quality of professional preparation,\nand I believe legislation will follow as a matter of course, or be found\naltogether unnecessary. Nor do I see that the economic conditions affecting secondary teachers can be materially changed until the public comes\nto recognize that we have laborers worthy of a better hire. In a word,\nthe burden of improving the condition of the secondary teacher in\nAmerica rests primarily upon the colleges and universities of America.\nAnd this is the task which the departments of pedagogy and the teachers'\ncolleges must assume.\nHow is it being done ? First of all it must be remarked that by far\nthe larger number of colleges giving courses in education seem to consider the work in its non-professional aspect. The science and art of\neducation are regarded as subjects for research and investigation, or as\nmeans of liberal culture akin to history and political science. Such work\nhas its place, but unsupported it plays no very important role in training\nteachers for secondary schools.\n\n"}
{"page": 302, "printed_page": null, "text": "294\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n,\n\n[Columbu\n\nI find that the institutions giving professional courses in education for]\nintending teachers in secondary schools are in general agreement as to]\nwhat should be done, altho few of them are able to realize their ideals.]\nThe diploma, or teacher's certificate, which is granted on the completion]\nof a prescribed course in the best colleges requires as a rule the bachelor's\ndegree, and a certain amount of work in the history and philosophy o^\neducation, and in psychology and its applications in teaching.\nCalifornia\nand Nebraska seem to lead the way in requiring that candidates for th<\nteacher's certificate at the time of receiving the bachelor's degree must\nobserve the following conditions :\nd) Special knowledge. — The completion of work, amounting normally to twentj\nhours a week for one half-year, in the subject or group of closely allied subjects that the\ncandidate intends to teach.\nb) Professional knowledge. — The completion of work in pedagogy, amounting to'\ntwelve hours a week for one half-year.\nFour hours for one half-year may be taken in\npsychology or in a special \" teachers' course \" in some other department.\nc) General knowledge. — Courses sufficient to represent (with the inclusion of speciab^\nstudies) four groups from the following list : natural sciences, mathematics, English,\nforeign languages, history, philosophy.\nThe requirement is intended to secure, so far\nas is possible, breadth of culture and sympathy with the various lines of high-school\nwork.\n\n(A \" group,\" as I understand it, is about twenty hours for one halfyear.)\nThe chief defect- in the California plan is that it provides for nc\nsystematic practice in teaching under criticism.\nThere is provision, I|\nunderstand, for observation of high-school teaching under the guidance '\nof university instructors, but the need of actual practice in teaching is felt\nin the universities of California, Nebraska, Kansas, and Wisconsin, where\nplans are being perfected for such work in the public schools.\nIn the East, on the other hand, some excellent object-lessons in the\nart of teaching can be seen. Properly qualified students in Brown University are enabled to teach half time in the public schools of Providence^\nfor which they receive half pay ; meanwhile they carry on graduate stud]\nin the university. In Harvard University, Professor Hanus informs me^\n\"through arrangements made with the neighboring cities of NeWton^j\nMedford, Everett, and Brookline, students have special opportunities tc\nteach for practice, under direction. Each student is required to teach not\nless than two, nor more than six, periods per week for h&lf the school\nyear in some one subject.\" In explanation Professor Hanus remarks : \"I\ndo not believe in playing at teaching.\"\nAn interesting experiment is also being tried in Brookline, Mass.,\nwhere Superintendent Button is doing the work of the German GymnasialSeminar. He admits to his seminar only qualified college graduates.\nThese students he meets in conference occasionally while they are systematically observing and teaching in his schools.\n\n"}
{"page": 303, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTEACHERS\n\nFOR\n\nSECONDARY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n295\n\nThese indications all point one way. The outline of the future professional school for secondary teachers can readily be discerned, I think,\nin the composite of existing schools. Such a school will grant diplomas\nor degrees to qualified candidates, but not a blanket certificate that certifies to the fitness of the holder to teach anything anywhere he gets the\nchance. The intending teacher in secondary schools must earn his right\nto teach each subject in which he wishes a diploma, in addition to the\nright to teach at all. The lowest requirements which we can consistently\nmake for such a diploma are as follows :\n1 . The candidate must be a college graduate, at least when he receives\nthe diploma, if not when entering upon the course.\n2. He must satisfactorily complete courses in {a) the history of education, {p)the philosophy of education, (c) psychology and its applications\nin teaching, and (^) school economy, especially school hygiene — an\nallotment, say, of eight hours a week thruout one year.\n3. As evidence of the special knowledge required in each subject in\nwhich a diploma is sought the candidate should be able to show the\nequivalent of at least three years' collegiate study of that subject — three\nto five hours a week. In the University of California a total credit of ten\nyear-hours is required ; in Nebraska it is twelve and a half year-hours,\nand in Michigan some departments insist on as much as twenty-five yearhours for the teacher's certificate. But whatever be the requirement in\ncredit hours, provision should be made for securing a sufficient degree of\nspecial scholarship as a prerequisite to what I consider the gateway to\nactual teaching, viz., a course in the special methods of teaching each\nsubject elected. Such a course may very properly be conducted, wholly\nor in part, by the university department which is responsible for the academic training in subject-matter.\n4. The candidate must be given opportunity to observe good teaching,\nstudy its methods under guidance, and finally give instruction under normal conditions long enough to demonstrate his ability to teach.\nThis plan will enable a thoroly good college student, who chooses his\nelectives wisely, to secure a teacher's diploma in one or two subjects, e. g.,\nLatin and Greek, physics and chemistry, at the same time that he gets his\nbachelor's degree. For the college graduate it provides a one-year professional course which will enable him, granted that he has the requisite academic preparation, to secure a diploma in two or three related\nsubjects.\nIn closing, I am happy to say that the scheme just outlined is no Utopian dream; it is being realized, wholly or in part, in several of our universities. That it is entirely practicable I am able to affirm from my own\nexperience in Columbia University. We have encountered many difficulties, tobe sure, and I suspect my colleagues in other institutions have\ntroubles of their own ; but I am confident that, if the plan which I have\n\n"}
{"page": 304, "printed_page": null, "text": "296\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Columbus\n\noutlined is one that should succeed, it can be worked out successfully in\nmany places. It is a work, however, that demands our united efforts.\nAnd in this connection I desire to say that I can find no evidence of that\nself-righteousness so naively imputed to university professors of education\nby the Committee of Fifteen, when it was remarked that \"it is not\nnecessary to enter in detail into the work of theoretical instruction for\nsecondary teachers. The able men at the head of institutions and departments designed for such work neither need nor desire advice upon this matter.\" My opinion is that these men will welcome the advice and support\nof this organization, and that in turn they will render you invaluable\nassistance in your professional labors, if you will let them understand\nyour needs. Let us strive together for the upbuilding of that more\nexcellent educational state in which each shall do his part and do it well.\n\nDISCUSSION\nJoseph S. Stewart, president North Georgia Agricultural College. — The question\nander consideration has been so ably discussed by the gentleman who has just taken his\nseat, and at a former meeting of the National Educational Association, in the comprehensive report by Dr. Tarbell, that there seems little more to be said upon the subject.\nThere are a few remarks that I wish to make as specially touching the educational qualification ofteachers in the South.\nThe large majority of our successful secondary teachers are young men from our colleges, who have served an apprenticeship in the rural or village schools, and have risen\nto high-school positions. Few of them are from our normal schools, as these have failed\nto furnish the proper scholastic advantages, or are of recent origin. Some of them have\ntaken postgraduate courses in the northern universities and normal colleges. The large\nmajority \" have struggled upward through the night,\" with the aid of educational journals\nand the study at home of the best books on teaching. Thus has grown up in the South a\nbody of young schoolmen who are thoroly in earnest, and are meeting the educational\nproblems that present themselves with all the devotion and enthusiasm, if with less of the\nphilosophical and scientific acumen, of some of their brethren who live beyond where\nMason and Dixon's line used to be. If they cannot discuss with Drs. De Garmo and\nMcMurry all the mysteries of Herbartianism, they are, nevertheless, equally in earnest in\n\" manufacturing men,\" as Ruskin used to say.\nThere are still too few who make teaching a profession, their life-study and -work ;\nand there is too little appreciation of what should be the preparation for this work.\nThere is a very strong sentiment in the South, especially among college presidents\nand professors, that the only training or preparation necessary for a teacher is a college\nA.B. course. Armed with this diploma and a letter of recommendation from the president,\nthe young graduate leaves his alma mater qualified to fill any position in the gift of trustees.\nI have in mind now a college president, prominent in his church, who hoots at all these\nbooks on teaching, having read but one, and boldly declares that if a man knows his\nsubject he can teach it. He does not hesitate to recommend for the superintendency of\na city system, the principalship of a city high school, or even a professorship in a college,\nthe graduates of last year's class. With him and his followers — and there are many —\na college diploma is the sine qua non of a teacher's qualifications.\nIt has both pained\n\n"}
{"page": 305, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTEACHERS\n\nFOR\n\nSECONDARY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n597\n\nand amused me to watch, at times, the flounderings of these young graduates.\nremind me of the fabled ride of Phaeton :\n\nThey\n\nThus young A. B., among the nation's young,\nLeaped in the teacher's chair and seized the reins,\nFar from their course impelled the glowing youth,\nTill nature's laws to wild disorder run.\n\nThe history of thousands of failures attest the inadequacy of an A.B. course alone as\npreparatory for teaching. The failures and misfortunes attending their first positions\ndoubtless have driven many bright young men into other professions. When will our\npeople learn that something more is needed than a college course ?\nThe normal schools of the South, with the exception of Peabody Normal, at Nashville, under Dr. Payne, offer courses so meager, being little more than high-school\nstudies, that few of their graduates are qualified in scholarship for positions in our best\nhigh schools, tho they may have an overabundance of teaching machinery. They lack\ndepth, \" and because they have no root they wither away.\" Because of this lack of\nscholarship, because of this stressing of form to the partial neglect of the substance, the\neducated portion of the community often discredits normal training and associates it with\nshallowness. The normal schools \" do not turn out men down our way,\" as Walt Whitman was fond of saying. They produce good grade teachers, men and women who\nteach well under supervision, but the leaders in educational thought and action today did\nnot receive their education in our normal schools. The plan is too narrow, the ideal too\nlow, in the main. Instead of a great, sound, whole-souled nature being cultivated, so\nthat he may become what Dr. Canfield calls a \"winner of men,\" the prodi^ct is a specialist in primary- or secondary-school methods and scholarship, a fragment, a life narrowed\nand circumscribed with little hope of a wider field of action. The trouble is not in giving\nnormal training, /^r i-^, for that is good ; but it is in specializing too soon. The aim is\nnot the realization of the rational self by a completely developed character, which can be\nobtained only by devoting ourselves to some large end in co-operation with others, or,\nas Schiller says, \" One must either be a whole in himself, or join himself onto a whole ; \"\nbut the ideal in these schools is to prepare the students to occupy, as soon as possible, a\ncertain position in a school. The normal schools, as at present constituted, do not give\nthe proper training for the secondary teacher, tho they are doing a valuable work for\nprimary, grammar, and rural schools.\nWe have had little experience in the South in what can be accomplished by teachers'\ntraining classes as adjuncts to city-school systems. Some good grade teachers have been\nproduced, but no definite work has been done in training teachers for the high-school\npositions. I do not care to see these classes for the latter purpose tried, as the product\nmust be an inferior article.\nOld Agricola, four hundred years ago, wrote to the authorities at Antwerp : \" Take\nneither a theologian nor a so-called rhetorician, who thinks he is able to speak of everything\nwithout understanding anything of eloquence. Such people make in school the same\nfigure, according to the Greek proverb, that a dog does in a bath. It is necessary to\nseek a man resembling the phoenix of Achilles, that is, who knows how to teach, to speak,\nand act at the same time.\"\nThe PVoebels, the Arnolds, the Manns, the Mark Hopkins, the Harpers, the Harris's,\nthe Whites, and a host of others that have been the inspiration of generations of youth,\nhave been men of the broadest culture, men of active participation in the life of their\ntimes, men whose lives have been devoted to large ends. Nor did they leap at one bound\ninto great positions as teachers. \"A spark had stirred their clod.\" With resistless enthusiasm and unbounded love \" they toiled while their companions slept.\"\nDr. Jordan, in his Science Sketches, tells us that the school of all schools which has\nhad most influence on scientific teaching in America was held in an old barn, on an\n\n"}
{"page": 306, "printed_page": null, "text": "298\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nIColumbus\n\nuninhabited island, some eighteen miles from shore. It lasted but three months, and, in\neffect, it had but one teacher — Agassiz.\nI would have the man who is to teach my boy in that vital period of adolescence the\nmost cultured that the college or university, supplemented by travel, could produce ; one\nwith a comprehensive knowledge of the history and philosophy of education ; a man of\nthe school, and yet a man of the world ; a student, but not an ascetic ; a thinker, yet a\ndoer ; young he may be, if he has a big heart and a glowing enthusiasm ; one who in the\nprocess of his development is a secondary teacher today, but ready to be called to the\nprincipalship tomorrow, and yet higher and higher as he grows ; one who thinks character the greatest thing in the world, and lives to know and realize the truth. Such\nteachers are not trained imitators. They have caught the divine truth from some great\nsoul, and live their creed thruout all time.\nI would not spend much time, therefore, in training secondary teachers, but I would\nthat more of our bright young men would set before them the ideal of a great teacher and\nturn all \" the current of their lives \" to realize it —\n\" Filling the soul with sentiments august,\nThe beautiful, the brave, the holy and the just.\"\n\nMerely trained teachers are like trained horses, or birds, or servants — good enough\nwhere someone else does the thinking. We need an emancipation proclamation to deliver\nus from machine work.\nThe best of our colleges and universities give the breadth and culture needed by the\nteacher, supplemented by courses as offered in the chairs of pedagogy like those at. Chicago, Columbia, and the best of our normal colleges. If our colleges would offer a degree\nof bachelor of instruction, based on a regular four-years' course, but substituting for Greek,\nsay, after the sophomore year, a course in the history, philosophy, and science of teaching,\nmany young would go out prepared to succeed as teachers where only failure now awaits\nthem.\nI cannot close this discussion better than by saying, after the manner of Milton, that\nhe who would hope to develop strong, well-rounded characters ought himself to be a true\nman, a great poem, not presuming to teach the young the way of truth unless he have\nin himself the experience and the practice of all that which is praiseworthy.\n\nBY\n\nF.\n\nEFFICIENT\n\nAND\n\nLOUIS\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nSOLDAN,\n\nINEFFICIENT\nOF\n\nTEACHERS\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nST.\n\nLOUIS,\n\nMO.\n\n\" The welfare of the child shall be the highest law,\" is the principle\non which every school should be conducted. To it all other considerations must yield. The wisdom of school laws, the merits of school\nofficials, the efficiency of teachers may ultimately be judged by the way\nin which the interests of the children are affected by them.\nPARENTAL\n\nDUTIES\n\nThe right of the teacher to control and discipline the pupils is a delegated one. Her authority is. derived from the fact that she stands in the\nparents' place.\nThe assumption of parental rights by the teacher cannot be separated\n\n"}
{"page": 307, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nEFFICIENT\n\nAND\n\nINEFFICIENT\n\nTEACHERS\n\n299\n\nfrom obligations which resemble those of the parent. Kindness to and\nsympathy with her pupils are qualifications just as necessary in a teacher\nas the ability to impart instruction.\nLittle children are mischievous and naughty, and it is necessary at\ntimes to enforce respect to law by strict disciplinary measures ; yet there\nshould be sympathy even in punishment, lest it fail of its purpose and\narouse passions in the child soul which had better forever be dormant.\nThere are unlovable children, seemingly irresponsive to word and act\nof kindness, with whom it may be difficult to remain in sympathetic touch.\nBut, for all that, the teacher who does not love childhood, in spite of its\nmischief and naughtiness, its apparent slowness or dullness in lessons,\nwho does not enjoy, in a measure, even the vagaries of childhood, has\nerred in choosing her vocation. The presence of a nagging, scolding,\nmorose, fault-finding, or habitually discontented teacher or principal is a\ncalamity to a school and a misfortune to a school system. A wise teacher\nmakes the child's sojourn in her room both profitable and pleasurable.\nThe teacher adjusts herself to the ways of childhood in order that the\nchild may adjust himself quickly and willingly to the demands of education. Her vocation requires a constant compromise with the natural\nfrailty and the infirmities of child nature, but there must be no compromise whatever in regard to the great and exacting aims of the schoolroom work, the teaching of the good and true, or, in other words, in\nregard to valid and lasting results in discipline and instruction.\nPROFESSIONAL\n\nPROGRESSIVENESS\n\nThe school time of many children is limited to two or three years, and\nevery moment of their time should be utilized to best advantage. Constant self-improvement and growth on the part of the teacher are, therefore, conditions of professional excellence. The regular reading of some\ngood educational magazine, the study of good educational and general\nliterature, the use of the public library, a fair participation in educational\nmeetings, utilization of whatever opportunities of general, literary, scientific,\naesthetic, or ethical culture the city or place offers, are obligations which\nthe profession impliedly requires from every conscientious teacher. The\nleast educational fitness which childhood can demand is that its teacher\nshould be a live man or woman. The \"personal equation\" is of special\nimportance in teaching, where much of the influence exerted over the\nchild is by example rather than precept. ~ Strong manhood or womanhood is required to make a good teacher. Character and the personal\nhabits of neatness, good taste, social and ethical refinement are as essential\nqualifications in teaching as physical health, and good hearing and eyesight.\nIn regard to instruction, the duty is to secure for the lessons the most\npotent educational influence on the development of character and mental\n\n"}
{"page": 308, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n[Columbus\n\n300\n\npower. An efficient teacher will see that the lesson is not a \"re-citation,\"\na term derived from the obsolete period in our educational history when\nthe work of the school consisted in assigning pages in text-books and\nrequiring that the words should be committed and \"re-cited\" verbatim.\nA lesson should not be a mere re-citation on the part of the child ; it\nshould rather be a thoughtful statement of the contents than the recital or\nrepetition of an author's words. In conducting the lesson she has no\nthought of using it to display her own professional skill or brilliancy ;\nbut she puts the child in the foreground, and her whole aim is to give to\nhis own acting as much time and scope as her skill can induce him to use.\nShe speaks little, that he may speak more ; she realizes the difference\nbetween telling and teaching. Her aim is to excite to activity, and for\nthis purpose she enlists his interest. She makes instruction, not only\nprofitable, but also attractive. She not only serves the intellectual food,\nbut also stimulates the appetite.\nORDER\n\nThe child is to become a law-abiding and order-loving citizen, and\nthe schoolroom gives him the first training by intercourse with his equals\nin communal life. He learns to obey the law, to respect the rights of\nothers, and to regulate his conduct by altruistic considerations. He must\nlearn to so adjust his conduct as to afford the other children the best\nopportunity for their work, thru his silence, his application to duty, and\nobedience to direction.\nTEACHER\n\nAND\n\nPARENT\n\nThe teacher's authority has its source in that of the parent. As she\nrespects her own position, she will respect that of the child's father and\nmother, and whatever she can do to increase the appreciation of parental\ncare and guidance will help her to maintain her own authority. It is illadvised for the parent to speak derogatorily of the teacher in the presence\nof the child \\ it is a professional error for the teacher not to manifest\ngood-will and respect for the parent at every opportjinity.\nThere is no relation in the whole range of social life where the presupposition and need of co-operation is more natural and more imperative than in the case of the parent and teacher. It is clearly one of the\nprofessional duties of the teacher to strive to remain in harmony and\nfriendly touch with the pupil's home. Teacher and parent impair their\neducational efforts by failing to maintain good terms and touch with each\nother.\nWhile co-operation between school and home is desirable, no unnecessary demand for assistance should be made upon the latter, and the legitimate share of the work must be borne by the teacher, without worrying\n\n"}
{"page": 309, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nEFFICIEN7\n\nAND\n\nINEFFICIENT\n\nTEACHERS\n\n%o\\\n\nand nagging the parent with constant complaints about petty matters\nwhich belong to the legitimate duties of the school, and which a competent teacher should be able to set right without troubling others unnecessarily for assistance.\nThere is no parent who will not appreciate the faithful efforts of a\nteacher in behalf of his child. A teacher who understands how to make\nher room popular, by devotion to the children and good nature in dealing with parents, renders a service to the cause of public education. A\nteacher who gets into trouble with parents habitually and establishes a\ngeneral reputation of unfriendliness had better indulge in a process of\nself-examination and reform. No teacher should forget that a parent's\nlife is as full of trials as her own, and that the experience with a troublesome child is likely to be as irritating at home as it is in school.\nRELATIONS\n\nWITH\n\nOTHER\n\nTEACHERS\n\nThe maintenance of a system of public schools is the best safeguard\nof the welfare and interests of the child.\nBelief in the public schools as a system involves the willing acceptance\nby each teacher of the conditions on which it rests, namely, willing and\nhelpful co-operation with other persons employed in the same work.\nEach teacher must adjust her individuality to efficient service with\nfellow- teachers and co-workers. Where masses devote their lives to joint\nlabor for a common purpose, subordination, self-discipline, and activeloyalty become essential duties. Without this there can be no concentration of efforts, no wise husbanding of means, no control, no unity of pur\npose, no efficient maintenance of education on a large scale.\nOne of the qualifications required of the public-school teacher is her\nfitness for co-operative work. This means the ability to get along pleasantly with fellow-teachers, with principal, parent, and school officials, and\nto labor in close and helpful harmony with them.\nA proper regard for the professional reputation of others, or of the\npublic schools at large, seems to be a self-evident duty. No personal advantage can be gained by the flippant and sweeping condemnation of the\nwork and qualifications of other teachers or schools.\nThere is no worse piece of folly than that of which instances, fortunately rare, are found in many places, from the primary room to the university— than the fatuous complaints about the alleged poor instruction\nwhich the children have found in the grades below their present one.\nSometimes a university complains about the derelictions and inadequacies\nof high-school instruction, the high school about the grammar schools,\nand in the latter, room No. i complains about No. 2, and so down to the\nprimary room, which, perhaps, is so fortunately placed that it has a kindergarten preceding it, about whose derelictions it can complain.\n\n"}
{"page": 310, "printed_page": null, "text": "302\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nDUTIES\n\nOF\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Columbus\n\nPRINCIPALS\n\nThere is no more important office in our whole school organization\nthan that of the principal. Our whole system in its daily working is based\non the idea that the principal is the one in whom the highest local\nauthority is vested. Great authority is connected with duties correspondingly great.\nPRINCIPAL\n\nAND\n\nCOMMUNITY\n\nEvery principal should endeavor to make his school a favorite with\nthe people, which is the natural position for any public school to occupy.\nOur people believe in public education and cherish it. Where a school\nis not popular, the probable reason is usually some mistake of omission\nor commission in its management.\nThe best and most direct way to make a school popular is to make it\nefficient in instruction and discipline. Efforts in this direction are sure\nto find their reward in public appreciation. If, in addition to this, a principal makes it the rule of his own and the teachers' management to cultivate pleasant relations with parents, it will certainly lead to that kind of\npopularity which is desirable.\nThis does not at all mean that the principal should allow his school\nto become lax in discipline, or that he should be irresolute in dealing\nwith refractory pupils, or should be accommodating and time-serving\nwhen unreasonable demands are made on him ; politic weakness is sure\nto result in loss of public confidence and respect. A weak man or woman\ncannot be an efficient principal. Our people do not wish that bad boys\nshould grow up uncorrected. What is required of the principal is strict\nattention to his business, a certain kindliness of disposition toward children\nand parents, and the manifest wish to satisfy just demands.\nRELATIVE\n\nIMPORTANCE\n\nOF\n\nDUTIES\n\nThe amount of routine business which the principal of a large school\nis called upon to attend to in the course of a day is exceedingly laborious.\nYet it would be a great error for a principal to lose himself in details,\nwhich, after all, are of secondary importance, compared with the great\nduty of being the leader and guide of the teachers and children. To\ndistinguish well between what is important and what is unimportant in\nhis duties is a test of a principal's good judgment.\nPRINCIPAL\n\nAND\n\nTEACHERS\n\nParticipation in the same work may be made a source of mutual\nimprovement for principal and teachers, if they are willing to profit by\nthe opportunity. Every principal must educate his corps of teachers, and\nit may be said, without fear of contradiction, that he in turn is educated\nby them thru the work and methods he observes in their rooms.\n\n"}
{"page": 311, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nEFFICIENT\n\nAND\n\nINEFFICIENT\n\nTEACHERS\n\n303\n\nThe professional conversations with teachers, if properly managed, may\nbe a source of reciprocal training. There can be no better pedagogical\nschooling than to be compelled to find valid educational reasons for\nevery method of teaching and every problem of discipline.\nTeachers' meetings, in the second place, hold an important position\nin harmonizing and unifying the work, and no school should be without\nthem. Teachers' meetings are always useful, but their measure of success\ndepends largely on the tact of the teachers and the personal qualities of\nthe principal. They tend to establish spiritual touch and community of\nintellectual life among the members of the corps.\nQUALIFICATIONS\n\nOF\n\nPRINCIPALS\n\nThe principal holds his office by appointment of the board of education ;but this appointment is ultimately based on the supposition of\nsuperior scholarly attainments, pedagogical skill, and executive ability.\nThese qualities should be just as much in permanent evidence, as conditions on which the principal's authority rests, as his annual reappointment. The principal's authority, in a higher sense, can be maintained\nbest by constant self-improvement, reading, and study ; without these,\nscholarly qualifications soon become obsolete.\nIn qualifications confined to routine ability there is not a sufficient\nelement of progress. There is good teaching done elsewhere, and the\nchild has a right to demand that his leader, on whom his education\ndepends, should be informed of the best work and thought current in\neducational literature and practice. He should be able, when occasion\narises, to give good pedagogical reasons for his practical directions, more\nvalid than \"I think so,\" or, \"This is the way in which I think it ought to\nbe done.\"\nOfficial authority supported by personal qualifications constitute the\nmost efficient kind of leadership, and will easily find responsive following.\nThe principal is answerable for the condition of his school, and for\nthis reason it is his duty to speak to a teacher frankly when he discovers\nerrors in her instruction or management, and to make suggestions whenever he sees that they are in the interest of the children.\nThis task need not be, and will not be, unpleasant, unless principal\nor teacher makes it so ; the former by inconsiderate manner in making a\ncriticism, and the latter by unbusinesslike sensitiveness in receiving it.\nIt is a great mistake ever to make criticism the outcome of a fit of anger\nor passion. Criticisms are part of a teacher's official business, and must\nnot be made an indignity by the way in which they are given or received.\nWhile the principal is the absolute judge of all arrangements in his\nschool, there is no need of having the whole work conducted on the dead\nlevel of uniformity.\nTo deprive teachers of the freedom of movement\n\n"}
{"page": 312, "printed_page": null, "text": "304\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Columbus\n\nmeans to deprive them of self-confidence, and to sap individuality, which\nis the main source of vigorous and progressive teaching.\nCases of absolute inefficiency cannot be tolerated in a school where\nthe interest of the child is the highest law. In this class must be included\nall those cases of inefficiency where the possible cure is so slow and uncertain that the children would suffer by the attempt.\nThere are physical as well as ethical defects which no training, no\npatience, on the part of the principal, no help extended, no frankness of\ncriticism, can change, or even mitigate.\nWhere old age is accompanied by a decline of power that prevents the\ncompetent performance of essential duties, it may necessitate the resignation of a teacher whose long and valued service in the public schools\nmakes everybody regret that she finds such a course necessary ; but, on\nthe other hand, the children's interest must be guarded, and there seems\nto be no other recourse.\nA kind of absolute inefficiency which does not have the claim on sympathy that is due to old age or physical ailment is the habitual morose\ndisposition that leads to unkind and unsympathetic treatment of the children. Objectionable habits of life, or qualities of character and disposition\nthat set a bad example to childhood, must also be enumerated among\nthe conditions that constitute absolute inefficiency. A lack of natural\ntalent to impart knowledge, or the inability to control children, which\ntime, experience, and assistance do not seem speedily to improve, must\nalso be considered as elements of absolute inefficiency. The school ca^\\\ntolerate relative inefficiency in such cases only where there is the probability of speedy and permanent improvement. Inefficiency may result\nfrom absence of ordinary business capacity, such as the ability to be\nprompt and regular in attendance, and in school work and records; but\nthese business qualities are largely matters of habit, and may be acquired\nwhenever there is a modicum of talent and earnestness of purpose. There\nare also absolute demands which the interests of the public schools as an\norganization impose : willing co-operation with others, and ready subordination to constituted authority.\nIn all cases of absolute inefficiency an obligatory and speedy change\nof vocation is the proper remedy.\nIf the preceding discussion of the teacher's duties has served any purpose, itmust have shown that the teacher's duties are exceedingly numerous, and that there is no one who can possibly attain absolute perfection\nin all directions of professional work. There is no teacher living who\ndoes not fall short of perfection in some way, and who is not less efficient\nin certain directions than in others. There never has been a system\nof schools, and there never will be one, that is not taught by teachers\ndiffering in talent and in degrees of efficiency in various directions.\nEven with the best teacher, one day's work is not always as efficient\n\n.':\n\n"}
{"page": 313, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nEFFICIEN7\n\nAND\n\nINEFFICIEN7\n\nTEACHERS\n\n305\n\nand satisfactory as another's ; in years of efficiency there are always days\nof relative inefficiency when, in the dealing with pupils or in the presentation oftopics of instruction, the teacher herself is severely dissatisfied\nwith her work. This consideration suggests that it would be unwise to\njudge a teacher's work adversely on the sole basis of a single or an occasional visit to her room.\nA young teacher's professional immaturity may make her work seem\ninefficient compared with the work of one that is more experienced.\nEven after the most careful preparation, thru high- and normal-school\nwork, it requires three or four years of experience in the schoolroom to\ndevelop in a young teacher the highest degree of efficiency which it is possible for her to attain.\nIn a system of schools there is always some young teacher less skilled,\nless experienced and efficient than others. As long as she is manifestly\ngrowing and profiting by her daily experience in the schoolroom, makes\nuse of suggestions for improvement, and is doing fairly efficient work,\nwhich is better today than it was yesterday, there is no remedy but the\ninfluence of time and training. It would be useless for school authorities\nto attempt to eliminate relative inefficiency by removal from office, unless\nthe position can be filled by someone better qualified.\nThe question as to efficiency of teachers is always an important one in\nlarge systems of schools. \"What shall be done with inefficient teachers ?\nHow can we discover their presence ? \" is the question which every school\nboard will ask. An answer has been attempted in the preceding discussion. Absolute inefficiency can be neither cured nor endured by a school\nsystem. It must be eliminated by filling the position with a betterqualified teacher. Relative inefficiency, that is to say, temporarily unsatisfactory work, may be changed by training and experience to efficiency.\nNot a few of our principals, year after year, when it happens that a teacher\nranking somewhat below the average in ability is assigned to their schools,\nsucceed, after a comparatively short time, in making such teacher efficient,\nthru the influence of their personality, and the help and guidance which\nthey give. Principals render one of the most important services if they\nsuccessfully educate their corps and help the weaker teacher to attain\nefficiency thru their influence and supervision.\nIt is an imperative duty, but by no means an easy one, for boards of\neducation, principals, and superintendents to eliminate cases of absolute\ninefficiency. The person chiefly concerned is hardly in a condition to\nrealize that she is inefficient. She honestly does not believe that her\nwork is bad, and cannot understand why others should think so. If she\ncould realize her inefficiency, it would probably not have existed for so\nlong a time. In not a few cases inefficiency goes with a fixed conviction\nof personal excellence ; the consciousness of having made the best effort\nthat she is capable of blinds the one reported for inefficiency to the fact\n\n"}
{"page": 314, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Columbus\n3o6\nthat even the best effort may be inadequate where nature has withheld the\ntalent requisite for the instruction or control of children. To the person\n\nchiefly concerned the trouble is somebody else's fault rather than her\nown ; it is due to some petty misunderstanding in the past, to social or\nreligious bias, to jealousy, if it is not dictated by fancied petty animosity\nor is the result of an old grudge. As a rule in such cases, the plea is that\nof injustice on the part of the reporting officer, of prejudice, or hasty\njudgment, or insufficient information ; it is alleged that the room has not\nbeen visited often enough by the principal or supervisors, or that their\nvisits did not occur at the right time, and that the teacher has not had\nenough help, and has not been informed with sufficient frequency of the\ndefects of her teaching. In cases of radical inefficiency the reporting\nprincipal finds himself, as a rule, in the most unpleasant position of being\ncharged with injustice to one that depends on her work for a living.\nEvery unfortunately incompetent teacher has a circle of friends who know\nher estimable social qualities, but not her professional shortcomings, and\nwho do not realize the great injury which her presence in the school\ncauses, since they naturally accept her valuation of herself as correct.\nNature and heredity have gifted woman with the ability to lead and\nteach children. If sufficient care in the education and appointment of\nyoung teachers is taken, and if sufficient help is given to those that need\nit, the number of teachers who are found disqualified to hold their positions should always be very small.\nTHE\n\nteacher's\n\nTENURE\n\nOF\n\nOFFICE\n\nFrequent changes in teachers would affect the continuity of the work\nof instruction, and are therefore not in the interest of the children. The\nteacher's tenure of office should be safe and depend on efficient work,\nand in no way on political contingency or social influence. This is a\ndemand which every friend of good government and efficient education\nwill make.\nA teacher should be able to give her whole mind to the children, without being worried constantly by thoughts of loss of position thru some\noccult influence and thru no fault of hers.\n\nDISCUSSION\nR. K. BuEHRLE, city superintendent, Lancaster, Pa. — It might be well to consider\nthe result of our education, as it shows itself in subsequent life. It is said that, as civilization advances, the tendency to suicide increases. It is also true that greater care is\ntaken to make life pleasant and easy for the children. May not this shielding of childhood from exertion and hardship be the cause why men fly to death when hardships in\nlife overtake them, seeing they have not learned to endure ? Why not steel the will to\n\n"}
{"page": 315, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nWHAT\n\nTHE\n\nSUfERINTENDENT\n\nIS NOT\n\n307\n\novercome difficulties rather than remove the difficulties out of their path ? Why not\nstrengthen the youtl\\ to endure and thus to acquire fortitude, and hope, and faith, which\nwill not make ashamed, nor lure to suicide — the coward's refuge from impending evil ?\nLook at the youth from the Military Academy at West Point and the Naval Academy at\nAnnapolis ! Rigid examinations and severity of discipline inure the graduates from these\ninstitutions to undergo hardships, and how proud of their record we all are ! Make the\npupils of the public schools strong rather than their course easy and soft. So, too, life in\nthe country has generally more of toil and hardship for the boys and girls, and it is no\ndoubt because of this experience that the boys from the farm become the most successful\nbusiness-men in our cities. I repeat : Make the pupils strong by confronting them with\ndifficulties to be overcome.\nJ. W. Carr, superintendent of schools, Anderson, Ind. — The plan advocated by the\ngentleman from Pennsylvania provides for the education of the few, not the many. If we\nare to have an aristocracy of learning, I should be in favor of the West Point system — a\nsystem which selects only the best of the best. But if we are to have a democracy of\nlearning in America, we must have a course of study and a system of promotion that will\nmost nearly meet the needs of all the people.\nCharles W. Deane, superintendent of schools, Bridgeport, Conn. — Let us come back,\nif you please, to the question of the efficiency or inefficiency of teachers. Notwithstanding\nwhat has been said, I am inclined to think that, if. Raphael had been without arms and\nlegs, he would still have been just as great a painter as he was. The painter's soul within\nhim would have supplied the means of expression. We think that we can make teachers ;\nso we spend our energies in equipping them with means of expression ofttimes when there\nis little within that is seeking to express itself. How often do we see teachers expending\nall their powers on the simple details of a single grade of work ! Think of a human soul\ncramping itself within such narrow limits ! I counsel my teachers, rather, to pursue lines\nof study outside of their immediate school subjects — one line this year, another line next\nyear — that the teaching soul may be enriched and broadened. Get the teachers out of\nthese narrow grooves of grade work, and give them more extended views of knowledge\nand of education, and the simple details of method can be readily furnished and will be\nmore intelligently applied.\n\nBY\n\nA.\n\nE.\n\nWHAT\n\nTHE\n\nWINSHIP,\n\nEDITOR\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\nOF\n\n\"JOURNAL\nMASS.\n\nOF\n\nIS NOT\n\nEDUCATION,\n\nBOSTON,\n\nWhat are you here for ? What is the superintendent for? Is there\nany other country that has such a body of officials ? They have inspectors, examiners, ministers of education, but where is there a superintendent beyond our own borders ? Is it a superstition that we must supersede\nthe teacher with a supereminent person, a superintendent to supervise his\nwork ?\nIt is altogether probable that this word \"superintendent\" has come\nfrom superintender, applied originally to the Almighty, the super-tender,\nhence superintender, of man's moral being thru supreme laws. It is\nmodest, to say the least, to appropriate this term, arrogating to yourselves\n\n"}
{"page": 316, "printed_page": null, "text": "3o8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nLColumbus\n\nthe function of superintending the morals of mankind thru the rules or\nregulations emanating from your office.\nIt is my lot to hint at what you are by suggesting what you are not.\nYou are not supernumeraries. There have been times when the office\nwas merely an extra, where the man was simply a supernumerary ; where\nhe did nothing that was not as well done before, and would not have been\nas well done at the time without him as with him. There is no excuse in\nthe world for a superintendent unless he secures, directly or indirectly,\nbetter work for the money invested than would be secured without him.\nYou are not a superannuated official. When supervision was first proposed, there was earnest and honest objection to it, on the ground that\nit would merely make places for superannuated men who had outlived\ntheir years of usefulness — clergymen, lawyers, and politicians. Forewarned was forearmed, and few superannuates appeared ; none should be\nin this place demanding superlative activities of super-eminent men and\nwomen.\nYou are not super-critics. There have been officials in days gone by\nwho thought their chief function was to be hypercritical. Nothing kills\na school so quickly and completely as a hypercritical teacher, and nothing places a teacher beyond the hope of resurrection so surely as a hypercritical supervisor. Hypercriticism destroys genius, dulls brightness,\nenervates power, and saps all life.. It is professional vivisection. Hypercriticism reduces virtue to the technical observance of the senseless rules.\nYou are not supercilious. A dictatorial, overbearing, arrogant official\ncan get on better and be more useful anywhere on earth than he can in\nthis office. Patience without proscrastination, friendliness and firmness,\napproachableness without familiarity, are indispensable to success.\nYou are not superficial. If there be one position above all others in\nwhich shallowness is absolutely unbearable, it is in this. In many positions one may trust to luck, may hope that only light-draft craft will\ncome his way ; but here, where a man must deal with an ever-changing\nschool board, a fickle public, a variety of teachers of differing degrees\nof tact and talent, hundreds or thousands of children with an infinite\narray of human nature, he must have a deep mind and broad experience\nto furnish a channel for all the conditions that are liable to pass one\nanother without signaling their approach.\nYou are not merely a supercargo. A merchant ship needs an extra\nmanager to care for the commercial affairs of the vessel, and he is styled\nthe supercargo. The first condition that prompts a school board to select\na superintendent is the fact that the commercial 'details of free text-books,\nfree pens, pencils, and paper, and other routine work, become unbearable\nto the non-salaried official. It is possible that we should never have had\nthis office, in the popular sense, if school boards had not needed an errand\nboy.\nThe principal could not be spared to attend to these things, and\n\n"}
{"page": 317, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nWHA7\n\nTHE\n\nSUPERINTENDEN7\n\nIS NOT\n\n3^9\n\nSO they selected a supercargo for books, merchandise, wood, coal, and\nbroken clothes hooks.\nIt has been a great surprise to the original employers of superintendents, themselves long since shelved by a thoughtless constituency, to see\nhow little these errand boys understood their place, and how quickly they\ndid not keep it. Caesar never surprised his creators more than have these\nmodern Cassars. It does not take a school board a great while to appreciate the changed conditions when it runs up against a man like President Andrews. The other fellows are the errand boys now. The\nsuperintendent in a large city has a supercargo of his own.\nYou are the only superintendents in the original sense — superintenders of the moral, intellectual, and physical well-being of the nation,\nthru the children under your charge, and this by means of rules and\nregulations, instruction and inspiration.\nThe term has been misapplied to overseers of mills and factories, railroads and prisons. These men cannot be superintenders. They deal\nonly with material and mechanical matters, with mercenary interests and\ncriminals. It is left to you to be the only true superintendents, superintenders of the moral well-being of the universe.\nTo make the matter clear from a different standpoint, let us change the\nfigure, apply a new name — conductor. You are the conductor, not the\nengineer, who merely watches the track and whistles, puts on steam or\nbrakes as he is signaled by sign posts, the warning red light, or the conductor's tug at the cord. You are not the baggagemaster, who takes on\nand puts off crayons and erasers according to the directions of the board.\nYou are not the train hand, who calls out stations and passes the water;\nin other words, there is something for you to do other than ring in rainyday signals, assign substitutes, and provide teachers' meetings.\nYou are not the newsboy, to furnish sensational journals, dime magazines, and cheap stories, varying these with smelling salts and chewing\ngum.\n\nIn other words, you are not the professional gossip of the department of education.\n\nYou are the conductor. By this it is not to be inferred that it is your\nchief business to put the tramps off the train or to collect the fare. You\nare to collect the fair, and the fairer they are the better ; but your chief\nbusiness is to be responsible for your train, for its starting on time, running on time, coming in on time.\nYour watch is the only standard on that train. Your word alone is\nlaw ; by the mere movement of your hand every official is guided. The\npresident of the road is a mere passenger on your train. The school system of the town, city, county, state, and nation is to be conducted into\nthe great union station of this imperial nation by the men and women of\nthis department.\n\n"}
{"page": 318, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n[Columbus\n\n3IO\n\nHOW\n\nBY\n\nTO\n\nW.\n\nMAKE\n\nT.\n\nHARRIS,\n\nGOOD\n\nTEACHERS\n\nUNITED\n\nSTATES\n\nWASHINGTON,\n\nOUT\n\nOF\n\nPOOR\n\nCOMMISSIONER\n\nOF\n\nEDUCATION,\n\nD.\n\nONES\n\nC.\n\nThe most important work of the school superintendent is indicated\nby the heading of this paper : \" How to Make Good Teachers Out of Poor\nOnes.\" I desire to point out some directions in which such desirable\nwork is not only possible, but quite fruitful.\nWhen I began my career as a teacher, many years ago, I was led to\nbelieve that training and experience could do very little for the improvement of a poor teacher. Afterward, when I left the work of personally\nconducting a school and became a school superintendent, I commenced\nan experience full of opportunity to observe cases of improvement in the\nart of teaching, and rich in ways and methods of effecting such improvement.\nBefore I became superintendent I had noticed two methods, which I\ndefined loosely as follows : The teacher should think out all the successive\nsteps of the day's work in advance, either the previous evening or else\nearly in the morning before school. Whatever should happen, he should\nbe prepared to know what to do next. Nothing is so effective in holding\na school in hand as to show perfect readiness to meet an emergency. If\nthe teacher needs time to think out his work in the presence of his pupils,\nhe loses his prestige in the school. The pupils do not reflect on it, but\nthey feel at once the limitations of their teacher and break away from his\nhold. If the teacher is perfectly prepared when the unusual happens,\neven the unruly pupil is disconcerted and finds himself limited by a larger\nwill and a larger intellect than his own.\nHis refractory spirit is subdued.\nI learned at the same time that the pupils must be led and not driven,\npulled and not pushed, by the successful teacher. \"A man may lead his\nhorse to water, but cannot make him drink,\" says an old proverb. The\nteacher should, therefore, set such tasks as will fully occupy the time of\nhis pupils, and he must hold them responsible for their accomplishment.\nThese will act as a kind of hypnotic suggestion, leading the pupils to work\ninstead of play. Then there will be little mischief developed in his\nschool. If he undertakes to suppress mischief by an exertion of outside\nforce, and neglects to preoccupy the mind of the pupil with work that he\ncan do, he will find that he is taking on himself the entire weight of\nresponsibility and is engaged in lifting the entire school, without any\nassistance from the pupils themselves, not to say against their positive\nresistance.\nTherefore I observed that those teachers were most successful who\n\ni\nt\n\n"}
{"page": 319, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nHOW\n\nTO MAKE\n\nGOOD\n\nTEACHERS\n\n3II\n\nkept tasks ahead of their pupils, tasks so measured to their degrees of\ncapacity as to secure their interest and cheerful endeavors.\nWhen I became a superintendent I discovered that there existed a\nvariety of devices possible to the head of a school system that were not\navailable for a principal of a school.\nThe first of these devices I will name \" substitute \" work. There will\nbe a certain amount of absence on the part of teachers. Perhaps it may\nreach, in a city, as large an amount as 3, or even 5, per cent, of the entire\ncorps of teachers. The central office being notified, the superintendent or\nhis clerk sends out a substitute; he has a list of new teachers who are\nwaiting for a vacancy, or he has a class of new graduates from the normal\nschool ready for appointment.\nThe substitute goes to the school, fills the place of the absent teacher\nuntil her return, say for a day or two, or longer. She brings back from\nthe principal of the school a brief report of her work, pointing out strong\nor weak points.\nEvery superintendent knows that substituting is hard work. The school\nis an organized society that must be met and taken in hand by the novice\nteacher. If she conquers at once, she shows great power. If she is able\nto gain her hold of the school gradually, she is accounted successful.\nBut it usually happens that a failure to control the pupils in the first half\nhour leads to a more and more dismal failure as the day goes on, and a\nthoro defeat on the first day is not to be followed by a victory on the\nsecond day. It is the good fortune of the substitute that the regular\nteacher comes back on the second day, and she reports to the superintendent before she has become completely discouraged and humiliated by\nthe rebellious children who have proved too much for her skill.\nAnother and another brief experience succeeds, and the substitute\ngains a store of wisdom as to the best devices to use for the control of a\nschool. She learns just how to lead rather than to drive, to pull rather\nthan to push. She becomes what is called a ready disciplinarian, and can\nget work from all her pupils without harsh measures and without appealing\nto improper motives of any kind. So useful is this practice of substituting as a training for new and inexperienced teachers that the superintendent has been persuaded to try it for regular teachers who have for a\nlong time been poor in discipline or in instruction. He asks his school\ncommittee to place such on the substitute list, not to dismiss them altogether.\nI have known many weak teachers made efficient by such an experiment. A day here and a day there, and a constant effort to be equal to\nthe work required, succeeded in developing new resources, and the teachers who had belonged to the list of chronic failures pressed over to the\nlist of the permanently successful.\nThere is in the power of the superintendent another device which may\n\n"}
{"page": 320, "printed_page": null, "text": "312\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Columbus\n\nsometimes improve a school very much by removing a cause of failure.\nSome pupils are unmanageable under one teacher who make no trouble if\ntransferred to another. Take such pupils away from their school and\nsend them to a school in another district, and in nineteen cases out of\ntwenty they give no more trouble. The causes for this cure are many.\nIn the first place, the bad pupil has to adjust himself to a new society of\nfellow-pupils, and this necessity of readjustment uses up his surplus\nnervous energy, so that he cannot yet begin his struggle with the teacher,\nand he therefore at once surrenders to the new teacher. Then the chances\nare in favor of his meeting in the new teacher a different temperament, a\npersonality that attracts him, while the former teacher repelled him.\nThen, again, his parents hold him responsible and watch his conduct,\nwhile in the former school they had sympathized with his efforts against\nthe teacher and had justified his conduct by accusing the teacher of partiality. With a new teacher the parents are not ready to use the plea of\npartiality at first. At home they will question with some impatience and\nsome sternness the first complaints that come to them regarding the\ntransferred pupil's conduct. He will be made to feel that he is under\nsome suspicion, and that he is held responsible to a greater degree than\nbefore for the collisions made by him at school.\nI have estimated the number of pupils who remain incorrigible after\nthe first transfer to be one in twenty. The second transfer thins out the\nincorrigible remnant, and reduces.it perhaps to one in a hundred of the\noriginal list of unmanageable pupils. But I have known a few cases in\nwhich it required five, or even six, transfers to secure the desired result.\nSome of them were very pathetic. The parents were somewhat hysterical,\nand it was very difficult to persuade them to look at things in a reasonable\nmanner. The superintendent, however, who has learned how to use this\ndevice of transfer never allows the parent to discover in him the slightest\ntrace of impatience. The parent comes on his second visit to the office\nwith a little shamefacedness, or perhaps a little touch of defiance, and the\nsuperintendent greets him with some expression of encouragement : \"You\nmust not get impatient with your son. We must work in concert and\ncontinue our efforts until we get James rightly placed. I see that he has\na somewhat brittle temper, and we all know that the brittle-tempered boys\nwho learn to control themselves make the best business-men.\" The parent\nis much helped by a suggestion like this, and begins to take the attitude\nof a rational man seeking the true good of his child. I said that the\nsuperintendent must never allow himself to show impatience ; I meant\nthat he must never allow himself to feel the slightest impatience, and he\nmust make the parent see his freedom from bias. I remember a case in\nwhich a pupil was transferred six times before he found a teacher who\ncould control him and get good work out of him. I confess that I thought\nthat his brittle temper would never get sufficiently annealed to make a\n\n"}
{"page": 321, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nHOW\n\nTO MAKE\n\nGOOD\n\nTEACHERS\n\n3^3\n\nsuccess of him in life, but many years after I left the superintendency I\nmet one day in the streets of a city the father of the boy. He stopped\nme and shook hands with me cordially, saying with great pleasure visible\nin his eyes : \" You remember my son with whom we had so much trouble ? \"\nI assented, and he went on eagerly to say : \" That boy has become a firstclass business-man, and is at the head of a great store in\n\" (he named\nhere one of the most enterprising of the western cities). I congratulated\nhim heartily, and I was thankful that my policy of managing such cases\nhad, after all, proved equal to the needs of this individual.\nI have said abdve that this plan of transfers, judiciously used, will, in\nfact, effectually cure 95 per cent, of the cases that have proved incorrigible in any given school. I think that the plan followed up to the fifth or\nsixth transfer, if need be, will cure all of the cases, especially if some other\ndevices are connected with it, one of which I will describe. If a boy is\nvery difficult to manage, it is best always in the transfer to ask the second\nteacher to suspend the pupil at once on the first appearance of rebellion.\nThe possibility of this prompt suspension should be named to the parent\nalso. This reduces to a minimum the bad effect upon the school which\nthe retention of an incorrigible pupil is likely to have. The teacher is\nnot required to use up his nervous energy by patient endurance of evil\nconduct, and the pupil is not given any opportunity to gratify his egoism\nby making himself into a hero.\nThere is still another device, which is almost as useful to the principal\nof a large school as to the superintendent. Inasmuch as the restored\npupil is replaced in school only on probation, the superintendent may\nsometimes request of this pupil a line in writing from his teacher at the\nclose of the day, stating the character of his conduct. He may bring\nthis to the superintendent's office after school, and the superintendent\ncan write a word of approval on the paper, if the conduct has been satisfactory. The principal of the school, instead of the superintendent, may\nrequire a pupil whose conduct is unsatisfactory to bring a report from\nthe teacher in charge of the boy, at the close of the day, stating amendment or the reverse, and such reports on the part of these particular cases\nwill often prevent the need of suspension from the school.\nThe suspension and transfer of pupils difficult to manage will develop\npoorer teachers into better ones by removing the cause of constant irritation. I have known corporal punishment diminished to one-tenth its\nformer amount in a school system by transfer.\nAnother device by which the principals of schools may gain much\npower in this process of improving their assistant teachers is a series of\nweekly conferences with the superintendent, held at his office in the afternoon, the principal leaving his school in the middle of the afternoon session. A discussion of the practical and theoretical questions connected\nwith the course of study and the discipline of the schools can be profitably\n\n"}
{"page": 322, "printed_page": null, "text": "314\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Columbus\n\nundertaken, and each principal will be able to contribute something\nfrom a recent experience to the settlement of diflScult problems of management. All may gain thru the work of each.\nI conceive it one of the most important duties of the superintendent\nthat he organizes now and then a meeting of his teachers, in which some\ngreat production of literature or some work of art is discussed and the\ntaste of his teachers improved. A course of reading may be organized in\nwhich the problems peculiar to education may be studied in their relation to broader principles, namely the principles of sociology. The\nteacher should be made to see how his work connects with the whole\nwork of modern civilization, in giving the individual rnore power to help\nhimself. The teacher should come to understand the structure of his\ncivilization, and should learn to recognize all the other instrumentalities in\nhis community and nation that work in the same direction with the school.\nIn short, the superintendent should improve the taste of his teachers\nand bring to bear their efforts for the bettering of the community in\nwhich the schools are situated. His poor teachers will become good ones\nin his effort to make his schools strong in the community.\n\nAUTHORITY\nBY\n\nOF THE\n\nSCHOOL\n\nEMERSON\n\nE. WHITE,\n\nSUPERINTENDENT^\nCOLUMBUS,\n\nO.\n\nThe authority of a superintendent of schools may be considered from\ntwo standpoints, to-wit :\n1. The authority which is inherent in the office.\n2. The authority requisite for the highest efficiency in school administration.\nThe first question is best determined by a survey of the development\nor evolution (if this term be preferred) of the office of superintendent,\ni. e., historically.\nThe primitive public-school organization in a district was a school\nboard or school committee invested by law with the organization, support, and direction of schools, each school being in charge of one\nteacher, as is now true in rural communities. The school board (or committee) determined the number and location of the several schools, provided houses, employed teachers, prescribed the branches of study and\ntext-books, and, by general regulations and otherwise, supervised the\nmanagement of the schools — so far as there was any supervision. But\nneither the board nor its members could exercise the teaching function.\nThis belonged exclusively to the teachers employed, who, in virtue of\n> By-»equest of the author, the amended spellings adopted by the Board of Directors do not appear in\nthis address.\n[See resolution of Board of Directors adopted at Los Angeles, July 13, 1899.]\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 323, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nAUTHORITY\n\nOF SCHOOL\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\n3x5\n\ntheir office, had certain inherent rights and authority — a fact too often\noverlooked.\nThe next step in the development of the public school was the putting of several schools into the same building, grading them, and making\none of the teachers a head teacher ox principal, with such general oversight\nand direction as were necessary to secure order and system in the joint\noccupancy of the building and grounds. The new office involved certain\nauthority which, in the absence of its special delegation by board regulation or otherwise, was inherent in the function assigned. But the position of principal did not involve the right to supervise the work of the\nother teachers. Within his or her own room each teacher was free in\nmethods of teaching, being responsible directly to the board of education\nfor results. Whatever was done by the principal to increase the efficiency\nof the schools in his building was done indirectly and by the voluntary\nco-operation of the teachers.\nThe rapid growth of the graded system soon made another step of\nprogress in school administration practicable. The increase in the number of schools in charge of a principal, in one building or in a group of\nbuildings, made it important to commit to him the duty of grading and\npromoting pupils, usually under the direction of a committee of the\nboard. This involved the determining of the attainments of pupils and\nincidentally some supervision of the instruction. This supervisory func-'\ntion, conferred either by regulation or common understanding, made it\nnecessary for the principal to devote a portion of his time to supervisory\nduties. The office of principal was thus changed to that of supervising\nprincipal.\nIt is to be specially noted that the assigning of this supervisory duty\nto the principal did not in any way subvert or abridge the inherent rights\nof teachers. Each teacher was still free to teach according to his or her\nown judgment and conscience, being responsible only for results.\nIn the continued growth of the graded system it was an easy step\nfrom the office of supervising principal to that of supervisor or superintendent, a position in which the entire time of the incumbent was devoted\nto supervisory duties, the several school buildings being in charge of\nprincipals or supervising principals, as determined by the board of education.\nThis change from supervising principal to superintendent of schools\ngave the supervising officer little, if any, added authority, but greatly\nchanged his position and duties. Instead of being a head teacher with\nclose relation to the teaching corps, he became the executive officer of\nthe school, board for the discharge of assigned duties, and acting largely\nunder the direction of the board and its committees. The superintendent's general duties were usually prescribed by regulations, but whatever\nauthority was exercised\nin the discharge of these duties was largely\n\n"}
{"page": 324, "printed_page": null, "text": "31 6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Columbus\n\nassumed, and properly assumed, as belonging to the supervisory function.\nIt is true, that these assumptions sometimes encroached upon the rights\nof teachers, and in some instances teachers were treated by unwise superintendents as their \"agents\" or as operatives. As a rule, however, superintendents were careful to recognize and respect the rightful authority of\nteachers. Improvements in methods of instruction and discipline were\nsecured, not by imposing these methods on teachers, but by leading them\nto see their reasonableness and appreciate their practical value. The most\nefficient school superintendents in the country have not been dictators in\nschool work, but advisors, instructors, inspirers, and leaders. Needed\nreforms have been secured through the intelligent and happy co-operation\nof the entire corps of teachers.\nWhile superintendents and teachers were, in the early history of school\nadministration, left free in the details of school work, boards of education\nkept in their own hands the employment and assignment of teachers,\nchanges in the course of study, the selection of text-books and other\nteaching appliances, the purchase of school furniture and supplies, regulations for the classification and promotion of pupils, etc.; and all this\nwith or without the superintendent's advice or assistance. Changes in\nthese directions were secured only through the action of the board or its\ncommittees. It is, however, just to add that in these, as well as in\nother, directions superintendents have been increasingly regarded as the\nofficial advisors of the board, and their recommendations have received\nmore and more consideration. Here and there superintendents have\nbeen recognized by boards, not only as official, but also as expert advisors\nin all matters pertaining to school organization, instruction, and discipline. Superintendents have thus been able to effect most important\nimprovements in school administration.\nAnother important advance in school supervision has somewhat\nrecently been effected, to-wit, the giving to the superintendent of the initiative in the selection and appointment of teachers, the revision of the\ncourse of study, the choice of teaching appliances, etc. In several\ninstances this initiative has been conferred by statute, and in two or\nthree large cities the superintendent's authority in some of these executive matters is not limited to the initiative, but is final — the last stage\nnow reached in the evolution of the office of superintendent of schools.\nWe now pass to the consideration of the question : What supervisory\nauthority is requisite for the highest efficiency in school administration ?\nIt is obvious that the answer to this question depends on conditions, such\nas the number of teachers employed, the intelligence of the community,\nits interest in good schools, etc. It certainly is not possible to give an\nanswer of universal application.\nMoreover, experience shows that all practical school policies have a\nhistoric root, and, as already seen, the historic American policy of school\n\n"}
{"page": 325, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nAUTHORITY\n\nOF SCHOOL\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\n317\n\nadministration vests the organization, support, and management of public\nschools in a school committee or board of education, representing the\npeople. This is not only the historic, but the fundamental policy for the\nadministration of American schools. The schools cannot part conflpany\nwith the principles of representative government. It would not be wise\nto commit their ofificial administration to one person with a life tenure,\nhowever so competent. The efficiency of the schools depends too largely\non the interest, appreciation, and support of the public, and especially of\ntheir patrons; and, to this end, the general management of public schools\nhas been uniformly vested in officers, directly or indirectly representing\nthe people.\nIt does not follow that the members of school boards should either\nindividually or collectively attempt to discharge executive duties. They\ncannot assume the teaching function, nor can they wisely act as principals\nor supervisors. All experience shows that these pedagogic duties must\nbe committed to persons competent to discharge them. This brings us\nback to the question : With what authority should the supervisory officer\nbe clothed ?\n1. It is not worth while to stop long to consider the authority of\nprincipals, or even of supervising principals, in a system of schools.\nThe authority most needed is largely inherent in the position, and does\nnot need to be delegated or even defined. Besides, the relation of a\nprincipal to his associate teachers is so close and personal that desired\nresults are best secured, not by the exercise of authority, but by the fruitful leadership of instruction, influence, and guidance. In all matters\nvested by law in the board of education, as the appointment of teachers,\ncourse of study, text-books, etc., the right of the supervising principal\nshould be limited to recommendation or, what is usually better, to giving\nneeded information. The position of supervising principal in large cities\nfaces different conditions; and, if held responsible for the character of\nthe instruction and discipline of the schools in his building, his advice as\nto teachers, teaching appliances, etc., should certainly receive due consideration. He should be given large freedom in administering the schools\nunder his immediate oversight, provided always that the rights of the\nassociate teachers be not unduly abridged.\n2. The administration of public schools in small cities has its peculiar\ndifficulties. The members of the board are in close touch with the schools\nand are jealous of their authority. They not infrequently assume the\nright as individuals to direct teachers in their duties, to review cases of\ndiscipline, etc., and all this under the assumption that they are clothed\nwith supervisory power. If this erroneous assumption was always coupled\nwith competency, the mischief done to the schools would not be so serious. The superintendent is too often regarded as the board's official\nagent for the discharge of assigned duties, and so he is expected \"to run\n\n"}
{"page": 326, "printed_page": null, "text": "^\n31 8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Columbus\n\nthe schools\" under directions. As a consequence of this view, certain\nmembers of the board, acting as committees or otherwise, are zealous in\ntheir oversight of the superintendent. He supervises the schools ; they\nsupervise him !\nIt is unnecessary to say that the highest efficiency in school administration cannot be attained under such conditions. The superintendent\nshould not only be the executive officer in all supervisory functions, but\nhe should be the eye of the board, and its welcome adviser in all matters\npertaining to instruction and discipline, the course of study, teaching\nappliances, etc. It should be not simply his right, but his duty to keep\nthe board informed respecting needed changes in these directions, and\nhis recommendations should receive respectful consideration. To supervisory duties should be added responsibility for the progress of the\nschools.\nIt is true that all this is now happily realized in scores of the smaller\ncities of the country. The superintendent is recognized as the responsible supervisory head of the schools, with the right and duty of being a\nleader in all wise movements for their improvement. This may be\naccepted as the minimum status of the office of superintendent of schools.\nIt may be true that all superintendents are not equal to this responsibility.\nThis is another way of saying that some superintendents of schools are\nnot qualified for the position. Whatever his responsibility, the wise\nsuperintendent will recognize the rights of teachers to be as sacred as\nhis own.\n3. In cities containing from, say, 40,000 to 200,000 inhabitants the\nauthority as well as the general duties of the superintendent of schools\nshould be clearly defined by statute. The superintendent should have\nthe initiative in the selection and assignment of teachers, the revision of\nthe course of study, the choice of teaching appliances, etc., his action in\nthese matters being subject to the approval of the board of education.\nThis is increasingly the practice in the more progressive cities, this initiative being freely conceded by school boards. It ought to be made general by statute.\nIt is not claimed that all superintendents would use this initiative\nwisely, but it is believed that the putting of this responsibility squarely\non the superintendent would greatly increase the efficiency of school\nadministration and, as a consequence, the efficiency of the schools. It\nseems unnecessary to add that in all these duties the superintendent\nshould confer freely with the assistant supervisors, principals, and\nteachers.\n4. We now come to the administration of schools in large cities, a\npart of the difficult problem of municipal government. In a paper read\nin 1890 before- the National Council of Education in St Paul, I advocated\nsuch a school organization in large cities as will separate the legislative\n\n"}
{"page": 327, "printed_page": null, "text": "SuperintendenceJ\n\nAUTHORITY\n\nOF SCHOOL\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\n319\n\nand executive functions of the school board, and further divide the\nexecutive function into two functions- — ^to-wit, the business or financial,\nand the pedagogic or supervisory, the former to be intrusted to a business manager and the latter to the superintendent of instruction.' It was\nfurther urged that the superintendent should be vested by law with at\nleast the initiative in the appointment and assignment of teachers. The\nposition was criticised at the time as too radical, but, as shown above,\nthe principle has since been embodied in the school laws of several\ncities.\nIt is no longer a serious question as to the wisdom of giving the\nsuperintendent of schools the initiative in the selection and appointment\nof teachers, provided his action is subject to the approval of the board of\neducation. The unsettled question is : Should the superintendent's action\nin this matter h^ final?\nIt cannot be claimed that the superintendent's right to select and\nappoint teachers is a prerogative. In the absence of an express delegation\nof such authority to him, no superintendent can rightfully assume it.\nThis authority is vested primarily in the board of education, 'i'he same\nis true of the determining of the course of study, the adoption of textbooks, etc. I do not see the necessity or the wisdom of depriving the\nboard of education of all responsibility in the appointment of assistant\nsupervisors and teachers. So long as the board determines the number\nand classes of assistants and teachers to be employed, fixes and pays their\nsalaries, it should have the right of review in their appointment ; and\nwhether this right be exercised in the form of approval or a veto is not\nimportant. But why a veto and not approval ? While experience shows\nthat boards of education in large cities cannot wisely take the initiative\nin the selection of teachers, it has no testimony against the submission of\nthe superintendent's appointments to the board for its approval. It is\nbelieved that all needed safeguards against political action are provided\nwhen the superintendent and his advisers are given the full initiative —\nan initiative that is not limited by such petty and puerile legislation as\nforbids the appointment of married women or persons who reside outside\nof the city limits. The schools need the very best teachers that can be\nsecured.\nI must take the time to say, in closing, that no\" superintendent\nwho has the appointment of teachers should be a member of the board of\nexaminers that has the duty of licensing teachers. It seems an obvious\nprinciple in the civil service that the appointing power should not also\nmake up the \"eligible list \" from which appointments are to be made.\nOne of the safeguards against the abuse of the appointing power by\nschool boards has been the fact that all appointments have been limited\n' This plan of organization was ably presented by Dr. Hinsdale, of Michigan University, in 1888.\n\n"}
{"page": 328, "printed_page": null, "text": "320\n\nNAJIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Columbus\n\nto persons holding a certificate of competency issued by an independent\nexamining board. This has saved the schools from incompetent teachers\n— so far as they have been saved. It may be accepted as an axiom in\ncivil-service policy that the appointing power should not also determine\nwho may be candidates for appointment.\nIn all large cities the examining and certificating of teachers should be\nintrusted to a board of experts, at least three in number. When the\nsuperintendent has not the appointment of teachers, he may very properly be a member of this examining board. The weak point in school\nadministration in most cities is the method of certificating teachers. The\nfirst safeguard against incompetent teachers in the schools is the com\npetency of the persons on the \"eligible list.\"\n\nTHE\n\nIMPLICATIONS AND\nAPPLICATIONS OF THE\nCIPLE OF SELF-ACTIVITY IN EDUCATION\n\nBY ARNOLD\n\nTOMPKINS,\n\nPROFESSOR\nOF\nILLINOIS\n\nPEDAGOGY,\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nPRIN-\n\nOF\n\nThe impressive lesson from the history of thought is that the human\nmind can find no peace except in search for the ultimate unity and\nreality of the universe. This unity, as discerned from afar by the eye of\nfaith in religion, and established by reason in art, science, and philosophy,\nis the ultimate goal of man's earthly endeavor. All processes of thought,\nfrom sense-perception to reason, are but processes of establishing unity\nin and thru diversity, are but modes of satisfying the craving of the soul\nfor touch with ultimate reality, with the life that binds the seemingly\nchaotic world into orderly system.\nThe teacher's world is no less a world of diversity to be ordered into\nthe unity of a single life-principle. So many details and duties, even\nwithin the limits of a daily program ! And when the entire scope of\neducation is considered — its aim, processes, and instrumentalities — the\nwhole to be unified is coextensive with the world of thought and reality.\nHere, as elsewhere, the desire for unity is the impulse to thought — for\nunity of the infinite diversity in the educative process. All educational\ndiscussions are based on the assumption and prompted by the faith that\nthere is a unifying principle which organizes and systematizes the distracting variety of details in the process of education.\nBut, while in such discussions there is tacit recognition of the unity\nof the educative process, there is generally lacking the firm conviction\nthat the complex prociess of education can be reduced to the unity of a\nsingle principle.\nEven Rosenkranz, in the introduction to his Philosophy\n\n"}
{"page": 329, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nSELF-ACTlVlTY\n\nm\n\nEDUCATION\n\n321\n\nof Education, affirms that \"the science of education cannot be deduced\nfrom a single principle with such strictness as logic, ethics, and like\nsciences,\" but that \"it is rather a mixed science, having its presuppositions in many others ; \" and that \" education is capable of no such exact\ndefinitions of its principles as other sciences.\" And at present I see it\nemphasized that education is an applied science, in the sense that it is\nformed by the application of other sciences ; thus implying that it has\nno germinant idea of its own.\nCertainly, education avails itself of all the other sciences, as these do\nof it ; but the science of education goes forth in its own right and\norganizes all the sciences from its own creative center. It has its own\nsingle, central principle, which orders all the details of the complex process into a unified and harmonious whole; and this principle is selfactivity. The science of education must show how the whole process is\nimplied in this principle, while the art of education is but the application\nof the principle thus implied. Since the ultimate principle of any\nscience is the ultimate principle of every other, education is not distinguished by its ultimate principle from other sciences, but only in the\napplication of it. Since this principle is a universal one, its application\nyields a philosophy of education rather than a science. How it does this\nwill best appear under the threefold aspect of the principle as it distinctly\nappears in the process of education.\nI. This principle appears primarily as tension between the real and\nthe ideal — the actual and the potential.\nSince the universe is alive and not dead, moving and not fixed, this\nprinciple is universal. We live in a seeking, searching, surging world.\nThere is constant striving for that which does not yet appear. Every\nobject has a dual nature — something within it which tends to destroy its\npresent form of existence and bring it near to the reality of the nature\nwhich constitutes it. Any thing imposes limitations upon itself which the\nthing will not rest under. The hills, rocked-ribbed and ancient as the\nsun, the planets, and the infinite hosts of heaven, are ever seeking new\nconditions thru the infinite of space and time.\nIn the organic world stress thru duality of nature is unmistakable.\nThe plant or the animal is moved to self-realization by a resident force.\nIn each case the object is in self-struggle. An organic thing is organic\nby virtue of the stress between its actual and its potential nature, by\nvirtue of the relation between the real and the ideal which constitutes its\nnature. The ideal is ever striving for its freedom in the real — to become\nitself the real.\nMan emerges out of the lower order of beings on becoming conscious\nof the duality of his nature ; of the divergenqe between his real and his\nideal self ; between what he is and what he ought to be. He can lay hold\nupon his better self, and by conscious plan and purpose aid in his own\n\n"}
{"page": 330, "printed_page": null, "text": "322\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Columbus\n\nself-realization. He knows that what he is, in his present actualized self,\nis not what he really is by virtue of his manhood; and, feeling this discrepancy, he is consciously self-moved to realize his implicit manhood.\nConscious self-activity is the ultimate retreat of self-consciousness ; and\nfrom this single truth springs everything within the realm of human\nthought and action.\nHerein is involved the whole of the religious life. Coming to consciousness of the better self is the second birth of the soul. Truly man\nmust be born again, in order simply to be a man ; and the whole of his\nlife is but a succession of new births, in each of which man discerns\ndeeper realities in his own soul. Herein man discovers God. \" Religion\nis the life of God in the soul of man.\" In the conscious relation of the\ntwo selves lies the fact of sin and redemption. From this relation arises\nthe possibility of man's going to heaven or hell. One not accustomed\nto think on this fact of self-consciousness will be surprised to find that all the doctrines of the Bible are explained by it ; and, more, that it is\nthe simple truth which has shaped the world's great religions. The\nProtestant Reformation was but a clearer recognition of the voice of the\nbetter self. This was the simple principle that dethroned kings and gave\nus democracy. To secure the rule of the better self is the desideratum\nof all governments. And so all moral . duties are determined by the\nrelation of the present, real self to the ideal self. Out of this come\nconscience, duty, responsibility, obligation, and the rest. Man's d-uty is\nsimple ; he ought to be what he is ; that is, what he is by virtue of being\na man. If he is really a devil, he can do no better than to play the game\nwell.\nIn education this principle determines the end to be that of selfrealization — the realization of the better self. Man is the product of his\nown educative process. Education cannot be ultimately tested in any\nform of external product ; as, in what a man has or knows, but in what he\nis ; thus making culture, in the true sense, the final aim. Nations have\ntaken two views of the meaning of education ; regarding it either as a\nmeans or as an end. The history of education can, therefore, be read\nonly in terms of the relation under question.\nNot only the aim but the method of education is thus determined. At\nevery stroke of the teacher some present stress must be released, and some\nnew ideal born ; some new stress set up. The art of teaching consists at\nbottom in discerning the present stress of the life to be educated, and transforming itinto a higher one. The whole question of interest lies here.\nA child is always interested, and interested in something worthy. The\nteacher is not so much to induce interest as to mediate it. To educate\nis to move the life onward and upward under the stress of ideals. The\nfundamental thought of method in education is this of the ideal passing\ninto the real, that a new ideal may be revealed, which in turn becomes\n\n"}
{"page": 331, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nSELF-ACTIVTTY\n\nIN\n\nEDUCATION\n\n323\n\nreal. The perfection of character sought in education is not an end to\nbe attained, but an infinite progression by mediating ideals. Wherever\nteaching is found to be dead, it is because the teacher strives to induce\naction from without, instead of utilizing the self-activity of the pupil.\nWitness, for example, the dire distress of the teacher in striving to secure\noral or written expression from the pupil when there is no inner motive\nto expression.\nThus \"interest\" expresses the tension between the real and the ideas\nin life; while that other great word \"appreciation\" expresses the passing\nof the ideal into the real, on the basis of its relation to the real. In the\nsame way must be explained those other current terms of \"correlation\"\nand \"concentration.\" Each subject of study is but a construction of the\nworld under a given tension of life. Subjects have no external, fixed\nboundaries, thus becoming mutually exclusive. The failure to recognize\nthis truth is a never-failing source of trouble, causing the teacher\nto resort to all sorts of schemes to correlate subjects and parts of\nsubjects.\nFor instance, man considered in effort to realize himself thru his physical environment, in the forin of the industrial world, forms geography ;\nand, when more fully specialized, the sciences. The field is limited only\nby what is required to this end ; there is no objective limit, and no matter\nreserved for the use of any other subject. History is formed by viewing\nman in effort to realize himself by means of his fellow-man thru institutions. For its purpose it may use all the material gone over by geography. Number arises from man's effort to adjust himself accurately and\neconomically to some ideal end ; and is thus a process of self-realization.\nGrammar, in treating the sentence, exhibits man in the explicit act of\npassing from his real to his ideal self, inasmuch as the subject of every\nsentence expresses man's real self, and the predicate his ideal ; while the\nverb expresses the tension between the two. Literature has for its direct\npurpose the revelation of the ideal self in the real. Thus every subject is\nborn of some phase of the life-tension ; some outgoing effort to selfrealization. It is just this living and determining factor that gives the\nclue to the teaching of every subject ; so reveals its inner life and organization as to insure vital teaching as against mechanical teaching.\nAnd when we pass to the school as the organized instrument of education, we discern the same germinant principle. All institutions are but\nprojections of the ideal self in an objective form as a means to making\nthe ideal real. Man, being conscious of himself, can be teacher to himself as pupil. The teacher-and-pupil relation is first a subjective one.\nThe teacher is the pupil's own ideal adopted as a more efficient means of\nthe pupil's development. From this center the whole question of school\norganization and management arises. There can be no successful school\nmanagement without recognition of this fact.\n\n"}
{"page": 332, "printed_page": null, "text": "324\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Columbus\n\n2. In the process of education this principle of self-activity assumes a\nsecond form — tension between subject and object.\nIn the process of self-realization man does not simply hold his ideal\nin consciousness, but forgets himself in the objective world. The law of\nself-realization, as disclosed above, is by the law of self-sacrifice. Altruism is the method of egoism.\nEverything lives in and thru another. Man intuitively feels that his\nlife is found in the world about him ; he is instinctively drawn to that\nworld. This is explained by the fact that every self is the organic unity\nbetween this self and the other self. If at this moment one should say\n\" 1,\" and then read some poem not before read, the old / becomes a new\none, which includes the poem. And thus with any other object of\nthought. The / is not the barren and abstract self, but always includes\nsomething other. What before appeared as tension between the real and\nthe ideal now appears as tension between subject and object. The ideal\nwhich the mind seeks is the thought and spirit of the world which is |j\nobjective to it. Subject and object implies a self-active principle which •'\ndifferentiates itself into the polarity of this and the other.\nAnd here we have a new aspect of the germinant principle of education. All thought is to cancel the distinction between the subject — the\nreal self, and the object — the ideal self; and the motive in the process is\nto break down the limitations which the object imposes on the subject.\nSubjects of study are so many enlargements of the self. These are taught\nthat the pupil may have life, and that more abundantly. Knowledge is\nthe means by which the finite self passes toward the infinite self. The\npupil masters a subject, and may say, \"I am that subject, and that,\nand that ; \" and if he could master all, he could exclaim with Jehovah,\n\"I am.\"\nNot only the motive, but the problem of method lies in the connection between subject and object. The mind and its object must be\nreduced to common terms. The objective process in things must be seen\nas the subjective process in thought. The percept, the concept, the judgment, and the syllogism are but processes of unity between the subject\nand the object; and no intelligent discussion of these can be made\nexcept by recognizing them as common processes of subject and object.\nIf by reasoning, for instance, one forms a judgment, from the nature of\nan orange, that all oranges are yellow, it is because the oranges themselves form their yellow in the same way. The process of reducing a\ncompound to a simple fraction is the process of the fraction itself. Thus\nthe problem of method in teaching is the problem of reducing the learner\nand the object to be learned to a common process — to a unity of life.\n3. But in the process of teaching this principle takes a third and final\nform, namely, tension between the universal and the individual, or between\nthe creative energy and its object.\n\n"}
{"page": 333, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nSELF-ACTIVITY\n\nIN EDUCATION\n\n325\n\nWhat the student is immediately striving for is the unity of the world\nof isolated objects. But he cannot establish this unity by directly relating\nthem. Things are unified thru their common creative energy. Oak trees\nare not primarily united in space, but in an oak nature — energy — which\nproduces them. The energy which produces one produces another, etc.;\nand in this creative act all are one. Events are unified in a common life\nbelow them, as implied in the word \"event.\" Hence the unity sought is\nthe unity of the object with its nature, or productive energy. In every\nact or thought one object is divided into its individual and its universal\naspects. Thinking is relating ; and the relation sought is always the two\naspects of the object, as above indicated. This is the simple, but universal\nlaw of thought.\nBut note the real object of this vital process of thought. It was stated\nin discussing the tension between subject and object that the purpose of\nthought is to bring the thinker into unity with the object thought. This\ncan be done. only by the thinker discerning the creative energy of the\nobject. On this ground only can they meet. On the plane of senseperception there seems to be an impassible gulf between the thinker and\nthe object. This separation grows less and less as the higher processes\nof thought are exercised. In fact, such processes are higher just because\nthey bring the thinker to closer unity with the object thought. The\nthinker must find himself in the object, but this is just the self-active\nprinciple in the object. The thinker craves the reinforcement of the\nobject's inner life, and is thus prompted to search out its genetic\nprinciple.\nIt thus appears that tension between an object and its creative energy\nis one with the tension between the real and ideal, described at the outset.\nThus the circle is complete. The three tensions are but so many aspects\nof one life-movement. These three aspects of the principle of self-activity\ndetermine all phases and processes of school work — fix the aim, determine the methods, construct the course of study, and organize and manage the school. And, what is of the greatest significance, the following of\nthis principle brings all school work into conscious and organic relation\nto every other educational force ^- the church, the state, etc. All move\nunder the same principle to the same end — the full realization of all the\nbeauty and worth implicit in human nature.\n\nDISCUSSION\nF. Treudley, superintendent of schools, Youngstown, O. — During the most eloquent and delightful address of Mr. Tompkins concrete illustrations of the theme in hand\nwere continually flashing before my mind.\n\n"}
{"page": 334, "printed_page": null, "text": "326\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Columbus\n\nI recall one evening, many years ago, when I had the pleasure of an invitation to a\nmeeting of the Indianapolis Literary Society. The subject of discussion was Thoreau,\nand an able paper was presented by Professor Sewell, and remarks were made by Rev.\nMyron W. Reed. The point of this reference lies in the statement that from that evening\nmy attitude toward nature and her beauties and glory was largely changed. I became\ninterested in the naturalists.\nFrom Thoreau my attention was extended to Burroughs, and old Gilbert White, of\nSelbome, McCook, Miller, Torrey, Jeffries, Abbott, Lubbock, etc., until nature took on\na marvelous appearance. I cannot liken this influence better than by that parable of the\nwoman who took and hid the leaven in the measure of meal until the whole was leavened. The philosophy of this illustration is clear.\nI recall one beautiful day, which some of this audience will remember, when we were\nrapidly passing southward from St. Augustine to get our first taste of life below the frost\nline. The beautiful Indian river was lying upon our left, framed in a rich southern\nborder, ducks rocking upon its surface, and herons standing like sentinels in its waters.\nA gentleman whom many of you know, of long service in the schools and possessed of\nthat ripened wisdom which comes from many years of excellent living, crossed the aisle\nof the car and sat down by my side. Referring to a certain matter, he said in substance :\n\" I was thinking of a remark made only last sabbath by my minister. He said, in illustration of the difference between God's actions and man's, that, if a man will cast a stone\ninto the air, it reaches its limit of ascent, describes a curve, and with a heavy thud falls\nto earth. But God will take a bird, toss it from the bough, and off it flies in curves of\nbeauty, alighting upon the bough again in perfect ease and grace. And all last week I\nwas watching among the trees for these birds to see how beautifully they illustrated that\nthought.\" Continuing, he remarked : \"Years ago, when I was a boy, a lecturer came into\nthe village where I lived and used this illustration, over which I have often pondered : A\nfather and his little son took a walk. Upon their return the mother asked the lad : ' Did\nyou see anything, my son ?' 'Yes, a man throwing away grain.' ' What did the father\nsee ? ' asked the lecturer. ' He saw the sower going forth to sow. He saw the vast geologic processes whereby the earth was brought to the performance of its mission. He\nsaw the field of golden grain and white-winged argosies bearing the harvest to nations\nbeyond the seas.' ' Did you see anything else, my son ? ' ' Yes, I saw a man pounding\nstone.' ' But what did the father see ? ' ' He saw a sculptor carving out of marble the beautiful form he had constructed in imagination. And beyond this he saw the forms of the\nmasters rising before him.' ' Did you hear anything, my son ? ' ' Yes, I heard the noise\nof a machine.' ' But what did the father hear ? ' ' He heard a message of death going\nout to a soul far away.' \"\nSo do these influences in occult ways work upon us, to whom time and seasons and\nspace seem no consideration.\nThis beautiful address, a veritable poem, illustrates the singular manner in which\nattention is held when we come to the consideration of lofty themes thru suitable avenues\nof approach.\nThe real point of view is the poetical.\nAs for me, when I desire to find expression for my innermost thoughts and convictions, Iresort to Holy Writ or to the poets.\nTo the latter, for\n\" I believed the poets.\nIt is they which utter wisdom from the central deeps,\nAnd, listening to the inner flow of things,\nSpeak to the age out of eternity.\"\n\nAnd as the speaker was proceeding, the words came to me, borne out of the past by his\neloquence :\n\" More it is than ease,\nPalace and pomp, honours and luxuries.\nTo have seen White Presences upon the hills,\n\nTo have heard the voices of the Eternal Gods.\"\n\n^\ni\n\n"}
{"page": 335, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nSELF-ACTIVITY\n\nIN\n\nEDUCATION\n\n32?\n\nMr. Tompkins referred to the tension which exists between the real and ideal,\nbetween the present and the future, between what is and what should be ; and spoke of it\nas proceeding under conditions of \" strain and stress.\"\nHoly Writ thus speaks: \"The whole creation groaneth.\" \"Strain and stress\" have,\nindeed, been placed as the prime condition under which we transcend present conditions\nof hardness and narrowness, and pass into conditions more favorable to life.\n\" Only suffering draws the inner heart of song,\nAnd elicits the sweetest perfumes of the soul.\"\n\nI am happy to be here ; happy to have had the privilege to listen to remarks of so\nlofty and inspiring a nature ; happy to feel that before even me may range such possibilities ashave been suggested, all of them \" implications \" of this high doctrine of selfactivity, which has been preached, which implications, by the grace of God, shall become\n\" applications,\" if not here fully, there in fullness.\nProfessor Samuel Weir, New York University School of Pedagogy. — I fear lest\nthe pleasure with which you have listened to this masterly discussion may have weakened\nyour impression of its immense importance. I agree most heartily with the main proposition, that self-realization, in the highest sense, must be the aim of human striving and of\neducation. It is probable, however, that few of you remembered the child while you were\nbeing carried so gently and pleasantly thru the air on the wings of light by the sweep of\nthe Hegelian dialectic. The Stoics believed in submitting to the world-reason, and when\nfate overtook them they could still say: \"Whatever befalls me is for thy good, O Universe\"! One great teacher held the principle that whosoever sought to realize his life by\nhimself, whosoever would save his life, should lose it. But whosoever should surrender his\nlife under the law of universal love, with a profound faith in the ideal moral world-order,\nto him should come back all the riches and the power and the glory of that order to\nenlarge and enrich his own life. He should save his life.\nWe must not lose sight of the individual and of his realization in this universal outgoing. These higher ideals must become conscious in the child himself. He must come\nto feel by the gradual enlargement of his own ideals this significance of his life. It is\nnot enough that the world-force must work out thru him. He must know something of\nhis own working and of the higher meaning of his own life in relation to its moral selfrealization.\nOne of the earliest Hebrew writers, in that sublime poem which has so often been\nmisunderstood by the theologians, because they would not look upon it as a poem in which\ngrand outlines of truth are given, had a knowledge of this higher meaning of the moral\nself. There was the herb bringing forth after its kind, there was life, there was intelligence but\n;\nhigher than these was the knowledge of good and evil. It was this which\nbrought man into relation with God. The discrepancy between the ideal and the real\ngave the sense of sin and the hope of realization. But this ideal had to become conscious\nin the individual. Not blind working, but conscious moral aspiration after the grand\nideal, must come to light.\nDr. James W. Bashford, president of Ohio Wesleyan University. — I am profoundly\nimpressed with Professor Tompkins' remarkable address. What higher compliment can .\nI pay him as an educator and a thinker than to call him a younger brother of Dr. Harris ?\nSummoned suddenly and unexpectedly to speak upon \"The Principle of Self- Activity in\nEducation,\" I can only reiterate and illustrate the thoughts which Professor Tompkins\nhas already enunciated. The professor first dwelt upon the aspect of stress to which all\nyoung people are subjected by reason of the chasm between the real and the ideal in their\nthoughts and lives ; he dwelt, secondly, upon the fact that the student never reaches a\npersonal end by direct effort, and hence he presented to us the aspect of altruism in education. Inthe third place he dwelt upon the tendency to unity in all thinking.\n\n"}
{"page": 336, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n[Qjlumbus\n\n328\nThe aspect of stress, due to the attempt of the individual to realize his ideal, furnishes\nthe key to all biography and all history. The struggle begins below man in the vegetable and animal kingdom. Darwin has summed up the life of the globe in the phrase,\n\n\"the survival of the fittest.\" This phrase is only another expression of the endless struggle of plants, and animals, and men to realize themselves. The plants crowd each other\nfor soil and sunshine ; each fish eats his smaller brother, and in turn is eaten by a larger ;\nand man, the highest animal of all, sustains his life and can sustain it only by the death\nof those beneath him. Were not our ears so dull, our morning walk would be disturbed\nby the cries of crushed insects, and our noonday meal by the groans of the animals which\nare dying in order that we may live. The struggle extends beyond the animal life. Business is based upon the principle of competition. Your success m winning the position\nwhich you now hold meant the disappointment of some brother-teacher. In the political\nworld one party's triumph is another's overthrow. In national life, like islands on a sea\nof time, one empire rises as another sinks. Is it marvelous, therefore, that when we enter\nupon the higher life of the mind and soul in children, we find the stress and storm of\nconflict ? Each appetite clamors for indulgence, often to the detriment of others. The\nlower self, guided by a worldly ambition, is sometimes an open rebellion against the higher\nself. Surely you will not be speaking parables to children when you interpret their conflicts to them and show them that the only path to permanent peace is in the enthronement of conscience.\nBut if the first aspect of the principle of self-activity finds abundant illustration, the\nsecond fundamental fact, namely, that man never secures his end by directly seeking it,\nfinds equal proof. While the fact of struggle is fundamental in vegetable life, it is not\nthe deepest law of plants and trees. The fundamental law of the vegetable kingdom,\nthat upon which the very existence of each species depends, is enunciated in the divine\ncommand found in Genesis, that each plant produce seeds and fruit after its kind. The\nplant does not bear seeds and fruit for its own sake, but for the perpetuation of its own\nspecies and for the nourishment of animals. Down in the vegetable kingdom, therefore,\nwe find the first indication of altruism in the universe.\nAs we pass to the animal kingdom, the law of sacrifice for the sake of others becomes\nmore marked. Many wild animals, indeed, destroy men or other animals without the\nslightest apparent compunction. But these same animals bring forth young with pain ;\nand, so far from destroying the offspring which have caused them pain, they feed their\nyoung with care and defend them with their lives. Deeper, therefore, than the fact of\nselfishness in the animal kingdom is the law of motherhood — the law of sacrifice.\nAs we pass from animals to men, altruism becomes more imperious. We did not\ncome into this world by a direct creative act and as isolated units. We are born into\nfamilies ; and the family is the divinely ordained organism by which the individual is\ninstinctively called out of himself and made to live in his father and mother, in his brothers\nand sisters. Again, the child soon comes into contact with children from other homes,\nand its life is lived in connection with the larger life of the neighborhood. Again, beyond\nthe neighborhood is the state or the nation, with its still broader altar of patriotism.\nFinally, beyond the nation stands the church, with its members living under different\nflags and speaking various tongues, but still calling each other brethren. So the family,\nsociety, rhe nation, and the church are divine organisms by which God calls the individual\nout of himself, and leads him to offer himself upon the constantly broadening altars of\nthe family, society, the nation, and humanity. Do you see the profound significance of\nDr. Tompkins' statement that no individual realizes his ideal by a direct process, that\neverything lives in and thru something else, that the one true method in education is\naltruism ? The constitution of the universe debars the individual from reaching his goal\nby direct and selfish efforts. We live by death. We increase by being spent. Love is\nwisdom. The martyr is the philosopher. \" Only,\" says Emerson, \" as we forego all personal and temporal aids do we rise in the region of the universal and the eternal.\"\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 337, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nSELF-ACTIVITY\n\nIN EDUCATION\n\n329\n\nThe third aspect of self-activity — the tendency of all thought toward unity — more\nreadily interprets your own mental processes and is more profoundly suggestive than\neither of the preceding aspects. The principle that all thought tends to organize scattered facts is the key to all that is best in my own thinking. In the language of Coleridge, that truth finds me at greater depths of my being than either of the other\nprinciples. Arithmetic, grammar, history, chemistry become organic and vital to the\nstudent the momertt his mind passes beyond the mere effort to memorize isolated facts\nand grasps the inner principle upon which all the separate facts depend. This fundamental act of reason by which the mind discovers the operation of cause and effect, and\nperceives the organic relation of apparently scattered phenomena, is the deepest process\nin education. Thru it the child emerges from the parrot stage and becomes a thinker.\nPerhaps I can illustrate the principle, and at the same time throw out a suggestion in\nresponse to the inquiry just made by one of the speakers as to what constitutes a person.\nWe usually say that intellect, sensibility, and will are the three factors in personality. This\nanalysis of personality is not quite complete. Evolution is probably truer than some of us\ndream, and these three roots of personality are found in the animals below us. Intelligence\ngrows out of instinct ; affection grows out of the sensibility which the mother animal\nmanifests for her young ; and will seems to be only the development of those incipient\nchoices which birds make when they select their nesting places. Thus science indicates\na unification of our philosophy of life, and an organic relation between the animal and\nhuman kingdoms. Again, these three elements of personality tend to run together, when\nstudied closely. That which distinguishes human affection from the instinctive love of\nthe mother animal for its young is the presence of reason and will in human love. That\nwhich distinguishes human volition from mere animal caprice is the presence of reason\nand affection in the act of will. That which distinguishes reason from the mechanical\naction of instinct is the presence of love and of will-power in our intellectual processes.\nRosenkranz has laid strong emphasis upon the necessity of demanding that the child\nsummon its will-power to its aid for the mastery of its mental tasks. Herbart, upon the\nother hand, has laid strong emphasis upon the necessity of the teacher attempting to\nawaken the interest of the child and to enlist its affections in its studies. Do you not see\nthat both of these philosophers recognize that the intellect does not do its best work\nalone, that one recognizes that the will must be summoned, and the other that the interest\nmust be awakened, in order to secure the most fruitful mental activity ? Each philosopher\nis right in what he demands and wrong in what he ignores in education. Education can\nnever secure the best intellectual results without enlisting the whole personality of the\nchild. In a word, we teachers must carry this principle of unification beyond the abstract\nrealm of thought into the practical realm of life.\nFinally, Professor Edward Caird, in his Philosophy of Religion, furnishes striking\nconfirmation of Professor Tompkins' remark that all thought moves back to the infinite\nunity and becomes religion. There has been an age-long dispute between the idealists\nand sensationalists as to the origin and certainty of our knowledge. The idealist holds\nthat self-consciousness- is the starting-point of knowledge, and that the one thing of which\nthe mind has direct knowledge is itself. Upon the other hand, the sensationalist rests\nin a knowledge of mere external phenomena revealed to us thru the senses. Fortunately the tendency to unity of thought enlarges both of these partial theories of knowledge. How does a man become conscious of himself ? Simply by distinguishing between\nhimself and that which is not himself. As Hamilton profoundly remarked : \" In the very\nact of self-consciousness the mind is forced to recognize something which is not itself.\"\nThus the idealist is forced to recognize at least a not-self, which is as real as the self which\nalone he claims to know. Upon the other hand, underlying all activity of the senses is\nthe mind's consciousness of its activity, its consciousness of itself. The sensationalist\ncannot analyze and vindicate the reality of knowledge coming thru the senses without\n\n"}
{"page": 338, "printed_page": null, "text": "33°\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Columbus\n\nrecognizing the self-activity of the mind. Thus this tendency toward a unity of knowledge of which Professor Tompkins spoke reconciles the two great schools of philosophy\nand furnishes us an ideal realism and a real idealism.\nBut the tendency to unity carries us a step farther. As Descartes recognized, the\nfundamental aim of philosophy is to discover an organic relation between mind and matter, to find the relation between self and the world. A wider view of consciousness leads\nto this broader unification of all knowledge. Just as thru my senses I become conscious\nof the external world, just as thru introspection I become conscious of myself, so thru\nconscience I become conscious of a Higher-than-self. The child no more stumbles at\nthe knowledge of God than he stumbles at the knowledge of the external world.\nHe is as clearly conscious of a power above self as he is conscious of himself.\nHow else can we account for the imperative ought which reveals itself in every\nawakening personality? Along with the freedom of choice by which the schoolboy\nrises above the physical universe, by which he can elect his course contrary to the\nwishes of a billion fellow-men, by which he becomes a moral king and stands upon an\nequality with God — immediately the choice is once made by this moral king, there\nemerges in his consciousness the Greater-than-the-king, either approving or condemning'\nthe king's choice. In the presence of this mysterious One every human being rejoices\nwhen he has chosen aright. Before His presence every soul quails, when it has chosen\nevil. Now, the soul is not by nature humble. It does not quail before a mere abstraction.\nIt does not dread a nonentity or fear a zero. Nor does the whole soul quail before one of .\nits faculties. But this condemning and approving power is not simply one faculty of the\nhuman soul standing alongside of judgment and desire and taste. It commands desire.\nWhile it does not overawe, it condemns the will- What is this mysterious One whom all\nchildren recognize, and before whom we have all quailed ? Is it not the presence of God\nin the soul of man ? Is not Edward Caird right in saying that the human soul has three\nforms of consciousness — the consciousness of self, the consciousness of the world, and the\nconsciousness of God ? Thus we find self and the world standing together in organic\nrelation thru their relation to God. Just as we found idealism .and realism uniting in\norganic relation thru a true analysis of the consciousness, so we find self and the world\ncoming into organic and vital relations with each other thru this final analysis of consciousness. The tendency to unity is the greatest force in education, because it is the\ndeepest impulse of the reason ; and this fundamental impulse of the soul carries the child\nback to God.\n\nChristianity is the final philosophy.\n\nJ\n\n\"In Him all things consist.\"\n\nDr. Tompkins. — I have no right to speak again, and do not desire to do so. I wish\nthat the remarks of Drs. Weir and Bashford might be the closing benedictions to this\nsession. What the teacher needs most of all is a full appreciation of the dignity and worth\nof man, as they have just been so eloquently presented. A clear conception of the aim\nand process of life is of vastly more significance to the teacher than all of our technical\nmethods of instruction.\nme.\n\nI fully agree with the gentlemen in regard to the points on which they differ from\nWhat they say is only an elaboration of what is implied in my general doctrine.\n\nIn reply to Professor Galbreath's question, as to why, since the principle is an old\none, it had not been of more potency in the past, and what is in the way of its success in\nthe future, I would say that there have always been men who would run after strange gods ;\nand that in the educational world there were always men so desirous of attracting attention that they would promulgate new isms and cults as if they had discovered a new\nprinciple of education.\n\n> I\n\ni\n\n"}
{"page": 339, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTO\n\nELECTIVES\n\nIN HIGH-SCHOOL\n\nWORK\n\nWHAT EXTENT SHOULD\nTHE\nHIGH SCHOOL\nBE PERMITTED TO ELECT HIS WORK?\nBY\n\nW.\n\nL.\n\nSTEELE,\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nGALESBURG,\n\n331\n\nPUPIL\n\nILL.\n\nIn the summer of 1895 the course of study for the Galesburg High\nSchool was revised, and all the subjects in it were made elective. The facts\nand reasons leading to this actiqn and the results following it form the\noutline of this paper.\nThe few graduating from the high school, compared with the many\nentering it, has long been the subject of comment by the members of the\nboard of education. Different theories were advanced to account for this\nfact, some of which were, that the pupils enter the high school too young,\ntoo immature ; that the work in the grades is not thoroly done ; that\npupils pass into the school without having learned how to study ; that the\ntransition from the grammar school to.the high school is too abrupt ; that\nmany lack the taste, the ambition, and the capacity for such work. An\nirreverent member suggested, however, that the fault might be in the high\nschool — not in the pupils. These comments and discussions resulted\nfinally in an investigation.\nThe records of the classes graduating for the five preceding years\nwere carefully examined. They showed that the average number entering\nthe school annually was eighty, and the average number completing the\ncourse at the end of three years was thirty-six — an average loss of fortyfour pupils out of eighty, or 55 per cent. A closer examination\nrevealed the fact that thirty-two of these forty-four pupils dropped out\nduring the first year; that is, 73 per cent, of the loss during the entire\ncourse occurred in the first year. Thus, the cause of so many pupils\nleaving the high school was seen to be in the first year, and the cause was\nfound to be the failure of the pupils to do the work in one or more\nbranches required to complete the course. These branches were Latin\nand algebra, about twenty failing in one or both subjects each year. To\nput it plainly, we had practically been refusing to teach to 25 per cent.,\nor one child out of every four, any science, literature, history, or commercial studies, because the required percentage in Latin or algebra had not\nbeen attained.\nIs not this true of all high schools, and why is it so? Is the fault with\nthe pupils or with the schools? There is no question, in my mind, that in\nmany cases the fault is with the pupils, for the reasons already given :\nimmaturity, want of preparation, lack of ambition and capacity, and the\ngreat gulf between the grades and the high school.\nMost high schools now provide a course, more or less honorable, without Latin, but I have yet to find one in which algebra is not required.\nIs\n\n"}
{"page": 340, "printed_page": null, "text": "332\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Columbus\n\nthe human mind so constituted that it cannot be developed in any direction,\nbeyond the most rudimentary stages, without the aid of algebra? Or is it a\nsurvival of our reverence for arithmetic in the grades, for which we have\nhaunted the child's mind the first eight years of his school life?\nIn making a course of study, why not be governed by what we know\nto be true in life, namely, that an education is not such a little thing as\nthe learning of certain facts about any particular subject or subjects, but\nconsists rather in awakening and stimulating the mind to activity along\nsome line of thought? Why not treat the children of the public as we do\nour own? If one of you had a child who was deficient in mathematics or\nlanguages, or, more mildly and perhaps more truthfully, was perfectly\nindifferent to them, what would you do? You certainly would not keep\nhim at these subjects till he became completely discouraged and disgusted\nwith all study ; you would not lock the door to that part of your library\nwhich contains the volumes of literature, history, and science, saying to\nhim : \"You must not think of trying to become acquainted with any of\nthese until you have first solved the problems in an academic algebra as\nfar as logarithms.\" If you were set upon having your daughter become\na musician, and it turned out that she could not learn music, or, what is\nequivalent, she would not try, would you not attempt to give her any\naccomplishment? The reverse of this, you know, would be true. You\nwould, on this account, put forth all the more effort to arouse her interest\nin other directions. Why not, then, treat my child, whom I send to you\nfor training, in the same manner? The school should aim to recognize\ndiversity of talents, tastes, and dispositions — and respect them — the same\nas does the home.\nTo this end the board made the entire high-school course elective.\nIt considered that the twenty who annually dropped out of the beginning\nclass, for lack of interest or lack of ability to do the work prescribed,\nought to receive as much aid as the public school could possibly give,\nand were certainly in greater need of it than the sixty who were able to\ndo the particular work given, and remained.\nI will admit that this is all nonsense, if the only object of the high\nschool be to prepare its pupils for college, or to make of the more gifted\nan educated aristocracy. At a recent meeting of the Schoolmasters' Club\nof New England the mayor of Boston gained the distinction of being the\nfirst to advocate publicly such a high school. To be just to him, one must\nadmit that the burden of his speech, as reported, was not opposition to\nthe high school so much as dissatisfaction with the kind of work it is\nattempting to do with what he was pleased to call \"the unfitted half.\"\nIt was a call to schoolmen to be sensible in their dealings with children,\nrather than an attack on our sacred institution. However, if the main\nobject of the high school be to raise the masses to a high plane of living\nand usefulness, if it be to help the dull and the slow as well as the bright\n\n"}
{"page": 341, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nELECTIVES\n\nIN HIGH-SCHOOL\n\nWORK\n\n333\n\nand active — the distinctive characteristic of our institutions, and the glory\nof our civilization — then the plan of elective studies is just and wise.\nWe arranged our work in three courses : (i) the scientific, with algebra\nand geometry, but no foreign languages, designed for those who do not\nintend to enter higher institutions of learning, yet who want a broader\neducation than the grades give ; (2) the Latin, intended for those who\nwish to prepare for college ; (3) the commercial, designed for those who\nwish to prepare themselves especially for commercial life. This arrangement, however, is simply suggestive to the pupil. He is at liberty at any\ntime, with the consent of his parents, to make a different selection, provided the subjects are being taught. To each subject is given a certain\nnumber of credits, the unit being one month of twenty recitations. For\nexample, algebra, which extends thru nine months, is given nine credits.\nWhen any subject is not completed, no credits are given for it. When\nthe pupil gets one hundred credits, which means one hundred months of\nsuccessful work, he is given a diploma, in which is written the entire list\nof subjects completed and the value of each — making not only an intelligible diploma, but an honest one.\nAs was said at the beginning of this paper, the Galesburg High School\nhas been conducted on the elective plan exclusively since September, 1895,\nthe first class graduating last June. We have had time enough to experience the terrible results that some assured us would certainly follow if\npupils were allowed to pass thru school studying only those subjects\nthey might see fit to select. It was claimed that the subjects required for\ncollege entrance, that give mental fiber, would be passed by and the\nso-called easier ones substituted in their places ; that their education would\nresemble a crazy quilt ; that, in short, it would be a mere farce.\nThe elective course, perhaps, makes this possible. It is certainly possible to go thru the classical course of any college and come out with\nsuch an education. But it is a mistake to assume that boys and girls in\ntheir teens, when properly managed, will make such a choice. The healthy\nand ambitious boy is no more seeking an easy job than the successful or\nambitious man. This is even more true of his sister. The teacher who\nthinks the child is a shirk, that he does only what he is compelled to do,\nhas, to put it mildly, missed his calling. Some imagine that their success\nin life is due to the fact that they had a hard time when young and were\ndriven to do their work. If this be true, why do not all the poor and\noppressed rise to success ? Their lot is certainly hard enough and the\noutside pressure sufficiently great. The mistake of such people and such\nteachers is in locating the power that compels to continuous and heroic\neffort as coming from without, whereas it comes from within the child. It\nis an impelling, not a compelling, force that develops the child. It is the\nwork that he does because he desires to do it, not what he does because he\nmust do it, that contributes most to his growth. When once this impelling\n\n"}
{"page": 342, "printed_page": null, "text": "334\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Columbutj\n\npower, this consuming desire, is created within the pupil, compared to^\nwhich all else is insignificant, the problem of his education is virtually\"\nsolved.\nAnything short of this is not worthy to be called teaching.\nAn\nelective course of study in the hands of a true teacher produces this;\nresult to a remarkable degree.\nSome went so far as to say that it was absolutely silly to think of\nallowing boys and girls of high-school age to choose what studies they\nwould pursue, for they have neither the knowledge nor the maturity\nof judgment to decide such questions. This is perhaps true, but who\nhas ? I know from experience that my own judgment in such cases is not\nvery reliable. I may understand the educational value of the subjects,\nbut I don't always know the boys and girls.\nThe way we had been doing in this matter, previous to the adoption\nof the elective system, was to ask the pupils, when they presented themselves for admission to the high school : \" Which course do' you wish to\ntake, the Latin or the scientific ? \" They indicated their preference, and\nwere assigned accordingly. Thus, it is seen, we had been asking these\nimmature boys and girls, unconscious of their mental ability or bent of\nmind, and ignorant of the choice they were to make, to decide at once\nwhat subjects they would choose for the next three years. Incapable\nof choosing for one term, we demanded of them a decision for three\nyears. Then, at the close of the fall term, when ten or fifteen pupils realized that it was impossible for them to carry their work in algebra or\nLatin, and their teachers were perfectly aware of the fact, we left them in\nthe class to drag along as drones, belaboring them daily for their dullness\nand stupidity, till one by one they dropped out of the class and the school,\nto begin life with a broken spirit. Now, under the elective system, they\nare encouraged to choose another subject, which they ofttimes master, and,\ngaining confidence in themselves, complete a course with credit. Need I\nask which is the better way?\nThe elective system thus permits the work to be adjusted to the pupil\nas he develops, as his capacity is manifested, and his type of mind is\nrevealed — two things which the high school certainly does for every pupil.\nSchool boards, as well as parents, that ignore either of these, the capacity\nand type of mind, in the education of children, find their efforts and good\nintentions often failures rather than blessings.\nThis freedom of choice does not intoxicate the pupils nor cause them\nto follow every freak of their fancy, but it sobers them rather, sets them\nto thinking, and results in bringing them to their parents and teachers for\nadvice. We have found this to be almost universally true. This has a\nmost marked effect upon the teachers. When you are once admitted into\nthe confidence of a child, he is never again the same person to you, and\nyou are ever after a different one to him. It makes a great difference with\nthe teacher whether he is required merely to record his opinion of a pupil's\n\n"}
{"page": 343, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nELECTIVES\n\nIN HIGH-SCHOOL\n\nWORK\n\n335\n\nknowledge of the subject, or is expected to be called upon by that pupil\nfor advice about pursuing the subject farther or taking some other in its\nplace. The one makes the teacher cold and indifferent, the other sympathetic and kind.\nSince the elective system has been adopted, a great change has come\nover the relation between the high-school and the eighth-grade teachers.\nEach has actually grown interested in what the other is trying to do, visiting one another at work. In May the high school sends to each eighthgrade pupil an invitation for himself and parents to attend a reception\ngiven on an afternoon. The pupils of the high school give a short program, and the principal explains as far as possible, the nature of the first\nyear's work, giving to each pupil at the close a card on which the subjects\nare printed. Forty-five out of fifty of the eighth-grade pupils attend these\nreceptions, and in most instances are attended by one or both of their\nparents. The eighth-grade teachers are consulted by great numbers of\nthese pupils and parents, and the high-school principal gives days of his\ntime for such consultation. The tendency is to bring about the same\nconditions in the schobl that ought to exist in the home, where the children strive, not only to do their work well, but to do a little more work\nthan is expected.\nThat freedom of choice does not cause pupils to slight what are called\nthe disciplinary studies, but stimulates them rather to greater activity,\nleading them to do even more than is required, can be proved only by\nexperience, and I here submit the record of our experience.\nFor four years previous-to the change the average number entering the\nLatin, college, or orthodox course was seventy-six. During the four\nyears of the present plan the average number choosing the same course\nhas been ninety-eight, or, in other words, the number taking Latin and\nalgebra for four consecutive years under the elective system is 27 per cent,\nmore than for the same number of years under the former plan, showing\nconclusively that the elective system does not jeopardize the cause of\nso-called higher education. Of the ninety-four who graduated last June\nmore than one-half had credits in excess of the number required — some\nas many as fifteen or twenty more than the necessary one hundred credits\n— proving that the tendency is to do more work than is required for\ngraduation.\nThe principal reason, however, for permitting pupils to elect their\nstudies in the high school is that it greatly extends the blessings of education. It reaches a large class of children who would otherwise never\nthink of entering the high school, and, by broadening their horizon with\na knowledge of history, literature, science, commercial branches, and\nmanual training, greatly adds to their personal happiness and general\nusefulness as members of society.\nUnder the elective system the Galesburg High School has grown from\n\n"}
{"page": 344, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n[Columbus\n336\n234 to 518 pupils, an increase of 121 per cent. During this time the\ngrades from which the high school is fed have increased only 9 per cent.\nHow can the other 112 per cent, of growth be accounted for ? It must\nbe on some other ground than increase of population. When it is found\nthat the number of pupils now in the high school who are pursuing other\nthan strictly the Latin and scientific courses is 56.7 per cent, of the entire\nschool, is it not fair to infer that they are there because of the provision\nthat allows them to take these studies ?\nIn conclusion, it has been shown, from theory and experience, that\nthe purely elective system in the high school gives all the people the kind\nof an education they desire for their children, which we regard for ourselves as our most sacred right ; that it increases, rather than lessens, the\nnumber that prepare for college ; that the pupils do more work than is\nordinarily done under the non-elective system ; and, best of all, that it\nbrings the spirit of the home into the school.\nWhat our high schools need most today is heart in their organization\nand in their teachers — not cold laws and bare facts.\n\nTHE\n\nSCHOOL\n\nBY SAMUEL\n\nDIRECTOR\n\nHAMILTON,\n\nAS A\n\nFACTOR\n\nIN EDUCATION\n\nSUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, ALLEGHENY\nBRADDOCK, PA.\n\nCO.,\n\nEducation has a business side. Viewed from that standpoint it is a\nkind of joint partnership, in which there are three partners — the teacher,\nthe parent, and the director. Each contributes something to its success\nand participates to some extent in the profits. Each has rights which\nshould be respected and duties which should be performed. And the\ngreatest return in profits comes from this business when each knows his\nrights and will insist upon them, and at the same time is willing to perform his duties. Then each aids all in the participation of rights, and all\naid each in the performance of duties.\nTo the teacher is intrusted the actual work of instruction. To perform his duties aright \"he should be an active, aggressive, intelligent\ncompound of love, zeal, wisdom, virtue, and justice. To him virtue is its\nown reward, and he receives little of any other kind on this side of the\nEternal City.\"\nThe parent supplies the running expenses of the business and the\ncapital stock which is invested. This investment, for a period of eight or\nnine years, is his child, the most precious asset in all the world to him.\nAnd its value as a living, working entity, in the wisdom and wealth of the\nworld, will depend to a very large extent upon the education which it\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 345, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nDIRECTOR\n\nAS A FACTOR\n\nIN EDUCATION\n\n337\n\nreceives during this period. ■ From this investment the parent has a right\nto expect large dividends in intelligence, virtue, wisdom, and culture ; in\nsterling character, right habits, correct morals, pure patriotism, and noble\nmanhood and true womanhood.\nFUNCTIONS\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nDIRECTOR\n\nThe director is the business manager of this partnership. In him is\nvested the power to do anything and everything necessary to the operation of the school as a business institution. His duties are both local and\nlegal ; he represents the people, he also represents the state. The state\nsupports a school system in order that it may have a wise, virtuous, intelligent, patriotic citizenship. To this end it establishes the school and vests\nin the director its complete legal and business management.\nBut the director is more than the business factor in the school problem.\nAs the official manager of the system, he practically controls its professional progress. With his hand on the financial lever he can aid or\nretard this progress at pleasure. His vote will enrich and expand, or\nimpoverish and contract, the curriculum. It means to his school a living,\nactive, intelligent, professional teacher, or a lifeless, indifferent, mechanical bungler. It means growth or decay, life or death, to the professional\nspirit of education. He can make of his community a valley of dry bones,\nor one teeming with spiritual and professional life. His influence is\neither positive and helpful, or negative and hurtful. He is thus clothed\nwith the power to start, aid, encourage, and direct the professional side\nof education, or to discourage, retard, hinder, and stop it. He may be\neither a destructive force or a constructive cause, but not both.\nRESPONSIBILITY\n\nAND\n\nPOWER\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nDIRECTOR\n\nAccepted authority means assumed responsibility. To the director\nthe measure of the former is surpassed only by the magnitude of the latter.\nThis responsibility has a financial, a civic, and a moral aspect. The financial responsibility is recognized when we remember that the director disburses annually $185,000,000. The civic responsibility is greater even\nthan the financial. The state, in a sense, is mercenary. To some extent\nits motives are egoistic, not altruistic. It supports schools to make citizens. From the civic standpoint education is simply the training which\nthe state gives to those who are to be its citizens, in order that the intelligence, advancement, and civilization of one age may be retained and\nmade the basis of still greater achievement. All civic progress depends upon\nthe virtue and intelligence of the citizen ; these depend upon the school,\nand the school depends upon the director. The moral responsibility is not\nless important than the civic. We are all consumers of the common stock\nof accumulated moral worth. He who contributes more than he consumes\nis a benefactor, while he who draws in excess of his contribution is a\n\n"}
{"page": 346, "printed_page": null, "text": "338\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Columbus\n\nbeggar. Every child in every school will be either a beggar or a benefactor. His moral worth will depend upon his education, his education\nupon his school, and his school upon the director. Life is a warfare,\nevery child a soldier. The battle is unto death. Shall the child be one\nof the victors or one of the vanquished ? Shall he go forth morally and\nintellectually as a strong, sturdy, stalwart giant, or as an aimless, helpless,\nhopeless pigmy ? The director who provides the school and selects the\nteacher, and thus in a large measure determines the extent and nature of\nthe child's education, must answer this question.\nThis responsibility is recognized in two ways : first, by the oath which\nmany states require the director to take ; and, second, by the almost unlimited power conferred upon him by legal enactment. Relying upon the\nsolemn obligation that he will faithfully and impartially perform his duties,\nthe state proceeds to make him, not only the business manager, but the\nlegal prosecutor, the judge and jury, of the school system. Clothed with\nall this authority to direct the institution which is to shape human destiny\nand to mold human lives, it is highly important that the director be a\nman keen and accurate in his observation of educational facts, sincere in\nhis convictions, correct in his conclusions, wise in his enactments, right\nin his decisions, and just in the performance of his important and manifold duties. In our examination of the director as the business, and the\nindirect professional, manager of the school system, it may be well for us\nto attempt to analyze him more critically and discover his ideal qualifications.\nIDEAL\n\nQUALIFICATIONS\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nDIRECTOR\n\n1. He must have high ideals in education. These ideals will hold up\nto his admiring vision the necessary characteristics of a good teacher, of a\ngood school, and of good educational facilities. His ideal will not be\nrealized. No ideal ever is. The mind may contemplate it as an ethereal\nvision — faultless, harmonious, symmetrical, and complete. But, while it\nmay be thought out, it can never be wrought out. As a mental will-o'the-wisp it ever flits above us, luring us onward, receding as we advance,\never escaping our grasp, and refusing to become an embodied reality.\nVisionary and ethereal as an ideal must be, it is nevertheless an essential\nrequirement of a good school director. High ideals mean progression,\nlow ideals retrogression. The former means vigorous effort, healthful\ngrowth, boundless achievements ; the latter, feeble effort, stunted growth,\narrested development, retrogression, decay, death.\n2. The model director must have keen perceptive power with which\nto discover the defects in the schools, when comparing the actual with the\nideal. The first step toward the ideal strength to which we would attain\nis a just appreciation of the weakness we possess. And the first step\ntoward educational progress begins in the complete discovery of the slow\n\n"}
{"page": 347, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nDIRECT\n\nOR AS A FACTOR\n\nIN EDUCA7\n\nION\n\n*\n\n339\n\npace at which we are traveling. As a child can never be made to comprehend the knowledge possessed by the teacher until the teacher has first\ncomprehended the child's ignorance, so the perfections of an ideal cannot\nbe even approached until the imperfections in the real are first discovered.\nThe director, therefore, must have keen perception if he would note the\nlack of harmony between the actual and the ideal.\n3. The model director must have good judgment with which to select\nand inaugurate the riecessary remedial agencies that will help him to\nrealize his ideals. This is the day of fads. Small-tonnage educational\ntheorists have gotten far out from the shore on the sea of pedagogy, and,\nhaving lost their compass, are guessing the way to the desired haven.\nLittle progress will be made in realizing high educational ideals if the\ndirector adopts the plans of these dreamers, these visionary theorists and\npedagogic fortune-tellers. Sailing, not drifting, should be the motto of\nthe business manager of our school system. To do this he must equip\nhis vessel with the best machinery, follow the truest charts, and have on\nboard a most reliable pilot, in whose hands is a compass tried and true.\nThis equipment is the result, not of haphazard guesswork, but of a wise\nchoice deliberately made by good common sense and sound educational\njudgment.\n4. The ideal school director must possess an intense personality.\nSuch a man is greater than his environments. He is the creator, not the\ncreature, of circumstances. His real power is not in his environment,\nbut in himself, in his character, his individuality, his attainments, his\nspirit, his personality. The director must have educational wisdom manifested in his high ideals, his keen perception, and his good judgment.\nBut he must have zeal and personality as well as wisdom. Wisdom\nstrikes when the iron is hot, zeal builds the fire and heats it. Wisdom\nseizes the opportunity, zeal makes it. Wisdom guides, zeal moves. Wisdom spreads the sails, zeal makes them. The director must have both.\nHe must either lead or be led by the educational sentiment of his com•munity.\nAnd whether he is to be its master or its slave will depend very\nlargely upon his zeal, his individuality, his personality.\nAll will agree that these qualifications are desirable, and in a measure\nessential. And all will admit — I presume with equal unanimity — that\nthey are not possessed in the superlative degree by the average director.\nThe question I wish to ask, not answer, is : Can we do anything to help\nthe director to secure this necessary zeal and wisdom ? Certainly the\nage demands a more careful study of this question, even if we are as yet\nunable to formulate a desirable answer to it. The study of the director\nas a factor in education has received but little attention, and nothing\npractically has been done to help him. Much has been done for the\nchild and for the teacher. To aid them the history of education has\nbeen written, its philosophy discovered, its science explained, and the\n\n"}
{"page": 348, "printed_page": null, "text": "346\n\n•\n\nJNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Columbus\n\nmethod of instruction outlined. We have normal schools, technical\nschools, and institutes for teachers ; but we have nothing for the director.\nThe beneficent results which these schools seek to bring about are often\nrendered null and void, because directors are ignorant of, or not in sympathy with, the spirit of progress they suggest.\nTHE\n\nNECESSITY\n\nFOR\n\nBETTER-TRAINED\n\nDIRECTORS\n\nIf these qualifications are desirable, let us ask if there is any existing\nnecessity for a better education of the school director along these lines.\nThe average director is the synonym of educational indifference, and educational indifference is the child of educational ignorance. The director\nwho possesses it has little interest in healthful progress. He has no\neducational ideals commensurate with the age, and worthy of attainment.\nHe sees no defects and is able to suggest no remedies. His influence,\ntherefore, is negative and hurtful, rather than positive and helpful. He\nis a retarder rather than a director, a hinderer rather than a helper. This\nis possible in our school system. The director as its business manager\nhas unlimited power. In most states his word is law. As its financial\nmanager he controls its progress. His vote means substantial financial\naid for or against every improvement. The same law which makes it\npossible for him to help, aid, and direct makes it possible for him to\nretard, oppose, and hinder. His educational sin may be omission, commission, or both.\nBut is there any real necessity for an attempt to educate him ? We\nanswer, yes, and cite three of the many reasons that might be given for\nour answer :\n1. An adequate supply of trained teachers has always been a perplexing question. It will always be such until we have an adequate supply\nof trained directors. The law of supply and demand is inexorable. The\nlatter always regulates the former. As long as the indifferent director\nwill hire indifferent teachers, we may expect indifferent results, and a\nlarge supply of untrained teachers. • * We have scotched the snake, not \"\nkilled it.\" Completely to remove the effect we must remove the cause.\nAnd the untrained director is certainly one of the causes of the untrained\nteacher.\n2. The condition of the average school property is a monument to the\nindifference and carelessness of the director. Especially is this true in\nrural districts and small villages. The grounds are unfenced, and the\nvagrant cattle of the neighborhood hold camp-meetings on the school lot.\nThe gate is a postless, palingless, hingeless, latchless fabrication of the\nimagination. In fact, there is nothing of the gate there except the place\nwhere it ought to be, and even that cannot be located without a surveyor.\nThe doors of the outbuildings are hung without latch or hinge, as these\nare regarded as nonessential in outhouse architecture.\nFor want of care\n\n"}
{"page": 349, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nDIRECTOR\n\nAS\n\nA FACTOR\n\nIN\n\nEDUCATION\n\n■\n\n341\n\nand disinfectants these buildings often degenerate into dismal, dirty,\ndingy, disagreeable, and disgraceful devil-devised dens, with sin-scratched\nwalls and sin-suggesting sentiments. Their condition thus is repulsive to\nthe refined tastes and pure moral tone of the child, and they become\n\"seminaries of sin,\" whose vicious, venomous, voiceless, vice-producing\nvirus is sufificient to annul the whole moral influence of the best of teachers. The well or spring was not cleaned prior to the opening of school,\nand is filled with decaying and death-dealing animal and vegetable matter. The pump is without a handle, spout, or stalk, and the supply of\nwater is neither pure nor abundant. The door is without a knob, and the\nwindows without glass, and the building during vacation was in all probability the gloomy abode of tramps and bats. There are no fastenings\non the shutters, and their flappings in the wintry wind are like the spiritual rappings of some departed director who failed to do his duty while\nin flesh, and thus in aimless, endless restlessness returns as a warning to\nthe living. The windows are without shades, and the blinding sun beats\nin upon the unprotected heads of the children, imparing the delicacy and\nthe power of the eye for all time. The unpolished stove is covered with\nan incrustation of rust that has been accumulating since the days of Jackson. The door has but one whole hinge, and the crack in the bowl of\nthe stove, from which exude deadly gases to stifle the children and retard\ntheir mental progress, is neither a thing of beauty nor utility. The school\nbuilding has not been cleaned within the memory of man. The craze for\ncleaning schoolhouses once every twenty-five years, whether they need it\nor not, has not yet reached every school district in every state.\nBarring hearsay evidence, many careless directors could scarcely prove\nthat the schools are kept in actual operation, as they seldom drop in to see\nthem. They abundantly and lavishly supply the schools with floors, ceilings, and walls; but the \"extras\" which beautify the room and charm the\nchild, and cultivate within him a love for the beautiful in nature and art,\nare there only as mental concepts, not as material realities.\nI have thus brought before you the worst conditions of the worst\nschools in the worst communities, that you might see in this unsightly\naggregation the accumulated results of the director's indifference and\ncarelessness, and the necessity of an attempt to train him. And while\nthese conditions are not the rule in this country, some of them are found\nin some districts, a few of them in many districts, and many of them in a\nfew districts.\n3. There is a mass of library legislation in the country. In fact, in\nevery state in the union save two the library law is a part of the school\nlaw. All this library legislation is based upon the principle that the free\npublic library is and should be an essential part of the public-school system, and as such should be supported by public taxation. The public\nlibrary is thus regarded as the complement of the public school.\nThe\n\n"}
{"page": 350, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n342\n\n[Columbus\n\nschool trains the mind, the library enriches it. The one builds the mental\nstructure, the other furnishes it. The one sharpens the mental appetite,\nthe other gratifies it. It is now more than forty years since these relations\nof the library to the school were first pointed out. Yet the school director,\nas the business manager of our school system, has scarcely considered the\nsubject, and in most communities nothing practically has been accomplished. In the name of justice, must our children, the priceless treasures\nof home and the dearest hope of the nation, be robbed of their birthright\nfor forty years more because of the indifference of the school director?\nWe spend large sums in making it possible for the children to learn to\nread, but thru the indifference of the director we have done almost nothing in making it possible for them to read to learn. Learning to read\ncomes first, reading to learn naturally follows. Without the latter the\nformer is unnecessary.\nTHE\n\nMETHODS\n\nOF\n\nTRAINING\n\nDIRECTORS\n\nAssuming that there is a necessity for better-trained school directors,\nthe question naturally arises: Is it possible to train them, and how may it\nbe accomplished ? The time has come for raising this query for thought\nand discussion, even tho we may not be able to answer it satisfactorily.\nFor thought and discussion must precede the practical solution of every\neducational question.\nIf the director is ever to be reached and helped to a higher and truer\nappreciation of his importance as a factor in education, it is evident\nthat it will not be by sending him to school. It must be done for him\nlargely in his home; and the press, the platform, and the book must be\nthe means by which it is accomplished. This is a difficult problem. But\nits difficulty is the state's opportunity. What, then, is the opportunity of\nthe state ?\n1. It could furnish him gratuitously with a paper, edited expressly for\nhim by its brightest and brainiest educational writers.\n2. The state could prepare and furnish to the director a set of directors'\nreference-books, covering every phase of his work, to be turned over by him\nto his successor in office. We have books for lawyers, books for doctors,\nand books for teachers — why not have books for directors ? Every profession and every vocation has its library — why not have a small library\nof a dozen books for the director?\n3. The organization of directors by counties and then by states will\naid greatly in an effort to train school directors. In this way much has\nalready been done in some states. The Department of Administration of\nthe National Educational Association will in due time give recognition to\nthe director as a factor in education, and at the same time focus the study\nof educators on the school problem from his standpoint. Formation must\nprecede reformation, and evolution revolution.\nThis work must proceed\n\nk\\\n\n"}
{"page": 351, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nDIRECTOR\n\nAS A FACTOR\n\nIN EDUCATION\n\n343\n\nfrom within. The director must be put to studying himself and his duties,\nere the dormant seeds of truth will spring up into vigorous growth.\nOrganization, agitation, and investigation will help, but the main work\nmust be accomplished thru the agency of books and papers.\n4. The institute or educational meeting should do more for the director\nthan it has yet accomplished. His presence should be required, even at\npublic expense, at every such meeting, and the program should provide\nfor the discussion of such subjects as would be of interest and profit\nto him.\nThe reading of a few books may not accomplish the desired end at\nonce, but it will help. Two books carefully read by a poor Danish boy,\nwhose only heritage was the poverty of his shiftless parents, made Hans\nChristian Andersen a great literary character, and gave to the world one\nof its brightest stars. The reading of a single book resulted in the establishment ofthe society of Jesuits, and called into existence a system of\neducation which in a few short years controlled the schools of Italy,\nFrance, Spain, and Austria, and for more than a century was the dominating intellectual power of the world.\nBooks and papers may not do all that is desired, but they will do\nsomething. This is an age of organized movements to train the masses\nby courses of reading. The Chautauqua movement, the various reading\ncircles, the scientific clubs, the women's clubs, and the correspondence\nschools are not visionary schemes. They are successful institutions,\naccomplishing much in their lines. The Cosmopolitan University enrolled\ntwenty thousand students the first year. Why not organize such a movement for the school director ?\nA systematic effort to train di/ectors will cost something. So does\nthe effort to train the children. There is something more absurd than\nthe blind leading the blind. It is the blind trying to lead those who see.\nWe pay annually $185,000,000 to educate the children. Would it not be\ngood business, common sense, and economy to spend a small part of it\nin an effort to train those who are to disburse the balance ?\nBut is the state justified in training the director at public expense ?\nIt is its duty to maintain at public expense a complete school system.\nThe director is a necessary and an important factor in it. He is an essential\npart of it. And is not the duty of the state to the part, part of its duty to\nthe whole ? The director holds the balance of power in the school\nsystem. He regulates and controls its progress. He is expected to perform an important gratuitous service to the state, and should not the state\nin return perform this important gratuitous service to him ? Without\nthe latter we may scarcely expect the former. The director has not spent\nand will not spend his money to help the state. Will the state be\nwithout that help, or spend the money that will aid in securing it ?\nThe director is the absolute monarch of the school system.\nAs its\n\n"}
{"page": 352, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n344\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n[Columbus\n\nbusiness manager his authority is unlimited. And as the financial control regulates the professional spirit, this authority means progress or\nretrogression, growth or decay, life or death to the school. If this\nauthority is to mean life, growth, progress, certain qualifications are\nnecessary in him who exercises it. It is certainly desirable that he\npossess these qualifications. Is it expedient that we attempt to develop\nthem in the director by systematic training ? If we try, shall we succeed,\nand what shall be the nature of the effort ? We have asked these questions, but not answered them.\nSome may attribute these questions to the speculations of an idle\ndreamer or a visionary theorist, and toss them over into the great pedagogical museum of fads, fossils, and freaks, fit only to augment the hodgepodge of impossible, improbable, and impractical educational suggestions.\nIt is futile to remind such objectors that Lovejoy, Garrison, Whittier,\nand Wendell Phillips were once regarded as idle dreamers ; that some of\nthe professors in the universities of Europe were the last among the\npeople to accept the discoveries of Newton ; that Galileo had to deny\nthe truth of his discoveries upon his knees ; and that a learned engineer\nproved beyond a doubt that no steam-vessel could ever cross the Atlantic,\nbecause it could not carry coal sufficient to propel it more than one-third\nof the distance. The proposition to train directors may now be impossible and impractical, just as it was once impossible to look thru the human\nhand. But we should remember that the impossible has time limitations,\nand human progress consists, to a large extent, in making the impossible\npossible.\n\nREPORT\n\nREPORTS\n\nOF\n\nOF COMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nCOMMITTEES\n\nUNIFORM\n\nFINANCIAL\n\nREPORTS\n\nTo the Department of Superintendence, National Educational Association :\nYour committee, appointed at the Chattanooga meeting of this body\nto report upon some uniform style of financial school report for the use\nof cities or school districts, and also upon some form suitable for the use\nof state school systems, begs leave to report as follows :\nThe committee has not found it practicable to have a meeting of its\nmembers before coming to Columbus. Discussion of the matters committed to it has been carried on by correspondence, both between members of the committee and with others.\nThe printiiig of this report, so that it might be in the hands of the\nmembers of the department at this meeting, was authorized at the time\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 353, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nREPORT\n\nON\n\nUNIFORM\n\nFINANCIAL\n\nREPORTS\n\n345\n\nthis committee was appointed, but, in view of the fact that the members\nhave not been able to meet for final discussion of the matters intrusted\nto them until the assembling of the department in Columbus, it seemed\nbest to have printed only the proposed form.\nIt is not probable that any form for financial school report could be\npresented which would be entirely satisfactory to everyone. Your committee is of the opinion, however, that most persons would agree on\nnearly all important items, and that an agreement should be made thruout, even tho, to some, the classification of a few minor items seem\narbitrary or incorrect.\nWhile local conditions enter into necessities for expense in any publicschool system, yet one of the most useful means of estimating proper\nexpenditures, and the necessity for particular expenditures, should be\nafforded by a study of the financial school reports of other, similar cities\nor districts. As these reports are at present made, they are of little use\nin this respect. Items given in one report are omitted from another.\nItems of income or outgo are differently grouped in different reports,\nand the statement is made in such a way that it is impossible to separate\nthe items for the purpose of reclassification. In getting the cost of\neducation per child, different items are put into the total cost of education, which forms the dividend, while sometimes the divisor is the number\nenrolled, sometimes the average number in daily membership, sometimes\nthe average number in daily attendance.\nOne of the chief studies of a wise administrator of schools is to make\nthe cost of education per child as low as consistent with the best service.\nAttention to this and to a comparative study of reports for a period of\nyears, now that most of our school systems have become established on a\nsomewhat similar plan, should give an idea of the average or normal cost\nof education per child. Having this, the manager of schools may know\nhow expense in his system differs from this normal standard, and, if not\nnormal, why it is above or below. This knowledge cannot be arrived at,\nhowever, until the same items are included when computing cost of\neducation and the same divisor is used in obtaining the average. By\ncareful comparative study, railroad men know the average cost of hauling\nfreight per ton per mile, and the cost per mile of transporting a passenger.\nThose administering schools should be as well informed upon the cost\nof education.\nThe two things which one studying a report of school finances most\ndesires to know are, first, the rate of direct local taxation for schools borne\nby the community reporting, and, second, the average cost per child per\nyear for the usual educational expenses. There are many items which,\nwhen given, are explanatory of these two, and serve to correct the inferences which might be drawn from a bald statement of them. There are\nalso many items, not directly related, which aid in giving a correct\n\n"}
{"page": 354, "printed_page": null, "text": "1\n346\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nbus\n[Columbus\n\nV\n\nestimate of the conditions surrounding the school organization reporting.\nIn arranging the proposed form an attempt has been made to group\nitems so that the two prime facts which such a report may show may be\neasily determined ; and to give, in addition, information of interest and\nuse in such comparative study of income, outgo, and conditions as those\ncharged with the management of school systems find it profitable to make.\nThe heading of the blank form was, at the suggestion of members of\nthe committee, made to cover cities, school districts, or school corporations. In some cases the city and the school district have the same\nboundaries ; in other cases the school district covers territory not included\nwithin the limits of the city; in some cases the title varies, and the school\ndistrict is called a school corporation. The proposed heading will permit\nthe form to be used, not only for cities, but for any school district, or\nfor any form of organization the purpose of which is to carry on\npublic schools.\nTaking up the items of the form, Nos. i, 2, and 3 serve to show the\nrate of local school tax, and to determine how this rate in one system of\nschools compares with that in another. The proportion of the true value\nat which property is assessed for purposes of taxation varies so in different\nstates and different cities that all of these items are necessary that a comparison may be made. A tax of seven mills on the dollar, where property is, as in some cases, valued for taxation at only one-tenth of its\nactual value, is really much lower than- a tax of four mills in a city where\nproperty is valued for taxation at two-fifths its actual value. The tax of\nseven mills on the one-tenth valuation might be increased on the same\nvaluation to a tax of sixteen mills before it would be as great in reality as\nthe four-mill tax on the two-fifths valuation. A tax of six mills on the\ndollar where property is assessed at one-fourth its actual value is in\nreality only one-half as great as a tax of three mills where property is\nassessed, as in Massachusetts and in some other states, at its full actual\nvalue. With the figures given in Nos. i, 2, and 3, valuation and tax rate\nmay be reduced to a common basis, and fairly compared.\nUnder the head of receipts, the ordinary and extraordinary sources of\nincome are separated. The ordinary sources, items 4, 5,6, 7, and 8, serve\nto explain each other, and also to explain No. 3. In some states little or\nnothing is received from state distribution or funds ; on the other hand,\nin at least one commonwealth, this state school fund is so generously\nendowed that, with prudent care, it should, in the future, carry a large\npart of the expense for public education. Where this source of income\nis large, the necessity for local taxation is correspondingly reduced. In\ncases where the county figures to a considerable extent as the unit of\ntaxation the necessity for tax in the local school district is likewise lessened.\nIn many cases the amount received into the school fund from fines,\n\n\\\n\n"}
{"page": 355, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nJ^EPORT\n\nON\n\nUNIFORM\n\nFINANCIAL\n\nREPORTS\n\n347\n\nlicenses, and penalties is considerable. On the other hand, this source\nof revenue is sometimes large, in some cases even providing the greater\npart of the funds needed for the maintenance of the schools. Where such\na condition as this exists, the necessity for taxation, of whatever sort, is\nmaterially reduced. Cities or districts sometimes have unusual or temporary sources of income — gifts or bequests, interest on permanently\ninvested funds, tuition of non-resident pupils, etc. These items, indicated\nin No. 8, serve to put all the facts before the reader of the report.\nReceipts from money borrowed and from the sale of bonds are not\nnatural or regular sources of income. The receipts from sales of bonds\nare generally to be applied to some particular purpose, usually the. purchase of sites and the erection of buildings. Income from loans is a\ntemporary makeshift. Nevertheless, these two items must be reported\nto give a correct understanding of the situation.\nExpenditures seem to fall into three classes : the usual current expenditures necessary for the maintenance of the schools ; expenditures for\nsites, buildings, permanent improvements, and equipment; other expenditures which, for various reasons, are not put in either of the two preceding\nclasses.\nFor the purpose of this report the first of these classes is by far the\nmost important, for it would probably be conceded that from this item of\ncurrent expenses should be determined the cost of education per child,\nthe most important item to be shown. Most of the difficulties in preparing such a form as is here proposed are met in the attempt to agree upon\nthe items which should be included and those which should be excluded\nfrom item 13. Item 12 is simple, including only expense for regular\nand special teachers, and for those engaged in supervising or directing the work of instruction. An agreement is easily reached upon most\nof the elements making up the total in No. 13. Here, without doubt,\nbelong all expenditures for salaries of executive officers of the board ;\nsalaries of janitors ; fuel ; light ; water, where this is purchased ; material\nand labor for ordinary repairs to buildings and premises ; the care of\ngrounds ; text-books, where these are owned by the school board ; school\nstationery ; school supplies, both those for janitors and those used in the\nwork of instruction; cartage and freight; advertising; election expenses;\nschool census ; legal expenses ; postage ; telegraph and telephones ; etc.\nYour committee would also include sums paid for rooms or ground rented\nfor the use of the schools. It may seem inconsistent to include rent here,\nwhile excluding interest paid, and interest estimated on value of buildings\nand grounds used for school purposes. Rent, however, is seldom a large\nitem, and it seems best to class it as current expense.\nActual usage as to items included in \"cost of education\" varies widely\nin different cities. Perhaps in one case only part of what is included in\nNo. 12, simply the expense for teachers, is included.\nIn another city\n\n"}
{"page": 356, "printed_page": null, "text": "348\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION,\n\n1\n\n[Columbui\n\nthe cost of instruction and supervision, all of No. 12, is included, and\nthis is reported as \" cost of education.\" Sometimes to these items is added\ncost of janitors, fuel, and school supplies, while all other items are omitted.\nIt has been urged that to the items grouped under No. 13 should be\nadded the sums paid for interest, and also a sum for interest, estimated\nat the current rate, upon the value of all grounds and buildings owned by\nthe school district and used for school purposes. The item of interest\npaid upon bonds or upon temporary loans has been arbitrarily excluded\nfrom No. 13. This has been done because interest is not directly an\nexpense for educational ends; because in many cities no debt exists and\nno interest is paid. If the item is included, it will in some cities weigh\nunduly in the showing of the cost per child. Whether school buildings\nand grounds shall be purchased by direct appropriations of funds from\nthe school treasury, or by funds derived from the sale of bonds, is a matter\nregulated by each community for itself, under state laws, and one plan or\"\nthe other is followed, as the particular community considers advantageous.\nThe matter is largely out of the management or control of those directly\ncharged with administering the schools. Your committee has, therefore,\nrecommended this exclusion.\nThe question might be raised as to including in No. 13 the interest\nupon estimated value of buildings and sites and permanent equipment.\nWhile it is true that the community is permanently deprived of the use\nfor other purposes of the sums invested, its inclusion would be a wide\ndeparture from any prevailing usage. Estimates of the value upon which\ninterest should be computed would vary largely, as one person after\nanother, in different years, was called upon to make the estimate, and the\nitem would become a variable factor, causing apparent cost of education\nto show strange increase or decrease. Your committee has, therefore, considered itwiser to exclude both interest paid and interest estimated from\n\"cost of education.\"\nItems 14 to 19, inclusive, show permanent investments in plant. The\nitems are separated, because it is desirable to know amounts expended for\neach purpose. Some little perplexity may arise in classifying expenditures under Nos. 16 and 17. Probably window shades and poles, and\ncarpets, should go under 16, while door mats should go with brooms\nunder 13. The repairing or replacing of shades should probably go\nunder 13 also. Maps, charts, globes, etc., with all original fitting up of\nlaboratories and workrooms, as well as additions of permanent pieces of\napparatus, belong under 1 7 ; while the repair of apparatus and the replacement of the daily consumption and small breakage of laboratory material\nand utensilsshould be counted under 13, as should rebinding and repairs\nof library and reference-books. Bookcases, etc., an improved heating\nplant, a new system of ventilation put into a building, fall naturally\nunder 19.\n\n"}
{"page": 357, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nREPORT\n\nON\n\nUNIFORM\n\nFINANCIAL\n\nREPORTS\n\n349\n\nItems 20, 21, and 22, not placed with either of the foregoing classes\nof expenditure, are desirable for information, and are therefore included.\nAltho this form for report does not resemble a bookkeeper's balance\nsheet or exhibit, yet item 24 is desired as a matter of information, as is\nalso item 27. Items 25 and 26 are necessary to give a correct understanding of the significance of item 24. Items 28 and 31 are also desired as\nitems of information, important as giving a full knowledge of the situation\nwhich exists in the reporting district. Nos. 29 and 30 modify considerably the significance of 28.\nItems 32, 33, and 34 give an opportunity to estimate the cost of\nordinary schools, free from complications with the unusual schools indicated in these items. They also give information as to what extraordinary\neducational responsibilities are assumed by the community.\nItem 35 is inserted simply as information often desired, but frequently\nomitted from school reports.\nItem 36 sheds light on the item following, and both of them are things\nwell to be known when considering items 38, 39, and 40. These facts\nare not all strictly related to finances, but help in a view of the whole\nsituation. They should often be borne in mind as correctives when considering items 3 and 44.\nItems 41, 42, and 43 bear the same relation to 40 that 32, 33, and 34\ndo to the sum of 12 and 13. They permit the cost of education for the\ncommon schools to be separated and computed apart from that of the\nschools for special classes or purposes indicated in 41, 42, and 43.\nThere will no doubt be criticism of the selection of No. 40 as the divisor\nin obtaining No. 44.\nBoth No. 38 and No. 39 were considered.\nNo. 38 varies so in different cities in proportion to the school population, and the average number of days each pupil enrolled is in attendance\nduring the year varies so, that this does not seem to provide a divisor\nthat is in any degree stable or reliable. Neither does the enrollment, in\nany great degree, determine the number of teachers or the school accommodations necessary.\nFor many reasons No. 39 seems the most suitable divisor. If computed in a uniform manner, the figures showing number in average daily\nmembership would most nearly show the requirements for schoolrooms,\nfurniture, supplies, and teachers. But it is not true that these figures are\nobtained by the same processes, or based upon the same facts, in different school systems. Usage varies so in computing membership in different schools — pupils in some cases being counted as members of the\nschools, when in other cities the same state of facts would cause the child\nto be conside-red as no longer a member of the school — that fair comparison isapparently not practicable by the use of this divisor.\nYour committee is of the opinion that a divisor as little subject to\nmisunderstanding as possible, and one based upon facts which are obtained\n\n"}
{"page": 358, "printed_page": null, "text": "35°\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Columbus\n\nin the same way everywhere, is of the first importance. The members\nbelieve this is provided by item 40, and we have, therefore, made that item\nthe divisor to be used, in connection with items 12 and 13, to obtain\nwhat shall be known as the \"cost of education.\"\nYour committee further recommends that the accompanying form for\nreports of cities or school districts be used as a basis for uniform financial\nreports by state superintendents of public instruction.\nYour committee finds it impracticable, without further time than has\nbeen at the disposal of its members, to present a suitable form for report\nshowing the important facts as to finances of state schools and educational\ninstitutions other than public schools.\nRespectfully submitted,\nC. G. Pearse,\nW. W. Stetson,\nJohn R. Kirk,\nC. A. Babcock,\nC. M. Jordan,\nE. B. Prettyman,\nD. M. Geeting,\nCommittee on Uniform Financial Reports.\n\nPROPOSED\n\nREPORT\n\nOF THE\n\nSCHOOL\n\nFORM\n\nRECEIPTS\nTHE CITY\n\nFOR\n\nAND\n\nEXPENDITURES\n\nOF\n\n(or school district or school corporation)\nof\n\nfor the year ending\n\n1. Estimated actual value of all property in the city (or\nschool district or corporation)\n2. Assessed valuation of all property in city (or school district or corporation)\n3. Rate of school tax levied on each dollar of assessed valuation of city (or school district or corporation)\nRECEIPTS\n4. Received from state apportionment or taxes\n5. Received from county apportionment or taxes\n6. Received from city (or school district or corporation)\ntaxes\n7. Received from fines, licenses, penalties, etc\n8. Received from all other sources except loans and bond\nsales. (Specify different sources)\n$.\n\n19-\n\n$\n\n"}
{"page": 359, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nREPORT\n\nON\n\nUNIFORM\n\nFINANCIAL\n\n9. Received from loans\n10. Received from bond sales.\n11. Total receipts, all sources.\nEXPENDITURES\n12. Paid for salaries of teachers and supervisors\n13. Paid for other current expenses, excluding interest :\nSalaries of officers\nJanitors\nFuel and lights\nText-books, including copy- and drawing-books...\nStationery\n\n14.\n15.\n16.\n17.\n\nOther supplies for schools\nOrdinary repairs to buildings, etc\nAll other current expenses\nPaid for sites\nPaid for additions and new buildings\nPaid for permanent furnishings and furniture,\nPaid for permanent equipment for manual\ntraining,\nscience laboratories, etc.\n\n18. Paid for reference- and library books\n19. Paid for all other permanent improvements, such as\ngrading, paving, etc.\n(Specify different\ntures)\n\nexpendi-\n\n20.\n21.\n22.\n23.\n24.\n25.\n\nPaid for interest\n'\nPaid on principal of loans\nPaid on principal of bonded debt\nTotal paid out, all purposes\nCash on hand at beginning of year\nCash on hand at beginning of year in fund for sites and\nbuildings.\n(Included in 24)\n26. Cash on hand at beginning of year in sinking fund.\n(Included in 24)\n\n27. Warrants outstanding, beginning of year\n28. Cash on hand at end of year\n29. Cash on hand at end of year in fund for sites and buildings. (Included in 28)\n30. Cash on hand at end of year in sinking fund. (Included\nin 28)\n31. Warrants outstanding at end of year\n32. Paid current expenses, evening schools.\n12 and 13)\n33. Paid\ncurrent\nexpenses,\nteachers'\n(Included in 12 and 13)\n\n(Included in\n\ntraining\n\nschools.\n\n34. Paid current expenses, schools for defectives or other\nspecial schools.\n(Included in 12 and 13. Specify\ndifferent schools)\n35-\n\nBonded school debt of city (or school district or corporation) atend of year\n\n36.\n\nPopulation of city (or school district or corporation)...\n\nREPORTS\n\n351\n\n"}
{"page": 360, "printed_page": null, "text": "352\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Columbus\n\n37. Persons of school age,\nto\nyears, inclusive, in\ncity (or school district or corporation)\n38. Number pupils enrolled, all schools\n39. Average number in daily membership, all schools\n40. Average number in daily attendance, all schools\n41. Average number\nin daily attendance, night schools.\n(Included in 40)\n,\n42. Average number in daily attendance, teachers' training\nschools.\n(Included in 40)\n43. Average number in daily attendance, schools for defectives or other special schools. (Included in 40. Specify\ndifferent schools)\n44.\n\nAnnual cost of education per pupil.\nand 13 divided by No. 40)\n\nREPORT\n\nOF THE\n\n.'\n\nI\n\n(Sum of Nos. 12\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON AMENDED\n\nSPELLING\n\nTo the Department of Superintendence, National Educational Association :\nYour committee \" appointed to consider the advisability of advocating\nadditional changes looking toward the further and more rapid amendment and simplification of English orthography,\" presents the following\nreport :\nThe orthography of the English language never has been, and, in the\nnature of things, never can be, constant or fixed. Only dead languages\ncan present an unchangeable orthography. The form of words in Chaucer\n(\"wel of English undefyled\") is so different from that in use now as to\nrender the reading of the Canterbury Tales without a glossary impossible.\nSpenser, Shakespeare, and Milton, each in turn, spells differently from his\ngreat predecessor, and it is therefore an unreasonable demand that the\npresent orthography shall be retained for all time.\nSince the spoken is the real language, changes in spelling, in order\nmore perfectly to represent its words, can in no sense be regarded as\nmarring it, or breaking the continuity of English speech or literature ;\nand apprehensions on this score can be attributed only to lack of knowledge of the science of language, or to little acquaintance with the history\nof literature. Nor can the present spelling be justified on the ground of\netymology, for it often sets at defiance all etymological rules and principles; moreover, it is not the office of spelling to teach etymology, nor\ncan it do so : it can simply illustrate the etymology of the word to those\nalready conversant with the history of the language.\nThe object of written or printed words being to represent the sounds\nof the language, and these varying from age to age, the symbols which\nrepresent them must be changed correspondingly, if the two are not to\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 361, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nREPORT\n\nON\n\nAMENDED\n\nSPELLING\n\n353\n\nbe wholly divorced. Changes must consequently come at some time,\nand be advocated by somebody ; and it would seem that upon this\ndepartment, constituted as it is of persons whose profession it is to direct\npublic education, and the object of which is the improvement of the work\nof the schools by the invention of better methods of teaching, the responsibility of taking the initiative in the advocacy of amended spelling\ndevolves in an eminent degree. It would be difficult, indeed, to point to\na greater waste of time and mental ability in the entire educational field\nthan that which is caused thru the teaching of our utterly indefensible\northography. The general adoption and teaching of amended spelling,\nfacilitating the learning to read and spell, would bring in its train a saving\nof time and mental powers which could be devoted to other branches,\nand this would mean an enrichment of the public-school course of instruction. It would also facilitate the acquisition of our language by people\nof other lands, and thus greatly aid our missionaries in their efforts to\nChristianize (as this generally means to Anglicize) the heathen by whom\nour English Bible must be studied, as well as all other persons desiring to learn our tongue, thus hastening the time when English shall\nbe the universal medium of communication. A powerful incentive to\nthis course presents itself to us at this time, when our government has\npractically assumed parental relations to large populations in the East\nand West Indies speaking in other tongues, whom it is our interest and\nour duty to win to the use of English as soon as possible. So also our\nrelations with Spanish America, which practically means the entire continent south of the United States, have become, and should continue to\nbecome, more intimate, and hence present another strong argument\nurging us to render our medium of communication more easy of acquisition to these people.\nOther nations have led the way — Germany by imperial edict; Italy,\nSpain, and Portugal gradually — in order to promote ease of utterance as\nwell as acquisition ; and in our country, in this nineteenth century, great\nprogress has been made toward simplifying and amending our orthography, notably by lexicographers and writers on scientific subjects. Most\nimportant of all is the fact that the changes recommended by this department, and adopted by the National Educational Association at Washington\nin 1898, have been largely accepted.\nMoreover, as we now find odour and odor, sate (preterit of \" sit \") and\nsat, why not also are and ar, give and giv, possible and posibl, etc. ? Give\nfreedom to use that which is preferred, and the right and common-sense\nwill prevail, and amended spelling will soon be a fact. It should always\nbe remembered that it is not necessary that all persons familiar with the\npresent orthography should set about to learn the amended spellings ; only\nteachers, authors, editors, proofreaders, and stenographers need do so.\nAs regards proofreaders, who would be especially inconvenienced and\n\n"}
{"page": 362, "printed_page": null, "text": "354\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n[Columbus\n\nwould be obliged to learn the new spellings, it may be said that their\nlabors would be on the decrease as fast as the new generation of spellers\nwould become the authors, and writers, and contributors to the press.\nOur first aim must be to secure recognition for the amended forms in the\ndictionaries and schoolbooks, and then leave the work to free will and\ntime.\nYour committee heartily indorses the ten rules adopted and recommended bythe American and the British Philological Associations, but for\nprudential reasons limits its recommendations at this time to those mentioned below, fearing that prejudice, lack of knowledge of the subject\nand of the reasons for the change, and a general innate resistance to\nchange from long-established usage, aroused by such sweeping changes,\nwould prevent the general adoption of amended spellings, and thus\nretard, rather than promote, the end in view. Your committee, therefore,\npresents only the following resolutions, with the request that action on\nthem be deferred until the next regular meeting, one year hence :\nResolved, That in all the published proceedings of this department the recommendations of the American and the British Philological Associations be adopted at once, so\nfar as said recommendations refer to the dropping of the final e in words in which it does\nnot serve to lengthen the preceding vowel, but rather tends to mislead the learner — thus\nspell hav, giv, ar, bad (preterit of \"bid\"), definit, derivativ, amiabl, etc.; and to the substitution of/ for ph and gh when these digraphs represent the sound of / — thus spell\ngeografy, fantasm, and enuf, etc. ; and to the dropping of gh in all words in which this\ndigraph is silent — thus spell thot, bou (bough), ni (nigh), etc.\nResolved, That in all words in which the amended spelling recommended by said\nassociations is in accordance with the etymology of the word, it be adopted in the published\nproceedings of this department ; thus spell coud, sovran, hole (whole), Hand, gastly, etc.\nResolved, That the publishers of dictionaries be requested to extend recognition to\nthese changes by inserting these spellings with those now recognized in the body of all\ndictionaries published or revised hereafter, and that authors and publishers of schoolbooks\nbe requested to use only the amended form of spelling in such publications after July 4,\n1900; and that ^1 literature intended for use and circulation in the East and West Indies,\nespecially the schoolbooks to be used there, be published with the amended spellings\nrecommended by the associations mentioned above.\nResolved, That a standing committee of five members of this department be\nappointed, whose duty it shall be to promote by every means in their power the amendment and simplification of English orthography, and to make a report to this department\nannually.\n\nRespectfully submitted on behalf of the committee.\nR. K. BUEHRLE.\nTpoMAS M. Balliet.\nC. C. Rounds.\nE. O. Vaile.\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 363, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nSOME\nBY\n\nNEGLECTED\n\nNEGLECTED\nT.\n\nC.\n\nFACTORS\n\nFACTORS\n\nMENDENHALL,\n\nPRESIDENT\n\nINSTITUTE,\n\nAND\n\nAND\nOF\n\nWORCESTER,\n\nNothing, during the last month\n\nFORGOTTEN\n\nFACTS\n\nFORGOTTEN\n\nWORCESTER\n\n355\n\nFACTS'\n\nPOLYTECHNIC\n\nMASS.\n\nor two, has been to me a more\n\nimpenetrable mystery than my rather prompt and, I regret to say, practically irrevocable acceptance of the invitation of your president to\naddress you upon this occasion. In a moment of vacillating indecision\nI yielded to a desire, which grows on one with age, to deny nothing to\nan old friend, and I had courage only to make the single condition that\nI might talk about what I pleased, as I pleased.\nThe opportunity to do this before such an audience as this can hardly\ncome more than once in a lifetime, and I hasten to express my full appreciation of its value and importance.\nAlthough the larger part of my life has been spent in educational\nwork of one kind or another, I disavow all claim to speak as an educationist, in the sense in which that word is generally used, meaning one\nwho understands the theory of education. Colonel Higginson, in his\ncharming Cheerful Yesterdays, says that \" probably, if the truth were\nknown, nothing in the universe is really insignificant, not even ourselves\"; and perhaps I may indulge in the belief that even my unprofessional opinions may be not entirely without value.\nThe paramount importance of popular education in a country like\nours, the splendidly successful way in which you, with your colleagues and\npredecessors, have organized and directed the great system of public\nschools of which we are justly so proud, and the enormous benefits accruing therefrom, are matters concerning which we are all essentially agreed ;\nand I am justified in assuming that it is not necessary for me to take from\nthe hour which I have dedicated to fault-finding and complaint even a\nmoment for the purpose of showing that I am, on the whole, in harmony\nwith the prevailing public sentiment.\nWith little attention to logical order, with no pretense of entire originality or newness of thought or suggestion, without rhetorical accomplishments orfelicity of expression, but with only an earnest desire to\nbe clearly understood, I proceed to discuss certain phases of current educational theory and practice which the experience of more than a quarter\nof a century forces me to consider unsatisfactory, and which leads me to\nbelieve that some factors of importance in the educational problem are\nbeing neglected, and that some facts of moment are forgotten.\n' By request of the author, the amended spellings adopted by the Board of Directors do not appear\nin this address.\n[See resolutions of Board of Directors adopted at Los Angeles meeting, July 13, 1899.\"]\n\n"}
{"page": 364, "printed_page": null, "text": "356\n\n■ NA 7I0NAL\n\nED UCA T TONAL\n\nASSOC I A HON\n\n[Columbus\n\nIt is but just to say in the beginning that, although the authority of the\ngreat body of school superintendents is dominant in determining the\ndirection and relative intensity of educational currents, they are themselves in a large degree subordinate to a body of officials who in turn\nderive their power and receive their responsibility, directly or indirectly,\nfrom the people. Nor can it be denied that in some things, about which\nI shall make complaint, the superintendent is only executing the will of\nthese officials, and not giving expression to his own views or mature\njudgment. As one of the factors which enter largely into the rather\ncomplex formula representing the integrated educational forces of a community, the board of education, school committee, or whatever is equivalent to these, may well receive first consideration. It represents the first\norganized authority in educational matters. The people from whom this\nauthority is derived almost invariably and everywhere are honestly\ndesirous of getting the best results possible from the money expended in\nthe support of the public schools, just as the vast majority of people want\ngood government for city, state, and nation. That they do not get the\nbest that is possible no one will deny, and that this is due largely to their\nown negligence and indifference in the selection of their representatives\nin legislative bodies does not in the least alter the fact. The old — and, one\nmay almost say, no longer respectable — aphorism, \" The office should seek\nthe man, and not the man the office,\" 1ias recently been amended by the\nstatement that the office which is compelled to seek the man is usually\n\" not worth having.\" There was a time, within the memory of many of\nus, when the best men in the community were invited to serve as members of the school board ; but that office has come to be \" worth having\"\nwithin the last quarter of a century, and now almost everywhere we hear\nof men \" running\" for it, spending time and money to get it, and urging\nthe people to load them with responsibilities and duties of the character\nand importance of which they have no knowledge whatever. A goodnatured people, accustomed to long-suffering without protest, too busy\nwith the promotion of its own material interests to care much for the conditions under which youth is growing into manhood, finds it easier to\nselect one of two or three self-nominated and self-recommended candidates than to stop attending to \" business \" long enough to seek out the\nman of character, integrity, and courage who, if thus sought, might\nwillingly devote a large share of his time and energy to the promotion of\n,the educational welfare of the community at large.\nIt is hardly necessary to ask, and perhaps still less necessary to\nanswer, the question: \"How does it pay to be a member of a school\nboard ? \" Almost never is there any salary connected with the office, but\nit is continually sought by many whose interest in, not to speak of their\nfitness for, the duties which ought to go with it must be infinitely small.\nWhen we say, in these days, that an office is \" worth having,\" we mean\n\n"}
{"page": 365, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nJ^EGLEC^ED\n\nthat there comes\n\nFACTORS\n\nAND\n\nPORGOTTEN\n\nFACTS\n\n357\n\nwith it, may be directly, may be indirectly, some\n\nmaterial, tangible reward or advantage. What these rewards and advantages are in the case of school-board membership I leave you to determine from your own experience, or from the columns of the educational\nand other journals. Should you desire in certain instances very definite\nand precise information, it is openly declared that you may consult dealers in books, furniture, and other school supplies; agents for encyclopaedias, dictionaries, wall maps, and air pumps ; and it is whispered that\nsomething might be learned from members of your own profession. But\nit is by no means necessary that advantages which men seek in schoolboard membership should be of the doubtful character here implied.\nIndeed, it may be confidently asserted that those who make use of this\noffice to achieve positively dishonest and corrupt ends constitute only a\nsmall minority of the whole. There is another class, however, larger and\nonly a little less dangerous than this, including all of those who consider\nmembership in a school board as the first step in a political career. There\nis no more noble aspiration, no loftier ambition, than the desire to become\nan able, incorruptible, fearless, honorable, and faithful servant of the\npeople in politics. Such politicians are not increasing in numbers very\nrapidly, and we might well afford large sacrifices in their training, if we\ncould be sure of the product, for we need them every day. The schoolboard politician is not usually greatly stirred by sublime sentiment, but\nrather by a longing to become the most influential member of his party\nin the ward or precinct in which he lives. As a member of the board of\neducation he learns somewhat of parliamentary rule and practice ; he has\nexperience in making speeches ; he controls the disposition of certain\nfunds or directs certain enterprises, so that he is sought after; and he finds\nthat, by conferring favors in what he believes to be a perfectly honorable\nfashion, he increases his importance, gains supporters, and becomes one of\nthe political forces to be reckoned with by his party leaders. His service\nas the director of the most important, the most delicately organized, and\nhence the most easily injured function of municipal government, the education of the young, while it may not be positively corrupt, is positively\nharmful, because it is devoted solely to his own personal advancement.\nOne of the attendant evils of this state of affairs is the nearly universal tendency toward large numbers in school boards. If the office is\n\"worth having,\" it is wanted by many people, and politicians find it to\ntheir interest to try to meet this demand by inflation. The principle of\nmaking up in quantity what is lacking in quality sometimes works fairly\nwell, but not in this instance. There can be no doubt that, even in a\nvery large city, a general governing board of five or six well-selected,\nsuitable men, with leisure to devote to the work and an unselfish interest\nin it, would be infinitely more efficient than the large organizations\nusually found.\n\n"}
{"page": 366, "printed_page": null, "text": "358\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nrCol\"mbus\n\nThirty years ago it was my good fortune to be a teacher in the high\nschool of the city in which we now are. There were six members of the\nboard of education. All of them were men of admitted standing and\nimportance in the town. Most of them were among its foremost citizens,\nand some of them were among the foremost citizens of the state and\nnation as well. No one of them expected to be a candidate for the\ncommon council, or had an ax to sharpen in ward politics. Nearly all\nwere men of considerable leisure, which they gave liberally to the business of directing the public schools. Their work was done without fear\nor favor, and teachers in their employ soon learned that they were to be\njudged by actual results* This was not an unusual condition at that time ;\nthe same existed in many cities and towns in this and other states. It is\npleasant to know that in some places the interests of public education\nare still in the hands of men of this type, but it has become uncommon.\nAnother consequence of the dominating influence of the aspiring\nyoung politician in school boards is a distinct tendency toward socialism\nor paternalism in all things relating to the management of the schools.\nThe embryo mayor or congressman is generally fired with zeal in behalf\nof the people. His desire to do something for them often finds expression in some measure by which those who, by reason of industry, sobriety,\nand economy, have acquired something above the bare necessities of\nexistence may be taxed for the benefit and relief of those who lack in\nsome degree one or more of these sterling qualities. It is true that\nmany honestly believe this to be a just and proper procedure, and it may\nbe admitted that it is a question of drawing the line by the state in the\nexercise of its sovereign powers, to the end that, on the one hand, the\nstate shall be benefited and, on the other, the citizen shall not be demoralized. To deprive the latter of the incentive to the acquisition of the\npractical virtues by nullifying the law that, to share in the harvest one\nmust also share in the labor incident thereto, is to inflict upon him a\nlasting injury.\nIn my own judgment a considerable step in that direction is taken\nwhen the state undertakes to furnish free text-books for use in the public\nschools. And this practice carries with it certain other evils of no mean\ndimensions. It stands in the way, in many instances, of the formation\nof a small family library, of which the text-books belonging to the children in school constitute the nucleus. School text-books should be preserved with loving care by those who have used them. As books of\nreference in later years they possess a high value, due to familiarity with\ntheir arrangement and contents. I am sure it is a common, almost\ndaily, experience with all of you, when in search of some bit of information which you once possessed, to go to the old book of your boyhood,\nrather than to the later and fuller texts which load your library shelves ;\nfor in the former you know almost the page and very spot on which it\n\n"}
{"page": 367, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nNEGLECTED\n\nFACTORS\n\nAND\n\nFORGOTTEN\n\nFACTS\n\n359\n\nmay be found. The family which places side by side the school textbooks of two, or perhaps three, generations is in possession of no mean\nequipment for historical and literary research, and, even if nothing else\nis owned, its intellectual outlook is in striking contrast with that of the\nhousehold, too common in these days, owning not a single volume. When\na child is provided with the necessary text-books at the cost of some\nsacrifice on the part of his parents or himself, he is in the way of learning\na useful lesson as to the value of property and the importance of caring\nfor it. The little regard which is had by all, old as well as young, for\nthe property of the state or nation is proverbial, and there is hardly an\ninstance of the administration of public funds which does not show wastefulness and extravagance, as compared with the cost of accomplishing the\nsame results through private enterprise. There are also important hygienic\nquestions to be considered, such as the danger of spreading germs of\ndisease by the heterogeneous distribution of texts, or the indiscriminate\nchewing of lead pencils — incidents by no means uncommon under this\nsystem. There are other, equally good arguments against the free-textbook system, which I trust all who are inclined to favor such policy will\nexamine before acting. In a state in which text-books are thus furnished\nI have discussed the subject with many teachers, and have never found\none who distinctly favored it. The outcry that naturally follows any\nproposal to withdraw a privilege of this kind prevents a free expression\nof opinion on the part of teachers, and, because not much is said in\nopposition to it, it must not be inferred that it is approved. But its\nmost serious aspect is as an index of the growing disposition to require the\nstate to furnish everything and to do everything for the individual, who\nis in danger of becoming simply the passive recipient of benefits conferred. In the story of the life of almost any man of present distinction\nwe are likely to find a sentence like this : \" He struggled under the most\nadverse conditions to obtain an education, and courageously earned his\nown way through school, academy, and college.\" In the future we shall\nprobably read : \" He accepted without serious protest the educational\nadvantages which the state thrust upon him, having been only twice\narrested for truancy.\"\nIt requires courage — for which I hope I may receive due credit — to\ntake up, in this presence, the consideration of the next great factor in\nthe educational problem, which is the superintendent himself.\nI will not take your time and mine to tell of the many excellencies of\nthe superintendent ; of his devotion to duty under trying and unfavorable conditions ; of the prodigious influence which he has exerted, mostly\nfor good, in the development of our educational system ; or of the high\nqualities and loftly purpose by which he is generally characterized. I\nwish to be understood as having said all these things ; but my present task\nis to find fault with him.\n\n"}
{"page": 368, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n[Columbus\n\n36o\nThe position of superintendent of a group of public schools in city,\ntown, or county is now too generally regarded as differing in no way\nfrom any other office, and the man who fills it is getting to be, in many\nrespects, like any other city, town, or county officer. It is an office\n\n\"worth having,\" and men \" run for it,\" just as they do for other offices.\nThat there is a legitimate candidacy for such a position no one will deny,\nbut it is too often of the vote-seeking kind. It is not strange that, when\nthe selection is in the hands of a modern board of education, questions\nof fitness by experience and scholarly instincts and tastes are larg'ely\nsecondary. Concerning what influences are sometimes effective in securing the election of a superintendent, and what manner of man he sometimes is, I need only refer you again to the educational journals of the\nday, in which, it may be assumed, all things are truthfully set down.\nIn the case of the special type at this moment under consideration, it\nis perfectly well known that, after he is elected, he devotes the better\npart of such ability and energy as he may possess, strictly in accord with\nthe gospel of the times, in looking out for his re-election, when the time\ncomes around again. If he would confine his efforts in this direction to\nthe more commonly recognized methods, he might be, in a sense, harmless, or at least not positively harmful. Unfortunately, however, he\nsometimes attempts, during the interim, to do something for the schools.\nUnable to distinguish between notoriety and reputation, he seeks to do\nsomething original and startling, or, more commonly, to set up a bad\nimitation of something original or startling done by somebody else.\nHaving looked about him to some purpose, he has discovered that there\nis nothing the educational world — that part of it which gives men notoriety rather than reputation — worships so inevitably as the current fad.\nAccordingly he dazzles his constituents and worries his teachers by running the whole gamut of modern pedagogical suggestion and invention.\nWith no regard for relation or logical sequence he goes in for psychology,\nnature study, mothers' meetings, correlation, child study, Latin in the\nlower grades, science in the public schools, manual training, vertical penmanship, cooking, sewing, Spanish, etc., etc. — you know them all. It is\ntrue that he is often utterly incapable of understanding and appreciating\nwhatever good there is in those pleasing educational diversions, but he\nmust have to do with a very unreasonable board, indeed, if a judicious\nexploitation of such a list of novelties does not enable him to hold his\nplace for several years.\nIt is a pleasure to believe, however, that this type of superintendent\nis not extremely common, and, what is more to the purpose, I fear I cannot reach him through this association. His more respectable brother,\nhowever, cannot be acquitted of some of the same faults, to a few of\nwhich I beg especial attention.\nI object to the superintendent who is not himself a scholarly man.\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 369, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nNEGLECTED\n\nFACTORS\n\nAND\n\nFORGOTTEN\n\nFACTS\n\n36 1\n\nI do not mean that he must be a man of learning, or a specialist in any\ndepartment of learning, but that he ought to be a scholar in the broadest, best sense. It seems to be forgotten, in these days, that education\nis largely an intellectual process, and that an educator ought to be a man\nof intellect and an example of scholarly accomplishment for all of his\nsubordinates.\nI object to a superintendent who does not recognize scholarship (not\nlearning, remember) as \"of the first importance in the selection of a teacher.\nThe power to keep a school in perfect \" order,\" that is, in perfect quiet,\nis too often regarded as an accomplishment of the highest kind. We\nhave not entirely gotten over the idea of mere school-\" keeping,\" and it\nis a curious, not to say amusing, fact that in some parts of the country\nthere are teachers and principals of schools who prefer to be designated\nas \"masters,\" and especially when the title may be preceded by the distinguishing adjective \" head.\" There is no discoverable difference\nbetween the functions of a \" head-master \" and those of a principal, but a\npatron with an investigating turn of mind has found that it costs, on the\naverage, about fifty dollars a year more to send a boy to a school ruled\nby a head-master than to one managed by a principal.\nWhile the proper government of a school is a matter of much\nimportance, the \"order\" may be perfect and the school an unwholesome\neducational desert, barren of anything making for moral or intellectual\nadvancement. A \"perfect disciplinarian\" may be a treasure in the sense\nof causing little trouble to a superintendent whose primary object is to\n\" get along,\" but a teacher who can teach is, after all, wha^t we want.\nThat superintendent is blameworthy, from my point of view, who\nwishes to be an autocrat in the management of his schools, as well as that\nother who prefers to assume no responsibility. In recent years there has\nbeen a growing tendency toward autocracy. A theory of government\nhas found favor, according to which much responsibility and power rest\nwith one man. Dissatisfied with more democratic methods, recognizing\nthe inferior quality and general untrustworthiness of their own representatives in boards of education, city councils, etc., the people have attempted,\nnot to improve the character of these bodies by exercising greater care\nin their selection, but to render them more or less harmless by bestowing\ngreatly enlarged powers, in the matter of appointments especially, upon\nexecutive officers, mayors, school superintendents, and others. They\nhave been led to this course by the attractive cry : \" Give him full power,\nand then hold him responsible.\" So they proceed to give him full power,\nand then busy themselves again with their own affairs, forgetting the\nother half of their contract with themselves.\nAdmitting that boards of education are by no means what they should\nbe, it is none the less true that, as the representatives of the people, they\nought to share in the responsibility for the success or failure of the public\n\n"}
{"page": 370, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n362\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n[Columbus\n\nschools. I believe it to be neither wise nor safe for a superintendent to\nhave the absolute and unrestricted right of appointment and discharge of\nteachers. Superintendents are, at best, still human — some of them very\nmuch so; and the best of them is not likely to be absolutely fair and just\nin his estimates of the character and qualities of his subordinates, or\nentirely free from the possibility of having some of his opinions made\nfor him by other people. Appointment and dismissal may well be made\nonly on his recommendation, but by leaving the veto power in the hands\nof the board he will often save himself the mortification of a blunder, and\nat the same time insure a closer interest in the details of his administration. Such veto power is not likely to be exercised except in cases that\nmay well require a revision of judgment on his part.\nEven more blameworthy is the superintendent who exercises autocratic\npowers in dealing with his teachers. The teacher is the private soldier\nin the war against ignorance. He, after all, does the real fighting, and\non his courage, loyalty, and unselfish devotion to duty we must put final\ndependence. It is worth noting that in the real battles of the last few\nyears it has been discovered that under modern conditions men fight best\nin \"open order.\" The compact, \"shoulder-to-shoulder \" organization,\nmoving in machine-like obedience to orders, is no longer the ideal. The\nsoldier in battle is again an individual ; his general movements are, it is\ntrue, directed by one whose knowledge of conditions is more comprehensive than his, but with such restrictions he is given ample opportunity\nfor the display of intelligent device, impetuous courage, and other qualities through which he may acquire distinction. In the rapidly increasing\ncomplexity of our educational systems we are largely ignoring the importance of individuality ; indeed, there is a continual and strong tendency\ntoward a sort of military organization, than which nothing can be more\nunfortunate. Dictation as to methods often descends to the most trivial\ndetails. If the superintendent is a narrow man, he is very likely to believe\nthat there is only one way to teach every subject in the curriculum, and\nthat is the way which has happened to project itself above his limited\nintellectual horizon. In how many instances are superintendents insisting on a certain procedure in teaching the principles of arithmetic, for\ninstance ? It is well known that in some schools it is required that one,\nand only one, explanation is allowed of how to find the least common\nmultiple of several numbers, of why the divisor is inverted in dividing one\nfraction by another, and of other trivial details concerning which the\nteacher should be allowed absolute liberty of choice. As to the fitness of\nsome superintendents to dictate in matters of this kind, I am reminded of\none who had graduated into your ranks from another profession in which he\nhad not been a shining light. Put in charge of the educational interests\nof a considerable town — city, I believe — not a thousand miles from this\nspot, he began what he believed to be his most important task, that of\n\n"}
{"page": 371, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nNEGLECTED\n\nFACTORS\n\nAND\n\nFORGOTTEN\n\nFACTS\n\n363\n\nteaching the teachers how to teach. His earlier exploits were in the field\nof elementary mathematics, and on one occasion, before a number of\nteachers to whom he was giving instruction in methods of teaching \"fractions,\" he announced, with evident satisfaction, that since the last meeting he had made the interesting discovery that, if you wanted \" to divide\na fraction by a whole number and could not divide the numerator of the\nfraction by the whole number, it would do just as well to multiply the denominator.\"\nHe is a foolish, unlearned, and, indeed, unfit superintendent who\ndoes not know that there are many ways of doing the details of educational work, all of which are good, and that one always best which is\nvoluntarily selected and enthusiastically worked out by the teacher. The\nmodern educational reformer seems bent on coercing other people into a\nsupport of his own notions and fancies, trivial and petty as they often\nare ; and this disposition often extends to large organizations and influential bodies of men. This very association which honors me tonight\nby listening to my lamentations has decided in advance that, even if its\npublishing committee should good-naturedly recommend, it will not\npublish my words unless I will agree to spell them in a fashion which I\ndo not approve of. While fully recognizing their right to do this (using\nthe word \"right\" in the now generally accepted sense of \" power \"), I\nsay to myself that they have as much reason to prescribe that I shall wear\na black or a white necktie when I read them, and I sternly resolve that I\nwill consign my manuscript to the waste-basket or the grate rather than\nconsent to an appearance of believing that thru spells \" through,\" that\nthoro means \"thorough,\" or that it is wise to do what one of these same\nreformers once described as \" decapitating the tail off \" of such words\nas \"programme,\" \"pedagogue,\" \"catalogue,\" etc.\nSeriously, we must not forget that the greatness and glory of this\nnation is to be attributed, more than to any other cause, to the large\nliberty of the individual. Under the beneficent influences of this liberty,\nmen, regardless of circumstances of birth or station, fired by the divine\nspark of intellectual superiority, have striven, not to become like other\nmen, but rather for individual distinction ; and there has resulted a people\nnever before equaled in capacity or in flexibility, and of such an enormous\n\"elastic limit\" that even the unparalleled stress to which we are just now\nbeing subjected will not strain beyond recovery. This is a bad time, and\nthe public school is a bad place, for the beginning of the extinction of the\nindividual.\nMy most serious quarrel with the superintendent grows out of his\ndisposition to play havoc with established courses of study and methods\nof instruction in the public schools, not always for their betterment, as I\nlook at it, and often resulting in their complete emasculation and\nimpoverishment.\nThere is a curious, but often intense, prejudice against\n\n"}
{"page": 372, "printed_page": null, "text": "364\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n[Columbus\n\nletting things go as they are, even when everybody admits that they are\ngoing very well. It is assumed that nothing is being done unless change\nis being wrought, or novelties introduced, and all must be of such a\ncharacter as will catch the attention of the vacillating and fickle public.\nThis opens the door to the exploitation of all sorts of whims and fancies,\nnecessitating the partial exclusion or suppression of those more substantial\nand trial-tested subjects upon which earlier generations labored and grew\nstrong. The very multiplicity of subjects now found in the public-school\ncurriculum is bewildering to one who holds to the old-fashioned idea that\neducation means moral and intellectual training and discipline, and that\nit can only come from earnest and courageous individual effort. In one\nscheme that I know of there are nineteen different subjects to be studied\nbefore the ninth grade is entered, including painting in water-colors,\nmodeling in clay, etc. How can there be anything more than a touch\nand a go at each one of these ? The prevailing desire of the time, in\nmatters not educational, is to acquire without labor ; to get something for\nnothing, or for as little as possible ; and this is echoed in the public\nschools by the all but universal tendency toward making the path of the\nstudent as easy and comfortable as may be. If difficulties exist, they must\nbe hidden, or they must be removed by the teacher, for the pupil has no\ntime to make a sturdy struggle to overcome them himself. It is forgotten\nthat the most important of all accomplishments is the ability to think\nclearly and reason correctly ; that a knowledge of how to use books, and\nhow to distinguish between real learning and quackery, is infinitely more\nvaluable to the individual and to the state than a smattering of a dozen\nsciences.\nAmong the many recent additions to the course of instruction in the\npublic schools, none is, apparently, more popular, with both school boards\nand superintendents, than the various forms of so-called manual training.\nA properly arranged series of exercises in the use of simple tools in the\nworking of those materials which are of the commdnest use in constructive\nengineering may, and indeed should, form a part, never large, in a wellselected group of studies ; and if this alone were attempted, the result\nwould be above criticism. But the history of education does not now\nexhibit a parallel to the reckless extravagance which characterizes the\ndevelopment of this fad, from its inception to the present moment.\nLarge and expensive buildings, elaborate and costly machinery and equipment, involving in the country at large investments aggregating millions\nof dollars, all bear witness to the unthinking haste with which school\nboards and school superintendents threw themselves into this movement.\nI venture to say that even now an honest consensus of opinion, not\nintended for public consumption, would declare that the results are\nutterly inadequate and disappointing. Year by year we are becoming more ready imitators of European\nnations.\nWe borrow without\n\n♦\n\ni\n\n"}
{"page": 373, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]'' ^NEGLECTED\n\nFACTORS\n\nAND\n\nFORGOTTEN\n\nFACTS\n\n365\n\nadaptation from nations whose government and society are as different\nfrom ours as is possible, and yet some people are surprised that it doesn't\nwork. We overlook the fact that the object of our system of public\nschools is to destroy, not to create, class distinctions, and deliberately\nset up a system which, if carried to its logical conclusion, means one\nschool for the blacksmith's son, another for the son of the merchant, and\nperhaps a third and fourth for their respective sisters. Thus our schools\ncan no longer be called \" common schools,\" a name so full of wholesome\nliberty and democracy. Some miserable wretch a few years ago hit upon\nthe term \"enrichment.\" It was an attractive word, and he forthwith\ninvented a new catch-phrase — the \"enrichment of the course of study.\"\nThe process of enrichment is now under full swing, and time alone can\ntell what the result will be. Naturally, the new crowds out the old, and,\nif it did not, the enrichment is of such a character as to deprive the pupil\nof all- taste for or power over the plain, substantial, but often rather\ndifificult diet which he was expected to digest and assimilate a generation\nago. The cry of \" too much arithmetic \" is responded to by the practical\nexclusion of that part of the subject which so long furnished an\nunexampled training in logical processes and pure reasoning, the value\nof which can hardly be overestimated. In common with many others, I\nhave always felt under the deepest obligations to the time-honored fish of\nmy youthful days ; that curiously proportioned fish whose tail was as long\nas his head and half his body. It was no mean intellectual performance\nto think him out from beginning to end, and with his traditional colleagues,\nthe hungry bear and the ox who ate the grass while it was growing, he\nwas the beginning of many good things among the youth of thirty and\nforty years ago. I anr unwilling to believe that, in the matter of intellectual discipline and the cultivation of the reasoning powers, his place is\nadequately filled by lessons in sewing, water-color painting, or the wishywashy chatter about nature study which one hears today.\nSomething must be said about the teacher ; indeed, much may be\nsaid for the teacher, for he is largely the victim of other educational\nforces. In large cities he is too often deprived of all individuality, becoming merely a cog in a wheel which is itself one of a system of wheels all\ninterlocking, for good or for ill, with the overruling policy of one man.\nCompelled to work out the ideas of others, he has little incentive to\ncreate for himself. But, however restricted his position, he enjoys much\nopportunity for self-cultivation, and this he too often neglects. He should\nbe a scholarly man, a lover of real learning, gentle, good-mannered, and\nhonest. Possessed of these qualities, neither school board nor superintendents could prevent his being, what we rejoice to think he very often\nis, an inspiration and guide to those with whom he is in daily contact.\nBut sometimes he is so thoroughly trained in the principles of scientific\npedagogy that he mistakes method for matter, and does not know the\n\n"}
{"page": 374, "printed_page": null, "text": "366\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Columbu*\n\nshadow from the substance. A not uncommon fault is that of complaining of his lot, asserting at all times and everywhere that his reward is not\nwhat it should be, and that his position in the community, social and\notherwise, is not what he deserves. There is a deep-rooted feeling among\nmany teachers that in some way the community is largely indebted to\nthem, over and above the stipend which it allows. In many cases this is\nundoubtedly true, but in no case does it justify the conclusion, unfortunately becoming more common in these days, that the teacher ought to\nbe pensioned as is the soldier or the policeman. Such a suggestion is in\ndirect conflict with the notions of liberty and equality which we are supposed to have inherited from our ancestors. No one is compelled to be\na teacher; if teaching, he may quit at any moment, or leave his place for\none more attractive or remunerative. His earnings, small as they are, are\nmuch in excess of those of the average citizen. His occupation, instead\nof being extra-hazardous, offers many and great advantaged in the way\nof being wholesome and agreeable. Why may he not be expected to live\nin such frugality, thrift, and temperance as to insure his old age from\nwant ? In asking to become a pensioner upon the public treasury he\nthrows away the dignity of his profession and offends its best traditions.\nI cannot conclude without a few shots at the public high school, the\n\" people's college \" so-called. I beg to repeat that here, as throughout, I\nshall not attempt to praise, although great praise is due all along the line,\nand especially to those who have created and who are maintaining the\nsplendid system of public high schools now almost everywhere to be\nfound. But my business tonight is to complain, and abundant basis for\ncomplaint is to be found in the organization and management of these\nschools. Here can be seen, even in a greater degree than in the lower\ngrades, the evils arising from \"enrichment.\" The enormous advantage\nto the student of making him do a very few things very thoroughly — the\nintellectual power and scholarly habits which he thus acquires ; the capacity for concentration of thought and effort, and the efficient control of\nhis own faculties, which he thus gains — all of these, and other considerations of the first order, seem to be lost sight of in the building up of\nthe four-years' course of study of the high school of today. Appropriate as may be the term \" people's college,\" when applied to these institutions, its use has been, in many respects, very unfortunate. It has\nencouraged a tendency in the high school to adopt many of the practices and to assume many of the traditional customs of college life, and,\nas is generally the case, the imitation has not been of things most worthy,\nbut rather of those nonessentials of college existence which are themselves, among colleges, becoming obsolete. The annual commencement\nexercises, the speeches of the graduates, the salutatorian and the valedictorian, the diplomas of parchment, etc., etc., are now all but universal. In\nmany cases there are also the class-day exercises, with orator, poet, and\n\n"}
{"page": 375, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nNEGLECTED\n\nFACTORS\n\nAND\n\nFORGOT! EN\n\nFACTS\n\n367\n\nhistorian ; the baccalaureate sermon, receptions, hops, and the junior\npromenade in the middle of the year — all accompanied by a certain\namount of hazing and other scholarly diversions.\nI have not yet heard of a high school granting bachelors', masters',\nor professional degrees, but I presume this is due to the fact that in most\nstates a special charter from the legislature is required before this can be\ndone.\nI am by no means of the opinion that all of these things are harmful\nand should be done away with. I cite them as an example of how\ndifficult it appears to be for us to be discriminating and temperate in\nanything. It is our great misfortune as a people that we cannot drink\nwithout getting drunk.\nBut the high school is also unfortunate in attempting to imitate, in a\nvery large way, college methods of instruction. These methods are\nassumed to be adapted to adults ; to persons of maturity ; to men and\nwomen. They must necessarily be unfit for boys and girls, rapidly growing, it is true, but still children. No end of harm has been done within\nthe last fifteen years by the neglect of this principle. This, taken with\nthe large \"enrichment\" of courses of study, has often resulted in a shallow pretension of accomplishments ; a veneering of scholarship, and an\nimmature dilettantism which would be ludicrous were it not pathetic.\nTo illustrate: For many years I have been in the habit of asking young\nmen concerning the text-books which they have used in the high school\nor academy. Not one in ten has been able to tell me the names of the\nauthors of these books. Even the elective system, which by many is still\nregarded as an experiment in colleges, is now quite common in high\nschools, and in at least one large and important school it is adopted absolutely without limitations, pupils between the ages of thirteen and eighteen being allowed to take up any subject they choose, and put it away\nagain if at any time, for any reason, it may become distasteful to them.\nOne of the most important advances in higher education during the\nlast twenty years is the introduction of the laboratory method of instruction. High schools were quick to follow in the wake of the colleges,\nand in too many cases to their serious detriment. In a modified and\nrestricted form the laboratory method can be made of great value in the\nsecondary schools, but its use must be very restricted, and it should never\nbe trusted to a teacher not thoroughly scholarly by instinct and training.\nIn one important particular the high schools are very often undertaking\nwhat the best-equipped college would not dare. They are assuming that\na child may wisely undertake to develop the fundamental principles of a\nscience by experiment and observation in the laboratory and in the field.\nThey have been encouraged in this view by normal-school instructors\nand other professional educators. There was never a greater fallacy.\nProbably there is not a reputable college in the country in which the\n\n"}
{"page": 376, "printed_page": null, "text": "368\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Columbus\n\nprofessor of physics would venture to put students into the laboratory\nbefore they had acquired a good knowledge of the general principles of\nthe subject by a course combining text-book and lecture ; yet this is not\nan uncommon thing in high schools.\nFor these reasons, in schools of engineering and of pure and applied\nscience, in which, I am bold enough to affirm, genuine intellectual discipline is more quickly recognized than elsewhere, and more rigorously\ndemanded, there is great and growing dissatisfaction with the work of\nhigh schools and academies. Too many students have come from them\nentirely lacking in intellectual virility, enfeebled by the mental dissipation to which they are practically driven by the recent \"enrichment\" of\nthe courses of study. Two or three years ago some of the leading scientific and engineering colleges in New England made an effort to agree\nupon common admission requirements. During the conferences there\ndeveloped a condition well worthy of your attention ; it was that, while all\nagreed that at least one natural science should be on the list of required\nsubjects, the physicists were not willing that it should be physics ; the\nchemists were not content that it should be chemistry ; and, at last, there\nbeing no botanist on the special committee to which the matter had been\nreferred, it was agreed to make it botany. Both physicists and chemists\ndeclared that they preferred to start afresh with their subjects, rather than\naccept the results of instruction in preparatory schools, which was generally deficient in sound, fundamental principles.\nIt is but justice to say that many of the things herein complained of\nhave come to the high schools through the influence of colleges and universities, for admission to which they prepare a small fraction of their students. Ihave always maintained^ with many others, that the high school\nshould be absolutely independent of the demands of higher institutions,\nand that their courses of study should be arranged without any reference\nto college-admission requirements. In the state of Massachusetts, according to the statistics of the secretary of the state board bf 'education, about\n4 per cent, of the number of students in attendance in the high schools of\nthe state annually go to the higher institutions, and it is presumable that\nno other state can make a better showing. In these schools the demands\nof the colleges are dominant to a degree entirely disproportionate to the\nnumber of students who enter them. For instance, according to the same\nauthority, 40 per cent., nearly one-half, of the entire cost of maintaining\nhigh schools in Massachusetts is expended in teaching languages other\nthan English — practically Latin, Greek, French, and German. This is\nfour times as much as is spent for teaching English, and about as much\nas the total cost of instruction in mathematics, the English language, and\nthe sciences.\nIf only courage were not lacking, the high schools would have no difficulty inasserting their independence and in giving their courses of study\n\n"}
{"page": 377, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nROUND\n\nTABLE\n\nOF CITY SUPERINTENDENTS\n\n369\n\na logical relation to what precedes rather than to what follows, a condition of things demanded alike by reason and by the best interests of the\npublic schools.\nIn all of this I sincerely trust I shall not be set down as an obstructionist or a common scold, or as one who does not believe in the possibilities of development, growth, and improvement in education as well\nas other things. On the contrary, since it is in the education of the\npeople that we shall find the most potent factor in the evolution of the\nrace, I make my plea for a judicious conservatism in the conduct of our\ngreat educational interests. Let us not follow the example of the inexperienced, yet self-satisfied sailor, of whom we have all heard, who was put\nin charge of the wheel for the first time on a bright, starry night and told\nto keep the ship directed toward the North Star. On returning to the\ndeck in an hour or two the captain was astonished to find the North Star\nastern. But this situation the sailor easily explained, saying : \"Why, captain, we passed that star long ago ! \"\n\nROUND\nCONDUCTED\n\nBY\n\nTABLE\nJ.\n\nP.\n\nOF CITY SUPERINTENDENTS\n\nSHARKEY,\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\nWERT,\n\nPROMOTIONS\nFIRST\nBY\n\nW.\n\nW.\n\nCHALMERS,\n\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nVAN\n\nO.\n\nAND\n\nGRADING\n\nPAPER\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nTOLEDO,\n\nO.\n\nThere has been so much said upon this subject within the past two years that I feel\nlike offering an apology for its introduction here this afternoon. I gave a paper upon this\nsubject of grading and promotions at a meeting of an educational association at Tiffin in\nNovember, and, in response to a request from the chairman, I am before you today.\nI desire to say that in what I shall offer upon this subject you will readily see that I\npresent nothing new.\nThere will probably be something new in combinations.\nI am not one of those who believe that the plan of grading schools and the promotion\nof pupils is the most important problem which presents itself to a school superintendent.\nThe plan of grading and promotions has to do with the machinery of school administration, and has, therefore, not enough life in it to be of paramount importance. It seems to\nme that some superintendents in this country for the past few years have given undue\nprominence to this subject. They have magnified this one part of a superintendent's work\nuntil it has obstructed their view of the weightier matters. A superintendent of schools\nis the responsible representative of the manifolci educational interests of the community he\nserves. He must watch all sides of his field ; the plan of grading is one ; the floor plans\nof his school building, heating and ventilating, statistical reports, reports of work, courses\nof study, and many other considerations should receive their due attention.\nBut they all\n\n"}
{"page": 378, "printed_page": null, "text": "37°\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nLColumbus\"\n\nbelong to the machinery of school administration, and should be given only the minimum\namount of attention to keep them in smooth running order, and the maximum amount of\nthought should be given to the heart and soul of the whole thing — the boys and girls.\nYou may say : \" Then why occupy our time and attention with a matter which is\nregarded as of minor consideration ? \" My answer is this : Until a school district has in\noperation a rational, flexible system of grading, it is of vital importance. Until your district has in force such a scheme, there is no subject which I could call to your attention\nthat could be of more interest to your pupils, teachers, and patrons.\nI take it for granted that all here are in favor of a class interval of less than one year.\nThe yearly-promotion plan, with its annual official examination to determine the ability of\npupils to pass, represents one extreme of the question under consideration. The other\nextreme is represented by individualism in education. I assume that we are all of the\nopinion that the happy solution of this difficult problem in school administration lies\nsomewhere between these two extremes. What I shall say to you on this subject is only\nmy present belief. It is the best solution I can offer at this time. I believe in the plan I\nshall propose to you, because I have used it and found it helpful. I do not say it is the\nbest, because others are succeeding with a different plan.\nAny plan of grading which is based on the requirement that just so much ground\nmust be covered in a given time with a fixed degree of thoroness is wrong, but I have come\nto the belief that it is compatible with good school administration to ask a given grade or\nclass to cover a given portion of a given subject in a given time, and that this can be done\nwithout becoming enfeebling to the so-called brightest third or discouraging to the dulles\nthird in the class. The mistake comes when we require all pupils to cover the grade outline with me same degree of thoroness. Let the brightest third, the middle third, and the\ndullest third cover the grade work in a given time, and let the outline be planned for the\nbrightest, rather than the dullest, division of the class. A wise reclassification of pupils is\nneeded at the end of the grade ; and this brings us to the main question under consideration : When and how shall this reclassification be made ? The -when has to do with the\nlength of the class interval, and the how with the manner of reclassification. I shall give\nyou my own experience upon these points and the conclusions I have drawn, based\nupon that experience. I have worked with the yearly interval between classes, with the\nhalf-year interval, and have done some experimenting with the quarter-year interval, and\nwith even less divisions ; but in a city system of schools I am most heartily in favor of\nthe half-year interval in- the essential subjects in the elementary course, and the yearly\ndivision in the general-culture and the manual-culture subjects. A shorter interval than\nthe half-year dissipates the energy of the teacher, results in an almost ungraded school,\nand eliminates the possibility of training pupils along the line of the culture side of an\neducation. I think, however, in the beginners' grade, or the first half of the first grade,\nthe classes or sections should be only six, eight, or ten weeks apart. This I call the \" probationary grade.\" Some pupils can be promoted from the beginners' to the first grade in\ntwo or three months, and some require a year to prepare them for first-grade work.\nWhen the class interval is settled, the question is then reduced to the considerations :\n(1 ) how pupils may be promoted at stated times, or at the end of the grade period ; and\n(2) how pupils may be promoted in term. It seems to me that the best possible answer\nto the first question is to leave the whole matter of the promotion or non-promotion of a\npupil to his teacher and principal. It is desirable for the superintendent to lay down certain general rules, such as : no pupil who has been regular in attendance and effort shall\nbe required to repeat a grade more than once ; but the teacher who knows a pupil's proficiency in the preceding grade should be the one to pass upon the question of advance' ment. Her decision should be based upon the pupil's class history, both written and\nunwritten, his effort, age, health, heredity, daily work, tests, etc. In regard to the second point\nunder consideration, a plan for the promotion of pupils irregularly or during mid-term,\nthere are several matters that require careful thought ; (i) mental capacity of pupil ;\n\n"}
{"page": 379, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nROUND\n\nTABLE\n\nOF CITY SUPERINTENDENTS\n\n371\n\n(2) health ; (3) bent, including industry and ambition ; (4) age, and (5) home environment.\nSome cities maintain an ungraded room in the buildings, where backward pupils and pupils\nwho cannot be readily classified are placed until they are' fitted to enter a regular class.\nHere, too, are pupils who are preparing themselves to skip grades. Four years ago\nI recommended to the board of education the establishment of ungraded rooms in\nthe large buildings in each section of the city. The plan was not only to offer an opportunity to do this ungraded work, but that the pupils of the regular grades who show\nmore working capacity than the course covers be given an opportunity to do supplementary work in this room. I have since modified my views upon the necessity of maintaining the expensive ungraded room.\nIn Toledo we have a supplementary course in German, and maintain a German room\n• whenever there is any demand for the work. We have also adopted the plan of supervising principals. It seems to me that some of this supplementary work and all of the\nso-called tiding-over work should be done by supervising principals and the regular\nteachers. At the opening of this school year we made a half-year division of classes in all\nso-called essential subjects, and continued the yearly unit in the general- and manualculture subjects. We have combined with this semi-annual promotion scheme some of\nthe advantages found in the spiral or longitudinal plans of covering grades. This permits pupils to double their grades without missing a single page of the course.\nThe plan is this : Our unit is five months. In the essential subjects we cover the\nwork in four months and give one month for review. The bright pupils from the class\nbelow join the higher class in the review, and thus cover two semesters' course in one\nwithout missing any of the work. I feel very much encouraged over the outlook for this\nplan. We now have our schools thoroly organized upon the half-yearly promotion scheme.\nThe classes are well balanced. Because of this plan of grading, about six thousand pupils\nhave gained a half year. This is the same as three thousand pupils gaining a whole year.\nThis means three thousand years gained to the community, to be added either to the school\nlife of the pupils or to their business career. This means much to the educational and\ncommercial interests of the city. It also has an important bearing upon the question of\nschool taxation.\nIt is a great saving in dollars and cents to the taxpayers.\nOur plan is not to hurry pupils thru the school course at a break-neck speed, but to\ngive pupils the utmost freedom in their advancement, that they may go fast or slowly,\ndepending on their age, health, regularity in school attendance, industry, and ambition.\nThe question under consideration is strikingly American — American and twentiethcentury. It is an index of our national type. The craze for speed is on. Reduce\nrestraint and friction to the minimum, is the sign of the dawjiing century. Every effort\nto stem the tide or resist the accumulated force of the age means to be crushed under the\nwheels.\nLet me say in conclusion that this or any other plan worked out by a board of control\nwill stand or fall, succeed or fail, depending entirely upon its execution. The whole\nmatter reverts to the central consideration in all school administration : the teacher makes\nthe school. The conclusions drawn from a consideration of this question turn upon our\nconcept of the end of education. If one's idea of the end of education is to receive high\nmarks and pass grades, his line of argument would differ from that of the one who\nbelieves that the end of all education is to fit for life, to so train and educate both body\nand soul that a pupil will live up to his greatest possibilities. I believe that it is possible\nfor a given class, that has completed creditably the eighth grade, to repeat the eighth\ngrade with Miss A as a teacher, and be better fitted for its life-work than to be passed on to\nthe high school for one year and be under the tuition of Mr. U and the Misses X, Y, and\nZ. I make this statement that you may know how much importance I place upon a promotion card.\n\n"}
{"page": 380, "printed_page": null, "text": "372\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nSECOND\nBY\n\nPAUL\n\nA.\n\nCOWGILL,\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Columbus\n\nPAPER\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nLAPEER,\n\nMICH.\n\nIt has been a noticeable fact that, whenever we have found a time-honored custom or\nmanner to be in fault, there have immediately sprung up those who have gone to the\nopposite extreme as the only true solution of the question ; and while I truly believe that\nwe have reached that point in our educational progress where we can safely say that the\nyearly-promotion scheme does not satisfy us, I just as certainly believe that we shall make\na still greater mistake if we follow Paul W. Search and others in their reckless plunge to\nthe other extreme of individualism.\nIndeed, it has been my experience that any interval shorter than the half-year results\nin needless waste of time to the pupils and additional work for the teachers ; in fact, it\ntends toward all the disadvantages of an ungraded school.\nThis situation, however, still confronts us that, altho we may arrange our course of\nstudy so that the majority of our pupils will require eight years to pass from the first\ngrade to the high school, there will be a few who will have to spend eight and one-half,\nnine, or ten years on the same work, and others who will be able to finish it in as few as\n6ve years,\nI cannot agree with many who think it necessary to overthrow our entire educational\nsystem for the sake of these few, yet it would be very desirable if some simple arrangement could be made by which punctuality, attendance, good habits, and additional work\nmight be rewarded by unrestrained advancement.\nIn connection with this subject I have read with great pleasure the plans used by Dr.\nPrince, of Cambridge, Superintendent Van Sickle, of Denver, and many others. Of these,\nthe plan suggested by Superintendent Chalmers, of Toledo, seems the most practical\nsolution of the problem.\nIt is, in brief, as follows :\nTheir term's work is five months. In the essential subjects they cover the work in\nfour months, and give one month for review. The brightest pupils from the class below\nwill join the higher class in the review, and thus cover two semesters of the course in one\nwithout missing any of the work.\nTo this plan I should like to offer a single amendment. When we take out from\nthe last month of each half-year the time given to examinations, promotional exercises,\netc., there will be but barely three weeks left in which to review the work of the term, and\nif these pupils are able to complete the half-year's work with the advanced class in three,\nor even four, weeks, the first term's work cannot possibly employ all of their time and\nenergy for four months. Would it not be better to extend this month of review over the\nentire five months, using the last day of each week or of each second week for review ?\nSupplement this with one or two weeks' additional review at the end of the term, and we\nshall not only have given these brightest pupils the one month in which to complete the\nwork, but have allowed them to use in addition any time during the entire half-year that\nthey may have at their disposal after having satisfactorily prepared each day's work of\nthe lower grade.\nThe criticism of this plan that at once presents itself to you is that it will be difficult\nfor the teacher to arrange her work so that a review may be profitably taken each fifth\nor tenth day. In answer I will say that the success or failure of whatever plan you may\ntry, be it in this or any other line of educational work, will depend almost entirely upon\nthe amount of earnest, conscientrous effort put forth by your teachers.\n\n"}
{"page": 381, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nROUND\n\nTABLE\n\nOF CITY SUPERINTENDENTS\n\nTHIRD\nBY\n\nH.\n\nE. KRATZ,\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\n373\n\nPAPER\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nSIOUX\n\nCITY,\n\nlA.\n\nIt is not my purpose to present to this body any definite system of promotions and\ngrading. My experiences along this line lead me to the conclusion that there is no one\nplan that can be called best for the various systems of schools.\nThere are two extremes which we meet in this discussion. On the one hand mass, or\nclass, teaching, and on the other, individualism. Each plan has its advantages and its\ndisadvantages ; each its marked excellences and also its serious defects. Discussions\nover these two leading ideas as to which should chiefly govern in promotions and grading\nhave, in consequence, become vigorous, even virulent at times.\nOn the one hand, the individualist, seeing only the serious evils arising from an\ninflexible system of grading, seeing only the tyranny of mechanism which possibly may\ncharacterize a few unprogressive schools in this country, but certainly not the large\nmajority of them, rushes into print and bitterly denounces the crime that is being committed against the school children everywhere by the \"lock-step\" system. On the other\nhand, the advocate of class teaching, seeing only the possible evils arising from individualism, seeing only the possible disorganization of all system and order, and the evils\nof the ungraded school rolled back upon us again, in turn denounces the individualist as\npossessing anarchistic tendencies, which threaten to overturn our entire school system.\nThe general public, reading the severe criticisms set forth by these extremists, becomes\nalarmed, and is convinced that our schools are in a deplorable condition, when the fact\nis that the alarming conditions, as a rule, only exist in the lively imaginations of our agitated, but ill-advised extremists.\nPermit me to give an example of this. At the last meeting of this department, held\nin Chattanooga, a superintendent stated that only fourteen schools of Iowa had a class\ninterval of less than a year, when the facts disclosed, by an investigation of fifty of the\nlargest school systems of Iowa, that forty-four out of the fifty had an interval between\nclasses of a half year or less.\nMy contention is that we ought to be able to carry on this discussion as to the relative merits of class teaching and individualism (and there are meritorious features in each)\nwithout conveying the erroneous impression that our schools are in a highly deplorable\ncondition. Our schools, unfortunately, have enough sins to answer for without, wittingly\nor unwittingly, charging them for sins of which they are not at present generally guilty.\nI believe that those rushing toward extreme individualism are losing sight of some\nof the advantages which may fairly be claimed for class teaching. Leading educators\nrightly hold that the child is to be trained so that he may be able to meet the demands of\nthe civilization of which he is to become a part ; that he is to be fitted, as a social being,\nfor institutional life ; that school life should, as nearly as possible, parallel the larger life\nwhich he is to take up when he leaves the schoolroom. Class work, where he thinks,\ndiscusses, competes, contends with his fellows, is in the highest degree essential to his\nachieving success in that larger life beyond the schoolroom where competition is so keen\nand intense.\nCriticisms here should be tempered with justice and moderation, because every superintendent must provide for conditions which in some directions are peculiar to his city.\nThe superintendent who lives in a densely populated city, with large school buildings,\ncan arrange his classes with half-year, quarter-year, or even a few weeks' intervals without encountering any serious difficulties ; but, should he attempt such close classification\nin a thinly populated city, or in certain thinly populated and somewhat isolated districts,\nhe would encounter more serious difficulties than those from which he was attempting to\nescape.\n\n"}
{"page": 382, "printed_page": null, "text": "374\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n[Columbus\n\nIn conversation with many of the leading superintendents of the country I learned\nthat, while nearly all had some form of the half-year or less interval, yet each city-school\nsystem had its own method of working out its modifications of that plan. I venture the\nassertion that but few superintendents of this country can be found whose eyes are not\nwide open to the serious evils which grew out of the inflexible system of grading which\nhas prevailed, and are engaged, in various ways best adapted to their peculiar conditions,\nin remedying those evils, thru a combination of the best features of both individual and\nclass teaching. The exact extent to which each of these ideas should be incorporated into\na city-school system, in order to secure the greatest efficiency, can be determined only by\nthe superintendent, who is familiar with all the conditions under which the promotions\nand grading are to be done. To criticise indiscriminately and in a wholesale way, as the\nextremists are inclined to do, any system of schools which does not make strikingly prominent either rigid classification or extreme individualism is neither wise nor intelligent.\n\nDISCUSSION\nSuperintendent A. K. Whitcomb, Lowell, Mass. — It seems to be assumed by most of the speakers\nthat semiannual promotions, if permitted in any part of the course, must necessarily be continued thru the\nwhole, including the promotions to and thru the high school. Theoretically, indeed, this would be the case,\nbut in practice there is no need of it at all. It is true that a class entering a grammar school in the middle of\na school year would, if it kept company front thru its whole course, necessarily complete its work there in the\nmiddle of some other year; but, as a matter of experience, such classes always break up easily, some pupils\ngaining a half year and some falling back a half year, long before the course is ended. We have had semiannual promotions in Lowell for twenty years in the primary and grammar grades, and an annual promotion\nto the high school, with no practical difficulty at all. Indeed, most of my grammar masters break up the\nFebruary, or mid- year, classes they receive from the primaries sooner, rather than later, than I wish.\nFor mitigating the evils of close grading I am very favorably impressed with the plan presented today of\nallowing a part of a class to go on with advanced work when the rest stop for reviews. Without the use, however, of any formal plan whatever, of which I have studied, with more or less care, at least a score, we have\nsecured by individual promotions, as the result of constant sifting by intelligent and interested teachers, about\nas many changes as seem to me to be desirable. Of the 351 pupils who graduated from our grammar schools\nlast year, 195 completed the course in less than the prescribed time, of whom 133 did the nine years' work in\neight, 51 in seven, 10 in six, and i in five.\nIn conclusion I wish to assert that the evils of the graded system, tho doubtless real, are far less than platform educators are wont to assert. That children entering school together differ widely in ability, in ambition,\nin health, in regularity of attendance, and a dozen other ways, is obvious, and that the holding of such children\ntogether for eight or nine years in one compact, unbroken mass would be an injury to many is undoubtedly\ntrue ; but no children ever were so held together in any school of which I have had knowledge. There is, too,\nalways a difference of more than one year in the real attainments of the members of any class graduating from\na grammar school, and the leaders of such classes rarely appear to have lost power or interest because of their\nposition, nor have the pupils at the other end of the class failed to get a reward for their work fairly commensurate with their abilities. Add to this the shifting of positions which always takes place thru individual promotions and demotions, and the evil shrinks from a most imposing bugbear to very modest proportions indeed.\nSuperintendent J. N. Study, Fort Wayne, Ind. — In answer to the question from the rear part of\nthe room as to whether or not promotions into the high school semiannually make necessary semiannual graduations, Ican speak from fifteen years' experience with semiannual promotions, and say that semiannual\nadmissions to the high school do not necessarily involve semiannual graduations therefrom. The class coming\ninto the high school at the middle of the school year can easily be given work that will occupy a half year of\nits time and enable it to have credit for a half year's work in some three or four subjects. Thus, for instance,\nwithout materially burdening the teaching force, the incoming class may be started in algebra, may take physical geography, may enter a class in American or English literature, and may take work in composition and\nsuch other special work as is provided ; or the course may be so arranged that a science study, occupying a\nschool year for its completion, may be started at the beginning of the second half-year, in which case the\nincoming class may enter along with those who entered the school at the beginning of the first half-year. Of\nthose entering at the middle of the year some, who are above the average in physical and mental ability, will\nbe able to take an additional study each term, and complete the whole four-years' course in three years and\none-half, and graduate with the class entering a half year earlier than they entered. Some, who are not so\nstrong physically or mentally, are all the better for having four and one-half years before them in which to do\n\n"}
{"page": 383, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nROUND\n\n7 ABLE\n\nOF\n\nCIT Y SUPERINTENDENTS\n\n375\n\nthe regular four years' work, and will gladly drop into the class entering just behind them. Should any of the\nclass, however, finish their work in the middle of the year, and receive credit for all the regular work of the\ncourse, it will be easy for them to take some additional work in subjects that do not regularly lie in their course\nof study, and thus extend their course, or perfect themselves in something in which they have not been very\nstrong. It is a matter which really presents very few practical difficulties, unless the teaching force of the high\nschool be so scant as to preclude the organization of about two new classes at the beginning of the second\nterm. Of course, when a high school reaches the size that the incoming class at the middle of the year is .sufficiently large in numbers, and remains sufficiently large thruout the course, to form one or more sections of\nitself, then it becomes necessary to furnish teaching force sufficient to take care of it by itself all the way thru\nand institute semiannual promotions in the high school itself ; but even in this case semiannual promotions in\nthe high school do not necessarily imply semiannual commencement exercises. This is a matter that rests\nentirely with the school authorities. If they wish to have two commencements a year, they can do so, or if\nthey wish to have but one commencement each year, then those who finish the required course at the middle of\nthe year may take postgraduate work for the remainder of the year, or may stay out of school and come in\nand take their diplomas with the class graduating in June; or, in case anyone should remove to some other\nplace, his diplpma may be given to him without formal exercises. In all cases where the high school is of sufficient size to warrant semiannual promotions thruout the whole high-school course it is decidedly beneficial\nto keep them up, as many a pupil is thereby enabled to save himself a year's credit by being turned back at\nthe middle of the year, when to go on, under the annual system, would mean a loss to him of a whole year's\ncredit in some particular branch. This is one of the subjects in which the theoretical difficulties are much\ngreater than the practical difficulties.\n\nCOURSE\n\nOF STUDY\n\nFOR\n\nPUPILS WHO CANN07\nSCHOOL WORK\n\nFIRST\nBY\n\nJ. M.\n\nBERKEY,\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nCOMPLETE\n\nHIGH-\n\nPAPER\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nJOHNSTOWN,\n\nPA.\n\n[synopsis]\n\nUnder an ideal system of public education there would apparently be no need of a\ndiscussion of this subject. In theory, a public high-school course, or its equivalent, is\nessential to the evolution of young life, and fundamental to a high degree of successful\nliving in any department of labor and service. No convention of workers in and for the\npublic schools would entertain for a moment the proposition that high-school privileges\nshould be limited to certain classes or conditions. To do so would be divorcing the\npublic high school from its rightful relation to the general system of universal education,\nand denying to it its legitimate function as a factor in the development of a common,\nintelligent, and useful citizenship. As a part of the free-school system, the high school\nmust assume to be a common good to the common people, open and free to all alike who\nunder the law become the educational wards of the state. Under ideal conditions, therefore, all pupils should have, and would have, a well-rounded, properly adapted, and fully\ncompleted high-school course.\nBut, in the words of the man of destiny, \" it is a condition, and not a theory, which\nconfronts us.\" There is a higher law than the law of ideal development under possible\nconditions. It is the law of the greatest good — not to the largest number, merely, but to\nthe individual under present and pressing environment. What is the best for the boys\nand girls, as we know them in our crowded city schools, as we find them in our city\nhomes, as they leave our schools early — very early — to furnish the brawn, if not the\nbrain, of the ceaseless and grinding industries in tTie great centers of population ? What\nis the best course of study and training for these young people, here and now, to the end\nthat we may realize, in and by them, the highest and best in the future citizenship of the\ncommonwealth and the social fabric of the home community ?\n\n"}
{"page": 384, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n376\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n[Columbus\n\nWe know, as a matter of fact, that the pupils in our primary and grammar grades do\nnot all enter the high school. Superintendent Kendall, of New Haven, Conn., published\na year ago statistics gathered from the official records of over two hundred cities thruout\nthe United States, showing, among other things, that the number of pupils in the high\nschools, as compared with the whole number of pupils enrolled, varied from 4 to 12 per\ncent., with a general average of about 9 per cent. Assuming that the length of the city\ncourse of study is twelve years — four, or one-third of the number, in the high-school\ncourse — there ought to be, upon the ideal theory, one-third of the whole number of pupils,\nor at least 30, instead of 9, per cent., in the high schools.\nIf it be true, then, as the records fully justify, that only one pupil out of three or four\nwho come into our elementary schools subsequently enters the high schools, is this\ncourse of study which aims to prepare for the high school ; that, as a rule, permits no\ndeviation ; that allows no special or optional lines of work ; that affords no good stopping-place short of high-school graduation ; is this the best course for the two-thirds or\nthe three-fourths who cannot — or, at least, who do not — get beyond the grammar\ngrades ? This is the vital question at issue in this discussion.\nI am persuaded that it is not the fault of the superintendent or the teacher, and that it is\nnot the course of study which is responsible for the non-attendance of pupils in the higher\ngrades. It is simply »the result of conditions which can be overcome only thru the\nevolution of a higher civilization, and a more universal appreciation of the use and the value\nof a scholastic training for all the purposes of successful living. To this end, as a matter\nof course, the public-school friends and forces must largely contribute. But while we\nthus complacently relieve ourselves of the responsibility for certain conditions and results\nwhich we know are not as they should be, there are other conditions and results, which\ngrow out of the course of study and its proper application, for which school officials and\nteachers are directly responsible. There is that in the application and the adaptation of\nthe principles which underlie an elementary course of instruction which can and will do\nmuch for the class of pupils that never reaches the high school. While it is true that\nmany pupils leave school because they cannot help it, there are many — very many — who\nleave because they become discouraged, indifferent, stubborn ; discouraged, because the\nwork is too difficult ; indifferent, because they were not promoted with their class, or else\nthey regard the class work as simply so much dull routine for the sake of drill, rather\nthan productive of practical interest or immediate and tangible results ; stubborn, because,\nfor lack of a better motive, the . teacher or the parent says, \" You must.\" The truants\nfrom the schoolroom are not always the dull or the do-less, not the vicious or the hopeless. They are very often the naturally apt and ambitious pupils ; but because they find\nthe work of the schoolroom so much in conflict with their natural inclinations and activities, they will yield to the first, and very often the only, opportunity to escape from its\nexacting and unvarying routine..\nWhile other forces may hold and help these pupils who are apparently predestined\nnever to complete a high-school course, let us notice some features in the course of study\nthat will, I believe, give to these the most and the best it is possible for them to obtain\nfrom the public school. And, while reaching out for this class of pupils, I would not in\nany way interfere with the rightful course of training for those who are pushing straight\nforward to the high school in regular order.\nIn the first place, the grammar-school course should be rounded and complete.\nSuch a course should mean to the pupil and to his parents a well-balanced and wellrounded common-school education ; such a course as is contemplated by the general law\nas the common heritage of every child in the state. Such a course would necessarily\ninclude a carefully selected and wisely directed course of reading and literature, the study\nof state history and government as a complement of national history and civics, a year's\nwork in algebra as the complement of practical arithmetic and concrete geometry, the\nessentials in business forms and simple bookkeeping, the elements of vocal music and\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 385, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nROUND\n\nTABLE\n\nOF CITY SUPERINTENDENTS\n\n377\n\ndrawing, together with the subjects generally included and required in every elementary\nschool.\nI\nThe end in view in such a completed and supplemented course of study for the\ngrammar school is twofold, viz,, as a preparation for legitimate high-school work under\nthe departmental system, and at the same time to offer to such pupils as may not enter\nthe high school at all the opportunity to accomplish a certain amount of work which\nwhen accomplished, shall afford them the stimulus and the encouragement of definite and\nrecognized scholastic attainments. Whatever the form, there should be a recognition of\nthe completed grammar-school course. This certificate of attainment will not only serve\nas a passport to the high school, but will also be an honorable discharge for those who\nhave worked and waited and struggled to reach this point, when they felt that they could\nnot reach anything higher.\nLet me anticipate here a probable objection to this extended grammar-school course :\nWould it not require more than eight years for the pupils of average ability ? I answer\nfrankly, yes. But what law of nature or of pedagogy fixes eight years for the grammarschool course and four years for the high school ? Why must it be so ? I do not believe\nthat the high-school course need necessarily be four years, any more than that the grammar-school course should be limited to eight years. It is worthy of note that quite a\nnumber of cities, having a ten-months' school term, have but recently expanded the\nstandard grammar course to nine years, but have made the system of grading and promotions sufficiently flexible to permit the stronger pupils to complete the sam€ work in eight,\nor even in seven, years. But the larger number of pupils, even tho a little slow, are allowed\nto move with their grades in regular promotion. Such a plan gives special stimulus to\nthe ambitious and the strong, and yet leaves no room for discouragement to the pupils\nless fortunate in mental endowment or physical vigor. In Cambridge, Mass., the pupils\nare classed at the end of the fourth primary year, the stronger to reach the high school in\nfour, and the weaker in five, subsequent years of study. The point I make, therefore, in\nfavor of pupils who cannot complete high-school work is this, viz., that the system of\ngrading shall be sufficiently flexible to give them standing room and recognition, without\ncrowding them with overwork, on the one hand, or discouraging them with non-promotion, on the other.\nAgain, the course of study, below as in, the high school should permit optional\nstudies and special lines of training. Manual training may take the place of mental arithmetic or United States history for pupils who are \" born short \" along certain lines.\nDomestic science or mechanical drawing may fill a minimum requirement for those who\ncannot or ought not to take the maximum course. One course of study coming under my\nnotice has three years of optional or special work below the high school, not necessarily\nfor the dull or the slow pupils, but to meet the constantly increasing demand for special\nlines of training. My plea in this connection, however, is for all possible optional and\nvaried lines of work in advanced grammar grades that local conditions and school facilities will justify, to the end that larger opportunities and a more helpful training may be\ngiven to those young people who cannot, and perhaps ought not to, cross the threshold of\nthe city high school.\nI could not if I would, and I would not if I could, lay down any fixed or definite\ncourse of study for such pupils. That is the problem of the local management, guided\nonly by this one common, fundamental principle, viz. : the schools are for the children,\nand to their highest good, individually and collectively, all systems of management must\nbend and all courses of study must conform.\n\n"}
{"page": 386, "printed_page": null, "text": "378\n\nNA 7 TONAL\n\nED UCA TIONAL\n\nSECOND\nBY\n\nJ. W. CARR,\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nASSOCIA TION\n\n«\n\n[Columbus\n\nPAPER\nOF SCHOOLS,\n\nANDERSON,\n\nIND.\n\nBefore attempting to discuss the course of study for pupils who cannot complete the\nhigh-school course, I wish to outline briefly a course of study that I believe should be\noffered to all high-school pupils. This should consist, in my opinion, of English (including literature and composition), mathematics, history and civics, science, Latin, German\nor some other foreign language, each continued from three to four years. In addition to\nthese I would add music and drawing, some commercial studies, manual training for boys,\nand manual training and domestic economy for girls. These various subjects should be\narranged into a number of different co-ordinate courses, and pupils should be allowed to\nchoose from the whole, under the guidance and direction of parents and teachers. In\nthis way individual tastes and abilities may be consulted, and the sexes and classes have\na high-school course of study suitable to their needs.\nPupils cannot complete the high-school course for various reasons, o\"f which the following are the most important : (i) because they have not the physical strength or the\nmental ability to do the required work; (2) because they lack the industry and perseverance necessary to complete the course of study ; (3) because they cannot remain in\nschool the required length of time.\nNow, I believe that the arrangement of the course of study for all pupils, as outlined above, will meet the requirement of pupils who cannot or will not complete the\nhigh-school course.\nTo this proposition I now invite your attention.\nThe first class of pupils — those that are physically or mentally unable to do the\nrequired work — should not only be permitted to choose the subjects they will study, but\nthey should also be allowed to take fewer studies at a time than are required of the average\npupil. If they are unable to do passable work in a subject, they should be permitted to\ntry something else, rather than remain an indefinite time endeavoring to master something which is beyond their strength or ability. With such freedom and privileges, the\nmaximum number of pupils of this class will remain in school the maximum length of\ntime, thus receiving the largest benefit possible. Encouragement, guidance, freedom,\nand time are the things most helpful to these.\nThe treatment of the second class — those who cannot, or rather will not, complete\nthe high-school course for lack of application — should differ somewhat. They should\nbe given freedom in choice of subjects under the direction of their teachers. Then, if\nthey have the right kind of teachers and a variety of subjects from which to choose,\nmany pupils of this class will show interest and perseverance, who otherwise would\nsimply drop out of school. Such pupils should be required to do a required amount of\nwork daily, and should be held to a strict account for the excellence of the same. They\nshould be encouraged, yes urged, to do their best ; and, above all, they should not be\nallowed to idle away their time. Many pupils who do little or nothing in the traditional\nhigh-school subjects have been found to do excellent work in the manual-training school.\nThey became interested in school work and made marked improvements in other subjects.\nAgain, freedom of choice and elasticity in the course of study are found to be beneficial.\nBut little in addition needs to be said concerning the third class — those who cannot\nremain in school long enough to complete the high-school course. For them also I\nbelieve the system of electives to be the best. This enables pupils who can remain in\nschool but a short time to choose those things which will be most beneficial to them in\nfighting the battles of life in which they are about to engage. The traditional disciplinary subjects — Latin, Greek, algebra, etc. — are excellent for the mind, but these\nmay not be the subjects that are most useful to the boy who can remain in school but one\nor two years.\nEnglish, commercial\narithmetic, drawing, bookkeeping,\nhistory, and\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 387, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nROUND\n\nTABLE\n\nOF CITY SUPERINTENDENTS\n\n379\n\nmanual training may be the ones that are most helpful and needful to him. If so, let\nhim take them.\nIf the work is well done, the mental discipline will take care of itself.\nSo far I have spoken of those only who are in the high school. But it is in the\ngrades that we find the great numbers who cannot possibly complete the high-school\ncourse, perhaps not even the graded-school course. What shall we do with them ? Shall\nthey pursue the same course of study prescribed for the rest ? In part I answer, no.\nCertainly I would have them acquire the rudiments of an English education, if it is\npossible for them to do so. I would also have them receive that moral instruction so\nnecessary to the formation of character. Yet I am of the opinion that some form of\nindustrial training should be given, at least to this class of pupils, while they are in the\nprimary and intermediate grades.\nWhile this is my belief, yet I have not given the subject sufficient thought to formulate a plan which I am sure will stand the test. I am awai-e of the fact that experiments\nalong this line are being made in some American cities, yet I have no data at hand which\nwill enable me to speak of the results. I have long thought of the advisability of introducing industrial training in the grades, in my own city, and I am only waiting for the opportunity to make the experiment. The plan I have in mind is not to attempt to establish\nindustrial training in each school district, but to have one school, centrally located, in\nwhich industrial training is given. The course of study in this school would be more\nelastic than in the others and the classification less rigid. This would lessen the expense\nfor teachers and equipment, and at the same time enable us to gather into this school\nthose pupils of the primary and intermediate grades wh© are much older than their fellows, as well as those who fail in their classes. We could, therefore, give to these special\nattention under more favorable conditions, thus fitting them the better to meet the duties\nand responsibilities of life.\nFinally, the course of study for those who cannot complete the high school, as well\nas for those who can complete it, must be determined chiefly by the society in which we\nlive and by the occupations in which the pupils are expected to engage. In the past,\neducation was the heritage of the few. The aristocracy of learning might prescribe a\nfixed curriculum consisting of classical knowledge of antiquity. The pursuit of this\ncourse of study they might solemnly declare to be the only road to learning. They\nmight even go so far as to outlaw all other courses, and to arrogate to themselves a monopoly of learning. But if we are to have a democracy of learning in America, we must\nhave a course of study that will meet the needs of the people. This course must be\narranged so as to develop head,\" hand, and heart, thus fitting the children to engage in\nthe busy, bustling, complex American civilization of the twentieth century. This course\nis not a legacy from the past, for the past has never had a civilization similar to our own.\nIt cannot be imported from a foreign country, because nowhere else are the conditions\nand people like our own. But, like the principles of our government and the character\nof our people and their institutions, the course of study must be a resultant of the past,\nthe foreign and the native not simply welded together, but fused into a new substance\nwhich is truly American.\n\n"}
{"page": 388, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nCOUNCIL OF EDUCATION\nCONSTITUTION\nPREAMBLE\n\nThe National Council of Education shall have for its object the consideration and\ndiscussion of educational questions of general interest and public importance, and the\npresentation, thru printed reports, of the substance of the discussions, and the conclusions formulated. It shall be its object to reach and disseminate correct thinking on\neducational questions ; and, for this purpose, it shall be the aim of the Council, in conducting its discussions, to define and state with accuracy the different views and theories\non the subject under consideration, and, secondly, to discover and represent fairly the\ngrounds and reasons for each theory or view, so far as to show, as completely as possible,\nthe genesis of opinion on the subject. It shall be the duty of the Council, in pursuance\nof this object, to encourage from all its members the most careful statement of differences in opinion, together with 'the completest statement of grounds for the same. It\nshall further require the careful preservation and presentation of the individual differences\nof opinion, whenever grounds have been furnished for the same by members of the Council. It shall invite the freest discussion and embody the new suggestions developed by\nsuch discussions. Any member making such suggestion or objection may put in writing his\nview, and the grounds therefor, and furnish the same to the secretary for the records of\nthe Council. It shall prepare, thru its president, an annual report to the National Educational Association, setting forth the questions considered by the Council during the\nprevious year, and placing before the association, in succinct form, the work accomplished. Itshall embody in this report a survey of those educational topics which seem\nto call for any action on the part of the association. The Council shall appoint, out of\nits own number, committees representing the several departments of education, and\nthereby facilitate the exchange of opinion among its members on such special topics\nas demand the attention of the profession or of the public.\nARTICLE\n\nI — MEMBERSHIP\n\n1. The National Council of Education shall consist of sixty menbers, selected from\nthe membership of the National Educational Association. Any member of the association identified with educational work is eligible to membership in the Council, and\nafter the first election such membership shall continue for six years, except as hereinafter\nprovided.\n2. In the year 1885 the Board of Directors shall elect eight members — four members\nfor six years, two for four years, and two for two years ; and the Council shall elect eight\nmembers — five members for six years, two for four years, and one for two years ; and\nannually thereafter the Board of Directors shall elect five members and the Council five\nmembers, each member, with the exception hereinafter provided for (section 5), to serve\nsix years, or until his successor is elected.\n3. The annual election of members of the Council shall be held in connection with\nthe annual meetings of the association. If the Board of Directors shall fail, for any\nreason, to fill its quota of members annually, the vacancy or vacancies shall be filled by\nthe Council.\n\nJ\n\n"}
{"page": 389, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nCONST nUTION\n\n381\n\n4. The term of service of the several members of the Council chosen at the first election shall be arranged by the Executive Committee of the Council.\n5. The absence of a member from two consecutive annual meetings of the Council\nshall be considered equivalent to resignation of membership, and the Council shall fill\nvacancies caused by absence from the Council as herein defined, as well as vacancies\ncaused by death or resignation, for the unexpired term. All persons who have belonged\nto the Council shall, on the expiration of their membership, become honorary members,\nwith the privilege of attending its regular sessions, and participating in its discussions.\nNo state shall be represented in the Council by more than eight members.\nARTICLE\n\nII — QUALIFICATION\n\nFOR\n\nMEMBERSHIP\n\nAll members of the Council shall be either life or active members of the National\nEducational Association.\nARTICLE\n\nIII — MEETINGS\n\nThere shall be a regular annual meeting of the Council held at the 'same place as the\nmeeting of the National Educational Association, and at least two days previous to\nthis meeting. There may be special meetings of the Council, subject to the call of the\nExecutive Committee, but the attendance at those meetings shall be entirely voluntary.\nA majority of the Council shall constitute a quorum for the transaction of business at\nany meeting, whether regular or called ; but any less number, exceeding eight members,\nmay constitute a quorum for the transaction of business at the regular annual meeting, as\ndefined in this article.\nARTICLE\n\nIV — THE\n\nWORK\n\nOF THE\n\nCOUNCIL\n\nThe Council shall, from time to time, undertake to initiate, conduct, and guide the\nthoro investigation of important educational questions originating in the Council ; also to\nconduct like investigations originating in the National Educational Association, or any\nof its departments, and requiring the expenditure of funds.\nARTICLE\n\nV— THE\n\nAPPOINTMENT OF SPECIAL\nEXPERTS\n\nCOMMITTEES\n\nAND\n\nIn the appointments of special committees, and in the selection of writers and speakers, itshall be the privilege of the Council to appoint such experts, whether members of\nthe Council or not, as are deemed best qualified to conduct investigations.\nARTICLE\n\nVI — PREPARATION\n\nOF INDIVIDUAL\n\nPAPERS\n\n1. The president of the Council shall send out, at least six months before each\nsession of the Council, a circular inviting the submission of volunteer papers by members,\nrequesting them to suggest names of other persons, not members of the Council, whom\nthey believe willing and able to present valuable contributions to educational literature.\n2. The Executive Committee shall determine what papers so offered shall be presented at the meeting of the Council.\nThe reports and papers to be presented to the Council shall be printed and placed in\nthe hands of the members at least four weeks before the session. The papers so printed\nshall be discussed, but not read in full, at the meeting.\n3. Whenever the printing of a paper is not feasible, an abstract or brief of such\npaper, if possible in the form of theses, shall be sent to the members of the Council at\nleast a month before the meeting.\n\n"}
{"page": 390, "printed_page": null, "text": "382\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nARTICLE\n\nVII — STANDING\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nCOMMITTEES\n\n1. There shall be three standing committees: an Executive Committee, a Committee\non Membership, and a Committee on Educational Progress.\n2. The Executive Committee shall be composed of the president of the Council and\nof three other members, whose terms of office shall be so arranged that one new member\nmay be chosen each year, beginning with the year 1899.\n3. It shall be the duty of the Executive Committee to provide an annual program by\nselecting, whenever feasible, subjects for investigation, and appointing committees to\nconduct such investigations. It shall be the duty of the Executive Committee to carry\nout the provisions contained in this constitution referring to volunteer and invited papers.\nIt shall be the duty of the Executive Committee to provide a place on the program for\nthe report on any investigation which may be ordered by the National Educational Assotion or its departments.\n4. The Committee on Membership shall be composed of the president of the Council\nand six other members, whose terms of office shall be so arranged that two vacancies may\nbe filled every year, beginning with 1899.\n5. There shall be appointed annually a committee of one to submit, at the next\nmeeting, a report on \" Educational Progress during the Past Year,\" in which a survey of\nthe important movements and events in education during the preceding year is given.\nThis committee need not be selected from the members of the Council.\nARTICLE\n\nVIII — THE\n\nDUTIES\n\nOF THE\n\nCOUNCIL\n\n1. It shall be the duty of the Council to further the objects of the National Educational\nAssociation, and to use its best efforts to promote the cause of education in general.\n2. The meetings of the Council shall be, for the most part, of a \"round table\"\ncharacter.\nARTICLE\n\nIX — AMENDMENTS\n\nThis constitution may be altered or amended at a regular meeting of the Council, by\ntwo-thirds vote of the members present, and any provision may be waived at any regular\nmeeting by unanimous consent.\nBy-laws not in violation of this constitution may be adopted by a two-thirds vote of\nthe Council.\n\nOFFICERS,\n\nMEMBERS,\n\nSTANDING\n\nOFFICERS\n\nFOR\n\nA.R.TAYLOR\n\nEmporia, Kan\n\nJAMES H. VAN SICKLE\nBETTIE A. BUTTON\n\nDenver, Colo\nCleveland, O\nEXECUTIVE\n\nCOMMITTEES\n\n1898-99\nPresident\n'.\n\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nThe President\nJohn Dewey\n\nChicago, 111.\nNicholas Murray Butler, New York, N. V.\nL. H. Jones, Cleveland, O.\n\n1\n\n"}
{"page": 391, "printed_page": null, "text": "OFFICERS— MEMBERS\n\nCouncil]\n\nOFFICERS\n\nFOR\n\nF. LOUIS\n\nSOLDAN\n\nSt. Louis, Mo\n\nELMER\nBETTIE\n\nE. BROWN\nA. DUTTON\n\nBerkeley, Cal\nCleveland, 0\nEXECUTIVE\n\n383\n\n1899-1900\nPresident\n7\n\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nThe President\nMiss Lucia Stickney, Cincinnati, O\nElmer E. Brown, Berkeley, Cal\nNicholas Murray Butler, New York, N. Y\nCOMMITTEE\n\nt\n\nON\n\nTerm expires in tgoo\nTerm expires in 1901\nTerm expires in 1902\n\nMEMBERSHIP\n\nC. H. Keyes, Hartford, Conn\nE. C Hewett, Normal, 111\nJ. M. Greenwood, Kansas City, Mo\nJ. H. Van Sickle, Denver, Colo\nW. T. Harris, Washington, D. C\nE. E. White, Columbus, O\n\nTerm expires in 1901\nTerm expires in 1901\nTerm expires in 1903\nTerm expires in 1903\nTerm expires in 1905\nTerm expires in 1905\n\nMEMBERS\nexp\nNote: The letter \" A \" following a name denotes that the member is of the class elected by the assoion ; the letter \" C,\" by the Council.\nTerm expires\nires\nTerm\nA\nJames A. Foshay, Los Angeles, Cal\n* W. T. Harris, Washington, D. C\nA 1903\n*J. H. Phillips,. Birmingham, Ala\n* E. E. White, Columbus, O\n* James H. Baker, Boulder, Colo\nOscar H. Cooper, Galveston, Tex\n* Aaron Gove, Denver, Colo\nWilliam E. Sheldon, Boston, Mass\n* Irwin Shepard, Winona, Minn\n* Lucia Stickney, Cincinnati, O\nH. H. Seerley, Cedar Falls, la\nJames M. Green, Trenton, N. J\n* Augustus S. Downing, New York, N. Y..\n* A. R. Taylor, Emporia, Kan\nEllen C. Sabin, Milwaukee, Wis\n* R. B. Fulton, University, Miss\n* George P. Brown, Bloomington, 111\n* Bettie A. Dutton, Cleveland, O\n* Charles H. Keyes, Hartford, Conn\nLightner Witmer, Philadelphia, Pa\n♦William F. King, Mt. Vernon, la\nArnold Tompkins, Normal, 111\n* Albert G. Lane, Chicago, 111\nEdwin A. Alderman, Chapel Hill, N. C...\nCharles M.Jordan, Minneapolis, Minn.. .\nJ. F. Millspaugh, Winona, Minn. ....\nW, M. Davidson, Topeka, Kan\n* E. W. Coy, Cincinnati, O\n* O. T. Corson, Columbus, O\nEdward R. Shaw, New York, N. Y\nJohn W. Cook, DeKalb, 111\n\nA 1900\nA 1900\nA 1900\nA 1900\nC 1900\nC 1900\nC 1900\nC 1900\nC 1900\nA 1900\nA 1901\nA 1901\nA 1901\nA 1901\nC 1901\nC 1901\nC 1 901\nC 1901\nC 1901\nA 1901\nA 1902\nA 1902\nA 1902\n1902\nA\nC 1902\nC 1902\nC 1902\nC 1902\nC 1902\n\nC. B. Gilbert, Newark, N.J\nWilliam R. Harper, Chicago, 111\nGeorge T. Fairchild, Berea, Ky\nCharles R. Skinner, Albany, N. Y\nCharles De Garmo, Ithaca, N. Y\nL. H. Jones, Cleveland, O\n♦Elmer E. Brown, Berkeley, Cal\nW. H. Black, Marshall, Mo\n* Nicholas Murray Butler, New York, N. Y.\nRichard G. Boone, Cincinnati, O\n* F. Louis Soldan, St. Louis, Mo\n* L. D. Harvey, Madison, Wis\n* Frank Rigler, Portland, Ore\nJames H. Canfield, New York. N. Y. .. .\nAndrew S. Draper, Champaign, III\nWilliam H. Maxwell, New York, N. Y...\n\nA\nA\nA\nA\nC\nC\nC\nC\nC\nA\nA\nA\nA\nA\nC\nC\n\n* James H. Van Sickle, Denver, Colo\nB. A. Hinsdale, Ann Arbor, Mich\n\nC 1904\nC 1904\n\n* N. C. Dougherty, Peoria, 111\n* W. H. Bartholomew, Louisville, Ky\n* Frank A. Fitzpatrick, Boston, Mass\n* I. C. McNeill, West Superior, Wis\n*E. Oram Lyte, Millersville, Pa\n*J. M. Greenwood, Kansas City, Mo\nPaul H. Hanus, Cambridge, Mass\n\nC\nA\nA\nA\nA\nA\nC\n\n1904\n1905\n1905\n1905\n1905\n1905\n1905\n\n* Joseph Swain, Bloomington, Ind\n* Nathan C. Schaeffer, Harrisburg, Pa\nDavid L. Kiehle, Minneapolis, Minn\n* Edward T. Pierce, Los Angeles, Cal\n\nC\nC\nC\nC\n\n1905\n1905\n1905\n1905\n\n1902\n\n* Present at the meeting of the Council in Los Angeles, 1899.\nTotal number present at the Los Angeles sessions, 30.\nTotal number honorary members present at the Los Angeles sessions, 3.\n\n1903\n1903\n1903\n1903\n1903\n1903\n1903\n1903\n1903\n1904\n1904\n1904\n1904\n1904\n1904\n1904\n\n"}
{"page": 392, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n384\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nHONORARY\n\nMEMBERS\nThomas\n\nHenry Barnard, Hartford, Conn.\nEarl Barnes, Stanford University, Cal.\nWilliam N. Barringer, Newark, N. J.\nNewton Bateman, Galesburg, 111.\nD. Bemiss, Spokane, Wash.\nThomas W. Bicknell, Providence, R. I.\nAlbert C. Boyden, Bridgewater, Mass.\nAnna C. Brackett, New York, N. Y.\nJohn E. Bradley, Jacksonville, 111.\nEdward Brooks, Philadelphia, Pa.\nWilliam L. Bryan, Bloomington, Ind.\nJohn T. Buchanan, New York, N. Y.\nMatthew H. Buckham, Burlington, Vt.\nDavid N. Camp, New Britain, Conn.\nAaron L. Chapin, Beloit, Wis.\nClara Conway, Memphis, Tenn.\nMatilda S. Cooper, Nyack, N. Y.\nWilliam J. Corthell, Gotham, Me.\nJ. L. M. Curry, Richmond, Va.\nJohn Dewey, Chicago, 111.\nV. C. Dibble, Charleston, S. C.\nJohn W. Dickinson, Boston, Mass.\nLarkln Dunton, Boston, Mass.\nJohn Eaton, Washington, D. C.\nCharles W. Eliot, Cambridge, Mass.\nWilliam W. Folwell, Minneapolis, Minn.\nW. R. Garrett, Nashville, Tenn.\nDaniel C. Gilman, Baltimore, Md.\nJames C. Greenough, Westfield, Mass.\nJohn M. Gregory, Washington, D. C.\nW. N. Hailmann, Dayton, O.\nG. Stanley Hall, Worcester, Mass.\nWalter L. Hervey, New York, N. Y.\nEdwin C. Hewett, Normal, 111.\nJ. George Hodgins, Toronto, Canada.\nIra G. Hoitt, Sacramento, Cal.\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nKirkland, Toronto, Canada.\n\n[Nat\n\nHenry M. Leipziger, New York, N. Y.\nJames MacAlister, Philadelphia, Pa.\nAlbert P. Marble, New York, N. Y.\nFrancis A. March, Easton, Pa.\nLillie J. Martin, San Francisco, Cal.\nCharles A. McMurry, Normal, 111.\nThomas J. Morgan, Washington, D. C.\nLemuel Moss, Minneapolis, Minn.\nWilliam A. Mowry, Hyde Park, Mass.\nMary E.Nicholson, Indianapolis, Ind.\nJohn M. Ordway, New Orleans, La.\nFrancis W. Parker, Chicago, 111.\nWarren D. Parker, River Falls, Wis.\nS. S. Parr, St. Cloud. Minn.\nW. H. Payne, Nashville, Tenn.\nSelim H. Peabody, Chicago, 111.\nJohn B. Peaslee, Cincinnati, O.\nWilliam F. Phelps, St. Paul, Minn.\nJosiah L. Pickard, Iowa City, la.\nJ. R. Preston, Jackson, Miss.\nJohn T. Prince, Boston, Mass.\nZalmon Richards, Washington, D. C.\nC. C. Rounds, New York, N. Y.\nWilliam H. Ruffner, Lexington, Va.\nHenry Sabin, Des Moines, la.\nJ. G. Schurman, Ithaca, N. Y.\nH. E. Shepard, Charleston, S. C.\nEdgar A. Singer, Philadelphia, Pa.\nJames A. Smart, Lafayette, Ind.\nEuler B. Smith, Athens, Ga.\nHomer B. Sprague\nCal.\nJ. W. Steams, Madison, Wis.\nThomas B. Stockwell, Providence, R. I.\nGrace Bibb Sudborough, Omaha, Neb.\n\n• John Swett, Martinez, Cal.\nH. S. Tarbell, Providence, R. I.\nW. R. Thigpen, Savannah, Ga.\nH. S. Thompson, Columbia, S. C.\n* L. S. Thompson, New Wilmington, Pa.\nJulia S. Tutwiler, Livingstone, Ala.\nDelia L. Williams, Delaware, O,\nS. G. Williams, Ithaca, N. Y.\nJ. Ormond Wilson, Washington, D. C.\nH. K. Wolfe, South Omaha, Neb.\nC. M. Woodward, St. Louis, Mo.\n* Present at the meeting of the Council at Los Angeles, 1899.\n\n* James H. Hoose, Pasadena, Cal.\nGeorge W. Howison, San Francisco, Cal.\nJames L. Hughes, Toronto, Canada,\nThomas Hunter, New York, N. Y.\nEllen Hyde, Framingham, Mass.\nJohn S. Irwin, Lafayette, Ind.\nE. J. James, Chicago, 111.\nHenry N.James, Tacoma, Wash.\nH. S.Jones, Lincoln, Neb.\nE. S. Joynes, Knoxville, Tenn.\n\n1894\n\n1893\n\nDECEASED\n\nMEMBERS\n1899\n\nRobert AUyn\nIsrael W. Andrews\n\n1894\n1888\n\nJoseph Baldwin\nNorman A. Calkins\nN. R. H. Dawson\nSamuel S. Greene\nDaniel B. Hager\nJohn Hancock\nWilliam D. Henkle\n\n1899\n1895\n1895\n1883\ni8q6\n1891\n1882\n\nElnathan E. Higbee\nGeorge Howland\nMerrick Lyon\n\n1889\n1892\n1888\n\nJames McCosh\nM. A. Newell\nBirdseye G. Northrop .\nEdward Olney\nGustavus J. Orr\nJohn D. Philbrick\nAndrew J. Rickoff . . ..\nR. W. Stevenson\nEli T. Tappan\nCharles O. Thompson .\nJames P. Wickersham.\n\n1893\n188s\n\n188s\n\n1888\n1 891\n\n"}
{"page": 393, "printed_page": null, "text": "SECRETARY'S\n\nCouncil]\n\nMINUTES\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\n385\n\nMINUTES\n\nFIRST DAY\nFIRST\n\nSESSION.— Saturday, 2 : 30 p. m., July 8, 1899\n\nThe Council was called to order by the president, Dr. A. R. Taylor, in the parlor of\nthe First Congregational Church, and opened with prayer by Dr. Elmer E. Brown, of California.\nPresident Taylor introduced Dr. J. H. Hoose, of California, who gave cordial welcome to the Council on behalf of the city of Los Angeles and southern California, and,\nas an honorary member of the Council, made clear its character and aims.\nFrank A. Fitzpatrick, of Massachusetts, responded on behalf of the Council.\nPresident Taylor explained the work which had been done in arranging for the sessions\nof the Council, the changes in the work of special committees, and the provisions in the\nrevised constitution affecting this work ; and stated that investigating committees at work\nunder the direction of the Council desired further time.\nPresident Taylor announced that, as papers prepared for the Council had not reached\nthe members as provided for by the new constitution, the rule would be suspended, and\nthe paper of the afternoon would be read in full.\nThe paper was presented by Miss Lucia Stickney, of the Hughes High School, Cincinnati, and was entitled \"The Homes of Our Down-Town Children.\" This paper elicited\na spirited discussion, participated in by Frank A. Fitzpatrick, of Boston ; J. M. Greenwood, of Kansas City; James H. Van Sickle, of Denver; W. T. Harris, of Washington ;\nF. Louis Soldan, of St. Louis ; Miss Dutton, of Cleveland, and Elmer E. Brown and J. H.\nHoose, of California.\nMiss Stickney summed up and closed the discussion.\nAfter announcement of evening program by President Taylor, the Council adjourned.\nSECOND\n\nSESSION.— Saturday\n\nEvening, July 8\n\nThe Council convened at 8 o'clock and listened to a paper by W. T. Harris, entitled\n\" The Future of the Normal School.\" Discussion followed the reading of the paper, in\nwhich remarks were made and questions asked by J. M. Greenwood, Miss Dutton, F. Louis\nSoldan, and Irwin Shepard. Mr. Harris closed the discussion, and President Taylor\nappointed the following committees :\nEXECUTIVE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nFor one year — Miss Lucia Stickney, of Ohio.\nFor two years — Elmer E. Brown, of California.\nFor three years — Nicholas Murray Butler, of New York.\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nMEMBERSHIPS\n\nFor two years — C. H. Keyes, of Massachusetts; E. C. Hewett, of Illinois.\nFor four years — J. M. Greenwood, of Missouri ; J. H. Van Sickle, of Colorado.\nFor six years— W. T. Harris, Washington, D. C. ; E. E. White, of Ohio.\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nNOMINATIONS\n\nE. W. Coy, Cincinnati.\nF. Louis Soldan, St. Louis.\nFrank A. Fitzpatrick, Boston.\n\nCouncil adjourned at 10 : 15 P. M.\n\n"}
{"page": 394, "printed_page": null, "text": "386\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nSECOND\nTHIRD\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nDAY\n\nSESSION.— Monday, 9 : 30 a. m., July 10\n\nAfter the reading and approval of the minutes of the preceding sessions, the report\nof the special Committee of the Department of Superintendence on School Hygiene\nwas presented by W. T. Harris, Commissioner of Education, Washington, D. C. George\nP. Brown, of Illinois, suggested the appointment of a committee to bring this subject definitely before the Council, stating that boards of education were looking for definite knowledge on this subject. President Taylor mentioned the fact that the committee was already\nat work in the Department of Superintendence ; but for the furtherance of the work the\nfollowing resolution by E. E. White, of Ohio, was carried :\nResolved, That this Council hereby approves of the thoro investigation of the subject of school hygiene,\nas proposed by the report of the Department of Superintendence submitted by its committee, and it is hereby\nrecommended to the Board of Directors of the National Educational Association that an appropriation not\nexceeding $1,200 be made for this purpose for the expenses of a special report or for prize essays, as may be\nhereafter determined.\n\nDr. Harris offered the following resolution, whieh was also carried :\nResolved, That in case of the appropriation by the Board of Directors of the sum of $1,200 for the\npurposes named in this report two prizes be offered for essays on each of the topics named, to-wit : a first prize\nof $200 and a second prize of $100.\n\nThe following resolution by George P. Brown, of Illinois, was moved and carried :\nResolved, That a committee of five, of which the president of the Council shall be one, be appointed to\npresent this matter to the Board of Directors, and to arrange for the securing of the prize essays referred to in\nthe above resolutions, provided the Board of Directors grants the appropriation.\n\nThe committee was appointed as follows : President A. R. Taylor, W. T. Harris,\nGeorge P. Brown, William F. King, Aaron Gove.\nThe second paper of the morning was presented by Charles H. Keyes, of Massachusetts, entitled \" Differentiation of the American Secondary School.\" Discussion of\nthis subject was opened by Aaron Gove, of Denver, and continued by Messrs. Harris,\nGreenwood, Coy, Van Sickle, Baker, White, and Morrison.\nThe Council adjourned at 12 : 30 p. m.\nFOURTH\n\nSESSION.— Monday, 2 :30 p. m., July 10\n\nThe report of the special Committee on State Normal Schools was presented by the\nchairman, Z. X. Snyder, Greeley, Colo.\nOn motion of E. Oram Lyte, Hon. Henry S. Townsend, inspector general of schools\nof Hawaii, was invited to sit with the Council and participate in its discussions.\n\ni\n\nDiscussion of Mr. Snyder's report was opened by J. M. Greenwood, who was followed\nby Messrs. Gove, Hoose, Townsend, White, Lyte, and Soldan.\nThe next paper presented to the Council was by State Superintendent L. D. Harvey,\nof Wisconsin, entitled \" Do We Need a University Trust ? \"\nThe discussion of this paper was opened by James H. Baker, of Colorado, and continued by Messrs. Gove, Greenwood, White, Hoose, and President Taylor.\nMr. Greenwood moved that Mr. Harvey's paper be referred to the Committee on\nNational University.\nCarried.\nAdjourned.\nFIFTH\n\nSESSION.— Monday, 8 p. m., July 10\n\nPresident Taylor explained the absence of Edwin C. Hewett, whose paper on \" Psychology for the Teacher \" had been printed and distributed to members.\nThe paper was discussed by Aaron Gove, J. H. Hoose, and J. M. Greenwood.\n\n(\n\n"}
{"page": 395, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nMINUTES\n\n387\n\nNicholas Murray Butler presented the report of the Committee on Educational\nProgress,\nA vote of thanks was extended to Mr. Butler for his address.\nThe Council adjourned at 10 : 15 P. m.\n\nTHIRD\nSIXTH\n\nDAY\n\nSESSION.— Tuesday, 9:30 a. m., July ii\n\nThe minutes of Monday's session were read and approved.\nThe report of the special Committee on the Relations of Public Libraries to Public\nSchools was presented, and was discussed by J. H. Van Sickle, L. D. Harvey, N. C.\nSchaeffer, George P. Brown, J. M. Greenwood, J. H. Hoose, F. A. Fitzpatrick, and F.\nLouis Soldan.\nThe Committee on Necrology reported that the members who had passed away within\nthe year were Dr. J. M. Baldwin and Dr. Andrew J. Rickoff. Tributes to these members\nwere presented by J. M. Greenwood and Aaron Gove.\nMr. Butler moved that these reports be included in the published report of the\nCouncil, adding : \" It is my lot to belong to a younger generation than that which these\ntwo great teachers adorned. The pettiest vice of youth is ingratitude to age. To have\nknown and to have labored with that band of great men — some of them are happily still\nleft to us — who have interpenetrated the public education of this country, and who founded\nthis association and brought it to greatness, is a high honor and a privilege. Dr. Rickoff\nand Dr. Baldwin were giants of their time. Theirs were \"long, arduous lives, devoted to\nhumanity and to childhood. They had that rare charm of character, sweetness and kindness of disposition, and that consideration for the mistakes and the ignorance of others,\nwhich are the indubitable marks of a great soul. It is fitting that we should pause for a\nmoment to pay high tribute to their memories,\"\nThe Council, by suggestion of President Taylor, stood for some moments, in silent\nrespect to the memory of these two who had passed away within the year.\nEXECUTIVE\n\nSESSION.— Tuesday, 11:30 a. m., July ii\n\nThe Committee on Nominations reported as follows :\nFor President — F. Louis Soldan, of Missouri.\nFor Vice-President — Elmer E. Brown, of California.\nFor Secretary — Miss Bettie E. Button, of Ohio.\n\nThe report of the committee was received and adopted, and the nominees declared\nunanimously elected.\nThe Committee on Memberships then reported as follows :\nMembers of the National Council:\nYour Committee on Memberships respectfully submits the following report :\nWe recommend that the following-named be elected members of the Council :\nD. L, Kiehle, of Minnesota, to succeed himself ; term to expire in 1905.\nN. C. Schaeffer, of Pennsylvania, to succeed himself; term to expire in 1905.\nPaul H. Hanus, of Massachusetts, to succeed himself; term to expire in 1905.\nJoseph Swain, of Indiana, to succeed Miss Mary E. Nicholson; term to expire in 1905.\nE. T. Pierce, of California, to succeed John Dewey ; term to expire in 1905.\nO. T. Corson, of Ohio, to succeed H. S. Tarbell ; term to expire in 1902.\nW. M. Davidson, of Kansas, to succeed C. M. Jordan ; term to expire in 1902.\nW. H. Black, of Missouri, to succeed S. G. Williams; term to expire in 1903.\n(Signed)\n\nC. H. Kkves,\nFor the Committee.\n\nThe report of the committee was received and adopted.\nMr. Greenwood^moved that the president be authorized to make a report for this\n\n"}
{"page": 396, "printed_page": null, "text": "388\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nsession of the Council to tlie Board of Directors of the National Educational Association.\nCarried.\nMr. White gave notice that at the next annual meeting he would offer a resolution\nlooking toward relieving the Council of assuming to conduct so largely the investigations\nof the departments.\nAdjourned to meet at the call of the president.\nEXECUTIVE\n\nSESSION.— Chamber\n\nof Commerce, Tuesday, July ii\n\nThe following communication, which had been referred to the Council by the Board\nof Directors, was received :\nTo the Honorable^ the Directors of the National Educational Association:\nThe undersigned, chairman of the Committee of Ten on Elementary Art Education, created by the Art\nDepartment of the National Educational Association at Washington, D. C, July 8, 1898, respectfully\nrequests, on behalf of the Art Department, an appropriation of $600 to assist in completing their report on \" A\nBasis for a Course of Study in Elementary Art Education.\"\nLangdon S. Thompson,\nChairman of Committee.\nReferred to the Council for recommendation.\nIrwin Shkpard,\nSecretary.\n\nOn motion of Mr. Phillips, a committee was appointed to confer with the committee\nof the Art Department, and to report to the Council in one year.\nPresident Taylor\nnamed as this committee Messrs. Downing, Phillips, and White.\nAdjourned.\nBettie a. Dutton,\nSecretary.\n\nPAPERS\n\nBY\n\nTHE\n\nHOMES\n\nMISS\n\nLUCIA\n\nAND\n\nOF\n\nOUR\n\nSTICKNEY,\nTHE\n\nDISCUSSIONS\nDOWN-TOWN\n\nHUGHES\n\nSUBJECT\n\nOF\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nTHE\n\nREPORT\n\nCHILDREN\nCINCINNATI,\n\nO.\n\nI desire to present to the Council, from the point of view of a settlement resident, a picture of the home life of the greater part of the downtown people whose children are in the public schools. It is not a picture\nof the submerged tenth with whom the police and the slum sisters of the\nSalvation Army have to do, but, perhaps, of a third of the other nine-tenths,\nbetter known to the truant officer, the settlement worker, and the kindergarten teacher.\nTHE\n\nSOURCES\n\nOF INFORMATION\n\nThe settlement, now in its fifth year, is in touch with about seven\nhundred of these families ; our workers visit their homes, and the mothers\nand children come to our house, to the kindergarten, to classes, to\nclubs, to the library, and to the Penny Provident Savings Bank. The story\nof these people would be, in substance, the story of the class ; yet, with\n\n"}
{"page": 397, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nTHE\n\nHOMES\n\nOF\n\nOUR\n\nDOWN-TOWN\n\nCHILDREN\n\n389\n\nthis report in mind, a list of a hundred names and addresses of the children in two rooms of one of our average district schools was obtained\nfrom the teachers. The homes were visited and the mothers invited to\nmeet the teachers in a social way. The round of calls thus made revealed\nnothing new in regard to the general condition, tho it added to the story\nmany interesting details. In addition to this tour of observation, a visit\nwas made to a teacher in one of our best-known schools, whose habit it is\nnever to send for the parent of a delinquent pupil, but to go to the house\nwhen occasion requires. She has in this way become familiar with many\nof the dwellings of the poor children. Her story did not change the\ncharacter of the picture already drawn, but gave to it a decided dash of\ncolor. Then one of the secretaries of the Associated Charities, who is a\nlive cyclopaedia of the dependent families of the city, was called upon ;\nand if the picture can be said to have a flavor, it got it from him. Finally\nthe truant officer devoted an hour to the finish of the picture, brought it\ninto strong perspective, with marked effects of light and shade.\nCASES\n\nCITED\n\nFrom these five sources I have taken ten brief studies of such families\nas would give a fair impression of the general condition, and present\nthem quite at random, as follows :\n•I. An intelligent family, very cordial. The father has been sick for\nseven years, and is now in the last stages of consumption. They have\nbut recently come to poverty. The mother gets sewing from the shops,\nmakes wrappers and shirt-waists — the former at one dollar, the latter at\nseventy-five cents a dozen. By hard work she can earn fifty cents a day.\nThe two children, a boy and a girl, are in school. They both sell papers in\nthe afternoon, making from six to twenty cents, according to the weather.\nThe girl sells more than her brother. In the evening they sit down to\ntheir lessons. They are among the best pupils in the school. The\nmother showed us their exercises with evident pride.\n2. The father and mother at home, bothsilly drunk. The children at\nschool.\nThe house apparently well-kept.\nLace pillow-shams.\n3. Family of fifteen in three rooms. Eleven boys. Nine sleep in two\nbeds opened out and placed side by side, completely filling the room.\nSix in school. The older boys work in the slaughter-house. No carpet ;\nno table-cloth ; no curtains.\nVery pleasant people.\n4. A family of seven. Of the five children four are deaf-mutes. The\nteacher who called to look after the speaking members deplored the\nexistence of such a family of defectives. The mother answered with comforting assurance : \" O, the state will take care of them.\"\n5. The teacher in search of Bessie's mother to inquire why Bessie, a\ngirl of thirteen, did not get her lessons in the evening, was directed to the\nfourth floor, and found herself in an unplastered attic, with a clothes-line\n\n"}
{"page": 398, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n[National :\n\n39°\n\nStretched across. A sick baby lying by the wet clothes. This is a boarding house. The boarders work in the slaughter-house. The table is set\nwith sausage, beer, and black bread. Mattresses are piled up in the hall\nand spread out to sleep on at night. The mother takes in washing, and\nBessie cannot study in the evening because she must help with the ironing. Bessie is studying technical grammar, eight applications of percentage, and the geography of Asia. She hears plenty of profanity at\nhome and gets no hint anywhere of a better way of living.\n6. A family of nine living over a saloon in three rooms. The mother,\nendowed with native energy, is a conscientious drudge. The children\nare neatly dressed. They are bathed three times a week. The mother\nis devoted to them, but slams them around and is unconsciously disagreeable.\n7. A family thriftless, untidy, picturesque, and attractive. The closets\nare full of old clothes which the mother has begged and put away without making over.\n,\n8. A family of ten with a tragic history. The mother died of injuries\ninflicted by the father, who is cruel to the children and treats them shamefully. The oldest, a girl of sixteen, cares for the family. She is going\nto the dogs.\n9. A family of seven in two rooms. Well-to-do, own the building,\nand let out the rooms at a high rent. The house is unsanitary, foul\nsmelling. The family, driving, energetic, disagreeable with each other.\nHave none of the graces.\n10. A family of eleven in two rooms, have an income of seven dollars a week. They are hopelessly dirty. The mother good-natured and\neasy-going.\nThe children have a pretty good time.\nGENERALIZATION\n\nThese studies are given rather as illustrations than as a basis for generalization. The general statement of their condition is not new, but the\nextent of the condition which, in the down-town part of our large cities,\nis growing wider, makes its claim for thoro consideration imperative. It\nappears from the uniform testimony of the settlement worker, teacher,\nand officer that more than half of our down-town people live in tenements,\nusually in two rooms. The size of the family is not limited by the\naccommodations. They sleep anyhow. Many of them have no regular\nmeal time. Food is always about, and the children eat at any time. They\ncall this \"piecing it.\" The less thrifty often live well — that is, have\nchickens on Sunday and Monday, and have very little for the rest of the\nweek. They do not know how to make soup, and have very little practical knowledge of buying or cooking wholesome food. The one absorbing thought is how to make a living, and the aim in rearing children is\nto get them to work so that they can pay them back for what they have\n\n"}
{"page": 399, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nTHE\n\nHOMES\n\nOF\n\nOUR\n\nDOWN-TOWN\n\nCHILDREN\n\n391\n\ndone for them. The father is often without work, and by careful investigation this is shown to be by far the most frequent cause of distress. To\nbe sick and out of work is their despair. So stern a fact is the need of\nmoney that one, in telling the story of the death of one of her children,\nsaid that if it had been the other one, whose life had been insured, that\nhad died, it would not have been so bad.\nWith all their poverty the mother is often orderly, and the rooms so\nclean that you could eat off the floor, but in such a case she is often cross\napd nags the children. It is too often the easy-going, wretched housekeeper who is the kindly and good-natured mother. The poor, like\nmost people, are. illogical, but are imitative, and follow the example of\ntheir betters in being well-dressed, even beyond their means. The visitor\nfinds them cordial and polite, ready to tell their story, and to accept an\ninvitation to the house, tho their doing so does not always mean that they\nwill come. They usually disclaim any intimacy with or knowledge of the\nother families in the house, yet they are really neighborly in spirit and\ngood-hearted. They lack in tenderness and sympathetic treatment of\ntheir children. A mother who will devote herself to a sick baby, sitting\nup days and nights for weeks, has only chidings for the little three-yearold who hurts himself and cries out with pain.\nThe children are kept in school by the law until they are fourteen, or\nlarge enough to be, and then graduated into the factories. A few aim\nhigher and land in the stores. They are without any domestic or\neconomic education, and very seldom become house servants. This would\nbe discouraging for those who seek for their betterment, if they did not\nshow an eagerness to acquire domestic ideas. Nothing has elicited a\ngreater interest, in the woman's club at the settlement, than a course of\nlessons in cooking, and the prize for bread-making awakened much\nenthusiasm.\nTo the poor the gospel is preached. With the Bethel Sunday school\nof 3,000 members, with the manifold mission work of both Protestants and\nCatholics, there is no lack of church privilege, and it would seem that\nin general these people are better church-goers than their fellow-citizens\nof the hill-tops. But these churches hardly undertake to give their people any weekday social life, and in any proper social opportunities they\nare sadly lacking. The factory girls go to balls, often twice a week, but\nthe Shamrock Club of girls from Dublin street, after four years of coming\nto the settlement, declare that they like their club better than going to\nthe ball. It is with this social life that the settlement has largely to do.\nMorality and social habits have been improved in the last ten years. The\nalleys have been furnished with electric lights, which have been a great\nhelp to the police. The untiring efforts of the deaconess, the missionary,\nthe friendly visitor, the slum sister, and the sister of charity, as well as the\nsettlement worker and free kindergarten teacher, are slowly but surely\n\n"}
{"page": 400, "printed_page": null, "text": "392\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nmaking their impression. Charity, courtesy, and good-fellowship have\nbecome contagious. But there is no true home; the domestic life is\ndrudgery and dreariness, and the industrial conditions are black and discouraging.\nThe public school stands in close relation to these conditions. Its\ndiscipline shows itself in these very districts to be by far the greatest of\nthe ameliorating forces. But its work, like the rest, h^s failed to make a\nvisible impress upon the home life. The old name of the humanities needs\nto be applied to a new branch, that of home-making. The work to be done\nfor these people to lift them out of their despair is to make the life at\nhome a part of public education. It is not enough to say that the work\nis already inaugurated, that Boston has its sewing and cooking classes,\nand Chicago its manual-training centers, so long as these conditions of\ntenement life outstrip in their growth all attempts at reform. We read\nthat the London board of education adapts the work in school to the\nneeds of its various classes, without aiming at a uniform system ; that\nParis, thru its mothers' unions, maintains in every district a close relation\nbetween the home and the school. But in our country the tradition of a\nset curriculum and uniform requirements rests too heavily upon the\nschool to hope for a radical change, until it has the stamp of authority of\nthe highest educational forces. The first step toward such a change\nshould be a thoro scientific investigation of the matter. This could be\nmade with comparatively little trouble, since the philanthropic workers in\nthe field could furnish abundant details of domestic conditions. And the\nuniform testimony of these workers will be that the public school is the\nonly channel thru which the better way of living can penetrate into\nthe homes of those who cry, without knowing what they cry : \" Who will\nshow us the better way ? \"\n\nDISCUSSION\n\n[reported by J. M. greenwood]\nMr. Fitzpatrick did not agree with the essayist in regard to the lowest stratum of\nsociety. \" In London 150 years ago,\" he said, \" the level of all life, even that of the best\npeople, was not much higher than that of the people whose condition has been described\nby Miss Stickney. In looking back I am reminded of a school in St. Louis which I had\nin charge, situated in a district comparable to that described by Miss Stickney. In\nwatching the history of the children whom I knew in this school in St. Louis twenty-five\nyears ago, I have been specially gratified to see the number of boys and girls who have\nraised themselves to a higher plane than that of their parents. These families, below the\nlevel, work themselves out and up. The industrial condition is getting better. We need\nto get over the opposite belief, as taught by Carl Marx and Henry George.\"\n\nf\n\ni\n\n"}
{"page": 401, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nTHE\n\nHOMES\n\nOF OUR\n\nDOWN-TOWN\n\nCHILDREN\n\n393\n\nMr. Fitzpatrick broached the great question whether charity work, as ordinarily conducted, results in good or evil. He said that the officials of the oldest Massachusetts\ncharity organization, which has been active for 125 years, declare that it is a matter of\ngrave doubt whether the sum total of what has been accomplished is good or bad. The\nroot of the evil is not reached.\nWork on the line of domestic economy is most helpful in an effort to better conditfons thru the agency of the schools. All observers agree that the poor cannot use\ntheir money properly. A very small sum suffices to feed a family, if it is properly\nexpended. In most poor families the waste is tremendous. More is thrown out in the\ngarbage than is used. The poor should be taught how to expend their money. One\nbranch of work that is bettering conditions is the tearing down of old tenements and the\nconstruction of new ones on scientific lines. The difficulty is experienced that the people\ndo not want to move into the new ones.\nMr. Greenwood expressed the opinion that some parents were unfit to rear children, and in cases of extreme neglect and drunkenness the state should intervene and\nplace such children under wholesome influences. The state had the right to protect itself\nfrom crime.\nHe discussed the \"gangs\" in which the boys of the various neighborhoods organize\nthemselves for mutual protection. He pointed out as a helpful custom the fact that the\nboys and girb in the ward schools of Kansas City know which ones of their classmates\nare in needy circumstances and form committees to supply them with shoes, clothes, and\neven food — not merely at Christmas and Thanksgiving, but thruout the year. The only\nway to find deliverance for the poor is to put them into such a condition that they can\nwork out their own salvation.\nMr. Van Sickle thought that in the lowest stratum of society instances of boys\nand girls raising themselves to a higher plane than the one occupied by the parents are\naltogether too infrequent ; that the process of evolution, depending as it does so much\nupon environment, might be hastened. Light is thrown upon the problem by the experience of thirty years of effort to elevate the negro race. Booker T. Washington has for his\nrace presented the true solution in manual and industrial education along with that which\nis more strictly intellectual. We have come to the same view with regard to the Indian,\nwhom, for over one hundred years, we have been trying to civilize. The people referred\nto in the paper need civilizing. We must accomplish it thru the children. Philanthropic effort has been successful in this field only in demonstrating by experiment the\nmethod which must be used ; for example, the kindergarten, instruction in domestic\neconomy, etc. Some institution (perhaps the public school — no other is now sufficiently\npowerful) must make general those kinds of training which from time to time are proved\nmost effective.\nDr. Harris stated that society may be divided into two classes : those who can take\ncare of themselves, and those who cannot do so. He would not take the child from its\nparents, but leave it in the family, whose training is to be reinforced by the school. On\nthe side of the school, the child is brought to a knowledge of the written language, so\nthat he may be a learner all his life. This is a great step forward in civilization.\nDr. Harris took vigorous exception to Mr. Greenwood's suggestion that the state\nshould take children away from parents whose influence is bad. It is a terrible thing to\nwrench children away from their families. An orphan asylum is one of the saddest of\nsights. I would help a child in his family. Let him come to the school for instruction,\nbut send him back again to his family. Soup houses in connection with public schools\nmight not be a bad thing. There are people who want nurture instead of training. We\nshould strengthen them by our help.\nWhy not have experiments in cooking before the children and then give them the\n\n"}
{"page": 402, "printed_page": null, "text": "394\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nfood that has been cooked ? It would be a good thing to have meetings of the mothers at\nthe schools and in their houses, and teach the mothers how to make their money go farther\nthan it does now.\nHe concluded by sapng that the value of present-day schools must not be underestimated, even where there is no industrial training. The illiterate man has a hard row to\nhoe. He who cannot think in print is enormously inferior to him who can. A man who\nhas once learned to read cannot help learning after that, in this day of newspapers and of\nbooks that cost ten cents, which 400 years ago cost $1,000, and had to be read for the\npeople by a clerk from a volume chained to a desk.\nMr. Soldan saw the school under such universal relations, and the demands becoming so great by the imposition of new tasks, that there was real danger of overloading and\nthrowing on the schools work that belongs to other organizations better equipped. In\nlife the social line of cleavage ran horizontal everywhere, notwithstanding an apparent\nvertical movement in some abnormal localities. The schools should not attempt to do\nall things.\nElmer\n\nE. Brown\n\ndiscussed the two kinds of education known in the Middle\n\nAges — the liberalizing studies which were for the upper classes only, and the industrial\neducation given in the trade? guilds.\nIt is the glory of the American schools that they afford to the very poorest an opportunity to get that liberalizing education which was once solely for the rich. But we ought\nnot to be bound by old conditions. We are recognizing the fact that all the interests of\nman are closely related. We are not willing that a school should minister to only one\npart of man's interests. The artificial stratum which separates the school from the\nhome should be destroyed. The school of today has something to say for the side of a\nman's interest which has to do with his industrial life and his home-making. In liberalizing education we should liberalize the practical side. I have sometimes thought that,\nif in the schools in the working districts the whole afternoon were devoted to instructing\nthe children in practical things, the child's real education, his rounding-out on every side,\nwould be more genuine and more successful.\nJ. H. HoosE said that the sure and cruel laws of nature have been cited to work\ncorrections to certain evils introduced into society by the habits of mankind. Grant this,\nbut is it enough to depend upon these laws to raise humanity to the upper levels of wellbeing ? Shall society rest from its labors, trusting to the ultimate power of nature to\nemancipate mankind fom the evils found therein ? The fact is that man's direct efforts\nmust supplement nature's laws.\nThe paper and the discussions have emphasized ideas which investigations have\nsuggested heretofore. Let them be called foolish ideas. Compare the problem of the\ndown-town children with those of temperance and economics. Students of the temperance question, seeking remedies which touch the source of the evils, have arrived at the\nidea of prohibition. Students of economic conditions have run upon the idea of overpopulation and its effects upon economic well-being. This idea is known as Malthusianism. The point is obvious at once. Let the state create what might be called a\n\n•\"\n\n\" Bureau of Affinities and Heredities,\" and charge it with the duty of supervising the\nproblem of the down-town children.\nStudy this matter scientifically, or else drop it\nentirely.\n\ny\n^«\ni\n\nA new value of the individual man entered into state and society with the idea of\nsuffrage; In early and mediaeval times the few only touched the notion of state. Education and well-being were the prerogatives of the few, the ruling classes.\nThe masses\n\nf\"\n^\n?\n\nseemed to have no rights or inherent needs ; they simply lived as best they could.\nBut\nwhen the man became a voter, his importance to the body politic was magnified. Educational adva'ntages were extended to him and to his children.\nPhilanthropy took an\n\nI\nj\"\n\n"}
{"page": 403, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nTHE\n\nFUTURE\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\n395\n\nextended scope. Education and benevolence now are interested in the homes of the\ndown-town children. The welfare of these children is a problem, not only of education,\nbut more emphatically of economics — in the larger sense, it is a question of sociology.\nMiss Button asked whether it is not possible to reach this problem from the upper\nside by changing the general course of study to meet special conditions. The thought\nwas to teach the pupils the art of living, taking care of the home, and performing its\nduties.\nThe case of a young woman was cited bearing directly on this point.\nGeorge P. Brown said that education must connect itself with all classes by bringing them into closer relation, so that many interests would be common. Home life and\nschool life are mutually dependent. The theoretical and practical school should be\ncombined in the education of the child.\nMiss Stickney, in closing, declared that it is possible for the public school to do a\nwork for the amelioration of society which no other agency, nor all other agencies put\ntogether, can do. The home life, she said, is the point where the work can be done.\nThe free kindergarten was commended as particularly helpful. She inveighed against a\nset curriculum and said that the course of study should be fitted for the need of the individuals. Mothers' meetings, greater intimacy between teacher and pupils, and instruction in domestic economy, were mentioned as possibilities for betterment of social\nconditions.\n\nTHE\n\nBY WILLIAM\n\nFUTURE\n\nT. HARRIS,\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\nUNITED\n\nSTATES\n\nCOMMISSIONER\n\nOF EDUCATION\n\nMany years ago I set myself to the work of studying the methods of\nschools for the training of teachers, having noticed the superiority of\ntheir graduates over those without professional education, both in furnishing skilled teachers and in inspiring them with a professional zeal that\ncauses them to improve for many years after entering the work of teaching. Ihave tried to set down in this paper the grounds for commending\nthe normal school, as it exists for its chosen work of preparing teachers for\nthe elementary schools, and at the same time urging the need of training\nschools with different methods of preparation for the kindergarten below,\nand for the secondary school, the college, and the postgraduate school,\nabove the elementary school.\nIn our time a new epoch is beginning in the study of educational\nmethods. There is a widespread movement known as \" child study,\"\nwhich devotes itself to learning the natural history of infancy, childhood,\nand youth. It will discover the laws of development. It will learn how\nto take the child out of a lower form of intellectual activity into a higher\nform ; how to prevent that mischievous arrest of development which is\nproduced at present by too much thoroness in mechanical methods. It\nwill know the pathology of education as it has never been known before.\nBesides \" child study\" there is progress in the invention of devices of\n\n"}
{"page": 404, "printed_page": null, "text": "396\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\ninstruction. These relate to the discovery of ways and means whereby\nthe child is made more self-active in the process of learning, and not so\ndependent on the teacher's powers of illustration.\nIn this direction an entire new field, that of Froebel's kindergarten,\nhas been occupied and brought under inspection. The educative effect\nof the child's first playthings has been to some extent measured. The\nlullaby of the nurse, the first sight of the moon and stars, the meaning of\nimitation, the relation of what is symbolic to what is conventional ; how\nthe child becomes original and outgrows the merely imitative stage of\nmind ; how to preserve his interest from step to step in a graded system\nof instruction — these are kindergarten problems that furnish much\nthat is of consequence for the study of method in normal schools. But\nthe most important advances in the study of educational methods, those\nwhich warrant us in speaking of a new era in the training of teachers as\nbeing on its advent, have resulted from the movement of colleges and\nuniversities to establish professorships in education. The university\nprofessor, taking up the work of preparation of teachers, has been\nobliged to plan for himself a different line of work from that of the\nstate normal schools and the city training schools. He has to deal with\nstudents advanced beyond elementary and secondary studies into those of\nthe higher education, and he must plan a suitable curriculum for a class\nof students not easily interested in the traditional normal-school course.\nThis difference has gradually become apparent to both classes of teachers.\nIt has become evident that this method of instruction, and the organiza\ntion of the work of training teachers, should vary according to the grade\nof education. There is one method for higher education and another for\nelementary. Within each of these there should be a further discrimination of method, so that five stages of method should be noted.\nFirst, that of the kindergarten, which is adapted to what I call the\nsymbolic stage of the mind, needs a method more like that used by the\nmother of a family than that of the traditional primary school. In the\nsymbolic stage of intellect the child lets one thing stand for another thing,\nand does not think fully in the logical terms of universal, particular, and\nsingular. He does not understand things in their process of derivation.\nHis intellect is an activity of noting resemblances and symbolizing one\nthing by another; and his will-power is chiefly a process of imitation —\nan attempt to body forth by his own effort some event that he sees in the\nworld ; for imitation is the symbolism of action, while pure symbolism is\nthe imitative process of the intellect. Both are crude preliminary stages\nin the entire process of mastering the world by learning all the necessary\nsteps to the true actuality.\nNow, since play unites these two child activities, symbolism and imitation, itis evident that the method of first education with the child, say\nfrom two to six years, must have reference to the play activity, and the\n\n1\n\n"}
{"page": 405, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nTHE\n\nFUTURE\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\n39^\n\nfirst school which the child may enter should be a school having the general characteristics of the kindergarten.\nThe method of the primary school and the grammar school, the two\ndivisions of the elementary school proper, is founded on the habit of\nmind that follows the. symbolic. For after the symbolic stage of mind\ncomes the conventional stage wherein the child struggles for the mastery\nof the signs adopted by civilization for the purposes of collecting and preserving the lessons of experience. These signs are, for example, the written and the printed alphabets, the notations of arithmetic, the technical\nterms used in geography, grammar, and history, and such other technical\nvocabularies as enter the elements of natural science and sociology. The\nchild has also a practical technique to learn in the elements of drawing,\npenmanship, and the limited fields of experiment that must go with the\nmastery of the word-and-idea technique.\nWe can see at a glance how different the method of instruction in the\nelementary school must be from that of the kindegarten. In the latter,\nprecision is not attempted in the technical sense, for that would involve\nan abuse of the intellect and of the will, at the tender age from three to\nsix years. Its work of imitation is a loose sort of production which omits\nthe greater part of the process for the reality of that which is imitated.\nFor instance, the child mimics the farmer sowing the seed or mowing the\ngrass, but does not use seed, or a scythe that will cut anything. In fact\n(if we notice carefully), he does not imitate closely even the motions of\nthe hand or arm. In the symbolic or imitative stage one thing stands\nfor another, and one act for another, when there is only a superficial\nresemblance. Hence the child arrives at only crude unities of thought\nand action in the kindergarten. He is trained to look for unities rather\nthan to find them. But imitation and symbolism strengthen mightily his\npower of attention and his development of bodily skill, while they give\nhim the ability to understand the feelings and motives of the human\nbeings around him. But in the elementary school the child is not taught\nto seek resemblances so much as to analyze and define accurately. He\nmust now individualize facts and events rather than gather them into\nloose aggregates by means of symbols.\nThe chief characteristics of the method of teaching in elementary schools\nmust then be accuracy of definition. The word must be made to recall\nthe child's experience. He must be made to verify for himself by experiment all that can be reproduced by him without costing too much time.\nFor there are many things in the infinite concourse of particulars that do\nnot pay to verify bv experiment. The good normal school shows the\nelementary teacher how to select the typical facts in each department for\nillustration, and where to require much or little practical experiment in the\nway of verification. But everywhere the child's experience must be drawn\nupon for illustration.\n\n"}
{"page": 406, "printed_page": null, "text": "398\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nIn order to fit the teacher to perform this work, the normal schools of\nthis country, since the first one was opened at Lexington under Cyrus\nPeirce, have followed substantially the same tradition and made the chief\npart of their course of study a review of elementary branches — reading,\nwriting, arithmetic, geography, history, and grammar.\nIt has often been said, with the air of an apology, that this review\nwould be unnecessary if it were possible to secure pupils of advanced grade,\nimplying by this that, if the secondary course of an ordinary high school\nhad\nbeen completed,\nbe undertaken\ninstead.this review work i'n the elementary branches would\nBut this is not borne out by experience. The teacher who is to teach\nthese elementary branches after graduation finds no work of preparation\nin the normal school half so valuable as this review of those branches in\nthe light of more advanced studies. No work that is done in the secondary school — that is to say, the high school or the academy — is an\nequivalent for the normal-school work done on the same studies. What\nis learned for the first time in the elementary or the secondary school is\nlearned as a step to what lies beyond. Thus arithmetic is a step toward\nalgebra, and geography a step toward the organic sciences, such as\nbiology, geology, and ethnology. When the pupil has climbed to the\nstudies beyond, he drops the elementary steps out of sight. Of course it\nfollows that, in the high school or in the college, those lower branches\nare not reviewed in the light of the higher branches — arithmetic is not\nstudied anew in the light of algebra and geometry ; descriptive geography\nis not reviewed in the light of physical geography, botany, zoology, and\ngeology ; English grammar is not reviewed in the light of studies in Latin\nand Greek, or in philosophy and logic ; nor the history of the United\nStates seen in its relations to that of Great Britain and the continental\n\n¥\"\n*\n\nI\n;\nI\nIp\n\nnations of Europe.\nBut the teacher needs precisely this re-examination of all his elementary branches in their relations to the higher studies that furnish them their\nrules and laws.\nIt has happened that the American normal school has taken up just\nthis work of review from the beginning, and has performed it well during\nthe entire sixty years of its existence.\nIt has induced in the young men and women preparing for the work\nof teaching a habit of looking at the lower branches in the light of the\nhigher branches from which they derive their principles. This we may\ncall the method of construction; it takes up a branch of study and views\nit constructively — for to study arithmetic in the light of algebra and\n\n?\n\ngeometry is to study it constructively. Its rules are derived from algebraic\nformulae and are to be demonstrated by algebraic processes. So the\ndetails of geography have their explanation in the formative processes\nthat shape the land and water, all of which are treated in physical\n\n*\n||\n-4\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 407, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nTHE\n\nFUTURE\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\n399\n\ngeography, and in the sciences of which it is a compendium. The higher\nthe standard of preparation in the pupils who enter the normal school,\nthe more profitable is this work of reviewing the lower branches in the\nlight of the higher, and thus studying them constructively.\nA good teacher in any grade of work requires the reflective habit fully\nformed. The subject, when first learned, cannot be seen as derivative\nfrom still higher branches. Hence the average graduate of the high\nschool who has not reviewed the elementary branches in the light of the\nhigh-school course of study cannot teach them so well as the normal\ngraduate who has applied the secondary course of study to the elementary\ncourse in a constructive manner.\nThe first learning of a subject is, and must be, largely a work of the\nmemory. For how can the pupil know the derivation of an object until\nhe has first formed some acquaintance with its present state of existence ?\nBut the real knowing begins beyond the process of memorizing ; it\nbegins with reflection upon the data given, and with the discovery of\ninterrelations and the process of derivation from higher sources.\nThe fact that the standard of admission by age into the normal\nschool is higher by two years, three years, or even four years, makes a\ngreat difference in the work of studying branches constructively. Nothing is more important than age in the preparation for a reflective habit of\nmind.\nHence the normal school finds it possible to conduct all of its lessons\nwith special attention to method. While the pupil of an elementary\nschool learns a lesson in arithmetic, geography, or grammar only with\nthe object in view of clearly understanding it, the normal-school pupil is\nalways to think of the method of explaining this and making it clear to\nboys and girls.\nHe not only masters the branch of study as presented in the textbook or by the professor, but he studies critically the method of presentation of book and teacher, and thus acquires a critical point of view.\nThe class work and recitations of the normal school, therefore, take the\nstudent by surprise at first. He supposed himself to understand already\nthe simple branches — geography, grammar, arithmetic — but he discovers\nnow that there were a thousand phases of each lesson which he had not\nbefore noticed. He sees the importance of a full preparation on the part\nof the teacher, if he is to be able to take advantage of the opportunities\nwhich the class exercise will give him to correct wrong views and bad\nmethods of preparing the lesson.\nHe therefore studies his second lesson with many side-questions in\nview. He improves from day to day, and in the course of a year he has\nformed a new ideal of the best method of study. He has passed from\nthe method of following the lead of the text-book and committing it to\nmemory to the better method\nof critical investigation.\nFormerly he\n\n"}
{"page": 408, "printed_page": null, "text": "400\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nwould have been satisfied with a pupil who repeated verbatim the words\nof the book, and would have done little to probe the understanding.\nNow he would go directly behind the words of the book into the pupil's\nunderstanding and 'teach him how to think — how to investigate for himself. For the teacher has acquired in the normal school the habit of\ncomparing one statement with another and with the results of his actual\nexperience. He penetrates the plan of construction of the book itself.\nThis makes him a shining light for his pupils.\nWe must not suppose for a moment that any other fine qualities, any\nacquaintance with educational devices or what are called \" fads \" or\nfashions, will make up for a defect in this knowledge of the constructive\nmethod.\nThe solid foundation of successful work would be lacking.\nThis view, if correct, will explain to us the improvement that has\ncome to our elementary schools from the multiplication'of public normal\nschools supported by the state or the municipality, or founded on their\nmodel by private enterprise.\nThe records show that in the past seventeen years the enrollment in\nnormal schools supported by states or cities has increased from about\n10,000 pupils to something over 43,000. The attendance on normal\nschools founded and supported by private enterprise has increased from\nabout 2,000 to 24,000, tho the increase has been very slow in the past\nthree years. I have obtained the earlier terms of this ratio by revising\nthe data furnished in the reports of 1880. Up to 1890 the statistics of\nnormal schools did not carefully separate the pupils enrolled in the preparatory department from those in the regular course of study. I have,\ntherefore, revised the earlier data, which show 25,736 students in public\nand private normal schools in 1880, and reduced that number by a little\nmore than one-half. Thus revised, the figures stand 12,000 in 1880 and\n67,380 in 1897. In 1880 there were 240 normal students in each million\nof inhabitants; in 1897 there were 936 in each million.\nThe normal school, it may be said, in view of the explanation I have\njust now given of its instruction, has the general effect of making its\npupils observant of methods.\nThe ordinary person sees results, but does not take note of the\nmethods by which they are produced. Hence the teacher who has never\nreceived instructions in a normal school may happen to be a good\nteacher, but it is quite unusual for him to understand how he secures his\nown results ; and he is not often able to profit by seeing the work of\nother good teachers. For he cannot readily see what method they use,\nnot having acquired the habit of looking at methods. On the other hand,\nthe normal-school graduate can seldom visit a successful school without\ncarrying away some new idea, or at least some new device of method.\nHence normal-school graduates continue to grow in professional skill for\nten, twenty, or even thirty years, while it is said truly that the teachers\n\n"}
{"page": 409, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nTHE\n\nFUTURE\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\n401\n\nnot from normal schools usually reach their maximum skill in from three\nto five years. After that period degeneration is apt to set in because of\nthe fixation of method in ruts — a mechanical habit grows on the teacher\nwho does not readily see how his mannerisms look to other people. He\nbecomes a pedagog in the bad sense of the word, and is a living caricature of his profession.\n■\nIt would be supposed that what we have called the constructive\nmethod is a final one and good for all grades of pupils above the rank of\nelementary. There is, however, a difference between the method of elementary instruction and that of secondary ; and a further difference\nbetween the latter and higher instruction. <\nThe elementary course of study is adapted to the eight years of school\nlife extending frorh the seventh to the fourteenth year of age. The\ncourse of study deals largely with what have been called \"formal studies,\"\nnamely with those relating to arts, such as reading, writing, and numerical\ncalculation, and hence, as we have before seen, the acquirement of the\nuse of technical words as tools of thought. Altho the distinction between\nformal studies and studies with a content is a superficial one, because all\nstudies have a content, and the higher studies relate more to a content\nthat is made up of forms — for example, higher geology relates to the\nlaws of succession of the rock strata and to the laws of action of cosmic\nforces, and these laws are forms that govern the geologic facts of observation ;or, for another example, in biology, science pays most attention\nto the mode of behavior of plants and animals, and behavior concerns the\nform of action, and this form of action determines the particulars of all\nlife — the zoologist would be unwise who should neglect the study of the\nmodes of expression and communication of bees and ants, or of monkeys\nand crows, on the ground that language is a formal affair.\nYet we must admit that the child under fourteen years of age, when he\nhas mastered the technique of knowledge in the elementary school, has\nnot yet acquired much knowledge of human nature, nor of the world of\nfacts and forces about him. He can grasp isolated details, but cannot\nmake large combinations, nor perceive whole processes when they are\ncomplex.\nIt is, therefore, a necessary characteristic of elementary instruction,\nin comparison with secondary or higher, that it must take the world of\nhuman learning in fragments, and that, after all has been done to arouse\nthought and reflection, the memory will have more to do than the thinking power. The child cannot separate so well the personal equation\nfrom the results of his observation, nor can he help his warped views or\nhis narrow prejudices. He is full of superstitions, and cannot discriminate readily between what he actually sees and what he believes that he\nsees because he expected to see it.\nFrom\nthese reasons it is obvious\nthat elementary instruction\nis,\n\n"}
{"page": 410, "printed_page": null, "text": "402\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nperforce, obliged to deal more with facts than with broad, general principles; that it must return oftener to the immediate object and dwell less\non the process of its construction by producing forces. The training\nof the teacher in the habit of tracing a lower order of facts constructively\ninto the higher order from which it has been derived makes him alive to\nthe shortcomings of the mind of the child and more skillful in finding\nthe facts that will serve as types of the process. If one is to describe in a\nword the success of the elementary teacher, he will say that he is successful in bringing typical facts before the mind of the pupil, and in stimulating the pupil to analyze them and find the law or principle embodied\nin them.\nEvery fact is a synthesis or combination. For every fact takes\ntogether a series of things and events, and also excludes other series of\nthings and events. Let me illustrate this by the fact of the fall of the\napple and the observation of the law of gravity by Isaac Newton. The\nfall of the apple was at first a fact of very small compass — so sm^U, indeed,\nthat a swine could comprehend it and hasten to appease his appetite\nby eating the apple ! But the fact of the movement of the moon in\nits orbit was another fact that had no apparent relation to the fall of\nthe apple until Newton happened to notice it, just then looking to see\nwhence the apple fell and observing the moon thru the branches of the\ntree. But to Newton thenceforward both facts became one in the law of\ngravity.\nIt is easy to say that minds differ by the size of the facts which they\nare able to think.\nThe child's mind is comparatively feeble and makes\nsmall combinations ; the youth in the high school has gained in power\nof thought, and his facts are much larger and contain more heterogeneous\nelements — such as moons and apples, stars and mountains, land and sea\nand air, all tied together by gravitation.\nAgain, in this reference, the young man or young woman graduating\nfrom college has learned to think still more complex facts, and from three\nor four observations on a comet to map out its path in the sky, or from\nthe form of a word and its meaning tell the grade of culture of the\npeople that use it.\nThe postgraduate student who is concentrating all his studies on a\nnarrow field comes in time to know it exhaustively thru his own observations, and to Cuvier a single bone of some extinct animal enables him to\ndraw the entire skeleton, or to Agassiz a scale reveals the whole fish, or to\nLyell a pebble tells the history of its formation under the glaciers.\nIt is perfectly obvious that the teacher must be all the time carefully\nobservant of the power of synthesis in the pupil's mind ; that is to say, of\nthe caliber of the facts which he can think, and if he would be helpful to\nthat pupil, he must know how best to strengthen his power of synthesis.\nSecondary education deals with a second order of facts as readily as\n\nj\n\\\n\n"}
{"page": 411, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nTHE\n\nFUTURE\n\nOF THE\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\n403\n\nelementary education deals with the first order. The second order of\nfacts consists of a group of things and events systematically arranged so\nthat each fact or event throws light on all the rest, and all the rest in\nturn explain it. Such a group is a science. The se.condary pupil has\nfor the predominating activity of his mind the connecting of facts and\nevents into such scientific wholes, following the tradition left by investigators whose united labors have made these sciences and left them to the\nrace.\nTo the elementary pupil a typical fact is the chief mental object. But\nto the secondary student the object is a fact of the second order, namely,\na science in which a whole field of facts and events has run together\ninto a higher fact. He is to learn how to see scientific relations everywhere.\nSecondary instruction, properly so called, lays stress on this scientific\nunity, which swallows up the many facts of its province much in the same\nway that the sea swallows up its waves.\nSecondary teachers need deeper studies such as can be found alone in\nthe college or university. Because they deal with a tendency in their\npupils to combine all primary facts into secondary facts or systems, they\nhave to govern the spirit of their teachings by a still higher principle, and\nthis is the unity of the sciences. We see that, as any given science is a\nsecond order of fact, so the unity of the sciences is itself a third order\nof fact.\nIt is the comparative method that dominates higher education, such as\nis given by the college or university in its academic course, which leads to\nthe degree of bachelor of arts. For each branch of learning is studied in\nthe light of all the others in a genuine college course ; its method is the\ncomparative method.\nRecapitulating for the sake of clearness : (i) The infancy period of\neducation in the kindergarten requires a method of instruction adapted\nto the symbolic and imitative stage of the mind. (2) The elementary\nschool demands the method that can seize and analyze typical facts, these\nfacts being of the first order, that is to say, facts that are not yet treated\nas organized into groups by science, but are capable of such treatment.\n(3) Secondary education requires the method which deals with the large\nfacts that include entire groups of facts systematically arranged, while\nhigher education deals with a still larger fact, namely the several sciences\nunified into a single group by the comparative method, so that each\nscience helps explain all, and all each.\nIt is obvious that the method of higher education deals from first to\nlast with a view of the world, a theory of the unity of nature and its\npurpose. It is the ultimate fact of the universe, what the poet Tennyson\ncalls the\nFar-off divine event towards which the whole creation moves.\n\n"}
{"page": 412, "printed_page": null, "text": "4<54\n\nNATrOMAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nt^^ationat\n\nSee every fact in its group, this is the scientific view. See every group\nof facts in the light of every other group, and you see the trend and purpose of the whole, and you possess a world-view.\nIt is true that a world-view is one of the first things given to the\nchild by the family. It is given in the form of religion and on sinjple\nauthority. But higher education has for its chief object the intellectual\nvision of the unity that makes the world an image of the divine Reason.\nThat which was blind faith is to become intellectual and moral insight,\nas the result of the first part of higher education. But there is a second\npart of the higher education ; it includes what is now called postgraduate work for the degree of Ph.D. This second part of higher education\nis specialized work, with a view to form experts. It requires the student\nto perform experiments in the laboratory and to undertake researches in\nthe library, and it accompanies these with round-table discussions called\n\"seminaries.\" In the postgraduate work the student selects a province\nso narrow that he may explore it thoroly and add by original research\nsome new piece of knowledge to the stock of human learning already\nextant. The number of advanced students taking this course for three\nyears in laboratory or seminary work has increased in twenty-five years\nfrom 200 to 5,000, or twenty-five times what it was in 1872. It is the work\nof the university proper, as contrasted with the academic or philosophic\ncourse of study lasting four years and leading to the degree of bachelor\nof arts. The method of instruction in this department of postgraduate\nwork is that of free investigation, aided by the example of professors\ngifted in the art of original discovery. To mention examples, that of\nAgassiz will occur to everyone as an eminent teacher of the highest\nmethod of natural science ; Joseph Henry in physics ; Chauvenet in\nmathematics ; Lotze in philosophy, and Wundt in experimental psychology;Woolsey in constitutional law; Stanley Hall in child study ;\nFaraday in chemistry, and Huxley in biology. The list is too long to be\nprinted here. But one will be able by these few names to recognize the\nmethod of the teachers .of the specialists.\nBeside, but apart from this class, stand the teachers of the college\nundergraduates, and the teacher of the teachers here is the professor who\nelevates into consciousness the method of giving young men and young\nwomen an insight into the world-view. Such men as the late Thomas\nHill Green, of Oxford, and John Caird, of the University of Glasgow ;\nCousin, of France, and Schelling and Hegel, of Germany; Mark Hopkins,\nof Williams College, and Professor Minor, of the University of Virginia ;\nHickok, of Amherst College, and McCosh, of Princeton — these and\nothers of the same type have shown power to train up teachers who are\nskilled in the method of higher education for culture — the undergraduate course, whose object is to see intellectually the unity of knowledge in\nphilosophy and comparative science.\nAmong the eminent teachers of\n\nr\n\n"}
{"page": 413, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nTHE\n\nFUTURE\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\n405\n\nteachers in secondary education one thinks of Sturm, who may almost be\nsaid to have created the type of the academy as a fitting school for the\ncollege or university. Samuel H. Taylor, of Phillips Academy, Andover,\nis a good example of the teacher powerful in training secondary teachers,\nfor he impressed his method very strongly on his pupils. Cyrus Peirce,\nof the first normal school in the United States, was emphatically the type\nof the instructor of teachers in elementary methods.\nThis survey of the five steps or stages in education and their differences of method brings us to the further consideration of the new era that\nis now opening for normal schools; for it is evident that no longer can\nthe teaching of teachers be limited to one method, that of the elementary\nschool. It must rather be a comparative study of methods investigating\nthe proper way of presenting a given branch to a pupil in any one of the\nfive stages, and discussing the modifications needed to adapt the subject\nto any one of the other four stages. In the department of education of\nthe university the students will be taught how to present a branch of study\nsymbolically according to the method of the kindergarten ; by typical\nfacts as in the elementary schools ; scientifically as in the secondary\nschool ; comparatively as in the college ; as a specialist would investigate\nit, in the postgraduate course.\nMost important of all these methods is the true method of the\nacademic or undergraduate course in the college. I have described it\nas comparative, dealing with the unity of the several branches of\nhuman learning and laying emphasis on the world-view implied by\nthis unity.\nThe greatest additions to our educational theory will be derived from\nthis study of method in the college. For it is grounded on the history\nof civilization (what the Germans name Kidturgeschichte). The comparative history of civilization — or, as it is called more frequently, the\nphilosophy of history — furnishes the ultimate principle by which to solve\nthe deepest questions relating to the course of study : the educational\nvalues of- each of the several branches, the construction of school programs, the limits in educative power of the several component stages in\nthe fivefold system of education beginning with the kindergarten and\nending with specialization in the university, involving the much-discussed\nquestion of electives and substitutes in the course of study.\nThe discussions of these important questions will draw into controversy the directors of the present normal schools on the one hand, and the\nprofessors of education in the universities on the other, and the future\nhistory of the normal school will show the gradual adoption of the Kulturgeschichte %\\.d.r\\.di'\\^o\\x\\t — the discussion of all educational questions in\nhe light of the history of civilization as a court of last resort.\n\n"}
{"page": 414, "printed_page": null, "text": "4o6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nDISCUSSION\n[reported by j. h. van sickle]\nMiss Button. — Does your statement as to the excellence of normal-trained\nteachers apply to graduates of the ordinary city training school with its one-year course ?\nDr. Harris. — At what age are the pupils admitted ?\nMiss Dutton. — At graduation from the high school.\nDr. Harris. — Yes, my remarks apply to them.\nMr. Greenwood spoke of the strictly professional work of the ideal normal school,\nthe short average term of service of teachers, and the consequent need of a larger supply of\nteachers than the normal school adhering to the strictly professional course could\nfurnish.\nMr. Soldan. — Tho the movements in the kindergarten are symbolic, they go beyond\nthat and furnish formal explanations in the most universal language, that of gesture.\nNormal schools owe their origin to two sources, an ideal need and an actual need,\nwhich the particular school has to meet. High-school graduation is desirable as a condition for entrance. Rural schools should draw teachers from those who will understand\nthe conditions. The normal school trains for a definite and uniform task, that is, to\nteach the studies common to all elementary schools. In high-school work no such\ncertainty exists. Only the elements and principles that underlie all teaching can be\ntaught to intending high-school teachers. The normal school for secondary-school\nteachers will lack the element prominent in the present normal school, namely, a review .\nof studies in the light of how they should be taught.\nMr. Shepard.— The geography taught in the normal school is not at all like the\ngeography taught in the grammar school.\nIt is unfortunate that normal schools in the same state having the same courses and\nthe same conditions of entrance graduate on different conditions. The normal school of\nthe future will make differentiation a part of its plan.\nThe city training school with a course of one year cannot be ranked with one\nhaving a longer course. One year is wholly inadequate to bring about a teaching attitude. Two years at least should be required after graduation from a high-school course.\n\nPRELIMINARY\n\nREPORT\n\nON SCHOOL\n\nHYGIENE'\n\nTo the Department of Superintendence of the National Educational Association :\nThe undersigned, chairman of a committee\nappointed at the last\nannual meeting of this department to' report on important topics relating\n' A Committee on School Hygiene was appointed by President Schaeffer at the\nmeeting of the Department of Superintendence at Chattanooga, Tenn., February 22-24,\n1898, as follows:\nW. T. Harris, Washington, D. C; Frank A, Hill, Boston, Mass.; John R. Kirk,\nJefferson City, Mo.; F. L. Soldan, St. Louis, Mo.; A. P. Marble, New York city; E. O.\nLjrte, Millersville, Pa. ; W. E. Wilson, Providence, R. I. ; W. L. Bryan, Bloomington,\nInd. ; W. A. Mowry, Hyde Park, Mass.\n\n"}
{"page": 415, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council] ■\n\nPRELIMINARY\n\nREPORT\n\nON SCHOOL\n\nHYGIENE\n\n40 7\n\nto hygiene in the schools, and to make recommendations for the further\ninvestigation of the subject, would hereby report that he has held consultation with the several members of his committee, by correspondence and\nin some cases by personal interview, and he finds all to be in favor of\nrecommending a thorogoing investigation and report, to be prepared by\nexperts, the same to relate to the essentials of hygiene and to present not\nmerely ideals regarding the seating of schoolrooms, methods of lighting,\nheating, and ventilation, but to deal with the practical conditions as they\nare found existing in the school buildings in the United States.\nThe committee was appointed pursuant to the following resolution :\nThis department approves of the plan of creating a committee whose duty it is to\nmake or cause to be made a scientific determination of the factors involved in the subjects\nof seating, lighting, ventilating, and heating of school buildings ; and to this end prepare\nand present to this body at the meeting in 1899 a preliminary report setting forth the\nnature of the problems involved and its recommendation for the further prosecution of the\ninquiry — said committee to consist of nine members, as follows : the United States Commissioner of Education, two state superintendents of public instruction, two presidents of\nnormal schools, two city superintendents, and two other persons.\n\nIt is taken for granted that the preparation of such a report would need\nan appropriation of money from the treasury of the association, and two\nplans have been proposed, the first of which contemplates the appointment\nof a committee of experts somewhat after the plan of the Committee of Ten,\nwith an appropriation to be at least ^2,500, or possibly a larger sum. The\nother plan proposes that a series of four prizes be offered for essays on the\nessential points of school hygiene, the same to discuss ideals and compare\nthem with conditions that exist, in such a manner as to aid the teacher, the\nsuperintendent, and the members of school committees to criticise intelligently what they find in operation, apply cheap but effective devices to\ncorrect its defects, and decide rightly in regard to new models placed\nbefore them for adoption. The expense to the association may be much\nless on this plan. It might offer, for instance, only $100 for each essay,\nand in that case $400 would cover the entire expense of the four essays\nproposed. Or, again, a larger sum, ^200, might be offered, and a total\nof $800 expended.\nWhatever scheme should be adopted, your committee is of the opinion\nthat neither the report of a committee of experts nor the special prize\nessays should undertake to exhaust the subject of school hygiene on the\none hand or deal with vague generalities on the other ; it should treat of\neach of the most important topics one by one, and so as to aid the teacher\nto make the best of existing conditions and enlighten public opinion on\nthe subject of hygienic ideals or models.\nIn the hygienic literature of the time it is believed that too little care\nhas heen exercised in discussing the essentials and in setting forth true\ntheories and establishing them by clear demonstrations. The teacher\ndoes not wish mere authorities, mere oracular statements without proof.\n\n"}
{"page": 416, "printed_page": null, "text": "4o8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n[N ational\n\nHe wishes the grounds of conviction, the reasons for the principles laid\ndown; for the grounds and reasons help him to judge and make him a\ncritical observer.\nThe existing books on school hygiene often present a bewildering\nvariety of details, some of which are essential and some of which are of\nvery remote utility. They often treat trifling details with as much fullness as principles which are vitally important. Another defect is that\nthey give contradictory views on the most important topics of school\nhygiene, without critically sifting their grounds and aiding the teacher to\nchoose better.\nThe topics named in the resolution adopted at Chattanooga are four\nin number: (i) seating, (2) ventilation, (3) light, (4) heating. Taking\nup these topics in their order, illustrations of the above-named will occur\nreadily to anyone familiar with both rural schools and city schools. It\nwill often happen that the visitor sees children in the primary grades, and\nsometimes in the upper grades, sitting upon benches too high to allow\ntheir feet to rest squarely upon the floor. The consequence of this is the\ncongestion of blood in some parts of the lower limbs, and this may lead\nto aneurism or varicose veins, and perhaps to other evils quite as bad.\nAgain, it must be admitted that upward of 95 per cent, of the school\nbuildings in the United States depend upon windows and doors for ventilation instead\n;\nof controlling currents of fresh air which enter the room\nby distributing them so that a thin sheet of air will come in only at the\ntop of each window and get warmed before it reaches the floor, it generally happens that the room is carelessly ventilated in all weathers by\nopening windows at the bottom, and by making a large opening at the\nbottom of one window instead of small openings at the tops of all the\nwindows. Hence a cascade of cold air pours into the room upon the\nshoulders and necks of the children seated nearest the window; and while\nsome pupils get too much fresh air, other pupils get very little. The\npupils seated nearest the windows grow up with tendencies to rheumatism\nand weak lungs due to colds that they have taken, and to congestions due\nto currents of air upon their heads and shoulders.\nAgain, as to lighting the rooms. The correct principles to be adopted\nfor lighting a schoolroom require that the light shall come from the left\nside, from the back of the room, and two and one-half to three feet above\nthe floor. The aggregate surface of the windows must bear a certain\nproportion to the depth of the room and to the surface of the floor. The\nwindows must be placed along the wall, near together, in such a manner as to distribute the light properly to all parts of the room. It is,\nhowever, well known by all inspectors of schoolrooms that one-room\nschools in rural districts are quite frequently lighted from three sides, and\nthat nearly all the children sit facing the light. It is true, also, that in\nsome city schools children are seated so that the light comes from the\n\n"}
{"page": 417, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nPRELIMINARY\n\nREPORT\n\nON\n\nSCHOOL\n\nHYGIENE\n\n409\n\nright side instead of from the left. Even in the cities which pride themselves on the amount of money expended in school buildings and on the\nenlightened progress which they have made in school architecture it is\nquite common to find rooms lighted from only one side, whereas the\nlight, if possible, should come from the left side and from the rear,\nespecially in localities which use soft coal for fuel. In that part of Germany where the plan of lighting schoolrooms from one side originated it\nis presumed that the schoolrooms are arranged so as to get northern light\nonly; for a northern exposure does not need the use of blinds or window shades to shut out the direct rays of the sun. Where the only light\ncomes from the east the direct rays of the sun will shine upon the pupil's\nbook or face till 10 or 11 o'clock in the forenoon, unless it is excluded\nby window shades, and, if excluded, the room will not receive sufficient\nlight for pupils on the side of the room farthest from the windows.\nAgain, the room lighted solely from the south must e?iclude the direct\nlight of the sun from 10 in the morning until 2 in the afternoon from\nthe pupils who sit nearest the windows. The pupils sitting farthest from\nthe window naturally adopt the habit of holding the books nearer to their\neyes when the light is dim, and in this way become nearsighted ; and,\nthru sympathy with the strain upon the eyes in study, the stomach\nbecomes disordered. Nervous dyspepsia and headaches abroad in the\ncommunity owe their origin, to some extent, to this defect in school buildings. Of course, the rooms facing the west get direct sunlight after i\nor 2 p. M., and incur the same dangers to pupils as the rooms facing the\nsouth or the east. Rooms that are lighted from the left and back of\nthe pupil, having light from two sources, can provide against- the alternative of direct sunlight or a deficiency of light. In the time of the Centennial Exposition of Philadelphia the National Educational Association\nhad discussed so fully the necessity of light from two sources -in a room,\nnamely, from the left side and back, that very few new buildings were\nconstructed with defects in this regard. It was settled that for large\nbuildings there should be four rooms to each floor, one for each corner,\nand the pupils so seated that they would receive light from the left side and\nrear. Ten or fifteen years later large school buildings began to be built\non plans that required six or eight rooms to each floor ; besides the four\nregular schoolrooms occupying the four corners on each floor, two or four\nother rooms were placed between the corner rooms and were lighted only\nfrom windows on one side; and this, too, without reference to the point\nof compass which the windows faced; thus one room received light from\nthe north and the other three rooms respectively from the east, south, and\nwest. A strong child can endure, without permanent injury, the evils of\nbad lighting and ventilation, if the school attendance amounts to only\neighty or one hundred days in a year, and he has plenty of exercise in the\nopen air. But where the school attendance runs up to one hundred and\n\n"}
{"page": 418, "printed_page": null, "text": "410\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCLATLON\n\nI\n\n[National\n\nfifty or two hundred days, as is customary in cities, bad arrangements for\nlighting and ventilation become a much more serious matter.\nRural schools are often heated by an open fireplace, with wood as fuel.\nWhere the chimneys do not smoke this method of heating gives plenty\nof good ventilation, and sufficient heat for the children seated near the\nfireplace or in the center of the room. Quite naturally the pupils in the\nouter rows of seats, near the walls of ihe room, suffer in cold weather from\ncurrents which move down the surface of the windows. After the open\nfireplace came the box stove, making one part of the room very hot and\noverheating the top of the room with the stovepipe, while other parts of\nthe room and all places near the floor were cold. Poor ventilation took\nthe place of the good ventilation of the open fireplace, and unequal heating\nstill remained. The hot-air furnace, the steam coil, and hot-water pipes\nsucceeded the air-tight stove.\nPerhaps the best apparatus for ventilation is the costly steam fan,\nwhich pours into the room fresh air, first heated to a proper temperature\n\ni\n\n'\nW\n\nby passing over steam coils. Heating and ventilation are so closely connected as to be substantially one process. By the fan propelled by steam,\nfresh air is brought in and the foul air is driven thru ventilating flues and\nthru the windows and doors. But this best apparatus is a luxury too\ncostly for most cities. Various devices have been adopted to draw the\nfoul air from the room into a ventilating chimney heated by the metallic\nsmokestack extending thru its center from the basement to the top of the\nschool building. The heat of the smokestack has the effect of warming\nthe column of air between it and the walls of the chimney, and causing an\nupward current, which draws the foul air out of the bottom of each room\nwith more or less efficiency; but it will be found that this ventilating system does not work equally well in all rooms, owing to the direction of\nthe wind or to some defect in the construction of the flue. The ventilating fan, which forces the fresh air into the room, works well under all\nconditions.\nOne thing wanted is a series of simple directions by which a rural\nschool of one room, or a city school in which no ventilating flues have\nbeen provided, may have fresh air without chilly currents. In some cases\na carpenter with a few boards may build a flue, with an opening at the\nbottom of the room, by which the ventilation may be improved.\nIt is, of course, unreasonable to expect teachers to understand the\nprinciples of ventilation unless they know thoroly the theory of the\ndynamics of air and heat. They must be so familiar with this subject that\nthey will conceive the air of the room, not as static, but as in a state of\nmotion due to the constant movements of the pupils and to the changes\nof temperature caused by the heating apparatus. There is a constant\naccess of carbonic acid, due to the exhalations from the lungs and bodies\nof the pupils.\nThe teacher must realize that in a heated room the air\n\n*\n\n"}
{"page": 419, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nPRELIMINARY\n\nREPORT\n\nON\n\nSCHOOL\n\nHYGIENE\n\n411\n\ntends to escape at the top, and the cold air tends to come in at the bottom\nof the room. Carbonic acid, altho heavier than common air, rises to\nthe top of the room when the air is heated and in motion. Nevertheless, the ideal method of ventilating the room is to draw out or force\nout the air at the bottom of the room. The teacher who understands the\ndynamics of heated air will know that the air does not leave the room\nat the bottom unless outside force is applied.\nIt is the opinion of the members of your committee that the prize\nessays, if called for, should be required to present in a brief and clear\nmanner the rationale of these things.\nIf it meets the approval of this department, the four topics already\nnamed can be formulated so as to draw the special attention of a number\nof experts to the essential points to be considered, and secure such a discussion of the questions involved as will be of service both to the teachers\nusing antiquated school buildings and to the trustees and superintendents\nseeking the latest and best models.\nIt is proposed that this report be referred back to the committee for\nfurther conference and for the formulation of the questions to be submitted\nfor prize essays; further, that this report, thus amended and completed,\nbe referred to the National Council of Education by this Department\nof \"Superintendence for such consideration and action as may seem\nadvisable in view of all the circumstances. To the Council belongs the\nbusiness of looking into the expenditure of the moneys of the association\nfor such matters as special reports and prize essays. The following\nresolution' embodies these recommendations, and is herewith reported\nfor your action :\nResolved, That the preliminary report of the Committee of Nine\nappointed at the Chattanooga meeting of the Department of Superintendence to make or cause to be made a scientific determination of the factors\ninvolved in the subjects of seating, lighting, ventilating, and heating of\nschool buildings, be referred back to said Committee of Nine for further\ndiscussion and for such modifications as may seem to them proper; and\nthat said amended report be brought to the attention of the president of\nthe National Council of Education, with the request from this body of\nsuperintendents that its recommendations be considered and such action\nbe taken as in the opinion of the Council may further the best interests\nof education.\nRespectfully submitted,\nWilliam T. Harris,\nChairman.\nBureau of Education,\nWashington, D. C.\n' This resolution was then adopted by the Department of Superintendence at its meeting in Columbus in February, 1899.\n\n"}
{"page": 420, "printed_page": null, "text": "I\n412\n\nTHE\n\nBY\n\nCHARLES\n\nMATfONAL\n\nEDUCATIOA/AL\n\nASSOCIATION^\n\nDIFFERENTIATION OF THE\nSE CONDA R Y SCHO OL\n\nH.\n\nKEYES,\n\nPRINCIPAL\n\nOF\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL,\n\n[National\n\nAMERICAN\n\nHOLYOKE,\n\nMASS.\n\nIn ordinary educational parlance the term \"secondary school\" st;inds\nfor the institution which immediately succeeds the primary or elementary\nschool. The elementary school occupies the child for the first seven\nto nine years of his school life, and, in the language of the report of the\nCommittee of Fifteen, \"deals with the immediate aspects of the world,\nwith the particular instances rather than with the general forms.\" It\nexercises discipline, chiefly in apperceiving, imagining, and remembering.\nIt should furnish the child the tools of knowledge needed for all subsequent education. The school which takes the pupil for the next three or\nfour years, admission to which presupposes the substantial completion of\nthe elementary curriculum, is the institution whose differentiation is to be\nconsidered. The term will thus cover all the schools above elementary\nand below college grade. This common interpretation of the term is\nboth convenient and comprehensive, and no other exactly covers the\ngroup of institutions which are neither distinctively elementary nor collegiate, which contain today over 600,000 students, and command the\nservices of more than 25,000 teachers.\n1. The differentiation to be considered is the variation in the\ncharacter of the curriculum to meet the distinct aims and conditions of\nvarying classes of pupils. In public education in the United States this\ndifferentiation is due largely to variation in aim. Public elementary\nschools present no differentiation, for the simple reason that the aim is\neverywhere practically the same, giving the normal child mastery of the\ncommon tools of knowledge, and furnishing the minimum training for\ncitizenship without regard to social class, sex, or condition.\nWhen the secondary-school age is reached, special aptitudes and limitations begin to manifest themselves more markedly ; social and physical\ndifferences to assert themselves. Pupils begin to select, with more or less\ndefiniteness, spheres of activity in life, and to demand that their future\neducation shall directly aid in realizing these chosen ambitions. Parents\nrecognize limitations, and ask the school to make concessions to these\nconditions. In an endeavor to discover what differentiation is to be, and\nbe justified, there will be no more promising way to begin than by studying what has been, and examining its justification.\n2. In American secondary education, differentiation has taken place\non the basis of {a) control, {p) sex, {c) comparative educational values,\nand {(i) closely specialized aim.\nOn the basis of control we distinguish\n\n"}
{"page": 421, "printed_page": null, "text": "CouncilJ\n\nDIFFEKENTIATION\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nSECONDARY\n\nSCHOOL\n\n4^3\n\nsecondary schools as public and private ; each of which groups presents\nas subclasses all of the fifteen variations produced on the basis of sex,\ncompleteness, and specialization. It is important to notice the reason for\nthe existence of private schools. They are five in number : {a) to preserve social class lines and cultivate social exclusiveness ; (J)) to meet conditions of special limitations in physical or intellectual power; {c') to\nmeet the condition of lack of amenability to ordinary modes of control,\nlack of self-control, etc. ; (^) to inculcate special forms of religious faith\nand practice; {e) to meet tastes or wants so closely specialized, or of a\ncharacter so far in advance of common appreciation, as not to be a fair\ncharge upon the state.\n3. Recognition of sex conditions and sex aims has given us our\nsecondary schools for girls exclusively, as well as our boys' secondary\nschools. In public education the tendency seems to be in the direction\nof eliminating this basis of differentiation. The annual report of the\nUnited States Commissioner of Education for 1895 shows but twenty-five\"\nsecondary public schools, out of the 4,118 reporting, which are not co-educational. In four of these, moreover, the differentiation is not on the basis\nof sex alone (they are manual-training high schools for boys). Of these\ntwenty-five schools (thirteen for girls and twelve for boys), thirteen are in\nNew England, New York, and Pennsylvania, and ten in the southern\nstates, one in Chicago, and one in San Francisco, the only one in the\nwestern half of the union. Boston has four; Philadelphia, Louisville,\nand Baltimore, three each ; New Orleans, Lancaster, Reading, and Brooklyn, two each; Atlanta and Augusta, with San Francisco and Chicago,\nhave one each. Thus it will be seen that nearly all are in cities more\nthan a hundred years old. All but two are in what are generally classed\nas the conservative states. A number of them were established before\nco-education had been either attempted or theoretically justified. The\nUnited States Commissioner's report for 1896 presented reports\nfrom 4,974 public high schools, of which all but forty-one — twenty-one\nfor girls, and twenty for boys — are co-educational. Of these, six are\nmanual-training high schools for boys only. The South furnishes nineteen ;New England, New York, and Pennsylvania, seventeen. Of the\nfive remaining, three are in Indian Territory, one in Chicago, and one in\nSan Francisco.\nBut this almost uniform public policy in secondary education is not\nto be misinterpreted. There is one phase of the question of co-education\nwhich has been settled for all except dyspeptic philosophers and freshmen\ncorrespondents of college papers. The ability of a girl to do as much\nand as well as a boy in intellectual pursuits, and her equal right to equal\nopportunity at the hands of the state, have passed out of the arena of\ndebate, not to mention the forum of sound thinking. But girls and\nwomen have another right in these premises, and that is the right to do\n\n"}
{"page": 422, "printed_page": null, "text": "414\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nfNation\n\na girl's or woman's work in a girl's or woman's way. Someone has\nsarcastically remarked that, in the \" eyes of English law, husband and wife\nare one, and that one is invariably the husband.\" With a great deal\nmore truth it may be remarked of many co-educational schools, with their\nfixed courses of study, uniform treatment of all pupils, false notions of\nregularity and impartiality, that under our policy a boy's school and a\ngirl's school are one, and that one is the boy's school. In our co-educational colleges, with numerous courses and large elections, without any\nsuch absurd insistence as that every day must mark the performance of\nan equal fraction of the week's, or month's, or year's work, with special\ngymnasiums for women, and directors of physical culture, we minimize\nthe evil results of our misinterpretation and maladministration of\nco-education.\nIt is manifest that co-education is bound to obtain in our secondary\npublic schools. But co-education does not necessarily mean identical\neducation either as to subject-matter or method. Wisely interpreted it\nmeans a boy's right to do a boy's work in a boy's way, in the same institution and side by side with the girl's exercise of her right to do a girl's\nwork in a girl's way. The rights of each are equal to, but not identical\nwith, the rights of the other. It no more follows that membership in\nevery class or department of the secondary school ought to be open\nalike to every boy and every girl than the membership on the football\nteam or military company ought to be open to the girls, or that the girls'\ngymnasium, or special course in physical culture, ought to be open to the\nboys. This view of secondary education plants itself on a clear recognition of the structural and functional differences of the sexes. It notes\nthe all too frequent physical deterioration of secondary-school girls. It\nbelieves that it is not by accident that in the vast array of private schools\nbut a small percentage of those of secondary grade are co-educational.\nThis view, if sound, is not an argument for the abolition of co-education,\nbut it contributes strongly to a view of differentiation which is one of the\nchief deductions of this study. This conclusion is equally reinforced by\na critical consideration of the third and fourth bases of differentiation,\nand its formal statement is deferred until these shall have been examined.\n4. Differentiation on the basis of comparative educational values has\ngiven us in different parts of the country four great types of secondary\ninstitutions, viz.: the Latin high school, the English high school, the\nmanual-training high school, and the complete-culture high school. Each\nof these four types has subdivisions presenting as true differentiation\nas can be secured thru separate institutions. The Latin high school\nvirtually houses two schools: {a) the ancient classical school and (/J) the\nmodern classical school. The English high school offers usually what\nmay be called (^r) literary, {a) scientific, and {e) English courses. The\nmanual-training high school presents two types of courses : (/) the science\n\n\\\n\nt\n\n"}
{"page": 423, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nDIFFERENTIATION\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nSECONDARY\n\nSCHOOL\n\n4^5\n\nmanual-training and i^g) the English manual-training course. The last\ndifferentiation I have chosen to call (K) the complete-culture high school.\nThese eight might be classed in three groups : those whose avowed aim is\nsimply to prepare for life, and those which declare that it is their mission\nto give every individual pupil the kind of secondary education which is\nbest adapted to his special condition, aptitude, and aim.\nThe first group maintains that the highest self-realization comes thru\nthe college, and if one cannot go all the way, it is best to go just as far as\none can along this most desirable road. The second group insists that\nfor the pupils who cannot go to college an entirely different path should\nbe followed. As the great majority do not go to college, and the public\nschool is for the majority, they repudiate preparation for college as a\nprime responsibility. The third group rejects this doctrine that the\nhigh school is for the majority, and insists that it is for all, and that\ntherefore its business is to meet both these ends. As the first group would\nnot advocate the fixing of a curriculum exclusively for one college, and\nthe second group would equally decline to specially prepare for one par' ticular\nso the third group insists on meeting only the more general\nneeds calling,\nof all classes.\nTHE\n\nEIGHT\n\nTYPES\n\nLet us note particularly the characteristics of each of these eight types.\nA careful examination of courses of study from sixty-four secondary\nschools scattered thru twenty-nine states, and a personal study of some\ntypical high schools of New England, Wisconsin, and California, prompt\nthe conclusion that we will rarely find two schools whose courses of study\nare identical. There are variations in subject-matter, proportion, and\nsequence, and yet all readily fall into one of these eight classes. The\nfirst, with ancient classical courses, makes Latin, Greek, mathematics,\nEnglish, and history its chief subjects, the first three receiving most\nattention. History, English, and occasionally a single scientific subject\ncomplete the course. The special emphasis placed on the first two subjects is the distinguishing characteristic of this class.\nThe second class has what I have called modern classical courses.\nLatin, French, and German are the characteristic subjects ; English,\nmathematics, and history, with possibly a little natural science, complete\nthe course. The Boston Latin School, Phillips' Academy at Andover,\nPhilips' Exeter Academy, and the leading denominational academies of\nthe country furnish good types of these two classes. Both classes furnish\ncollege preparation'; in fact, until very recently they alone constituted the\ngroup of college-preparatory schools, altho they are not genetically fitting schools. Many of the oldest and most distinguished of these schools\nproclaimed their purpose at their foundation to be \" the promotion of\npiety and virtue and education of youth \" in certain designated branches\n\n"}
{"page": 424, "printed_page": null, "text": "4i6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n[National\n\nand others which might later be added; some sought to prevent \"learning from being buried in the graves of their fathers ;\" still others, \"that\nwicked and scandalous living might be prevented and youth be successfully trained up in virtue and in useful knowledge.\" For a long time they\nwere the only types of secondary schools in the country ; they were\nnaturally resorted to by pupils seeking to fit for college. The work they\ndid naturally had an influence in determining what must be the earliest\nwork of the new colleges that were to take their students. In like manner\nthe colleges influenced the shaping of new secondary schools founded for\nthe especial purpose of fitting for college.\nThe third of these eight classes of secondary schools offers what I have\nstyled a literary course. English literature and history are its characteristic subjects ; Latin or modern language takes a subordinate place, and\nserves to reinforce the literature ; mathematics and science maintain\nplaces in the course. This course has not, as a rule, been used as a college-preparatory course, but has been very popular with pupils whose\neducation was to terminate in the high school. It has suffered more in\nadministration than any of the eight types now under consideration. This\nis largely due to the fact that its emphasized subjects were ones which,\nuntil recently, have been poorly taught in college, and not made prominent\ntest subjects for college admission, thus furnishing to the secondary\nschools poorly equipped teachers for this work.\nThe fourth of these eight types has the scientific course. Natural\nscience and mathematics are the characteristic subjects ; modern languages, English, and history furnish the remainder of the discipline. This\ncourse has for fifteen years enjoyed large popularity \"as preparative for\nlife.\" This appreciation has been due doubtless to the general scientific\ndevelopment of the age and its application thru inventive talent to\nthe economic activities of the race. Excellent examples of the third and\nfourth types are furnished by nearly all the public high schools of the\nmiddle West.\nThe fifth is found with English courses. The characteristic subjects\nare English literature, history, rhetoric, and composition. Along with\nthese, mathematics and science occupy the places of next importance. As\nthe name implies, no other language than English appears. This is one\nof the non-college-preparatory courses, and excellent examples of it are\nfound in many of our public schools.\nUnder these five types may be included the vast majority of the public schools of the country, altho it is true that many schools present a\ncommingling of the characteristic elements of all these types. Whenever no attempt at differentiation appears and one fixed course of study\nis offered, it almost invariably includes all five of the following elements,\nviz.: language, literature, history, mathematics, and science.\nTne sixth and seventh types of secondary schools have been developed\n\n"}
{"page": 425, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nDIFFERENTIATION\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nSECONDARY\n\nSCHOOL\n\n4^7\n\nin America since the year of the Centennial Exhibition in Philadelphia. They were the result of study of some of the Russian school\nexhibits and expositions of courses of study. Philosophical criticism of\nthese Russian manual-training school exhibits brought many thoughtful\nAmerican teachers to believe that to the language, mathematics, literature, history, and science, industrial art must be added if the school curriculum was to furnish material for the development of the appreciative,\ninterpretative, expressive, and creative powers of youth. In secondaryeducational circles the first step was taken at St. Louis in 1879 by\nDr. C. M. Woodward. The success of the St. Louis Manual Training\nSchool was such that within ten years similar schools were established at\nBaltimore, Chicago, Toledo, Eau Claire, New York, Philadelphia, Omaha,\nCleveland, Cincinnati, St. Paul, Minneapolis, and New Orleans.\nWe might naturally expect to see the introduction of the new feature\nalong with the most valuable elements in each of the five types thus far\nconsidered. This would result in giving us about equal modification of\nall the five existing types. But this was not the case ; the exploiters of the\nnew experiment were in too many instances mechanical rather than\nartistic. They were moved by the need of a basis for fuller exercise of\nthe creative powers, but failed to see the art possibility suggested by the\nnew element. The result was that manual training was at first emphatically mechanical and narrowly utilitarian. Its subject-matter was added\nto the fourth and fifth types only, giving us for type No. 6 the\nscience manual-training high school, and for type No. 7 the English\nmanual-training high school. So far as the traditional branches characterizing types 4 and 5 were concerned, practically ilo change in\nsequence or proportion was made to form the sixth and seventh types.\nThe element of distinction in the new courses was that into each\nday's work was put an hour of drawing, chiefly mechanical, and two\nhours of shop-work. The drawing was the basis of the shop-work, and\nwas closely interwoven with the natural science and the mathematics. The\ncourses first developed were for boys only, but Toledo soon set the\nexample of a manual-training school for both sexes, which was shortly\nfollowed by other cities. Joinery and turning, forging, pattern-making\nand -molding, and machine-shop practice were the divisions of manual\nwork on the creative side for the boys. For girls clay-modeling, woodcarving, sewing, cooking, and garment-making were the corresponding\nsubjects. For both a progressive course in drawing was provided.\nThese schools became popular, and enjoyed the double function of preparing for scientific and engineering colleges, on the one hand, and furnishing the so-called practical discipline for life, on the other. The\ncomparatively large cost of equipment and scarcity of teachers and competent managers have unduly restricted the number of these schools,\naltho the success of those established has been phenomenal.\nThe Pratt,\n\n"}
{"page": 426, "printed_page": null, "text": "41 8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nPhiladelphia, Toledo, Menominee, Chicago, Cambridge, and Denver\nschools furnished the best examples of these two types of secondary\nschool.\nThe eighth type, or complete-culture high school, is the result of an\nendeavor to survey and classify the world of knowledge, to understand\nthe general characteristics of mind, and to recognize the special conditions of the individual learner. The six elements of its curriculum are\nlanguage, mathematics, science, history, literature, and art. It does not\nallow either aesthetics or mechanics to control the interpretation of the term\n\"art.\" Art means beauty, fatness, adaptation. .Esthetics as well as\nmechanics are to be considered. Under this view the relation of industrial art to the ancient classical or the modern classical or the literary\ncourse is as definite and full of meaning as its relationship to either the\nscientific or the English course. A study of the general characteristics\nand mode of growth of the mind prompts still more strongly to the conclusion that this sixth element of the course of study is a reinforcement\nof each of the other five. Experience with special conditions, aptitudes,\nand limitations of large numbers of individual learners compels the conclusion that truest pedagogy demands an almost infinite differentiation —\nnot by institution alone, but by course and subject as well.\nOn these premises the eighth type of school furnishes the subjectmatter of all the seven preceding courses and makes up the course of the\nindividual thru wise selection, keeping in mind his special condition, fitness, aptitude, aim, and liking, as well as the necessity of involving in his secondary education something of all six of the elements —\nlanguage, science, mathematics, history, literature, industrial art. It prescribes certain minima in mat\"hematics, English, science, history, and art,\nand then allows the pupil's special needs to determine the remaining elements of his course. This type of school preserves, in a certain sense,\nthe grouping of the first seven types, and, while avoiding over-specialization and preventing absolute ignoring of any of the six great essentials,\ndoes offer as many chances for sub-differentiation thru election as there\nare pupils in the school.\nThis differentiation avoids undue waste of energy and money in\nadministration and equipment, gives the strength of many-sided co-operation, furnishes the enthusiasm of number, develops the cosmopolitan\nrather than the provincial spirit, prevents the growth of intellectual and\nsocial caste that is always dangerous to the state. It affords all the\npupils equal opportunity, limited only by their own capacity and\nadaptation.\nSPECIALIZATION\n\nOF\n\nAIM\n\nWe come now to consider the differentiation of secondary schools on\nthe basis of close specialization of aim. This has given us distinctively\nconventional secondary schools.\nThey are seven in number.\nBut there\n\n"}
{"page": 427, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nDIFFERENTIATION\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nSECONDARY\n\nSCHOOL\n\n419\n\nis every reason to believe that the first five are in the rank of secondary\nschools but temporarily. The transition to a higher place is everywhere\nbeginning, and in many states is already accomplished. These are\nschools of law, medicine, dentistry, pharmacy, and normal schools.\nEven where admission to these schools is still possible with only elementary training, their matter and methods are partially collegiate, and this\nfact accounts for much of their lamentable failure. The instructors and\nmanagers of such schools everywhere have seen this, and are striving\nto remedy this condition by demanding as a prerequisite for admission\nthe completion of at least a secondary-school course. Then there is in\nthe minds of many a hope that at no distant day still greater advances\nmay be made, and at least three of these schools transferred to the postgraduate rank. The law and medical schools of a few of our universities,\nand notably Harvard and California, have already announced this position. Ibelieve that a mere consideration of the work to be done by\nmembers of the profession trained in all five of these schools will compel\nthe conclusion that they have no place in the ranks of the secondary\nschools.\nThe two remaining types are the commercial high schools and the\nmechanics' arts or trades high schools. The aim of the first is to give,\nalong with general training, the cultivation, special fundamental and technical preparation for the large group of callings which we characterize as commercial. It sees in its pupils the men who are to fill the stores,\noffices, and banks, as managers, clerks, accountants, secretaries, etc. It\nproposes, then, that its course of study shall contribute to making its\ngraduates rapid, legible penmen, accurate accountants, ready correspondents and bookkeepers, good stenographers and typewriters. It seeks to\ngive them mastery of commercial geography and history and elements of\nbusiness law. It studies language for the sake of expression and address.\nIt selects modern language on the basis of commercial utility. It is a\ncourse which may make for culture, if wisely administered, but which\nneeds to be guarded against the danger of being unduly cheapened. In\nmany schools it is shorter than the other courses by one or even two\nyears. The demand for this type of secondary school is manifestly on the\nincrease, and with the introduction of civil-service-reform methods in\nmunicipal and state as well as federal government, this demand is bound\nto become stronger. If it is true that it is the business of the school to\nprepare the pupil for his work in life, such a school has high justification.\nTRADES\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\nThe other remaining division of these closely \"specialized or semivocational secondary schools is what I have called the mechanics' arts or\ntrades high school. As its name implies, it aims to meet the wants of\nthose who are to go into shops, mills, and manufacturing establishments,\n\n"}
{"page": 428, "printed_page": null, "text": "420\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n_\n\n[National\n\nas artisans, merchants, draftsmen, etc. It reduces to a minimum the\nculture students of an English or scientific course in order to find time\nto make each pupil a reasonable master of the elements of one trade. It\nrecognizes, however, that it has a larger mission than apprenticeship.\nWe live in an age of invention, which is in every decade eliminating some\ntrades and completely transforming others. The cultivation of versatility\nis all-important, and the most successful trades high schools are those\nwhich propose for themselves on their strictly technical side the teaching\nof a boy all about the foundation of one trade, and a little of the underlying principles at least of a number of trades. Such a boy is not to be\neliminated from the category of the self-supporting by the invention of\na machine. With the growing complexity of our civilization, density of\nour population, the keenness of commercial, manufacturing, and mechanical competition, independence and self-support demand of the handworker more skill and larger productiveness. When this is not\nforthcoming, misery and suffering must follow. The state sees that its\nown perpetuation and strength depend upon the devotion of the poorest\nas well as the richest classes. It recognizes the wisdom of furnishing\nsuch training to increase the productive power and happiness of its citizens. With this in view, much attention deserves to be given to the consideration of trades high schools. Probably one of the best types of a\ntrades high school in our country is found in this state in the Lick\nSchool of Mechanical Arts in San Francisco.\nHaving thus indicated what differentiation has obtained in practice,\nand hinted at the justification urged for each type, let us see if we can\ndraw a few warrantable conclusions.\nThe existence of so many courses is due to the conviction that there\nis no warrant for the assumption that either the same order or same\ncombination of studies is the best means to highest self-realization for\nall pupils. Judged by the completeness with which they help those who\nreceive their training to make the most of themselves, these courses may\nbe said to stand on nearly or quite equal footing. As preparation for\nlife's work, the course of a good Latin school, that of an English high\nschool, and that of a scientific school seem equally efficient. The power\none gets from history and science another gleans from classics and\nmathematics, and so on. The failure that one makes of Latin another\nmakes of mathematics, and still a third of history. The reasonable\ndeduction is not simply election of courses, but election of subjects.\nThe historical conclusion is reinforced by scientific reasons as well.\nAmong the leading contributions from child study, the inductive study\nof the natural history of the human race, is this : Mental power is the result\nof intense effort. Interest always attaches to the work of our choice\nrather than the assigned task. Other things being at an equal, greatest\npower will result from teaching a pupil the subjects of his choice and\n\n"}
{"page": 429, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nDIFFERENTIATION\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nSECONDARY\n\nSCHOOL\n\n421\n\naptitude — not those for which\nhe has seemingly neither liking nor\ncapacity.\nMust not the ideal high school cease to prescribe any but the essential tool of progress ? If its business is to give the pupil four years of\nopportunity \" to make the most of himself,\" in a high sense of the\nexpression, must it not content itself with insisting that he shall do four\nfull years of thoro work, comprising continuous effort along some line,\nand such additional subjects as he under wise counsel shall elect ?\n\nDISCUSSION\n\n[reported\n\nby WILLIAM\n\nF. KING]\n\nMr. Gove asked with how small a school such a course of- study could be made\npracticable.\nMr. Keyes answered that he knew of a school of no pupils and four teachers in\nwhich this course was successfully carried on.\nDr. Harris said that the secondary schools of the United States are not moving in\nthat way, as evidenced by the fact that 48 per cent, of all the public high schools of the\nUnited States are studying Latin, and 47 per cent, of the private schools, and the number studying Latin has increased nearly 50 per cent, since 1890. The Bureau of Education annually takes the statistics of the pupils pursuing secondary branches of study\n— so many studying Latin, so many algebra, and so many in each other branch, geometry, physics, Greek, French, German, etc. If a pupil is studying three or more of the\nsecondary studies, he is counted in the list of secondary pupils.\nE. W. Coy thought that a school conducted on the elective plan would be so\nexpensive as not to commend itself to the taxpayers ; also that the difficulty of adjusting programs and administering the school would make the plan impossible. He\ndoubted the wisdom of giving the pupils their full choice in the \"go-as-you-please\" high\nschool.\nMr. Keyes replied that after a thing has been done it is too late to say that it\ncannot be done ; the question is not. Will it work? but,> Does it work? He saw pupils\nseparately, and used all means to determine the best definite course, not in a \"go-asyou-please \" manner, but constantly keeping before the mind how much power is to be\ngained, rather than how the pupil is to make his bread and butter.\nMr. Van Sickle, speaking from an experience of several years with such a school,\nnow enrolling 475 pupils, said that the idea of its being more expensive than the school\nwith fixed courses is erroneous. Before the classes are so large as to require division this\nwould be true, not afterward. Such a plan would increase the work of the principal,\nbut the principal's chief usefulness is in safeguarding the interests of individual pupils.\nHe believed in differentiation, and would carry it out so far as to let the number of\nstudies carried depend upon the physical and mental strength of the pupil. He would\nnot set a time limit for graduation, but would graduate whenever conditions as to quantity\nand quality of work had been met.\n\n"}
{"page": 430, "printed_page": null, "text": "422\n\nMATtONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n[National\n\nMr. Van Sickle. — Do you require each pupil to carry just four studies, no more, no\nless ?\nMr. Keyes. — By no means. Physical and intellectual conditions determine the\nquantity of work the student is permitted to carry. Some students prefer to take five\nyears to complete the course ; others wisely take partial courses ; while students of special\nvigor may even complete the course in three years.\nMr. Van Sickle. — Do your pupils recite five times a week in each study ?\nMr. Keyes. — No ; pupils give five periods per week to each regular study, but\nthese are so arranged as to give double periods (eighty minutes each) on alternate days,\nsave Fridays, when a single period is given to each study. Pupils carrying regular work\nhave thus two lessons to prepare for each day, save Friday, when the assignments are for\npractically half the work required in each subject on the other days.\nMr. Greenwood asked whether it was common to give eighty minutes to the recitation in manual-training high schools. He also requested that Principal Morrison, of\nKansas City, be permitted to speak of his method of recitation.\nMr. Morrison; after speaking very appreciatively of Mr. Keyes' paper, said that\nin the Kansas City High School the eighty-minute period was mostly in laboratory workLast year they tried the experiment of having all classes eighty minutes each, and, in the\nmain, found it satisfactory. Out of i,loo pupils only fifteen voted to go back to fortyfive-minute periods.\nThe pupils seemed to have done the work easier.\nE. E. White. — I am glad to see that the doctrine of individualism which the writer\nmentioned in the first part of his paper was all taken back in the last part. The\nchild in these secondary subjects is not competent to choose. He may think he is choosing his courses, yet he is doing so only under the limitations of prearranged courses.\nWhile we can applaud this theory of individualism in theory, it is abandoned in\npractice. How can a person who is ignorant of the subject determine whether he has an\naptitude for it or not ? There are very few who do not, under good teachers, do well in\nall subjects. All the pupils of our schools are to meet the demands of a civilization, and\nneed to prepare for them. Nine-tenths of the American people do not choose their lifework, but it is forced upon them.\nMr. Greenwood. — I hold that parents, children, and teachers have much to do in\nselecting courses.\nAfter conference selections are made by pupils themselves.\nMr. Brown. — I thoroly agree with both parties. I believe in individualism, and\nI believe in law and order, and the law of the school. I believe in making a study of\nevery case.\nMr. Baker. — I also believe in blending the two. I must still believe that to make\na good man and citizen should be the ultimate aim of our schools.\nDr. Harris did not believe that one subject is as good as another. We should\nexamine these branches on the basis of results. He compared the results in studying\narithmetic with those in making a joint in carpentry, where less of character was developed, especially if the joint is filled with sawdust. He also showed how some kinds of\nmanual training unfit for others.\nMr. Keyes closed the discussion saying, in part, that this discussion presumed upon\na state of affairs that did not exist. We do not insist that the child shall select his\nown studies. Again, the character that will come out of a sawdust-stuffed joint is about\nas good as that produced by a \" ponied \" lesson in Caesar.\n\n"}
{"page": 431, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nREPORT\n\nDISCUSSION\n\nOF COMMITTEE\n\nON NORMAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nOF REPORT OF COMMITTEE\nSCHOOLS\n\n[see proceedings of the department\n[reported by miss\n\nof normal\n\n423\n\nON NORMAL\nschools]\n\nLUCIA stickney]\n\nMr. Greenwood. — What is said of the influences of the inner life of the normal\nschool upon the social, personal, and moral development of the pupil applies equally\nwell to the college, the university, and other institutions. The schools described here are\nto be classed as the best schools of today. So, too, the principles of administration set\nforth in the report apply to all other schools. I have secured a large number of copies\nof the report, to be sent to all principals in Kansas City. Principals of all schools should\nbe supplied with a copy.\nMr. Gove. — The same problem that we have hitherto had to face arises : how to\nsecure the best work in the normal school. These pupils in the school we are to have as\nour associates. Why do we not select for the school the best material to make up the\nschool ? The one who holds a diploma of a normal school ought to be better qualified for\nteaching than a college graduate, but the first year's work of the normal graduate is not\nlikely to be satisfactory, and that of the college graduate is usually more valuable. I\nthink the normal school does give the scholarship that it assumes to do, but it does not\ngive enough.\nThe professor of pedagogy is too often an amateur.\nMr. Hoose. — From a mere glance at the report I heartily indorse it. I commend\nthe thoughtfulness with which the word \" method \" is used. The method grows out of\nthe conditions in which the pupil learns a thing. We do not try to tell why a trout at a\ncertain time of year catches this fly and not that one. I sometimes think that commonsense defined on p. 8 as \" an intuitive knowledge of common affairs \" is the most uncommon sense in practice. A Frenchman has defined it as \" spontaneous action of right\nreason.\" Where a hundred persons have common-sense on general matters, not one has\nit for the particular case needed. Is it possible to increase the proficiency of the commonsense of normal-school pupils so that it may come before the emergency — be ready\nbeforehand, on top ? To illustrate : When a man hunts a bear, if common-sense is on top,\nhe shoots on the instant when he gets where the bear is. We too often train teachers as\nthose who train boys to swim without going into the water. What is culture ? The definition has not yet been found. Culture is, I take it, the bloom on the peach. We do\nnot grow the bloom, but grow the peach, and let the bloom take care of itself. The college student goes off with his scholarship and personality free. The normal school\ngraduate goes out mastered by forms.\nInspector Townsend, of Hawaii. — The question should be considered, \" What\nsort of criticism is best ? \" The pupil is easily driven out by criticism. In Hawaii much\nof the work done is in language. The policy should be to point out the correct method\nrather than to find fault.\nMr. Greenwood. — I wish to call attention to the thought expressed on p. 34, that\ngood executive management means harmony, not discord; confidence, not distrust; unity\nof effort, not uncertainty of purpose.\nMr. Snyder. — Method is a process not hampered by form. Common-sense should\nbe the fundamental condition for entrance. Individuals lacking in common-sense should\nbe excused from the school. The method of appointing local members as trustees is\nundesirable. We should appoint competent members, and oppose the appointment of\nincompetent members whose recommendation is based on social relations. The school\nshould not be burdened with numbers.\nThree hundred pupils are enough.\nMr. White. — How is it that the normal schools are often manned by those without\nexperience in normal schools ?\nMr. Snyder. — That is in accordance with Mr. Tappan's law : the teacher is trained\nin a higher school than the one in which he teaches.\n\n"}
{"page": 432, "printed_page": null, "text": "424\n\nNATIONAL\n\nDO\nBY\n\nL.\n\nD.\n\nWE\nHARVEY,\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nNEED\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nA UNIVERSITY\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\nMADISON,\n\nOF\n\nPUBLIC\n\n[National\n\nTRUST?\nINSTRUCTION,\n\nWIS.\n\nThe modern trust is a logical product of evolutionary processes in\nindustrial organization. It renders it possible to cheapen production by\nbetter organization, and at the same time to furnish a better product with\nbetter service and cheaper distribution to consumers. It prevents the\nruinous competition which results in poorer products for the consumer and\nbankruptcy for the producer. It renders possible an undue advance in\nprices whenever the trust controls production. These are the advantages\nof the trust. For the purposes of this paper it is unnecessary to speak of\nthe disadvantages.\nThe advantages of bringing the management of various concerns\nengaged in the same line of production under one organization are obvious\nfrom an economic standpoint.\nIs it not possible to secure corresponding advantages from an educational standpoint by the application of the principle underlying the\norganization of the trust to the organization of graduate work in the state\nuniversities supported largely by taxation ? Many of these institutions\nare now attempting to carry on a large number of lines of graduate work,\nresulting in duplication of equipment, instructional force, and experimentation. Each university is anxious to carry on as many lines of graduate\nwork as any other, with the result that increasing appropriations are asked\nfor, and even when obtained they are not sufficient to provide such quality of\nequipment, and a sufficient number of professors adequately prepared, in\norder to do work of the highest grade. In some cases, in order to keep\npace with a rival university, or to meet the demands of zealous heads of\ndepartments, the management diverts the funds needed to properly carry\non the undergraduate work, in order to do mediocre and attenuated\ngraduate work. Professors are multiplied in the graduate departments ;\nstudents are few in those departments, but numerous in the undergraduate\ndepartment, where, in the freshman and sophomore classes, they are\ntaught mainly by tutors, instructors, and assistants, coming in contact but\nlittle with the regular professors.\nNo one questions the necessity of having the highest order of talent\nin charge of the graduate work. Without such talent the work is a farce.\nNo one has any right to question the necessity for the highest order of\ninstructional talent in the undergraduate departments. When the funds\nwhich should be devoted to securing such a teaching force for the large\nbody of undergraduates in these institutions are diverted to the extension\nof the graduate work, without even securing a high order of that work, it\n\n"}
{"page": 433, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nDO\n\nWE\n\nNEED\n\nA UNIVERSITY\n\nTRUST?\n\n425\n\nis an unwise perversion of public funds, an outrage upon the undergraduates and tlie people of the state, and a departure from the purposes for\nwhich these institutions are chartered. This is perhaps a strong statement, and yet I believe it to be no stronger than the facts warrant. The\nyoung people entering these universities have just come from the high\nschool. Many of them are inadequately prepared to begin the university\ncourse, and few of them have learned how to study to advantage. The\nclasses they enter are usually the largest in the university, and here, if anywhere, do they need the guidance, inspiration, and instruction which high\ncharacter, broad scholarship, experience, and proved power in teaching\nand training students in modes of study can alone supply. Many of the\nyoung men who as fellows, instructors, and assistants are given charge of\nthe instruction in these classes are persons of excellent scholarship in\nspecial lines, but they are not yet teachers in the highest sense of the\nterm. The individual who two months ago was a high-school student\nhas not been born anew mentally this month, because of enrollment in\nthe freshman class in a university ; his mental aptitudes, powers, and\nlimitations are about what they were two months ago. He is entering,\nhowever, upon the most serious educational business he has yet undertaken, and if, as the university authorities tell us, much of his training\nhas been poor, -and his preparation inadequate, is it not incumbent\nupon the university to take him as he is, and to adapt the university\ninstruction to his needs ? This instruction cannot be safely trusted in\nthe hands of persons who are lacking in teaching experience and skill in\nteaching.\nNo one can successfully combat the proposition that the state universities were created for the primary purpose of giving good collegiate\ninstruction to the young men and women of the state prepared to begin\ncollegiate work. Whatever extension there may have been of this idea\nin recent years, so as to open up and offer additional lines of work, no\nstate university has yet outgrown the necessity for doing this collegiate\nwork thoroly well. Until that work is being done thoroly well, those\ncharged with the management of these institutions have no right to use a\ndollar of the public funds for graduate work. If the collegiate work is\nthoroly well done, then they have no right to use a dollar of the public\nfunds for graduate work, if by so doing they lower in any way the character\nof the undergraduate work. Demands for increased appropriations for\nthe maintenance of state universities are made at every session of the\nlegislatures of the states wherein they are located. That these demands\nhave been acceded to by the legislatures in most cases shows the high\nregard in which these universities are held. The difficulty in securing\nlarger appropriations increases year by year, in most states, and it is a fact\nthat there is a growing tendency among the people to criticise the rapid\nincrease in expenditure, and to question the wisdom of expenditures for\n\n"}
{"page": 434, "printed_page": null, "text": "426\n\nNATIOJ^AL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nlines of investigation which are of necessity expensive, and which few\nstudents seek.\nThere is no question in this paper of the value or importance of graduate work. It is a question of business administration, and of fair dealing with the people of the state. It is much the same question which has\nconfronted the heads of industrial organizations in competition with each\nother, and out of which has grown the trust. State universities cannot\nhope to draw unlimited sums from taxation for the extension and support\nof graduate work. Unless the demands in this direction are lessened, the\nappropriations are liable to be curtailed by the legislatures, and it is altogether probable that the retrenchment will go deeper than the graduate\nwork, and seriously affect the undergraduate work.\nI take it that the problems which the university managers have to\nsolve are these :\n1. How to secure and offer to the people of their respective states the\nHighest grade of instructional work possible in the regular collegiate\ncourses from the beginning to the end of these courses, and at the same\ntime to convince the people generally that this is regarded as the first duty\nof the university to the people who maintain it.\n2. To organize those departments of graduate work for which there is\nthe greatest demand, not from the professors, but from graduates from\nthe collegiate courses, to the extent to which the funds available will war\nrant, after provision is made for carrying on the undergraduate work at\nthe highest degree of efficiency.\n3. To limit the number of lines of graduate work offered so as to make\nit possible to offer facilities for doing whatever work is attempted as well\nas it can be done anywhere, without increasing the demands for appropriations so as to weaken the support of the people thru their representatives in the legislature.\nIs it not true that in most of the state universities where graduate\nwork is attempted the quality of instruction given in the collegiate\ncourses is far below what it should be ? Is it not also true that many of\nthese institutions are attempting to carry on graduate work for which they\ndo not have proper equipment, and where men of the highest order of\nability are lacking as heads of the various departments ? Is it not true\nthat the extension of this graduate work has created a feeling of unrest\nand dissatisfaction among the people in many of the states ? If these\nthree propositions are true, then some remedy should be sought, and at\nonce. Does not the development of the idea out of which the trust has\ngrown point the way ? If the state universities, or at least that group of\nthem situated in the north central states, should combine and apportion\nthe graduate work, limiting the amount to be done in any one institution\nto what it can undertake to do as well as it is done anywhere in the world,\nand abandoning all other graduate work, we should have introduced an\n\nJ\n\n1\n\n"}
{"page": 435, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nDO\n\nWE\n\nNEED\n\nA UNIVERSITY\n\nTRUST?\n\n427\n\neconomic feature of organization which must commend itself to intelligent business-men, and, I believe, would commend itself to the people\ngenerally. Such a plan would enable each institution now carrying on a\nconsiderable number of lines of graduate work, many of them poorly, to\nabandon those lines in which it is not strong, and to concentrate its energies upon lines where the best results might be secured. With the work\nthus apportioned, and the strengthening of the undergraduate work\nwhich would be possible,by making available for that purpose the funds\nnow used in maintaining weak departments of graduate work, the graduates\nfrom the collegiate departments could then go to such institutions as offer\nthe special lines of work which they wish to pursue further. They would\nthen be sure of securing as good facilities a? could be found anywhere for\nthe pursuit of their chosen lines of investigation. The strengthening of\nthe collegiate work, which would result from placing in charge of the\nfreshmen and sophomores strong teachers of recognized ability and experience, would send out students far better prepared to do advanced lines of\nwork than are most of those students who now complete the collegiate\ncourses. Such a plan of organization would commend itself to the public\nin that it would recognize as the first work of the state university to furnish good collegiate instruction for all the students in attendance. No\ncommittee or board would hesitate to go before a legislature and plead\nfor increased appropriations if they could show that they were to be used\nprimarily for this purpose, and no legislature would refuse to respond to\nsuch an appeal. Such a plan of organization would command the respect\nof practical politicians and members of the legislature, to whom the universities must look for funds, and would put them on a solid foundation of\npopular support. With the education of public sentiment which would\ngrow out of this plan of organization and of the reputation which might\nbe built up for the few lines of graduate work attempted, those lines could\nbe broadened, and others, perhaps, undertaken in the future, as the necessities of the case might warrant and the education of the people would\nallow.\nThat there are some difficulties in the way of such an organization is\nrecognized, but that they are insuperable it is not believed. I do not\nattempt to indicate the detailed plans by which such an agreement could\nbe reached, but I believe they can be readily worked out. This plan of\norganization embodies the beneficial features of the trust organization,\nbut without introducing the features which are dangerous. It enables\nsuch a use of the capital invested, and of the annual funds, as will give\nthe largest returns for the purposes intended. No one will seriously\nmaintain that the present system does this. Is it not a matter which\nshould be taken up seriously by the heads of these institutions and discussed from the standpoint of business administration ?\n\n"}
{"page": 436, "printed_page": null, "text": "428\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nniSCUSSTON\n\n[reported\n\nby miss\n\nLUCIA\n\nstickney]\n\nMr. Baker. — This subject is not new to the members of this association. It has\nbeen the experience in Colorado that graduate work in small classes has occupied the\ntime of the professor at the expense of the larger classes of undergraduates, and that\ngraduate work has thus interfered with the undergraduate work. Every university should\nprovide for advanced study sufficient for a master's degree, rather than give honorary\ndegrees to all who have kept out of the penitentiary. We have been conservative in\ngi'anting the doctor's degree. There should be one university in each state, and this\nshould be the state university, which furnishes the opportunity for acquiring the highest\ndegree. However, a group of institutions might combine to give the required work for\nsuch a degree.\nMr. Gove. — Is the Qniversity in Wisconsin crippled by rival institutions?\nMr. Harvey. — It has been the tendency in Wisconsin to push to the front the\ngraduate work, and the college work has thus been made inefficient. A reaction will\ncome. We should lop off some lines of work and thus strengthen the institution in the\nminds of the people. They say : \" You are using money to pay men who have only half\na dozen students ; the work will be better if there are fewer lines of work.\"\nMr. Greenwood. — How will you break down the pride of the politician, and how\nwill you get the student to rush from one institution to another ?\nMr. Harvey. — It is not the pride of the politician, but of the professor, that maintains these higher lines of work.\nMr. White. — How such a trust can be formed should be discussed by college men,\nand they are not here. All universities, so-called, are doing college work. There should\nbe a national university, but each state university wants to be it.\nMr. Hoose. — How will it touch denominational pride ?\nMr. Harvey. — It will not touch it.\nMr. Greenwood moved that the report be referred to the Committee on a National\nUniversity.\nCarried.\n\nPSYCHOLOGY\nBY\n\nE.\n\nC.\n\nFOR\n\nHEWETT,\n\nTHE\nNORMAL,\n\nTEACHER\nILL.\n\nIt has seemed strange to many that a discussion has sprung up recently\nconcerning the question \\yhether psychology is of any assistance to the\nteacher in conducting his actual work in the schoolroom. If a knowledge\nof the qualities of lumber is of value to the carpenter, if a knowledge of\nsoils and fertilizers is of value to the farmer, if a knowledge of trees and\nshrubs is of value to the fruit-grower, if it is well for the stock-raiser to\nknow by what means and process calves and pigs grow and thrive, it would\nsurely seem to be of importance to the teacher to know the laws of the\nmind's activity and the resulting processes for its stimulating guidance\nand growth.\nIn fact, this is so obvious that not only no elaboration of\n\n"}
{"page": 437, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nPSYCHOLOGY\n\nFOR\n\nTHE\n\nTEACHER\n\n429\n\nargument seems to be necessary, but, it really would appear to be pedantic\nor childish. We must believe that any contest between intelligent men\nwhich can arise on such a question must be due to some confusion\nrespecting the meaning of the terms they use.\nSome recent articles in the Atlantic Monthly and the Educational\nReview by Professor Hugo Miinsterberg, of Cambridge, have probably\ndone more than anything else to stir up and intensify the debate as to\nwhether the study of psychology is of any direct value to the individual\nteacher in his practical work. His articles are not easy reading, but it is\nvery apparent that he means by psychology something quite different\nfrom what many understand it to be. Further, it is evident that he has\nbeen ruffled and disgusted by a great deal that is going forward under the\nnames of experimental child psychology, physiological psychology, etc.\nHe claims that much of this work is not psychology at all. He says : \" I\nmaintained that the individual teacher cannot make any direct use of physiological and experimental psychology for his teaching methods.\"\nHe stoutly asserts that psychology is not dependent on physiology,\nhowever intimate may be the unknown, and perhaps unknowable, relations\nbetween the facts of consciousness and the atomic movements in the\nbrain, or other parts of the physical system. He says: \"In my lectures\non psychology before my students I do not speak a word about the brain\ncenters and ganglion cells ; and to base on them psychological insight\nturns our whole knowledge topsy-turvy.\" And again he says: \"There\nwas never a teacher who would have changed his educational efforts if the\nphysiological substratum of the mental life were the liver or the kidneys\ninstead of the brain.\"\nIt is easy to see, then, that he regards a vast deal of the matter collected by those who pursue investigations in child study, experimental\nand physiological psychology, etc., as having no possible value for the\nteacher in his work, if indeed it has value for anybody. It will also appear\nthat he regards much of his work as making no part of real, psychological\nstudy. He says : \"Psychology is a study of mental facts; but not every\nstudy of mental facts is therefore psychology.\" He considers, further,\nthat much of what is collected and painfully tabulated concerning the\nmental activity, acquisition, and thinking of children has no psychological\nworth except as it may throw some new light upon our knowledge of mind\nin general. A collection of mere facts which throw no light whatever\nupon the general laws and movements of mind, or which illustrate merely\nthe laws already known, can have no scientific or practical value for psychology. As he puts it : \"It is not science to make even the most exact\nstatistics of the pebbles on the road, and to collect the description of\nsome hundred cases where the law of gravitation was confirmed by the\nfalling of apples.\"\nHe declares that \"the world of science and learning, as well as the\n\n"}
{"page": 438, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n430\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n[National\n\nsocial world, has its alternating seasons and its capricious fashions ....\nfavored by both the leaders of knowledge and the crowd of imitating\nfollowers.\" Such, evidently, he considers much of what is going on in\nthe educational world at present respecting the things of which he is\nwriting. Clearly, in his opinion, a great deal of attention and effort is\nnow directed toward a fad \" by both the leaders of knowledge and the\ncrowd of imitating followers.\"\nIn a recent letter an intelligent friend who is familiar with the educational work in one of our state universities expresses an opinion that\nwould tally very closely with that of Professor Miinsterberg. He says\nof this work : \" A little genetic psychology, the psychology of play,\nof dolls, of the knee-jerk, of muscles, of sand piles, of foods, a little\nhodge-podge called child study, of instinct, of adolescence, of senility, of\nphysiology, of biology, and so on, ad infinitum^ Only, probably, Professor Miinsterberg would deny that most of what my friend has here\ncalled psychology is really psychology at all.\nProfessor Miinsterberg holds that the work of investigating children,\nby the teacher in school, is unfair and injurious to the teacher himself.\nWe note three points in his contention respecting this matter:\n1. That the teacher, or the mother, or the nurse, is unfitted to conduct observations upon children, by direct experiment or otherwise, which\nwill have value for science. He says: \"The work, must be done by\ntrained specialists, or not done at all.\" It is manifestly unfair to require\nanyone to attempt to do what it is, in the nature of things, impossible\nfor him to do successfully or profitably.\n2. That such work overburdens the teacher by requiring him to\nundertake a thing alien to his legitimate work, when his hands are full, or\nmore than full, of the work which really belongs to him. He says : \" He\n[the teacher] needs every minute of his school hours for his lessons; and\nhe stands, too often, before the dilemma either to follow his educational\nconscience or to follow a superintendent who believes in the newest educational fad.\" Again he says : \"That child study which has for its aim\nonly a collection of curiosities about the child, as an end in itself, may be\ngrateful to the nurse who writes down some of the baby's naughty\nanswers, or to the teacher who sacrifices half an hour of her lesson to\nmake experiments in the class-room, to fill out the blanks that are mailed\nto her.\"\nWe think it does not need much argument to convince intelligent\nschoolmen that the legitimate work of the teachers is enough for all their\ntime and powers ; that there is often, in the regular machinery of the\nschool system, a good deal of work demanded that might well be spared ;\nand that there is a constant tendency to crowd into the school things that\nhave no right to be there. In this state of things it is unwise and unjust\nto require the teacher to sacrifice a half hour even of her lessons for\n\n"}
{"page": 439, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nPSYCHOLOGY\n\nFOR\n\nTHE\n\nTEACHER\n\n431\n\nmatters not legitimate, whether the results are \"grateful\" to her or not.\nIt would be better that she should have an \" educational conscience\" and\nfollow it, than to sacrifice it for the \"newest educational fad\" even.\n3. That for the teacher to attempt such work with her pupils puts her\ninto a wrong mental attitude respecting them. This, we suspect, is the\nmost serious of the three. Anything like a true psychological study of the\nchild, such a study as is demanded by the psychology that is meant by\nthe author whose writings we are considering, requires that he should be\nregarded in a way quite different from that in which his teacher should\nregard him. This will appear more clearly further on. The teacher\nshould see in the child a complex unity, in most essential respects, like\nherself, demanding a sympathetic, integral treatment. Any psychologically scientific experimenting with the child, or eveft the probing of him\nfor mere facts to be tabulated, demands that he should be regarded as a\nspecimen to be dissected and analyzed. And, as Professor Miinsterberg\nwell says : \"A teacher feels himself hampered by this new way of looking\non the children, not as friends, but as interesting results of psychological\nlaws.\" He says, further: \"I consider it to the teacher's credit that the\nchild is not an object of analysis for him, but I blame those who make\nthe teacher believe that his observations, nevertheless, have value for\npsychology.\"\nThis last sentence suggests, what is very true, that, when Professor\nMiinsterberg uses the word \" psychology,\" he means something very different from the vague and undefined notion which the word awakens in\nmany minds — perhaps in most minds. We are not at all sure that we\ncould write a definition of psychology according to the professor's conception of it, and we are quite sure that we have not space in this paper\nto elaborate it, even if we could do so. But we will try to give some\nnotion- of what he means, as we understand him; and it will be readily\nseen that it is something not identical, by any means, with the common\nnotion.\nHe says : \" Psychology is the science which describes and explains\nmental phenomena.\" This statement has no strange sound ; it seems\nsimple enough. But it appears that the describing and explaining of\nmental phenomena by the psychology that he means is something peculiar and restricted. As he says : \" It was my point from the start that not\nevery interest in mental life is psychology, but that psychology studies\nmental life from a special point of view.\"\nThis \"point of view\" seems to be to look at the study of mental life\nin a way precisely similar to the study of physics, and the phenomena of\nphysical objects — and strictly according to the modern theories of evolution. He speaks of this kind of psychology as \" atomistic,\" \" naturalistic,\" etc. He says : \" The natural science of mental life began perhaps\nfifteen years ago.\"\nIts method he describes as that of \" dissolving its\n\n"}
{"page": 440, "printed_page": null, "text": "432\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nsubject into atomistic elements, and the explanation of natural laws without regard for the meaning or value.\" \"Psychology,\" he says, \"teaches\nonly to decompose man.\" \"The limitations of psychology are easily\nunderstood. It considers the mental life as an object which must be\nanalyzed and explained, analyzed in elements and explained by laws.\"\nThis strictly demands that, in the study of mental phenomena, as in\nphysics or chemistry, one must rigidly confine himself to the analysis of\ntheir elements and the inevitable working of unchanging laws. The mind\nis to be studied as a non-living thing, like a rock or a chemical compound. Miinsterberg further says : \"Psychology thus presupposes a most\ncomplicated transformation of the reality ; and any attitude toward mental\nlife which does not need or choose this special transformation may be\nanything else, but it ft not psychology.\"\nWith such a view of psychology, it does not seem very difficult to\nanswer the question whether the teacher needs it for direct use in the\ndaily school work.\nMiinsterberg says : \"You destroy the values of our practical life, if\nyou force on them the categories of psychology. In experimental psychology, or in child psychology, emotion may show itself as composed of\ncirculatory or muscular elements, and the will made up from muscle\nand joint and skin sensations; but if you offer such transformed product\nto the teacher, you do worse than if you offer to the thirsty man one\nballoon filled with hydrogen and one filled with oxygen instead of water.\nThe chemist is quite right, that is water. The fainting man insists that\nit is not, and life always speaks the language of the thirsty.\"\nHe further shows that the outcome of such a psychology can never\nlead to a notion of personality or free will, as we interpret these terms\nin the language of real life. By this psychology, as he says, personality\nis an \"idea which is endlessly more complicated, but, in principle, not\notherwise constituted, than the idea of our table or our horse ; just as\nfrom the point of view of chemistry, the substance we call the human\nbody is in principle not otherwise constituted than any other physical\nthing.\"\nFrom his description of psychology, the psychologist's conception of\nfree will is something very different from that free will which we feel in\nourselves and exercise every day of our lives ; something very different\nfrom that free will which we recognize in our fellows, and for which we\nhold them responsible. He says : \"The psychologist can easily construct\na conception of freedom which is in the highest degree realized in the\npsychological organism ; in its psychological experiments, freedom of\nwill means to him absence of outer force, or of pathological disturbance,\nin the causation of our actions.\" Respecting such a free will he says :\n\" If the perceptions and associations and feelings and emotions and dispositions are all given, the action must necessarily happen as it does.\n\n"}
{"page": 441, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nPSYCHOLOGY\n\nFOR\n\nTHE\n\nTEACHER\n\n433\n\nThe effect is absolutely determined by the combination of causes, only\nthe effect is a free one because these causes were lying within us.\" Regarding such a free will as explaining the actions of real men in history he\nsays : \" Do we mean, in speaking of Napoleon and Washington, Newton\nand Goethe, (only) those chemical processes which the physiologist sees\nin their life, and those accompanying psychical processes which the\npsychologist enumerates between their birth and their death? Do we\nreally still think historically, if we consider the growth of the nations and\nthis gigantic civilization on earth as the botanist studies the growth of\nthe mold which covers a rotten apple?\" He even declares that \"the\nwill is not at all an object of psychology.\"\nHe says further : \" Practical life and history, mental science and\npoetry, logic and ethics, religion and philosophy— all deal with mental life,\nbut never with psychology as such.\" It is evident from this that psychology and mental science are not synonymous terms, in his thinking ; that\npsychology signifies only a restricted and technical view of mental operations. He declares that \" psychology has the right and the duty to consider everything from the psychological standpoint.\" But he would have\nus to understand that this view does not embrace the whole of the reality,\nnor the most important part of it. He says : \"The view of man as a free\nbeing, as history must see him, is exactly as true as the view of man as\nan unfree being, as psychology must see him ; and the friends' and the\neducators' view of the child as the indissoluble unit and willful personality\nis just as valuable and true as the psychologists' view, which sees it as a\npsycho-physical, complex mechanism.\" Further : \" The child is to us in\nreal life no vegetable which has to be raised like tomatoes, and the criminal is no weed which does not feel that it destroys the garden.\"\n\" Psychology,\" he says, \" may dissolve our will and our personality\nand our freedom, and. it is constrained by duty to do so ; but it m-ust not\nforget that it speaks only of that will and that personality which are by\nmetamorphosis substituted for the personality and the will of real life.\"\n\"The psychical mechanism has no advantage over the physical one;\nboth mean a dead world without ends and values — laws, but no duties ;\neffects, but no purposes ; causes, but no ideals.\" \" Psychology can be,\nand in this century .has been, the last word of a naturalistic attitude\ntoward the world.\"\nThus we have endeavored, at some length and by copious quotations\nfrom his own writings, to set forth what we conceive to be Professor\nMiinsterberg's meaning of psychology. It surely is not the general\nknowledge of the mind and its activities which is usually understood by\nthe term. And we think all will readily agree with him that such psychology has little or nothing of direct value in the work of the teacher\nwith his pupils. In these quotations and elsewhere the professor clearly\nshows the limitations and shortcomings of such a science.\nBut he, by no\n\n"}
{"page": 442, "printed_page": null, "text": "434\n\n_NAT10NAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n[National\n\nmeans, esteems it as worthless. It has its place, its methods are legitimate for its purpose ; yea, he contends stoutly that education may ultimately be greatly helped by it. Not, however, by any direct use that the\nactual teacher can make of it in his daily work ; but by the modifications\nof educational theory which may come from it thru the efforts of expert\nstudents of that theory.\nHaving now paid our respects sufficiently perhaps to naturalistic, scientific psychology, to the psychology which one has termed \" introspectophysiologico-scientific psychology,\" and having agreed as to the futility of\nthe study of the knee-jerk, the brain cells, and the rest, as a guide to the\npractical work of teaching, the question remains whether the teacher can\nstudy mental activity in such a way that he shall gain something from it\nfor use in his everyday work. Certainly the teacher has to deal with\n\"mental life, but never with this psychology as such.\" The teacher has\nalways had to deal with mental life; and no one has ever been a successful\nteacher who has not had some good degree of knowledge of the fundamental facts of mental life, however unscientific that knowledge may have\nbeen, and however unscientific the steps by which he acquired it. In all\nthe most practical things of life, doing has preceded scientific investigation. Men talked, and talked effectively, before scientific grammar or\nrhetoric were ever dreamed of. Men sang, and probably played on\nmusical instruments, before the science of music was developed. Men\nraised crops successfully before there was any scientific knowledge of the\nchemistry of soils or of the laws of plant growth. And, in all these things,\nso far as they were successful, they acted in accord with nature's laws,\naltho those laws had never been scientifically formulated.\nMoreover, we think that scientific knowledge is not knowledge of a\ndifferent kind from that which is obtained by common experience and\nobservation. It is the same kind of knowledge, only it is rendered more\ncomplete, more precise, more systematic, more available, by scientific\ninvestigation. In my boyhood I often watched an old basket-maker as\nhe fitted his hoops onto his baskets. He applied the piece of wood out of\nwhich the hoop was to be made three times across the basket's top;\nthen, allowing a little more, he cut it off. I doubt if he ever had heard\nthe word \" circumference \" or \" diameter ; \" I am sure he had never investigated their relation mathematically. He knew nothing of the Greek\nletter it, but his hoops always fitted.\nNow, we are not saying that scientific knowledge is not better than\nknowledge of this empirical, haphazard kind. But we do say that, in\norder to teach well, the teacher must, in some way, know the fundamental facts of human nature and of mind-activity ; and the more thoroly\nhe knows them, the better. In addition to the knowledge of the general\nfacts, he needs to know the peculiarities and idiosyncrasies of the individual pupils under his charge.\nHere, then, is a double field of observation\n\n^\n\n"}
{"page": 443, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nPSYCHOLOGY\n\nwhich should accompany\n\nFOR\n\nTHE\n\nTEACHER\n\n435\n\nand guide his daily work. But not the kind\n\nof observation which Miinsterberg denominates \"atomistic,\" \"naturalistic,\" etc. — not such anobservation as requires one to look at the child\nas a non-living specimen, simply to be dissected and analyzed and\nexplained.\nWe are quite sure that Miinsterberg himself would approve the kind of\nchild study that we are now advocating, for he says, in so many words :\n\" Certainly the teacher ought to study children and men in general, but\nwith the strictly anti-psychological view ; he ought to acknowledge them\nas indissoluble unities, as centers of free will, the functions of which are\nnot causally but teleologically connected by interests and ideals, not by\npsycho-physical laws.\"\nTo any thoughtful student of school work, and of popular notions\nconcerning education, it must be apparent that a great many people,\nincluding a great many teachers, do not give proper consideration to\nsome of the most fundamental and most palpable facts of human nature.\nAt bottom is the fact that the essential characteristic of mental life, in all\nits forms, is self-activity. Whatever potential mind may be, actual mind\nmanifests itself only thru self-activity. Educationally the teacher can\ndo nothing for the. child intellectually or morally, except as he works\nthru the child himself. Instructing, teaching, lecturing, exhortation,\npreaching, example — all are powerless, except in so far as they induce\nthe proper activity in the human object.\nDr. F. A. P. Barnard says : \" I would remark that a man's education\nmust be mainly his own work. He may be helped, or he may be embarrassed, by his environment ; but neither books, nor teachers, nor apparatus, nor other surrounding conditions of any kind will be of any avail\nunless he himself furnish the energizing spirit which shall put them to\naccount. A mind is not molded as an earthen vessel is fashioned by the\nhand of the potter. It molds itself by virtue of an inherent force which\nmakes for symmetry or deformity, according to the direction given to it\nby consciousness and will.\n\"Libraries, universities, museums, and foreign travel are powerful auxiliaries to a man who is determined to be educated ; but he will find them\nof no avail if he makes them anything more than secondary instrumentalities in the work. On the other hand, no lack of such advantages will\nprevent a man from securing a valuable education, who is resolved to\neducate himself. Witness, for instance, a Benjamin Franklin, a Hugh\nMiller, a Michael Faraday, and an Abraham Lincoln.\"\nAll this seems obvious enough when we think of it. And yet a failure\nto recognize this truth lies at the bottom of what we call \"mechanical\"\nteaching. The child is regarded as a sort of mechanism to which, or\nwith which, something from without can be done directly. It would\nseem that a complete acceptance of the psychology which we have been\n\n"}
{"page": 444, "printed_page": null, "text": "43^\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nconsidering would tend to strengthen such mechanical views and processes ; whereas it seems to us that most of the real improvements\nin education during the last fifty years have. been along the line of a\nfuller recognition of the truth we are now considering. And we will add\nthat it appears to us that many of the well-meant efforts for moral reform\nand spiritual uplifting have failed, and are failing, of their purpose for\nthe same reason — that is, that they have been, and are, along mechanical\nlines.\nClosely allied to the thought just considered is the fact that the\nhuman being, child or man, must be regarded as a true personality, possessed of a true will, which he may freely exercise, and for whose exercise\nhe is responsible. George P. Brown says : \"Any sort of theory of education that fails to recognize the primal fact of rational psychology, that the\nhuman soul is potentially a morally free, because a self-active, being, is a\ndelusion and a snare.\" In the light of this principle, all efforts for the\nintellectual growth of the child must aim at inciting his will to act in the\ndesired direction, and that, too, in the way of a^ conscious personality.\nRooted in this principle is all that has been done and is doing, if it is\nwise, to promote the agreeableness of study to the child. Make learning\npleasant, is the modern cry. Why? In order that the child may pursue\nit more willingly. Herbart's plea for \"many-sided interest\" rests ultimately on the same ground. And may it not be true that the heathenish\nmaxim of the old pedagog, \"No lickin', no larnin',\" was a twilight recognition of the same principle, in that its aim was to make the pupil will to\nlearn thru fear of pain ?\nIn the same way, successful attempts to build moral character in the\nchild must work along the same line, that is, thru his own will. Committing moral precepts to memory, study of the theory of ethics, advice, and\neven example of the wisest and best teachers and friends, study of the\nBible, and the soundest and most eloquent preaching — all are as useless in\nbuilding character as the whistling wind, except in the degree in which\nthey stir and rouse and direct the center of the child or man ; that is, his\npersonality and his active will.\nWe are inclined to think of government as something from without,\nsomething imposed upon the will of its subject — and such it often is. But\ngovernment in school serves no permanent and valuable end except as it\nleads the pupil into the way of right self-government. True, outward\nrestraint is often necessary, as well as punishment for transgression, but it\nis of little or no real value unless it tends to form the habit of inward\nrestraint. And when the habit of inward restraint is once thoroly\nformed, outward restraint is not felt by the pupil. He is \" free from the\nlaw,\" because he is inwardly ready to do, from his own motion, the things\nthat righteous law demands.\nBesides the great central facts of human nature to which we have just\n\n"}
{"page": 445, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nPSYCHOLOGY\n\nFOR\n\nTHE\n\nTEACHER\n\n437\n\ndevoted these few words, there are several other facts equally well established, which it is for the highest interest of the teacher to regard, and\nabout which his knowledge can never become too complete or too dominant in shaping and directing his daily work. On these points judicious\nchild study will clarify his present knowledge ; and, at the same time, it\nwill extend its boundaries.\nTo some extent, but not sufficiently, teachers do recognize the fact\nthat there is one law of growth for muscle and mind alike, viz., the law of\nproper exercise. As the arm of the blacksmith grows strong by constant\nuse, so the power of the mind to observe, to remember, to compare, to\nreason, and the rest, grows by proper use in each of these fields of its\nactivity. In this way, and in no other, can it gain the power to do anything which it cannot do at present, and to do what it can now do more\neffectively. And, as the unused muscle becomes shriveled and atrophied,\nso the mind that fails to exercise itself in any of its modes of activity\ngradually loses even the power it now has.\nAnother most important law belongs to body and mind alike ; that is,\nthe law of habit. By repeated use of a muscle in a certain way it becomes\npossible for us to, do, easily, correctly, and almost or quite automatically,\nwhat is done at first slowly and awkwardly, and yet at the expense of much\ncare and labor. Just in the same way the mind \"learns to do by doing.\"\nWhether an oft-repeated thought \"wears a channel in the brain,\" or how\nelse it is done, is for the teacher an unimportant question. But that the\nmind does form habits, as the body does, is a matter of tremendous significance for him. It would not be far from the truth to say that the\nforming of habit is the chief business of education. In fact, Rosenkranz\ndoes say that habit is the universal form which education takes. Those\nwho are so ready to condemn \"ruts\" unqualifiedly should think on this\nmatter. Habits are ruts ; they \" lead us along the lines of least resistance.\" It is not a question whether ruts are valuable in education, or elsewhere. The significant questions are : What kind of ruts ? And are we so\nfirmly \"stuck\" in them that we cannot get out if need be ?\nThe law of imitation is one that is often too little understood, and too\nlittle regarded by teachers, especially by teachers of young children.\nAlmost, if not quite, all the first steps in a child's education originate in his\npropensity to imitate. How else does he begin to walk, and to talk, and\neven to eat as soon as he goes one step beyond drawing sustenance from\nthe mother ? Now, whether this fact has any bearing on the doctrine of\nthe relationship between men and apes need not trouble the practical\nteacher much ; but it is of great importance that he should understand\nthe working of this law, its uses and abuses in the processes of education.\nThe large part which sympathy plays in the work of educatiop is\ngreatly underestimated, as we believe. Nor is it easy to tell whether\nsympathy between teacher and pupils or sympathy among the children\n\n"}
{"page": 446, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\n438\n\nASSOCIATION\n[National\n\nthemselves cuts the larger figure. Evidently, there is a connection\nbetween imitation and sympathy ; but it may not be worth the teacher's\nwhile to spend much time in investigating that connection. Still less is\nit necessary for him to study profoundly the connection of sympathy, as\nshown by human beings, with sympathy as shown by some animals. Such\nstudy may have important bearing upon the doctrine of Darwinian evolution, but it hardly demands much effort from the practical teacher on that\naccount. But it is more important than most teachers think that they\nshould understand how the sympathy of pupils with one another may\nsometimes hinder their work, or how it may help their work if wisely\nused. And we firmly believe that the teacher's success or failure, both in\nteaching and molding his pupils, depends upon nothing else so completely\nas upon the bond of sympathy between them. Hard, indeed, is the fate\nof the little one who falls into the hands of an unsympathetic teacher. A\nsympathetic look, even if it carry a reproof with it, will often be found more\neffective than a switch, in preventing mischief. A word of sympathetic\npraise, worthily bestowed, generally will accomplish more to forward the\nchild in right efforts than a whole lecture of criticism and blame, even if\nit should be just.\nSpace forbids that we enter further into particulars concerning facts of\nhuman nature and the phenomena of mind activity. Of course, the\nteacher should understand the received doctrine concerning the three chief\nforms of mental activity, known as intellect, emotion, and will, and about\nthe relations of these forms of activity to one another. He ought, also,\nto have knowledge about the subordinate forms of mental action, like\nperception, memory, reasoning, etc. We know that many modern writers on\npsychology are severe on the doctrine of mental faculties ; and justly so,\nif the faculties are regarded as parts or divisions of the mind itself. But\nit is certain that the indivisible mind works in these various ways ; and if\na faculty is understood to mean merely one of these forms of activity, or\nthe mental ability to work in one of these ways, we can see no objection\nto retaining this term to signify that for which some term is imperatively\nneeded.\nThe field for mind study and for child study is large enough ; and the\nresults of such study should have the highest value in the practical, everyday work of the teacher; and all this without any meddling with that\nkind of psychology which Professor Munsterberg asserts the teacher does\nnot need.\n\nDISCUSSION\nAaron Gove agreed with Mr. Hewett in the general positions taken in the paper, and\nsaid that only the scientific investigation of the subject usually mentioned as child study\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 447, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nPROGRESS\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nYEAR\n\n439\n\nwas valuable. The amateur child study was futile. He protested against the \" blanks \"\nsent in such profusion to be filled out, often for the mere gratification of students who\nare thus assisted in preparing their theses.\nJ. H. HoosE agreed heartily with the general position of Dr. Hewett and of Mr.\nGove, and said that he could not conceive it possible that reliable observations could be\nmade by persons not scientifically trained. The most healthy kind of school work is\nchild study, in the sense of coming into a sympathetic understanding with the children.\nJ. M. Greenwood stated that child study is of advantage to education, for it is a\nsign that the teachers are becoming interested in the children. Many teachers are pretty\ngood psychologists without reading a great deal of psychology. \" I say, open the doors,\nencourage the teachers to study psychology and physiology, Professor Munsterberg to the\ncontrary notwithstanding.\"\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nBY NICHOLAS\n\nMURRAY\n\nBUTLER,\n\nPROGRESS\n\nOE THE\n\nCOLUMBIA\n\nUNIVERSITY,\n\nYEAR\n\nNEW\n\nYORK,\n\nN. Y.\n\nThe task which has been assigned me is difficult in proportion to its\nbrevity. It would not be impossible to set down in formidable array the\nmain events of the year, at home and abroad, in the field of education,\nand, had the Council patience and adequate wakefulness, to recite them\nin its presence; but Homer's \"Xllatalogue of the Ships,\" over which no\nschoolboy has ever traveled except in morbid curiosity or in punishment,\nwould be lively by comparison. For reasons, then, of comfort and convenience, as well as those which rest upon a sense of relative values, I\nshall select for mention and brief criticism only those happenings which\nseem to me most to deserve the emphasis which will be laid upon them.\nDuring the period under review there stand out prominently in the\nUnited States two series of events which are eminently characteristic of\nthe tendencies and movements most manifest among us. These are the\nstriking additions to the literature of education which have been made\nby Americans, and the study and constructive thought which has been\ndevoted to the problems of public-school organization and administration\nin large cities.\nFor two generations Americans have been writing and publishing\nbooks upon the theory and practice of education which were on too low\nan intellectual plane to meet the needs of today. They belonged to the\nliterature of the camp-meeting rather than to that of the study. They\nwere undeniably well-meant ; on the whole they did great good. But\nthey were not nutritious as a steady diet. On their pages the obviously\naxiomatic jostled the eternally commonplace. There were exceptions, of\ncourse ; but out of the fifty best-known books on education which were\npublished here between 1830 and 1890 certainly more than two-thirds\n\n"}
{"page": 448, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n440\n\n[National\n\nmust be condemned as unscholarly. The reason is not far to seek. Scholarship and care for education as such were divorced. The colleges had\nrolled the Baconian half-truth, \" Knowledge is power,\" under their tongues\nso long that it made other condiment unnecessary. Meanwhile, the\nelementary schools and the normal schools were suffering from lack of\nthe scholarship which only the colleges and the yet unborn universities\ncould give. The scholars looked askance at the schools as something\nbeneath them ; the schools, unmindful of the fate of perpetual motion,\nundertook to live on their own scholarship alone. The results were not\nhappy.\nNow all this is changed. Dating, perhaps, from President Angell's\nsuccess in 1879 i'^ securing the foundation at the University of Michigan\nof the chair which has been successively occupied by Payne and by Hinsdale,' and from the elaborate presentation of education as a university\nsubject made by President Barnard of Columbia- in 1881 and again in\n1882,' the movement to bring the upper and the elementary schools\ntogether in mutual understanding, and in a spirit of sympathy and\nco-operation, began to gather headway. It grew rapidly, and in 1894,\nwhen the president of the oldest American university, one which had\nstoutly resisted the inroads of education upon it, made his notable\naddress upon the \"Unity of Educational Reform,\" pointing out clearly\nthe fact that the same principles must govern educational effectiveness at\nwhatever stage of development it is sought, the victory was won. For\nyears before this President Eliot had himself been a conspicuous example\nof the new spirit, and now it has come to pass that that university which\ndoes not pursue education as energetically as it pursues physics or classical philology is no longer upon a pinnacle. Times have changed, and\nmost intelligent men have changed with them.\nThe most noteworthy feature of the educational literature of the year\nis its complete reflection of this new and inspiring point of view. It\ntreats school topics with the seriousness, the care, the scientific method\nwhich mark the scholar. Homilies upon education have disappeared\nbefore the study of education. As a result we have the beginnings of an\nAmerican literature of education which will be permanent.\nIt will not have escaped notice that during the past twelve months, or\na little more, there have been books published by Mr. Eliot, by the late\nGeneral Walker, by Mr, Gilman, by Mr. William James, by Dr. Miinsterberg, by Dr. Hinsdale, by Mr. Thomas Davidson, by Miss Blow, by Bishop\nSpalding, and by Dr. Harris, which illustrate my meaning. Even the\npurely literary critic, accustomed to scorn the study of education, or,\nperhaps, of anything except the speedy removal of one impression by\nanother, will not hestitate to call this group of books remarkable.\nThey\nI Payne, Contributions to the Science of Education, p. 337.\n^Reports as President of Columbia\n\nCollege, 1881, pp. 38-50; 1882, pp. 51-65.\n\nil\n\n"}
{"page": 449, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nPROGRESS\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nYEAR\n\n44 1\n\nare so remarkable that two decades ago they would have been impossible.\nEach book reflects the peculiar genius of its writer; taken together, they\ngive us a true picture of the forces and ideals which are moving our\neducational scholarship and grappling with our educational problems.\nMr. Eliot's Educational Reform ' reveals the unfolding of a program of\neffort and achievement, framed, thirty years ago, but broadening as it\nunfolds and gaining power in development. Its terse, virile English\nappeals directly to the heart as well as to the head of democracy. If\nevery teachers' meeting and every institute to be held during the next\nyear were to have read to it the address on \"The Function of Education\nin Democratic Society,\" with which the volume ends, it would be time\nexcellently spent, and the lives and the work of the teachers would surely\nshow its influence.\nGeneral Walker's interest in education was both general and special,\nand his Discussions in Education' faithfully represents this fact. He\nlabored by word and by deed to organize manual training and technical\neducation as they should be in a great, all-inclusive educational scheme\nlike ours. He lived to see the institution over which he presided, tho\nsadly hampered thru lack of funds, recognized as a leader of its class.\nHis statement of the argument for manual training was everywhere held\nto be most cogent, and his policy of reform in the schools and colleges\nrang with the note of leadership.\nThe scope of Mr. Oilman's volume is narrower, as its title. University\nProblems^ indicates ; and yet, just because of the many points of contact\nbetween the university of today and life, the several papers it contains\nare in no sense technical.\nThese three books are themselves enough to indicate that the higher\neducation is assuming its share of responsibility for education as a whole,\nif there were no other evidence whatever. These books are in a class by\nthemselves. All three are catholic, all three are in the true sense practical. Their authors are men whose lives have been spent in tracing\npractice upon the background of theory, and hence their books are an\nexample as well as an exhortation.\nMr. William James, our master-craftsman in psychology; Dr. Miinsterberg, whose welcome is the warmer because of our appreciation of his\nstrenuous idealism ; Dr. Hinsdale, who has for the first time set before us\nwith historical faithfulness a picture of the great educational upheaval\nwhich Horace Mann brought about ; Mr. Davidson, whose exposition of\nRousseau is as fascinating as his exposure of the fallacies contained in the\ntheories of that erratic genius is scathing ; Miss Blow, with the simplicity\nof mastery in revealing the philosophy of Froebel ; Bishop Spalding,\n1 New York: The Century Co., 1898.\n2 New York: Henry Holt & Co., 1899.\n3 New York: The Century Co., 1898.\n\n418 pp.\n342 pp.\n319 pp.\n\n$2.\n$j.\n$3.\n\n"}
{"page": 450, "printed_page": null, "text": "442\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nwith spiritual insight and sure literary touch ; and Dr. Harris, with the\nsubtlety and comprehension of thought which have taught us all, are the\nremaining writers on education who have made the year memorable.\nMr. James presents in the concrete' his reply to the much-mooted\nquestion : How can psychology be made practically useful to the teacher?\nHe does not argue ; he demonstrates. At his hands mental life is all\nsiniplicity and naturalness, and we turn with satisfaction and delight to a\nbook on psychology, both authoritative and readable, which can safely be\nput in the hands of the youngest teacher. It ought at once to drive into\nthe darkest corners the superficial and third-rate manuals of psychology\nwhich are so often pressed upon teachers, and which in their construction\nexemplify perfectly the motto made familiar by our journal of humor, Life,\n\"Aut scissors aut nullus.\" Dr. Miinsterberg's' book is of a different sort. It\ninterprets life and life's interests in terms of psychology, and it interprets\npsychology in turn in terms of life. It is truly a great book. To be\nunderstood and appreciated, it must be taken as a whole, and viewed in\nits true light as a contribution to the world's philosophy. Dr. Hinsdale^\nand Mr. Davidson ^ take us by the hand thru the field of history.\nThey show us the beginnings and the meaning of much which is now\ncurrent among us. The Boston schoolmasters of sixty years ago talked\nand acted very like their successors of today in New York, Chicago, and\nSan Francisco. They had the same excellences and the same defects.\nHistory seems to be repeating itself, and we feel depressed. Not even\nHorace Mann's great nature seems able to move the dead-weight of tradition and of Bumbledom. But Mr. Davidson helps us to cheer up.\nWhat an attractive rogue Rousseau was ! How influential .and how\nabsurd ! What a dance he must have led the musty old pedagogs of\nEurope ! It is all very fine and very amusing — at a century's distance.\nBut we must not be caught with that chaff of his twice. Nowadays we\nask rather severely what \"education according to nature\" means. According to whose nature ? According to what nature ? After listening\npolitely to the answers of Rousseau's apostles of today, we refuse to be\nconvinced that nature means nakedness, and we continue to hold that\nman has made himself some intellectual and moral clothes during all\nthese centuries.\nMiss Blow, with happy insight, gives to her exposition of the philosophy of Froebel the title Letters to a Mother;^ for the mother only less\n^Talks to Teachers oh Psychology.\n^ Psychology and Life.\n\nNew York: Henry Holt & Gj., 1899.\n\nBoston: Houghton, Mifflin & Co., 1899.\n\n286 pp.\n\n301 pp.\n\n$1.50.\n\n$2.\n\n3 Horace Afann and the Common School Revival in the United States. New York: Charles\nScribner's Sons (\"Great F.ducators\" series), 1898. 326 pp. $1.\n^ Rousseau, and Education according to Nature. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons (\" Great\nEducators \" series). 1898. 256 pp. $1.\n5 New York: D. Appleton & Co. (\" International Education \" series), 1899.\n\n310 pp.\n\n$1.50.\n\n"}
{"page": 451, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nEDUCATIOI^AL\n\nPROGkESS\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nYEAR\n\n443\n\nthan the child is the object of the kindergarten's influence and care. In\nher brilliant pages the same spiritual philosophy shines forth which Dr.\nMiinsterberg uses to light up and explain life, the one with which Dr.\nHarris measures the breadth and the depth of the whole process called\neducation. Bishop Spalding/ too, strikes the same note over and over\nagain, and sends us away uplifted with the divine harmonies echoing in\nour souls. Dr. Harris sets himself the hardest task of all, and his accomplishment istated in highly organized and systematic form. To many of\nus his Psychologic Foundations of Education is doubly precious, for . it\ngathers up the spoken words which have so often meant so much, and\nwhich we have sometimes feared might one day escape us. Here, set out\nin logical order, is the story of the mind's growth into the forms and the\ncontent of that human conquest which is civilization. It is difficult, no\ndoubt, to follow the subtleties of the thought, but it is fascinating as well ;\nand he who makes the thought his own has entered once for all the\ntemple of philosophy.\nSuch, briefly described, are the volumes that make up the group which\nmakes the year memorable. Nowhere in these books is there a note of\npessimism or despair, nowhere is sounded the trumpet of revolution,\nnowhere is waved the red flag of anarchy. Neither human nature nor\ndemocratic institutions are given up for lost. All, on the contrary, are\ncreative, hopeful ; and all see a future full of promise. They have faith,\nand they impart it. I like to think that in this highly important aspect\nthey represent the best thought and the most widespread popular instincts\nof our time. With such an exposition of education as is theirs, all can\nhardly be lost.\nTurning now to the second topic, I would point out that it is not\naccidental, by any means, that in the great cities of this country there is\ndeep interest in questions of school organization and administration.\nThis interest, s6 marked during the past year, is a result, in part, of the\nnewly roused municipal conscience which is reproaching us for inefficient,\ndisorderly administration of a city's business, and in part of the growing\nimportance, financial as well as other, of education as a public interest.\nThe taxpayer's curiosity as to how his money is spent reinforces the\nschool reformer's demand that it be spent solely for the wisest training of\nthe city's children. So it happens that New York, Chicago, Philadelphia,\nBoston, St. Louis, Baltimore, Buffalo, San Francisco, Milwaukee, Detroit,\nand Toledo — to mention only the most conspicuous instances — have all\nmade or are making history on this subject. It is important not to overlook the one point in which they are all in agreement, for it is not\nunusual to attempt to minimize the movement for city-school reform by\ncalling attention to the wide variations of the detailed plans proposed\nfor city-school organization.\n\nThat one point of agreement is the demand\n\n1- Thoughts and Theories of Life and Education.\n\nChicago: A. C. McClurg& Co., 1897. 236 pp. $1.\n\n"}
{"page": 452, "printed_page": null, "text": "444\n\nNATfONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n1\n\n[National\n\nfor efficiency. When a democracy earnestly demands efficiency in its\nservants, it has outgrown the swaddling-clothes of theory and is coming\nto years of discretion. It is plain to any careful observer that this\ndemand for efficiency is now widespread in this country, and is by no\nmeans confined to the schools alone. It is heard in respect of the civil\nservice, of the army, of governmental functions of all sorts. Why is\nthere such widespread inefficiency in public-school administration ? There\nis little or no actual dishonesty there; there is abundant earnestness;\nthere is not a little skilled experience and special training. Only one\nanswer is possible. The inefficiency is the result of the crystallization\ninto system of traditions as to school government which \" are abreast\nneither of modern administrative machinery nor of the present condition\nof education itself. It is required nowadays that the machinery of education be simple, that power and discretion be definitely located, in order\nthat responsibility may be promptly and justly fixed. It is required that\nlegislative functions be sharply distinguished from executive, that matters\nneeding professional knowledge and experience for their proper disposition be intrusted to professional hands, and that the pressure of party\npull and private push be relieved in all possible ways by statutory provisions. The long but successful struggle to establish these conditions in\nNew York, in the midst of great difficulties and against overwhelming\nodds, opened a new era. School reformers everywhere took courage, and\nthere can be no question that the principles I have named will before long\nbe established, no matter under what variety of detail, in every large city\nin the land.\nDuring the year the storm-center of this disturbance has been over\nthe city of Chicago. There the history of the New York movement is\nbeing repeated. A wholly admirable plan of reform has been outlined\nand formally proposed, and it has met with defeat at the hands of those\nwho have most to gain from its adoption. It will be brought forward\nagain, and perhaps again be defeated. It will be brought forward a third\ntime, and then the fight will be won. When the modern, scientifically\nordered system is in operation, those who are now resisting it so stoutly\nwill rnarvel at the strength of the illusion which influenced them in so\ndoing. In my judgment the report of the educational commission of\nthe city of Chicago is the most exhaustive and the most authoritative\ncontribution that has been made to the literature of city-school administration, and is the one quite indispensable book of reference on the\nsubject. I regard its conclusions and recommendations as almost unassailable, whether viewed from the standpoint of theory or from that of practice. It is a model of painstaking study and of scientific method. That\nit bears, as the first signature attached to it, that of a member of this\nCouncil is a~ source of pride to us all.\nIn this movement for the improvement of the conditions attending\n\n"}
{"page": 453, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nPROGRESS\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nYEAR\n\n' '\n\n445\n\nmunicipal school administration, it seems to me that two serious departures\nhave been made from sound principles ; and I am bold enough to predict\nthat, unless corrected, their practical working will in time prove disastrous. One of these departures is that contained in the law governing\nthe city of Milwaukee,' by the provisions of which the appointment of\nmembers of the school board is intrusted to a bi-partisan commission of\nfour, who are in turn named by the mayor. This is, on its face, a device\nfor devolving the power of designating members of the school board\nupon a semi-judicial body removed one stage from the heated controversies of party politics. In reality, however, it interposes an authority\nbetween the school board and the mayor, who alone can be held directly\nresponsible by the voters for his school-board appointments ; and, by\nattaching the bi-partisan principle to the constitution of the intermediate\nboard, it suggests and rather emphasizes the fact that party politics should\nbe considered in making school-board appointments. The Milwaukee\nlaw has other defects of detail, but this provision I believe to be a\nserious departure from sound principle, and one which should nowhere\nbe imitated.\nThe second instance which I have in mind is contained in the new\ncharter for San Francisco, soon to go into operation. Here we find two\nthoroly bad principles combined in one scheme : a bi-partisan school\nboard and a paid school board, the members of which are required by\nlaw to give their entire time to the duties of their office. This is not\nonly a departure from uniform American practice, but it is in flat contradiction to the principle which demands that the school board shall legislate only, and that all executive duties shall devolve upon professional\nofficers. The city superintendent is to sit in the San Francisco school\nboard, as in that of New York, without the right to vote, but his legitimate duties are apparently to be divided with the paid school board, so that\neither confusion and inefficiency or trading and practical \"deals\" may\nbe expected to follow. There is no excuse for a paid school board in an\nAmerican city. Such a board can only be given work enough to occupy\nit by stripping the superintendent, the supervisors, the principals, and\nthe business officers of the school system of their just powers and responsibilities. The ideal member of a school board is the representative professional man or man of affairs, who understands and reflects public\nsentiment, who is accustomed to act promptly on matters of large concern and with a broad outlook, and who will bring to problems of school\npolicy and to the consideration of the recommendations of the professional\nofficers of the board a mature, well-balanced judgment and an unbiased\ncare for the highest public interest. Such men will not serve for pay,\nnor will they — nor should they — give all their time to the business of the\nschools.\nThe San Francisco innovation is, I feel sure, a bad one.\nIt is\nI Statutes of Wisconsin, 1897, chap. i86, sec. a.\n\n"}
{"page": 454, "printed_page": null, "text": "446\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nI\n[National\n\nto be regretted, too, that the adoption of a new charter was not made the\noccasion for doing away with the custom of electing the superintendent\nof schools by the voters at a municipal election, a custom peculiar to San\nFrancisco and to Buffalo, and one which of necessity introduces into the\nchoice of a superintendent influences and considerations which should\nnever have a place there.\nDespite these important exceptions, however, the general movement\nfor improved city-school administration has gone forward rapidly and in\nthe right direction. The tendency to intrust professional duties to professional men and women, and to protect them from political or personal\ninfluence in their exercise, is uppermost. That hotbed of politics and\njobbery, the local committee system, is being done away with. The\nprincipal is emerging as a school official whose powers should be increased\nand his influence recognized. The great body of the teaching force,\nalways suspicious of change and usually opposed to it, is gradually coming to see that the new administrative scheme means for them increased\nfreedom from deadening routine, from outside pressure and influence,\nand that it makes for the power, the dignity, and the professionalVpbuilding of the teacher himself. In all these respects the year has been distinctly one of progress.\nLet me turn, now, to the events of the year in the three great culturenations whose life and thought most nearly touch and affect our own.\nOne cannot help being struck by the fact that the long-delayed awakening\nof England to her educational duty and her educational opportunity is\nan accomplished fact. To begin with, it is important to know that we\nhave now an authoritative book to turn to for accurate information regarding the organization of the many and diverse educational agencies which\nexist in England, and which puzzle so sorely the American student. This\nis Mr. Graham Balfour's Educational Systems of Great Britain and Ireland^\npublished during the year. The English Educational Review has been\nrevived, after a period of suspension, and two new journals of importance\nare trying their wings ; these are The School World, devoted to secondary\neducation, and The Paidolo gist — may it long survive its name! — having\nthe study of children for its field, and gladly recognizing American\ninfluences in describing its origin and purpose.\nI am most struck by the fact that the American college, as now constituted with its classical and its scientific courses side by side, is the type\ntoward which there is a well-developed movement in England, an easily\nrecognizable one in France, and a noticeable, tho as yet blind and\nunorganized, one in Germany. This is the meaning of the municipal\ncolleges which are rapidly increasing in strength in England, and attracting to themselves new sources of support. Of these, Owens College,\nManchester, is the best equipped, but University College, Liverpool,\nI Oxford :iClarendon^Press, 1898. JJsaoJpp.J I7S. 6d.\n\n^ 1\n\n"}
{"page": 455, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nPROGRESS\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nYEAR\n\n447\n\nclaims attention, particularly in America, because of its brilliant efforts to\nwork out the problem of an academic organization in close relation to\nthe needs of a great modern municipality. For example, it is at University College, Liverpool, that the first higher school of commerce has\nbeen established in Great Britain. It has many points of likeness with\nthe collegiate course in commerce which is to be established in New York\nby Columbia University, thru the co-operation of the Chamber of Commerce. The new Midland University, to be established at Birmingham,\nlargely thru the efforts of Mr. Chamberlain, has already received a generous gift from Mr. Andrew Carnegie, and is to devote much attention to\napplied science, and to commercial and technical subjects. Not much\nprogress can be reported relative to the teaching university for London.\nThe statutory commission is hard at work upon plans for it, and some\nsources of opposition to the scheme seem to be disappearing. The Reading College, whose rapid growth and excellent work have just led to its\naffiliation to Oxford University, is really a demonstration of the vitality\nof the university-extension movement in England, for it is in a sense the\nproduct of that movement.\nOxford and Cambridge are still institutions apart, with peculiar relations to the church and to the class from which England's rulers have\nmainly been drawn. How long they will retain their prestige is, however,\na matter of conjecture, for democracy is sweeping all before it in England,\nand the two older universities have not smiled either upon it or upon the\nnew educational movement. It is not impossible that there will be a\nrude awakening one day for Oxford and Canlbridge. Meanwhile, they\nare sadly in need of funds, for the long period of agricultural depression\nhas cut down their income very greatly. Just now, happily, Oxford has\nreceived some large donations for the scientific library (Radcliffe) and to\nestablish the readership in psychology to which Mr. Stout, the editor of\nMind, has been appointed. Cambridge has made a public appeal for\nfunds, and the response is encouraging, owing in large measure to the\ninfluence of the Duke of Devonshire, chancellor of the university.\nThe movement to bring some order out of the chaos of secondary education, to fix standards, and to make provision for proper oversight, goes\nslowly but steadily on. As everyone knows, the problems having their\norigin in secondary education are those which have most engaged the\nattention of students of education in England for some time past. The\ntime has now come when actual legislation seems near at hand. But the\ncomplications, social, economic, ethical, and religious, are very great, and\nextreme caution in framing a measure for enactment into law which will\ncommand\n\nunqualified support, is necessary. The country may be congratulated that at such a juncture the office of lord president of the\ncouncil, to which falls the main parliamentary responsibility in the matter,\nis held by so judicious and so experienced a statesman as the Duke of\n\n"}
{"page": 456, "printed_page": null, "text": "44^\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nDevonshire. He has already indicated the steps which seem to him\nimportant. The first is to form a competent central authority, so organized as to be able to guide educational opinion without coercing it. This\nis what the pending board of education bill proposes. If established,\nthis board of education will take the place of the existing central authorities for England and Wales. It is believed that the bill will become a\nlaw.\nDuring the year a valuable mine of information has appeared in a\nparliamentary paper giving the results of an inquiry into the work and\nequipment of a selected list of secondary and of high-grade elementary\nschools, the purpose being to throw light upon the relations which exist,\nand those which should exist, between elementary and secondary education. Despite the many and perplexing aspects of the question,\npeculiar to English conditions, it is safe to predict that the more this\nmatter is studied, the more clearly will it appear that there is no field or\ndefinite line between elementary and secondary education, but that the\none fades gradually and insensibly into the other. It is apparent that\nwhat hides this fact from English view is the existence of certain economic\nand social distinctions which do not enter into the same problem as it\nexists in the United States.\nThe wisest observers are agreed that, as to elementary education, the\noutlook in England is anything but satisfactory. This is in large measure\ndue to the fact that public opinion, when not wholly apathetic, is sorely\ndivided as to a number of fundamental principles, which have long since\nestablished themselves securely in the United States. For this reason,\nperhaps, it is not infrequently said that an educational crisis is approaching in England, and Mr. Gladstone's prophecy that home politics for the\nnext few years will center largely about education may be on the point of\nfulfillment. While it is true that large numbers of men and women in\nEngland are enthusiastic advocates of educational advance, yet it is also\ntrue that they have no formulated policy to urge, and that there are\nopposed to them not a few influential critics who doubt whether the work\ndone in the elementary schools is in any true sense educational, and who\nbelieve that the nation cannot bear the crushing weight of the cost of\nmaking education universal and adequate. As a high authority writes in\na personal letter : \" Puzzlement, plus a crude idea of the essential\nimportance of education, accompanied by a readiness to spend money in\ngreat masses rather than to devote some hard thinking to the problems\nat issue, may be taken as a rough diagnosis of the present state of\nEnglish public opinion on elementary education.\"\nAs in the United States, so in England, the rural-school problem presents difficulties of its own. There the economic and taxing aspects of\nthe question are quite as important as the purely educational. Nor do\nthe resulting differences of opinion follow the usual party lines.\nMany.\n\n"}
{"page": 457, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nPROGRESS\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nYEAR\n\n449\n\nLiberals, especially in the northern counties, believe in the local school\nboard, as constituted by the act of 1870, as the best authority to control\neducation. Other Liberals would make the school board subordinate to\nthe town council, and virtually a committee of it. Everyone agrees that\nthere is need of an authority to supervise elementary education over large\nrural areas, with powers analogous to those lodged in our state superintendents ofpublic instruction ; but there are endless disputes as to what\nthis authority shall be. All these cross-currents of opinion and this tangle\nof interests combine to block any sweeping or radical change. Nevertheless, itseems clear that the elementary-school teachers, especially in the\ncities and towns, are gaining in efficiency, and that their interest in education is broadening year by year. Despite this, however, there is no denying the fact that there is widespread suspicion that the intellectual results\nof the work of the elementary schools are far from being as satisfactory as\nwas confidently predicted a few years ago. Should this suspicion pass\nover into a conviction, the developments of the immediate future will be\nintensely interesting and very instructive to Americans.\nThe instinct which led General Kitchener to propose the establishment\nof a Gordon memorial college at Khartoum, which brought to the proposal\nthe prompt support of the public opinion of Great Britain, and which\ncaused Kipling to celebrate it in virile verse, is in the highest degree\nnoteworthy :\nFor Allah created the English mad — the maddest of all mankind!\nThey do not consider the Meaning of Things ; they consult not creed or clan.\nBehold they clap the slave on the back, and behold he becometh a man !\nThey terribly carpet the earth with dead, and before their cannon cool,\nThey walk unarmed by twos and threes, to call the living to school.\n\nThe appearance of three stout volumes, abounding in matter of interest\nand importance, from the newly established Division of Special Inquiries\nand Reports in the Education Department, attests the wisdom of creating\nsuch a division, and of putting at its head as director so accomplished\nand efficient a man as Mr. Michael E. Sadler.\nIn France the reconstitution of the universities, accomplished in 1897,\nhas removed them from the field of discussion, and questions of secondary\neducation have come to the front with astonishing vigor. Publicists and\nmen of affairs and of letters, as well as teachers, are participating in the very\nlively discussions which are now going on. These discussions center\nabout the baccalaureate as established in 1808, the reform of which has\nbeen many times attempted. This degree is conferred by the university\nfaculties as a result of examinations, conducted by them, upon the work\ndone by the candidate in the secondary school. The importance of this\ndiploma is very great ; for it opens the way to most of the higher careers\nin France. What might have been expected has happened. The examina.tions for the baccalaureate have come to be an end, not a means ; they\n\n"}
{"page": 458, "printed_page": null, "text": "45°\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n[National\n\ndominate the whole course of secondary instruction and hang over it like\na pall. It is now asked that far-reaching reforms be instituted ; that the\nsecondary schools hold examinations of their own for graduation ; that a\nproper certificate be conferred for the satisfactory completion of the\nsecondary-school course ; that this certificate admit the holder to the\nuniversities, where the baccalaureate shall be conferred by the faculties\nupon the completion of a specified period of study under their direction,\nM. Combes, now senator, formerly minister of public instruction, has\nintroduced a carefully drawn measure to effect these changes. The analogy\nbetween this condition in France and some educational troubles of our\nown will not escape the attention of the Council.\nBecause of the importance of this subject the Chamber of Deputies\nhas instituted a commission of thirty-three members to make an exhaustive inquiry into the whole subject and to submit a report upon it. This\ninquiry will cover no small part of the field examined in this country by\nthe Committee of Ten on Secondary School Studies, appointed by the\nNational Educational Association in 1892, and that on the Relations\nbetween the Secondary Schools and Colleges, appointed in 1895, and which\nis now ready to report. The president of the French commission is M.\nRibot. Two former ministers of public instruction, M. Poincare and M.\nLeon Bourgeois, have appeared before the commis.sion to support the\nchanges mentioned above as included in the proposed law of M. Combes,\nand to ask that the non-classical course in the secondary schools be\nrecognized as fitting students to enter upon the study of law or of medicine,\nand also that a shorter, more practical, and less advanced course of secondary instruction be established side by side with the courses now existing.\n\ni\n\nThe mere mention of'these suggestions is evidence that there is much in\ncommon between the aims and the methods of those who in France and\nin the United States are striving to broaden secondary education and to\nextend its influence. It is worth while to call attention to M. Bertrand's\nL Enseignement integral,^ published during the year, which touches not a\nfew of the topics in dispute, and advances constructive suggestions regarding them.\nThe year in Germany has not been eventful, tho a few happenings\ndeserve passing mention. In the Prussian Parliament the minister of\nagriculture, von Hammerstein, raised a storm by his sharp attack on the\nelementary schools, in the course of which he charged that they were\ndoing the agricultural interests of the country an injury by leading\npupils away from agriculture toward the trades, business, and the professions.\nThe minister of education, Bosse, replied with vigor, but without satisfying his colleague. More will be heard of the matter in the near future,\nand some important action may be taken in regard to it.\nMore important, by far, is the growing recognition in Germany of the\nI Paris : F. Alcan, 1898.\n\n313 pp.\n\nFr. 7.50.\n\ni\ni\n\n"}
{"page": 459, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nPROGRESS\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nYEAR\n\n45 1\n\nimportance of the social aspects of education. Professor Natorp, of Marburg, in his Sozial- Pddagogik,^ has made a very valuable contribution to\nthe literature of this subject, and one which deserves attention in the\nUnited States. The insight which sees in education the inter-working of\nthe individual and the influences which have shaped the social whole,\nand which therefore seeks light in the study of Culturgeschichte, receives\nstrong support from Natorp, whose book may be safely singled out as the\nmost striking German publication of the year on educational theory. In\nhis Herbart, Pestalozzi und die heutigen Aufgaben der Erziehungslehre^ a\nbook made up of lectures delivered at Marburg during the summer of\n1898, Natorp has made another contribution of importance. It is in the\nform of the liveliest possible attack on Herbart's philosophy as the basis\nfor an educational theory, and it has already roused Willmann, Fliigel,\nJust, and Rein to vigorous replies. The controversy is of more than\nacademic importance to American students of education, who have themselves recently passed thru a similar debate.\nThe drawing together of teachers whose work and interests, superficially viewed, lie far apart is much needed in Germany, and a promising\nbeginning has lately been made in Greifswald, under the leadership of\nProfessor Rehmke, of the university. The establishment of the Zeitschrift\nfur pddagogische Psychologic, edited by Dr. Kemsies, of Berlin, marks the\nadvance in Germany of a movement already well under way in the\nUnited States.\nIt seems, on the whole, apparent that the year has been one, not of\nchange only, but of progress. The conviction of the importance of real\neducation is stronger than ever before, and the efforts to attain it are\nmore widespread and more earnest. That questions of educational\norganization and administration should be everywhere most prominent\njust now is significant of the importance of the demand for efficiency and\neffectiveness, as well as of the readjustment of the entire educational\nscheme to the present needs and capacities of the public. These matters\nare as important in their way as topics touching education on the more\nphilosophical side are in theirs. The conception of education as a\nprocess based on the history of civilization, and making demands upon\nthe whole power of the community as well as upon the entire capacity of\nthe child, is not now seriously challenged. This conception of education\nalone stands the test both of experience and of philosophical scrutiny.\nIt is the characteristic insight of the closing years of the nineteenth century. Itremains for the twentieth to apply it in all its fullness.\nI Stuttgart:\n\nFrommann's Verlag, 1898.\n\n352 pp.\n\nM. 6.\n\n2 Stuttgart:\n\nFrommann's Verlag, 1899.\n\npp.\n\nM. 3.\n\n"}
{"page": 460, "printed_page": null, "text": "452\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Nationa\n\nREPORT\nOF COMMITTEE\nON\nRELATIONS\nOF\nPUBLIC LIBRARIES TO PUBLIC SCHOOLS\nMay\n\n31, 1899.\n\nTo the Council of the National Educational Association.\nGentlemen\n\n: We have the honor to submit the following report :\n\nIt was impossible for your committee to begin active work until December 30, 1898. We have been unable, consequently, to make very full\ninvestigations. There have been sent out, however, by the members of\nthe committee, several thousand circulars, letters of inquiry, and requests\nfor aid. The results of this work are incorporated in the report, in part;\nin part they have appeared in an increased interest shown by educational\nand other journals, and by associations of teachers and librarians, during\nthe past year, in the relations of schools and libraries.\nJ. C. Dana,\nFrank A. Hutchins,\nCharles A. McMurrv,\nSherman Williams,\nM. Louise Jones,\nCommittee on Relations of Public Libraries to Public Schools.\n\nPRE FA J OR Y NO TE\nBY JAMES\n\nH. VAN\n\nOF DENVER,\nEDUCATION\n[written\n\nSICKLE,\nAND\n\nfor\n\nthis\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nVICE-PRESIDENT\n\nREPORT\n\nAT\n\nTHE\n\nOF\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nTHE\n\nREQUEST\n\nOF\n\nNORTH\n\nSIDE SCHOOLS\n\nNATIONAL\n\nCOUNCIL\n\nTHE\n\nOF\n\nCOMMITTEE]\n\nSince the National Educational Association adopted the policy of\nusing a part of its income to investigate and report upon matters of\nimportance in education, it has greatly increased its influence and its\nusefulness. The report of the Committee of Ten on Secondary\nEducation, the report of the Committee of Fifteen on Correlation\nof Studies, Training of Teachers, and City School Systems, and the\nreport of the Committee of Twelve on Rural Schools have been widely\nread and discussed.\nEducational practice the country over has been\n\n"}
{"page": 461, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nPUBLIC\n\nLIBRARIES\n\nAND\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n453\n\nlargely influenced thereby; yet the service of these reports has but just\nbegun.\nIf it is important to the development of the individual that he let his\nthought go over into action, how true also of an organization like the\nNational Educational Association ! Its annual meetings are delightful\nand inspiring ; the volumes of proceedings form a cyclopaedia of education of untold value ; the papers and discussions, while in the main\nexpressing individual opinion, yet show the general trend of public sentiment as it changes and advances from year to year. But valuable as are\nthe addresses and discussions, the carefully prepared reports of the few\nspecial committees thus far authorized by the association have been of far\ngreater service in unifying school work. The more careful investigation\nmade possible by adequate financial support insures conclusions which\nare likely to be accepted as reliable. In this way more than in any other\nis the National Educational Association becoming a reforming agent of\ngigantic power. The new rule requiring the approval of the National\nCouncil of all investigations carrying appropriation, and placing such\ninvestigations under the auspices of the Council, insures a careful weighing\nof values, and is a needed and sufficient check upon unwisse or needles\nexpenditures.\nNo investigation yet undertaken promises greater returns than the\none embodied in this report upon the relation of public libraries to public schools. The past few years have witnessed a remarkable movement,\nconfined to no one part of the United States, looking toward organizing\nand directing the reading of children ; yet the general and departmental\nprograms of the National Educational Association gave no indications\nprevious to 1897 that the association recognized its opportunity to direct\nthe movement. In 1896, in response to a circular letter prepared by Mr.\nJ. C. Dana, then librarian of the Denver Public Library and president of\nthe American Library Association, a petition to the Board of Directors of\nthe National Educational Association was numerously signed, resulting in\nthe creation of a Library Department, with Hon. Melvil Dewey, of New\nYork, as president. Librarians and teachers worked together in the\ndepartment from the first with a few definite purposes, among which were\nthe following : to find out what had been done by teachers toward the\ndirection and study of the reading of children ; to find out what librarians had done to encourage and assist teachers in this work ; to bring\nteachers and librarians into more mutually helpful relations ; to determine the best books for various purposes and their adaptability to children\nof different ages. The following quotation from the remarks of Mr.\nMelvil Dewey before the Board of Directors at Buffalo gives very clearly\nthe aim of the department :\nBy law the children are put under your influence in their earlier years, when, if ever,\nthey can be taught to love good books so well that in all their lives thereafter they will\n\n"}
{"page": 462, "printed_page": null, "text": "454\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nseize on every opportunity to read them. If the librarians, with their wing of the educational army, can select and catalog and provide free of cost the best on every subject, the schoolmen, with their wing and with their immensely larger resources both of\nmoney and men — and still better, of devoted women — must send out from the schools,\nyear by year, boys and girls who will be lifelong patrons of the public library, and*will,\nin due time, help to send their own children along the paths which have proved for them\nso profitable and pleasant.\n.... but its great work should be the partial recognition that education is no longer\nfor youth and for a limited course, in a school to which they give most of their time, but\nthat it is really a matter for adults as well as youth, for life, and not for the course, to be\ncarried on at home as well as in the schools, and to be taken up in the hours or minutes\nof leisure, as the proper accompaniment of their regular business or labor. This means\nthat education must be carried on by means of reading, and that, if the librarians are to\nfurnish the books and give all necessary help in their proper field, the schools must furnish the readers.\n\nAt the Milwaukee meeting, 1897, two committees were appointed — one,\nwith F. A. Hutchins, of Wisconsin, as chairman, to prepare and recommend lists of books and editions suited for the reading and reference use\nof pupils in the several grades of the public schools ; and the other, with\nJ. C. Dana as chairman, to report on the relations of public libraries to\npublic schools, indicating methods of co-operation by which the usefulness\nof both may be increased. At the Washington meeting, 1898, these two\ncommittees reported. (See Proceedings of the National Educational Association, 1898, pp. 1014-28.)\nOn the recommendation of the Committee on Reading Lists and Editions, the department decided to create a committee of five members\ninstead of two, as before, the new committee, called the Committee on\nRelation of Public Libraries to Public Schools, to be charged with the\nduties of the two former committees. An appropriation of $500 having\nbeen made by the Board of Directors for carrying on the work, the members of this committee were appointed by the National Council of Education.\nIt seems to be true that the greatest amount of reading is done\nby children between the ages of twelve and fourteen, and that by the\nend of the high-school course pupils settle down to one class of reading\nmatter, whatever that may be. {Proceedings of the National Educational\nAssociation, 1897, p. 1019.) The importance of deciding what books are\nsuited to children at this period, and of placing such books within their\nreach, will be readily conceded. Children will read what they like.\nIf we can find out what they like and then provide it for them from\nliterature true to life, now accessible, we may be reasonably certain that\nthe class of reading settled down to later will never drop below the level\nof the taste thus formed.\nBut to begin our selection for the child at the age of twelve is too late\nfor best results. We must begin as soon as he learns to read, or even\nbefore, if possible, by reading to him and by story-telling.\n\nNot the least\n\n"}
{"page": 463, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nPUBLIC\n\nLIBRARIES\n\nAND\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n455\n\nof the difficulties is the selection of a few appropriate books from the vast\nnumber available. In this matter the report will be found to be of great\nservice. It covers the entire field of home and school reading. In the\ncity the problem is comparatively easy, provided teachers are alive to\ntheir opportunities. Here much has been done. In the country and\nin the small village the problem is more difficult. This report gives\nvaluable experience to aid the teacher in this great work, wherever his\nlot may be.\n\n/.\n\nPUBLIC\n\nLIBRARIES\n\nAND\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nThe education gained at school must, with the great majority of\npeople, be meager at the best. This maybe, and should be, supplemented\nby extensive reading after the school life is finished. If this work is to be\ndone well, and under favorable conditions, the pupil must, while in school,\nnot only be trained to like good literature, but also, if possible, to use a\npublic library intelligently. This demands cordial relations and intelligent\nco-operation between school and library authorities, between teachers and\nlibrarians.\nThe library must be regarded as an important and necessary part of\nthe system of public education. It is said that not more than one in\nfive hundred of the inhabitants of Massachusetts are without library\nfacilities. This should be the condition everywhere, and may be at no\nvery distant time if those who should be most interested — the teachers\nof the country — will make a unanimous, persistent, and continued effort\nin this direction. There is nothing that appeals to people more generally,\nor to which they will respond more readily and liberally, than an effort\nto establish free public libraries, if the work is carried on with good\njudgment.\nThe teachers of a town should know the public library, what it contains, and what use the pupils can make of it. The librarian must know\nthe school, its work, its needs, and what he can do to meet them. He\nmust be able to supplement and broaden the work of the teacher of\ngeography, science, history, or literature. He should meet the teachers\nfrom time to time and become generally familiar with their work, and\nthey should meet with him and become familiar with the library, what\nit contains, and its methods.\nThe librarian should make frequent bulletins for school use. He\nshould make lists for collateral reading in history, not merely works on\nhistory, but biography, historical fiction, and poems treating of historical\nevents.\n\n"}
{"page": 464, "printed_page": null, "text": "456\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nThe librarian should meet with the pupils occasionally and talk to\nthem upon such matters pertaining to their reading as seems wise. They\nshould have free access to the library shelves. The librarian should issue\nsuch special bulletins as may be wise — bulletins giving the books treating of local matters, if there be such ; matters of present interest ; for\nexample, last winter a special bulletin giving a list of books treating of\nHawaii, Cuba, ihe Philippines, and the far East would have been of\nmuch value.\nChildren must be directed and trained in regard to their reading.\nThey can no more be trusted to get their own knowledge of and taste* for\nliterature, unaided, than they can get their scientific and mathematical\ntraining in the same way.\nIf it is the duty of the state to see that its citizens know how to read, it\nis certainly no less its duty to see that they are trained to do the right\nkind of reading ; otherwise the ability to read may be harmful rather than\nbeneficial, both to the individual and to the state.\nNot every place can maintain a public library. Some people must be\ndeprived of the library facilities that many places have. But every state\ncan, without great expense, maintain a system of traveling libraries that\nmay reach every community in which there is anyone sufficiently interested\nto give proper attention to the matter. Some states, notably New\nYork and Wisconsin, have undertaken the work, and anyone interested, by\nwriting to Secretary Melvil Dewey, Albany, N. Y., or Mr. Frank Hutchins,\nMadison, Wis., can learn in regard to the details of the work in those\nstates.\nLibrarians usually know books much better than teachers do, but\nchildren not nearly so well ; therefore active co-operation is necessary to\nthe accomplishment of the best results.\nPupils should, while in school, be trained to know and love good\nliterature, to use reference-books, to economize time in reading, thru the\nuse of tables of contents, page-headings, etc.\nTraining pupils to read and love good literature is by far the most\nimportant work done in school. There is nothing else that a teacher can\ndo at all comparable to it in value. It is the one thing the school does\nthat continues to contribute to one's education so long as he lives. We\nshould never forget that it is not the ability to read, but the use made of\nthat ability, that contributes to the destiny of a child.\nSomeone has said that education consists in formation of habits and\nthe acquisition of tastes. This is certainly the case so far as reading is\nconcerned, and all that the school and library can do, working together\nin harmony, is necessary to the best success in this matter of forming\ncorrect reading habits and good taste in literature.\nSherman Williams.\n\n"}
{"page": 465, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nPUBLIC\n\nLIBRARIES\n\n//.\n\nAND\n\nPUBLIC\n\nREADING\n\nLISTS\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n457\n\nIn the preparation of the following lists certain things were kept\nin mind that should be considered by those who are interested in the\nwork.\nIt was not thought wise to include any series of school readers. Each\ncommunity will settle that matter for itself, and any attempt at discrimination, on part of this committee:, would not be productive of good\nresults.\nThe lists are merely suggestive. It is not expected that anyone will\nbe likely to use them without change. They furnish a plan, a basis for\nwork, and are to be modified to meet local conditions. There are many\nbooks which, while possessing general interest, have a special interest in\ncertain localities. Frederic's In the Valley would have a special interest\nin the state of New York. Parker's Seats of the Mighty, Kirby's Golden\nDog, Parkman's Montcalm and Wolfe and Conspiracy of Pontiac, Hawthorne's Twice Told Tales, Earle's Social Life in Old New England,\nUnderwood's Quabbin, Bynner's The Beguni's Daughter, and the novels\nof Miss Austin would be of greater interest in New York and New\nEngland than in other parts of the country. Page's In Ole Virginia,\nCooke's My Lady Pokahontas, Goodwin's Head of a Hundred and\nWhite Aprons are of special interest in Virginia. Lummis' Spanish\nPioneers will be of greater interest in parts of the Southwest than elsewhere. Miss Catherwood's*historical novels will be of greater interest in\nstates bordering on Canada. The story of Joliet, La Salle, Marquette,\nHennepin, and pthers will be of greater interest in the upper Mississippi valley. The writings of Boyesen will greatly interest those portions\nof our country settled by Scandinavians. So the teachers of each section\nof country must select, in part, those books of local interest. It is not\npossible that any general list will meet local conditions.\nThe lists are not intended to be closely graded. The pupils in the,\nsame grade differ so greatly in literary ability, taste, and development\nthat the books selected for any grade should have a corresponding difference.\nThe lists will certainly be criticised, both for what they contain and\nfor what they omit. No list could be made that would not be open to\nboth these criticisms. The critics must modify the lists to meet their\ntastes and needs. One must always consider both himself and his environment in the work of teaching.\nThe list for pupils in Grades i to 12 provides for reading by the\nclass, reading to the class by the teacher, and memorizing of certain\n\n"}
{"page": 466, "printed_page": null, "text": "458\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nselections in the first eight grades. While no list for home reading has\nbeen made, it is believed that the teacher should, so far as possible, direct\na portion of the out-of-school reading of the pupils. There are more\nbooks named in each grade than can possibly be read in school, and it\nwill be well to see that some of them are read at home. Provision for\nhaving certain selections memorized is made, because it is believed that\ngood reading will not be general in schools in which declamation is not\npracticed.\nThe teacher should have at least three things in mind in reading to\nthe class. With the youngest pupils the chief purpose should be to\narouse an interest in good reading ; with those who are old enough to\nread for themselves it is well to read a portion of books that the children\nshould read, and then let them get the books and finish them for themselves if they care to do so ; with the oldest pupils it is well to read some\nbooks that the pupils would hardly comprehend if they read them for\nthemselves, yet not so far beyond their comprehension but that, when read\nby the teacher, and commented upon occasionally, the meaning would be\nclear, and the thought of interest.\nIt is not expected that the class will read all the books mentioned in\nany grade, or that the teacher will read to the class all named for that\npurpose, but that selections will be made ; nor that all books will be\nread in full.\nIn the additional lists for grammar grades it is understood that the\nbooks named are merely additional books for Grades 5, 6, 7, and 8, for\nthe benefit of those schools that can have access to larger libraries. These\nadditional books are intended chiefly for home reading, and are not classified as books to be read in class or by the teacher, tho some of them may\nwell be used for these purposes.\nIt is understood that in very many places there will be great difficulty\nin getting the books needed, and that it will be impossible at present in\nmany schools; but if sufficient interest be aroused in the matter, that\ndifficulty will be met and settled. The first thing is to lead teachers\neverywhere to feel the importance of this work.\nIt is thought best to make the list of reference-books comparatively\nshort, and to place first those of most importance, and which most schools\nin cities and towns will be able to get. In the main, the less expensive\nbooks are named first, so that those first on the list will be available\nto the larger number of schools. There is no limit to reference-books\nthat may be used to advantage, save the limit of means to purchase\nthem.\nWhenever the cost of a book is given, it is the list price, from which a\nconsiderable discount may be had.\nIt is an excellent plan to keep a record of the reading of the children.\nThis can be best done by having a little book made for each pupil.\nA\n\n"}
{"page": 467, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nPUBLIC\n\nLIBRARIES\n\nAND\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n459\n\nbook about 4^^ by 6 inches, with twenty-four pages, having a heavy board\ncover, can be had for about 3 cents. Two of the pages should be ruled\nfor keeping a record of the periodical reading, the remainder for a record\nof the books read. The book should have on the front cover the name\nof the pupil. On the first two pages should be written the names of all\nthe periodicals of all kinds that the pupil regularly reads. There should\nbe entered in the first of two columns at the right the year in which he\nbegan to read them regularly. In the second column should be written\nthe year in which he ceases to read them. This record, then, will show\nthe periodicals read by the pupil, and the number of years he read them.\nThe remainder of the book should contain a record of the books read,\ngiving author and title. The books should be passed out about once a\nmonth for the pupils to make entries. The books should be kept by the\nteacher, and passed on to the next teacher when the pupil is promoted,\nnot becoming the property of the pupil till he leaves school. No criticism should be made regarding the character of the books reported,\nunless it be a favorable one. Otherwise a correct report is not likely to\nbe made. The keeping of the record will of itself largely control the\nchild's reading. He will read books that he would not otherwise do,\nbecause he does not wish to have it known that he is ignorant of that which\nis generally known by his associates.\nThese records are of much value in the work of the school. For\nexample, a teacher is to have a new class in American history next month ;\nshe sends for the reading record of the class, and looks over the\nlittle books. She makes lists of those who have read much regarding\nAmerican history, those who have read little, and those who have read\nnothing. In this way she knows more of the reading of the class,\nits knowledge and its tastes, and what she can expect to accomplish,\nand how to do it, than she would be able to learn in many weeks without\nthis record.\nIt is well occasionally to have some book read with unusual care.\nThis may be done by making it a basis for rhetorical work. For example,\nlet the book to be read be assigned two months in advance, a part of\nthe class be given topics to write, and others given recitations from the\nbook illustrating certain features. Everyone will read the book with\ncare. When the day for the rhetorical exercises comes, there will be an\ninterest in the book and a knowledge of it that can be brought about in\nno other way. Of course, every book is not well adapted for such treatment. Uncle Tom's Cabin, Robinson Crusoe, Tom Brown at Rugby, Evangeline, Snow Bound, and many others will readily suggest themselves.\nWhen one book is treated in this way, the pupils trained in the work wil\never after be able to read any other book of similar character and get\nmore out of it than they otherwise could have done. Reading must be\nmade something more than merely calling words.\nPupils must be trained\n\n"}
{"page": 468, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n460\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\n1\n\nASSOCIATION\n[National\n\nto see ideas back of the words.\n\nThey must see the sights described,\n\nhear the sounds spoken of, get the author's thought.\nSherman\n\nWilliams.\n\nList of books to be read in Grades i to 12, inclusive, with special reference to the average country school and the average grade teacher.\nGRADES,\nTO\n\nBeckwith :\nSwinton :\nPratt :\nScudder :\nWright :\n\nEggleston :\nMcMurry :\nJudd:\nBurt:\nBaldwin :\nKirby :\nMuloch :\nWiggin :\nWiggin :\n\nREAD\n\nIN\n\nAND\n\nTWO\n\nTHE\n\nCLASS\n\nBE\n\nREAD\n\nEach and All.\nSeven Little Sisters.\n\nAunt Martha's Corner Cupboard.\nAdventures of a Brownie.\nBird's Christmas Carol.\nStory of Patsy.\nBE\n\nTO\n\nTHE\n\n0.30\n0.40\n\nCLASS\n\nGinn & Co.\nGinn & Co.\nCost not over\n\nFairy Tales.\nMany editions.\nFables and Folk Stories.\nStories of Great Americans.\nClassic Stories for Little Ones.\nClassic Myths.\nNature Studies, from Burroughs.\nFifty Famous Stories Retold.\n\nTO\n\n^0.25\n0.25\n\nHoughton, Mifflin & Co.\nD. C. Heath & Co.\n\nBY THE TEACHER\n\nSELECTIONS\n\n0,25\n\nD. C. Heath & Co.\nAmerican Book Co.\nWerner Co.\n\nIn Mythland.\nEasy Steps for Little Feet.\nLegends of the Red Children.\nFables and Folk Lore.\nSeaside and Wayside, No. i.\nTO\n\nAndrews :\nAndrews :\nAndersen :\nScudder :\n\nBE\n\nONE\n\nHoughton, Mifflin & Co.\nAmerican Book Co.\nPublic School Pub. Co.\nSchool Education Co.\nGinn & Co.\nAmerican Book Co.\nNelson & Sons.\nCrowell & Co.\nHoughton, Mifflin & Co.\nHoughton, Mifflin & Co.\n\n0.35\n\n0.50\n^0.50\n0.40\n0.40\n\n0.250.35\n0.40\n0.40\n\n0.60\n0.80\n0.40\n0.48\n\nMEMORIZED\n\n' Baby Bye \"\n- Theodore Tilton\n' A Visit from St. Nicholas \" ----Clement C. Moore\n'Sweet and Low\"\n------Alfred Tennyson\n'Dutch Lullaby \"\n......\nEugene Field\n'Obedience\"\nPhoebe Cary\n' The Brown Thrush \" - . Lucy Larcom\n'Twinkle, Twinkle, Little Star \"\n.\n.\n- Jane Taylor\n' Seven Times One \"\nJean Ingelow\n' Little Boy Blue \" Eugene Field\n'Suppose\"\n-------Phoebe Cary\n' Marjorie's Almanac \"\n- T. B. Aldrich\n' Little by Little \"\nLuella Clark\n'The Dream Peddlar\"\n-----Lucy Blinn\n' Do All that You Can \"\nM. E. Sangster\n'Nobility\"\n..-•----.\nAlice Cary\n' The Vicar's Sermon \" Charles Mackay\n' America --------Samuel F. Smith\n\n1\n\n"}
{"page": 469, "printed_page": null, "text": "PUBLIC\n\nCouncil]\n\nLIBRARIES\nGRADES,\n\nAND\n\nTHREE\n\nPUBLIC\nAND\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nFOUR\n\n0.25\nTO\n\nAndersen :\nRuskin :\nEggleston :\nSewell :\nKingsley :\nDefoe :\n^sop :\nHawthorne :\nWyss:\nSaunders :\n\nBE\n\nREAD\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nCLASS\n\nCost not over\n\nFairy Tales.\nMany editions.\nKing of the Golden River.\nSeveral\neditions.\nStories of Great Americans,\nBlack Beauty.\nWater Babies.\n\nCost not over\nAmerican Book Co.\nWeeks & Co.\nGinn & Co.\nCost not over\nCost not over\n\nRobinson Crusoe.\nMany editions.\nFables.\nMany editions.\nWonder Book.\nSwiss Family Robinson.\neditions.\nBeautiful Joe.\nTO\n\nBE\n\nREAD\n\nBY\n\nHoughton, Mifflin & Co.\n\nMany\nCost not over\nAmerican Baptist.\n\nTHE\n\n0.25 61\n4\n;!So.40\n0.25\n0.3\n0.25 5\n0.40\n0.50\n\nTEACHER\n\nTO\n\nLongfellow:\n\nPaul Revere' s Ride, and other short\n\nWhittier :\n\nFrompoems.\nSnow Bound, The Barefoot Boy,\nand Barbara Frietchie.\n\nTHE\n\n0.40\n0.30\n\nCLASS\n\nBiographies of Washington, Franklin, Lincoln, and other great Americans.\nCost from\n;S!o.i2 to 0.25\nDickens :\nChristmas Carol.\nMany editions.\n0.50\nAmerican history, Stories from.\nGinn & Co.\nAndrews :\nTen Boys.\n0.40\n1.50\nCost not over\nGrimm :\nFairy Tales.\nMany editions.\nCentury Co.\nKipling :\nJungle Book.\nSELECTIONS\n\nTO\n\nBE\n\nMEMORIZED\n\nJohn G. Whittier\nHenry W. Longfellow\nAlfred Tennyson\n\n\" The Barefoot Boy \"\n\" The Children \" \"Lullaby\" .\n.\n.\n\"Snow Bound,\" first ninety-two lines\n\" Old Ironsides \"\n\"The Sand Piper\"\n\" Robert of Lincoln \"\n\" Paul Revere's Ride \" GRADES,\nTO\n\nBurroughs :\nLongfellow:\nAndrews :\nDefoe :\nHawthorne\nLongfellow\nLongfellow\nWhittier :\n\nBE\n\nJohn G. Whittier\nOliver Wendell Holmes\nCelia Thaxter\nWilliam Cullen Bryant\nHenry W. Longfellow\n\nFIVE\nREAD\n\nIN\n\nAND\n\nSIX\n\nTHE\n\nCLASS\n\nBirds and Bees, Sharp Eyes, and\nother papers.\nHiawatha.\nTen Boys.\nRobinson Crusoe.\nMany editions.\nTanglewood Tales.\nMiles Standish.\n\nHoughton, Mifflin & Co. $0.40\nHoughton, Mifflin & Co.\n0.40\nGinn & Co.\n0.50\nCost not over\n0.25\nHoughton, Mifflin & Co. 0.40\nHoughton, Mifflin & Co.\n0.40\nChildren's Hour, and other selections. Houghton, Mifflin & Co. 0.40\nSnow Bound, Among the Hills, etc.\nHoughton, Mifflin & Co. 0.40\n\n"}
{"page": 470, "printed_page": null, "text": "1\n462\nWarner :\nIrving :\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\n[National\n\nA Hunting of the Deer, and other\nRip papers.\nVan Winkle.\nTO\n\nCraddock :\nFranklin :\nOilman :\nTennyson :\nIrving :\nWarner :\nAlcott :\nBolton :\nBolton :\nHowells :\nBrown :\nAldrich :\nSidney :\n\nBE\n\nMany editions.\n\nREAD\n\nBY\n\nTHE\n\nTEACHER\n\nHoughton, Mifflin & Co.\nCost not over\nTO\n\nTHE\n\n$1.00\n\nHarper & Brothers.\nHoughton, Mifflin & Co.\nHoughton, Mifflin & Co.\nLothrop Publishing Co.\n\nGRADES,\nTO\n\nBE\n\nSEVEN\nREAD\n\nHoughton, Mifflin & Co.\nRoberts Bros.\nCrowell.\nCrowell.\n\nBY THE\n\n1.50\n1.25\n0.60\n1.50\n1.50\n0.40\n0.70\n1.50\n\nMEMORIZED\n\nAND\nIN THE\n\nA Man Without a Country.\nEvangeline.\nSilas Marner.\nMany editions.\nSnow Bound.\nVision of Sir Launfal.\nMiles Standish.\nTom Brown at Rugby.\nTO BE READ\n\n0.25\n\nLothrop Publishing Co.\nCost not over\n\nA Boy's Town.\nRab and his Friends.\nStory of a. Bad Boy.\nFive Little Peppers.\nBE\n\n0.75\n\n0.40\n0.25\n\nCost not over\n\nTO\n\n$0.25\n\nHoughton, Mifflin & Co,\nGinn & Co.\n\n' The Chambered Nautilus \"\n' Over and Over Again \"\n.\n.\n.\n' The Crow's Children -----' Old Ironsides \"\n'The Good Time Coming\"\n.\n.\n' The Blue and the Gray \"\n' The Brook -------' Whittling \"\n' What Might be Done \" ----' Battle Hymn of the Republic \" -\n\nYonge :\nBall:\nGeikie :\nScott :\nMacaulay :\nScott :\nTowle :\n\nCLASS\n\nDown the Ravine.\nAutobiography.\nMagna Charta Stories.\nEnoch Arden.\nMany editions.\nLegend of Sleepy Hollow.\nMany\neditions.\nBeing a Boy.\nLittle Women.\nGirls who have Become Famous.\nPoor Boys who Became Famous,\n\nSELECTIONS\n\nHale :\nLongfellow :\nEliot :\nWhittier :\nLowell :\nLongfellow :\nHughes :\n\n0.25\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nTEACHER\n\nOliver Wendell Holmes\nJosephine Pollard\nAlice Cary\nOliver Wendell Holmes\nCharles Mackay\nFrancis Miles Finch\nAlfred Tennyson\nJohn Pierpont\nCharles Mackay\nJulia Ward Howe\n\nEIGHT\nCLASS\n\nLittle, Brown & Co.\nI0.50\nHoughton, Mifflin & Co.\n0.25\nCost not more than\n0.30\nHoughton, Mifflin & Co.\n0.25\nHoughton, Mifflin & Co.\n0.25\nHoughton, Mifflin & Co.\n0.25\nHoughton, Mifflin & Co.\n0.50\n0.35\nTO THE\n\nCLASS\n\nThe Macmillan Co.\nGinn & Co.\n\nBook of Golden Deeds.\nStar Land.\nPhysical Geography Primer.\nD. Appleton & Co.\nCost not over\nIvanhoe.\nMany editions.\nLays of Ancient Rome. Many editions. Cost not over\nLady of the Lake. Many editions. Cost not over\nPizarro.\nLee & Shepard.\n\n0.25\n$0.50\n1. 00\n0.40\n\n0.40\n1. 00\n\n"}
{"page": 471, "printed_page": null, "text": "463\nPUBLIC\n\nCouncil]\n\nLIBRARIES\nSELECTIONS\n\nAND\nTO\n\nPUBLIC\n\nBE\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nMEMORIZED\n\nWilliam Cullen Bryant\nMrs. Hemans\n\n'Song of Marion's Men\"\n' The Landing of the Pilgrims '\n' The Ship of State \"\n' The Centennial Hymn \"\n' Abou Ben Adhem \"\n' The Manliest Man \"\n' The Way to Heaven \"\n' Love of Country \"\n'Daily Work\"\n'The American Flag \" ' Gettysburg Address \"\n' My Country \"\n' The Concord Hymn \"\n' Marmion and Douglas \"\n\n-\n\nJ. G. Holland\nWalter Scott\nCharles Mackay\n\n-\n\nJoseph Rodman Drake\nAbraham Lincoln\nJames Montgomery\nRalph Waldo Emerson\nWalter Scott\n\nGRADES,\nTO\n\nHenry W. Longfellow\nJohn G. Whittier\nLeigh Hunt\nGeorge W. Bungay\n\nNINE\n\nBE\n\nREAD\n\nIN\n\nAND\n\nTEN\n\nTHE\n\nCLASS\n\nScott :\nScott :\nScott :\n\nIvanhoe.\nMany editions.\nLady of the Lake.\nMany editions.\nMarmion.\nMany editions.\nMany editions.\nShakespeare : Jtdius Casar.\nShakespeare : Merchant of Venice.\nMany editions.\nThe Last of the Mohicans.\nMany\nCooper :\neditions.\nTO\n\nOuida :\nMac^ :\nWarner :\nWarner :\nGoldsmith :\nByron :\nGray :\n\nBE\n\nREAD\n\nBY\n\nTHE\n\nTEACHER\n\nBimbi.\nHistory of a Mouthful of Bread.\nBack Log Studies.\nMy Sumtner in a Garden.\nDeserted Village.\nMany editions.\nPrisoner of Chillon.\nMany editions.\nElegy Written in a Country Churchyard.\nGRADES,\nTO\n\nWebster :\nColeridge :\nBryant :\nMacaulay :\n\nELEVEN\nBE\n\nREAD\n\nIN\n\nTO\n\nBE\n\nREAD\n\nBY THE\n\nCost not over\nTO\n\nTHE\n\nCLASS\n\nLippincott Co.\nHarper & Brothers.\nHoughton, Mifflin & Co.\nHoughton, Mifflin & Co.\nCost not over\nCost not over\n\nTWELVE\nCLASS\n\nMany\n\nDe Quincey :\n\nFlight of a Tartar Tribe.\neditions.\n\nMany\n\nEthics of the Dust.\nMany edition's.\nOde to a Skylark.\nMany editions.\nAutocrat of the Breakfast Table.\n\n0.40\n\nJ?o.75\n0.25\n0.25\nI.OO\n1. 00\n1.00\n0.15\n\n0.15\n0.15\n50.15\n\nCost not over\n\n0.3s\n\nCost not over\nCost not over\nCost not over\n\nTEACHEl\n\nEssay on Compensation.\neditions.\n\n0.25\n0.40\n^0.40\n0.40\n\nCost not over\n\nTHE\n\nEmerson :\n\nRuskin :\nShelley :\nHolmes :\n\nCost not over\nCost not over\nCost not over\nCost not over\nCost not over\n\nAND\n\nFirst Bunker Hill Oration.\nMany\neditions.\nRime of the Ancient Mariner.\nMany editions.\nThanatopsis.\nMany editions.\nLays of Ancient Rome.\nMany\neditions.\n\n0.25\n\n0.25\n0.25\n\nCost not over\n\no.is\n\n;?o.2s\n\nCost not over\nCost not over\nCost not over\nHoughton, Mifflin & Co.\n\n0.60\n\n"}
{"page": 472, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n464\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nAND\n\nLIBRARIES\n\nIN\n\nFIRST\n\nGRAMMAR\n\n[National\nTHE\n\nUSE\n\nOF\n\nBOOKS\n\nBlack :\n\nThe Four MacNicoh.\n\nBaylor :\nBoyesen :\nClemens :\nEwing :\nTaylor :\nStockton :\nVincent :\nWeed :\nTowle :\nWiggin :\n\nJuan andjuanita.\nAgainst. Heavy Odds.\nPrince and Pauper.\nJackanapes.\nBoys of Other Countries.\nStories of New Jersey.\nThe Plant World.\nThe Insect World\nRlaegh.\nThe Story of Patsy.\nSECOND\n\nGRADES\n\nGRADE\n\nHarper & Brothers. |5l.oo\nHoughton, Mifflin & Co.\n1.50\n\nGRAMMAR\n\nChas. Scribner's Sons.\nAmerican Publishing Co.\nRoberts Bros.\n\n1.25\ni.oo\n0.50\n\nPutnam's Sons.\nAmerican Book Co.\n\n1.25\n0.60\n\nD. Appleton & Co.\nD. Appleton & Co.\nLee & Shepard.\nHoughton, Mifflin & Co.\n\n0.60\n0.60\n0.60\n0.60\n\nGRADE\n\nStowe :\nRichards:\nBurnett :\nDodge :\nOuida :\nAlcott :\n\nUncle Tom's Cabin.\nMany editions.\nCaptain January.\nLittle Lord Fauntleroy.\nHans Brinker.\nThe Dog of Flanders.\nAn Old-Fashioned Girl.\n\nBunyan :\nDickens :\n\nPilgrim's Progress.\nChristmas Stories.\n\nButterworth :\nVerne :\nDuChaillu :\nScudder :\nBolton :\nScudder :\nTowle :\nTowle :\nTowle :\nBrooks :\nBrooks :\nEggleston :\nDrake :\nMcMurry :\nWatson :\n\nZig-Zag Journeys.\nAround the World in Eighty Days.\nUnder the Equator.\nBodley Books.\nFamous Leaders among Men.\nGeorge Washington.\nMagellan.\nSir Francis Drake.\nVasco de Gama.\nHistoric Boys.\nHistoric Girls.\nStrange Stories from History.\nIndian History for Young Folks.\nPioneer History Stories of the Mississippi Valley.\nBoston Tea Party.\n\nWiight :\n\nChildren's\nHistory.Stories of American\n\nWright :\n\nChildren's Stories of American\nProgress.\nThe Story of the Greeks.\nThe Story of the Romans.\nThe Story of the Birds.\nGeology Primer.\nFrom the Hudson to the Neva.\nGeography Reader on Asia.\nWar of Independence.\n\nGuerber :\nGuerber :\nBaskett :\nGeikie :\nKer :\nCarpenter :\nFiske:\n\nGRAMMAR\n\nMany editions.\n\nCost not over\nEstes & Lauriat.\n\n^$0.50\n0.3S\n\nChas. Scribner's Sons.\nChas. Scribner's Sons.\nLippincott.\nRoberts Bros.\nCost not over\nA. L. Burt.\nEstes & Lauriat.\nCoates & Co.\nHarper & Brothers.\nHoughton, Mifflin & Co.\nCrowell & Co.\nHoughton, Mifflin & Co.\nLee & Shepard.\nLee & Shepard.\nLee & Shepard.\nPutnam's Sons.\nPutnam's Sons.\n'\nHarper & Brothers.\nHarper & Brothers.\n\n1.25\n1.50\nI.OO\n1.50\n0.50\n0.75\n1.50\n0.50\nI.OO\n2.00\n1.50\n0.40\n0.60\n0.60\n0.60\n1.50\n1.50\nI.OO\n3.00\n\nPublic School Pub. Co.\nLee & Shepard.\n\n0.50\n0.50\n\nChas. Scribner's Sons.\n\n1.25\n\nChas. Scribner's Sons.\nAmerican Book Co.\nAmerican Book Co.\n\n1.25\n0.60\n0.60\n\nD. Appleton & Co.\nD. Appleton & Co.\nLothrop Publishing Co.\nAmerican Book Co.\n\n0.65\n0.35\n1.25\n0.60\n\nHoughton, Mifflin & Co.\n\n0.40\n\n"}
{"page": 473, "printed_page": null, "text": "465\nCouncil]\n\nPUBLIC\n\nLIBRARIES\nTHIRD\n\nAustin:\nCooper :\nPage :\nWiggin :\nMartineau :\nSeawell :\nYonge :\nStevenson :\nScott:\nLongfellow:\nWhittier:\nAbbott :\n\nTowle :\nKingsley :\nButterworth :\nMacaulay :\nAbbott :\n\nCarroll :\nHale:\nParton :\nMontgomery :\nAlton :\nProctor :\n\nGRAMMAR\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nGRADE\n\nStandish of Standish.\nThe Spy. Many editions.\nTwo Little Confederates.\n\nHoughton, Mifflin & Co.\nCost not over\n\nChas. Scribner's Sons.\nHoughton, Mifflin & Co.\nPolly Oliver's Problem.\nGinn & Co.\nPeasant and Prince.\nDecatur and Somers.\nD. Appleton & Co.\nThe Macmillan Co.\nBook of Golden Deeds.\nCost not over\nTreasure Island.\nMany editions.\nQuentin Durward.\nMany editions. Cost not over\nEvangeline, Courtship of Miles Standish, and favorite shorter poems.\nHoughton, Mifflin & Co.\nSnow Bound, Tent on the Beach,\nand favorite shorter poems.\nHoughton, Mifflin & Co.\nDarius the Great, Hannibal,\nCcesar,\nRomulus, William the Conqueror,\nEmpress Josephine, Queen Elizabeth, Madame Roland.\nHarper & Brothers.\nLee and Shepard.\nHeroes and Martyrs of Invention.\nGinn & Co.\nGreek Heroes.\nBoyhood of Lincoln.\nWarren Hastings.\nMany editions.\nLa Salle, Boone, Franklin, De Soto\nCortes, Paul Jones, Peter Stuy\nvesant.\nTwelve Americans.\nStories of Invention.\nCaptains of Industry . 2 vols.\nHeroic Ballads\nAmong the Law Makers.\nTh e Ex pa nse of Hea ven.\nFOURTH\n\nWallace:\nBlackmore :\nHolland :\nCooper :\nJackson :\nStevenson :\nScott :\nScott :\nIrving :\nDickens :\nKingsley :\nLarcom :\nCooke :\nSaintine :\nHale:\nFrederic :\n\nAND\n\nGRAMMAR\n\n1. 00\n0.50\n0.50\n0.40\n0.40\n\nEach\n\n1. 00\n1. 00\n0.50\n1.50\n0.501-75\n\nEach\n\n1. 00\n\nD. Appleton & Co.\nCost not over\n\nHarper & Brothers.\nHarper & Brothers.\nRoberts Bros.\n\n^1.25\n0.50\n1.50\n0.75\n1. 00\n0.50\n\n1. 00\n1.25\n\nHoughton, Mifflin & Co.\nGinn & Co.\n\n0.60\n0.40\n1.50\n\nChas. Scribner's Sons.\nLongmans, Green & Co.\n\nI.2S\n\nGRADE\n\nBen Hur.\nLorna Doone.\nArthur Bonnicastle.\nThe Pilot. Many editions.\nRamona.\nBlack Arrow.\nKenilworth.\nMany editions.\nThe Talisman.\nMany editions.\nThe Alhambra.\nMany editions.\nDavid Copperfield.\nMany editions.\nWestward Ho!\nA New England Girlhood.\nStories of the Old Dominion.\nPicciola.\nA New England Boyhood.\nIn the Valley.\n\nHarper & Brothers.\nHarper & Brothers.\nChas. Scribner's Sons.\nCost not over\nRoberts Bros.\nRoberts Bros.\nCost not over\nCost not over\nCost not over\nCost not over\nCrowell & Co.\n\niSi.50\n1. 00\n\nHoughton, Mifflin & Co.\nHarper & Brothers.\nA. L. Burt.\nCassell & Co.\n\n1.50\n\nI.Z5\n\n0,50\n1.50\n0.50\n0.75\n0.50\n0.50\n0.50\n0.50\n\n1. 00\n1. 00\n1.50\n\nChas. Scribner's Sons.\n\nREFERENCE-BOOKS\n\nWebster's International Dictionary.\nChamber's Encyclopcedia.\nLast edition.\n\nG. & C. Merriam Co.\nLippincott Co.\n\n510.00\n\n"}
{"page": 474, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n466\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nRand, McNally: Indexed Atlas of the World.\nBartlett :\nFamiliar Quotations.\n\nLittle, Brown & Co.\n\nHoyt and Ward : Cyclopcedia of Quotations.\n\nFunk & W agnails Co.\n\n$18.50\n2.50\n\nChamplin :\n\nYoung Folks' Cyclopcedia of Common\nThings.\n\nChamplin :\n\nYoung Folks' Cyclopcedia of Persons\nand Places.\nHenry Holt & Co.\n\n3.00\n2.50\n1.50\n2.25\n5-00\n\nGaye :\nHaydn :\nWheeler :\nWheeler :\n\nThe World's Great Farm.\nDictionary of Dates.\nFamiliar Allusions.\nWho Wrote It?\n\nPutnam's Sons.\nHoughton, Mifflin & Co.\nLee & Shepard.\n\n2.00\n2.00\n\nSoule :\n\nSynonyms.\n\nLippincott\nGinn & Co. Co.\nLee & Shepard.\n\n2.50\n\nHenry Holt & Co.\nThe Macmillan Co.\n\nGayley :\nClassic Myths.\nBulfinch:\nAge of Fable.\nLippincotf s Gazetteer.\nBaldwin :\nThe Book Lover.\nCrabb :\nPeck :\nBent :\nMatson :\nBrewer :\nBrewer :\nBrewer :\nEdwards :\n\nReader's Handbook.\nHistoric Note-Book.\nDictionary of Phrase and Fable.\nWords, Facts and Phrases.\n\nLossing :\n\nCyclopcedia of United States History.\n\nLalor :\n\nCyclopcedia of Political Science, Political Economy, and Political History. Rand, McNally & Co.\nHistory for Ready Reference.\n5 vols. Nichols.\n\n:\n\nLippincott Co.\nLippincott Co. .\nLippincott Co.\nLippincott Co.\nHarper & Brothers.\n\nD. Appleton & Co.\nD. Appleton & Co.\nDodd, Mead & Co.\n\nJohnson's Cyclopcedia.\n8 vols.\nAppleton's American Biography.\n6 vols.\nInternational Cyclopcedia.\n15 vols.\n\n///.\nBY\n[written\n\nfor\n\nSUPPLEMENTARY\nROBERT\nthis\n\nreport\n\nC.\n\nMETCALF,\nat\n\nthe\n\nrequest\n\nof\n\n1. 00\n8.00\n2.00\n2.50\n\n2.50\n10.90\n3.50\n3-50\n3-50\n\n25.00\n\n48.00\n30.00\n56.00\n\nREADING\n\nBOSTON,\n\n1.50\n1.25\n\n12.00\n\nA. C. McClurg & Co.\nEnglish Synonyms.\nHarper & Brothers.\nDictionary of Classical Literature.\nHarper & Brothers.\nFamiliar Short Sayings of Great Men. Houghton, Mifflin & Co.\nReferences for Literary Workers.\nA. C. McClurg & Co.\n\nLamed\n\n6.00\n\nMASS.\nSHERMAN\n\nWILLIAMS]\n\nThe term \"supplementary reading\" usually includes all books used\nin school except text-books and reference-books. The \"school reader\"\nis not a book for supplementary reading. Geographies and histories are\ntext-books ; dictionaries and encyclopaedias are reference-books. Supplementary reading is additional reading matter to be used for various\npurposes.\nI. Some supplementary reading is designed to train pupils in the\nreading of good books. This kind of reading meets the demand of those\nwho say that, having taught the child to read, we should teach him what\nto read. It leads directly to the reading of the best literature. It contributes to the aesthetic culture of the one who reads.\nIt broadens and\n\n"}
{"page": 475, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\n'' PUBLIC\n\nLIBRARIES\n\nAND\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n467\n\ndeepens his daily living by making the mind more keenly alive to all that\nis beautiful in nature and in art. It enriches life by bringing to it the\ninheritance of the best thought of past ages.\n2. Another kind of supplementary reading may be termed \" collateral,\" It is used to supplement the work in history, geography, and\nscience. It enlarges the pupil's view of the subject in hand. It helps\nhim in clearing up doubtful points.- It shows him the truth from the\nstandpoint of another writer. It strengthens the impression upon his\nmind, and makes it more permanent. Undoubtedly it adds greatly to the\ninterest which pupils take in their school studies, and, hence, is of very\ngreat value. Supplementary reading of all kinds has a direct bearing\nupon the pupil's English. Unconsciously he is influenced by the style of\nan author, and is impressed by his thought and by his choice of words to\ngive the thought expression. If the teacher is a man or woman of culture,\nthis impression is deepened by a judicious discussion of what is read, and\nby a somewhat careful examination of the author's mode of expressing his\nthought. But while we say that supplementary reading has a direct bearing upon the pupil's English, it should not be inferred that the teacher's\nmain purpose, while using the supplementary reading, is the improvement\nof the pupil's ordinary mode of expression. The main purpose is the\nimprovement of the pupil's thought, the bringing him into intimate relations with the best minds of the literary world, and the giving of frequent\nopportunity for this influence to shape his expression.\nREFERENCE-BOOKS\n\nAND\n\nBOOKS\n\nFOR COLLATERAL\n\nREADING\n\nBooks of reference and books for collateral reading should be furnished generously to all teachers, whether in graded or ungraded schools.\nIt is necessary that such books should be near at hand when occasions for\ntheir use arise. It is when the pupil is eager to learn, when his interest\nis most intense, that the information should be furnished. To wait until\nthe close of school, when some library may be visited, or even to wait\nuntil a book may be secured from some other room in the same building,\nis often fatal to the purpose of the teacher. \" Strike when the iron is\nhot,\" is a rule equally applicable to pedagogics and mechanics. Collateral books should be consulted in the presence of the teacher, so that he\nmay direct the search of the pupil. To use reference-books to advantage\nrequires much skill. To \"run down \" a subject will often require the use\nof several collateral or reference-books, and the pupil needs training in\nthis work. One book may give only a hint of the information wanted,\nand this hint would be lost upon a pupil who had not been trained to\nseek for information. It is a mistake to appoint only the few bright\npupils to consult reference-books. All need this training, and the teacher\nmust not only use skill, but he must be patient while the slow, and even\nthe dull, acquire this power of investigation.\nThe teacher must always\n\n"}
{"page": 476, "printed_page": null, "text": "468\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nkeep in mind that mere information, a knowledge of facts, is but secondary in the education of his pupils. Knowing how to consult books for\ninformation is often of more value than the facts themselves. \"How to\nuse books\" is of prime importance in the education of the child. Hence\nthe value of reference-books and books for collateral reading, and the\nimportance of careful and systematic training in their use in schools\nof all grades.\nBOOKS\n\nFOR\n\nGENERAL\n\nREADING\n\nTraining pupils in the reading of good books for the purpose of cultivating ataste for what is best in literature must receive more extended\ntreatment. We have in mind now not so much the increase of the\npupil's scholarship as the systematic training of his moral nature — not\nso much the intellect as the heart. The child must be led to love that\nwhich is lovely and to hate that which is hateful. When the two are presented for his choice, he must involuntarily choose the former. One who\nhesitates is lost.\nBooks for general reading, to be used for the purpose just named,\nshould, when possible, be furnished in sets, the number of volumes in a\nset being equal to the number of pupils in the class. These books should\nbe well written, have a high moral purpose, and be of such a character as\nto interest the pupils for whom they are intended. They should be books\nof travel, biographies of famous men and women, historical stories, and\nworks of fiction suited to the age and intellectual growth of the pupils.\nIn the selection of books, it should be borne in mind that with parents or\nwith teachers children will read and will enjoy books of a much higher\ngrade than they would be likely to select for their own reading. Boys and\ngirls of twelve or fourteen years of age, whose tastes have had no special\ntraining, will listen with eagerness to Thackeray, Dickens, and Scott, to\nLongfellow, Holmes, and Tennyson, if a mother or some favorite teacher\nreads aloud to them. Care must be taken, however, that the reading\nnaatter be suited to the age and advancement of the pupils, for much of\nthe reading should be done by themselves. The reading from the large\nsets of books just described should be done by the pupils at home. A\nchapter or a given number of pages should be assigned by the teacher, to\nbe read by the children as an evening lesson. The teacher must prepare\nhis work as carefully as the work on any evening lesson should be prepared. Notes should be taken of points worthy of comment, characters\nworthy of study, and natural objects worthy of being described. In\nshort, such preparation by the teacher should be made as will enable\nhim to call the attention of his pupils to what is likely to interest or\ninstruct.\nThis preparation having been made by both teacher and pupils, the\nwork of the \"reading hour\" will be full of interest.\n\nThis \"hour\"\n\nfalls\n\n"}
{"page": 477, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nPUBLIC\n\nLIBRARIES\n\nAND\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n469\n\non the day following the home preparation, and usually occurs but once\nin each week. The books are all returned by the pupils, and in response\nto simple notes, hints, or suggestions by the teacher, they tell the story\nin their own words. Characters introduced by the author should be discussed in a simple way ; references to natural scenery and to works of\nart should be pictured to the imagination, and described by the children as a test of the correctness of their mind pictures ; and, finally, the\nstudy should reach back to the author as one who has become, for the\ntime being, a companion of the children, and who is worthy of their love.\nPupils soon begin to appreciate the skill of an author in so arranging the\nincidents of his story as to bring out the peculiar qualities of his characters. Their interest is enlisted in behalf of the good and the true, and\nthey instinctively loathe that which is low, mean, and dishonorable.\nThe deepest impressions are often made when works of fiction are\nunder discussion. Here the author is not required to confine himself to\nfacts, but may use his imagination and his judgment in outlining the\npeculiarities of his characters. A portrait may be a perfect likeness and\nyet may seem to flatter the subject. The painter has produced his likeness by combining a number of \"best expressions\" taken at different\nsittings. Dr. Watson (Ian Maclaren) explains that his \" Dr. MacLure \"\nwas a composite, made of lovable characteristics borrowed from a number of physicians whom he knew. So it is in the best fiction — an ideal\ncharacter is presented, having perhaps no prototype in real life, but\nformed from characteristics which are easily recognized in many of our\nfriends or acquaintances. Thus the best and deepest impressions made\nupon children — yes, and upon adults also — are often gained from a\ncareful reading of the best fiction. The reading hour gives an opportunity for conversation, and even for discussion, which may be of the\ngreatest value to the pupils. Not only will a love for reading be gained,\nbut a taste for good reading will be cultivated which will protect them\nfrom much that is harmful and debasing.\nThe conversations and discussions connected with the reading hour are\nalso of great help to the children in their use of English. The reading\nfurnishes them with thoughts, their interest in what has been read gives\nthem a strong desire to express their thoughts, and thus the conditions\nare favorable for the best kind of language work. It is by practice that\nwe learn to use English, and by careful practice that we learn to use it\nwell. The gain in the pupils' ability to express themselves in good English by such practice as has been indicated will be so marked, and even\nextraordinary, that teachers are in danger of using the reading hour for a\nlanguage lesson rather than for the higher purpose of cultivating a taste\nfor good reading.\nIt will be remembered that the kind of work described above can be\ncarried on to the best advantage when large sets of books are furnished\n\n"}
{"page": 478, "printed_page": null, "text": "47°\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n' [National\n\nand the reading of the children is done at home. But, on account of the\nexpense, large sets of books are not always available. If there are several\nclasses in the town or village, all of the same grade, expense may be\nsaved by sending the books from class to class, thus giving an opportunity for several readings of the same book during the same year. Three\nfull sets of books circulated among three classes will probably furnish\neach one with all the reading matter needed during the year ; and then,\nas these pupils pass on to a higher grade, they find three different sets\nfor their use during the succeeding year. Thus the expense of furnishing the schools of a given town with large sets (forty or fifty volumes) of\nbooks for supplementary reading is not so great as might be supposed.\nHOW\n\nTO\n\nUSE\n\nSMALL\n\nSETS\n\nOF\n\nSUPPLEMENTARY\n\nREADERS\n\nIt is doubtless true that the large sets of books, to be read at home\nby the pupils, and to be followed by a conversational exercise during the\n\"reading hour,\" are better adapted for use in the grades above the sixth\nthan in any of the lower grades. Experience has seemed to prove that\nthe art of reading must be carefully taught during the first six years in\nschool, and success in teaching depends largely upon an abundance of\npractice, which requires and abundance of time. To meet this demand\nfor time, teachers have been compelled to substitute in place of the home\nreading, which has been described above, a semi-weekly exercise in class\nreading during school hours. In other words, the time for reading, in\nthe six lower grades, has been divided between teaching reading, where\nmuch time is given to training in the art of oral expression, and practice\nin reading, where special attention is given to gathering thought from\nthe printed page, and later to restating the thought by the children in\ntheir own words.\n■\nWhen supplementary books are read in the class-room, the progress\nin reading is much less rapid, and there is great danger that pupils will\nlose their interest in the work ; but a skillful teacher will overcome this\ndifficulty, and will avoid the danger by reading, occasionally, a chapter\nto the class, or by giving with sufficient fullness the substance of certain\nportions of the book.\nMuch good work may be done in the six lower grades with sets of only\nthree supplementary books. One book is used by the teacher, and the\nother two are in the hands of pupils. One of the pupils reads aloud to\nthe class while the rest listen to the reading. All must be prepared to\ntell in their own words the substance of what has been. read. The books\ncomposing these sets must be carefully selected, and should be of such a\ncharacter as will secure the interest of the children. If carefully selected,\nthe pupils will listen with the closest attention ; moreover, they will demand\nof the pupil reader his best effort, in order that they may get the full benefit\nof the story.\n\n11\n\n"}
{"page": 479, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nPUBLIC\n\nLIBRARIES\n\nAND\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n471\n\nThe exercise in the reproduction of the story which has been read,\nand in the discussion of matters of interest connected with the reading, is\nthe same in kind as that which has already been described. The\nlanguage exercise which follows this reading will prove just as fruitful\nwith the little children as with those who are more advanced.\nThe exercise in listening is in itself of great value, for it trains the\npupils in hearing and in telling, and thus contributes much to the comfort of the teacher in most of his exercises in the class-room.\nPOETRY\n\nA love for poetry seems to be innate with children ; its first manifestation being in the nursery where Mother Goose and similar collections\nof nursery songs furnish a pharmacopoeia sufficient for the healing of\nmost of the sorrows of babyhood. Fairy tales and folk stories, fanciful\ntales and wonder books, follow in order, and furnish an abundance of literature for the primary-school age. The child's fancy finds free range,\nand his world is pictured with images of beautiful spirits whom he has\nlearned to love, or of evil spirits from whom he shrinks. Later these\nfancies find their illustrations in real life, and the lessons of childhood\nbecome the foundation of the wisdom of maturer years.\nMemory gems of a few lines each, and short poems adapted to children of the primary-school age, should be read aloud by the teacher, and\ncommitted and recited by the pupils. The poems should be carefully\nselected, and none but the best admitted to the treasury of the schoolroom. The teacher should feel that he is selecting and hanging pictures\nfor all time, and that the children's minds are the art rooms which he is\nfurnishing. His selections must be the most helpful, as well as the most\nbeautiful, of the productions of our best artists.\nIn the grammar-school grades, experience has. shown that the best\nresults have been gained when the works of one poet have been studied\nby the pupils for a year. A miscellaneous collection of poems may interest, and the poems may instruct the children who read and commit\nthem to memory, but no piece of literature, whether prose or poetry,\naccomplishes its highest good with the student until his Study reaches back\nfrom the letter of the work to the soul of the author, and a year's time is\nnone too long to gain that intimate acquaintance which alone will reveal\nthe choicest treasures of the author's heart. Some of the most satisfactory\nwork in literature in grammar schools may be traced directly to a love for\nthe poet, born into the heart of the pupils thru reading his life in the\nthoughts woven into the lines he has written. Whittier, and Holmes, and\nLongfellow, and Lowell become patron saints to the children who for\nmonths in succession look into their faces, think their thoughts, and feel\nthe inspiration of their genius.\nA few books only are necessary for the study of poetry, but every\n\n"}
{"page": 480, "printed_page": null, "text": "472\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nschoolroom should contain\na library of well-selected works for ready\nreference, and for use by the pupils during their leisure hours.\nThis report can be brought to a close most fittingly by two or three\nbrief extracts from Books and Culture, by Hamilton Wright Mabie :\nThere is no magic about the process of enriching one's self by absorbing the best\nbooks ; it is simply a matter of sound habits patiently formed and persistently kept up.\nMaking the most of one's time is the first of these habits ; utilizing the spare hours, the\nunemployed minutes, no less than those longer periods which the more fortunate enjoy.\nTo \" take time by the forelock \" in this way, however, one must have his book at hand\nwhen the precious minute arrives. There must be no fumbling for the right volume ;\nno waste of time because one is uncertain what to take up next. The waste of opportunity which leaves so many people intellectually barren who ought to be intellectually\nrich is due to neglect to decide in advance what direction one's reading shall take, and\nneglect to keep the book of the moment at hand.\nTo learn how to treat the odds and ends of hours so that they constitute, for practical\npurposes, an unbroken duration of time, is to emancipate one's self from dependence on\nparticular times, and to appropriate all time to one's use ; and, in like manner, to accustom one's self to make use of all places, however thronged and public, as if they were\nprivate and secluded, is to free one's self from bondage to a particular locality, or to surroundings specially chosen for the purpose.\nWithin the compass of a very small room, on a very few shelves, the real story of\nman in this world may be collected in the books of life in which it is written ; and the\nsolitary reader, whose personal contacts with men and events are few and lacking in distinction and interest, may enter, through his books, into the most thrilling life of the race\nin some of its most significant moments.\n\nIV.\nTHE\n\nTHE\nFUNCTION\n\nRELATION\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nOF THE\n\nSCHOOL\nPROPER\n\nIN\nUSE\n\nSCHOOL\nINTRODUCING\n\nOF\n\nTO LIBRARIES\nCHILDREN\n\nTO\n\nTHE\n\nBOOKS\n\nThe center around which cluster all the problems which relate to the\nreading habits of children is the public school. The family, in many\ncases, is doing more than the school, to be sure, but it is the school, after\nall, in the great average of cases, which must give the children a taste for\nbooks and an introduction to their proper use. It is only in exceptional\ncases that parents have knowledge and the means to supply children with\nsuitable books, and, what is more important, with the right guidance and\nsympathy in making a close acquaintance with them.\nWe may well inquire, therefore, what the proper function of the school\nis in teaching the great body of children how to appreciate and use the\nbest books. Within the last few years teachers have begun to realize that\nthis is one of the few great privileges and duties of the school. To teach\nchildren how to read so that they could make use of books, newspapers,\netc., was once looked upon as a chief object of school work. We now go\nfar beyond this and ask that teachers lead the children into the fields of\n\n"}
{"page": 481, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nPUBLIC\n\nLIBRARIES\n\nAND\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n473\n\nchoice reading matter, and cultivate in them such a taste and appreciation\nfor a considerable number of the best books ever written that all their\nlives will be enriched by what they read. This is one of the grand but\nsimple ideals of the schoolroom, and lends great dignity to every teacher's work in the common schools. The most solid and satisfactory reasons\ncan be given why this should be done in every schoolroom. These substantial materials of culture belong to every child without exception. They\nare an indispensable part of that general cultivation which is the birthright of every boy and girl. The child that by the age of fourteen has\nnot read Robinson Crusoe, Hiawatha, Pilgrim's Progress, The Stories of\nGreek Heroes by Kingsley and Hawthorne, The Lays of Ancient Rome,\nPaul Revere' s Ride, Gulliver'' s Travels, The Arabian Nights, Sleepy Hollow, Rip Van Winkle, The Tales of the White Hills, The Courtship of Miles\nStandish, Scott's Tales of a Grandfather, Marmion, and Lady of the Lake,\nthe story of Ulysses and the Trojan war, of Siegfried, William Tell, Alfred,\nand John Smith, of Columbus, Washington, and Lincoln — the boy or\ngirl who has grown up to the age of fourteen without a chance to read\nand thoroly enjoy these books has been robbed of a gre.at fundamental\nright ; a right which can never be made good by any subsequent privileges or grants. It is not a question of learning how to read^all children who go to school learn that ; it is the vastly greater question of\nappreciating and enjoying the best things which are worth reading.\nJudged on this standard of worth, the reading exercises of our schools\nhave acquired a tenfold deeper significance, and all teachers who have\nlooked into the matter have felt a new enthusiasm for the grand opportunities of common-school education. There is no doubt whatever, among\nintelligent people, that good literature is a powerful instrument of education. It is by no means the whole of education, but when the reading\nhabits of children are properly directed, their interest in suitable books\ncultivated and strengthened, their characters are strongly tinctured and\ninfluenced by what they read. If their minds are thus filled up with such\nstimulating thought-material, and their sympathies and interests awakened\nand cultivated by such ennobling thoughts, the better side of character\nhas a deep, rich soil into which it may strike its roots. So profound has\nbeen the conviction of leading educators upon the value of the reading\nmatter of the schools for the best purposes of true education that the\nwhole plan of study and the whole method of treatment and discussion,\nas touching these materials, have been reorganized with a view to putting\nall children into possession of this great birthright.\nTo prove this we will state briefly a few of the changes which have\nalready taken place in many of our best schools:\nI. Good literature of high quality, from the fertile brains of the greatest writers, has been put into every grade of the common school, from the\nfirst year on.\nThis means, of course, that all sorts of information books\n\n"}
{"page": 482, "printed_page": null, "text": "474\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nin geography, science, history, etc., have given place to better, classic\nmaterial. We shall see later that these information books have their\nproper place in school work, but they should never be allowed to crowd\nout the people's bible of good literature.\n2. In the first three grades, since children have not yet learned to\nread, but are in the process of acquiring this art, they must get their\nintroduction to the best stories suited to their age by the oral presentation\nof the teacher. Teachers of primary and intermediate grades are everywhere rapidly acquiring the art of presenting stories, and the stories\nwhich they offer are the best which the literature of Europe and America\nhas thus far produced. The result is that the teachers themselves are\nbecoming deeply interested in this material, and they are discovering how\npowerful and stimulating its influence is upon children. The children\nare aroused to a new interest in school work, in striking contrast to the\ndullness and tedium of the old a-b-c method in learning to read.\n3. The works of our best American writers — Bryant, Longfellow,\nEmerson, Whittier, Holmes, Lowell, Hawthorne, Irving, Burroughs, and\nothers — have acquired a new and untold significance for American children. These men themselves, without exception, were exemplars of a\nsimple, elevated mode of life, thoroly patriotic and American, and beautiful illustrations of those words of Longfellow familiar to every school\nchild :\nLives of great men all remind us\nWe can make our lives sublime,\nAnd departing leave behind us\nFootprints on the sands of time.\n\n4. One of the strong marks of this genuine literary revival in our\ncommon schools is the rapidly growing disposition to read literary\nwholes, not selections or fragments — the whole of Snow Bound and\nAmong the Hills, of The Building of the Ship, of Ruskin's King of the\nGolden River, of Webster's Speech at Bunker Hill, of the Vision of Sir\nLaunfal, of Emerson's American Scholar, of Gulliver'' s Voyage to Lilliput,\nof Horatius at the Bridge, of The Hunting of the Deer, of Bryant's Sella,\nof Burroughs' Birds and Bees, etc. This reading of the masterpieces as\nwholes with children in the regular reading exercises of the school has\nopened the eyes of teachers and pupils in an astonishing way, and is destined, moreover, under still better teaching in the future, to give a depth\nand spiritual value to the work of our schools which are beyond all price.\nWe have discovered, also, that the best English writers are as much\nours as our cousins' across the water; that Shakespeare, Ruskin, Tennyson, Arnold, Burke, Scott, and Addison are fully as valuable to us as our\nown writers, and that their works also must be read as literary wholes.\n5. A new principle for the grading and arrangement of literary materials thruout the school classes has been applied. The suitableness of the\n\n"}
{"page": 483, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nPUBLIC\n\nLIBRARIES\n\nAND\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n475\n\nthought, the appropriateness of the story to arouse the interest and sympathy of the children, are made the chief test to determine the place in\nthe grades where a literary whole shall be used. In this way the child has\nbecome the center of study, and a very common-sense, practical result\nhas ensued. Children are asked to read what best fits their age, temper,\nand understanding. It is no longer a question of learning to read, but\nof learning to appreciate and enjoy what is most worthy the attention of\na child. It is the development of the best feeling and intelligence of\nchildren, rather than a droning over words and phrases in a mechanical\nprocess of learning to read. That children learn to read fluently and\nwith expression is certain just to the extent of their true appreciation and\ninsight.\nIt has been discovered that the literatures of America, England,\nEurope, and Asia are already drawn upon to find just the best-suited\nmaterials for children of the successive grades. We may yet find that\nstories as diverse in origin and location as Hiawatha, Robin Hood, Don\nQuixote, Siegfried, Ulysses, Sinbad the Sailor, the Lilliputians, and Joseph\nin Egypt are needed at different points in the school course to give\nchildren what best suits their mental growth. At any rate, we are\nrapidly finding out that the best of all the ages, from Abraham to Kipling's Jungle Stories, is needed to educate children. It is an inspiring\nthought that the proper bringing up of a commonplace American child\nrequires us to sift out the gold nuggets from a whole series of civilizations. This sifting and arranging of materials has been going on for\nmany years, and the series of standard books now recommended for children in some of our best schools insures to them the stimulating and\nliberalizing influence of a large number of the best books of great\nauthors.\nThis body of educative thought-material, properly handled, discussed,\nand read in the schools, becomes the nucleus around which to collect and\norganize the reading of a lifetime. Moreover, the interests and tastes\ncultivated upon these books will determine what kind of books and to\nwhat extent they will be read in the following years.\nHaving insured a proper place and respect for this indispensable\nnucleus in which reading habits and tastes are to find root and grow\nstrong, we may next inquire into the function of the school in giving\nchildren a proper opinion of the value and use of the great body of\ninformation books, history stories, geographical readers, travels, biographies, science narratives and descriptions, histories, current magazines,\nreference-books, etc., which contribute so largely to a full equipment for\nlife.\nWithin the last few years great progress has been made toward supplying the schools with a large quantity and variety of supplementary and\ninformational reading.\nThe lessons in history, geography, and natural\n\n"}
{"page": 484, "printed_page": null, "text": "1\n476\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nscience are constantly enlarged and enriched by this sort of reading, to\nwhich children are freely referred in studying their lessons.\nThis use of varied material requires greater skill upon the part of\nteachers, a wider range of information, and the ability to organize and\nunify these diverse sources of information with the regular lessons. But\nthis kind of study, if carefully planned and skillfully executed, gives the\nboys and girls better materials of thought, more independence in using\nbooks, and a wider range of knowledge. It points directly to the library\nas a necessary and very efficient agency of popular education.\nA small library is becoming indispensable to the teachers and pupils\nof the grammar school in carrying out the legitimate work of the school.\nIn order to give definiteness to this idea of a small library, suppose it to\nconsist of five hundred to one thousand books, containing the best classic\nstories, poems, biographies, histories, travels, novels, and books of science\nsuitable for the use of children below the high school. The necessity for\nsuch a choice selection of library books is made evident by an examination of the children's present studies in history, geography, and science.\nHistory stories are now read in nearly every grade of the common\nschool, to some extent even in the primary. Only a few years ago it was\ncustomary to limit the historical studies to the final year of the grammar\nschool, to what is now generally known as the eighth grade. But now\nhistory stories are regularly used in all the grades, from the third to the\neighth, inclusive. In the third, fourth, and fifth grades, or years, of the\ncommon school, stories are skillfully narrated by the teacher, discussed,\nand reproduced by the children. It is possible in this way to give them\na very keen and hearty impulse toward biography and history. With this\ninterest thoroly awakened upon the biographies of such American heroes\nas William Penn, John Smith, Columbus, Magellan, Williams, La Salle,\nChamplain, George Rogers Clark, Lincoln, and Fremont, it is very easy\nto introduce children to that considerable body of American biography\nwhich is the very best introduction to American history.\nThe elements of heroism and adventure, the strong traits of personal\ncharacter and manliness, which these American stories exhibit, give these\nhistorical stories a great moral value. At the same time the dreary\nmemory drill upon the skeleton outlines of political events has given way\nto a native interest and enthusiasm for the striking personalities in our\npast life as a nation.\nClosely allied to this early biographical story of our own country are\nthe famous epic stories of European countries, the stories of Alfred,\nKing Richard, William Tell, Romulus, Horatius, Ulysses, and Achilles,\nand such historical narratives as the Retreat of the Ten Thousand, The\nStruggles of Thermopylce and Marathon, Scott's Tales of a Grandfather,\nand other famous stories, which in most cases have a strong historical\nsetting and significance.\nOur schools are now being abundantly supplied\n\n"}
{"page": 485, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nPUBLIC\n\nLIBRARIES\n\nAND\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n477\n\nwith interesting and instructive books of this character. Only a few of\nthem can be thoroly worked over and assimilated during school hours.\nEnough, however, can be done and is being done, in many cases, to give\na vigorous training in this kind of study, and to awaken interests which\nsoon grow into habits of study. In order to give the great body of teachers unmistakable proofs of the variety and excellence of these historical\nstories and poems, a short list of choice books will be appended to this\narticle.\nNow, it is evident that a carefully selected library of the best books of\nthis character should be found in every grammar school. There will be\na considerable number of boys and girls in every school who will be well\nprepared by such school studies as we have just described for a profitable\nuse of these books in private reading. Children in general cannot supply\nthese books. The parents, in most cases, have neither the means nor the\njudgment for their proper selection. There should be no ambition on\nthe part of teachers to make bookworms of children, and it is certainly advisable to avoid an indiscriminate and loose reading of many books. The\nteachers should not only give children a careful and appreciative introduction to a few of the best books, but they should also try to advise and\nassist children in forming profitable habits of reading. In occasional\ngeneral exercises before the whole school, and in private talks with the\nchildren, many a valuable hint may be given in regard to what books to\nread and re-read, how to study out and appreciate the characters, in short,\nhow to assimilate what they get from books.\nIn geographical studies a change, somewhat similar to that which has\ntaken place in history studies, has been brought about in the last ten\nyears. Instead of the meager outlines of geographical topics, and in\nplace of the endless map questions and names for memorizing from the\nthird grade on, we have begun to select instructive and interesting topics,\nwhich are treated with a richness of detail, illustration, and description\nthat awakens the best thought and interest of children.\nMuch of this work also has to be done in the early grades by the oral\npresentation of the teacher, and after a year or two of such home geography, by excursion and descriptive geography, by important topics, the\nchildren are prepared for making a good use of the geographical readers\nand books of travel, which have now attained great excellence and value.\nHere again it is necessary that the school library shall be well equipped\nwith a careful selection of the best recent books.\nIt need not be feared that this method of study and use of books will\nlead to a superficial, fragmentary, or unsystematic knowledge, but it will\nrequire better class-room instruction on the part of the teachers, and more\nability to organize knowledge derived from reference and other library\nbooks. Here again, as in history, quite a goodly number of the children\nmay be led on to excellent habits of voluntary and private study.\n\n"}
{"page": 486, "printed_page": null, "text": "478\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nPerhaps the best proof of the right instruction in the class-room is the\ntendency of children to extend their knowledge by later voluntary readings in the use of the library.\nA short list of books will also indicate how enterprising our best book\nfirms are in supplying what our libraries need in the way of geographical\nreaders, travels, guide-books, picturesque narratives, etc.\nIn the field of natural science there is a third great realm of study\nwhich has been lately brought under the direct jurisdiction of the schoolmaster. It is only within the last few years that any considerable number\nof school-masters and school-mistresses have begun to appreciate what a\nglorious field of study has been opened to the common school. But\nbooks and libraries seem to stand in a different relation to nature\nstudy from that already ascribed to history and geography. In this\ncase nature herself is the book to be studied, and no artificial book\nshould come in between the observer and the leaves of nature's own\nbook. Nature study, when properly managed in elementary schools, is a\ndirect protest against the wrong use of books. By means of excursions\nupon the campus, in the fields, gardens, and woods ; by experiments in\nphysics and chemistry, in the laboratory ; by watching birds among the\ntrees, insects upon the pond, butterflies on the clover, trees in their blossoms and fruitage, the weeds by the roadside, vegetables in the garden,\nthe children are acquiring the first indispensable impressions and that\nhappy enjoyment of the wonders and beauties surrounding them in nature\nwithout which all later study from books and scientific treatises is unreal\nand unmeaning.\nAfter all, the difference between science and the other studies (history\nand geography) is not so great. We do not begin history and geography\nwith books in the first two or three years, but with oral discussion and\npresentation. In fact, no study can be properly begun with children from\nbooks. It is only after the children have acquired some taste for a study\nand have accumulated considerable knowledge in its concrete forms that\nbooks can be used to advantage.\nAnd so it is with books of science.\nIn the first four grades of the common schools, and to a large extent\nin the higher grades, science studies should be carried on almost wholly\nwithout books. Their appreciation and insight into nature in many\ndirections should be steadily cultivated, not thru the reading of books,\nbut by direct contact of the senses and by exercise of the thinking powers\nupon present objects. Most of the efforts thus far made to introduce\nchildren to nature by means of books are farcical and fruitless. But as\nthe children grow older, having accumulated a considerable variety of\nknowledge and sympathy for nature study, the best books on these subjects\nwill be found very helpful. The teachers, indeed, will find books necessary at all tinies in guiding their efforts in nature study ; but with this\nwe are not now chiefly concerned.\nIt will be found that for children in\n\nII\n\n"}
{"page": 487, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nPUBLIC\n\nLIBRARIES\n\nAND\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n479\n\nthe intermediate and grammar grades there is quite a collection of science\nbooks that should be made easily accessible to them in the library.\nIndeed, some of them can be used to advantage in the supplementary\nreading in the grades in reading classes. Such, for example, are Short\nStories of Our Shy Neighbors, by Mrs. Kelly ; Glimpses of the Plant World,\nby Fanny Bugen, and Town Geology, by Charles Kingsley. Another\nclass of books that children should learn to enjoy is that of Burroughs\nand Thoreau — the sympathetic and literary side of nature study. Some\nof these, like Birds and Bees and Wild Apples, like the poems of Bryant\nand Whittier, have gone into our school readings as classics. Then there\nare the works of the masters of science, Huxley, Tyndall, Darwin, etc.,\nwhich combine scientific knowledge and genius with literary power, and\nare great books for students and adults to read. It is now possible to\nmake up a list of science books, one or two hundred in number,\nwhich would add greatly to the value of a school library. There is\nalso a great need for teachers to be more abundantly supplied with\nthese fuller and more inspiring sources of study as a help and guide in\nobservation.\nWe have seen, thus, that, besides the usual reference-books such as\ndictionaries, cyclopaedias, atlases, etc., there are four great groups or\nclasses of books which need to be carefully selected and well represented\nin a typical school library.\n1. The best permanent literary books suitable for children's study\nand reading. This, for general educative purposes, must remain the\nnucleus of any school library.\n2. Historical stories, biographies, narratives, and histories.\n3. Geographical readers and books of travel.\n4. Books on the leading phases of natural science.\nThe extent to which such a library is well used is a significant test of\nthe efficiency of our whole educational activity in the schools.\nIt will be seen from the preceding discussion that the purpose of the\nschool, in addition to teaching children to read, is to give them a spirited\nintroduction to the chief kinds of reading matter, to develop such tastes\nand habits of reading and consulting books that they will be disposed in\ntheir later years to make the best use of their power to read. The mere\nability to read is of very little value ; in some cases it is a positive misfortune, when the reading matter is vicious and the taste for such demoralizing books is cultivated. When the children are ready to leave school,\ntheir self-education will begin in earnest. One of the best things that\nthe school can do is to launch people upon their independent life with a\ntaste for good reading matter and a judgment sufficiently developed for\nselecting the right classes of books. The school library and the public\nlibrary must furnish the chief opportunities for children in their later\nschool years, and during the years which follow school life, for carrying\n\n"}
{"page": 488, "printed_page": null, "text": "48o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\n1\n\nout any plans of reading. The teachers and parents and the librarian, as\nfar as possible, should come to an understanding and agreement as to\nwhat books they would recommend, and encourage children to read.\nOne of the results of the attention recently paid to good literature in\nour schools is seen in the growing disposition of parents and children to\nread and discuss the standard books together. Many of the more intelligent and thoughtful parents are willing to spend their evenings with\ntheir children, reading and interpreting such books as Gulliver's Travels,\nHawthorne's Grandfather's Chair, the lives of Lincoln, Webster, and\nother Americans, the story of Ulysses, the stories of King Arthur, the\nGreek heroes, the Bible stories, and also the plays of Shakespeare, Plutarch's Lives, historical biographies, and other books of history and travel,\nas well as of geography and science.\nIt is not uncommon for teachers and principals of schools to call\ntogether the parents and explain the character of our reading matter, the\nselection of proper books for children, and the advantages of parents\nreading with their children. There is, probably, no one thing that can\naccomplish more in making the home what it ought to be than such\nhome readings of books which are recognized by all as among the best.\nFortunately, the parents will be benefited as much as the children ; for\nthe books that we have had in mind are just as interesting and valuable\nto grown people as to children. They are books that do not lose their\ncharm. Much has already been done in this direction ; but vastly more\nmust be done in the future. The home and the school properly working\ntogether can do a great deal in this way in creating a happy and healthful moral atmosphere, which is most favorable to the development of\nstrong and symmetrical characters. What has been done, therefore, is\nonly a beginning of what should be done all over this land and for\nthe children of all classes in myriads of homes. But to accomplish this,\nlibraries must be numerous and well equipped, far beyond anything\nwhich is common among us now. The public library, with its well-stored\nshelves of choice books, becomes as necessary as the schoolhouse itself.\nThe librarian, trained and cultivated, should know as well as the teachers\nthemselves what books are suitable for school children and young people.\nLibrarians, therefore, should not only be experts in classifying and cataloging books, but they should be trained experts in estimating and selecting reading matter for educative purposes. Many of the professional\nlibrarians have already responded to this requirement, and a great deal\nhas been done in some of our towns and cities, like Boston, Minneapolis,\nNew York city, and smaller cities, to bring the public librarians into vital\ntouch with school children during these years of educative growth and\ncharacter-building.\nA library should furnish a good collection of books in all the principal departments of study.\nIn this way a child in the course of his education\n\nf\n\n"}
{"page": 489, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nPUBLIC\n\nLIBRARIES\n\nAND\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n48 1\n\nmay widen out his knowledge and interests in many directions. For\nthe sake of general, all-sided culture it is desirable that a child should\nbe many-sided in his development, and yet a library may produce an\nexcellent effect upon a child by giving him an opportunity for cultivating\na strong liking for one limited class of books. It is a great and successful stroke of education thoroly to awaken and interest a child in one\nbranch of study, and to make him acquainted with a few of the masterpieces in this narrow field. This one enthusiasm may be enough to make\na reader and student, while a child who has never acquired a taste for any\none class of books will remain dull, and shallow, and commonplace.\nFrom this standpoint, a good library, even tho it be not very large, may\ncontribute efficiently to the educational growth of- a variety of students.\nIn fact, the library can do for the student what no school can do. It\ncan furnish the opportunity for that fuller and richer study in any one\nbranch of science in which the student has become deeply interested.\nThe school of necessity covers all branches of study with about equal or\nimpartial care. It cannot go deeply into any subject. The best it can\ndo is to open up the subject and develop a healthy and hearty appetite\nfor that kind of knowledge. But the library can furnish just that broader\nand select material which can develop a strong and permanent enthusiasm. The school can do little more than awaken an appreciation for a\nfew masterpieces of forensic literature ; but the library should contain all\nthe great speeches of Burke, Fox, Chatham, Cicero, Webster, Sumner,\netc., where the boys who have a special taste for this kind of literature\ncan find the best in abundance. The same is true for those who have a\ntaste for history, or art, or the drama, or fiction, or biology.\nCharles A. McMurry.\n\nCLASSIC\n\nREADINGS\n\nFOR\n\nTHE\n\nFIRST\n\nFOUR\n\nGRADES\n\nOF THE\n\nCOMMON\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nThe Adventures of a Brownie (for teacher), Harper & Brothers.\nKindergarten Stories and Morning Talks (Wiltse), Ginn & Co.\nTalks for Kindergartens and Primary Schools (Wiltse), Ginn & Co.\nGrimni's Fairy Tales (Wiltse), Ginn & Co.\nGerman Fairy Tales (Grimm), Maynard, Merrill & Co.\nFables and Folk Lore (Scudder), Houghton, Mifflin & Co.\nDanish Fairy Tales (Andersen), Maynard, Merrill & Co.\nPoetry for Children (Eliot), Houghton, Mifflin & Co.\nThe Story Hour (Wiggin), Houghton, Mifflin & Co.\nRobinson Crusoe, Public School Publishing Co.\ny^sop's Fables (Stickney), Ginn & Co.\nAndersen's Fairy Tales, Part I, Ginn & Co.\nSeven Little Sisters, Ginn & Co.\nHans Andersen's Stories, Houghton, Mifflin & Co.\nFairy Tales in Verse and Prose (Rolfe), Harper & Brothers.\nStories Mother Nature Told her Children, Ginn & Co.\n\n<\n\n"}
{"page": 490, "printed_page": null, "text": "482\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nAndersen's Fairy Tales, Part II, Ginn & Co.\nChild Life in Poetry, Houghton, Mifflin & Co.\nChild Life in Prose, Houghton, Mifflin & Co.\nArabian Nights (\" Aladdin \"), Maynard, Merrill & Co.\nSix Stories from the Arabian Nights, Houghton,. Mifflin & Co.\nGulliver'' s Voyage to Lilliput, Maynard, Merrill & Co.\nKingsley's Greek Heroes, Ginn & Co.\nHawthorne's Tanglewood Tales, Houghton, Mifflin & Co.\nArabian Nights (Hale), Ginn & Co.\nGods and Heroes, Ginn & Co.\nGulliver's Travels, Ginn & Co.\nAdventures of Ulysses (Lamb), Ginn & Co.\nHawthorne's Wonder Book, Houghton, Mifflin & Co.\nStories of the Old World (Church), Ginn & Co.\nUlysses among the Phcenicians (Bryant), Houghton, Mifflin & Co.\nKingsley's Water Babies, The Macmillan Co. ; Ginn & Co.\nCLASSIC\n\nREADINGS\n\nFOR\n\nTHE\n\nFIFTH\nCOMMON\n\nTO\n\nTHE\n\nEIGHTH\n\nGRADES\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nSCHOOL\n\nHiawatha, Houghton, Mifflin & Co.\nLays of Ancient Rome, Houghton, Mifflin & Co.; Maynard, Merrill & Co.\nKing of the Golden River, Ginn & Co.\nStories from Herodotus, Maynard, Merrill & Co.\nChildren's Treasury of English Song (choice\nThe Macmillan Co.\n\npoems, fourth\n\nto seventh\n\ngrades),\n\nGrandfather'' s Chair, Houghton, Mifflin & Co.\nThe Sketch Book, Ginn & Co.; American Book Co.; Maynard, Merrill & Co.\nMiles Standish, Houghton, Mifflin & Co.\nSnow Bound, etc., Houghton, Mifflin & Co.\nTales of a Grandfather, Ginn & Co.\nBirds and Bees, Houghton, Mifflin & Co.\nDickens' Christmas Carol and Cricket on the Hearth, Houghton, Mifflin & Co.\nThe Christmas Carol, Houghton, Mifflin & Co.; Maynard, Merrill & Co.\nThe Stories of Waverley, The Macmillan Co.\nThe Lay of the Last Minstrel, Ginn & Co.; Maynard, Merrill & Co.\nAutobiography of Benjamin Franklin, Ginn & Co.; Houghton, Mifflin & Co.; Maynard, Merrill & Co.\nHunting of the Deer, etc., Houghton, Mifflin & Co.\nBunyan's Pilgrim's Progress, Ginn & Co.\nEvangeline,\nHoughton, Mifflin & Co.; Maynard, Merrill & Co.\nGrandmother's Story of Bunker Hill, etc., Houghton, Mifflin & Co.\nSella, Thanatopsis, and Other Poems, Houghton, Mifflin & Co.; Maynard, Merrill & Co.\nTales of Shakspeare (Lamb), The Macmillan Co.\nSharp Eyes and Other Papers, Houghton, Mifflin & Co.\n^ Tales of the White Hills (Hawthorne), Houghton, Mifflin & Co.\nEnoch Arden and The Lotus Eaters, Maynard, Merrill & Co.\nSohrab and Rustum, Leach, Shewell & Sanborn; American Book Co.\nBunker Hill Monument (Webster), Ginn & Co.; Houghton, Mifflin & Co.; Leach,\nShewell & Sanborn; American Book Co.\nSeven American Classics, American Book Co.\nCricket on the Hearth, Houghton, Mifflin & Co. ; Maynard, Merrill & Co.\n\n(I\n\n"}
{"page": 491, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nPUBLIC\n\nLIBRARIES\n\nAND\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n483\n\nThe Succession of Forest Trees, Houghton, Mifflin & Co.\nPeasant and Prince, Gmn 81 Co.\nRab and his Friends {Bro-wn), Home Book Co.; Maynard, Merrill & Co.\nSilas Marner (Eliot), Leach, Shewell & Sanborn.\nVision of Sir Launfal, Houghton, Mifflin & Co.\nUnder the Old Elm, etc., Houghton, Mifflin & Co.\nJulius CcBsar, American Book Co.\nLady of the Lake, American Book Co.; Maynard, Merrill & Co.; Ginn& Co.; Houghton, Mifflin & Co.\nBurke's American Orations, D. C. Heath & Co.; Maynard, Merrill & Co.\nWebster's Reply to Hayne, Maynard, Merrill & Co.\nLincoln's Gettysburg Speech, etc., Houghton, Mifflin & Co.\nMerchant of Venice, American Book Co.; Ginn & Co.\nMarmion, Ginn & Co.; Maynard, Merrill & Co.; Houghton, Mifflin & Co.\nMasterpieces of American Literature, Houghton, Mifflin & Co.\nRoger de Coverley Papers, American Book Co.; Houghton, Mifflin & Co.; Leach,\nShewell & Sanborn.\nSelections from Ruskin, Ginn & Co.; Leach, Shewell & Sanborn.\nEmerson's Fortune of the Republic, etc., Houghton, Mifflin & Co.\nBacon's Essays, Ginn & Co.; Maynard, Merrill & Co.\nThe Holy Grail and Sir Galahad, Maynard, Merrill & Co.\nThe American Scholar, etc. (Emerson), American Book Co.\nPlutarch's Lives, Ginn & Co.\nVicar of Wakefield, Ginn & Co.\nRasselas, Leach, Shewell & Sanborn; Ginn & Co.\nSwiss Family Robinson, Ginn & Co.\nIrving's Alhambra, Ginn & Co.\nReadings from the Spectator, Educational Publishing Co.\nTom Brown at Rugby, Ginn & Co.\nLongfellow's Tales of a Wayside Inn, Houghton, Mifflin & Co.\nThe Peasant and the Prince, Ginn & Co.\nPeabody's Old Greek Folk Stories, Houghton, Mifflin & Co.\nUndine, Ginn & Co.\nSelections from Ruskin, Ginn & Co.\nGerman Household Tales (Grimm), Houghton, Mifflin & Co.\nStories from the Arabian Nights, Houghton, Mifflin & Co.\nThe Hoosier School-Boy, Chas. Scribner's Sons.\nHomer's Iliad (Pope's), Ginn & Co.\nDon Quixote, Ginn & Co.\nFanciful Tales (Stockton), Chas. Scribner's Sons.\nBeing a Boy, Houghton, Mifflin & Co.\nTom Brown's School Days (Hughes), Houghton, Mifflin & Co.\nScott's Quentin Durward, Ginn & Co.\nBOOKS\n\nOF\n\nSCIENCE\n\nA Few Familiar Flowers, Ginn & Co.\nOutdoor Studies, American Book Co.\nThe Story of the Solar System, D. Appleton & Co.\nBotany for Young People (Gray), American Book Co.\nThe Story of a Piece of Coal, D. Appleton & Co.\nTown Geology, The Macmillan Co.\n\n"}
{"page": 492, "printed_page": null, "text": "484\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nCoal and Coal Mines, Houghton, Mifflin & Co.\nBirds of Village and Field, Houghton, Mifflin & Co.\nIn Birdland (Keyser), A. C. McClurg & Co.\nBird Life, D. Appleton & Co.\nFamiliar Trees and their Leaves, D. Appleton & Co.\nThe Ocean of Air, Educational Publishing Co.\nFrail Children of the Air, Houghton, Mifflin & Co.\nButterflies, Henry Holt & Co.\nInmates of My House and Garden, The Macmillan Co.\nRomance of the Insect World, The Macmillan Co.\nNews from the Birds (Keyser), D. Appleton & Co.\nAnimal Life in the Sea and on the Land, American Book Co.\nRecreations in Botany, Harper & Brothers.\nThe Stories of the Trees, Thomas Nelson & Sons.\nThe Fairy-Land of Science, D. Appleton & Co.\nA Naturalist's Rambles about Home, D. Appleton & Co.\nAnimal Memoirs, 2 vols. (Lockwood), American Book Co.\nThe Population of an Old Pear Tree (E. Van Bruyssel), The Macmillan Co.\nPlants and their Children (Dana), American Book Co.\nA Reader in Botany (Newell), Ginn & Co.\nShort Stories of Our Shy Neighbors, American Book Co.\nSunshine (Amy Johnson), The Macmillan Co.\nNatural History in Anecdote, Dodd, Mead & Co.\nThe Soil (King), The Macmillan Co.\nHow to Study Plants (Wood), American Book Co.\nFour- Footed Americans, The Macmillan Co.\nThe Great World's Farm, Seeley & Co., London.\nThe Natural History of Aquatic Insects (Miall), The Macmillan Co.\nPhilip's Experiments (Trowbridge), D. Appleton & Co.\nBirds through an Opera Glass, Houghton, Mifflin & Co.\nMadam How and Lady Why (Kingsley), The Macmillan Co.\nThe Natural History of Selborne (White), Ginn & Co.\nBoys and Girls in Biology (Stevenson), D. Appleton & Co.\nGlimpses at the Plant World {BeTger), Ginn & Co.\ndp and Down the Brooks (Bamford), Houghton, Mifflin & Co.\nScience Sketches (Jordan), A. C. McClurg & Co.\nBOOKS\n\nOF GEOGRAPHY\n\nAND\n\nTRAVEL\n\nCarpenter's Geographical Reader of North America, American Book Co.\nKing's Geographical Reader, 6 vols., Lee & Shepard.\nOur American Neighbors, Silver, Burdett & Co.\nRupert's Geographical Reader, Leach, Shewell & Co.\nThe Information Readers, 4 vols., Boston School Supply Co.\nGreat American Industries, 2 vols., A Flanagan.\nBallou's Footprints of Travel, Ginn & Co.\nAppleton's General Guide to the United States and Canada, 2 vols., D. Appleton & Co.\nShaler's The Story of Our Continent, Ginn & Co.\nStories of Industry, 2 vols.. Educational Publishing Co.\nLakes of North America, Ginn & Co.\nLummis' A Trip across the Continent, Chas. Scribner's Sons. •\nParkman's The Oregon Trail, Little, Brown & Co.\nBadlam's Modern Europe, Silver, Burdett & Co.\n\n.\n\\\n\\\nw\nk.\n\n"}
{"page": 493, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council!\n\nPUBLIC\n\nLIBRARIES\n\nAND\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n485\n\nTarr's Physical Geography, The Macmillan Co.\nJohonnot's A Geographical Reader, American Book Co.\nHeilprin's The Earth and its Story, Silver, Burdett & Co.\nHutchison's The Story of the Hills, The Macmillan Co.\nBaedeker's guide-books of Great Britain, the Rhine, etc., Karl Baedeker, Leipzig.\nScribner's Geographical Reader, American Book Co.\nBallou's Footprints of Travel, Ginn & Co.\nBadlam's Views in Africa, Silver, Burdett & Co.\nCarpenter's Geographical Reader, Asia, American Book Co.\nSmith's Life in Asia, Silver, Burdett & Co.\nAustralasia and the Islands of the Sea, Silver, Burdett & Co.\nReclus' The Earth, Harper & Brothers.\nHISTORICAL\n\nSTORIES,\n\nFROM\n\nTHE\n\nFOURTH\n\nTO THE\n\nEIGHTH\n\nStories from the History of Rome, The Macmillan Co.\nStory of the Iliad, The Macmillan Co.\nTales from Spencer, The Macmillan Co.\nHeroes of Asgard, The Macmillan Co.\nStory of the Odyssey, The Macmillan Co.\nTales of Troy, Public School Publishing Co.\nTales from English History, Harper & Brothers.\nTen Boys on the Road from Long Ago, Ginn & Co.\nTales of Chivalry, Harper & Brothers.\nMagna Charta Stories, Inter-State Publishing Co., Boston.\nStories of Our Country, American Book Co.\nPioneer History Stories, Public School Publishing Co.\nBook of Golden Deeds (Yonge), The Macmillan Co.\nJason''s Quest, Leach, Shewell & Sanborn.\nTen Great Events in History, American Book Co.\nIvanhoe, Ginn & Co.\nThe Making of New England, Chas. Scribner's Sons.\nHistorical Classic Readings, Effingham Maynard, New York.\nThe Beginnings of New England, Houghton, Mifflin & Co.\nConspiracy of Pontiac (Parkman's), Little, Brown & Co.\nStory of Columbus, Educational Publishing Co.\nOdysseus, Chas. Scribner's Sons.\nThe Story of the Chosen People, American Book Co.\nStories of the Thirteen Colonies, American Book Co.\nThe Story of the English, American Book Co.\nThe War of Independence, by John Fiske ; Houghton, Mifflin & Co.\nStory of Troy, American Book Co.\nThe Story of Ccesar, American Book Co.\nGeorge Washington, Houghton, Mifflin & Co.\nThe Story of the Romans, American Book Co.\nWatch Fires of '76, Lee & Shepard.\nTwelve Naval Captains, Chas. Scribner's Sons.\nStories of Great Inventors, Educational Publishing Co.\nFifty Famous Stories Retold, American Book Co.\nStories of Colonial Children, Educational Publishing Co.\nThe Children's Life of Abraham Lincoln, A. C. McClurg & Co.\nStory of ^neas, American Book Co.\nStories of Great Americans for Little Americans, American\n\nBook Co.\n\nGRADE\n\n"}
{"page": 494, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n486\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n[National\n\nChildren's Stories of American Progress, Chas. Scribner's Sons.\nThe Boys ofyb. Harper & Brothers.\nSouthey's Life of Nelson, Ginn & Co.; American Book Co.\nThe Discovery of America, 2 vols., by John Fiske ; Houghton, Mifflin &Co.\nOld Virginia and her Neighbors, 2 vols., by John Fiske ; Houghton, Mifflin & Co.\nThe American Revolution, 2 vols., by John Fiske ; Houghton, Mifflin & Co.\nThe Critical Period of American History, by John Fiske ; Houghton, Mifflin & Co.\nDecatur and Somers, D. Appleton & Co.\nWestward Ho! The Macmillan Co.\nOld Stories of the East, American Book Co.\nMacaulay's Earl of Chatham, Leach, Shewell & Sanborn.\nMacaulay's Life of Johnson, Leach, Shewell & Sanborn.\nMacaulay's Lord Clive, Leach, Shewell & Sanborn.\nThe Life and Writings of Addison, by Macaulay ; American Book Co.\n\nCharles A. McMurry.\nThe following list of loo books for high schools is selected by Principal J.C. Hanna, Oak Park, 111.:\nONE\n\nHUNDRED\n\nBOOKS\n\nOF UNQUALIFIED VALUE\nTO READ\n\n1. Rab and his Friends,\nBrown\n2. Lorna Doone,\nBlack more\n3. Last of the Mohicans,\nCooper\n4. Tale of Two Cities,\nDickens\n5. The Three Musketeers, Dumas\n6. The Hoosier Schoolmaster, Eggleston\n7. Silas Marner,\nEliot\n8. Pilgrim's Progress,\nBunyan\n9. The Man Without a Country,\nHale\n10. The House of Seven Gables, Hawthorne\n11. Tom Brown's School Days, Hughes\n12. Les Miser ables,\nHugo\n1 3. Westward Ho!\nKingsley\n14. Hugh Wynne, Free Quaker,\nMitchell\n15. Treasure Island,\nStevenson\n16. Ivanhoe,\nScott\n17. Quentin Durward,\nScott\n18. Uncle Tom's Cabin,\n19. Ben-Hur,\n20. Harold,\n\nStowe\nWallace\nBulwer\nESSAYS,\n\n1. Autocrat of the Breakfast Table, Holmes\n2. Sketch Book,\nIrving\n3. Essay on Milton,\nMacaulay\n4. Being a Boy,\nWarner\n5. Birds and Bees,\nBurroughs\n\nFOR\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nSTUDENTS\n\n21. Last Days of Pompeii,\nBulwer\n22. Robinson Crusoe,\nDefoe\n23. Story of a Bad Boy,\nAldrich\n24. The Pathfinder,\nCooper\n25. David Copperfield, Dickens\n26. Twenty Years After,\nDumas\n27. Micah Clarke y\nDoyle\n28. Kenilworth,\nScott\n29. Waverley,\nScott\n30. Gulliver's Travels,\nSwift\n31. Vanity Fair,\nThackeray\n32. Henry Esmond,\nThackeray\n33. Cloister and Hearth,\nReade\n34. Scottish Chiefs,\nPorter\n35. Hypatia,\nKingsley\n36. Soldiers Three,\nKipling\n37. Kidnapped,\nStevenson\n38. The Talisman,\nScott\n39. The Emperor,\nEbers\n40. Schbnberg Cotta Family,\nETC.\n\n6. Essay on Burns,\nCarlyle\n7. Earth and Man,\nGuyot\n8. The Book of the Ocean, IngersoU\n9. Sir Roger de Coverley Papers, Addison\n\n\\\n1. Evangeline,\nLongfellow\n2. Vision of Sir Launfal,\nLowell\n\nSnow Bound,\nTent on the Beach,\n\nWhittier\nWhittier\n\n"}
{"page": 495, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nPUBLIC\n\nLIBRARIES\n\n5. Selected Poems,\nBurns\n6. Childe Harold,\nByron\n7. Ancient Mariner,\nColeridge\n8. Elegy in a Country Churchyard, Gray\n9. Lays of Ancient Rome, Macaulay\n10. Lycidas,\nMilton\nMilton\n11. L\" Allegro,\nMilton\n12. II Penseroso,\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n487\n\n13. Lady of the Lake,\n14. Marmion,\n15. Merchant of Venice,\n16. Julius CcBsar,\n17. Macbeth,\n18. As You Like It,\n19. Princess,\n20. Idylls of the King,\n\nScott\nScott\nShakespeare\nShakespeare\nShakespeare\nShakespeare\nTennyson\nTennyson\n\nAND\n\nPUBLIC\n\nMISCELLANEOUS\n\n1. The Gold Bug and Other Tales,\nPoe\n2. Stories from Homer,\nChurch\n3. Stories from Virgil,\nChurch\n4. Prose Translation of Odyssey,\nButcher and Lang\n5. Classic Myths in English Literature,\nGayley\n6. Old Times on the Mississippi, M. Twain\n7. Curious Myths of the Middle Ages,\nBaring-Gould\n8. Two Years before the Mast, Dana\n9. Wonder Book,\nHawthorne\n10. Tanglewood Tales,\nHawthorne\n11. Jungle Books, 2 vols.,\nKipling\n12. The Story of Primitive Man,\nClodd\n\n13. The Story of the Plants, Grant Allen\n14. Homer [Princes of Literature], Gladstone\n15. Books and Reading,\nPorter\n16. The Story of the Cowboy, ^ ^ g Hough\n17. The Story of the Mine,\n1 o^\nShinn\n18. The Story of the Indian,\n\\^% Grinnell\n19. The Story of the Railroad, J ^^ Warman\n20. Citizen Bird,\nWright and Cones\n21. Brave Little Holland and What\nShe Taught Us,\nGriflSs\n22. How Marcus Whitman Saved Oregon,\nNixon\n23. Society in Rome under the Cmsars,\nInge\n24. Stories from Herodotus,\nChurch\n\nBIOGRAPHY\n\n1. Autobiography,\nFranklin\n2. Life of Nelson,\nSouthey\n3. CcBsar; a Sketch,\nFroude\n4. Hero Tales from American History,\nLodge and Roosevelt\n5. Christopher Columbus,\nC. K. Adams\n[From Heroes of the Nations series]\n6. Nelson and the Name Supremacy\nof England, W. Clark Russell\n7. Pericles and the Golden Age of\nAthens,\n^\nC. R. L. Fletcher\n8. Theodoric the Goth, the Barbarian\nChampion of Civilization,\nHodgkin\n9. Julius Casar and the Organization\nof the Roman Empire,\nW. Warde Fowler\n\nNapoleon, Warrior and Ruler;\nand the Military Supremacy of\nRevolutionary\nFrance,\n13\nW. O'Connor Morris\n14\nJeanne d'Arc, the Maid of France,\nMrs. Oliphant\nGeorge Washington; an Historical\nBiography,\nScudder\nLives of Eminent Men,\nPlutarch\n[Makers of America series]\nOglethorpe and the Founding of\nthe Georgia Colony,\nBruce\n15. Alexander Hamilton,\nW.G.Sumner\n16. Robert Morris,\nW. G. Sumner\n17. Thomas Jefferson,\nSchouler\n18. Robert Burns,\nCarlyle\n\nSPEECHES\n\n1. Speech on Conciliation,\n2. First Bunker Hill Oration,\n\nBurke\nWebster\nTRAVEL,\n\n1. Alhambra,\n2. Views Afoot,\n3. Tales of a Traveler,\n\nReply to Hayne,\nGettysburg Speech,\n\nWebster\nLincoln\n\nDESCRIPTION\n\nIrving 4. From Lakes of Killarney to\nTaylor\nthe Golden Horn,\nH. M. Field\nIrving 5. From Egypt to Japan,\nH. M. Field\n\n"}
{"page": 496, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nSUMMARY\n\nFiction\nEssays, etc. Poetry\n.........\nMiscellaneous\nBiography\nSpeeches\nTravel, description\n\nV.\n\nREPORT\n\n40\n9\n20\n- 24\n\n-\n\n- ' 18\n- '- 4\n--.--..\n5 — 120\n\nOF THE\nSUBCOMMITTEE\nON RELATION\nLIBRARIES TO NORMAL SCHOOLS\n\nRELATION\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nLIBRARY\n\nTO\n\nTHE\n\nPUPIL\n\nOP\n\nTEACHER\n\nThe Subcommittee on Normal Schools and Libraries briefly considers\nthe problem from three points of view : (i) What book equipment has the\npupil teacher a right to demand of the normal school ? (2) What is the\nrelation of the library to that demand ? (3) How far are the normal\nschools realizing their opportunity ?\nSince young men and women enroll in normal schools for the purpose\nof making adequate preparation for the profession of teaching, it seems that\nthe least the institution should do is : first, to train them so to discipline\ntheir own mind as to make all its functions in the highest degree serviceable\nto themselves ; second, to help them to acquire such a fund of knowledge as\nwill make them wise guides for the children ; third, to give them such an\nunderstanding of the human mind as will enable them to train wisely the\nchildren committed to their care ; and, fourth, to give them such an acquaintance with books as shall enable them to know and choose the best for the\nchild, and to train it how to use the contents to greatest advantage.\nThe importance of the first two has been realized from the first; the third\nnow engages attention ; but the fourth is comparatively a new field.\nWhat can the normal schools furnish in the way of book and library\nequipment, and what is being done ?\nThe student enrolls in the normal school in a double sense : he is\nthere to develop his own capacity, and thoroly to furnish himself unto the\ngreat work of teaching. The first involves academic training similar to\nthat offered in other institutions of liberal culture, and calls for a similar\nuse of books ; the second asks an equipment for the profession of teaching, and demands a culture in books otherwise less needful. All students\nrequire training in thoro, comprehensive research, but the pupil teacher\nmust enter upon it with the idea of becoming an index rerum for his\nfuture schoolroom, and of learning to correlate whatever can be mutually\nrelated. Personal conviction and class-room stimulus will avail little\nunless the library be there to do its part. In an academy one may perbut\n\nhaps be satisfied to study Virgil with a lexicon and a work on 'mythology ;\nthe normal\nstudent can to advantage turn to parallel passages\n\n"}
{"page": 497, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nPUBLIC\n\nLIBRARIES\n\nAND\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nin the play of Hecuba and the tragedy of Agamemnon,\n\n489\n\nor read Long-\n\nfellow's Enceladus, Tennyson's CEnone, Wordsworth's Laodamta. The\nstudent of science in an academy may be satisfied to do laboratory and\nfield work, but the pupil teacher must learn to correlate his work in\nbiology with the nature element in literature, or his pupils may not go\nfrom Burroughs and Thoreau and Ernest Ingersoll to field and forest\nand laboratory. The college boy may rest satisfied with I?i Memoriam as\nan elegiac poem, but some day the pupil teacher will need to associate it\nwith Emerson's Essay on Friendship, Trumbull's Friendship the Master\nPassion, or the story of David and Jonathan, in order to teach the\nsacredness of human friendship. No history of education in the United\nStates is comparable to that made by the student himself in a small,\nwell-selected, professional library. In a normal school worthy of the\nname, text-books can be little more than inspirations and suggestions for\npersonal, independent work in library, or laboratory, or afield. The\nteacher himself must be before he knows how to train being.\nAgain, he who has, as sole capital for his profession, a life certificate\nto teach in the common schools of the state is \" poor indeed.\" Given a\nnatural aptitude for teaching, instinct should prompt him to study his\nown personality with reference to his educative power. One may need\nmyths and folk-lore, songs and exercises, poems and pictures ; the\nlibrary is her only possibility. The little white schoolhouse on the\nprairies of the West or in the pineries of the North may demand of\nanother an accurate knowledge and speedy recognition of bird and\nbeetle, moth and butterfly, or a rich supply of mechanical devices ; the\nlibrary should richly supplement museum and laboratory. There, cataloged, indexed, and easily accessible, should be found, not in single\ncopies alone, but sometimes in duplicate sets, whatever will increase his\nefficiency and promote the interests of the community.\nNor is it sufficient for the library to furnish the student what he needs\nas a teacher ; it must, as well, enable him to satisfy the child whom he is\nto educate. It is no longer safe for a young man or woman who expects\nto teach to put off acquiring a general knowledge of books until after\nthe professional training is over. The American boy and girl will read,\nand, next to the intelligent parent, teachers have the best opportunity for\nwise guiding. Let the normal library be rich in literature for children,\nand it will not be long before instructors will see to it that teachers are\ncorrelating work for their own enrichment with literature that will be\nattractive to their pupils. Books satisfy one craving only to create a fresh\none. The judicious teacher who arrested the attention of an idle,\npugnacious little fellow with stories of Greek heroes little realized that\nshe was turning the tides of destiny and making him an honor man in\ncollege Greek. The one who placed a copy of Burns' poems in a boy's\nhand little realized that thus the Quaker lad would find his own poetic\n\n"}
{"page": 498, "printed_page": null, "text": "49°\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\ninstinct. A book on birds in the hand of a child made one man an ornithologist ofno mean note. How many more the world might have had, if\nchildren had been given proper literature, we shall never know, but it will\nbe criminal in the future to mar such a possibility. In several states,\nnormal schools not only are placing such literature on their shelves and\nmaking use of it in class-rooms, but their pupils in the field are establishing schoolroom or village libraries, and in large measure duplicating\nwhat they found on the shelves where they were taught. And this is as it\nshould be. If the people look to normal schools for trained teachers,\nthen they have a right to demand that these teachers come to them\nprepared to name the best books, and to use them in the best way after\nthey are purchased. \" No teacher, worthy of the name, should rest satisfied until, having chosen a book for a child with as much care as a\nphysician would use in selecting his instruments, he sees that child as\nan interested and successful reader of the same.\"\nThus far we have considered the possibilities of the library as it has\ndirect bearing on the pupil teacher and the book problem of the future\nschoolroom. Has the student himself, by virtue of being a student, any\nrights which the library is bound to respect ? The teaching profession\nwas the last to feel that it needed a training school of its own, and the\nlast to appreciate the necessity for a literature distinctly professional.\nThe universities early recognized the necessity for schools of law, medicine, and theology, and that upon the libraries of professional literature\nconnected therewith depended student efficiency. Not until the first\nnormal schools were established in the United States was teaching recognized as in any true sense professional in character. An education more\nor less general was deemed ample qualification. That normal schools\nhave successfully demonstrated that teaching is a profession and demands\na professional literature is evidenced from two facts : first, that a university can no longer hold its title in fee simple without establishing a\ndepartment of pedagogy ; and, second, that all thinkers are studying the\nproblems of education both from the historical and philosophical points\nof view, and giving to the profession the results of their ripened conviction or of their patient investigation. Thus there is a rapidly growing\ndidactic literature that no normal school can afford to be without.\nThe sections of the library devoted to child study, psychology, history\n■ of education, and other strictly professional subjects, should be full and\ncomplete. It were far better that in a normal school less be expended\non laboratory and museum, and more upon these departments of the\nlibrary. The teacher can be taught to manufacture much of his own\napparatus and to make his own museum, but how shall he train the child\naright if he do not know the evolution of the race, the history of its educational development, and the growth of the human mind ? Teaching is\nso recent a science that its history cannot yet be written with any fullness ;\n\nII\n\n"}
{"page": 499, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nPUBLIC\n\nLIBRARIES\n\nAND\n\nhence normal libraries should become\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n49 1\n\nstorehouses, in which is being\n\ngathered together whatever will supplement text-books and enable pupil\nteachers to pursue independent investigation. Nor should the professional side of academic studies be neglected. It may be just as necessary\nfor some future teacher to look up the origin, growth, and decay of the\ngender idea of nouns as to trace the rise and growth of political parties.\nToo long have normal libraries been purely academic in character. It is\nhigh time for them to become professional as well. The normal school\nis called upon to do professional work, and to the end that its pupils may\nhave every advantage to know the history and philosophy of their own\nprofession, and that the instructors in it may be able in turn to contribute\nthe results of their own scholarship applied to the problems of the age,\nthe library should lay the world under tribute for whatever will enrich\ntheir field of inquiry and constitute their field of authority. The generosity\nwhich the states so unanimously show to their great universities will in\ntime be extended also to the normal schools. It cannot come too soon,\nif the common schools, for which the normal school exists, are to remain\nthe lines of fortification for the republic and preserve the integrity of the\nnation.\nLastly, since the students are here in the capacity of pupil teachers,\nthey and their constituency have a right to demand of the library a favorable opportunity to study child life in literature. Every well-equipped\nnormal school has its model training department, serving the double\npurpose of enabling its students to teach under the watchful eye of a competent critic and to study the unfolding life of the child. It is here that\nthey begin to realize that theirs is not to teach books, but to educate ;\nthat streams of impulse are to flow into and become character; that a\nsatisfactory and happy future is conditioned upon a good today. Nevertheless isit true that the child is isolated from the world of environment\nin which he is destined to live. Each little child is to pass from this\nisolation and seclusion to determine its own relation to environment ;\nyea, more, to adjust itself to its former companions in the schoolroom,\nnow also transformed by changed conditions into a force new and, to\nsome extent, incomprehensible. The thoughtful man and earnest maiden\nwill scarcely be contented to let the legal requirement suffice for the\nstudy of the child. They should have the opportunity to turn to literature, where the life-blood of the race spirit pulses warm and frea It is\ninteresting to watch the novice call the attention of the child to the world\noutside,\n\" The beauty and the wonder and the power,\nThe shapes of things, their colors, lights, and shades,\nChanges, surprises,\"\n\nand hear her say: \"God made it all.\" But it is impressive, when she\nturns ^to literature, to watch the child in the realm of activity, to §tiidy\n\n"}
{"page": 500, "printed_page": null, "text": "492\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nhow and by what its life is being shaped, to be thankful that even a child\nmay lead from tumult into peace, and from sin unto righteousness.\nThis is, and should be, the function of the library in a school where\nteachers are trained to serve the state by educating its future citizens.\nLIBRARY\n\nEQUIPMENT\n\nAND\n\nORGANIZATION\n\nOne of the serious problems in any educational institution must be\nthe equipment and organization of its library, and this is peculiarly true\nwhere self-culture and professional training are to be secured at the same\ntime. The library of a normal school cannot afford to ignore a student's\nright to efficient service, because, directly and indirectly, it thus influences\nthe entire state. Whatever of advantage the student derives from a wellarranged library, whatever he may learn of library methods, is quite likely\nto be of benefit to the community where he teaches. From the beginning,\nbooks should be classified according to one of the best systems in general\nuse, and, if possible, like the one at the state university, so that, from\ncross-roads to campus, library usage may be easy.\nWhether the books be in charge of an untrained librarian or of a\nmember of the faculty, it is not impossible to arrange books and shelves\nby system, and train students to preserve the classification. Author\nand title catalogs can be made in harmony with the chosen system, and\nwhen five hundred volumes are on the accession list, an expert cataloger is\nneeded, to double the efficiency of the library. Often the portions of a\nbook most valuable to a student are suggested neither in the title nor in\nthe table of contents ; as, for example, the home of Napoleon Bonaparte\non the island of St. Helena described in one of the consular reports, or\nsome of the interesting facts of educational history treasured in the\nreports of the Bureau of Education published in the seventies and eighties.\nAn expert cataloger may seem a heavy expense for a small library, but\nthe smaller the collection of books, the more necessity for using them to\ntheir fullest extent. A library expert interested in educational matters is\npractically an assistant in every department of instruction. She makes\nherself acquainted with the curriculum and familiar with the lines of work\n\nI\n\npursued in the several departments ; anticipates class-room requirements,\nand is ready to meet them ; is able to take students in groups, and, by\ntimely talks, not only to increase their library knowledge, but help them\nto understand a book. A country lad, after fifteen minutes with such an\nexpert, said recently : \" That talk with Miss R. was worth more to me\nthan a term's work with any professor. I know how to take hold of a\nbook now and get some good out of it.\" Experience strengthens the\nbelief that a scientifically trained librarian is invaluable in a normal school,\nand more to be desired than large accessions of books without a complete\ncatalog.\nIn an ideal normal school, senior pupils will have opportunities\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 501, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nPUBLIC\n\nLIBRARIES\n\nAND\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n493\n\nto assist the librarian in this work and thus become familiar to some\nextent with the methods of interesting students in good literature.\nEach year periodical literature becomes more valuable. This is evident, whether we consider the price that must be paid for the earlier volumes of any leading magazine, if perchance they are even in market, or\nwhether we consider the articles that appear in the current month. No\nteacher can afford to live behind his age, and to do otherwise requires a\ngenerous supply of current periodical literature. Notably is this true of\nwhatever is professional in character. Any magazine worthy the attention\nof a student in normal schools is worthy of preservation in permanent\nform. Barnard's Journal of Education was long ago out of market, and\nthe earlier numbers of the Child-Study Monthly are practically beyond the\nreach of the many normal schools that failed to order them when current.\nToo much emphasis cannot be laid upon the necessity of buying and\nbinding periodical literature.\nPoole's Index, and kindred publications, unlock this mine of wealth,\nand yet students often regret that the subject catalog does not include\nmagazine articles. In the study of the library problems this member of\nthe committee has been led to believe that some portion of the student\nbody in a normal school should be allowed to make such a catalog for\nmagazine articles. It need not, and should not, be a part of the regular\ncatalog, but, in a case exclusively its own, be an integral part of the\nlibrary equipment. It will serve two purposes : aid the new student to\nmake more effective research, and enable one further advanced to acquire\nsome skill in bringing out subject-matter by topics, thus training him to\nbe an efficient helper in schools where an expert librarian is not an immediate possibility.\nOne of the best sections of the library should be devoted to public\ndocuments, both state and national. Here earnest workers will be found\nturning the pages of geological surveys for land slopes and scale of\nfoot hills, for identification of birds and insects, for descriptions of rare\nplants and native flora. Government reports are an inviting field for\nworkers in sociology, political economy, history, and finance. Reports of\nthe Bureau of Education, from the first volume to the present, furnish\nmuch that the student of the history of education cannot find elsewhere.\nCensus reports offer a comparative study of no mean value, and throw\nlight upon many a knotty question in debate. The Growth of Industrial Art, a public document, is good supplementary reading for a class\nin history of art, and Records of the Civil War is the raw material out of\nwhich the new philosophy of history will fashion many a chapter. What\nis true of government reports is equally true of state documents. Where\nshould they be found, if not in normal schools, where is forged the anchor\nof our ship of state ? One institution is gathering extra volumes of the\nNational\nEducational\nAssociation\nreports.\nOf the last issue alone\n\n"}
{"page": 502, "printed_page": null, "text": "494\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nseveral copies are on the library shelves, while three or four times as\nmany are stored in the packing-room for future need.\nThis is pre-eminently the age of associations. Men of wide culture\nand similar tastes group together for the purposes of scientific investigation, historical research, or a study of the problems of the age. The\nresults of their labors are published as monographs ; yet, from the\nreports received by this committee, it is evident that few normal\nschools are enriching their libraries with such accessions. Where\nshall we look for the Herbartian Yearbook, if not in the library of\na state normal school ? Where may we expect to find the publications of\nthe American Historical Society, and others of like nature, if not where\npupil teachers most do congregate ? To the meagerness of legislative\nappropriation is doubtless due this state of affairs. Whatever the cause,\nis there not some remedy ? The nation fosters education. Her school\nsystem is at once her pride and the source of her strength. For its\nmaintenance she has made liberal grants.' The states, on the whole, are\ngenerous. If they are not beneficent toward normal schools, it is\nbecause they have not seen the necessity ; and who shall make the need\nknown, if not the schools where teachers are in training for city, village,\nyea, and country districts ? Some of the largest libraries in these professional schools have charged students a small fee, and thus materially\nadvanced library interests. Where the libraries are small, and the appropriations correspondingly meager, a revenue in some way from the\nstudent body itself seems the only other method. Successful in some\nstates, why not in all ?\nThe strictly professional side of a normal-school library cannot be too\nstrongly urged. A knowledge of United States history is deemed a\nnecessary requisite for intelligent citizenship. Much more is it essential\nthat he who is to train the child for future .sovereignty in a republic\nshould himself be familiar with the rise and development of great educational movements, know the men who were able to inaugurate them, the\nmethods of attaining success, and in what way these same educational\nmovements have shaped the history of great peoples. Whatever can be\nmade to throw any light on the development of mind, or the formation\nof character, should be the student's to enjoy. The memorizing of a\ntext-book on psychology or ethics may have -good disciplinary value,\nand be serviceable as a nucleus around which to grow, but the evolution of the skilled teacher, able to build brain without weakening\nit, and form character without marring it, is the product of the\nlibrary rather than the class-room. The survival of the fittest may\nbe all right in the physical world, but human life costs too much, and is\nworth too much, to be sifted by any selective process. Mind-endowed\ncreations cannot be thus rudely handled, or even left to their own inherent\ntendency to gruntle or decay.\nThe new gospel calls any human life\n\n"}
{"page": 503, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nPUBLIC\n\nLIBRARIES\n\nAND\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n495\n\nsacred and asks the teacher to cherish it, strengthen it, fit it for enjoyment\nof life and for usefulness to society. This gospel demands a reverent and\nresponsible study of the child; but before the teacher may safely undertake this study of the living child, and the shaping of child destiny,\nthere ought to be most faithful work in the library, to determine what is\na normal or an abnormal child, the possibilities of the one, the impediments to the progress of the other; what builds, what mars. In no\ndepartment of pedagogical work is there more promise of success than in\nthis, nor one that offers a finer culture. The literature on the subject is\nso rich, both in facts offered and in the culture possible therefrom, that\nample provision should be made in every normal-school library for thoro\nand exhaustive study of the same, not alone on the historical and scientific side, but also in the realm of literature. There may be a question as to how far a normal school should furnish so-called culture\nliterature in duplicate sets for pupil teachers, and thus free them from\nthe necessity of beginning a library for themselves ; but there can be no\nquestion as to the duty of filling the child-study alcoves with whatever will help to the thoro understanding of the processes of human\ndevelopment, and in sufficient quantities so that each pupil teacher may\nwork unhampered. It is interesting to watch the student go from the\ntext-book on the Study of the Child to the well-filled shelves in the\npedagogical department of the library ; from there to the cases of general\nliterature for the books jn which child life figures ; from there to the cases\ndevoted to juvenile literature, where he may satisfy himself as to what a\nchild should read ; and then to the child himself. Two incidents have\ncome under my own observation during the preparation of this report.\nSome young men were playing games with a group of little children at\ntwilight, when a teacher passed by, saying: \"What a merry time you\nchildren are having ! \" One of the young men promptly answered : \"We\nare studying the children without their knowing it.\" Another day a\nthoughtful young man who had always seemed more interested in books\nand facts and things than in human life, said : \" I am longing to enter\nthe professional year. I want to begin the study of the child. I cannot\npass one on the street without saying to myself, * Little mystery, I wish I\nunderstood you!'\" These are evidences of the growing interest in\nchild study where a library creates a desire for the study.\nFinally, is it too much to say that professional training of teachers\nhas reached that period in its development where the library must be one\nof the chief factors in the training of pupil teachers ; that the instructor,\nworthy of the chair he occupies, must be familiar, not only with the books\nand service of his own department, but familiar as well with whatever the\npupil teacher must use along kindred lines in his own schoolroom, and\nbe able to help to correlate the work of his own department with that\nwhich the pupil is deriving from every other department as well ; that\n\n"}
{"page": 504, "printed_page": null, "text": "496\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nthe librarian must be a member of the faculty, as much as the teacher\nof mathematics or psychology, in order to understand the curriculum\nand be able to supplement class-room instruction with library investigation?\nIs it too much to say that we cannot hope to make pupil teachers,\nintelligent readers of books, able to grasp the content of paragraph and\nchapter, estimate them at their true value, and correlate them with\nknowledge previously acquired, unless we release them from the old-time\nenslavement to text-books and grant them the freedom of the modern\nlibrary ? Is it too much to say that the library is not now holding its\ntrue place in the training of pupil teachers ? Is not Carlyle right when\nhe says, \" The true university in these days is a collection of books ; \"\nand may I not add that the ideal normal school is to regard text-books as\nmere signboards, teachers only as wise guides ; while the library and\ntraining school are the true realm where the pupil of today, thru a\nprocess of evolution, is to become the teacher of tomorrow?\nSUMMARY\n\nOF\n\nREPORTS\n\nRECEIVED\n\nFROM\n\nSTATE\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nThe Subcommittee on the Relation of Normal Schools and Libraries mailed circular\nletters to each normal school, state and private, listed in the last published report of the\nBureau of Education. Reports have been received from about three-fourths of the schools.\nA number of these, owing to \" pressure of work,\" were not returned until late in May or\nearly in June, and, therefore, are^not fully embodied in this summary. The letters sent\nout were designed to secure information in regard to the equipment and management of\nlibraries ; to ascertain what normal schools are doing, not only to create an interest in\nliterary culture, but an acquaintance with literature ; and how far it is expedient to teach\nlibrary science.\nThe following summary is the result of that investigation :\nThe reports received from private normal schools are few and often incomplete ;\nhence they are not embodied in this report.\nThe State Normal School at Terre Haute, Ind., reports 25,000 volumes, the\nlargest normal-school library in the United States. Three schools have libraries of 15,000\nvolumes; six have 10,000 ; eighteen have about 5,000; nineteen have, in round numbers,\n2,000; four have about 1,000 volumes.\nSo far as heard from, no state normal school is without some library advantages,\naltho many have less than 1,000 volumes. The presidents of two of the more\nrecently established schools have generously placed their private libraries in the normal\nbuilding, and given students free access thereto ; in another the professor of psychology\nturns over to student use his valuable private library, and in the same institution the\neducational reports in English, French, and German, so necessary to a student of didactics, are the loan of a public-spirited man. The regular library of this school in cultured\nNew England is 3,500 volumes. What has not the self-sacrificing missionary spirit of\nNew England done for school as well as' church !\nThe libraries of these schools are supported in the main by legislative appropriations.\nIn a few instances a regular fee is charged, varying from fifty cents per term to two dollars\n(Terre Haute) per annum. The senior class in one school makes a generous annual gift\nto the library, and this amount is expended for books ; in another a graduation fee is\ncharged, and this goes to the support of the library. As a general rule, books are\nselected either by heads of departments or by a committee chosen from the faculty.\nIn\n\n\\\n\n"}
{"page": 505, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nPUBLIC\n\nLIBRARIES\n\nAND\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n497\n\nmost instances the funds are under the control of the general ofiSce, and library bills are\npaid there ; but in thirteen o\\ the schools the library committee is directly responsible for\nthe funds and makes report to the general office.\nOnly eighteen schools expend any portion of the appropriation for periodicals\nand newspapers. This amount varies from 2 per cent, in one school to one -half of\nthe appropriation in another. The average seems to be from 8 to lo per cent, of\nthe legislative appropriation. The rest of the institutions, so far as they have a magazine library, secure it by voluntary contributions from the students, or by small fees charged\nfor the purpose. A few libraries take a large number of periodicals, including all, or\nnearly all, magazines devoted to science or philosophy, didactics or current literature, and,\nwhen bound, make them a part of their general library. It is a matter of regret that the\nnumber is not larger, and that even of those who place a generous supply of magazines\non the reading tables so few bind any number of them at the end of the year. The following issignificant :\nTABLE\n\nSHOWING\n\nTHE\n\nNUMBER\n\nOF LIBRARIES\n\nTHAT\n\nBIND\n\nTHE\n\nLEADING\n\nPERIODICALS\n\n'\n\nAmerican Journal of Psychology\n------8\nAtlantic Monthly\n- i8\nCentury\n--..--30\nChild-Study Monthly .\n- 11\nCosmopolitan -18\nEducator -..\n..g\nEducational Review\n.\n.\n......25\nForum\n.\n.\n.\n- 28\nHarper^s Magazine\n-----26\nJournal of Education ......\n.\n.\n. g\nJournal of Pedagogy\n----.---3\nNorth American Review\n------- 22\nPedagogical Seminary\n-------14\nPrimary School Monthly\n------.\n. 25\nPrimary Teacher\n---------8\nReview of Reviews\n--------- 20\nSchool Journal\n--------9\nScientific American\n-------- 9\nScribner's Magazine\n....-..-.\n22\nTeachers' Institute\n-------- 6\nTwenty-four schools out of fifty reporting on this topic have copies of the text-books\nin general use in the state ; thirty-two out of forty-two reporting purchase duplicate sets\nof books needed for special research or study in the several departments ; twenty out of\nforty-six aim, either by lectures or class instruction, to give pupils some idea of catalogmaking; five have a short course in bibliography; twelve give instruction in what is\ncalled the methods class ; twelve leave this to the classes in rhetoric or literature ; twentytwo librarians make it their duty to prepare lists of \" sources of information \" on various\ntopics; thirteen are glad to have the seniors work with them in the library and do give\nthem a training of no slight value ; seventeen schools so arrange library matters that the\nalumni have the use of new books, and thus are helped to keep abreast of the times ; fiftythree schools permit pupils to take books home for reading or study ; and forty-seven\nallow them to visit the shelves for research and study.\nThere is a general conviction that, since the state does so much for students, and\nsince the supply of books on the shelves of the library is inadequate to the demand, students should be charged a small library fee. It is little for the student, but it means\nmuch to the library.\n' No notice taken of less than three libraries binding the same magazines.\n\n"}
{"page": 506, "printed_page": null, "text": "498\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nIt is safe to say that comparatively few libraries have, as yet, been able to make a\nscientific classification of books, and in one instance, at least, volumes already purchased\ncannot be used in daily study for lack of a room for library cases.\nThis summary is necessarily crude and imperfect, because reports were received at a\ndate too late for proper treatment. The subject of libraries in relation to educational\ninstitutions is so important — and particularly is this true in relation to normal schools,\ncolleges, and universities — that the wish is here expressed that the work begun this year\nby the Council may be continued for one or more years, until a report worthy of this great\ndepartment of education shall be within reach of every such institution of learning in the\nrepublic.\n\nVI.\n\nESTABLISHING\n\nLIBRARIES\n\nM. LOUISE\n\nJONES.\n\nIN VILLAGES\n\nAny village can secure and support a free public library, when the\npeople fully understand the value of such an institution. The first step, ^\ntherefore, toward securing such a library is to convince the people that\nlibraries are an essential part of a system of education. It is equally\nimportant to show them a practicable plan for maintaining a library at\na reasonable expense.\nA public library should be as much a public institution as the public\nschool, and should be maintained by the public for the same reasons, tho\nexperience has proved that the two institutions usually thrive better under\nseparate boards working in harmony.\nPersons who desire to establish a local library should first study the\nlaws of their state regarding libraries. Fourteen' states have state library\ncommissions which have authority to aid in organizing public libraries by\nmeans of letters and pamphlets, or by sending their officers. Such bodies\ncan give the most effective help, and every state should have one. Any\none of these commissions will usually send helpful literature to persons\nin other states than their own. Twenty states have state library associations which desire to aid new libraries, and the American Library Association can also give help. (For the addresses of the executive officers of\nthese bodies see Appendix.) A pamphlet entitled Statistics of Libraries\nand Library Legislation in the United States can be obtained without cost\nfrom the United States Bureau of Education at Washington, D. C.\nIn states which have neither library commissions nor associations,\ninformation and suggestions can usually be obtained from librarians in\nthe large cities. The personal counsel of experienced librarians who\nhave some general idea of the local conditions should be obtained, if possible. When the leaders in the local movement have settled upon a practicable plan for establishing and supporting a library, they should educate\npublic sentiment thru the local press, from the platform, and by private\nappeals. Include in the canvass all citizens, irrespective of creed, business, or politics.\nTo ignore any class is to imply its indifference to\n\n"}
{"page": 507, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nPUBLIC\n\nLIBRARIES\n\nAND\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n499\n\neducation and to invite its hostility. To assume that a man from the\nuneducated classes, or a local politician, is interested in any movement\nfor the public good is a great aid in getting his sympathy and active\nhelp.\nEnlist the support of the business-men who are interested in advertising the town. Show them what other places are doing, and arouse their\ncivic pride. If you can get an agreement by the village board to pay the\nrunning expenses of the library, provided the citizens will equip it, organize a movement to raise a suitable sum of money. When you can convince your business-men that, if a library is started, it can be permanently\nmaintained, they will often contribute cheerfully to get a large collection\nof books, when they would not give anything for a small one. Start with\nthe largest gifts of money that you can get. Let money come later from\nentertainments. Do not start your enterprise with gifts of books. If\nbooks are taken, let it be after all the money possible has been raised.\nA healthy old library can endure gifts of discarded books, but new libraries are often imperiled by them.\nIt is generally advisable, before canvassing for funds, to find what the\nrunning expenses of a library will amount to — how much it will cost for\nrent, librarian's salary, fuel, light, and printing. If possible, make an\nitemized statement of what the expenses will be. Many people have an\nexaggerated idea of the cost of a library, and fear heavier taxes than are\nnecessary.\nIf you canvass the town, make the canvass so close as to include every\nfamily. Have all factions represented on the canvassing committee.\nEveryone who gives will feel a stronger interest in the library. As a\nrule, the libraries which are the result of united effort do better work, in\ntheir early years, than those which are founded and entirely supported by\nindividuals.\nAll the newspaper articles about libraries, and all the arguments in\npublic and private, should assume that the library will be primarily intended\nto benefit the children. This will make it easier, when the time comes,\nto get a good librarian and to get the right books and liberal rules.\nThe library board should include the person who is at the head of\nthe local school system, two or three who have acknowledged business\nsagacity, and others who have literary knowledge. Women should, of\ncourse, be among the number.\nIf possible, get a trained librarian to help you in organizing. If you\ncannot get one to visit you, write to him or visit him. There is a world\nof helpful library experience for those who insist upon getting help\nfrom it.\nThe local librarian should, if practicable, be early chosen, so that she\nmay aid in selecting the books and organizing the library. The usefulness and ultimate success of the library will largely depend upon her\n\n"}
{"page": 508, "printed_page": null, "text": "500\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nability and zeal. She must have force, tact, and the \"library spirit.\"\nShe must have the power as well as the desire to interest and help the children. An article in the Library Journal {k.^x\\\\, 1899), by Clara W. Hunt,\nof Newark, N. J., describing the work that should be done by the librarian\nof a children's library in a large city, applies with equal force to the person in sole charge of a library in a small community.\nMiss Hunt says :\nWhen all has been said and done about devices, and schemes, and baits, there is\nnothing that will take the place of, or count for as much as, personal contact of librarian\nand children. If the librarian is an honest lover of children, and if she knows their\nbooks, not simply from the lists, but from actually reading them, she can do a thousand\ntimes more for the boys and girls than all the bulletins, catalogs, bright covers, and every\nother material device put together. If she is all this, and much more, she will be interested in every individual child that comes into her room. She will remember their likes\nand dislikes ; she will make every child feel that she is a friend, and yet never let them\nsuspect that she is interfering with their choice of books ; she will confide in the children\nand win their help and confidence ; she will use her specially intelligent boys and girls\nas a sort of book committee to help her decide on what books the children will like ; she\nwill interest the children in keeping the room supplied with wild flowers and other treasures of the woods ; and some day, when she is particularly busy, she will help more people\nthan suspect it, by getting one of the older girls to read to the little ones who are growing\ntoo noisy over in their corner. She will have a mind above caring about the fiction per\ncent, in her room, believing that it is a higher aim to help the boys and girls to be good\nthan to be merely wise, and knowing that the child's character is more strongly influenced\nby the ideals of his dear story-book friends than by Gradgrind facts.\nOne cannot lay down definite rules under this head of personal work, but by means of\nit the children's room and library may become a synonym for everything that is beautiful\nand helpful and uplifting to the child — ^a second home from which the boys and girls go\nout with enthusiastic interest in the world about them, with more than the germs of a\ntaste for history, or poetry, or biography, with the reading habit formed, and the consciousness deeply rooted in their minds that books may always be their friends and teachers ;with a distaste, it is hoped, for weak, trashy books ; but, above all, with higher ideals\nof manhood and womanhood, and with aspirations to be brave and honest and pure, like\nthe lifelong friends who have come to them through that dear medium, the book.\n\nThe village library and librarian should do for the children from\nsordid homes what the home library and the cultivated father and mother\ndo for the children from refined homes. They should train the children\nto love good books, to appreciate all their beauties, to handle them carefully, to talk about them, to be fit companions for genuine book-lovers,\nand to go to books habitually and instinctively for pleasure in idle hours,\nand for comfort and strength in times of stress.\nNo paid stipendiary, no woman who is merely negatively good, can\ndo this work; but a womao with soul and tact, who feels the responsibility\nand charm of her work, will grow under it until she becomes a living\nforce in the hearts of her children and in the homes of the community.\nSELECTING\n\nTHE\n\nBOOKS\n\nIn selecting the books, get the advice of experienced librarians of\npublic and school libraries.\n\nSome excellent annotated \"lists of books\"\n\n"}
{"page": 509, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nPUBLIC\n\nLIBRARIES\n\nAND\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n501\n\nhave been made by competent persons, and the titles of a number of\nthese will be found in the Appendix.\nThe first books purchased for a library should include a largeproportion for children ; because the most enduring and effective work can be\ndone for the children, and because the best books for children are enjoyed\nby everybody. When the children's classics have been read in the homes,\nand the parents feel that the books are helping their children to become\nbetter, more intelligent, the library has won a place in the public heart\nwhich will insure its permanent support.\nThe first books purchased must be wholesome, but they must also be\ninteresting to untrained readers. The test of experience must be applied\nto these books. Choose those that librarians of good judgment agree\nare deservedly popular. Fortunately there are a few hundred of such\nbooks. Many of these are standard and can be bought at low prices in\ndurable editions. The first purchase may include books of far greater\naverage merit than any subsequent purchase. As far as the average\nreader is concerned, the best five hundred popular books are worth all the\nrest. Do not put too much money in historical sets or bulky biographies\nand scientific and reference-books. With untrained readers the habit of\nreading for pleasure must precede the habit of studying. Watch the\nreading of your patrons, and when you find that they are beginning to\nstudy, buy along the lines of their interest. Do not use all of your money\nfor books at first, but save some to get a few new books occasionally,\nwhen you know more of the tastes of the readers. Frequent purchases\nof books keep up the interest in the library.\nIn preparing your list for the book-dealer describe the editions of the\nstandard books which you wish. It is usually best to get bids from a\nnumber of dealers. A reliable bookseller can frequently help you in\nselecting the best editions for your purpose. Do not waste money in the\npurchase of expensive sets or bulky compilations from agents.\nPREPARING\n\nBOOKS\n\nFOR\n\nTHE\n\nSHELVES\n\nAND\n\nCHARGING\n\nThe work of classifying and cataloging the books and providing a\nsystem of loaning them belongs generally to the librarian, and needs\na preparation that should be obtained either by personal instruction in a\nwell-managed library, in a library training school, or by the study of\nsome of the excellent manuals prepared by trained and competent\nlibrarians.\nMISCELLANEOUS\n\nIn the purchase of fittings and supplies, in the making of rules for\nthe management of the library, in the making of by-laws for the government of the library board, and in considering the many questions of\nlibrary management, appeal should be taken to the experience of\nlibrarians as given in the handbooks and pamphlets referred to elsewhere\n\n"}
{"page": 510, "printed_page": null, "text": "502\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nin this report. The rules for the management of the library should\nbe as simple as possible, and should be designed to secure the\nfullest and best use of the library by the individual which is consistent\nwith the rights of the public. The books of the library should be loaned,\nwithout charge, to persons of all ages who will obey reasonable rules, and\nall people should be made to feel that they are joint owners in the\nlibrary. As fast as possible, all borrowers should be trained to select\ntheir books from the shelves, under proper guidance. Special assistance\nand help should be given to schools and teachers, and there should be no\nbars of any kind between the people and the books that may safely be\nremoved. Librarians with the right spirit and tact find it possible in\nmost communities to train the children and the older people to \"browse\"\namong the books, to keep them clean and neat, and to be orderly and\nthoughtful of the rights of others. Children especially should be\nsystematically taught to handle books carefully and lovingly, and the\nbest time to do this is when the books are new. The volumes of a public\nlibrary should not need paper covers.\nTHE\n\nREADING-ROOM\n\nShall we establish a reading-room in connection with the library ?\nThis question is often a most perplexing one. The usefulness of a good,\nwell-managed reading-room in connection with a public library cannot\nbe fairly questioned, if the experience of the best of these rooms is taken\nas a guide. A reading-room without proper supervision may become\na public nuisance.\nWhen a community can maintain a good library and a good readingroom, it should do so, but the library is of more worth than the readingroom, and a good library should not be injured to maintain a poor reading-ro m. Aboy ought to spend his evenings in reading rather than in\nidleness, but if he has a good book, the best evening reading-room is that\nwhich contains his mother.\nIn its early days the library may often meet the most urgent needs of\na small town if it is open but two or three times each week, and the money\nsaved from shortening the time required of the librarian and the saving\nin light and fuel can be used for books, when the collection is small.\nWith a reading-room the temptation to draw upon the scanty book fund\nfor money for periodicals and more \"open days\" is very strong. When\na good collection of books has been secured, and the library has gained a\nsecure place in the public regard, the reading-room will be wanted, and\nwill get adequate support without crippling the library.\nGIFTS\n\nFOR\n\nLIBRARIES\n\nIt is becoming more and more popular for people of wealth to contribute liberally to build beautiful library buildings or to provide endowments for libraries.\nSuch gifts bless those who give and those who\n\n"}
{"page": 511, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nPUBLIC\n\nLIBRARIES\n\nAND\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n503\n\nreceive, but when the hope of such private gifts leads the community to\ndelay establishing public libraries, the hope may be a curse. The best\nway to get large gifts is to make good use of small ones. Many a\nwealthy man has only a vague idea of the wide usefulness of a library,\nbut when he has seen one at work in his own community, there comes a\ngrowing appreciation of its work and a desire to help it. The best way\nto learn to manage a large library wisely is to manage a small one. When\nall the people of a community have made a united struggle and many\nsacrifices to found a library, a large gift or gifts will give them a delight\nand a feeling of personal gain that will not follow a gift in which they\nhave no share. Do not wait for large gifts. If you do your duty, help\nand growth will come in due time.\nF.\n\nVII.\n\nSECURING\n\nLIBRARIES\n\nFOR\n\nRURAL\n\nA.\n\nHUTCHINS.\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nIn January of the present year a subcommittee of the Committee on\nLibraries and Schools sent out a circular to leading teachers in each state,\nasking information as to the number, size, and use of libraries in the rural\nschools.* The replies show that, in the great majority of the states, few rural\nschools have adequate libraries, with a due proportion of books for\nthe smaller children. In a few states — California, Montana, Minnesota,\nWisconsin, Michigan, New York, and New Jersey among others — the\nmoney to purchase rural school libraries has been partly or wholly provided by the state, but in the great majority of our states the money has\nbeen obtained by appropriations by school boards, gifts, entertainments, or\npublic subscriptions.\nIn states where the laws require the purchase of suitable school\nlibraries the state departments of education furnish lists of the best books\nand often aid in training teachers to use the books to good advantage.\nIt seems best, 'therefore, to devote this chapter to the discussion of the\nproblem which meets the teacher who must get the money for a school\nlibrary from local sources.\nA teacher or school trustee who would secure a good school library\nmust first know what benefits will be secured by a library, and must have\nthe enthusiasm and persistence, as well as the knowledge, to make other\npeople understand these benefits.\nA well-selected small library for children may do much more good in\nproportion to its cost than any of the large popular libraries. The best\nbooks for children, read and re-read, are of much more worth to the\nchild than a careless reading of the best, the second-rate, and many\nindifferent books. The boy or girl upon the farm who has read, many\ntimes over, in the school and at home, Seven Little Sisters, Black Beauty,\n\n"}
{"page": 512, "printed_page": null, "text": "S04\n\nNATIONAL\n\nRobinson Crusoe, The Man\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nWithout a Country, The Great Stone Face,\n\nand a few other children's classics ; who knows the best biographies of\nWashington, Lincoln, and Franklin thru frequent reading, is almost\ncertain to become a habitual reader of good books. The best books for\nchildren are of so much more worth than the second-best that a teacher\nwho can get a few of the best books for her children has the greatest\nencouragement to do so.\nEach rural school should have a library of from twenty-five to a\nhundred volumes, which should include wholesome and interesting books\nfor the pupils of all the grades. A library must usually grow by small\nannual or occasional accretions. It is important to secure the best books\nin the first purchase, so that the good results of their use may be quickly\napparent. The child must get the reading habit before he gets the study\nhabit, and if the teacher must choose for the first purchase between a few\nentertaining and inspiring stories, like Black Beauty, and a few books of\ninformation, like the children's cyclopaedias, she should choose the former.\nWhen the children and parents have fairly grasped the idea that books are\na means of pleasure, and inspire to better living, the library will grow.\nThe wholesome books that are read for pleasure will procure the means to\nbuy the books of information.\nThe teacher who would secure a school library should, therefore,\nknow and love the children's classics. If she does not know them, she\nmust learn of them thru other teachers, librarians, county superintendents, state departments of education, or educational journals. When\nshe has read the best of the books, she will find herself- eager to have\nothers enjoy them. Enthusiasm for books is the foundation of success.\nEnthusiasm begets enthusiasm. \"I have heard that this is a good\nbook\" goes unheeded, when \"this is a delightful book,\" given convincingly, inspires the pupil to get and read.\nWhen the teacher knows and loves the best books, she should find\nmeans to get one or more of them, and use them to show pupils and\nparents that good books give pleasure, inspiration to better living, and\nbroaden the school work. Thru doing this she would find the means to\nget more books.\nIn this, as in all other lines of work, she must learn to do by doing.\nThe ability to lead comes only to those who try to lead. Her first efforts\nto convince people of the necessity of a school library may not be successful, but if she loves books and perseveres, she will convince others.\nSometimes the first money for a school library comes from the pupils.\nA few years ago a determined teacher in a poor neighborhood induced\neach pupil to give her one or two eggs each week. On the Saturdays she\n\"carried these a few miles to a country store, and with the money obtained\nfrom their sale bought a few books. Sometimes teachers and pupils\nhave raised money by entertainments and subscriptions after concluding\n\n^:\n\n"}
{"page": 513, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nPUBLIC\n\nLIBRARIES\n\nAND\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n505\n\nan agreement with the school board that the board would give as much\nas the school would raise.\nWhen the earnest teacher has secured a few good books, she can get\nothers, if she will use the first wisely. A few books should be called the\n\"school library.\" When not in use, they should be kept in a box or case,\nwith a simple system of records. The pupils should be taught to keep\nthe volumes clean and neat, and to have reasonable pride in their library\nand the neatness of their books. At every opportunity pupils and parents\nshould be shown by object-lessons the power of the books to entertain,\ninspire, and instruct. If the teacher knows the books as she should,\nopportunities will be abundant, and the books will often become the subjects of the daily talks at the homes as well as at the school.\nIn expending the money for the school library, take pains to get its\nfull value. Do not buy of agents or unintelligent book-dealers. Buy\ndurable editions. There are fifty or more editions of Robinson Crusoe,\nbut only two or three that are suited to your purse and your needs.\nTake the advice of intelligent teachers and librarians, not only in selecting the books, but, in the case of the older books, in choosing the editions. You will be safe in choosing from the lists recommended in this\nhandbook.\nYou should only rarely pay the list price for a book. Discounts vary\naccording to the amount of your purchase and the kind of books bought.\nThe publications of schoolbook publishing houses are generally subject\nto smaller discounts than those of houses which publish miscellaneous\nbooks. Here, as elsewhere, get information from those who have had\nmore experience. Untrained readers, and many others, like small books.\nTo the child who has read little it seems a great task to attempt to read a\nlarge book. The great majority of teachers buy too few small and simple\nbooks for their school libraries.\nSUGGESTIONS\n\nThe following suggestions by Miss Gertrude E. Woodard, of Ypsilanti,\nMich., are so practical and well-considered that they will be found very\nhelpful :\nIf you have not money enough to buy books, make your own. Encourage pupils to\nbring newspaper clippings on interesting subjects. You will soon have enough to make\nhalf a dozen scrap-books. Sort the clippings into geography, history, literature, biography,\nand the like. Let the children carefully mount them on uniform-sized pieces of paper;\nthen they may be placed between two pasteboard covers and treated as reference-bo'oks.\nThis is good work for the boy who always has his lessons and never has enough to do.\nA book which will be interesting to children is one which contains the programs of\nentertainments and school exercises given during the year. These programs, by the way,\nneed not necessarily be printed. Let the drawing class furnish the design for them. A\nvery pretty book may be made of these designs, and pupils are always interested to know\nthat their productions are valuable enough to be bound.\n\n"}
{"page": 514, "printed_page": null, "text": "5o6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nWhen the birthday of a great man is celebrated, put his picture up in your schoolroom for several days, until the pupils have become familiar with the face. When not in\nuse, these pictures should be kept in a box secure from dust.\nChildren should learn to take pride in having a library in the room and in keeping it\nin the best condition possible. Let some pupil be librarian and keep the books in order\nfor a week at a time.\nWhat has just been said assumes that the schoolroom possesses shelving, in some\nform or other. But what if it does not ? Well, if not, do just as you did when you had\nno money to buy books. You made them, and you can more easily make the bookshelves. Any boy in your room will get you a box from a grocer. Make the shelves of\nthe cover, of the box. Line inside of box and shelves with cambric, if rough. Usually,\nhowever, there will be some carpenter near by who will gladly help if you can get him\ninterested. Let pupils help as much as possible, for the chances are that they will want\nto make similar cases for themselves, and that is to be desired.\nWhen books, thru use or accident, become torn or damaged in any way, remedy the\nmischief as quickly as possible. Always keep on your desk a little jar of flour paste. It\nis the only thing to use in mending torn pages, inserting loose leaves, mounting scrap pictures, etc. It is made in ten minutes from the following receipt, and costs practically\nnothing : Paste : (a) one tablespoonful flour in cup ; one tablespoonful cold water in cup ;\n(/J) four tablespoonf uls cold water in pan ; one fourth teaspoonful powdered alum in pan.\nMix (a) until perfectly smooth. Heat (l>) to boiling. Pour (b) slowly on (a), -stirring\nalways in the same direction. Pour all back into pan and heat, stirring until thick. It\nwill be of the consistency of jelly.\nWhen pasting clippings lay the article to be pasted face down on a slate and paste\nfrom center of paper toward the edges. The slate furnishes a smooth surface and can\neasify be cleaned.\nCard system of keeping memoranda :\n\nArbor Day celebrations.\nKing, R. M.\nSchool interests and duties, pp. 123-46.\n\nCard or paper is cut into pieces three by five inches. Cost of white paper which takes\nink, six to ten cents per pound. Put one item on a slip. File slips alphabetically by\nfirst word, on top line. Keep standing on edge in a box. Comments can be made on\nthe reverse side of slip. In this way preserve authors, titles, and subjects of books,\naddresses, and clippings small enough to be mounted on slips.\nA pamphlet on Arbor Day by N. H. Eggleston may be obtained without cost from\nthe Department of Agriculture at Washington, D. C. Other pamphlets are issued by the\nBureau of Education at Washington. Another class of books which may be obtained\nfree, or for a few cents, is the illustrated guide-books issued by the various railway companies thruout the United States ; also the lake and ocean steamship companies. Beautiful books descriptive of Mackinac, the wonders of Yosemite, and the Yellowstone\nNational Park may be had for five and ten cents. They serve as attractive referencebooks in geography.\nPictures may be mounted on the felt paper used as carpet lining. It can be obtained\nat any carpet store and costs two cents a square yard.\nIf you have no wall space on which to place pictures, clippings, etc., make a folding\nscreen, cover it with cloth of one color, and pin on whatever is to be displayed.\nF. A. HUTCHINS.\n\n"}
{"page": 515, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nPUBLIC\n\nLIBRARIES\n\nAND\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n507\n\nVIII. THE PRESENT CONDITION OF SCHOOL LIBRARIES\nIN RURAL SCHOOLS AND VILLAGES OF LESS THAN\n2,500 INHABITANTS\nOn account of unavoidable delays, the subcommittee which was\nappointed to investigate the present condition of school and public\nlibraries in farming districts and villages of less than 2,500 inhabitants\nwas unable to begin its work until January, 1899. It was found necessary\nto complete the work of this subcommittee by May i. A large proportion of the circulars of inquiry which were sent out in January were\nanswered so late in April that it was impossible to tabulate the results.\nThe circulars were sent to all the state departments of education, to\nall state library commissions, to a large number of librarians and leaders\nin educational work in all parts of the country, and to nearly all normal\nschools. The presidents of the institutions last named were asked to\nselect from among their teachers and students careful observers who had\nrecently taught in small communities or had recently had unusual opportunities for inspecting school libraries .in their states. Replies have been\nreceived from nearly all the states and territories. While these show that\nthe pupils in only a very few states have respectable library facilities, and\nthat a great proportion have none, they also show that in every state the\nleaders understand the necessity of school and public libraries, and are\nmaking a determined and hopeful fight for better conditions.\nThe spirit is well illustrated by the remark of the superintendent of\npublic instruction in a southern state. After filling out the blank and\nlooking it over, he writes : \" The showing is bad, but we mean to make\na revolution in this matter.\"\nNearly all the villages in New England and New York have free public\nlibraries, and, altho many of them are poorly managed, the library commissions and library associations in those states are rapidly improving\nthem. In the states mentioned, and in Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota,\nNew Jersey, Montana, and California, where the states aid rural-school\nlibraries, nearly every school has a library, and these libraries are growing\nin size and improving in quality. In a few other northern states quite a\nproportion of the schools have fair libraries, and, occasionally, there are\nsome notable school libraries.\nIt may be fairly said that in no state in the union have all, or nearly\nall, the children in rural communities adequate school^ and public-library\nfacilities, and that in fully half of the states pupils do not have free access\nto suitable collections of books.\nThe school libraries do not, as a rule, have a suitable proportion of\nsimple books for the smaller children, nor are the books, as a whole, well\n\n"}
{"page": 516, "printed_page": null, "text": "5o8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nselected. The replies seem to indicate that the libraries are generally\nkept in the schoolhouses, and the books are loaned to the children without unnecessary restrictions. The more careful observers usually report\nthat only a very small proportion of children have access to a good number of children's books at home. Ninety per cent, of the children who\nattend school %^QXD., from the replies, to come from homes where newspapers are taken. In two-thirds of the states comparatively few of the\nchildren have the opportunity to read the best of the children's periodicals the\n;\nsame states report that a large proportion of the families are supplied with them. Only a few rural schools subscribe for them, and very\nfew have a supply of children's classics for supplementary reading.\nEnough schools, however, report such aids to prove that the belief in their\nvalue-is growing.\nA large proportion of the village schools seem to have collections of\nbooks, tho most of them are not well selected for their purpose.\nA very small proportion of the public libraries in villages are well conducted, and many of the leading teachers do not seem to know how various are the methods by which a good public library may help the public\nschools. Very few of the librarians have had special training for their\nwork.\nThe most serious difficulty in receiving school libraries and in getting\na good use of the books is found in the fact that most of our teachers did\nnot learn to love books in childhood.\nF. A. Hutchins.\n\nIX.\n\nIMPROVING\n\nPOORLY MANAGED PUBLIC\nIN SMALL COMMUNITIES\n\nLIBRARIES\n\nMany small public libraries which have been long established have\nlittle educational value.\nSome of these libraries can be used only by members of a small association or upon the payment of a fee. Such libraries should be made free,\nand, usually, the same methods should be used in securing that result as\nare necessary in getting a free public library. Suggestions for such work\nare given in a preceding chapter. It is, of course, important to have the\nowners of the established library give it to the village, or loan it, upon the\nagreement of the village to maintain it as a free library.\nOften these poor libraries are free to the older people, but the librarian\nis so unaccommodating, and the books are so uninteresting, that the patronage isvery limited.\nFrequently the board of directors includes many estimable people who\nhave long held their positions, and who are serenely unconscious of the\nfact that their library is \"behind the times.\" Like Rob Roy, these\nbenevolent old public* functionaries\nare \" ower good for banning and\n\n"}
{"page": 517, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nPUBLIC\n\nLIBRARIES\n\nAND\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n509\n\nower bad for blessing.\" No one likes to displace them, and yet the\nlibrary will not do the best work until it is managed by a board of intelligent, enthusiastic people.\nPoor libraries almost invariably have poor librarians. Good libraries\ncannot be maintained with incompetent librarians. They may have\nbooks of undoubted value and still be worthless, because the books are\nnot of the kind that interest the people of the community, and do not\ninclude the best books for children.\nTo improve a poor library the people should be made to understand\nits defects. The teachers and leaders of public opinion should learn the\nmethods in vogue in the best small public libraries, and they should\ndemand better service.\nThe librarian should know how to lead children from the good books\nto the best. She should be able to help the teachers and pupils of the\nschools to find the books and reading material that will aid them in\nbroadening the work of the class-room. She should manage to get all\nthe children of the town to come to the library and to make them feel\nat home there. She ought to make her library a workshop for the\nteachers, the professional people, and the village study clubs. She ought\nto know how to use pictures to attract children.\nThe library should have the good books that are being talked about in\nthe outside world. It should buy a few books frequently, rather than large\norders rarely.\nIf the board cannot employ a librarian who is thoroly competent, the\nindividual members of the board should give their incompetent employe\nas effective help as possible.\nLibrary boards may say, when confronted with a list of reforms that\nshould be made: \"We cannot do these things.\" They may say: \"It is\nunsafe to allow little children to take books ; it is unsafe to allow access\nto the shelves.\" A sufficient answer to these assertions is found in the\nfact that the best small libraries do these things without trouble, to the\nsatisfaction of everybody, and to the good of their communities.\nA small public library cannot give the wide opportunities for study\nthat can be found in the great libraries, but it can give much more\nindividual help and much more individual freedom, and the librarian who\nis to work to train her patrons to use these advantages should give place\nto a more capable person.\nIt often happens that libraries are started with ideals that are not\nattainable. A committee of good men will select books of undoubted\nmerit that do not interest the masses of the people. After a few.years of\ntrial these able professional gentlemen, who know little of children's\nbooks, will make a further effort to get public patronage and will buy full\nsets of E. P. Roe, Amanda Douglas, Castlemon, Alger, Ellis, Optic, \" the\nElsie books,\" and similar stuff.\n\n"}
{"page": 518, "printed_page": null, "text": "510\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nThe reading of a single volume, or even of two or three such volumes,\nis not seriously harmful, but a boy or girl who reads \"sets\" of such books\nas the \" Castlemon books\" or the \" Elsie books \" loses relish for the best\nchildren's books, and often acquires a morbid passion for reading that\ninjures their work in school and at home.\nIt may be necessary, sometimes, to have a somewhat sensational story\nto draw the habitual \" dime-novel \" reader from the street, but at a\ntime when we have admirable and entertaining books for children in\nabundance it is almost criminal to give them such unwholesome trash\nas some public libraries offer.\nLibrarians, like teachers, need professional training, and all who are\ninterested in the improvement of our educational system should learn\nof the many opportunities now offered to librarians for professional\nimprovement; for, after all, the best means of improving your library\nis to put it in charge of a trained librarian, or to help your librarian\nto secure professional instruction. If you cannot do this at first, get a\ngood librarian to visit your library, talk to your teachers and your\nwomen's clubs, and suggest practicable improvements. Your state should\nhave an effective library commission, with ample resources, to aid you\nin your efforts. Other states have them, if your state has not. Why\nshould your state lag in securing so important and effective an educational agency ? The personal aid which the officers of such a commission can give you is the most effective help in establishing and\nxvn^rovmg free public libraries.\nF. A. Hutchins.\n\nX.\n\nBY-LAWS\n\nSUGGESTED\n\nFOR\n\nA BOARD\n\nBY W. R. EASTMAN,\n\nALBANY,\n\nOF LIBRARY\n\nTRUSTEES\n\nN. Y.\n\n[Written for this report at the request of F. A. Hutchinsl\n\n1. Officers. — The officers shall be a president, secretary, and treasurer, who shall be\nelected annually by the board from their own number.\nThe secretary shall record all the official actions of the board, and have custody of\nall its official books, records, and documents, except those in current use by another officer.\nThe treasurer shall receive all funds belonging to the library, and keep the same in a\neparate account till paid out on written order of the finance committee.\nHe shall keep\nan accurate account of every receipt and expenditure, with date, purpose, and amount, and\nreport the same at the annual meeting and whenever required by the finance committee.\n2. Meetings. — The regular meetings of the board shall be on the (first Monday)\nof\neach month at\np. m. at the library.\nThe annual meeting shall be on the (first Monday)\nof (month)\nin each\nyear. Special meetings shall be called by the president, or by request of any two trustees,\nfor the tr^saction only of business stated in the call.\n3. Committees. — The board shall choose at the annual meeting three standing committees, on (a) finance, (b) books, [c) administration, each consisting of one, two, or three\nmembers, to serve for one year and till successors are elected. They shall act under the\ndirection of the board, and shall report to it from time to time.\n\n"}
{"page": 519, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nPUBLIC\n\nLIBRARIES\n\nAND\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n51 1\n\nThe finance committee shall have charge of all library finances, and audit all bills and\nthe accounts of the treasurer and the librarian.\nThe book committee shall control and supervise the selection, buying, exchange, and\nbinding of books and periodicals, and the sale and exchange of duplicates or rejected\nbooks. It shall examine the library from time to time, and report at the annual meeting.\nThe administrative committee shall have charge of the operations of the library and\nreading-room, the furnishing and care of the building and rooms, the arrangement, printing, and disposal of catalogs, and of all matters relating to stamps, plates, labels, and\nprinted forms in use.\n4. Librarian, — The librarian shall have charge of the library and reading-room, and\nbe responsible for the care and \"safety of the books and other library property; classify\nand arrange all books and publications, and keep the same cataloged according to such\nplans as may be approved by the board ; exercise control over all other employes of the\nboard, and promptly report any delinquencies to the administrative committee ; keep\nexact and detailed accounts of all money received from fines and other sources, report\nthe same monthly at the regular meeting of the board, and pay all money to the treasurer\nat least monthly ; report monthly the number of books added to or lost from the library,\nand submit an annual report at the annual meeting, and discharge such other duties as\nmay be prescribed by the board ; but in performance of his duties no debt or liability of\nany kind shall be incurred by him without express authority from the board.\nRULES\n\nFOR\n\nBORROWERS\n\nIN A SMALL\n\nLIBRARY\n\n[From the Wisconsin Library Commission Handbook]\nRules should be as simple as possible, and not designed to restrict liberty, but to prevent encroachment\nand secure the greatest good to all.\nRULES\n\nBorrowers. — Adults are entitled to draw books by filling out an application blank. Children must obtain\nthe signature of parents or other responsible guarantor.\nBorrozuer's card. — If a borrower's card is lost, a new one will be given after seven days' notice, or upon\npayment of five cents.\nNutnber of volumes. — (i) Two books not fiction, or (2) one work of fiction and one not fiction, may be\ndrawn at a time. Two volumes of the same work are considered as one book.\nTime kept, — A book may be kept two weeks, except recent fiction marked \" Seven Day Book.\"\nRenewal. — All books, other than \" Seven Day Books,\" may be renewed for fourteen days.\nOver-due boohs. — A fine of one cent a day will be imposed for books kept over time.\nHours, — The library shall be open every weekday, holidays excepted, from\nto\n\nXI,\n\nHINTS\n\nFOR\nBY\n\nW.\n\nCATALOGING\nR.\n\nEASTMAN,\n\nSMALL\n\nALBANY,\n\nN.\n\nLIBRARIES\nY.\n\n[Written for this report at the request of F, A. Jlutchins]\n\n1, Accession. — All books of a library should be recorded in an accession book.\nProvide a blank book with numbered lines continuing across two pages. Rule columns\nfor date, number, author, title, source (i. e., name of dealer from whom bought or name\nof giver), and cost of each book, and another column for remarks. The books should\nbe entered as soon as received and in any order, and the accession number written in a\ncertain place in each book, for the purpose of reference,\n2. Arrangement. — All books should be arranged by groups or classes of literature\nmore or less numerous, according to number of volumes in each. In a very small library\nall history might be in one class. In a large library history or travel would be divided\nby countries. Science might be in one group or in several groups, to divide the number\nof books conveniently.\n\n"}
{"page": 520, "printed_page": null, "text": "512\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nBooks of reference, philosophy, religion, sociology, science, fine arts, language, literature, travel, biography, history, fiction, and juvenile books may be considered distinct\nclasses. More complete classification is desirable, and may be secured by the use of\neither the decimal or expansive system.\nWhen the revision by classes is satisfactory, arrange the books in each class in alphabetic order of authors' names, but books of individual biography should be in the order\nof the names of persons whose lives are written. This arrangement allows the placing\nof new books in their true order at any subsequent time.\nWhen two or more books are by one author, arrange them under his name in alphabetic order of titles, unless the books have volume numbers, when the arrangement may\nfollow that order.\n3. Marks. — To preserve this arrangement every book should have two or three\nmarks plainly and neatly written on a label on the back of the book.\nThe first mark is to indicate the class or subject group to which the book belongs,\nand may be either a number or a capital letter or letters, according to the system preferred.\nIn many libraries, where the largest class is fiction, the absence of any mark in the place\nwhere the class mark is usually put is a sufficient indication of a book of fiction.\nThe second mark is the initial of the author's surname, and when several authors in\nthe group have the same initial, they should be arranged in alphabetic order, and all after\nthe first be distinguished by the addition of a number; i. e., if five authors have the initial\nB., the marks would be \"B,\" \"B i,\" \"B 2,\" \"B 3,\" \"B 4.\" This is called an \"author\nnumber.\" A more exact number for the author's name may be found by Cutter's revised\nalphabetic order tables.\nA third mark must be added when one author has several books in one class. The\nfirst letter of the first word of the title, not an article, may be added in the form of a small,\nor \"lower-case,\" letter to the author number. E. g., if S 4 be the author number for\nWalter Scott, S 4k will be the book number for Scott's Kenilworth. When there are\nseveral titles beginning with the same letter, two or more small letters should be used to\nkeep the alphabetic order.\n4. Call number. — A combination of the class number, author number, and title\nmark, when needed, is the \" call number \" of the book, and must be plainly marked on the\ninside cover and on a label on the back of each book. It should be used in charging the\nbook and avoid much unnecessary writing. A book plate for the inside cover of each\nbook is desirable.\n5. Shelf arrangement. — Books should be placed on the shelves in the exact order of\nthe call numbers, with spaces between the subject groups.\n6. Lending. — A book should not be lent till accessioned, assigned to its place, and\nplainly marked with its accession and call numbers.\n7. Catalog. — A catalog of all the bound books should be provided. This may be\neither an author index or a subject list following the order of the books on the shelves, or\nboth.\nIt may be on cards, if preferred.\nA card catalog has many advantages. Cards for new books may be added at any\ntime in their proper places. By writing two or more cards for each book, the same book\nmay appear both in its subject order and under the name of its author, and also, if\ndesired, under its title. Cards may be kept in a box, tray, or cabinet drawer.\n8. Bookshelves. — A bookshelf for ordinary books in a popular library should not be\nmore than three feet long and eight inches wide, and the bookcase should have ten inches'\nupright space between shelves. Special shelves should be provided for larger books.\nFor this reason movable shelves are recommended.\nTen books on an average can be placed on one foot of shelving. To provide for\nfrequent additions it is well to leave vacant space on every shelf, and to leave the top and\nbottom shelves empty.\nIt is a safe rule to provide shelving for double the number of\n\n"}
{"page": 521, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council!\n\nPUBLIC\n\nLIBRARIES\n\nAND\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n513\n\nbooks to be placed on them at the beginning. Allowance must also be made for width\nof uprights supporting shelves. If cases are eight shelves high, and all the above allowances are made, twenty-six feet of wall shelving will be needed for 1,000 books. A floor\ncase with two faces, thirteen feet long, will also provide amply for 1,000 books.\n\nXII.\n\nAIDS AND\n\nGUIDES\n\nIN LIBRARY\n\nWORK\n\n[The following lists were revised from the lists in the Handbook of the Wisconsin Free Library Commission by the City Library, Springfield, Mass., at the request of F. A. Hutchins.]\nI.\n\n1898.\n\nBOOKS\n\nON\n\nLIBRARY\n\nWORK\n\nIN\n\nGENERAL\n\nHints to Small Libraries, by M. W. Plummer. New York : Denslove & Comba,\n^0.50.\nGives brief directions for beginning and running a library, and preparing books for the shelves.\n\nLibrary Primer, by J. C. Dana.\n\nChicago : Library Bureau, 1899.\n\nA handbook giving briefly the most necessary details of library science and methods, with directions for\nstarting a library.\n\nPublic Libraries in America, by W. I. Fletcher.\n\nRoberts Bros., 1894.\n\n^^^\n\nA brief history of the public library and laws relating thereto, with some details of library management\nand work.\n\nStatistics of Libraries and Library Legislation in the United States. From Report of\nthe Commissioner of Education for 1895-96. Washington : United States Bureau of\nEducation, 1897.\nFree.\nPapers Prepared for the American Library Association in iSgj, edited by Melvil\nDewey.\nWashington-.\nA collection of the papers written for the meeting of the American Library Association at the Columbian\nExposition; published in pamphlet form by the United States Bureau of Education.\nFree.\nII.\n\nBOOKS\n\nON\n\nCLASSIFICATION\n\nAND\n\nCATALOGING\n\nDecimal Classification and Relative Index, by M. Dewey. $th. edition. Boston and\nChicago : Library Bureau.\n$5.\nAbridged Decimal Classification and Relative Index, by M. Dewey. Library Bureau.\n^0.50.\nMade to meet the needs of small and slowly increasing libraries.\n\nExpansive Classification, by C. A. Cutter. Parts I-VI now published (work unfinished). Write for particulars to C. A. Cutter, Forbes Library, Northampton, Mass.\nRules for a Dictionary Catalo g, by C A.. Cniier. 3d edition, 1891. Washington:\nUnited States Bureau of Education.\nLibrary School Rules for Author and Classed Catalogs, edited by M. Dewey. Library\nBureau,\n^i.\nIncludes accession and shelf-list rules.\n\nAmerican Library Association List of Subject Headings for Use in Dictionary Catalogs. Library Bureau.\n$2.\nCutter's Decimal Author Table.\n\nLibrary Bureau.\n\n$1.25.\n\nA scheme for giving to each work its own exclusive book number, so that the books stand on the shelves\nalphabeted by authors under each subject.\nIIL\n\nAIDS\n\nIN\n\nSELECTING\n\nBOOKS\n\nCatalog of the American Library Association Library, rSgj. Washington : Bureau of\nEducation.\nFree.\nprices.\n\nCatalog of s,ooo volumes shown at the Columbian Exposition. Gives authors, titles, publishers, and\nShows how books should be cataloged and classified.\nIncludes a model dictionary catalog.\n\n"}
{"page": 522, "printed_page": null, "text": "514\n\nNATfONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nList of Books for Tozvnship Libraries; with supplementary list for graded and highschool libraries.\nAddress State Superintendent, Madison, Wis.\nFree.\nSuggestive List of Popular Books for a Small Library.\nFree Library Commission, 1898.\n\n2d edition.\n\nList of Books for Girls and Women\nGeorge lies.\n\nLibrary Bureau, 1895.\n\nMadison, Wis.: Wisconsin\n\nFree.\n\nand their Clubs, edited by A. H. Leypoldt and\nPaper, $0.50 ; cloth, $1.\n\nInvaluable to every librarian or member of a book committee of a public library.\n\nClass List of a Library Recommended for Schools. Albany, N. Y.: University of New\nYork, 1896.\n2d edition, revised.\n$0.05.\nReading for the Young, and Supplement.\nJ. F. Sargent, combined\nBureau.\nCloth, $1.50.\n\nA classified and annotated catalog by\n\nwith supplement by Mary E. and Abby\n\nL. Sargent. Library\n\nAnnotated Bibliography in Fine Art. Painting, sculpture, architecture, arts of decoration and illustration by Russell Sturgis, and music by H. E. Krehbel. Edited by\nGeorge lies.\nLibrary Bureau.\nPaper, S0.50; cloth, $1.\nPublishers'\" IVeekly, the American book-trade journal. New York : 59 Duane street.\n$3 per year.\nPublishers' Trade List Annual, the latest catalog of American\nNew York : Publiihers\\ Weekly office, 59 Duane street.\n\nbook publishers.\n\nComblete Descriptive and Price List of the Public-School Library of Minnesota ; a\nclassified list of books selected and recommended by the Public Library Commission of\nMinnesota.\nSt. Paul, Minn., 1896.\nFree.\nA full list of books, by school grades, as well as classified.\nReferences for Third-Grade Teachers, compiled by May H. Prentice, Cleveland (O.)\nPublic Library, 1898.\nA useful book, mt only for teachers, but for the librarian.\n\" Librarian's Help Series.\" Lists of books, with brief annotations ; prepared by\nthe library department of the Baker & Taylor Co., New York.\nFree.\nNo. I . American History.\nNo. 2. Spain, Cuba, Naval History and Science.\nNo. 3. Literature and Education.\nBooks of 1897 and 1898.\nLibrary List of Books for Public and School Libraries. New\n\nYork : The\n\nBaker &\n\nTaylor Co.\nSelected List of Books for School Libraries.\n\nChicago : A. C. McClurg & Co., 1898.\n\nCatalog of a Model Library — -^oo Volumes.\n\nNew York : Chas. Scribner's Sons.\n\nNew List of Books for School Libraries.\nNew York : Chas. Scribner's Sons\nAll of these are briefly annotated and classified lists by leading publishers.\n\nFree.\nFree.\n\nBest Fifty Books of i8g8. Suitable for a Village Library. Compiled yearly by the\nPublic Library Division of the University of the State of New York from notes by librarians. •\nOne Hundred Books of 1 8g8. Bowdoin College Library Bibliographical Contributions. Compiled by Professor G. E. Little, Brunswick, Me.\nA list carefully selected from the Annual\nreviews in periodicals, favorable and unfavorable.\n\nMonthly Cumulative Book Index.\n\nAmerican\n\nCatalogue and annotated with references to\n\nMinneapolis, Minn.: Morris & Wilson. Monthly.\n\n$3 per year.\n\nWrite to leading publishers for catalogs, which will be sent free.\nIV.\n\nBook Buyer.\nBook News.\n\nLITERARY\n\nJOURNALS\n\nNew York : Scribner's.\nMonthly.\nPhiladelphia : John Wanamaker.\n\nJ 1.50 per year.\nMonthly.\nIS0.50 per year.\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 523, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nPUBLIC\n\nLIBRARIES\n\nCritic.\n\nNew\n\nDial.\n\nChicago : 24 Adams\n\nNation.\n\nNew\nWeekly.\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nYork : 27-29 West Twenty-third street.\nstreet.\n\nNew York : Box 794.\n\nLiterary World.\nBookman.\n\nAND\n\nSemi-monthly.\n\nWeekly.\n\nMonthly.\n\n515\n\n$2 per year.\n\n$2 per year.\n\n$3 per year.\n\nBoston : i Somerset street.\n\nNew York : Dodd, Mead & Co.\n\nFortnightly.\nMonthly.\n\nYotk Times Saturday Review of Books and Art.\n\n$2 per year.\n\n$2 per year.\nNew\n\nYork : The Titnes office.\n\n$1 per year.\nV.\n\nLibrary Journal.\nYork : 59 Duane street.\n\nLIBRARY\n\nPERIODICALS\n\nOfficial organ of the American Library Association.\nMonthly.\n^5 per year; single number, $0.50.\n\nNew\n\nPublic Libraries. Edited by M. E. Ahem. Chicago : Library Bureau, 217 Madison\nstreet.\nMonthly,\n^i per year ; single number, $0.20.\n\nXI/I.\n\nTHE\n\nLIBRARIAN'S\nSPIRIT AND\nMETHODS\nWORKING\nWITH THE SCHOOLS\nINTRODUCTORY\n\nIN\n\nNOTE\n\nIn recent years a good many elaborate investigations have been made,\nby teachers, psychologists, and others, of the reading of children ; what\nbooks and papers they read ; what kind they most enjoy; what books\nfurnish them with good ideals; what ones seem most to influence their\nlives.\nThe replies to these questions have led to little in the way of definite\nconclusions. Few people can so frame a set of inquiries as to make the\nanswers to them of value, even if those answers are clear and honest.\nFew teachers — and most of the inquiries have been made by teachers —\ncan put a set of questions to their pupils in such a way as to get from\nthem straightforward, unprejudiced replies.\nFurthermore, the atmosphere of school, the wishes of principal and\nteachers, as expressed, for example, in courses of study and in books for\nreading placed in the pupils' hands, or within their reach, all tend to\ninfluence the children in making their replies much more than one would\nat first suppose. If, for example, a large number of answers received\nfrom a number of different towns in any given state show that Black\nBeauty has been much read and greatly enjoyed by children in Grades 4\nto 7, one may at first conclude that Black Beauty is a book which appeals\nto the youthful mind thru its own unaided attractiveness; and that, if\nit stood on the shelves of an open library with many other good books\nfor children, it would be one of the first books to be selected and read by\na very large majority of those who used that library. Further consideration, however, probably calls attention to the fact that Black Beauty has,\nfor certain definite reasons, been introduced into the schools of that state\nand vigorously pressed\n\nupon\n\nthe attention\n\nof the children\n\nby school\n\n"}
{"page": 524, "printed_page": null, "text": "5 16\n\nNA TIONAL\n\nED UCA TIONAL\n\nASSOCIA TION\n\n[National\n\nboards, superintendents, principals, and teachers, and that the children\nhave by no means chosen it spontaneously. And so a careful examination of the influences surrounding the young people who have made\nanswer to these many inquiries into children's reading shows that in every\ncase little reliance can be placed on most of the conclusions drawn from\nthem. x\\s in other departments of child study, we have here as yet done\nlittle but illuminate our ignorance. This is helpful, of course; very helpful, indeed, if we recognize the light we get for what it is, and do not\ntake it for something else.\nFrom these inquiries into children's reading, however, and from kindred investigations made by those interested in child study in general, in\nexperimental psychology, and the like, we seem to be able to draw a few\nvery general conclusions, such as these :\nThat the time when the habit of reading is most likely to be formed\nis in the years from eleven to sixteen. That in the years from six to sixteen, and especially during the first part of the period, the influence of\nthe teacher in determining the choice of books read may be very great.\nThe teacher of average ability, it would seem, can, if she will, guide the\nchoice and interest of most of her pupils.\nFrom these facts, and from the like, generally admitted, fact that this\nperiod from six to sixteen is one in which tastes and habits in general\nare most easily and most commonly formed, and the general trend of life\nmost seriously affected, we can conclude, further, that books can have, and\ndo have, a greater influence for good or ill on the lives of most people,\nby affecting them when thev are young, than we had supposed ; and this\ninfluence, thru the teacher's guidance, can be made to work for good even\nmore strongly than we have dared to hope.\nThis conclusion, vague and general as it seems at first to be, is of the\ngreatest moment to the librarian. She commonly has on her shelves\nhundreds and thousands of volumes — rather hastily selected, not carefully\nexamined — which she is handing out almost at random on every day to\nscores of young people who have little power of selection and will take —\none must fear — the book that is full of the evil communications which\ncorrupt good manners, as eagerly as the one which is wholesome in all\nits influences. She is busy. She has little time to put the right book\ninto the right hands. She likes her library to be popular. She, perhaps,\nis impressed more by the quantity of books read than by their quality.\nIf she is wise, she sees that for the educational work her library is trying\nto do, especially with young people, she needs the help of those who can\ngive care and thought to the individual. She sees that the free public\nlibrary should hasten, after equipping itself with the best obtainable\nmaterial for children's reading, to interest parents and teachers in that\nmaterial and persuade them to assist in guiding the reading of the children who borrow books. This means, in the present state of society, when\n\n"}
{"page": 525, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nPUBLIC\n\nLIBRARIES\n\nAND\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n51 7\n\nparents take a very moderate degree of interest in the books their children\nread, that, as far as its work with young people is concerned, the public\nlibrary must, if it would do good and not harm with its books, rely, to a\nvery great extent, on the assistance of the schools.\nThe library can, no doubt, be of great help to the teachers ; and much\nspace in other parts of this report is taken up with suggestions to teachers\nof how they can get much of value out of the public library. But our\nreport will fail in one of its most important missions, if it does not bring\nhome to many librarians, very strongly, the fact that, as far as its work\nwith young people is concerned, it can do little without the sympathetic\nco-operation of teachers.\nHow, then, shall the librarian conduct herself, and how shall she manage her library in order to get from the teachers of her community the\nmaximum of sympathetic co-operation, and be of the greatest possible\nassistance in the education of the young ? These questions I have tried\nto answer, not fully, but in a suggestive way, by giving a brief statement\nof the equipment the librarian of an ideal library must have for this work\nand of the things that an ideal library may do in its co-operation with\nthe schools.\nTHE\n\nLIBRARIAN\n\nAND\n\nHER\n\nEQUIPMENT\n\nIn establishing helpful relations between libraries and schools in any\ngiven community the things that are most necessary on the librarian's part\nare sympathy with the end in view and a broad appreciation of the particular situation. This sympathy and appreciation will lead to good work,\nwhatever the conditions.^ The special knowledge and skill needed can be\nacquired in the doing.\nAnother very important qualification of the librarian, and perhaps the\nmost rare, is a wide and sympathetic knowledge of books of all kinds,\nespecially books for young people. This wide knowledge of books is not\nthe product of a night, or of a week, or of a moTith, or even of a year of\ntoil and study. It is a knowledge which is in large part not knowledge,\nbut native talent ; and the knowledge which goes with this native talent\nis acquired only by reading scores and hundreds of books with care and\nwith interest.\nThe librarian, then, is and has been an enthusiastic reader. During\nthe early years of her life, and especially from ten to fourteen, she familiarized herself, not as a duty, but as a pleasure, with the best of children's\nbooks; with the children's books we call classics. We call them such, not\nbecause they are necessarily the very best books that can be written or\nhave been written for children, but because they contain expressions,\ncharacters, incidents, that are constantly reappearing in literature, and\nare interwoven with the life of the race. They are the books that have\nbecome a part of the birth-right of every American child.\nThey are\n\n"}
{"page": 526, "printed_page": null, "text": "5i8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nalluded to and they are listed in large part in Mr. McMurry's section of\nthis report. The librarian who did not know and enjoy these when\nyoung is poorly furnished for work with children.\nThe librarian understands library management. If she has had no\ntechnical training in a library school, or has not had experience in a wellmanaged library, she gets some of the books and periodicals mentioned\nelsewhere in this report, and reads and studies the subject and learns by\ndoing.\nShe realizes that books are tools, are not sacred things, and find their\nbest end in being worn out by reasonable service.\nShe is fond of children, is patient with them, and understands them.\nExperience in teaching for a few years would be of the greatest assistance\nto librarians who are trying to work with schools.\nThere are.now in print — and a number of them are noted elsewhere in\nthis report — many lists of books for children and teachers, several of them\nwell annotated. Copies of these lists our librarian has at hand and is ready\nto lend, and makes use of them constantly in adding to her collection.\nIn the last twenty years a great many articles on the reading of children, literature for the young, and kindred subjects, have appeared in leading periodicals of this country, and a number of books, some of which\nare mentioned elsewhere in this report, have appeared on the same subject. These books, or as many of them as possible, the librarian studies\nherself and places with the teachers' books in the teachers' corner.\nAs the librarian's field of work widens, she discovers, first of all, if she\nis honest with herself, her own limitations in respect to the wide and intimate book-knowledge, already mentioned, and then she discovers it also\nin her associates, the teachers. It is inevitable, fn view of the character\nof the preparatory training the average teacher gets, that in wide knowledge and keen appreciation of literature, and especially of literature for\nchildren, she should often be lacking. We have decided that books\nproper for children to read are excellent things, and should be easily\naccessible to them. We have asked for them, and authors and publishers\nhave supplied them. We attempt now to do with them the things we see\nshould be done, if we are to get out of them that which we wish to get,\nand we discover that those to whom we must appeal to make proper use of\nthem are themselves very lacking in knowledge of them. We are improving in this respect, but little has yet been done toward making the average\nteacher thoroly conversant with children's books, with making her such\na reader of books as she must be before she can do with children the\nthings we wish to have done. But the fact of the presence of the books\nthemselves in libraries and schools, and the daily use of them, and the\ngeneral realization of the possibilities in them, will bring about in a few\nyears a vastly better equipment in this direction, in the teaching force as\nwell as in the library force, than we have as yet had.\n\n"}
{"page": 527, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nPUBLIC\n\nLIBRARIES\n\nAND\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n5 '9\n\nThe librarian realizes that, after all, a collection of books, however\ngood, however well-housed, however attractively arranged, is of little\nvalue, has little vital force, and does not count for much in the community, unless there is added to it the right kind of a librarian. A good\nlibrarian is more than half of a good library. Realizing this fact, she\ntries to live up to her opportunity.\nWhile she feels that the most efficient allies in her work are the teachers, and while she feels that unaided by them she can do little for the vast\nmajority of her young students and readers, still she does not at all relax\nher own vigilance. She keeps a watchful eye on as many of the children\nas possible; she lends only what she thinks to be the best of boAks; she\nis unceasing in her efforts to- learn which are the best ; she notes the character of the readers who ask for what she fears are books of doubtful\nvalue; she checks l^e story mania, where she can ; she looks for opportunities to turn attention from better books to the best books ; she does not\nthink any habit is good so it be a reading habit; she keeps it in mind that\nbooks are for pleasure — but for the pleasure of a lifetime, and not of the\nday only; are for profit — but not profit in money only; are for knowledge— perhaps not for knowledge she can ever care for, yet good and\nuseful still; are for wisdom — but possibly not for wisdom as she sees it.\nShe is always mindful thit she is a public servant, not a ruler; that she is\na counselor, not a faultless guide; that she is a student of books with the\nchildren as fellow-students, not a teacher who has already learned all\nthat books can teach.\nTHE\n\nLIBRARIAN\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nTEACHERS\n\nThe librarian has no special card for teachers, for she finds that by\nadopting a modern charging system she does not need to make distinctions between her borrowers. She can lend to any person six or sixty\nbooks as easily as one, and a special card makes a distinction which by\nthose other than teachers may be thought invidious.\nShe has a teachers' corner in the library, and keeps there, with special\nbooks for teachers, copies of the best and latest pedagogical books and\njournals, and lends them.\nShe prints occasionally, and distributes thru the schools, brief\nstatements in the form of circulars of what the library does with children,\nwhat it would like to do, how it helps teachers, and how it would like to\nhelp teachers.\nShe prints also from time to time brief selected lists of books, magazine\narticles, poems, speeches, etc., on special topics, like geography, American\nhistory, flowers, birds, Longfellow, Lincoln, Arbor Day. If possible, she\nprints these lists all in the same form on sheets of the same size, so that\nthe teacher preserving them may keep and handle T;hem with ease. These\nare posted on the bulletin board and freely distributed.\n\n"}
{"page": 528, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n520\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n[National\n\nShe forms a reading committee of teachers to help in selecting from\nthe new, and old, publications the best books for young people, and in\ndeciding what books it is best to supply in large quantities and to urge\nthe children to read.\nShe takes note of teachers' institutes and the topics up for discussion\nin them, and she keeps watch of educational journals to see what\nproblems are being discussed, and makes up lists and buys books accordingly.\nShe does what she can to induce teachers to add library departments\nto their county, district, or state associations, or at least to give up a\nportion f>i the time at the meetings of such associations to the consideration of problems which touch her work.\nShe endeavors to have teachers, principals, and superintendents oh\nthe committees of her library, especially on those having to do with its\ngeneral economy, arrangement, and selection of books. She makes the\nfact felt that her institution is part of the educational system of the community, isnot something separate from the schools, but a part of them.\nShe visits the superintendent of schools, and the principals and\nteachers. She does not make of her work the opportunity to impress\nthem with the fact that she has a \"mission,\" and that she proposes to\nelevate the community by her books ; and she does not insist that teachers\ngenerally are dull, if they do not at once make use of her library ; but\nshe tactfully makes it plain that her library is there to be used.\nShe meets with the teachers whenever occasion offers, and is ready to\ntalk with them about matters in her field at all times.\nShe visits schoolrooms, where she can do it without seeming to\nintrude, and makes herself familiar with the teacher's work, its opportunities, its needs, and its limitations. She gets the courses of study used\nin school. She learns what books are already in the schoolrooms ; what\nones are used as supplementary reading ; what, and how many, have\nbeen bought in sets ; and in every way makes herself thoroly familiar\nwith the present resources of teachers and children in the way of books.\nShe always works in sympathy with, and with the full knowledge of,\nthe superintendent, and in accordance with his suggestions and wishes.\nShe ventures, if teachers do not borrow voluntarily, to suggest to them\nthat they can take books to their schoolrooms and see if they can make\nuse of them there. This is not an easy thing to do, for unless the\nteacher is in sympathy with this work, to put books in her hands may be to\nwaste good material. For the teacher who is beginning to use books in\nher daily work the simpler they are the better. Picture- and stt)ry-books,\nsuch as she can lend to restless pupils, either for use in the schoolroom\nor to take home, are the best.\nShe looks up such a subject as geography, and by examination of the\ntext-books used, and by talks with teachers, discovers what she can do to\n\n"}
{"page": 529, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nPUBLIC\n\nLIBRARIES\n\nAND\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n52 I\n\nassist in making the subject more interesting. She finds, perhaps, that\npupils call at the library for certain specific books, or for books on some\nspecial topic which the library laclcs, and she equips the library well for\nsuch a call next time. She encourages teachers to borrow from the\nlibrary for a few weeks, or a term, books on the topics in geography, or\nhistory, or science, which may be uppermost for the time.\nShe asks teachers and principals to give her in advance names of\ntopics and subjects of study on which the children may ask for books\nlater. She announces on her bulletin board that books on such and such\na 4:opic will be found in such a place, or are such and such books.\nIf one or two teachers begin to take an interest in the library and\nborrow books from it for schoolroom use, and their experiments are successful, the librarian lets this fact be widely known.\nShe does not forget that the teacher's occupation is very wearing;\nthat the best teachers are often the busiest ; and that it is the best teachers\nwhom she most wishes to interest. The teacher must keep her children\nto the course of study as it is laid out; and no matter how flexible that\ncourse may be, still it is true that to do the things that must be done each\nday takes nearly every moment of her time. Opportunity to do the\nwork with children suggested in this report is not easy to find. The\nwise librarian is not discouraged, therefore, even tho most of the\nteachers she attempts to interest are slow to take up with her suggestions.\nAs soon as the time is ripe and her supply of books permits, she lends\nthem to interested teachers, in groups of ten to fifty, to put into their\nrooms as schoolroom libraries. The school authorities may, of course,\nsupply these schoolroom libraries themselves. It is perhaps better, however, that they be supplied by the library. In the library will usually be\nfound the best collection of books to draw from, and the most skill in\ntheir handling. The schoolroom library is to be used just as are the\nbooks the teacher may have of her own or may have secured from the\nlibrary for her desk. She uses them either for reference work, or lends\nthem to pupils to take home. If she does the latter, then the schoolroom\nlibrary is in effect a branch library ; and the schoolroom library, under the\nsupervision of the teacher, is the ideal branch library for lending books to\nyoung people. The teacher with forty pupils and fifty books, the latter\nchanged from month to month as she may choose, and as the wishes of\nher pupils may indicate, can with little difficulty put the right book into\nthe right hands time and again, when the librarian, with the best intentions in the world, finds it impossible to do more than supply each child's\nrequest, without regard to the fitness of that request.\nThe librarian hears it said not infrequently, by librarians, that teachers\nask more and are more exacting in their requests generally than any\nother class of library patrons ; but she says that it seems proper that this\nshould be so. She is glad that they make use of her library. She is glad\n\n"}
{"page": 530, "printed_page": null, "text": "522\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nthat they make complaints, and is not disturbed by them. She discovers that\ntheir demands are generally not so much in the spirit of fault-finding as\nin the desire to get out of the library all that can possibly be got. And\nshe encourages, rather than discourages, the asking spirit in all the teachers\nwith whom she comes in contact.\nTHE\n\nLIBRARY\n\nBUILDING,\n\nOR\n\nROOM,\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nCHILDREN'S\n\nDEPARTMENT\n\nThe building for an ideal library, or the room in which it is placed,\nis simple in the extreme. The best arrangement for a small library is\none large, well-lighted room without partitions. The cases are low, and\nare set sufficiently far apart to allow several people to pass between them at\nonce without crowding. The tables and chairs are near the books. If a corner for work is needed, it is separated from the rest of the room, not by a\npartition, but by a light rail. The desk is near the entrance, and the visitor\nhaving passed this desk is literally \"in\" the library and among its books.\nA corner in the library is given up to children. The children's\nbooks are here arranged in classes, just as are other books in the library,\nand with the same marks. Stories and books on other subjects are not\nordinarily shelved together in one series, tho for some\nposes or occasions they may be so arranged.\n\nspecial pur-\n\nThe cases for children's books are low, not over five feet high, and\nlower still would be better, and the books are not put lower than two feet\nfrom the floor. This gives two or three rows of books one above the other,\nat the utmost, and prevents crowding among those who are looking them\nover. The lower the cases are, the easier it is to keep watch of the unruly\nand noisy. Furthermore, if the cases are low, the tops of them serve\nexcellently for globes and vases, and any articles of interest one may wish\nto put there.\nThere is a globe in the children's corner, and a place to hang up a\nlarge wall-map, which is changed from time to time.\nOn the walls are pictures attractive to young people, preferably in\ncolors. These pictures are such as one would wish to have in the schoolroom. They are large and broad in treatment.\nA bulletin .board in or near the children's corner has on it lists of\nentertaining books — general lists, lists on special topics ; pictures, sometimes of a general nature, sometimes having to do with one subject ; a set\nof pictures of animals, or birds, or great buildings, or eminent men. The\nsame bulletin board holds, in large type, an occasional sentence or verse\nof poetry, such as experience shows children are attracted by and are fond\nof learning.\nTHE\n\nLIBRARIAN\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nCHILDREN,\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nCHILDREN'S\n\nDEPARTMENT\n\nThe librarian makes the process of getting a borrower's card at her\nlibrary very simple for the young people.\nShe, perhaps, thinks it wise to\n\n"}
{"page": 531, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nPUBLIC\n\nLIBRARIES\n\nAND\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n523\n\ninsist that the card be signed by a parent, not so much to protect\nthe library as to engage the interest of the parents in what the young\npeople read. She does not feel, however, that this is essential. She\nsurrounds the process of the signing of the name, the giving of the\ncard, and the presentation of a slip containing library rules and\ninformation, with sufficient dignity to make it seem of importance to\nthe children.\nShe keeps her library immaculately neat and clean, and trains the\nchildren to help her in this work, establishing a library league for this\npurpose, if possible. It takes time and patience to lead children to keep\nin order the books they themselves use, but it is not impossible and\nis worth the doing. .\nShe notes that the weak points of American children are not timidity\nand nervousness. Still, she realizes that many of the children, perhaps\nthose whom it would be best worth her while to assist, are shy about visiting a new place, and are slow to ask questions. She meets such individuals more than half way.\nThe children's department is made especially strong in entertaining\nstories, the children's classics already alluded to being first chosen. It is\nfar better to purchase a large number of duplicates of each of fifteen or\ntwenty standard books that children read than it is to scatter the money\nthey would cost over the whole field of children's literature and buy a\nlarge amount of inferior stuff.\nThe librarian has investigated the subject of children's reading for\nherself, and has come to the conclusion, as have all others who have given\nthe matter serious attention, that in the children's corner in the public\nlibrary, or in the schoolroom library, or in the library in the school\nbuilding, or in any collection of books anywhere to which children are to\nhave access, low-grade books, no matter how popular they may have proved\nthemselves to be, are not needed in order to attract children ; and that\npoorly written, unreal, fourth-class, silly stuff is not needed as sweetmeats and temptations to draw children to a collection of good books in\nan attractive library.\nShe learns from talks with teachers whom she has interested in the\nsubject that the reading of wholesome children's books does not, save in\nvery unusual cases, distract the minds of the children from their studies.\nShe learns, on the contrary, that the bright children, the well informed\nchildren in the schoolroom, are the ones who are most likely to be eager\nand wide readers at the library.\nWith the children's books she puts the books suitable for reading\naloud to children by parents and teachers. It is difficult to draw the\nline definitely between these two classes. In selecting the books suitable\nfor young people it should be borne in mind that there is much good\nliterature which children themselves will not read, but like to have read\n\n"}
{"page": 532, "printed_page": null, "text": "52 4\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nto them. Some of this literature can very well be put with the books\nthe children like to read themselves.\nThe reference- books for children in their own department are not\nmany in number and are simple. One or two encyclopaedias, an atlas, a\ndictionary, and a few sets of periodicals, like Harper's Monthly with its\nindex, and St. Nicholas, serve better than more elaborate books.\nThe librarian, while supplying a special corner for children and giving them there easy access to the books adapted to their wants, does not\nforget that an important thing in education is ability to use a large\nlibrary to advantage. She encourages, so far as the arrangement of her\nroom permits, the use of the main library by young people. She tries so\nto train them, or help them to train themselves, that they are not lost or\ndazed in a large collection. She helps the very young people to make\nuse of the laboratory method in the library, as science teachers lead them\nto use it in physics and chemistry. She finds that children quite quickly\ncatch the spirit of investigation, the spirit of the seeker after truth, and\nthus become students in the best sense of the word.\nTo help the children to make use of reference-books she calls attention to such helps as tables of contents, page-headings, indexes, and bibliographies. She gives them an opportunity to consult encyclopaedias and\ndictionaries of varying character. She encourages them to study by\ntopics.\nSo far we have spoken of books on their artistic, literary, generalculture side; the side which, for the younger children at least, must\nalways remain the most important. But there is another side, distinct\nstill from both the \" culture \" side and from the scientific side, with\nwhich the zealous librarian must acquaint herself, would she do her best\nwork, especially with children who have reached the ages of sixteen to\neighteen.. This is the purely utility side. There is no calling in life,\nfrom brick-laying to architecture, from shoe-making to railroad-building,\nthat does not have the results of latest experience and observation in\nregard to it set forth in periodicals and books. These periodicals and\nbooks are more or less accessible in every public library.\" The majority of\nboys, about ninety-five out of one hundred who attend our schools, are\non their way to some manual, semi-manual, or clerical calling. They\nwill be able to equip themselves better for their calling, whatever it may\nbe, if they make themselves familiar with its literature. The humblest\nworkman in the humblest occupation can adapt himself better to his\nwork, and will have a better chance of advancing in it, if he reads up to\nit. This is an aspect of printed things which is rarely touched upon in\nthe schools. The sympathetic librarian, as she sees boys grow to young\nmanhood under her eyes, will watch their tastes and inclinations where\nshe can ; will note the occupations they are likely to enter, and direct\nthem to the utility-literature of those occupations.\n\n"}
{"page": 533, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nPUBLIC\n\nLIBRARIES\n\nAND\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n525\n\nThe librarian makes a collection of pictures, saving therefore old\nperiodicals that are well illustrated, and making requests for old numbers\nand back volumes that are past other usefulness, to be used for their\nillustrations. She gets together and mounts on cardboard collections of\ndesigns, of pictures illustrating the work of different artists, of pictures\nto be used in geography and history and science study. These she\narranges in groups, hangs on her bulletin board, and lends to teachers\none at a time or many at a time.\nJ. C. Dana.\nXIV.\n\nWORK\n\nIN CERTAIN\n\nTYPICAL LIBRARIES\n\nThe libraries mentioned in the following notes are not exceptional. They are\ntypical of a large number, in which some of the things mentioned in the foregoing outline have been attempted.\nNearly twenty years ago Mr. Samuel S. Green, librarian of the Free Public Library,\nWorcester, Mass., delivered an address before the American Social Science Association,\non the relations of public libraries and public schools. In this address he outlines or\nhints at nearly all the things that have been done since 1880, in bringing libraries and\nschools into closer relations ; and during those twenty years Mr. Green has again and\nagain urged upon teachers and fellow-librarians the necessity for active co-operation,\nwould they produce the best results from their efforts. The Worcester library has been\nthe pioneer in the world, in the work this report considers.\nThe library league was first tried by the Cleveland, O., library, after a suggestion\nborrowed from Colonel George E. Waring, of the street-cleaning department, New York\ncity. Colonel Waring appealed to the children in certain parts of the city to form leagues\nand subscribe to an agreement to help to keep the city clean and beautiful. The Cleveland library established a library league. In joining this league the children signed an\nagreement to try to handle the library books with care and to persuade others to do the\nsame. The experiment was very successful, and led to other things than simple care of\nbooks. It has given the library a hold on many thousand children,- and has helped to\nstrengthen the library's hands in working with the teachers. No library in the United\nStates has shown a more admirable public spirit than has that of Cleveland, and any\nlibrarian who may be contemplating bringing children and teachers into closer relations\nwith her collection of books cannot fail to get inspiration and suggestions from the\nreading in the Cleveland reports of things that have been done there in recent years.\nAt the free library of Pratt Institute, Brooklyn, in its new building, special accommodations have been made for children. The attendants in charge of the children's department have studied to equip themselves for the work, and are constantly devising ways of\ninteresting children and leading them to the use of better books. Exhibitions of pictures,\nof notable men and women, of notable buildings, of special regions, of birds, animals, etc.,\naccompanied by book lists, are attractively put up in the children's room from time to time.\nIn no other library has a more careful study of the problem of the children and their books\nbeen made.\nThe Free Circulating Library of New York city includes now eleven or twelve\nbranches. These branches are in part rather inadequately housed. It is interesting to see\nhow an enthusiastic library spirit has been able to make books and papers attractive,\nespecially to the young in the poorer quarters of the city, even with very insufficient accommodations. Several of the collections of books number only nine or ten thousand volumes ;\n\n"}
{"page": 534, "printed_page": null, "text": "526\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nroom for readers may be very limited, and yet access to shelves is permitted, and children\nare controlled and interested, and are in many cases led into habits of good reading.\nIn Buffalo, N. Y., there were school libraries in a number of the school buildings of\nthe city. These were about a year ago turned over to the public library. They were\nfound to contain a good deal of useless material. This was set aside, and the old libraries were replaced by collections of books adapted to each school, sent out from the library\nand changed rnore or less from time to time, as teachers and principals desired.\nThe Public Library of Detroit, Mich., has for twelve years been sending school\ncirculating libraries to different school buildings of that city. It now has about ten\nthousand volumes in these collections. They go to all grades above the fourth, there\nbeing a total of some eighty boxes for their transportation. The library in each room is\nchanged once in four months. No one school is likely to get the same books oftener than\nonce in two or three years. The purpose of these schoolroom libraries is to give every\nchild in the public schools some acquaintance with good literature. The books are in\ncharge of the principal of each building, and are given out for home reading under very\nsimple regulations.\nIn Milwaukee the teachers, under the general supervision of the librarian and his\nassistants, issue library cards to their pupils. These cards having been issued, the teachers\ngo to the library and, being admitted to the shelves, select enough books for their pupils. To\naid the teacher in her selection, lists have been published of books for young people and\nof books for special purposes. The books the. teacher selects are placed in boxes and\nsent by the library to the teacher or to the school. They are changed after eight weeks.\nIn 1897, 23,000 books were thus issued nearly 90,000 times.\nIn Utica, N. Y., courses of reading have been published in co-operation with the\nlibrary. These courses contain two lists, one for the grammar schools, the other for the\nlower grades. Some of the books in these courses are read by the teachers to the pupils\nand then discussed in class ; others are read in the class ; and others read by the pupils\nout of school. Teachers are asked to see that out-of-school reading has been profitably\ndone.\nExcessive reading is discouraged.\nOne of the first school systems in the country to adopt the schoolroom library was\nthat of the North Side, or District No. 17, of Denver, Colo. Small collections of books,\nabout fifty in number, were placed in nearly all of the schoolrooms of the district several\nyears ago, and have been kept up and extended over the whole district since. A brief,\naccount of this system as carried on in North Denver is made a part of this report.\nThe Free Public Library of Evanston began co operative work with the schools\nabout three years ago. Its experience shows how much can be done with limited means,\na small supply of books, and narrow quarters. Thru several schoolroom libraries it\nreaches many families who would not otherwise hear of the main library. The assistant\nlibrarian in charge of this work visits each school as often as possible, and holds teachers'\nmeetings for the discussion of children's books and plans of future work. The teachers\ncome often to the library and suggest books for purchase. The co-operative spirit\nextends to superintendents, principals, teachers, and all the library staff. The school\nlibraries contain each 100 books chosen for the six lower grades. Each has a printed,\ngraded list. The collections go from one room to another, remaining three months in\neach building. The librarian mounts the colored plates from the Art Amateur and similar publications, and lends them for art studies or to brighten schoolroom walls ; and\nmounts pictures of birds and animals gathered from all sources for use in nature study,\nand saves other pictures for historical and geographical work. These pictures cost, when\nmounted, less than two cents apiece. They aie lent separately or in groups. The library\nhas formed a children's library league. The assistant librarian talked with the teachers\nof each school in regard to it, and circulars were distributed to the children before forming it. The teachers presented the subject to the children, and also looked after the matter\n\n"}
{"page": 535, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nPUBLIC\n\nLIBRARIES\n\nAND\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n527\n\nof registration. The children from the graded schools near the library and from the\nhigh school visit the library frequently for reference work, and the librarian and her\nassistant give them training in the use of reference-books. The library prints a set of\nspecial holiday bulletins. It reserves books for class and essay work. During the year\nthe library gives exhibitions of such collections as that of birds with nest's and eggs ; a\ncollection of drawings lent by some artist for the occasion, or of pictures from the library's\nsupply. The library has established a children's corner with open shelves, containing\nbooks and numbers of young folk's periodicals, and finds that the young people discover\nattractive books which they did not know of and could not know of thru the unsuggestive\nmedium of the catalog.\nJ. C. Dana.\n\nXV.\n\nBY\n\nCLARISSA\n\nS.\n\nNEWCOMB,\n\nSCHOOLROOM\n\nLIBRARIAN,\n\n[First published in the Colorado School Journal.\n\nLIBRARIES\n\nNORTH\n\nSIDE\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nDENVER,\n\nCOLO.\n\nAdded to the report at the request of J. C. Dana.]\n\nTo one who knows how to use books a well-selected library is one of the most valuable means of education. The training of children in the choice and use of books is\ntherefore an important subject to all teachers. An early beginning is necessary, or else\nthe great majority — those who leave school before the higher grades are reached — wholly\nescape this training.\nBut how shall this training be given ? is the question. How shall we bring the child in\ntouch with good books ? Our experience in district No. 17, Denver, leads us to believe that\neach schoolroom should have its library. We have found that a collection of fifty books\nin a room, chosen with reference to the age and ability of the pupils in that room, is the\nmost satisfactory means of forming a taste for good literature. We have tried other\nmethods — the central library, the library in the principal's office, and the plan of moving\nbooks from one room to another. The room library — that is, a certain number of books\nwhich are the permanent property of the room — has proved the best, because it acts,,.as a\ntraining school for the use of the larger public library. We favor the room library for\nthe purpose of getting the little folks accustomed to the use of the books and for the\nimmediate use of the pupils in the upper grades. The more expensive books which can\nnot be afforded for each room are kept in the principal's office. Thus the pupils are led\nto the public library, for the use of which these small collections have well trained them.\nThat this room-library plan increases the demand for books from the public library has\nbeen demonstrated to us by the greater number of cards now held by the pupils.\nBeginning with the second grade, each room in the district has its own collection of\nbooks, which remain there from year to year. As the children go from grade to grade,\nthey are each year brought in contact with another set of books new to them. Instead of\nmoving the books, we move the children. Each room has its reference-books and its\nbooks for lending. When not in use, these are on a table or on shelves accessible to the\nchildren at all times. The pupil thus becomes acquainted with the books and feels a personal pride of ownership, and the close contact of the child with the books teaches him to\nlove and respect them. He becomes interested in reading and familiar with his own\nsmall library.\nFewer disappointments occur in the selection of books than where the .collection is\nlarger ; hence fewer obstacles are presented in the formation of a love for reading. The\nrange of choice is narrowed, and the teacher feels the responsibility of directing the children's reading, for the library is but another tool with which to mold the character of\nher pupils.\nAll become readers if the teacher is skillful and tactful and enters sufficiently\n\n"}
{"page": 536, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n528\n[National\ninto child life to appeal to the pupils. Many teachers have found the library an effective\nmeans of reaching and interesting dull or indifferent pupils.\nThe teacher can influence and largely control the children in their choice of reading.\nA reference to a book little used is enough to commend it to someone in the room, and\nits reputation is established. Or some pupil rtiay be asked to give an extract from a book\nhe has lately read. That will interest the other children, who will wish to learn more\nabout it. The recitation is made brighter, and that book goes into the homes and keeps\nthe children from the street.\nEach book is selected, not alone because of its intrinsic merit, but also because it has\nproved interesting to several children of like age and grade. No mistakes have been\nmade when we have left the matter to the children. They know what they enjoy. When\nwe find any attractive book, we try it in a room. If it is approved by those relentless\nlittle judges, the children, we buy a copy for each room of that grade. In the case of a\nvery popular book v.e sometimes place two or more copies on the shelves.\nWe do not attempt to force upon the children books that are highly instructive, or which\nwe think they ought to like. We try to supplant the trashy stuff by providing them with\ngood, yet interesting books. Our aim is to give them a love for good literature ; for when\nthey have acquired that, we need have no fear that their education will stop when they\nleave school.\nNo child should be expected to read every book in the room library. The reason is\nobvious; tastes differ among the children, as among adults. Out of the fifty books, representing history, biography, adventure, fairy stories, etc., each child will no doubt find some\nwhich he will enjoy. Within the room list we let the child select for himself. Any book\nwhich is really enjoyed, which enlarges the range of thought, which makes him happier,\nis worth the reading, even tho it has no visible purpose as a part of his school education.\n\nDISCUSSION\nJ. H. Van Sickle, vice-president of the Council, explained the work of the committee, calling attention to some of the most valuable features of the reports — particularly to\nthe lists of books for reading; to the practical suggestions relating to the use of the\nreading record; to the matter of supplementary reading; to the economy of management ;and to good literature. Mr. Van Sickle urged the importance of distributing such\nliterature as largely as possible.\nL. D. Harvey commended the value of the report, and especially for its suggestiveness. While no two may agree on these lists in detail, all agree as to their great suggestive value. He also called attention to the importance of becoming familiar with this\nreport and of interesting teachers to do the same. Mr. Harvey contrasted the conditions\nand opportunity for reading as they existed but few years ago with the richer opportunities afforded by the libraries of today. He emphasized the value of pupils' reports of\ntheir reading, and suggested the importance to teachers of tracing out, step by step, the\nlines by which children have been led to interest in valuable reading. One of the things\nvital to efficient work is that the teachers know the books which the pupils read. Another\nexcellent suggestion of the report is that the teacher and the pupils be assisted in reading\nby the use of classifications and indexes, thus aiding them in commanding the resources\nof the entire library. He also called attention to the value of periodicals, where these\nare available, for the use of pupils. It is better that they be not bound in yearly volumes.\nThe best method is to divide them by articles and have them bound in paper and indexed\nlike other books.\nPupils will use them far more in this form.\nCareful work must be\n\n"}
{"page": 537, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nPUBLIC\n\nLIBRARIES\n\nAND\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n529\n\ndone by the teachers, and, if done, the children will be led to read what is best in\nliterature. This work requires as scientific and as skillful direction as anything in the\nschool curriculum. Don't ask the little people to do much writing. Let them talk to you\nabout what they read. Encourage them to give the language of the author, since this will\nincrease their power of expression ; it will give them a richer vocabulary, and, if persisted\nin, will solve the problem of language in the lower grades.\nMr. Schaeffer followed, referring to the work which Andrew Carnegie has done\nfor the schools of Pennsylvania in increasing its fine libraries. He emphasized the distinction between the literature of information and the literature of power, and stated\nthat it is the literature of power which leads toward higher levels.\nGeorge P. Brown said that we are still feeling, by a process of trial, how some of\nthese things work out. Children must be allowed to move along their own lines. A\nteacher in the Mississippi valley had said to him that children are their own best guides\nin these things. He had been comparing \" the living things \" of the reading of Evangeline in a fourth grade with the lack of inspiration of the same in a high-school grade. We\nare underestimating the ability of the children to comprehend and to enjoy the things\nwhich are of highest value.\nMr. Greenwood expressed himself as heartily in sympathy with the report. He\nsaid that its wide distribution should be secured. He was closely associated with library\nwork in Kansas City, and learned from the librarian, a lady, that the little fellows do not\nwant \" baby books.\" Children very early tire of these, as we have many times learned.\nWe have frequently found that children of the elementary schools have read more\nadvanced books, and later have taken them up for the study of literature in the high\nschool. Children are largely influenced by what their mates tell them of their own\nreading. Were it in my power, I would have 100,000 copies of this report distributed\namong the teachers of this country.\nJ. H. Hoose said that too much interest in reading for children is detrimental to the\nintellectual growth of the reader.\nMr. Greenwood\n\nagreed that this is true, especially of superficial reading.\n\nMr. Fitzpatrick asked why it was, then, that such men as Gladstone and other\nomnivorous readers had not been harmed.\nMr. Soldan said that these were not of the average mind ; and that he was reminded\nof a discussion in Aristotle's Ethics between the \" golden mean\" of virtue and the \" vice \"\nof extremes. About four years ago it seemed advisable to formulate plans for the reading of his pupils. The course adopted in a general way was as follows : The first year,\nchiefly fables ; the second year, the myth, since the Greek myth deals largely with nature ;\nthe third year, when geography is of interest, much of exploration and American history ;the fourth year, legends and stories from Greek and other classic history ; the fifth\nand sixth years, stories from the history of the world, and the migration of nations ; the\nseventh year, history in extended biography ; the eighth year, biographical history of\ngreat musicians, statesmen, inventors, etc.\n\n"}
{"page": 538, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT OF KINDERGARTEN\nEDUCATION\nSECRETARY'S\nFIRST\n\nMINUTES\n\nSESSION.— Wednesday,\n\nJuly 12, 1899\n\nThe department was called to order by the vice-president, Miss Florence Lawson, at\n2 : 30 p. M., in Ebell Hall.\n\nAfter expressions of regret at the absence of the president, Mrs. Kraus-Boeltd, Miss\nLawson delivered an address of welcome.\nThe response of the absent president was read by Mrs. A. W. Dresser, of Burlington,\nN. J., who had crossed the continent to bring Mrs. Kraus-Boelte's message.\nOn motion of Miss Anna Jenkins, of Los Angeles, the following message was sent to\nthe absent president :\nLos Angeles, Cal., July 12, 1899.\nMadame\n\nMaria\n\nKRAus-BoELTifi,\nHotel San Remo, New\n\nYork :\n\nHeartfelt regrets for our president's absence, and loving greetings from all.\nKindergarten Department of the National Educational\n\nAssociation.\n\nDr. Nicholas Murray Butler, of New York city, was introduced, and spoke on \"Some\nCriticisms of the Kindergarten.\"\nProfessor Thomas P. Bailey, of the University of California at Berkeley, was the\nnext speaker.\nHis theme was \"Character Study in the Kindergarten.\"\nMiss Mary F. Ledyard, of Los Angeles, was introduced. Her subject was \" Relation of Imitation to Originality and Consequent Freedom.\"\nDr. William N. Hailmann, of Dayton, O., who had been greeted with applause when\nhe appeared upon the platform, was invited to address the department.\nThe Committees on Nominations and Resolutions were announced.\nThe day was completed by a reception given b}- the resident kindergartners on the\ngrounds of Mrs; Neai, on South Flower street.\nSECOND\n\nSESSION.— Thursday, July 13\n\nThe Thursday afternoon session was opened by the singing of a lullaby and \" Genevieve\" byMiss Goodall, after which Dr. C. C. Van Liew, of Los Angeles, was introduced.\nHis topic was \" Mental and Moral Development of the Kindergarten Child.\"\nMiss Miller spoke briefly of the kindergartens of Chicago, after which Miss Anna\nStovall, of San Francisco, spoke on \"Music in the Kindergarten;\" Professor E. E.\nBrown, of Berkeley, Cal., on \" Naughty Children ; \" and Superintendent Frederic L. Burk,\nof Santa Barbara, Cal., on \"The Kindergarten Child Physically.\"\nThe report of the nominating committee — Miss Mary Miller, of Chicago ; Miss\nMary Murray, of Springfield, Mass., and Mrs. L. A. Truesdell, of Milwaukee — was read\nand adopted as follows :\nFor President — Madame Maria Kraus-Boelte, New York, N. Y.\nFor Vice-President — Miss Anna Stovall, San Francisco. Cal.\nFor Secretary— Miss Ella C. Elder, Buffalo, N. Y.\n\n"}
{"page": 539, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nADDRESS\n\nOF\n\nWELCOME\n\n531\n\nThe Committee on Resolutions reported as follows :\nResolved, That the Kindergarten Department\" of the National Educational Association extends heartfelt\nthanks to Miss Florence Lawson, acting president and chairman of the Local Committee, and to the members\nof the Local Committee, for the many services so faithfully and efficiently rendered to this department.\nResolved, That thanks are due to the press of Los Angeles for the excellent reports of the work of the\nsession and for notices of business meetings.\nResolved, That the thanks of the department be extended to the officers for their valuable services in\nplanning and carrying out satisfactorily an ideal program.\nResolved, That we gratefully acknowledge the kindness of the Ebell Club in granting us the use of\nEbell Hall for the meetings of the department.\nResolved, That thanks be extended to Mrs. Juana Neal for the hospitality of her home and grounds for\nour out-of-door reception.\nMrs. a. W. Dresser, New Jersey;\nMiss Anna Stovall, California;\nMiss Leila Terry, Wisconsin ;\nCommittee.\n\nThe annual session closed with the singing of \" God Be with You.\"\nMary F. Hall,\nSecretary.\n\nPAPERS\n\nAND\n\nADDRESS\n\nBY\n\nMISS\n\nFLORENCE\n\nDISCUSSIONS\nGF\n\nLAWSON,\n\nWELCOME\n\nLOS\n\nANGELES,\n\nCAL.\n\nAgain the National Educational Association comes to California,\nbridging the interval of eleven years with earnest effort and large achievement. Tho the association is for a second time in California, it is as\nremote from the former place of meeting as New York is from Charleston,\nS. C, and yet San Francisco and Los Angeles have a common bond in\ntheir kindergarten interests. Twenty years ago Miss Emma Marwedell, of\nGermany, came to Los Angeles from Washington, D. C, with letters from\nMiss Peabody. With the assistance of Mme. Severance, she established\nthe first kindergarten on the coast. Her first graduate pupil was Kate\nDouglass Wiggin, with whose work in San Francisco all are familiar.\nIt is interesting to note that the adoption of kindergartens as a part\nof the public-school system in many of the large cities has been due to\nthe efforts of a few earnest, thoughtful women, working together as an\nassociation and united by the tie of motherhood. Such is the history of\nthe kindergarten in Los Angeles. The first stirring to life along these\nlines was due to the untiring efforts of Madame Caroline Severance, Mrs.\nWidney, and others. The Kindergarten Association was established in\nLos Angeles in 1885, with several schools and a training class under its\ncharge. In the spring of 1889, thru the efforts of Mrs. Nora Mayhewand\nMr. Friesner, then superintendent of city schools, the private kindergarten of Miss Olga Dorn, Mrs. Mayhew's sister, became the first public\nkindergarten\nof Los Angeles.\nIn October, 1890, Mrs. Mayhew was\n\n"}
{"page": 540, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n532\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nappointed supervisor of the eight kindergartens incorporated into the\nschool system, with an enrollment of 422. The report of the past year\nshows the number of kindergartens to be thirty-nine, with an enrollment\nof 2,340 pupils and eighty-two teachers. Of the three large cities of the\nstate of California, Los Angeles is the only one having public kindergartens.\nThere has been some discussion as to the advisability of entirely\nremoving the kindergartens from the control of the association or private interests which founded it. In reply it is urged that by so doing\npolitical influence may be used in securing and retaining positions by\nincompetent kindergartners. If a certain standard of qualifications is\nestablished, and care is exercised by a reliable school board, such danger\nis reduced to a minimum, and the advantage of a firm financial foundation and of popular support over the sometimes uncertain interest and\naid of an association is a very great one ; but, as in every other question,\nthere are arguments on both sides.\nThere has been great advance along kindergarten lines within the last\nfew years. There had been a falling away from Froebel's simple spirit\nand life with the children, and an elaborate, and, in the main, unconscious, building up of schemes and plans full of detail and hindrances to\nchild-growth. Instead of the oft-quoted maxim, \"Come let us live with\nour children,\" it grew to be, \"Come let us live with our ideas of children\"— a vastly different proposition. But there has been a return of\nthe pendulum, and we are coming back to the spirit of Froebel rather\nthan to the letter.\nWith this return to nature and her teachings, what more ideal country\nthan California, than our own city, with its background of foothills and\nmountains, its abundance of trees, flowers, fruit, and its easy access to the\nsea ! True, we miss the changing foliage, the beauty and fun of the winter season, with its Jack Frost songs and stories ; but the children do not\nregret the absence of what they have never experienced. The question\nis often asked : \" What do you do with your program ? \" Well, if we\nhave lost some of the established order dear to many kindergarten\nhearts, still we have the children, and a great out-of-door life with expanse\nof country, air, and sun ; in other words, or one other word, climate.\nAnd now, in fulfillment of our earnest wish, you are here to share it\nwith us.\nWe have as a body been subject to much criticism, and at times\njustly so, but that in itself is a help rather than a hindrance. Only that\nwhich has real merit can survive and profit by criticism. This the kindergarten has done, and this it must still do.\nNot long since we were described by a prominent educator as a cult,\nand also as being occult in character. Surely that accusation can hardly\nbe brought against us now.\nIn April there was held in Chicago, under\n\n"}
{"page": 541, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPRESIDENT'S\n\nADDRESS\n\n533\n\nthe auspices of the Kindergarten College, one of the best educational\nmeetings on record, the school of psychology. The meaning of that was\nthat we do not intend to shun the light of research and pin our faith\nblindly to bygone creeds and dogmas, but do intend to work along the\nlines of advance suggested by psychologists and by the study of children.\nDoes not the very program so admirably prepared by our honored\npresident indicate this ? ' What does this mean ? It means that we are not\nresting in self-satisfaction and complacency, but that we are alive, and\nkeenly so, to the needs of childhood and to our own needs as kindergartners.\nWe are glad that you are here to inspire us to renewed effort. It\nmeans much to those of us this side of the mountains and desert to come\nin touch with you, to gain breadth of view, added insight, and a freshness\nof spirit as a consequence of this contact. *We have not the beautiful\narchitectural expression of a great nation's pride and public spirit to greet\nyou, as had Washington with her department buildings, her capitol, and\nher wonderful library ; we have not Lake Michigan, and the parks along\nthe shores, of the Cream City, Milwaukee; nor have we all the advantages\nof art, literature, and social life of the older cities in the East. But we\noffer you, in their stead, a background of the picturesque Spaniard ; the\nold missions and adobes; our rugged mountain scenery with trail and\ncamp ; our seacoast with its wealth of sea spoil and cooling waters ; our\nfruits, flowers; all the possessions of our city — nay, our state — are\nat your disposal. And all the heartiness of welcome which characterized\nthe California of '49 is extended to you today.\n\nPRESIDENTS\nBY MARIA\n\nKRAUS-BOELT^,\n[read\n\nADDRESS\n\nPRESIDENT\n\nOF THE\n\nDEPARTMENT\n\nby MRS. A. W. URESSER]\n\nWhen the honor of election as president of this section was conferred\nupon me, I anticipated the pleasure of being with you on this great\noccasion, and my thoughts and preparations during the past year have\nbeen constantly in this direction. The deep regret of being deprived of\nthis privilege I cannot sufficiently express ; for I desired to meet you in.\nperson, telling you of my experiences during nearly forty years in behalf\nof the kindergarten ; of the truths and spirit as imbibed directly from\nFroebel's widow ; from Dr. Wichard Lange (Froebel's so-called spiritual\nson); from Dr. Lang^'s wife, who was Froebel's ideal kindergartner\n(Middendorf's daughter); also from Madame Ronge, London, England\n(one of Froebel's inspired pupils); and from Professor John Kraus, my\n\n"}
{"page": 542, "printed_page": null, "text": "534\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nlate husband, a true disciple and follower of Pestalozzi and Froebel, and\none of the earliest pioneers of kindergarten methods in this country.\nIt was in 1872 that the kindergarten received its first public recognition in this country, and in 1873, at the meeting of the National Educational Association, the committee which had been appointed at the\nprevious meeting to examine into the practicability of the principles\nadvocated by Froebel reported in its favor. Professor John Kraus was a\nmember of the committee, and I was invited, by choice of the large\naudience, to explain the principles, as may be seen from the report of\nthat meeting.\nSince 1873 the kindergarten has received due attention at the meetings of the National Educational Association, and several times it has\nbeen my privilege to address the association on this subject, which is\nfundamental to all education.\nMy plea in behalf of the kindergarten has always been for growth\naccording to Froebelian ideas and methods, keeping to the unity and\ncompleteness of the educational means outlined by Froebel, yet continually adjusting those means to the new demands of the newer times.\nProgress and growth I have advocated at all times ; but according to\nlife-principles given us by Froebel. There is the exalted aim before us\nof leading the child to really feel himself to be the child of nature, of\nhumanity, and of God.\nAs the kindergarten influences directly the parents and the home, so\nalso the influence of the father and mother will go out to the kindergarten.\nThe disciples of Froebel and the promoters of the kindergarten will, however, fail to accomplish the design of the founder until provision is made\nfor the training of the mothers to the intelligent administration of\nmotherhood.\nAs the true kindergartner seeks to know what precedes and what follows\nher own work with the children, seeking also to know the inner life of\nthe child, she will receive gladly any light that can help her to a better\nunderstanding of child nature ; and this help is given by the able men\nand women who devote themselves specially to child study^\nThe most appealing feature of the kindergarten is the child, his faith in\nyou, his love and trust. When the soft little hand creeps into yours,\nwhen the innocent eyes are uplifted to yours, the heart seems to grow\nlarger, and the feeling of responsibility resting on you would become\nalniost overpowering were not love the tie, and \"good common-sense\"\nkeeping guard.\nChild nature, like a vine, must be pruned and trained, but the nature\nof the child must be understood by the educator as the nature of the vine\nis understood by the gardner, or else the pruning may do more harm\nthan good. When the educator understands life, truth, and nature, she\nwill proceed according to nature, and will study the divine in the child,\n\n"}
{"page": 543, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPRESIDENT'S\n\nADDRESS\n\n535\n\nthe nature of the child, assisting his development in a manner that will\nbe in unison with the ways of nature and of God.\nIn the kindergarten the essential thing is the child, his nature, his\ngrowth, his development, his education ; the effort of the child is considered of far greater importance than the result, which varies according to\nthe ability already developed in the child.\nThe aim of the kindergarten method of training intended for young\nchildren up to the completion of the seventh year, when school-teaching\nproper should begin, is to prepare for all subsequent education. We are\nbecoming aware how detrimental premature schooling is to the sound\ndevelopment of body and mind; how it destroys all freshness and all\npleasure of learning.\nChildren allowed to develop during the first seven years by means of\na gradual series of plays, exercises, occupations, instructive talks, and\nmoral influences are led to see correctly, to listen intelligently, to acquire\ncorrect notions, to be interested in everything that surrounds them.\nMuch of the success of the kindergarten is negative, and consists in\npreventing harm. Its positive success is so simple that it cannot be\nexpected to attract more notice than fresh air or pure water.\nThe first impressions of life are controlling for all subsequent periods.\nHarm may be prevented rather than cured ; and character can be formed\nrather than re-formed, by keeping the thoughts on a high plane. The\nlove for the beautiful, the love for truth, for nature, for our fellow-men,\nand for God are innate characteristics of the child, and, if not interfered\nwith, will remain forever, and can be effectually strengthened by intelligent and thoughtful direction.\nNature creates in lawful freedom. The child's relation to nature,\nman, and God is yet instinctive, and will be to him as a dawning idea.\nThese instinctive manifestations of natural impulses \"serving for the\ndevelopment of all creatures\" are assisted in the kindergarten by supplying, from the earliest period, external conditions favorable to healthy\ngrowth. The clear impressions received will later work into clear conceptions, byand by reproducing them in intelligent acts. The gifts and\noccupations of the kindergarten being based on this, the child learns that\nsuccess of the whole, the result of his endeavors, always depends upon the\nexact arrangement or combination of the parts. It cannot be expected\nthat the child should comprehend the abstract law of this ; he is as\nunconscious of this as is the flower or plant growing by the law asserted\nin its kind. All the knowledge which the child thus acquires is\nexperimental. Using this constantly, tho unconsciously, the fundamental law, by way of arrangement, classification, and combination,\nbecomes a \"life-element,\" laying a broad foundation for liberal culture.\nThe followers of Froebel who fully understand the master's idea will\nhelp to develop the same independently according to their individual\n\n"}
{"page": 544, "printed_page": null, "text": "536\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\ncharacteristics, understanding and following the spirit, the idea, and not\nthe word.\nEach effort of the will strengthens the individual, if directed in the\nright channels ; thus laws, together with freedom of choice, work benefits\nto the individual who strives to live within the former by the aid of the\nlatter. All good education should follow the plan of allowing freedom\nwith certain limitations.\nI send my greeting, good wishes, and congratulations to the devoted\nkindergartners assembled at this great meeting. Twenty-six years ago\nwe stood, so to speak, alone. Today it is entirely different. I will close\nmy message to the sisterhood of kindergartners by repeating what an old,\nwhite-haired educator said to me after the meeting of 1873 : \" God bless\nthe kindergarten!\"\n\nSOME\nBY\n\nNICHOLAS\n\nCRITICISMS\nMURRAY\n\nBUTLER,\n\nOF THE\n\nKINDERGARTEN\n\nCOLUMBIA\n\nUNIVERSITY,\n\n[STENOGRAPHICALLY\n\nNEW\n\nYORK\n\nCITY\n\nREPORTED]\n\nThere are two well-known and easily distinguishable forms of educational criticism. There is, first of all, that of the censorious critic, who\nseeks for weaknesses in points of detail, who lacks equally a sense of proportion and a sense of humor, and who overlooks the fact that in the\nworking out of great fundamental principles, not even the greatest of\nthem flows to its full application without some slowing of the current orsome eddy in the stream. Such is the criticism which tends to ridicule,\nto break down, to destroy, and it is wholly unworthy of attention in any\nform.\nThere is, on the other hand, a criticism which is sympathetic, which\nis appreciative, and which, with some insight into the aim and methods\nof an educational movement, points out ways and methods of strengthening and improving that movement with the declared purpose of building\nup a more enduring educational superstructure.\nHaving, as I have, so profound an admiration for the spirit, methods,\n^and aim of the kindergarten, and being so absolutely convinced, not only\nof its excellence as an educational factor in its own place, but of its\nvalue as an inspiration to all education, it would be quite impossible for\nme to meet this department in any spirit but that of a kindly and constructive criticism.\nYou are, of course, familiar with the statement, often made, that the\nphilosophies of Froebel and of Hegel, containing the deepest insights\nof the German philosophy of this century, are more popular in the\nUnited States than at home.\nThe inference is drawn that Germany has\n\n"}
{"page": 545, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSOME\n\nCRITICISMS\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nKINDERGARTEN\n\n537\n\noutgrown their inspiration and motive power ; and the inference is\nequally suggested to us that we are trading here upon second-hand\nmaterial. I do not believe that to be true. It is certainly true that the\nkindergarten is today upon a higher plane, is more efficient, more widespread, and more honored in America than in any other culture nation.\nI cannot interpret that fact to our discredit. It is equally true that the\ngreat seed-thought of Hegel — the evolution of the human spirit, reflecting the single principle, common alike to nature and to mind, which is\nrightly called divine — it is true that that seed-thought and that insight\ninto life are more highly esteemed, more studied, and more fully applied\ntoday by American scholars than by those of any other nation. I cannot\ninterpret that fact to our discredit. If Germany has seen fit to turn her\nface, in part at least, toward some gods which others can but consider\nfalse, and away from the wisest of her teachers, this will but fasten our\nhold the stronger on those truths of which we seem so sure.\nOne criticism which is made in a constructive spirit upon the work of\nthe kindergarten is that it often exalts the letter above the spirit ; that it\ntends to make static, definite, and permanent the forms of procedure,\nkinds of material, and methods of intellectual, moral, and social development, which are not ends in themselves, but rather rungs of a ladder by\nwhich the child-spirit climbs to a higher viewpoint from which outlook\non life becomes broader and richer. There is basis for that criticism.\nOne danger in which the kindergarten has stood lies in what may be\ncalled the worship of literal form as distinguished from exaltation of the\nspirit, which clothes itself in ever-varying forms. How has that come\nabout when the real spirit of Froebel, like the real spirit of Hegel, is so\nclearly and surely a principle of development ? There is only one\nanswer to that question. It is because in some parts of this country the\nkindergarten movement, appealing to the philanthropic instinct of men\nand women not highly trained to think, has furnished them with educational material which they have seemed to understand, and with which\nthey have too often been satisfied. In other words, the sure method of\nescape from that particular lowering of tone of kindergarten thought and\npractice lies in the one thing which the kindergartner most needs today\n— wider scholarship. It is too often supposed that because the kindergarten teacher is dealing with the very young child, an emptiness of\nmind, coupled with amiability of disposition, will suffice to direct the\nchild's spiritual development. A stupid person may perhaps direct education at that stage where some adequate consciousness of the subjectmatter is had by the scholar himself; but no wisdom is too great to deal\nwith the young child, who can approach his subject-matter thru symbols\nonly.\nWhat is needed most today in this work is a higher standard of\nexcellence in the training of kindergartners.\nI mean a broader general\n\n"}
{"page": 546, "printed_page": null, "text": "538\n\nNATIOTs.'AL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kind<frgarten\n\npreparation, a more widespread conviction as to the importance of thoro\npreparation. The resources of literature, science, art, and music must, so\nfar as is consistent and practicable, be drawn upon to the largest possible\nextent. It is all well enough to learn, partly by instruction and partly by\na period of apprenticeship, something of the mode of kindergarten procedure. But unless that procedure be inspired and illuminated by a\ngrasp upon general culture and modern scientific information, nothing\nbut a formal education will result.\nToo many low-standard kindergarten training classes are at the bottom of some of our faults. They have low standards of admission, low\nideals of training, and are too often satisfied with training in technique\nand form, trusting that time will repair the damage or experience remove\nit. That kindergarten teacher who is not constantly and continually a\nstudent, and a student along those great lines of human effort which I\nhave named, will sooner or later dry up her inspiration at its source.\nFirst of all she must have scholarship, not only in entering upon the work,\nbut afterward as well ; a constant and broader study, which is truly philosophic, because comparative, and because it puts itself under the guidance of the best teachers ; one which is also practical in the highest sense\nbecause it brings its resources to a focus every morning in the kindergarten room.\nAnother criticism which is sometimes made, and with which my\nobservation leads me to find myself in sympathy, is that the kindergarten\nis often attached in an external manner to an organic scheme or school\nsystem, and is not conceived as an integral part of one process of child\ndevelopment. It was easy for such a condition to come about, because\nthe kindergarten, in its -conception, represented ideas which were wholly\nstrange to the schoolmaster's mind. The kindergartners were, therefore,\nthrown back upon themselves, and incrusted themselves with a shell for\nprotection. It is now necessary for us to make sure that the shell does\nnot stiffen and harden, making growth impossible.\nIt is easy to mark off in large periods all development of the human\nmind. It is easy enough to mark off in large periods all growth of the\nhuman body. But t\\'ho ever saw the body or mind grow ? The subtle\nprocess goes on before our eyes, wholly unseen, unobserved. It does not\nobey any arithmetical law; it is not subject to precise measurement or to\nscientific observation. We gather up those things which we call marks of\nprogress, but we are unable to put our hand on the point where one\nstage passes into the other. Therefore the educational scheme which\ntries to base itself upon hard-and-fast periods is false to the vital principle\nof growth.\nIt is impossible to say how many years are necessary, in every case,\nfor kindergarten instruction. I am confident that in the cases of some\nchildren\n\nthe symbolic period may be passed in one-half the time that\n\n"}
{"page": 547, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSOME\n\nCRITICISMS\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nKINDERGARTEN\n\n539\n\nother children may take-, and we, believing in the principle of individuality and preaching it to others, must not fail to apply it to ourselves.\nThis means that the child must be released for the elementary school as\nsoon as he is ready for it, but no sooner, so far as we are able to observe\nand know.\nI am inclined to resist the contention that the kindergarten is a\ncourse of study. I have no objection to \"courses of study,\" in the sense\nin which the term is often used ; but I object very much to the theory\nthat the child who is able to take the third step must not be allowed to\ntake it because he has not taken the second. I believe the human mind\nin education should always be put at that task for which it is competent ;\nand it is \"pedagogical,\" not educational, to insist that every step be\ncovered, no matter at what expenditure of time, when the power to\nadvance more rapidly is present. Therefore, it is necessary for the kindergarten to beware of holding children back. We do not want the\nelementary school to hold back those who are ready for the high school ;\nwe do not want the high school to hold back those who are ready for\ncollege; or the college, those who are ready for the university. We\ncannot put the child of three to seven years of age in a strait-jacket and\nsay that there he must stay for a fixed time, regardless of his natural\nability or accomplishments.\nBecause the line of demarkation is so difficult to establish, it has\nbecome the duty of the kindergartner to acquaint herself in a general\nway (it is impossible to do it in detail) with the principles, methods, and\nideals of the elementary school. 'J'here must be the most absolute sympathy between the kindergarten and the grades above it ; and we are in\nthese days rightly calling upon teachers of the lower grades of the\nelementary school to master the spirit of the followers of Froebel. Sympathy comes from mutual understanding and knowledge. In this way\nthe kindergarten will become attached to the school, and no longer be a\nseparate and distinct part of the' educational scheme; it will take its\nnatural place as one of the various stages in the growth of one living and\norganic human mind.\nI know that there is a great demand that those who go into the kindergarten work shall know the principles of elementary-school teaching,\nand that elementary teachers shall go into the schools with a knowledge\nof the work and purposes of the kindergarten. This demand is made by\nthe best educational sentiment and opinion. It remains for kindergartners to do their share in satisfying that demand by studying the principles of elementary-school work and by occasionally supplying elementary\nteachers from their own ranks.\nIt is sometimes said that the kindergarten is at war with the home ;\nthat these children of tender years should be under their mothers' care ;\nthat it is unnatural for children of that age to be brought together\n\n"}
{"page": 548, "printed_page": null, "text": "540\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nLKindergarten\n\nin groups for instruction, however needful it may be. I hold the\ncontrary opinion. I think that of all forms of educational work, none\nhas been so successful, as yet, in reaching and uplifting the home,\nas the kindergarten ; and the kindergarten which does not have a\nmothers' class attached to it is not a kindergarten in the best sense of\nthe word.\nAgain, we sometimes hear it said that the kindergarten is an admirable\nthing for the children of the poor; that their children are neglected,\ndirty, unkempt, uncared for j that the children of the well-to-do need not\nbe found in the kindergarten. In the first place, I resent such a distinction as wholly undemocratic and uneducational. In the second place,\nlooking forward as I do to the next great educational problem of this\ncountry, which will be, not the education of the poor, but the education\nof the rich, I am forced to wonder how the children of the rich can afford\nto be without the advantages of the kindergarten. It is a serious thing\nwhen, in our social and economic efforts, a line of class distinction is\ndrawn. We have only to look at England to see how, with her high\nideals, great opportunities, and large expenditures for education, the\npeople find themselves hampered at every turn in striving to effect\nreforms, by social and economic distinctions. We must not allow these\nto enter into our educational work.\nOne more point is important because in that particular the kindergarten is widely misunderstood. You hear the criticism from the elementary-school teacher, made with the best of intentions, but from what\nI hold to be a wrong point of view, that the kindergarten is disorderly,\nthat it has not the discipline and the definiteness of routine of the elementary school. The kindergarten is, therefore, held to be a disintegrating influence in the development of the child, and to increase the\ntask of discipline later on. My reply to this criticism is that it arises\nfrom what seems to me to be a wholly false conception of discipline or\norder. Suppose an observer passing' over this busy city in a balloon\nwere able to look down upon its crowded streets, on which men and\nwomen are passing and repassing in every direction, each going to his\nappointed task without interfering with his fellow; would such a scene be\none of disorder, because the human beings within the observer's field of\nvision were not massed in phalanx and controlled in a mass by a military\ndrill-master ? I think not. The scene would be one of a very high type\nof order indeed, one much higher, in fact, than the order of a marching\nregiment. Order is not an external form, but an inner habit — the habit\nof going in a purposeful way, with regard to the purposes and rights of\nothers, about some definite thing, even tho the lines cross and recross.\nTo substitute for this high type of order a single, definite form is to\nsubstitute the order which is death for the order which is life; and my\nresponse to such criticism is that I should prefer to see more of the\n\n"}
{"page": 549, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCHARACTER\n\nSTUDY\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nKINDERGARTEN\n\n541\n\nkindergarten order in the lower grades of the elementary school and less\nof the elementary-school order in the kindergarten.\nLet me say in conclusion that it is a striking fact, and one of the most\nhopeful signs to be found today in all education, that the two extremes\nof the educational process, the kindergarten and the university, are the\ntwo greatest conservators of individualism ; and it is only as the individual\nis being rescued from the routine of the intervening school periods that\nthese periods are rising to perfection and efficiency. The great hope of\nour school system lies in the fact that the spirit of individualism is working down from the university and up from the kindergarten, and that\nsome day the two lines of development will meet and will hold the whole\neducational process within their spheres of influence.\n\nCHARACTER\nBY\n\nPROFESSOR\n\nTHOMAS\n\nSTUDY\nP.\n\nIN THE\n\nBAILEY,\n\nJR.,\n\nKINDERGARTEN\nUNIVERSITY\n\nOF\n\nCALIFORNIA\n\nNow that child study is no longer new and strange and \"epochmaking,\" but rather an ordinary and inevitable part of all educational\nwork, we ought to begin to see some of its results in our school practice,\nand particularly in the kindergarten, which has always claimed to be based\nupon the results of an intimate knowledge of child nature. The somewhat hysterical claim that^we have totally misunderstood the child in the\npast is being softened into the admission that men have always understood children just about as well as they have understood adults. Child\nnature is no longer regarded as something essentially different from what\nthoughtful people thought it to be. We are beginning to realize that\nour knowledge of the children is very largely dependent on our study of\nourselves. Socrates was a student of children, and Dr. G. Stanley Hall\nis most delightful when he is most Socratic. Jesus told us once for all\nthat the childlike is the heavenly. Pestalozzi and Froebel found a divine\nlaw of development in the child, and Herbart saw in him the drama of\nthe history of culture. Child study is good because it is both old and\nnew, scientific and philosophical, particular aud universal. The present\nstatus of child study is in large measure a triumph of the kindergarten, for\nits sanest theory and practice have always taken child nature into account,\neven when its theory was vague and its practice merely traditional. I confess to some sympathy with those kindergartners who resent being told\nthat the kindergarten is a good thing, but that its methods must be entirely\nrevolutionized and reformed in accordance with the results of child study.\nVery often it has happened that trivial criticisms have taken the place of\ncareful inquiry and catholic sympathy.\nKindergartners are themselves\n\n"}
{"page": 550, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n542\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nin part responsible for such treatment. They too often oppose sentimental vaporings to pseudo-scientific vagaries. Moreover, \\.\\\\ff sometimes give the impression of a quarrel between rival patent-medic.ine\nvendors or spiritualistic mediums — at least of those \"mediums\" not\nbelieved in by eminent psychologists and kindergartners. \" Envy, hatred,\nand malice, and all uncharitableness,\" ought to be far from the mental\nattitude of the disciples of Froebel. All such expressions as \"behind the\ntimes,\" \"doesn't understand the real Froebel,\" \"not properly trained,\"\netc., are not apt to advance the cause of the kindergarten, especially when\nit is a well-known fact that there is no way of deciding who is right in\nthese contentions. In this paper I want it understood that I am not\ncriticising any particular kindergartens ; nor am I standing sponsor for\nanyone's theory or practice. While I have been so fortunate as to be\nable to work with a kindergartner so level-headed and intelligent as Mrs.\nFrances Bracken Gould, we are not to be held responsible for each other's\nsins of omission or commission in kindergarten matters. I shall use\ndata from her kindergarten, because I know most about it and can vouch\nfor the facts I have collected.\nAt least three kinds of mental attitude, based upon three theories, are\nto be found among those kindergarten theorists and practitioners whom\nI have met. It is perfectly permissible for anyone interested to claim\nthat I have not met the true exponents of the true kindergarten. But if\nI am allowed to classify my no doubt sadly inadequate lyiowledge on the\nsubject, I should name the aforementioned kinds of attitude the angelic,\nthe neuromuscular, and the recapitulatory. These are not intended as\nnicknames, but as terms descriptive of theories or hypotheses. Let us\nbriefly review each.\nI. The angelic theory. — The child is regarded as a dreamer about\ninfinity and eternity. It comes perfect from the hands of the Creator\nand is corrupted only in the hands of man. Wonderful spiritual insight\nhas this child, and it is thereby enabled to divine the inner significance\nof things mundane with the aid of the prophetic and priestly guidance of\nthe kindergartner. There is great truth in this view, when it is divested\nof sentimentalism and some other isms ; but I cannot see that any progress in understanding child nature is likely to come from people who\nknow so very much about the ultimate realities that philosophers have\nsuch a hard time trying to understand. The \"angelic\" class always\nexpresses scornful sympathy for persons like myself who do not enter into\nthe fullness of the divinity that doth hedge about a child. I have a pious\nfaith that the children's angels do always behold the face of the Father,\nbut I am not so sure about the children themselves — at least in the\nrough. Nor am I so sure that the kindergarten angelicizing process\nimproves the raw material very much. Perhaps I lack the right kind of\nimagination, or perhaps my tastes in such matters are unrefined.\nIt does\n\n"}
{"page": 551, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nCHARACTER\n\nSTUDY\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nKINDERGARTEN\n\n543\n\nseem a pity to try to eliminate the natural egoism of childhood too soon.\nOne misses the gamy flavor of the wild animal. The angelic child is\ntame. It is like some rejected manuscripts in being \" meritorious, but\nnot available for our purposes.\"\n2. The neuromuscular theory. — The child, according to this theory, is\na bundle of reflex arcs, waiting to be joined together into more complex\nreflex arcs. Properly graded stimuli will do the work. If the \" fundamental\" comes before the \"accessory,\" all will be well. Childish eccentricities are due to ancestral experience. As we know very definitely what\nthat was, we are able to educate the children very definitely on account\nof this knowledge. This theory is a full and sufficient antidote for the\nangelic theory. That is one of its chief uses. Persons holding to it need,\nhowever, a good dose of that for which their own theory is an antidote.\nIt is possible to hold to both theories. It is easy to form \"higher syntheses\" in kindergarten theories.\n3. The recapitulation theory. — The child is supposed to recapitulate\nthe history of the racial development. The instincts of the race appear\nin a more or less generalized form in the development of the individual.\nIn this theory the culture-epoch idea has taken on a biological form. It\nis often forgotten that recapitulation is only one of many factors in development, and that the civilized child is to be compared, not with the adult\nsavage, but rather with the savage child. The adult savage is childish\nrather than childlike. He is often degenerate, and at best his life is onesided rather than typically human. One of our main efforts ought to be\nto save the child from recapitulating too much of the race's history. The\neternal childlike is not to be found in past or present savagery. Before\nthis view can be of much use to the kindergarten it must undergo much\ncriticism and much restatement in the light of a more comprehensive\nstudy of the manifold phases of character life. Such study is now being\ncarried on in several quarters.\nThe above classification of views is not intended to be exhaustive.\nThe various ideas are not necessarily mutually exclusive. The theories\nare not adequately stated. I am perfectly willing, however, to have anyone so disposed prove the futility of such classifications, and to see in\nthem nothing but an attack of persons differing from me in methods and\nresults. Perl^aps I can best show the relation of my own thought to the\nabove-mentioned attitudes by pointing out their mutual complementariness, rather than by attempting to unite them in a higher synthesis.\nEveryone is supposed to be able to state the object of education in\nseveral different ways. Let me exercise my privilege by using a few pet\nphrases. The object of education is to train for habitude, nurture for\ngeneric instinct, and develop for individual aptitude. The neuromuscular\ntheory lays emphasis on the training of habits. We must put the principal of our experience at interest.\nHabit (including custom and law) is\n\n"}
{"page": 552, "printed_page": null, "text": "544\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\na capitalization of life-process. The nurture of instinct is the principal\ninterest of the recapitulation theory. We must be sensitive to the stimuli\nthat make for survival. The catholic traits of the race furnish us with\nthe resistant stock on which to graft the tender shoots of a higher life.'\nThe angelic theory is fond of reminding us of the child's right to have\nits talents developed, its \"spontaneity\" respected. Spontaneous variations are mysterious. No wonder the angelicals regard them with reverence. So, you see, I am not so wicked, after all, but find a place for all\nthese views in the very object of education. I think all of them need\nreforming. My own views are all the time being revised. This is the\nfate of all uninspired things.\nEven Bible versions have, to be revised.\nLet us briefly review the work of the kindergarten in forming habits.\nI am afraid that some kindergartners do not realize the vast importance\nof habit as a preparation for the exercise of spontaneity. By habit or\nhabitude I do not mean muscle-tricks only, but the great characterrhythms that keep the child's life orderly and make for faculty. The\nthree great habitudes I want to mention are : the self-assertive, the sympathetic, and the psychical. These belong together and ought to be\norganically related in the kindergarten training. Self-assertion is perhaps normally most prominent at this age, but ought to be limited and\ncontrolled by sympathy and mental alertness. Psychical instincts, such\nas curiosity, love of sensation, etc., sporadic sympathy, self-assertion, and\npsychicality, are not enough. They must become structural. I hope to\nillustrate these statements later.\nThe most generic instincts or adaptive tendencies of this period seem\nto be the appropriative, the gregarious, and the playful. These ought to\nbecome well- nurtured, so that they may respond to the industrial and\nsocial and personal environments. I need say little to kindergartners\nabout the importance of play. But play is both creative and recreative.\nThe creative is predominantly individual and appropriative, while the\nrecreative is largely social and gregarious. Individual industry and the\nbeginnings of the property sense ought to go along with the sense of\nsocial solidarity and responsibility that can be given and nurtured best by\nthe play that is primarily gregarious. The beginnings of the life of\nindustrial civilization, of organized society, of personal culture, ought to\nbe vitally connected with one another, and with the life of habitude and\ntalent. If the instincts furnish the food or content element of education,\nthe habitudes give the regular labor that gets the food and gives an appetite. Form and content, habit and instinct, are only phases of a total concrete-generic life.\nSpontaneity,\nsomewhat\nirresponsible\nand frequently\nirrational, is\nthe unknown quantity and quality in the child's character\nequation.\nHence it is the most talked about and the least respected in practice.\n\n■\n\nSpontaneity without habit-training and instinct-nurture is caprice and\n\n*\n\n"}
{"page": 553, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCHARACTER\n\nSTUDY\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nKINDERGARTEN\n\n545\n\nlawlessness.\nEvery child has the right to put its best foot foremost, but\nonly on the condition that there is rhythmical walking to some purpose.\nI cannot hope that what I have said will be very intelligible without\ncopious illustration, but must content myself with devoting the rest of\nthis paper to a few typical cases which I can vouch for. They are taken\nlargely from Mrs. Gould's notes, and are expressed, as far as possible,\nin her rather picturesque language. They were not written for publication, but Mrs. Gould will pardon this use of unpremeditated character\nsketches.\nCase I. — A., a girl, four and one-half years old, strong, well-kept, well-nurtured, neat,\nbright, very self-assertive, ruled an older tho weaker sister with a rod of iron ; worked\nvery capably at a /ew things that struck her fancy; would then sit back in her chair, cast\ndown her eyes, and sulk ; her face would redden, she would not talk, refused to play or\nmingle with the other children ; never smiled spontaneously.\nIn her own mind the teacher never slackened for a moment in the idea that A.'s\nextreme self-assertion must be drafted off methodically into sympathy and psychicality.\nIn the first place she had to work, and work to the best of her ability, every minute of the\nrequired period. Gradually sulks, watery eyes, and red face disappeared during the\nwork period. She took pride in her work, and the psychical instinct functioned normally,\nand drew off some of the excessive self-assertion. Again, she was required to mingle\nwith the children, exercise and play in all the class exercises, and was called in many\ntimes to help more backward children.\nAt the end of the school year A. was one of the most capable workers at the table.\nShe attended strictly to business, bringing forth most creditable workmanlike results in\nless than the required time, so that she was able to choose her own occupation for a portion of the short work time.\nSo well had the psychical habit developed itself.\nOn the other hand, she had developed into the most noticeably sympathetic child in\nthe room. No Ifttle stranger came now into the class but that A. had his hand in hers,\ninitiating him into the various school mysteries. On the playground at recess she would\nbe especially careful and thoughtful of the newcomer. Among the other children she\nbecame the gayest of the gay, playful as a kitten, yet always self-contained and her sweet\nlittle individual self.\nCase 2. — B., a big, flabby, very dirty, six-year-old boy; as to clothes, decidedly ragbaggy ; a very old face ; singularly rapid speech ; tongue flies up and down rapidly in\nhis mouth when he talks. It is really funny to watch him. He is decidedly sympathetic\nin his habits; so friendly, so social, kind, pleasant, never ruffled; doesn't care whether\n\"school keeps \"or not; \"Everything is all right anyway.\" If by chance he happens\nto be struck, when out in the yard, he is never in the least angry. He may weep a\nwatery tear or two, but that is all. To put some starch into B.'s backbone, to try to establish psychical and self-assertive reaction, has been a herculean task. After five months\nI found that if I cut him entirely loose from his habitual sympathetic reaction, one time\nout of three he surprised me with his all-round capability. His spine has really\ngathered enough starch, so that he can do his work well in the appointed time, and with\nan absorbing attention. He has a little bit of established psychical brain structure.\nThe appropriative instinct is setting up action, and B. is so pleased with the feeling he\ngets from successful effort that his dull, flabby face is quite irradiated.\nThis boy's case is peculiarly discouraging, because he is so pathblogical. The\nfather is brutal and domineering, while the mother, tho of a better class, is completely\ncrushed.\nThe boy has bread and wine for both breakfast and lunch.\nCase 3, — C, a beautiful little girl of five, a charming little fairy; the only child of\nwell to-do, cultivated parents; carefully reared, indeed entirely too tenderly.\nShe is a\n\n"}
{"page": 554, "printed_page": null, "text": "546\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nbright child, but too dainty and finicky. She is stocky; but the romping quality is wanting. She whines at times ; is self-assertive, with psychical and sympathetic instincts\nfairly well-developed. She could stand on her own individuality sufficientl}' ; worked well,\nand attended to her own business in a workmanlike way when necessary, and was also sweet\nand sympathetic to me and to the individual children. But to be lost sight of in the\nlump of children almost killed C. When it came to playing in a common herd, a social\naggregate, C.'s gregarious instinct was not in good working order. Her face would\ncloud at once and work convulsively. Then would come a burst of passionate weeping.\nNo attention would be paid to her until finally she would run to the teacher, bury her\nhead in the teacher's lap, and cry out : \" I can't have the children play that. I want\nthem to play something else.\" The teacher would answer calmly : \"C, the children are\ngoing to play what they want to, and you must play with them nicely.\" \" O, I can't, I\ncan't ! I don't want them to play all together.\" \" C, you must ;\" and the teacher would\nhold her close while the storm raged, and sob followed spb. After the worst was over\nthe teacher would say: \"Now, C.,when you can stop crying and make up your mind to\ngo back to the children, and play what they play, and do what they do, you may dry\nyour eyes and look at them.\" Gradually she could look up with a faint little smile. She\nwas given some efficacious cold-water medicine in the form of a drink and a face bath,\nand she was all right. By and by she could look at the teacher with a sunny smile and\nsay : \" Now I want the children to do as they wish.\" She had had a lesson in democracy.\nAfter a while C. was far less nervous and fussy, and had no more storms.\n\nDISCUSSION\n\nWilliam N. Hailmann, superintendent of schools, Dayton, O. — It is to me an\ninspiration to witness the marvelous success of your department and of the educational\nmovement it represents. I remember the days of its inception : the National Educational\nAssoeialion meeting of 1872 at Boston, when I had the privilege of reading the first paper\non the kindergarten presented before the organization ; my struggles as editor of the\nKindergarten Messenger; my efforts to secure the establishment of the Kindergarten\nDepartment of the National Educational Association ; my ultimate success at Madison ;\nthe subsequent rapid development and growth of the department. You can appreciate\nthe joy that fills my heart when I see you now the hosts of the best, who always feel\nhonored to become your guests.\nThe words spoken here today are fraught with encouragement and hope, with high\nappreciation of your work, and with bright prophecies of the growing influence of Froebel's\ngospel of life in the work of school and college.\nI am ready to receive with grateful \" Amen \" almost every word that has been\nspoken here this afternoon. Yet I cannot refrain from uttering a word of warning or\ncaution with reference to a single point. Dr. Butler, in his excellent address, emphasized\nthe importance of scholarship to the kindergartner. In this, of course, we can all agree\nwith him. The more the kindergartner knows and the better she knows, the more effective— other things being equal — she will be in her work. I cannot, however, agree\nwith his proposition that scholarship is the first requisite of successful work. On the contary, I can foresee from such a position only pernicious results for the development of the\nkindergarten.\nThe first requisite of successful work on the part of the kindergartner lies not in the\nhead, but in the heart. Knowledge and skill are, indeed, indispensable to her ; yet these\nare secondary to the purpose that fills her heart.\n\n"}
{"page": 555, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nRELATION\n\nOF\n\nIMITATION\n\nTO\n\nORIGINALITY\n\n547\n\nI do not say this to deprecate scholarship, but simply to assign to it its true place\nin the order of requisites. I am aware of the fact that without knowledge the heart\noften goes astray or wastes energy. But I am also aware of the fact that the heart, the\ntrue loving heart of a Pestalozzi or a Froebel, the marvelous heart of the mother, will seek\nand gain whatever knowledge or skill is to them indispensable. I am aware of the fact\nthat, while knowledge and skill may remain forever heartless, the heart that is filled with\nlove will steadily grow in the knowledge and skill that are needed for the achievement\nof its purpose.\nIn themselves knowledge and skill are vain, the children of a day ; but purpose,\nattitude, is the first-born of the eternal will ; if need be, it will conquer knowledge and\ncreate skill, in order to gratify the yearnings of the soul.\nTo the heart, then, to attitude, to the \"amiability\" which Dr. Butler would degrade\nin the interest of scholarship, belongs the first place among the requisites for successful\nwork on the part of the kindergartner.\nI am glad to have an opportunity to make this protest against a pernicious tendency\nthat runs thru all the educational work. Everywhere we find this inordinate, godless\nworship of scholarship. It would preserve in our elementary schools the fads of spelling\nand grammar, of courses of study and text-books, of recitation and competition in scholarship as the highest goal. It would begin the high school with the seventh grade. It would\nclose admission to the divine calling of teaching to all but college men. In short, it\nwould bow in worship to the golden calf of ephemeral, perishable learning, and deny\nthe living God of loving efficiency.\nWhat we called knowledge yesterday is ignorance today ; what we name knowledge\ntoday will be ignorance tomorj-ow. Shall we worship this uncertain, changing thing, or\ntrust ourselves to love which never dies, which is ever at its best, and which will lead us\nnearer and nearer to the truth that makes us free ?\n\nRELATION\n\nBY\n\nMARY\n\nOF IMITATION\nCONSEQUENT\n\nF. LEDYARD,\n\nSUPERVISOR\n\nOF\n\nTO ORIGINALITY\nFREEDOM\n\nKINDERGARTENS,\n\nAND\n\nLOS ANGELES,\n\nCAL.\n\nThis nineteenth century has been plainly the era of the question. No\nman today accepts a fact simply because someone else believes it to be\ntrue, or because there is a tradition to such an effect. Each thinking\nmind wishes to investigate, to reason and conclude for itself. And it is\nfortunate for the world that the star chamber and the Inquisition are\npast ; else there would be plenty of occupation for the rack, the fagot, and\nthe thumb-screw. And this is a hopeful sign, surely, for it shows that\nman has come into a freer atmosphere and a wider view.\nIn taking up the question of the relation of imitation to originality\nand consequent freedom, let us first clearly understand what is meant by\nthe terms we use. What is imitation, what is originality, what the consequent freedom ? \" Imitation,\" says Compayre, \" is the reproduction of\nwhat one has seen another do ; it is, therefore, an act of assimilation.\"\nOriginality marks the point where \" external authority has become inward\n\n"}
{"page": 556, "printed_page": null, "text": "548\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nfreedom,\" where the principle and method underlying an action are made\nclear, and the self-active being is emancipated, in so far as he has been\nable to fully assimilate, recreate, and recombine. The kind of freedom\nconsequent upon this may be defined as \"freedom under the law\" — a\nfreedom which is the freest thing in the world, for it is the result of the\nmost perfectly disciplined, balanced, and controlled powers. This freedom\nis the perfected fruit growing upon the stalk of imitation and coming\nfrom the flower of originality.\nNow let us look at the subject of imitation a little more closely ; let\nus see what effect it has upon the problems we must meet as educators.\nWe have not time to go deeply into the phenomena of the imitative\ninstinct in young children. Of course, the order of development is first\nthru spontaneous activity of the muscles, then thru the exercise of the\nsense-perceptions, and lastly thru the intellect.\" But, as someone says,\n\" the river of childhood does, indeed, run by our doors, but the springs\nthat feed it are mostly beyond our horizon ; we cannot begin at its sources\nbecause we do not know them yet. They are precisely what we are trying\nto discover, and our only way is to note in which way the current flows,\nand then follow it up as best we can.\"\nBasing our argument upon the hypothesis, so generally accepted, that\ncivilization is little more than a series of imitations, we are first of all\nreminded that the instinctive imitation of the child is something for the\nschools to take note of and give serious thought to. Imitate he will.\nAnd what shall he imitate? Here, on the one hand, is barbarism ; up\nthere is the highest pinnacle of civilization yet reached. Now, anywhere\nbetween the two the child may strike out. He has a great power of imitation, and he may imitate laziness, cruelty, lying, and stealing ; he is just\nas likely to imitate these as something good ; he has power to imitate in\nall these directions. What we must do is to conserve these powers of the\nchild to his best good; recognize this instinctive faculty as a very strong\nfactor in his growth and educate it.\nAt first the young child has very little idea of the method and purpose\nof his actions ; in fact, there is very little purpose in them. He yearns\nto express himself ; he longs to do what he sees others doing ; and,\nusually, he will scrupulously imitate details and often lose sight of the\nchief idea of a thing. Here is a warning to teachers : nothing is insignificant, nothing unimportant ; everything placed before the child must\nbe just as fine as it can be made, so that whatever handle he may take\nhold of, from whatever angle he may approach it, good will result, his\nsoul-growth will be fostered. \" We must not lose sight of the essential\nfact,\" says Dr. William T. Harris, \" that shows itself even in the most\nrudimentary of the phenomena of imitation. There can be no imitation whatever except on the part of self-active beings ; \" in other words,\n\" only souls can imitate.\"\n\" There is an element of originality in the most\n\n"}
{"page": 557, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nRELATION\n\nOF IMITATION\n\nTO ORIGINALITY\n\n549\n\nmechanical phase of imitation.\" He goes on to say : \"The self is active\nand assimilative. It sees an external deed which it proceeds to make its\nown through imitation.\" How conspicuous a feature this is thruout the\ninstinctive plays of childhood ! He lays hold of that which is beyond\nhim thru imitating the dress, manners, and habits of his elders — he plays\nat being a man. And what does this mean ? It is simply an expression\nof the yearning of the soul of the child to reach out and grasp and\nassimilate something beyond and outside of himself — to take on the\nsymbol, at least, of power and freedom. The feeble-minded do not\nevince this desire, and so long as we check it in the normal child, or do not\ngive it an opportunity for free expression, we are checking a God-given,\nsoul-elevating instinct which should be utilized. On the other hand, this\nnatural self-exaltation may play a very damaging part in the case of an\nextremely precocious child ; but such instances must be rare. As the\nchild seeks to reproduce that which he sees going on about him, he naturally falls into the dramatic representation,\n\" Filling from time to time his humorous stage\nWith all the persons, down to palsied age,\nThat Life brings with her in her equipage.\"\n\n\"Thus in imitative play,\" E. H. Russell says, \"the child epitomizes and\nrehearses the fundamental experiences of the race ; at the same time as he\nis sounding the shoals and depths of his own nascent powers, and thereby\npreparing day by day to take part in the real work of life which the\ncoming years will bring.\" Play is thus seen to be at once reminiscent\nand anticipatory — a welding of the future to the past.\nThus we find this God-given imitative power expressed chiefly at first\nthru play, \" for play is child's most earnest work,\" eventually forming\nthe most important element in his development ; and any educational\nscheme which disregards it falls far short of success. If wisely guided,\nthis instinct of imitation will draw to the surface all the most delicate\ntendrils of the child's spiritual nature and so strengthen, by entwining\nthemselves about the foundation of character and mind structure, that no\npower or upheaval in future years can tear them away.\nFroebel, realizing this, seized upon the great principle of creative\nactivity. He recognized and educated the imitative faculty to a point\nwhere new combinations were possible, and where the impulse to discover\nand reconstruct meets the purely imitative impulse, and then leads on to\nwhat the child may feel to be discovery, tho it may only be the product of\na duel between two imitations. James Mark Baldwin says: \"The growth\nof self is seen in the growth of the child's demand that his results shall\nshow constantly more independence of the external copy.\"\nIf our kindergarten system, of which we boast so much, and from\nwhich we expect so much, is worth anything, it is going to bring about a\nmore clear-sighted analysis and understanding of the very young child;\n\n"}
{"page": 558, "printed_page": null, "text": "55°\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nit is going to put into the hearts and hands of the teachers of children the\ntools by which they may carve out, not a new heaven and a new earth, perhaps, but means by which this earth may be made more heavenly, methods\nby which the natural powers and instincts of the child may be more fully\nunderstood and utilized, and the controlling, creating, originating powers\nbrought to light thru natural means.\nBut we must be on our guard. Originality and creative power are\ngood, but they have their limitations also. There may be an originality\nwhich makes for the well-being of neither the race nor the individual. As\nwe have seen, the child is just as apt to strike out at one point as at\nanother in his struggle for freedom ; and, knowing nothing now about\nfreedom under the law, he is as apt to destroy himself or another thru\nunguided, misdirected effort as to do anything else.\nLet us do away with false sentimentality in our manner of looking at\nthe child, and strive in all earnestness to meet his real needs in a real,\npractical way, and so direct these energies that they may not be lost —\nindeed, that not a precious moment of this most important formative\nperiod may go to waste. I believe the study of just this period of the\nchild's life holds the richest store of treasure for the honest investigator\nthat can be found anywhere, and I also believe that the half has never yet\nbeen told. How does the history of the race bear us out in this ?\nModern civilization is but an imitation of the civilizations of Greece\" and\nRome in variously modified forms. We are but a product of all that has\ngone before, combined and recombined. By the winnowing of years,\nsome beliefs or customs are dropped out ; others rise to take their place.\nGiddings says :\nOur complex life is a struggle for existence among imitations. For example, certain patterns and colors of clothing, certain methods of building, and certain forms of\nspeech, particular amusements, beliefs, etc., show an astonishing power to fascinate.\nThey spread and persist, while other forms are quickly forgotten. This results in a\ngeneral blending of diverse elements, and in common modes of thought, common standards of living.\n\nImitation, while it softens old conflicts, creates new ones, and a duel\nof imitations occurs in which one or the other is overcome and an invention results, in nature or essence unlike either, possibly, but still the\nproduct of the struggle between the two imitations. Spencer's theory\nthat \"the discoverer's ability is the product of past circumstances\" does\nnot conflict with Mallock's idea that \"man inherits the past only so far\nas he can assimilate it,\" and so the inventions and achievements of the\npast are the property of those who can use them and conserve them to\nthe advancement of their fellow-men.\nThis principle is not confined in its limit to brain power alone. The\nmost wonderful intellect, the most brilliant imagination, may lack the skill\nof hand to execute, tho able to catch the exquisite new combination, or\nthe transcendentally beautiful thought.\nHe needs the skilled hand to\n\n"}
{"page": 559, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMENTAL\n\nAND\n\nMORAL\n\nDEVELOPMENT\n\nOF CHILD\n\n551\n\napply the invention or creation to man's needs. This is notably illustrated in the case of the wizard Edison. Tho the principles of applied\nelectricity are his, he would be powerless without the skilled fingers of\nhis workmen to make permanent the thought.\nMacAlister says :\nThe hand is the most wondrous instrument in the world, it is the necessary complement of the mind in dealing with matter in varied forms. It is the hand that rounded\nSt. Paul's dome ; it is the hand that carved those statues in marble and bronze, that\npainted those pictures in palace and church, which we travel into distant lands to admire ;\nit is the hand that builds the ships which sail the sea laden with the commerce of the\nworld ; it is the hand that constructs machinery which moves the busy industries of this\nage of electricity and steam — ^it is the hand that enables the mind to realize in a thousand ways its highest imaginings, its profoundest reasonings, and its most practical inventions.\n\nRebecca Harding Davis pertinently asks : \" When will Americans see\nthat there is no blessing like the education which we can use ; but that\nthe education which we cannot use is a curse?\" They are just beginning to see it, and a few years hence thC' entire system of public education in this country will be revolutionized.\nThe truest benefactors of the race have been those who could not\nonly bring forth a new idea, but could so conserve it to the economical\nneeds of man as to place him upon a higher plane of living, thru its\nintroduction. That, to my mind, is the freedom that the great man buys\nfor us by expending brain and vital thought. And why are such men so\nrare? Is it true, as some claim, that the entire race is living upon a\nhigher plane than formerly, and so the few great of earth are not apt to\ntower so conspicuously? If so, good ! Spencer divides the race into the\n\"clever, the ordinary, and the stupid.\" Of course, the progress of the\nrace toward freedom depended, and still depends, upon the clever ; and\nhe further assures us that they are the \"scattered few.\"\nThose that have, thru imitation, caught the spirit and achievements of\nthe past, assimilated them to such a degree that 'they have made them a\npart of their very being, and building thereon have produced a new\nadjustment, combination, or product, have thus opened a new door, and\nlet in new light upon the world.\nSuch are freed men.\n\nMENTAL\n\nAND\nMORAL DEVELOPMENT\nKLNDERGARTEN CHLLD\n\nBY C. C. VAN\n\nLIEW, STATE\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nLOS\n\nOF THE\n\nANGELES,\n\nCAL.\n\nAs the conscious efforts of education have descended more and more\nto the earliest years of childhood, they have often carried with them an\nattempt to modify the child to a precocious fitness to his environment.\nThe adult educator has usually had well in view only the end of his work\n\n"}
{"page": 560, "printed_page": null, "text": "552\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nas determined by adult society — not the conditions which the laws of\ngrowth impose upon him. Hence we often come to a consciousness of\nattempting some things in vain. With all our refinement of methods,\nfurthermore, and with all our enrichment of the curriculum, we find it\ndifficult to point out just wherein the product of hothouse culture possesses power essentially superior to that of the individual who has enjoyed\na larger measure of wild, free, instinctive growth, and only a limited\namount of arbitrary modification.\nBut our experiences here have been very valuable, for they have taught\nus in an indefinite sort of way that somewhere, somehow, education is\nstrictly limited. Finally we have begun to turn our eyes more seriously\ntoward the main source of these conditions and limitations, the child.\nThe kindergarten has not been wholly free from attempts at precocious\nmodification, altho the philosophy of its founder has always brought his\nfollowers close to child nature. I suspect that the difficulty, in so far as\none exists, depends upon the* conception which I have already noted\nabove as common to all primary education. We try to construct a bridge\nfrom the individual child to adult society, and to make it as short as possible. But, in the light of modern biology and child study, we must\nadmit that this bridge cannot be shortened. In fact, nature seems to\nhave taken pains in the human individual to lengthen it. With us\ninfancy, childhood, and youth occupy about one-third of life. They\nmean not only a long period of openness to impressions, of receptivity ;\nbut also one which is genetic, subject to laws of unfolding and succession.\nHowever roughly and imperfectly we conceive it at present, there is an\norder of development, each step of which is conditioned by its predecessor, and conditions its successor. In dealing with these conditions it is\nalways the problem of education to favor each step in development in its\nown place. Any attempt at precocious development of any power is\nequivalent to an attempt to produce a high order of action upon a narrow basis of experience.\nYet it is most difficult to secure a recognition of this condition of\neducational growth in practice. For example, to touch more closely the\nquestion of the kindergarten age. Miss Harrison tells us (see Home and\nSchool Education, June, 1899, p. 510): \"When we realize that the tools of\nthe kindergarten make the child conscious of evolution in nature and of\ngeometric construction in the works of man, we then, and then only,\nbegin to realize the greatness of Froebel's gifts and occupation.\" Assuming this statement to be correct, that geometry, for example, may make\nthe child conscious of evolution in nature, the statement, implying as it\ndoes, together with its context, that this is their function in the kindergarten age, ignores such questions as these : How broad a basis of experience with life and the world is it desirable to have to become conscious\nof evolution in nature ?\n\nHow much of that basic experience does the\n\n"}
{"page": 561, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMENTAL\n\nAND\n\nMORAL\n\nDEVELOPMENT\n\nOF\n\nCHILD\n\n553\n\nchild acquire in the two or three kindergarten years ? At just what age\nought the child to come to such broad, abstract, and highly organized\ninterpretation, or even consciousness, of evolution in nature ? Has it been\ndemonstrated to belong to the kindergarten age ?\nSimilarly the very simple, crude sense-symbolism of the little child\nhas been, and still is, used to defend the practice of mystic, aesthetic,\nand ethical symbolism in the kindergarten. No one will deny the vast\npresence and import of symbolism in all human life, thought, and production. But that is not the moot question. In all the profound\nphilosophic discussions upon the value and import of symbolism which\nI have met, there is not a word which answers the question as to just\nhow much and what kind of symbolism belongs to the three years of\nkindergarten training.\nThese examples, and others, betoken, it seems to me, two defects in\nthe ordinary approach to the problem of training the kindergartea child :\n(i) a tendency to interpret the child's nature to fit a philosophy which\nhas gone before, and (2) but slight consciousness of the true genetic problem in child-growth. Let us, in the first place, then, institute no educative processes that have not an unquestioned foundation in the nature of\nthe child ; in the second, let us remember that the kindergarten period\nis closely related to the whole genetic movement of the child's life ; that\nits solution does not mean a safe solution of the whole life of the child\n(as we so often hear), but of only one period, which may then favorably\ncondition later periods; that it possesses no definitive reach beyond itself.\nIn general, therefore, two things are needed by kindergartners in their\npresent practical attack of the problem. These seem to me to be (i)\nmore unbiased, concrete study of the simple and normal phenomena of\nchild life ; (2) a broader study of the whole problem and period of education, especially of the relations of their period to others, to prevent\nexclusivism and isolation in practice.\nIt is the further function of this paper to suggest some thoughts upon\nthe mental and moral traits of the kindergarten child, and upon the\nteacher's attitude in practice toward these traits.\nIf, now, we assume that the kindergarten age covers the years from\nthree to six, we see that it follows closely the period of infancy which\ncovers the first three years. Some of the characteristics of infancy are\nstill prominent in the kindergarten age. Infancy is dependent for its\ndevelopment largely upon the spinal cord and the lowest brain centers.\nIt is a period of relatively marvelous increase in weight and stature\nphysically. The problem of nutrition is dominant in infancy. There\nis some awakening and activity of the senses, tho they have hardly\nreached their most marked period of nascency. Powers of movement\nhave unfolded along the line of the very oldest heredity. The same has\nbeen true of expression.\nSpeech has ordinarily advanced no farther than\n\n"}
{"page": 562, "printed_page": null, "text": "554\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nthe opening of the stage in which the mother-tongue is imitated and\nused. Memory is not strong or persistent, and is confined chiefly to\nrecognition in representation. Concept-building is confined practically\nto this last stage of presentative cognition, plus an association of the\nfamiliar experience with the name or symbol which stands for it. In\nshort, all mental life whatsoever of the infant, prior to the kindergarten\nage, has been a close accompaniment and reflection of the physical life.\nNutrition, primitive sensation and reaction, instinctive feeling and\nexpression, sum up for us about all that can be said of the child mentally\nor morally. It is in these fundamental processes, and the unstable habits\nof which they have left traces, that the work of the kindergarten must be\nbased. It would seem to be a tenet, sanctioned by common-sense and\nexperience, that whatever is attempted at this age, as well as in any other,\nshould both be founded upon faculties undoubtedly present in the child\nat the time, and be in direct response to the needs and instincts for\ndevelopment which the child displays.\nThe mental life of the child in the kindergarten is not to be sharply\ndistinguished from what has immediately preceded. There is the same\nstrong appetite of the senses and for instinctive and fundamental forms of\naction. But associated with these earlier faculties are certain special forms\nof instinct which must unquestionably furnish the points of attack in\nkindergarten work. They represent, in fact, some of the keener interests\nwhich awaken in senses and muscles as soon as the body and its members\nhave been brought under ordinary control. Among these I should mention the instinctive love for, or interest in, nature. There can be no\ndoubt that we have a good basis for the approach to nature in the keen\nsense-activity of the child in these years. The senses of the kindergarten\nchild are in a period of very active and rapid development. But have we\nany evidence of an interest in nature which transcends mere sense-activity ?\nI believe there is abundant evidence that we have here a genuine and\ninstinctive feeling for certain features of nature. The effort to possess\nand play with moving life in nature is a veritable passion with children.\nSudden relief of the unexercised appetite is accompanied with expressions\nof ecstasy. Deprive them of their newly discovered treasures of life, and\nthey become frantic. Hardly less pronounced is the love for plant life,\nespecially in its effects of color. Interest in inanimate objects, such as\nwater, shells, stones, very generally becomes first manifest thru the\ninstincts to collect and acquire. Fancifully formed and colored objects\nare collected and preserved. The collecting instinct leads directly to\nroaming and hunting. Instinctively the free child turns more and more\nto the great wealth of nature all about, if he can only reach it. In the\nfuture it shall be a part of the business of education to see that nothing\nprevents his reaching it.\nSuffice it to say that these early born instincts of love of nature, even\n\n"}
{"page": 563, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMENTAL\n\nAND\n\nMORAL\n\nDEVELOPMENT\n\nOF CHILD\n\n555\n\nof fear of some of its phenomena, of collecting and acquiring, of tramping and hunting, offer, on the side of mind-growth, the priceless opportunity of the kindergarten. It matters not at this age whether he\nappreciates its unity or not. How can he comprehend the unity of\nthings before he has intimate experience with the things ? It matters\nnot at this age whether he becomes \"conscious of the evolution in\nnature.\" Grand as that consciousness must one day become to him, there\nis no basis for it now. Any \"appreciation of unity,\" or \"consciousness\nof evolution in nature,\" that would rise to a dignity beyond the farcical,\nrests at least upon comparative breadth of experience and powers of\nreasoning. The latter nature wisely withholds from the child at this time ;\nthe former she now desires to give him. O, that the kindergartner\nmight appreciate this opportunity for its full value and put faith in a\nlarge measure of nature-work ! But probably as long as the doctrine is\npreached that Froebel's gifts develop in the kindergarten child an \" appreciation of the unity \"and a \"consciousness of the evolution in nature,\"\nthe weaker, less active, and less independent practitioners are going to\nfall back upon the gifts for the training of this side of the child's nature.\n\" What should be done ?\" do you ask. I reply : Bring him more completely\nand extensively face to face with nature everywhere ; forget order and\nunity and the \"spiritualizing of realities\" for a time, and teach him to\nknow nature's individuals ; teach him to love them, to observe their growth\nand functions from day to day and week to week, to appreciate their\nuses, to call them by their names (relying just here upon the active language development of this age); do not lug symbolism into nature, unless\nit be a perfectly plain and notable improvement upon nature ; take excursions, no matter how brief necessity may make them, and let the child\nrevel in his rambling, hunting, and collecting instincts. \"But,\" you tell\nme, \"some of us are so far away from nature that all this is impossible.\nYour kindergartners in California are peculiarly favored thruout the year ;\nbut what of us who belong to northern Minnesota or the heart of Chicago \"\n?\nI reply : You cannot get away from nature ; everywhere in the\nuniverse she has something to offer you. Ingenuity and the diversion of\none-half your fund for materials into more legitimate channels will solve\nthe problem.\nWe have seen, on the sense side, that mental activity of the kindergarten child rests directly upon the physical life. There is very little\nreflection natural to the child of this age, in the sense of any long\ninhibition of impressions just prior to action. At this age mental imagery\nand physical activity or physical expression are constantly co-ordinate ;\nindeed, physical action may be called the child's natural mode of reflecting upon his experiences. According to this view, play, especially\nimitative and representative plays, speech, dramatization, graphic drawing,\nmodeling in clay, building and constructing with blocks — activities all\n\n"}
{"page": 564, "printed_page": null, "text": "556\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nbased upon instinctive forms of reaction common\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nand notable in this\n\nage — are to the child functionally modes of reflection.\nI know but one apparent or partial exception to this trait of child\nlife at this age, and that is his attitude in listening to stories. Yet even\nhere there are many evidences, in speech, dramatization, and the like, of\npreference for physical reflection ; and there are abundant evidences that\nmany children would like to run away from the long morning;circle hour\nbefore they do, to play, or draw, or act out something they have heard\nabout. In cases where restraint does not seem essential, they have been\nknown to stop a story for the sake of self-expression.\nIn all these acts of physical expression, reflection, construction, etc.,\nthe essential feature to the child is freedom, spontaneity. Spontaneity of\nactivity has no meaning if it is not summed up in the free response to\ninstinctive forms of reaction. Whatever else may be read into the conception is a mystic product of the imagination. Spontaneity is either\nsomething definite or nothing. It is in the field of free expression, then,\nbe it in building, painting, graphic drawing, or imitative and representative play, that the kindergarten materials, gifts, and occupations find their\ngreatest function. If they are not a. key to nature, the gifts at least lend\nthemselves readily to the constructive interest of the child. To this end\nthey should be employed abundantly, together with many of the other\nkindergarten materials. There is not time to enter in detail into each\none of these forms of expression. Suffice it to say that each stands close\nto the child's mental life and needs, and that no pains should be spared\nto stimulate in the kindergarten child, and to give opportunity for, free\nefforts at self-expression in speech, in dramatization with the whole body,\nin drawing and painting, and in constructing. Let us lay emphasis upon\nthe expression \" free efforts.\" By this I do not mean to exclude the\nprinciple of suggestibility. The teacher, I believe, should herself use the\nmaterials, express herself, be constantly suggestive, in all the modes which\nare sought of the children. But she should not indulge in the painfully\nexact, analytic dictation exercises, which the child can only mimic. The\nfinest touches in the child's powers of expression come to him thru suggestion, unconscious imitation — as witness his speech, his gestures and\nmannerisms. Dictation, such as I have described above, stands as a\ndirect violation of both instinct and spontaneity.\nI suspect that the effort to anticipate certain technical requirements in\nart development is the cause of this abuse of dictation in the kindergarten,\njust as a similar, but equally premature, effort at technical speech development caused the misuse of grammar in the grades. But I believe\nthat free expression is the best starting-point for artistic development.\nConventional and geometric forms have little to do with beauty in art,\nexcept in architecture and decoration, and even here they are always\nservants of a large, beautiful thought rather than the elements of beauty.\n\n"}
{"page": 565, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMENTAL\n\nAND\n\nMORAL\n\nDEVELOPMENT\n\nOF CHILD\n\n557\n\nBut broad art appreciation rests upon abundant sense-activity, associated\nwith memories of free movement, as well as upon powers of symbolism.\nThese are just what nature proposes to give at this time. The effort to\nreflect his experiences in his own works, the many associations between\nvisual and free motor sensations, are doing far more for him in this period\nthan type forms can ever do, except in so far as they subserve his free\nconstructive acts. ' The problem is, first and foremost, not one of mathematical, architectural, or decorative products, but of fundamental associations in the child between eye, ear, and the other senses, and the muscles\nof expression. Nor does this view of the problem exclude in the least the\nreflection in the child's powers of expression of the finer, more spiritual\ntraits of his environment. These higher elements in their reflex upon\ncharacter and personality at this age are never effective thru analysis, but\nalways thru suggestion and unconscious imitation. Thru these processes\nthe environment secures the reflection of its choicest forces in the child's\naction ; and free, instinctive, or spontaneous action is at this age the\nchild's method of growth into personality.\nWhen we turn to the moral nature of the child, it would seem again\nthat we must recognize the physical nature of the problem. When we\nhave granted that every normal child may in time develop a certain moral\nconsciousness and will-power, we have said about all that anyone knows\nof his innate moral nature. If we remain content, however, with this\nbenignant assurance of an innate moral nature of some kind or other in\nthe child, there will be little in the content of moral philosophy which\nwe shall not expect to find in the child at any time. Again, therefore, we\nshall be inclined to overlook the genetic problem — the first, second, and\nlast in development.\nWe are all probably agreed that it is right for the child, as early as\nmay be, to begin to grow into the habits, customs, and moral and spiritual consciousness of present civilization. But let the highest ideals of\nmoral action environ him as we will, we shall find his approach to them\ngenetic, and reproducing the movement of the race. There seem to me\nto be three sources upon which ethical development in the kindergarten\nmay proceed. They are (i) the authority of parent or teacher who represents the moral consciousness of modern life, names acts as right or\nwrong, thus furnishes the child with its fundamental ethical experiences,\nand enforces, when necessary, the obedience which looks to the establishment of habits ; (2) the spirit of obedience and good-will in the child,\nfeelings which have grown up thru its dependence upon superior\npower and wisdom; and (3) feelings (of somatic origin) which are the\nemotional accompaniment of the instinctive development of the child,\nsuch as fear, love, anger, sympathy, and the like. These sources imply\ncertain features in all moral training at this age. The child needs, first,\nmoral experiences.\nActs which would ordinarily seem indifferent to the\n\n"}
{"page": 566, "printed_page": null, "text": "558\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nchild must be labeled as right, or permitted, and wrong, or forbidden. A\nprofounder philosophy of ethics is beyond the child, except so far as the\nreasons for \" ought \" and \" ought not \" may be couched in the terms of concrete present experience. There is, to the child, no other source for this\nlabeling than the authority of parent or teacher. Herein has lain one of the\nstrongest possibilities of the kindergarten. Its superior social environment has been able to furnish children with concrete ethical experiences ;\nits social activities have been a direct response to the need of the child\nfor physical reflection. This is the age, also, when the lesson of pure and\nsimple obedience must be well learned. One of the most wholesome\nthings that can happen to a child of this age is to be brought up squarely\nagainst the inevitable tnust of an iron will. Nor should we overlook the\nfact that the instinctive emotions, such as love, fear, and anger, often furnish strong motives for action, good or bad ; and that they make for the\nmoral in development in proportion as they become associated with\nworthy and desirable ideas.\nBut what is, after all, the true moral plane, or even the best possible\nmoral plane, of the kindergarten child ? Is he an egoist or an altruist ?\nIs he a utilitarian, a hedonist, or a eudemonist ? Right here I fear I\nmust be outrageously unorthodox. Fortunately for the child, he is a\nstrict utilitarian, regards pleasure and happiness as the best criteria of\ngood, and himself as the great end of existence. Granting without argument that altruism should be the ultimate aim of his moral development, I\nstill think it would be a great misfortune to him if the kindergartner\ncould in three years destroy his egoism, his selfish utilitarianism, or the\npredominance of his pleasure-pain motives. The pain of the disappointed self, the conflict of utility and duty, and of self with other selves,\nmust furnish splendid experiences in ethics long after the kindergarten age.\nI doubt if any genuine altruistic act can be elicited from the child of four or\nfive. The very act of throwing the arms about and loving the mother is\ntinged with hedonism. Sympathy is first provoked by sadness or injury\nof another, which becomes painful to the child. Charity in childhood is\nas hedonistic as love. He co-operates with society because he has learned\nthat it pays to do so ; and have we not, as a rule, taught him just that\nlesson ? Primitive as these ethical principles may seem, they are just\nwhat should characterize the experiences of the child, and just what are\npresupposed in the development of a higher ethical consciousness in\nafter-years. The kindergarten should enforce their lessons abundantly\nin the concrete The attempt at moral abstraction from literary sources,\npresented in story, overshoots both the experience and power of the\nchild.\nIn conclusion, let me say that I can lay no claim to originality in the\nthought of this paper. I am well aware, too, that many of our advanced\nkindergartens\nhave alreadv begun\nto realize many, if not all, of the\n\n"}
{"page": 567, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMUSIC\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nKINDERGARTEN\n\n559\n\nsuggestions herein presented. Yet I believe it is also true that the\nmajority of kindergartners are still isolated, exclusive, and idolatrous in\npractice, and that there is still great need of efforts to keep fresh and\nfree from formalism what has been one of the livest factors of our\nmodern educational work.\n\nMUSIC\nBY\n\nANNA\n\nM.\n\nSTOVALL,\nNORMAL\n\nIN THE\n\nKINDERGARTEN\n\nPRINCIPAL\n\nGOLDEN\n\nTRAINING\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nSAN\n\nGATE\n\nKINDERGARTEN,\n\nFRANCISCO,\n\nFREE\n\nCAL.\n\nA letter of inquiry received within the past month from a mother\nwhose daughter \" has a knack for getting along with children and must\nearn her living,\" reads in part: \"I have never seen a kindergarten, but I\nhear that everything is played there, and I want to know if the music is\ntoo hard for her. She has taken lessons one year, and can play the\n' Mocking-Bird March' and such pieces.\"\nEven into a thinly settled district of a northern state has gone the\nword that music is in the kindergarten, that kindergarten is music,\n\"everything is played there.\"\nBut how ?\nWere music and kindergarten interchangeable terms, and did we all\nknow how, then would circle-play and table-work be set to a beautiful\nrhythm, the melody would never be over-stimulating, nor the verse gushingly sentimental. Every instrument, selected by the composer for the\nkindergarten orchestra, would be attuned scientifically, and the harmony\nwould give forth the resolute fifth as well as the sweet mediant ; any\nabrupt modulations would melt into melodic cadences and end on the\nstrength-giving tonic. Then over the doorway would rightly be inscribed\nthe hall mark of the composer, \"Unity.\"\nOur ideals float in the heavens ; our practice walks the earth. It needs\nbe so, but there must always be the light from above to illumine practice's\npath, and the eye must not forget the upward sweep nor the hand the\nonward reach.\nWhat, then, of the ideals and practice of that music that is not\nthe whole kindergarten, but an all-essential of the whole ?\nWe need not remind anyone of the irresistible appeal and magical\ncharm of that wonderful thing called music. It is the royal art language\nthat speaks straight to the heart of man. School people cannot deny\nnor belittle its value as an educational means for fostering and invigorating the child's soul-life.\nTo Froebel the term \"music\" covered all of nature's measured\nsounds and movements, as well as man's best products in the tone art. To\n\n"}
{"page": 568, "printed_page": null, "text": "560\n\nNATWNAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\none of his poetic habit of mind, strongly influenced by the appeals of\nnatural beauty, the \"voices of nature \" gave forth music of a very real and\nlovely kind. With this widening of the term the artistic devotee unhesitatingly takes issue. \"There is no music in nature, neither melody nor\nharmony,\" says he. \"Music is the creation of the human intellect.\nNature has given only the rough element sound, and man has seized it\nand with infinite pains subjugated and tamed it.\" His reward is the\nmost spiritual of all the arts ; the one with a record of the longest\ninfancy, and with the splendor of a full maturity still before it.\nWhile we admit the strength of the musician's argument, most of us\nprefer, in our ordinary language, to give the term its poetic significance.\nWe care not to shut the door of music on the twitter and thrill of bird\nnotes.\nAll sounds stir, in varying degrees, the feelings of man. \" Music,\"\nto quote Dr. G. Stanley Hall, \"cadences the soul.\" It is therefore natural\nthat Froebel, firmly believing in the primacy of the feelings, that \"emotion is the breath and life-blood of thought,\" should emphasize the\nimportance of music in the education of the child's sensibilities and as\nan agent in his moral life. He considered it so fundamental that he\nplaced it in the kindergarten to give to budding thought and action, as\nsomeone has said, \"a halo of meaning.\" Music is as much a need of the\nkindergarten as pure air and bright sunshine. It gives the spiritual\natmosphere for the day's work and play. No educational revolution will\ntake music out of the kindergarten.\nThe kind of music best suited to the early stage of childhood is still,\nhowever, an open question.\nWhile the ideal kindergartner should have fine musical knowledge and\nskill, few comparatively have received such special training in the art,\nplus a grounding in the different \" ologies,\" that qualify them to express\nunequivocally their opinion as to that music which satisfies the child's\nracial instincts and also \" stimulates the growth of worthy aspirations.\"\nWe are in need of a \"committee of ten\" to define exactly the requirements of good kindergarten music, and to furnish a list of \"Twenty-five\nBest Songs for the Kindergarten Child.\" The list could be shorter, for\nchildren never weary of their favorites — tho the teacher may become very\nmuch bored. In a primary class the children were specially fond of\n\" Happy Little Fishes.\" They asked for it at every singing period. It\nbecame so tiresomely dull to the teacher that she finally ruled that it\ncould be sung only on Fridays. The free, darting fishes of the song were\nto have their one association with those of the fish-stand and the dinnertable. Said a mother to a kindergartner : \" When I recall my kindergarten work in the light of my experience with my own little daughter,\nI wonder how I could have given so many songs. Unconsciously I was\npleasing myself and not the children.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 569, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMUSIC\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nKINDERGARTEN\n\n561\n\nThat the kindergarten songs in melody and verse have improved is\ntestified by the better collection published in late years.\n\"We rob the child,\" says Froebel, \"by discontinuing so soon the\ndevelopment of rhythmic movement in early education.\" In marches,\nmovement, and imitative plays, accompanied by well-accented music, and\nin rhymes and jingles, the kindergarten furnishes an educative outlet for\nthe child's instinctive tendency to rhythmic utterance.\nThe themes of the kindergarten songs and games are those that fall\nwithin the circle of the little child's interests, help to pattern his mental\nfabric, and awaken feelings which will crystallize, as life advances, into\nnoble ideals. They are child stories with the added charm of rhythm,\nrhyme, and melody. To know of what Froebel would have them treat\nspecially, a study of his Mother Play is necessary.\nThat the songs introduce occasionally words that tell nothing to the\nchild until he coins them into his vocabulary, we cannot deny. \" English\nas She is Interpreted in the Kindergarten\" would make entertaining reading if kindergartners cared to collect the many odd and humorous\nanalogies that the child ijiakes in his attempts to sing the texts. In our\npatriotic songs some children sang for the line, \"The world offers homage\nto thee,\" \"The girl offers cabbage to thee ;\" \"Pilgrim's pride\" was given,\n\"Pillman cried,\" and \"Freedom's cause\" has found its interpretation in\n\"Three dumb squaws.\" \"Ring receiver,\" in a \"Finger Song,\" was sung\nby all children, \"Ring, Miss Eva,\" since \"Miss Eva,\" when explaining\nthe new word, pointed to her own ring. In a song about Washington,\n\"Right, he knows, will win the day,\" was clearly enunciated, \"Wipe\nhis nose on every day.\"\nQuite often we find children ignoring the words as given by the kindergartner, and singing syllables as entrancing and curious as those of\n\"The Jabberwock.\" They ripple over the lips in such quick succession\nthat the little bubbles of sound vanish before the listener can catch and\nhold them to discover what they are. Then there are those inquiring\nchildren who, judging a new word has a concrete counterpart, will ask,\nafter singing, for instance, in \"The Merry Brown Thrush,\" \" If you will\nnot bring any sorrow to me\": \"What does sorrow look like? Don't the\nbird like to eat it ?\"\nThose who succeed in obtaining joyful singing, with pure, soft tone\nand clear enunciation, gain it at the price of untiring watchfulness, in\nwhich the children have no share. They neither slide over inaccuracies\nof speech, nor do they make the teaching of words degenerate into such\na tiresome drill that the life of the song has fled before it is known.\nThey forestall mistakes by removing, as far as possible, the occasion\nfor them. They enlist the children's interest and sympathy at the outset\nin the story that the song tells and the singing in a melodic outflow of\nits sentiment.\n\nThey are careful to select melodies that bear the musicians'\n\n"}
{"page": 570, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n562\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nStamp and are tuneful without the support of the piano. They know\nthat, if there are many verses, or too long verses without a simple word\nrepetition, errors in speech will be apt to arise. Such songs are not in\ntheir collection, or, if they are, some verses are omitted. They are careful not to give too many songs. They wish the children to carry the\nmemory of some into the life beyond the kindergarten.\nAs ear-consciousness is a necessary basis for correct tone production,\nthey give many opportunities for the child to become \"ear-minded.\" His\nattention is held without the asking at \" the resting times \" by short snatches\n6i good instrumental music and by the playing of airs that will be given\nlater when this unconscious absorption will help toward the easy learningHaving the word of the psychologist \"that no normal child lacks the\ncapacity for musical appreciation, and that it is in early years that this\npower can be easily cultivated or destroyed,\" they not only have the\nchildren hear pure tones, but practice them. As this practice depends\nupon imitation, and as the most common and familiar musical instrument\nhappens to be the human voice, they know that the quality of the speaking and singing voice is of great concern.\nTo give ear-cultivation and to keep the soul susceptible, thru one\nof its avenues, to the beauties of nature, Froebel would have us direct\nthe child's attention to the natural music of the world. In our cities this\nis impossible without frequent visits to parks. The excursion, for this\nand other reasons, is coming to be a necessity.\nBred in the city's din, how many of us have the ear-discrimination,\nnot of the Indian, but of a Thoreau ?\nA charity kindergartner, whose rooms faced a street of noisy traffic,\nmade it a practice, not to add noise to noise, but to draw the shades and\nhave a \"listening time.\" It was quite remarkable how well the little ones\ncould guess what kind of vehicles were passing and their directions.\nThey had to tell about it in soft whispers. Street sounds are inappropriate media for this sense-training, but the most was made of unfavorable conditions. It was always a delight to hear the soft, sweet singing\nof those good little listeners.\nThat children are too often permitted to scream shrilly, rather than to\nsing high notes softly, we all know. Even when melody and verse are\ngood, the song is often ruined by the mistaken idea of the teachers that,\nif children are to enjoy their singing, and if singing is to sound well,\nthere must be volume upon volume of sound.\nA school superintendent attended the last rehearsal of an entertainment to give.it the seal of his approval. When the singing ended, he\nsaid: \"You can do better, children. Sing with more vim. Open your\nmouths and sing out.\" All the \"singing from within \" that had been\ngained in rehearsing was lost in the time it took to sing one verse.\nMusic became noise.\n\n"}
{"page": 571, "printed_page": null, "text": "Departmentl\n\nMUSIC\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nKINDERGARTEN\n\n563\n\nWhen coarse sentiment is added to noise, can there be anything more\ndebasing in musical training? One instance illustrates this. A primary\nteacher, thinking to please a visitor whom she knew by reputation to be\na friend of the kindergarten, prefaced the song that the class was about to\nsing by the remark that it was \"a kindergarten song and a special fayorite.\"\nThe tune was \"Yankee Doodle,\" the theme \"The Father of Our Country;\" the chorus ran :\nGeorgia, Georgie, Ha ! Ha ! Ha !\nYou were a little chopper.\nGeorgie, Georgie, Ha ! Ha ! Ha !\nBut could not tell a whopper.\n\n(Prolonged accent, of course, on the closing syllables of the rhymed\nlines.)\nIn coarse doggerel \"Georgie\" was taken thru the seven stages of\nman with always the same refrain. The children sang with increased\ngusto ; faces grew rosier, mouths opened wider, necks became more\ncrane-shaped as the verses multiplied. They enjoyed it noisily. Before\nthe echoes ceased roaring, the teacher beamed radiantly on the stranger\nand nodded approval to the children. With heads in the most approved\nDelsartean relaxation, they gave back a smile of such childish satisfaction\nthat the visitor inhibited signs of disapproval and returned a half-fiedged\nsmile.\nShades of St. Cecilia and the immortal Washington ! What a discourager of reverence ! What a contrast to that charming song in Mr.\nTomlin's collection :\nWe'll thank Columbus and the rest,\nBut love our Washington the best.\n\nWhile we may learn from a study of street songs and games their\nfascinating features for children in gutter-stained garments, they cannot,\nwithout a cleansing process, be received into the kindergarten.\nWhile our songs should amuse, can they not also inspire and ennoble?\nThe late Senator Hearst's first visit to a kindergarten was on the\noccasion of a Thanksgiving luncheon generously donated by his wife to\nover a hundred children. Among the novel sights to him was the absence\nof the high-chair. \"You do not, 1 see,\" said he, \"suit the child to the\ntable, but the table to the child.\" That expresses the fixed attitude of\nthe kindergarten. The child always — the child as he is, in the light of\nwhat he should become.\nWherever we find rhythm, rhyme, and melody suited to the child's\nneeds and sung joyously, without strain to the voice, there can we say :\n\" Yea, 'twas tuneful music and much merit in it,\nExpressively rendered and for the children fit.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 572, "printed_page": null, "text": "564\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nNAUGHTY\nBY\n\nELMER\n\nELLSWORTH\nOF\n\nTEACHING,\n\nBROWN,\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nCHILDREN\nPROFESSOR\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nOF\n\nOF\n\nSCIENCE\n\nAND\n\nART\n\nCALIFORNIA\n\nWhether a child is really naughty or not, in any given instance,\ndepends on the point of view. The most'of us can remember times when\nwe were ourselves called naughty by censorious elders, altho to ourselves\nwe were nothing of the sort. If our command of language had been\nequal to the tumult of our feelings, we should have said that we were\ndeeply injured ; we were engaged in the endless battle for human rights?\nand our elders were arrayed against us. For myself — I will not presume here to speak for others — I can remember other instances in which\nI was fully conscious of my own naughtiness. I wanted to be naughty,\nand doubtless I succeeded admirably.\nLet us see what it means that the child sometimes thinks he is injured\nwhen those who are better informed call him naughty. Our goodness\nand badness arise out of our relations with other persons. The type of\nall badness is selfishness. Badness is essentially the exalting of the lesser\nabove the greater ; the preferring of the immediate interests of the one\nor the few to thepermanent good of all. So our goodness is not merely\nan abstract purpose or intention of doing right ; it is conditioned by our\nknowledge, and by our ability to personalize our knowledge — to bring it\nhome to our real human life. The naughty person contents himself with\nthe narrow view of what he himself or his immediate circle wants, and\nwants now. The person who is less naughty takes into account what is\ngood for a larger circle of persons ; and not only what is (apparently) good\nfor them now, but what will be good for them in the future as well. Now,\nthe view of little children is not only narrow, but fragmentary and perpetually shifting. One of them will be found now self-centered to the last\ndegree, ready to sacrifice everything in the world, whether belonging to\nhimself or to others, in order to gain possession of a mess of sticky candy ;\nagain the same child will seem to take a view perfectly chimerical in its\nbreadth and elevation. There are times when a child sees so cleariy the\nimmediate object of his desire, and is so blind to everything else, that\nwhatever hinders him from its enjoyment seems to him the height of\ntyranny. The sense of injustice rankles like poison in the minds of many\nchildren. I can remember hardly anything else that stirred me so deeply\nin my own childhood. The problem of the teacher at this point is the\nproblem of leading the child out into the larger view. And the chief\ndifficulty which presents itself is the difficulty of coming down to a\nsympathetic recognition of his present limitations, without cheating him.\nof his right to training\" for higher things.\n\n"}
{"page": 573, "printed_page": null, "text": "DepartmentJ\n\nNAUGHTY\n\nCHILDREN\n\n565\n\nThe place of the school among the institutions of society may give us\na suggestion here. The school stands, in a sense, midway between the\nhome and the state. The child, to be sure, is at the same time a member\nof the school, the state, and the family. But the day that he first goes to\nschool is a turning-point in his life. It is the day that he takes his first\ngreat step from a life in which his home is all in all toward a larger life in\nwhich the complex of relations which we call the state will become real\nand significant for him. His home has been for him the ordered universe,\nsurrounded by a chaos of things that have no father and mother. He\nhas had some glimpse of other families, to be sure, and has very likely\nlearned to fear the policeman. But for the most part the outer world is\nan unexplored wilderness. It has not yet dawned upon him that the\nfamily, which is his world, is constituted and protected as a member in a\nlarger society. The school, and particularly the kindergarten and the\nprimary school, is for him an intermediate stage by which he may be led\ngently and surely to a consciousness of his wider relationships. It shows\nhim a society in which there is a head who is not father or mother ; in\nwhich there are other pursuits and other rewards and punishments than\nthose of the home ; in which his duties, aims, associations, and enjoyments are different. It is a great mistake to suppose that any school\nshould be \"just like a home.\" It discharges its function only in being\nunlike a home. To bring the child into new relations and take him out\nof his absorption in the interests of a very small circle, is a part of the\nreal business of the school.\nThis statement should, of course, not be taken to imply that the school\nmust break suddenly and sharply with the home. Such a change would\nbe disastrous to the peace of mind of some children and to the manners\nand minor morals of others. But the school certainly should enlarge the\nrange of the child's interests and duties.\nSuch a change involves a great deal of readjustment. The new interests are not to be substituted for the old, but added to the old. The old\ninterests are to be newly interpreted in the larger experience of the child.\nThings that were pleasing and satisfying in the home before will now\ntake a lower place in the child's estimation ; and vice versa. With all\nthese changes, he will find that things which were not regarded as naughty\nbefore are now very naughty indeed. Altogether, the transition involves\nmuch that is painful to the child and to his family friends, along with\nmuch that is delightful ; but it is the delight and the pain of enlarged\nexperience.\nThe difficulty of this transition brings into sharp relief all of the\ndefects of early training in the home. Sound moral training shows\nitself, too, in various ways. One of the evidences of such soundness appears\nin a kind of moral plasticity. It is possible for a child of five or six to have\nbecome somewhat hardened in wrong courses of conduct.\nSuch hardening\n\n"}
{"page": 574, "printed_page": null, "text": "566\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nappears when some one narrow set of interests, usually in the nature of\nself-indulgence, gets the mastery, unchecked by other strong interests, or\nby the growing sense of obligation. Most children come up to school\nage without any such single overmastering interest. They like good things\nto eat, like to see new and strange sights, like to hear wonderful stories,\nlike to use their limbs in all sorts of free play, like to make things (or\nstill more, perhaps, to un-make things), like to play with other children,\nlike to be praised, and like a great many other things. But each of these\nlikings is kept from being inordinate by other, counter-balancing likings\nwhich are growing up with it. I think those who observe children closely\nare often struck, for a single example, with the fact that the liking for\nsweets and other toothsome things, while it maybe present clearly enough,\ndoes not in normal children run riot and dominate over other interests.\nThis checking of single interests, so that no one enjoys a full mastery, is\nwhat I mean by the moral plasticity of a school child. Whatever partial\nhardening of tendency the child may have brought to school with him\nspeedily appears in some form of naughtiness. It may be the sense of\nprivate ownership has become unduly strong in one. If he is the only\nchild in a well-to-do family, his unwillingness to share with others may\nnot have been noticed before. But in the school he is surrounded by\nmany others, and good comradeship and peace are possible only if\nthe spirit of free co-operation is abroad. The child whose care for the\nthings he calls his own is carried to an extreme soon comes into collision with other children, and the teacher has a case of naughtiness to\nattend to which the child does not at first understand to be naughtiness\nat all.\nOne great service, then, which the school must do the child is to give\nhim a larger and clearer view of what is right and what is wrong.\nI would not be understood as saying that this is all. There is another\nsort of hardening which is sometimes to be observed even in children of\nfour or five — a kind of set determination to follow their own choice, even\ntho they already know, more or less vaguely, that it is wrong. I suspect\nthat, even in the most extreme cases of this sort, a clearer understanding\nof the difference between goodness and badness is one large element in\nthe correction of the wrong. But it is not all. The disposition to do\nwhat is recognized as right must be strengthened, the habit of right action\nestablished. \" Childhood is the time for rules and for mechanical drill\nin the habit of obedience,\" as Professor Coe remarked in his paper on\n\" The Morbid Conscience of Adolescents.\" Should obedience be\nrequired in the kindergarten ? Yes, if the kindergarten is a human\ninstitution. In all of the other institutional relations into which they\nenter in life the children will find laws which they are to obey, and compulsion in some sort or other to insure obedience. If the kindergarten\ndoes not have this wholesome and necessary element, it does not prepare\n\n"}
{"page": 575, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department J\n\nNAUGHTY\n\nCHILDREN\n\n567\n\nfor the real world of institutions into which these same children are to\ngrow.\nWe speak, properly enough, of children's rights. One of the most\nsacred of these is the right to be taught the lesson of obedience.\nBut let us return to the consideration of such naughtiness as results\nin large measure from ignorance of new relations which have arisen in the\nlife of the child. Every little while some new experience brings home\nthe conviction that the lack of knowledge has a large place in the badness of little children. A striking illustration appears in the story of a\nchild taken from a home for infants, as told by Mary Florence Munro in\nthe Educational Review for last November :\nShe has a vivid imagination [says the narrator] which, joined to weak perceptions and a strong love of approT^ation, made her a true-born liar, if ever a child could be\ncalled one\nShe was such a loving little soul, she wanted to do so exactly right, and\nwas always so penitent, that it seemed hard to find the secret of the trouble, until, one\nday, when an unusually grave lecture had been read to her on her besetting sin, she\nquavered out : \" But what is truf ?\"..,. The lectures were cut short, and it was\ntaken as an accepted fact in the family that it was hard for their baby to tell the truth,\nthat everyone was trying to help her, and that little Mary was trying to learn to see things\nand then tell them exactly as they were\nOften at first, when there was some doubt\nas to the truth of some statement, the listener would placidly inquire : \" Did you think\nthat time, little girl ? \" When she would reply, \" I don't fink I finked it quite right that\ntime, but it was like vis; \" when the correction would be received with : \" I am so glad you\ntold it straight this time ; keep on trying, and some day you can tell it right every time.\"\nAt eight years of age she was a truthful child.\n\nI find something very touching in the picture of that little one asking\nin all seriousness the question which Pilate asked with flippant cynicism\nlong ago. It surely suggests the need of patient and sympathetic instruction in the meaning of morals — a need not unknown to children of a\nlarger growth.\nThe saying, \"All things whatsoever ye would that men should do to\nyou, do ye even so unto them,\" has a depth of wisdom which is hard to\nfathom. It lays decisive emphasis upon that sympathetic entering into\nanother's point of view which is the root of much that is finest in our\ncourtesy and our morality. It is the spirit of this saying which has so\nwrought upon the people of modern Christendom that the most impartial\nhistorians see a great change coming to light within the past two or three\ncenturies, men becoming less cruel, more sensitive to the sufferings of\nothers. Some children develop a morbid sensitiveness to others' woes at\nan early age. But for the greater number there is much need of patient\nteaching at this point. They need to put the discomfort and injury\nwhich they cause alongside of that which they themselves have suffered,\nin order that they may realize that their own conduct is wrong. It takes\nskillful teaching to do this without overdoing it. And one chief element\nof such teaching is timeliness. The right word at the right moment will\ngive to many a child a new and enlarged view, and so help him really to\n\n"}
{"page": 576, "printed_page": null, "text": "568\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nbegin taking account of others' good as well as of what he believes to be\nhis own.\nIt is always in place to caution teachers against assuming that a given\nappearance is naughtiness without stopping to-see what has caused it ; and\nthis may be taken as the moral of my paper. Those who work in charity\nkindergartens in the poorer parts of our cities well know what strange\nconditions may be found at the bottom of even a five-year-old's seeming\nperversity. Lack of food, lack of sleep, whisky, vicious surroundings at\nhome as well as on the streets, the lack of common cleanliness, and a\nhundred other things, are all too common discoveries which reward their\ninquiry. When children come from homes of the well-to-do, different\ncauses are found to be at work, causes sometimes quite as productive of\nnaughtiness as those noted above. A particularly difficult condition to\ndeal with is that in which the parent comes to the teacher to ask for\nspecial indulgence for a child who is already suffering from over-indulgence at home. In fact, the school has much to do in correcting — unobtrusively, let us hope — the mistakes of home training.\nWe should add, in all humility, that there are homes in which much is\ndone to correct the errors of school training. The teacher needs not\nonly to look to the genesis of naughtiness in any given instance, but\nalso to guard against calling that naughtiness which is not really wrong.\nThe reading of history should make us thoughtful on this point. We\nknow that men have been punished again and again, by legal process, for\nacts which we see now to have been evidence, not of criminal intent, but\nof the most exalted virtue. If the little histories of the schools could be\nfully written, they would show sad instances of children's being made to\nsuffer, not for the wrong, but for the good that was in them. The school\nand the state must enforce wholesome order with firmness and decision ;\nbut many mistakes may be prevented in both the school and the state by\nthe exercise of great care to distinguish goodness in the making from\nfully accomplished wickedness.\nA clear appreciation of the fitful and spasmodic elements which\nappear in the process of human development is of use at this point. It\nis safe to assume that no child is distinctly and finally naughty. He may\nbe guilty of naughtiness, but you cannot read his character from single\nacts. There was nothing that I rebelled against more strongly in my\nchildhood than the summing up of my character in this way. I neglected\nsomething that I ought to have done, and was told that I was the most\nheedless boy that my accuser had ever seen. I admitted the neglect in\nthe given instance, but swelled with indignation at being called a heedless\nboy. I remember trying to voice my protest, but was unable to frame it\nin words. I did not know just what my objection was, but I felt it all\nthru me in a tumult of passion and rage. As I look back on it now, it\nseems that I was trying to say:\n\n\"You must not generalize me into a bad\n\n"}
{"page": 577, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nNAUGHTY\n\nCHILDREN\n\n569\n\nboy because I have done this one bad act.\" And I believe now that the\nboy was right. Children do many naughty deeds which have only an\nimperfect, embryonic connection with the rest of their embryonic natures.\nDo not classify them in the light of such isolated deeds. The time has\nnot come to separate the sheep from the goats, and you are not charged\nwith making such division. Above all, in what you say to a child, and in\nwhat you say to others about him, distinguish sharply between condemning his naughty acts and calling him a naughty child.\nThese few suggestions fall far short of going to the root of the matter ;\nbut that, certainly, is not expected of me today. I merely offer a few\nnotes, on a question of deep significance. One thing more I should like\nto say before closing. I have had occasion elsewhere to hint that the\nman should not utterly outgrow the things of his childhood ; that the\nchild should have to do with some things of lasting significance, in order\nthat there may not be that break of continuity between childhood and\nmanhood which makes it so easy for some to leave behind their childhood's nobility as well as their childhood's puerility. With this in mind,\nit appears especially important that the standards of goodness and badness set before children shall not be petty, external, and artificial, but\nthat they shall point unmistakably to the standards of the highest living.\nIf a child is taught to believe that naughtiness consists in the transgression of minute and arbitrary rules, he must either break violently with his\npast in the process of growing up, or grow up into a narrow and artificial\nmanhood ; and either of these results is by all possible means to be\navoided.\nThe teacher, then, must have real human sympathy with little children,\non their way from babyhood to manhood, if he is to deal justly with their\nnaughtiness. We have, all of us, much to learn in the domain of morals.\nOur own ignorance and moral immaturity should teach us to be very\npatient with these little ones. There are some lines of Coventry Patmore's\nwhich often come to me to reinforce this lesson :\nMy little son, who looks from thoughtful eyes,\nAnd moves and speaks in serious, grown up wise,\nHaving my law the seventh time disobeyed,\nI struck him and dismissed,\nWith harsh words and unkissed ;\nHis mother, who was patient, being dead.\nThen, fearing lest his grief should hinder sleep,\nI visited his bed.\nAnd found his lashes yet,\nWith his late sobbing wet.\nThen I with moan.\nKissing away his tears, left others of my own.\nFor on a table drawn\nBeside his bed he had placed within his reach\nA box of counters, and a red-veined stone.\n\n"}
{"page": 578, "printed_page": null, "text": "57°\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nA piece of glass abraded by the beach,\nAnd six or seven shells,\nA bottle of bluebells,\nAnd four French coins, ranged ther& with careful art.\nTo comfort his sad heart.\nSo when that night I prayed\nTo God, I wept and said :\n\" Ah, when we lie at last with tranced breath.\nNot vexing Thee in death.\nAnd Thou rememberest\nThe toys\nThat made our joys.\nThen, fatherly not less than I,\nWho am molded out of clay,\nThou'lt leave Thy wrath and say :\n' I will be sorry for their childishness.'\"\n\nTHE\n\nKINDERGARTEN\n\nBY FREDERIC\n\nCHILD\n\nL. BURK, SUPERINTENDENT\nBARBARA, CAL.\n\nPHYSICALLY\n\nOF SCHOOLS,\n\nSANTA\n\nThe child at six years of age, the end of the kindergarten period, has\nreached almost two-thirds of his adult height and from one-fourth to onethird of his adult weight. This does not mean, by any means, that the\nkindergarten child stands in the same numerical relation to the developed\nadult, for height and weight are gross standards and give us no accurate\ninformation upon essential problems in the details of growth. The body\nis made up of parts and organs, each in a certain measure independent of\nother parts, each with its separate nascent or growing periods and resting\nperiods. Consequently height and weight give us merely the composite\nor algebraic sum of growth of these various parts. One part may be growing\nwhile its neighbor is resting, or certain parts may not have entered upon\nthat period when the important increments of growth are added. For\nexample, the neck does not make any growth of consequence until after\nthe seventh or eighth year, while the length of the face is practically\ncompleted by this age. The increase in lung dimensions is merely\nnominal until pubescence, when, in the course of a short growing period\nof two years or less, the diameter of the chest is nearly doubled. The\nheart and the regulation of the blood supply undergo material modifications years after the kindergarten period is passed. The brain reaches\nits maximum weight, practically, as early as eight or nine years of age,\nand over 85 per cent, of this growth is obtained previous to four years ;\nthe addition in brain weight during the first four years is about nine\ntimes as much as during the second four years.\nThe fact that the\n\n"}
{"page": 579, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nKINDERGARTEN\n\nCHILD\n\nPHYSICALLY\n\n571\n\nkindergarten takes the child just at the completion of its period of most\nrapid growth in brain weight, and keeps him until the maximum is\nalmost attained, is a significant one.\nThese are merely illustrations of the fact that the conditions of child\nlife cannot be measured in terms of adult standards. If growth were\nregular and proportional in each part for each year, we might state the\nchild in adult terms, but all of our factors are variable. Yet our curricula\nof studies, both in school and kindergarten, set up these adult standards\nby which to measure the child's progressive development, as tho growth\nwere something to be measured by regular periods of time. On the contrary, growth is by fits and starts, as it were, with periods of very rapid\nrate followed by resting periods.\nTo cite another important illustration of the uselessness of judging\nthe child by adult standards, the matter of sex is striking. The adult is\nsexed, and, physiologically or psychologically, no treatment of the adult\ncan be exact unless we specify the sex ; but the child, until the age of ten\nor eleven, is practically without sex. The difference in the size of the\nsexes, in their rates of growth, their instincts, impulses, interests, physical\nand mental traits, etc., is so slight and immaterial as to justify no separate consideration of them either in theory or practice. Yet, after the\nage of ten or eleven years, the sex changes are so enormous, both physically and mentally, that the sexes can no longer be classed together in any\ndescription ;' and our system of giving them both the same course of\ninstruction is rendered extremely questionable.\nThere is another important distinction between the child and the\nadult, or even adolescent. The adult has, to some extent at least, possibilities oforiginal deviation from the habits of ancestry ; the child is the\nslave of ancestry. His movements, his plays, his games, his instincts, his\nfears, his methods of thought and action, all bear the indelible stamp of\nhereditary control, and are all fairly well in the middle of the welltraveled road of race evolution. As the creek, confined to the deep-worn\ngorges in the mountains where it originates, nevertheless, upon issuing\nforth finally upon the plains, finds it easy to change its channel bed, so\nthe human being, in its earlier stages of development, is more determined\nby hereditary influences, until in adolescence it comes to the open plain\nwhere originality is more possible. In the growth of the nervous system\nwe find this law well demonstrated. The structures which mature first\nare those which are oldest in race evolution. Those which are most\nrecent, and consequently are more pliable and subject to modification,\nmature later. The time at which a structure controlling a given movement matures is determined by conditions which are internal, and, in\nthe case of the activities which appear in childhood, are less subject to\nmodification by external environment than in the case of those which\nmature in adolescence. The forms of movements and exercises which are\n\n"}
{"page": 580, "printed_page": null, "text": "572\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\noldest racially are also determined by internal law, and are little susceptible to modification.\nEducation of the adolescent may include the idea, to some extent, of\nteaching the individual something new to the race. Education of the\nkindergarten child can signify nothing more than at the proper time\nand in the form heredity has determined to reawaken into activity the\nstructures of racial antiquity. The kindergarten child is still in the deepworn gorges which his ancestors for ages have trod. Originality is a virtue\nin adolescent education. In the kindergarten originality in the form of\nexercise, in the time of its application, which many of our systems of\nphysical culture have attempted arbitrarily to introduce for reasons of\naesthetic grace or theories of some systematic or orderly development,\ncannot be too severely condemned. With kindergarten children these\nare matters to be determined by internal laws of the nervous system.\nThis hereditary order obeys no logical or aesthetic system. On the contrary, the order by which movements develop in childhood appears to the\nadult mind with a love of orderly system to be mere vagrant caprice.\nFor example, the thumb movements, from a logical standpoint the most\nfundamental and elementary of the hand, develop several months later\nthan those of the hand as a whole, because the ancestors of man did not\nuse the thumb, and its movements are among the latest in a racial sense.\n'The baby's two eyes tend at birth to move independently of each other,\nand only acquire perfect co-ordination in the course of some months,\nwhile the baby's two hands begin with such strong tendencies toward\nco-ordination that he must duplicate the movement of one by the other;\nin hand development the child grows from co-ordination toward independence, while the principle is reversed in the matter of eye movements.\nThis paradoxical condition doubtless finds its explanation in the fact that\nin animal ancestry the movements of the fore limbs ever have been\nco-ordinated, while the eyes, as a rule, have been more or less independent of each other. In human life the conditions have been reversed, and\nthe individual repeats this history in his earlier stages.\nThis dependence of the order, form, and time in the development of\nmovements upon the past habits in racial evolution is manifest everywhere\nin children's instinctive activities, and peremptorily forbids our artificial\nattempts to systematize movements upon any superficial theory of grace\nor logical order, or to introduce original departures from racial habit.\nFrom this standpoint we come upon the principle of first importance,\nthat the fundamental movements, i. e., those oldest in the race, and comprising largely those which are performed by the larger and more centrally located muscles, normally become functional before the accessory\nmovements — those which came late into the race. Among the latter are\nthose of accuracy, rapidity, and long and complex sequences of finger\nmovements used in writing, sewing, weaving, etc. Spontaneously, children\n\n"}
{"page": 581, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department J\n\nTHE\n\nKINDERGARTEN\n\nCHILD\n\nPHYSICALLY\n\n573\n\nof the kindergarten use only the fundamental movements, as the studies\nof Gulick, Miss Sisson, and others have shown, and as our careful daily\nobservations of children's plays in the Santa Barbara kindergartens\nhave corroborated. In so far as accuracy and rapidity of finger movements are concerned, the studies of Bryan and Gilbert show clearly that\nthe nascent periods for these do not appear until after six or seven years.\nThe child of six years, normally, has scarcely half the power for rapid\nfinger movement that an adolescent of sixteen possesses, and accuracy of\nfinger movements, such as writing requires. Dr. Bryan shows, reaches its\nnascent growth between six and eight. These considerations demand\nfrom the kindergarten the abolishment of all movements which are not\nfundamental and which seek to introduce delicate finger movements of\nany kind. Blackboard work instead of pencil and paper, and the abolition of drawing or other similar work which requires accurate line work,\nare essential.\nBut it by no means follows that, because we cannot arrange for the\nkindergarten child some system of orderly and systematic exercises,\nphysical culture has no place in the kindergarten curriculum. The\nchild's natural play certainly comes under pedagogic cognizance, not as\na necessary nuisance to be put up with, but as an important instrument\nof education. But I think modern study bids us reverse some current\nnotions we have entertained of play. Many have chosen some idea to\npresent and then have constructed artificial plays arbitrarily to illustrate\nthe idea. The modern view would, on the contrary, bid us take the\nchild's instinctive play without alteration and let it lead and direct us.\nDarwin, Spencer, and the earlier biologists gave play a place of some\ntheoretic importance when they ascribed to it the rudimentary place of\nrepresenting the reawakening of the left-over activities of our primitive\nancestors. But Karl Groos, in his recent monograms, while admitting\nthat children's plays are rudimentary in origin, shows, nevertheless, that\nthey have a preparatory function in stimulating the growth of those\nhigher activities, mental as well as physical, which have proceeded in\nrace history from the activities now represented by children's play. The\nlarge majority of young children's plays are those which the race once\nused in the practical business affairs of war and chase — those of pursuing,'\njumping, hiding, throwing, wrestling, etc. As in the race, so in the\nindividual, they lead to higher activities and are essential links in the\nchain of education.\nBut in our selection and arrangement of plays for the kindergarten\nin the past we have been not altogether happy. The majority of the\nkindergarten games are socialistic in form, while modern study shows that\nthe plays of children from four to six years are predominantly individualistic and the social tendency is minor. The social factor enters the\nchild's life later than the kindergarten period.\n\nThe play of children of\n\n"}
{"page": 582, "printed_page": null, "text": "574\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nthree to five tends to be fragmentary physical exercises without plot or\nsystem — mere running, jumping, climbing, etc. However, the dramatic\nand imitative instinct early ripens, and the child tends to combine these\nfragments into crude plays representing actions he witnesses, and so we\nfind that he loves to play riding horse, playing bear, wild Indians, policeman, etc. This representative tendency is the controlling interest from\nfour to six, but the child imitates that which he literally sees, hears, or\nfeels, and his natural play offers no basis for the abstractly symbolic game\nof the kindergarten. He sees no meaning in his game. He is an actor,\nnot a philosopher. There is no legitimate place for the aesthetic, ethical,\nor utilitarian attachment we so frequently find hung upon the child's\nplay. The child plays in obedience to physical impulses of his nervous\nsystem planted there by the habits of ancient ancestry which lived long\nbefore civilized morals, ethics, and modern utilities came upon the field\nof action. There are a time and place for them, but it is an artificial\ngraft which attempts to attach these to the young child's play instincts.\nWhile the kindergarten cannot invent plays for children, it nevertheless has an important function in guarding the child's right to play, and\nin providing the time and racial incentives — clean sand to roll and\nbuild in, big blocks to build with, space to run in, bushes to hide in,\npoles to climb, hammers, garden tools, swings, balls, horse reins, etc.\nThe scanty twenty minutes usually allowed for the recess should be at\nleast multiplied by two. The usual excuse offered, that the kindergarten\ngames and calisthenic exercises take the place of natural, free play, is\nquite untenable. They are artificial exhibition exercises, and have, as\nshown, little in common with the hereditary forms of play of children of\nkindergarten age. Internal demands of the growing nervous and muscular systems require their racial forms of exercise, and natural instinct is\nthe only guide we have for these exercises. Even in children of school\nage the experiments upon fatigue by Kraepelin, Kemsies, Wagner, and\nothers, have shown that systematic gymnastics are more fatiguing mentally than regular school work and cannot be interpolated in school work\nas recuperative means.\n\n"}
{"page": 583, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF ELEMENTARY\n\nSECRETARY'S\nFIRST\n\nEDUCATION\n\nMINUTES\n\nSESSION. — Thursday, July 13, 1899\n\nThe meeting was called to order in Simpson Tabernacle by A. W. Plummer, of the\nLocal Committee.\nDr. John W. Hall, of the State Normal School, Greeley, Colo., read a paper on \" The\nClaims of the Individual Pupil in Class Work.\"\nMiss Louise Hannum, Ph.D., Greeley, Colo., read a paper on \" The Culture-Epoch\nTheory in Education.\"\nThe discussion was omitted until after the second paper was read.\nPresident William N. Hailmann opened the discussion, and was followed by Dr. J.\nH. Hoose, of California; W. A. Bell, of Indiana; A. H. Collins, of Pasadena, Cal.; Dr.\nJ. W. Hall, Miss Hannum, and others.\nA committee on nominations was appointed, consisting of :\nW. A. Bell, Indianapolis, Ind.\nA. H. Collins, Pasadena, Cal.\nEsther Conway, Winchester, Ind.\n\nSECOND\n\nSESSION.— Friday, July 14\n\nThe meeting was opened by President William N. Hailmann, who delivered his\naddress on \"The Place and Development of Purpose in Education.\"\nSuperintendent J. W. Dinsmore, of Beatrice, Neb., read a paper on \" The Vices of\nChildhood and Youth.\"\nAn animated discussion followed. Among those taking part were Miss Frink, of\nCalifornia; Professor J. W. Crabtree, of Nebraska; Professor J. W. Carr, of Indiana;\nMrs. Blanchard, of California ; Harry S. Budd, Superintendent Dinsmore, and the\npresident.\nSuperintendent J. W. Carr, of Anderson, Ind., introduced the following resolution,\nwhich was unanimously adopted :\nWhereas, As a rule, the same persons are interested in the discussions of the Kindergarten Department, Elementary Department, and Child Study Department;\nResolved, That the president of the Elementary Department be requested to invite the co-operation of\nthe presidents of the Kindergarten and Child Study Departments in arranging for one joint session at the\nnjeeting for 1900.\n\nThe Committee on Nominations submitted the following report, which was adopted :\nFor President — Miss N. Cropsey, Indianapolis, Ind.\nFor Vice-President — Superintendent J. W. Dinsmore, Beatrice, Neb.\nFor Secretary — Miss Bettie A. Dutton, Cleveland, O,\n\nThe department then adjourned.\n\nEsther Conway\nSecretary\n\n575\n\n"}
{"page": 584, "printed_page": null, "text": "576\n\nNATfONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nPAPERS\nTHE\n\nBY LOUISE\n\nAND\n\nCULTURE-EPOCH\n\nMORRIS\n\nHANNUM,\n\nSTATE\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\nDISCUSSIONS\nTHEORY\n\nIN\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nEDUCATION\n\nGREELEY,\n\nCOLO.\n\nThe doctrine of recapitulation might recommend itself to the educator\nthru several considerations of various degrees of importance : by satisfactory evidences, by weight of authority, by a record of practical utility in\nschool matters, or by signs of marked promise for the future. But a\ndetailed examination of these claims would of course require a volume\nand much special knowledge. The object of the present paper is merely\nto look at the doctrine in a general way, with intent to discover what attitude toward it on the part of the practical teacher is likely to be most\nfruitful of good and least productive of harm.\nThe first question will naturally be : Can we accept the doctrine as a\nfact ? In seeking light on this preliminary inquiry, we must at once distinguish the theory from the notion of an undefined general correspondence between the course of the race and that of the individual. The\nlatter view, taken in the loose, vague way, appears almost axiomatic. The\nrace and the child begin with a comparatively simple and go on to a comparatively complex life. What the race has attained is, in a general way,\nthe end set before the individual, and, in passing from analogous startingpoints to analogous goals, it would seem to follow, from the existence of\none world and one general kind of process called mind, that the race and\nthe individual must gather up and organize experience in somewhat the\nsame fashion — must get from the starting-point to the goal by somewhat\nthe same path. In this form the idea of recapitulation is more congenial\nto the poet and the mystic than to the teacher ; it has abundant uses in\nspeculation and imaginative expression, but no definite relation to methods\n' and school curricula. The more precise — or, rather, the least nebulous —\nconception of the doctrine assumes that the development both of the race\nand of the individual can be described as a progress thru certain stages ;\nand that, with some relatively calculable variations, these stages correspond\nin the two series. The inference is then drawn that, since the history of\nthe child is writ large in that of the race, we can see more clearly in the\nrace than in the child what is the true order of development. To this is\noften added the idea that, since the race has preserved the products of\nits activity in the most important stages, we have ready to hand the true\nfood on which the child must be nourished as he goes thru the several\n\n"}
{"page": 585, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nCULTURE-EPOCft\n\nTH^OkY\n\nIM EWcATION\n\n5TJ\n\nzones of progress from infancy to manhood. It seems needless to say\nthat the admission of the undefined general correspondence just mentioned, in which all are doubtless agreed, does not imply acceptance of\nthe more precise doctrine of recapitulation. Nor can the latter be foisted\nupon us as a corollary of the doctrine of evolution. It is true that the\nbiological argument for the culture-epOch theory would be less tenable\nwithout the doctrine of evolution ; but it does not follow, because our\nspecies is believed to be the result of successive variations from less com,\nplex organisms, that therefore the youth of the species should pass thru\nthe successive variations from primitive man. If a theory of recapitulation definite enough to deserve practical consideration is to stand at all,\nit must do so by force of independent proof.\nNow, such alleged proof appears to range itself chiefly under the biological, the sociological, the a priori psychological, and the historical\nargument. To begin by noting the first of these forms of evidence :\nComparative anatomists tell us that the embryonic human brain, from its\nfirst appearance as a semi-fluid and shapeless mass, passes in modified\nform thru the several structures that constitute the permanent and complete brain of fish, reptile, bird, and mammal ; and that the mode of\ndevelopment after birth to some extent recapitulates that by which the\nbrain of the human species attained its present form and functions. Like\nthe theory of evolution, the conception of parallelism rose at first no\nhigher than physiological phenomena; later, by application of the principle of continuity and the doctrine of parallelism between brain states\nand states of consciousness, the correspondence of the stages of physical\ngrowth before birth with the pre-human series was read up into an analogy\nbetween the mental development of the child and that of the species.\nThis biological argument has undoubtedly proved more coercive than any\nother, and it is certainly difficult to deny it general validity and significance. But a moment's reflection convinces us that, as an argument for\nthe definite parallelism claimed by the culture-epoch theorists, it owes its\nweight largely to the fact that, while everyone can recognize its general\ndirection, only the specialist can say how far it is modified by a more\nexact knowledge of facts. It must, however, be apparent to everyone that\nwhere the physical parallelism is best made out, namely, between the prenatal human and the animal series, there is no psychical analogy, and where\nthe psychical parallelism is alleged to begin, the physical parallelism disappears or is obscured, no adequate basis for comparison having been laid\nin an exhaustive study of post-embryonic brain development in the child\nand post-simian brain development in the race. Before birth, physiological parallelism ; after birth, indications of mental analogy ; no common\nterm. Even if we were assured of post-embryonic recapitulation in\nphysical structure, we could not conclude to definite reproduction of mental function. The outcome of the biological argument seems to be that,\n\n"}
{"page": 586, "printed_page": null, "text": "578\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementaor\n\nwhile the physical analogy between the pre-natal human and the animal\nseries points uncertainly to some analogy between the mental development of the race and that of the individual, it_ is an inadequate support\nfor a theory of definite correspondence.\nIn the sociological argument, the terms related, when relieved of\ntheir cloudiness, are incapable, at least in the present state of inquiry, of\nsupplying a firm footing for the comparison of child and species. The\ngist of the contention appears to be that the social mind, like the individual mind, begins its experience with a \"total real\" which is gradually\nbroken up and put together again, at first uncpnsciously, under the\nstimulus of daily needs and dominated by anthropomorphic conceptions,\nbut later with growing definiteness of purpose in fulfillment of an increasingly conscious ideal set in a world-conception which is less and less\nanthropomorphic. But as the terms in which this progress are described\nare borrowed from individual psychology, and the social mind is an abstraction from individual minds, it is doubtful how far any real independence\ncan be ascribed to the social series. On the other hand, an individual\nmind, viewed as uninfluenced by social forces, can have no concrete\nexistence. Both of the parallel terms are abstractions. What seems to\nbe true is that, in a historical survey of minds, processes can be abstracted\nwhich, in their collective aspect, show analogy with the stages of individual mental development. But this statement obviously supports the vague\nand not the definite theory of recapitulation.\nThe sociological consideration is helped out by what I have called the\na priori psychological argument, based on the supposed nature of mind.\nEach stage of progress, it is said, must grow out of the preceding stage in\naccordance with a law of growth ; must be essentially the next step.\nHence the advance of the race and that of the individual, coinciding with\nthe law, must coincide with each other. But this argument not only begs\nthe question of the identity of any laws controlling race and individual\ngrowth, but forces beyond all evidence the notion of an inner regulative\nprinciple which fulfills itself regardless of changes in environment.\nThe historical argument includes a wide range of investigation. It\nespecially seeks to make the theory more tangible by tracing stages of\nprogress and decay thru the modes of thought, institutions, and ideals\nof particular nations, and relating these to similar epochs in the life of\nthe individual. Studies in the beginnings of government, religion,\nmorals, literature, natural science, industries, and the arts of representation, particularly drawing, are also thought to provide a wide basis for\ncarrying out the assumed parallelism. But where exact verification is\nimpossible, and both facts and terms wanting in precise definition, even a\nlarge number of analogies must fail to do anything more than create a\npresumption in favor of the doctrine.\nAltogether, a glance over the evidence for the culture-epoch theory,\n\n"}
{"page": 587, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nTHE\n\nCULTURE-EPOCH\n\nTHEORY\n\nIN EDUCATION\n\n579\n\nfrom the layman's point of view, tends to emphasize the judgment:\nunproved. That there is a high degree of general probability for some\nform of parallelism between the development of the individual and that\nof the race would probably, we repeat, be conceded by all. But the\nterms of the parallelism are undecided, the epochs indefinite, the evidence of corresponding stages full of gaps and ambiguities.\nHow, then, shall we look at the weight of authority which heralds\n.the doctrine from many quarters and from thinkers as diverse as Goethe,\nKant, Pestalozzi ? The truth seems to be that the prominent men who\nrefer to the theory or use it in their educational schemes have simply\nseized upon the conception in a loose, constructive fashion, without careful research or critical examination of evidence. An authority is not one\nwhose dictum is to be taken without convincing reasons, but one who\nhas demonstrated his ability to give such reasons. In this sense, no\none of the older philosophers and educators is an authority on culture epochs. Some of the most famous whose names are quoted, as\nGoethe and Darwin, have but casually discussed or questioned the doctrine, while others, as Ziller and Hartmann, have been occupied in\naccurately dividing the years of childhood among the culture epochs\nrather than in finding a warrant for doing so. Some authorities, again,\nhave apparently cherished the theory because it was to their minds the\nvehicle of a stronger conviction that the faculties of children ought to be\ndeveloped according to some order. It seems, indeed, to be true that\nvaluable conceptions have been reached thru the culture-epoch theory\nwhich might have been delayed without it, tho their truth is quite\nindependent of it. But that is, of course, no more an argument for the\ndoctrine than the facts discovered by the Chaldaeans about eclipses are\nan argument for astrology. If authority is to count at all in our attitude\ntoward recapitulation as a tenable theory, it must be simply to strengthen\nthe undefined analogy between race and child which no one is disposed\nto question.\nIf the evidence for the theory, both as presented by its earlier\nadvocates and as construed from the modern evolutionary and sociological point of view, is insufficient to recomr^iend the culture epochs as a\ndefinite teaching, we have further to ask whether the application of the\ndoctrine has proved itself so valuable, or at least so promising, as to\nincline us to dispense with proof. The difficulty of interpreting the\ntheory is, of course, obvious. The child' is to be guided thru the\nepochs traversed by the race. But epochs of what ? Progress and\ndevelopment are far too abstract and general terms to direct us in fitting\nthe race series to the individual series and concluding from the one to the\nother. That the correspondence should be a thorogoing one is\nmanifestly impossible. If all the stages of race development were\nrepeated by the individual, some of them must be touched so rapidly as\n\n"}
{"page": 588, "printed_page": null, "text": "58o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\nto be negligible. But all students of the subject admit the short-circuiting by which the individual, receiving thru natural selection or transmission of acquired characters the benefit of habit and accommodation,\nomits stages which were essential in the development of his ancestors.\nThese short-cuts, it would appear, vary so extensively in different individuals that their occurrence alone would make it impossible to reason from\nrace to child without constant modifications and exceptions. One\nmarked illustration of the modification of the alleged parallel series is the\nrelation between sensory and motor activity in the child and in adults of\nthe earlier race. The receptive, sensory side of the child's nature unfolds\nunder the stimulus of complex culture products and a highly developed\nready-made language, while the productive, motor side lags far behind,\nthe muscles and glands being of slower growth than the central nervous\nsystem. Thus, while the race has fed on its own culture products, even\nnature having in a sense grown along with man, the child has developed\non products indefinitely in advance of his own active powers. But if the\ncourse of development in the individual as compared with that of the\nrace is subject to short-cuts, foreshortening, shifting, and various marked\nchanges of function and relation, what phase or aspect of growth shall we\nfix on to serve as basis for a comparison of stages ? How has this difficulty been met by culture-epoch theorists ?\nHerbart supposed that the doctrine should be applied to the matter\nof instruction in history, literature, and language, and reached the somewhat amusing conclusion that Greek and Latin should be taught before\nFrench and Italian, and that Roman history — perhaps the least congenial\nof records to children — should precede modern historical tales. Herbart's dominant belief that the child should assimilate in order the traces\nof moral culture in the race was developed by Ziller, who, after a happy\ncourse in the Odyssey and Robinson Crusoe, led the children from the\nheroic and individual epoch thru the various stages of relation to the\ncommunity represented by the patriarchs, judges, kings, the life of Christ,\nand the history of the apostles, ending in the Reformation and the catechism. Vogt took something from the Procrustean caste of the system\nby avoiding the attempt of .Herbart, Ziller, and Hartmann to assign a\nparticular year to each epoch, and Beyer broadened the conception by\nattempting to apply it to nature study — afield which Herbart had believed\nto be quite outside the principle ; but otherwise the general features of\nthe Herbartian scheme were retained, with, however, one important element of progress. This is the tendency to transfer the emphasis from the\nselection of proper culture products to study of the progressive movement of the mental life. Vogt made extensive studies in child nature in\norder to determine the characteristic phases of child development during\nthe first fourteen years of life. But this new attempt, it is plain, has its\nvalue quite distinct from any question of recapitulation.\nSo also Rein,\n\n"}
{"page": 589, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nCULTURE-EPOCH\n\nTHEORY\n\nIN EDUCATION\n\n581\n\ncaring little for the mere material imparted in comparison with the\nquality of action and desire aroused, offers principles of guidance which\nare really based on study of the child in his relation to the ends of education, not in his relation to the development of the race. And, in general,\nit is impossible to review the history of the culture-epoch theory without\ndiscovering that, other things being equal, the theorists have contributed\nto pedagogical wisdom just in proportion as they have given over the\nattempt to get at the child thru the race and have addressed themselves to the slow and difficult task of getting knowledge about children\nat first hand. It is doubtful whether from Herbarl to Baldwin all the\nschemes constructed according to the principle of recapitulation are\nworth, either in substance or in stimulus, one careful study of some\nphase of the child mind ; and it is certain that the best thing about the\nculture-epoch theory is that it forgets itself and outgrows itself in singleminded study of children.\nAnd, after all, the uselessness of the culture-epoch generalization in\nthe field of concrete, practical investigation to which it has helped to lead\nis only what we should expect. There is no royal road to definite gains\nin education. Wide-embracing hypotheses like evolution and recapitulation enlarge our grasp, gratify our reason, strengthen our sympathies,\ngive meaning to life ; but they do not rectify our civilization nor provide\nus with school curricula. It is, indeed, easily possible, putting aside practical claims, to exaggerate the extent to which the reason may be comforted bythe explanation which the theory of recapitulation is supposed\nto give of the mysteries of childhood. If it is the ordinary manifestations\nof child life which we wish to understand, we are, of course, putting our\ndifficulty back into a more inaccessible region when we say : \" The child\nmind moves in this fashion because the primitive mind did so before it.\"\nIf it is an explanation of the less common, more individual, or more\ntransient traits that we require, we run a risk of violating the law of\nparsimony when we advance reasons drawn from the remote past without\nhaving first exhausted the possibilities of recent causation.\nThe hypothesis of culture epochs is not, then, one from which, even\nif admitted, we could reason deductively ; it is not yet defined with\nsufficient sharpness nor interpreted with sufficient certainty. We cannot\nteach or withhold anything at any period of the child's development\nsimply because the race learned or did not learn it at a supposed corresponding period. The end of education is supplied in part by the\ndemands of the civilization of which the child is to become a part; his\nown needs, the order of his development, and the subject-matter suited to\nits various phases can in the last resort be determined only by child study\nand by experimental psychology. The impression seems to be growing\namong us that the threefold root of the principle of sufficient reason for\neverything pedagogical is biology, sociology, and psychology.\nIf this\n\n"}
{"page": 590, "printed_page": null, "text": "582\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\nmeans that the three are equally closely related to the problems of\neducation, we must demur. Sociology may help to determine the end\nand the subject-matter as a whole ; biology may clear up what psychology\nis of itself unable to explain ; but the standard of reference is always the\nchild, and the final arbiter and interpreter of data from whatever source,\nas well as the organon of knowledge about the mental elements and the\nlaws that govern their connection, is psychology pursued under experimental conditions.\nWhether or not the theory of recapitulation has in some degree made\nup for the errors and the barrenness which mark its chief applications by\nsuggesting questions and pointing out what to look for, is matter of\nspecial investigation into the recent records of practical pedagogy.\nSince students of the new psychology have necessarily given themselves,\nin the first decades of the history of the science, to structural work, while\nthe doctrine of evolution, with its allied theories, has seemed to shed\ngenerous light on the dark problems of psychogenesis, it would be small\nwonder if educators, somewhat blinded by the sudden illumination,\nshould have turned aside after what prove to be strange gods. But whatever has been the service or the need of the culture-epoch theory in the\npast| it ought not to be required for practical use now that child study is\nin the wav of defining its problems more precisely ; and we may expect\nthat in another decade those who have done pioneer work in structural\npsychology will be using the experimental method for the establishment\nof a sound basis of pedagogy — a basis which, as has been said, can\nacquire stability in no other way. Of course, as a supposition to be\ntested for theoretical validity, the culture epochs retain their interest.\nBut as a practical working hypothesis, to be set in operation by the teacher\nand approved by the result, they are untenable and unnecessary.\nSince, however, a general correspondence between race and individual\ndevelopment is admitted by all, we cannot reproach those who cling to\nthe theory as suggestive and stimulating, provided they are not seduced\nby the charm of wide generalizations into admitting it as a guiding\nprinciple. If it be conceded that the doctrine cannot in ever so slight a\ndegree take the place of experimental psychology, cannot be reasoned\nfrom deductively or used as a working hypothesis in practical pedagogy,\nwe may welcome it as a point of view for all the value it may have in\nwidening our conceptions or in teaching patience with the imperfect\nstages of child-growth.\n\n"}
{"page": 591, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nPLACE\n\nBY DR. W.\n\nPURPOSE\n\nAND\n\nN. HAILMANN,\n\nIN\n\nEDUCATION\n\nDEVELOPMENT\nEDUCATION\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF PURPOSE\n\nOF SCHOOLS,\n\nDAYTON,\n\n583\n\nIN\n\nO.\n\nPurpose, the child of instinct and reason, is the more or less deliberate, conscious tension of the soul toward some definite object. This\nobject is derived primarily from some experience in sensuous life — some\nexperience retained in the memory, revived in the imagination, or lifted\nby the creative inferences of reason and fancy into the region of more or\nless ideal aspiration.\nPurpose hungers and thirsts for achievement. From this it derives\nsustenance. Without this it must perish. For the sake of this it stimulates anew reason and creative fancy, that it may invent the means of\nsuccess. In experiment and research it appeals afresh to sensuous\nexperience. In the records of the past it looks for related precedents.\nIn patient and laborious drill it gains needed skill and endurance. In\nimpassioned eloquence it enlists the sympathy and help of others. In\nprayer it appeals to the Supreme Ruler for aid, demands even the impossible in its conceit. There is not a phase in the life of the soul that is\nnot touched to the quick by the purpose that has taken possession of the\nsoul.\nIn the discussion of the development of purpose it becomes necessary\nto indicate in a few words my fundamental point of view as to the meaning of life and education, the nature and place of will in mental life, and\nof purpose in will. That this cannot and should not be done in the guise\nof formal definitions appears from the fact that the terms involved partake of the infinite, and therefore of the undefinable. Nevertheless it\nmay be done with sufficient definiteness to secure a fair mutual understanding as to the tendency of my thought.\nIn their application I shall limit my terms to \"man.\" I make this\nreservation in order to guard the discussion from trespassing upon speculative grounds in connection with such terms as \" life,\" \" soul,\" \" evolution,\"\n\"self-activity,\" and \"will.\" These terms are indispensable and will prove\nsupremely helpful, if we steer clear of the maelstroms which hurl their\nvictims to the dizzy heights of metaphysical speculation.\nLife is a process of self-realization. The innermost essence of life is\nthe instinct of self-expansion. Life is a process of becoming, a continuous growing toward what may lie more or less vaguely concealed in the\ndepths of instinct, or stand revealed more or less clearly on the ideal\nheights of self-conscious will. Perhaps the most satisfactory term for\nthis process is \"evolution\": the establishment of inner possibilities in the\nactual ; the revealing of the eternal in the temporal, of the spiritual in the\n\n"}
{"page": 592, "printed_page": null, "text": "5^4\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\nmaterial. Evolution, from this point of view, appears as the will seeking\nself-realization in the face of a resisting, external, objective world ; selfactivity appears as the momentum of the spiritual.\nThis resistance of the external, objective world should not be conceived as a hostile factor in the evolution of the will. It affords, rather,\nthe necessary fixed points of support which render the operation of the\nwill possible. The disturbance of the will by the resistance of the external world reveals the instinct,of expansion in sensation, and lifts the will\ninto consciousness. Thus, by the very limitations forced upon the will by\nthe objective world, the will becomes aware of itself, of its freedom, and\nof its power. Unresisted will would result in nirvana. From this it is\nrescued by the necessities born in resistance from without.\nOn the other hand, in its purpose, in its conscious attitude and selfdirection with reference to surrounding necessities, in its steady onward\nmarch toward the realization of the ideals summed up in whatever the\nsoul may hold of faith, of hope, and of charity — in these the will is free.\nThese proceed wholly from within. These the soul may hold fast in every\nhindrance and defeat. Indeed, it is their continued and continuous assertion that constitutes the evolution of man. Without them man is unthinkable ; without them he must sink back into hopeless, loveless aniraality.\nI have thus far looked upon will as practically identical with selfactivity. Now, for the purpose of our discussion, it is necessary to view it\nin its two phases of outward and inward activity. In its inward life it\nappears as sensation : in its outward life, as spontaneity. In this view>\nsensation and spontaneity appear as the opposite poles of conscious selfactive life. Sensation is analytic; spontaneity is synthetic. Sensation\nis primarily passive ; spontaneity is primarily active. Sensation reveals\nthe outer, spontaneity the inner world. Sensation is inductive, separates\nthe general from the particular ; spontaneity is deductive, applies the\ngeneral to new particulars. Sensation discovers necessity ; spontaneity\novercomes it and conquers freedom — subjects necessity to its own inner\nlaw.\nSensation is the consciousness of the present ; its income is stored in\nknowledge, which is the consciousness of the past ; spontaneity applies\nthe latter to its present in the relatively free control of a future. Yet the\ntwo are essentially one, distinct only as opposite polar phases of the one\nconscious life of the self-active soul. Self-activity in self-preservation\nappears as sensation ; in self-expansion, as spontaneity. In sensation the\nself-active will discovers itself thru external opposition ; in spontaneity\nit unites itself, creatively, with the outer forces, with the will of the\nworld.\nIn this unfolding life of the self-active soul the term \"purpose\" designates the more or less definite, conscious aim of intelligent action or conduct. It is the more or less deliberate, more or less conscious tension of\n\n"}
{"page": 593, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPURPOSE\n\nIN EDUCATION\n\n585\n\nthe soul toward certain objects of achievement. In a narrower sense\nthe term may apply to the intended outcome of even the most trivial\nactions ; in a wider sense it includes the deepest attitudes and the highest\naspirations of the soul.\nEvery phase of soul-activity is concerned in the formation of purpose.\nEvery sensation holds its germs. Under the genial influence of love and\nhope it develops into a controlling factor of life. It stands revealed in\nthought, which sees and wills the blessings of its achievement.\nThus purpose appears as a mode of thought, of anticipating reason,\nof imagination turned into the future, of attention directed to some\nattainable object ; in short, as the deliberate straining of self toward the\nrealization of an idea or an ideal.\nThe high value of purpose in life is still further revealed when we\nconsider the relation of individual purpose to universal purpose in the\nevolution of humanity. In individual purpose universal purpose attains\nconsciousness, as it were. Thru individual purpose universal purpose\naccomplishes its end. The evolution of humanity is but the development of this end of universal purpose in its play with individual life.\nIn the measure in which the individual realizes in his consciousness this\nend he sees God. In the measure in which he follows such consciousness\nin his life he does his duty to God, and his life becomes simply conscious\nevolution.\nThus we may say that with the birth of purpose, of conscious selfdirection in the soul, man was born as distinguished from mere animal\ncreation. Blind evolutionary forces were dethroned ; the survival of the\nfittest took a back seat; foresight came to the front ; and education —\nwhich is simply purposeful self-direction as applied to the race — assumed\nthe reins of further develppment.\nThe sinking of the purpose tensions of the soul into the depths of\ninstinct life, in habit or automatism, does not remove them from the field\nof purpose. Purpose, it is true, is born in the soul, whereas habits, automatisms, and heredities rest in the physical organism. But it is the constant and natural tendency of purposeful living to become established in\nthehabits, automatisms, and heredities of the physical organism. Indeed,\nthis constitutes the soul's method of self-actively controlling the organism in its further evolutionary development. The soul fixes, as it were,\nits evolutionary gains in habits, automatisms, and heredities, that it may\nbe free for further conquests.\nThe importance of purpose as a paramount objective point in the\neducation of the child is manifest from these considerations. Knowledge\nand skill are, indeed, indispensable ; yet they are but ladder and sword\nin the hands of purpose. Purpose uses them as it may list, for good or\nill; it is, with reference to them, \"the man behind the gun.\"\nKnowledge — the accumulated experience of the race — and skill — the\n\n"}
{"page": 594, "printed_page": null, "text": "586\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementaty\n\nindividual's acquired ability to use it for definite ends — are not by this\nlowered in value and importance. Without them \" the man behind the\ngun \" would cut but a sorry figure, would be powerless of achievement.\nTo knowledge, purpose owes its ideas and ideals; to skill, the power and\njoy of achievement. With their combined help individual purpose rises\nto the heights of humanity.\nYet knowledge and skill are in themselves vain and ephemeral, the\nchildren of a day. But purpose is the first-born of the eternal will ; if\nneed be, it will secure knowledge and create skill in order to gratify the\nyearnings of the soul.\nWith commendable zeal and with great profit in its work, the profession has of late years discussed the value of apperception. Apperception\nis a phase in the process of mental assimilation, in which the mind, on\nthe basis of former gains, assigns to new experiences their proper places\nin its treasure-house of living knowledge, and arrives at clearer, more\ndefinite, and more abstract conceptions of things and relations.\nThese apperceptional results, however, are very superficial and ephemeral affairs, unless they become rooted in the heart-life of purpose and\nfind fruitage in living achievement. In order to become permanently\nand profoundly valuable mental possessions, they need to be intensified\nin another, deeper process of mental assimilation, for which I have proposed the name of introception.\nIn this phase of mental assimilation the new experience, after having\nin apperception assumed its proper place in the light of previous acquisition, enters the purpose-life of the soul, adding new vigor, new definiteness and ideality to whatever related purpose it may find in its new\nhome. Thus it becomes an integral factor in the self-expansive, outward\nlife of the mind- heart of man, reinforcing the movement by which this\nmind-heart of man steadily lifts itself out of mere seeing and doing\ninto insight and foresight, and into creative self-assertion, the crown and\nglory of life.\nI would not deprecate apperception; for in mental life both — apperception and introception — are equally indispensable. Mental life, which\nhas it roots in experience, finds its completion or fruitage in achievement.\nPurpose mediates between the two, determines the direction of life, utilizes\nexperience in conduct. On the side of experience, thought is apperceptive\nand results in knowledge or apperceptive ideas ; on the side of achievement or conduct, thought is introceptive and results in conscious purpose\nor introceptive ideas. In apperception the mind forms pictures of its\nsuccessive income from experience in terms of whatever related experience\nit may possess ; in introception the mind places its apperceptive capital at\nthe disposal of related purposes with a view to their better achievement. In apperception the mind adapts itself, as it were, to experience\nand environment ; in introception the mind controls experience and\n\n"}
{"page": 595, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPURPOSE\n\nIN\n\nEDUCATION\n\n587\n\nenvironment in the service of its self-active spontaneity. In apperception the world is revealed, in introception it is conquered.\nThe two are not antagonistic, but polar, phases of the same one\nmental process of assimilation ; the one turned inward, subjective, analytic ;\nthe other turned outward, objective, synthetic. Thus the two are mutually\ninterdependent ; they reinforce one another. They are to each other, if\na different figure is admissible, like the depressions and elevations of\nwaves. As in the disturbed sea depression and elevation follow each other\nin endless mutual interdependence, so in the agitated soul new knowledge\nstimulates and intensifies purpose, and new purpose increases and illumines\nthe stores of knowledge.\nThis should constantly be kept in mind in our discussion, in order\nthat we may escape the snares and pitfalls of one-sidedness. For every\nneglect of apperceptional life, every weakening of knowledge, or closing\nof the avenues of knowledge, must lower energy, clearness of purpose, and\nscope of achievement, as surely as the neglect of purpose and achievement in the traditional school is notoriously arresting development and\ndragging education steadily to lower depths of inefficiency, to flatter plains\nof mediocrity.\nSimilarly, as between purpose and achievement, it should be kept in\nmind that achievement is the logical outcome of purpose and its reason\nfor being. * Achievement, or the hope of achievement, adds joy to purpose\nand fills the soul with that serenity which insures vigorous, all-sided\ngrowth thruout the entire field of mentality. Purpose steadily deprived\nof achievement succumbs to the resulting depression, dies of inanition,\nand drags mind and man into its ruin.\nThese considerations indicate with sufficient clearness the road which\neducation should go, if it would lead the life of humanity to purposeful\nefficiency. Resting its work upon the hereditary and cultural acquisitions\nof man, and dealing consciously and deliberately with the possibilities\nrevealed in his nature and history, education becomes conscious evolution\nor, rather, as referred to mankind as a whole, conscious self-evolution.\nIt seeks physical strength and vigor, intellectual sensibility and thoroness,\nearnestness and cheerfulness in work, a sympathetic and helpful attitude\ntoward men and man, in order to secure the purposeful, beneficent\nefficiency in life which is the glory of human development. To this end\nall its measures and activities must tend. This is the educational kingdom of heaven to which, if it be gained, all else will be added.\nFor, by virtue of a natural reaction and because of the elemental\noneness of the soul, this purposeful beneficent efficiency implies and,\ntherefore, enhances that sympathetic and helpful attitude, that earnestness\nand cheerfulness in work, that keenness and thoroness of intellect, that\nphysical strength and vigor, which education would seek as proximate ends\nof its efforts.\nBeneficent efficiency consecrates these things by placing\n\n"}
{"page": 596, "printed_page": null, "text": "588\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\n'them in the service of duty, of devotion, of ethical and religious aspiration ;\nby establishing them in the innermost as indispensable factors in the\nprocess of man's self revelation as the child of a purposeful, beneficient\nCreator.\nThe fundamental requirement in the development of purpose is sense\nof power. Unless one feels that his purpose lies within his powers of\nachievement, he will not hold it fast. Purpose postulates faith in self and\nin the power of self, clear vision, the absence of doubt. These kindle in\nthe soul the feeling of joy, the feeling which German seers have significantly termed Wcrdelust — the joyous sense of becoming, of growing\nmastership, of increasing freedom, the dawn of a better state.\nIn due time there is added to this sense of power a moderating prudence which guards achievement against the dangers of rashness and\nignorance, teaching what may be done, if success is to crown effort.\nThere is added, furthermore, a due subordination of measures to the compel ing \"you must'' of outer necessity. At last, under the benign influence of sympathy, the sense of the imperative ought enters the soul, and\nman is ready under the sway of reason and love to do whatsoever he wills.\nThus these five — I can, I may, I must, I ought, I will — name the\nsuccessive rounds of the ladder by which man rises into his divine heritage\nof freedom.\nSelf-activity implies, seeks, freedom. Freedom is the essential condition of growth. Therefore, the first requirement of rational education is\nto set free the youthful forces in purposeful play and purposeful work, in\na wisely chosen and wisely guarded environment. Neglect of this breeds\ndiscouragement, stubbornness, hypocrisy, wretchedness, a practically\nsuicidal life.\nThe very complexity and preponderance of the muscular machinery in\nthe human organism, and the intimate blending of its ultimate fibers with\nthe nervous tissue, declare plainly the yearning of the soul for self-expression, for self-assertive activity. The immediate muscular response to any\nstimulus in earliest infancy reveals the soul's thirst for activity. \"Let me\ndo it!\" is the first and most persistent request of childhood, as it begins\nto realize its creative possibilities.\nJoyful activity — and this alone can secure growth — implies freedom\nto do, the achievement of purpose. Ideally speaking, therefore, restraint\nis unpedagogic. In the vocabulary of ideal pedagogy there is no such\nword as \"don't.\" Whenever the teacher uses this word, he may be sure\nthat it is forced upon him by lack of knowledge or skill on his part, or by\nstubborn conditions which he cannot control.\nIdeally, education with reference to the child is following rather than\nprescriptive, suggesting rather than commanding. It controls thru\nenvironment. From this proceed its opportunities and invitations to do.\nIn this, too, in its inherent necessities and compulsions, lie the countless\n\n"}
{"page": 597, "printed_page": null, "text": "DepartmentJ\n\nPURPOSE\n\nIN EDUCATION\n\n589\n\ntemporary and legitimate restraints which result on the pupil's part in\npatience, perseverance, self-control. These necessities and compulsions\nhe ultimately learns to utilize deliberately for his purposes in the subordination of environment to his self-liberated will.\nThis is the gist of the problem of education : so to adjust the pupil's\nenvironment that he may engage in- right activities freely, successfully,\njoyously ; that all invitations to such doing, all motives and purposes\ninvolved therein, may lie in right directions, toward greater strength,\nhealth, and benevolence. Thus will education overcome false heredities,\nand secure right tendencies, right habits, right thoughts and feelings,\nright hopes and aspirations ; and against the spiritual momentum of\nthese subsequent external failure and temptation will have little power.\nTrue, full education must become to the pupil, even in the school, a\nprocess of continuous self-revelatiorj. It must place man into conscious\npossession of his destiny, of the means for its fulfillment. It must deliver\nhim from caprice and license, and make of him a free wielder of the\nrecognized forces and laws of his life, a consciously self-active factor in\nthe evolution of humanity.\nIt is manifest that such an education can no longer be satisfied with\nthe mere imparting of knowledge, nor even with the merely theoretical\ninculcation of principles of thought and action. Henceforth education\nmust learn to touch and stir the whole being of the child in everv direction. It must learn to seek its criteria at every stage of its work, in the\nimmediate output of the pupil's life. Not what the pupil may have or\nget is of ultimate importance, but what he can do or does with himself\nright now, and the spirit in which he does these things.\nThe school must learn to lead the pupil to efficient practical life thru\nan efficient, more or less ideal full-life, adapted to his growing powers\nand scope.\nPossibly the kindergarten will furnish the pattern for this.\nPossibly the marvelous ideal which Goethe presents in the \"pedagogic\nprovince\" of his Wilhelm Meister may point the way. Here, at every\nstage, the pupil is in efficient full-life. He produces, creates, uses his\nknowledge and skill in a practical efficiency in which he has an absorbing,\nself-active interest. At the same time he is an earnest, untiring seeker\nafter wider and deeper knowledge, after better and surer skill, that his\nefficiency in his chosen work may grow. All that he knows and can do\nis ever concerned in productive or creative output. His education is not\n2i preparation for life, but an earnest, joyous living into life.\nThe field for discussion and endeavor opened by these considerations\nis so vast that I must content myself with pointing out a few of its prominent features.\nFirst and foremost among these is the importance of hand-training\nand of the value of work in education.\nEven when considered merely as the seat of touch, the hand stands\n\n"}
{"page": 598, "printed_page": null, "text": "59°\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\npre-eminent in the sensuous development of man. All other senses combined are unable to lift man out of the passive subjectivity and wretched\nhelplessness of Condillac's statue. To the hand, as the seat of touch,\nman owes the discovery of space and mobility, of himself and the world.\nThen, taking the other senses under its tutelage and entering upon its\ndivine career as a worker, the hand becomes the inventor of language and\nart, the patient builder of science and industry, the revealer of love and\nduty, the very liberator of man, whom it enthrones in glorious supremacy\nas lord of all created things.\nEvery mental act is stimulated, strengthened, enriched, spiritualized\nby manual activity. As already indicated, it is by the sense of touch, and\nby a variety of muscular movements of which the hand is the chief organ,\nthat sensations lose their barren subjective character and are lifted into a\nfruitful, objective realit3\\ Without this reality, interest, purpose, hope,\naspiration, and the will are unthinkable ; without it reason, imagination,\nand memory could not rise above the horizon of possibilities, and sensation itself must sink back into the sleep of hopeless apathy.\nIt is a generally observed and conceded fact that the manual representation of things in the kindergarten, and, later on, the drawing and\nmodeling of the elementary school, more than aught else assist the\nminds of the children in freeing individual percepts of accidental features, in reaching clear concepts, and in finding the unities that rule in\nlaw and principle.\nIt is an almost equally well-attested fact that manual training in\nadvanced schools effects a notable gain of interest and power of assimilation and retention in all studies, and, consequently, an equally notable\nsaving in time and effort on the student's part in the accomplishment of\nhis tasks. This is the more significant when it is remembered that in the\ngreat majority of instances manual training in these advanced schools is\neducationally still in an unsatisfactory condition- — not vitally related to\nother school studies, having only a remote bearing on practical lifeefficiency, and little connection with the self-active purpose-life of the\npupil.\nIf, in spite of these imperfections of the manual training of our day,\nits influence upon the intellectual and moral development of youth is so\nfavorable, we are justified in anticipating still more precious results from\nit when the school of the future shall have learned to connect it rationally\nand naturally with the self-active purpose-life of its pupils, to make it\ndirectly tributary to the work of the school in every direction of thought\nand study.\nThe choicest contribution of purpose-life to man's equipment is language. Thru language the purpose of one becomes the purpose of many.\nThru language the soul makes known its wants and needs, its hopes and\nyearnings, and brother-souls hasten\n\nto the rescue.\n\nIt is the medium of\n\n"}
{"page": 599, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPURPOSE\n\nIN\n\nEDUCATION\n\n591\n\norganization among men, the indispensable condition of institutional life.\nIt holds fast the past ; it determines the future. As the hand is overcoming space, so the tongue is conquering time; Combined, the two are\nsubjugating nature and heredity, and are gaining for man the conscious\ncontrol of his own evolution.\nIt is significant that in its origin language seems to be intimately\nconnected with the work of the hand. With the exception of a few imitations of sounds and a number of cries expressing pleasure or pain, there\nis scarcely a word, however spiritual in its present application, which\nphilology cannot plausibly trace to some manual activity. Indeed,\nmanual doing in play or work is essentially connected with language.\nThe call for help in work in the achievement of a common end is the\npurpose and justification of language.\nIn language the family is founded. Society owes its origin and development to language. Thru language man has entered humanity. History,\nscience, philosophy, and the prophetic control of the depths and heights\nof being which knows not limitations of time or space or causality are\nthe gifts of language.\nThe functions of self-establishment, of self-assertion, are possible without language. Man may maintain himself in a measure against nature\nand created things with his hands alone. He may even reach a certain\ndegree of brutal supremacy over these things. But in his purpose-life he\ncannot without language rise beyond the narrowest individual needs. In\nhis purpose-life he would remain hopelessly centripetal, fiercely egoistic.\nWithout language he would know neither father nor son ; he would have\nneither friend nor neighbor ; his wife would be to him only a female ;\nhis children, offspring. He might protect them for a time, as other\nanimals do, under the sway of the race-perpetuating instinct ; but in\ndue time he would know them only as feared or hated rivals in the race\nof life.\nFrom this inferno only language and his hand have saved him.\nThese have made even the pains of self-establishment sweet to him, by\nadding to them — and as resting on them and conditioned by them — the\ndelights of self-expansion, the glories of self-devotion, the peace with\nwhich a life of duty crowns the sons and daughters of man.\nIt is needful, however, to remember that all these achievements of\nlanguage have come to man and can be maintained by him only thru the\nmediation of the hand, as the typical organ and symbol of beneficent\nefficiency in life. The word becomes effective in the life-conduct of man\nin the measure in which it sets to work the hand. It may be the hand of\nhim who speaks the word, or the hand of a brother, or the joined hands\nof many. The word may move the hands of men right here and right\nnow, or it may do so after many days and at great distances. Its burden\nmay be the fleeting stimulus of a moment, or a lasting inspiration for\n\n"}
{"page": 600, "printed_page": null, "text": "592\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\ncountless ages.\nYet, in all instances, it is in and thru the work of these\nhands that the word lives.\nThus are we justified in claiming th^t among the high and holy things\nof life, work is the highest. It is the fruitage and outcome of life. Its\nvery essence is creativeness, the imposing of the law of the worker upon\nhis world. Nor does the word thereby lose in dignity and worth. For\nword and work, in full life, are one. To separate them is to rend asunder\nsoul and body. Alone the word is mere wind. Alone work is a dull,\nunmeaning, heavy thud.\nI would emphasize at this point the responsibility of education with\nreference to the social development of the child. Perhaps I should rather\nsay, with reference to the evolution of society.\nSociety is laboring earnestly for organization. It seeks to establish\ncertain social functions in reasonably responsible social institutions. It\nis strenuously seeking to rise out of the tyrannies and anarchies of an irresponsible individualism into an orderly democracy of social solidarity.\nIn its turn, individualism is contesting every inch of the ground.\nWhile denying the very legitimacy of social organization, it turns into its\nchannels even the institutional gains of society. It preaches the sanctity\nof vested rights, the holiness of competitiou, the divinity of laissez-faire,\nthe gospel of \"loaves and games.\" A deceptive casuistry and sophistical\nappeal to the most sordid instincts of the so-called masses and classes, and\nthe hypocritical assumption of benevolence, enable it not only to hinder\nsocial evolution, but frequently to turn it back.\nOn the other hand, social solidarity is not hostile to individual development. On the contrary, individual efficiency and well-being are not only\nthe paramount means, but the very end of its functional life. Whatever\nheights of mastership and control, of peace and joy, individualism may\nhave climbed, vanish into the lowlands when viewed from the elevated\nplateau upon which social solidarity would place its humblest individual\nmembers.\nProbably this very fact accounts for the fatherly way in which society\ncarries on the contest. Society loves the individual, for in and thru the\nindividual society lives. Society recognizes the intrinsic worth of the\nvery qualities that have made individualism its foe. Society recognizes\neven in the perversions of individualism elements which are essential to\nsocial solidarity. It would, therefore, convert rather than destroy. It is\never hoping for the return of the prodigal upon whom it would bestow its\nchoicest treasures.\nThis conversion society would bring about thru education, viewed as\nthe fundamental process in the self-evolution of humanity.\nEducation, then, is more than a mere social institution, vastly more\nthan a mere organ of social solidarity. It is the revealing in conscious\nactivity of the very purpose of social existence, the continuous achievement\n\n"}
{"page": 601, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPURPOSE\n\nIN\n\nEDUCATION\n\n593\n\nof this purpose. The family, the church, the state, are its organs. So is\nthe school one of its organs, probably a secondary organ, but, for this very\nreason and because of its nearness to the child, of primary importance.\nThe family, the church,-^he state, industry and commerce, science and art,\nowe their very being to education. Without it they must sink back into\nthe tyrannies and anarchies of individualism, and perish in the natural\nanimalism of man.\nThis fundamental character of education, at least in its application to\nthe social solidarity of the state, stood clearly revealed in the gigantic\nintellect of Plato. In its application to the life of humanity it was luminous in the mind of Kant. It shines forth in solar splendor and lifestirring warmth in his panegyrics of duty and good-will. In its bearings\nupon the work of the school it was felt and heeded by the loving souls of\nPestalozzi and Froebel. In our own land Horace Mann and Henry Barnard are its very incarnation. Today it is steadily, tho slowly, entering\nthe practice of the elementary school and, in a way, even of the high\nschool and college.\nThe more general recognition of this vast responsibility of education\nconstitutes the soul of what has come to us quite recently as the new education. The old education sought its criteria in tradition, in the achievements of the past, in static perfection. The new education would seek\nits criteria in the epiphanies of advancing insight, in the progressive •\naspirations of the future, in the up-tending ideals of dynamic development. The old school was satisfied with a certain degree of individual\nexcellence in knowledge and skill ; benevolence and social efficiency in\nlife took care of themselves. The new school would actively direct all\nindividual excellence into channels of benevolence and social efficiency.\nIt may be true that the full realization of the requirements of this new\neducation is impossible in our day. The school may, indeed, for decades\nfind it difficult to cut loose from traditional idols which hold it captive in\ntrammels of cant and routine. It may be compelled still to subordinate\nin many ways the deeper interests of the pupil to narrowing aims of public-school economy, to anti-social modes of seating, to depressing and\nrepressing do-nots and shall-nots, to artificial courses of study and modes\nof classification, to catechismal recitations, to unworthy competitions and\ndemoralizing incentives galore.\nYet this need not discourage us. Rome was not built in a day. The\nAmerican continent was not born in an hour. Evolution has moved\ntoward its goal for ages; and yet its work is but begun. Impatience is\nfor children and fools. So is revolution. Insight came to us in the age\nof manhood, and the Giver of it expects of us the spirit of manhood.\nWe have been shown Truth, that we may love her. We have been\ntaught the history of her struggles, that we may have faith in her leadership;that we may patiently bear hardships and difficulties and seeming\n\n"}
{"page": 602, "printed_page": null, "text": "594\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nTElementary\n\ndefeat as temporary soldiers in her service. Above all we are enjoined\nto be patient with brother-men who see not as we see. No true man\ndeliberately serves error. Yet an imprudent defender of truth may stir\nup dust-clouds of stubbornness and self-conceit, eclipsing the sun of truth.\nNot that we should conquer is the purpose of our being, but that we\nshould, to the best of our ability, patiently, resolutely, trustfully, aid the\ncause intrusted to our keeping.\nAfter us there will be others.\n\nVICES\nBY\n\nJ.\n\nW.\n\nDINSMORE,\n\nOF\n\nCHILDHOOD\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF\n\nAND\nCITY\n\nYOUTH\nSCHOOLS,\n\nBEATRICE,\n\nNEB.\n\nVice in itself is any transgression of morality. In the individual it is\na conscious and habitual transgression. One may have yielded to temptation and not be \" vicious.\" Those only are so catalogued who have\nacquired habits of evil.\nDECEIT\n\nPerhaps the first vice to appear in a child is deceit. It is oUservable\nat a very early age, and is practiced consciously at less than two years.\nLittle surreptitious acts, known to be forbidden, are performed either\nmaliciously or defiantly, the offender keenly watching the mood of mother\nor nurse, and judging thereby of his own safety. So spontaneous and\nnatural are these little acts of deception that they savor strongly of\nheredity. But it is doubtful if the amount inherited would lead to serious results. If the child should find, as he developed, that deceit was\nnot practiced by parents and friends, there is little doubt but that he would\ngive it up.\nBut where older children practice it upon their smaller companions,\ntheir parents, and each other, the habit will very readily be acquired by\nthe child. The mother sometimes sets an example of deceit by effusively\ngreeting a caller whom the children know to be unwelcome, or apologizing for a state of things that is quite the usual order. In school it is\nmost in evidence in examinations, reading forbidden literature, passing\nnotes, eating sweetmeats, and the like.\nLYING\n\nClosely connected with, and usually accompanying, deceit is lying.\nThis vice may be learned in a variety of ways, but in the great majority\nof cases it is acquired by observation and imitation.\nAs rewards and punishments are meted out by very many parents and\nteachers, skillful lying is one of the most valuable accomplishments a\nchild can possess.\n\n"}
{"page": 603, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nVICES\n\nOF\n\nCHILDHOOD\n\nAND\n\nYOUTH\n\n595\n\nThe great difference in children in respect to veracity is partly due to\nthe nature of the child and partly to training and environment. Some\nare so sensitive that the least deviation from truth is painful to them,\nwhile others become adepts at lying, and appear indifferent as to its\nresults. In spite of the prevalence of this vice, it is held in poor repute\neverywhere. No greater insult can be given than to call another a liar.\nA man may stand a torrent of abuse, until \" the lie \" is given, when he\nflies into an ungovernable rage. Probably three-fourths of the fights of\nboys occur because of \"the lie\" being passed. From this it seems that\ntruth-telling is more universally held in high esteem than any other\nvirtue.\nLying arises from three general causes : first, from a strong imagination, like that of Arthur Bonnicastle, who was guilty of the grossest fabrications, inwhich he usually played the role of hero ; second, for gain, as\nin trade and barter ; and, third, to escape punishment or disgrace.\nMost children have a weakness in one or mjare of these directions, and\nshould be treated according to the offense. The best remedy in all cases is\nkindness and sincerity on the part of parents and teachers. As a rule, both\nchildren and grown people tell the truth to those whom they love and\nrespect. When parents make promises to their children without being\ncareful to fulfill them, or threats which are not carried out, they lose the\nconfidence, and merit the just contempt, of the little ones.\nSTEALING\n\nWhere deceit and lying abound, one is not surprised to find stealing.\nThe instinct of ownership is one of the endowments of the race, and\nappears in the child in the second year of life. It is this sense that\nprompts him to appropriate whatever seems desirable without any consciousness of wrong. It is not likely that a child of himself would see\nany harm in stealing short of maturity. Uncivilized countries regard\nthis vice as a virtue, and some civilized countries look upon it not unfavorably. The Spartans considered skillful thieving a virtue and an accomplishment. It was part of a boy's education. He was punished for it only\nwhen done in a bungling fashion. In quite modern times conquering\nnations have not hesitated to appropriate the possessions of their vanquished opponents. Napoleon in this way enriched France, and in fact\nthis kind of stealing has not been wholly abandoned by any great nation.\nIf we believe the child to be the exponent of the race, we shall not be\nsurprised if he shows a disposition to seize and appropriate by force or\ncunning whatever strikes his fancy. But in favorable surroundings the\ntendency is soon overcome, and only a comparatively small number of\nchildren can be classed as thieves. This is true in all good communities,\nbut among the ignorant and poverty-stricken it is quite prevalent, while\nin the slums of the cities it is the rule rather than the exception.\n\n"}
{"page": 604, "printed_page": null, "text": "59^\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\nStealing appears to be the most prevalent of all criminal vices. Many\nmore than one-half of all the convicts in the state penitentiaries and of\nreform and industrial schools have been sentenced for some kind of stealing. This is not true of female offenders. Statistics show that most of\nthe latter have been sentenced for crimes against society — begging, prostitution, and vagrancy. . The major part of thieving done by juveniles is\nnot from choice, but necessity. Idle and drunken parents send their\nchildren out to beg or steal, as opportunity offers. The child knows no\nmoral distinction between the two. If he goes back empty-handed, he is\npunished. His lot is a hard one. He is a stranger to love, kindness,\nsympathy, and comfort. He is underfed, miserably clad, neglected,\nabused. His parents and associates are his enemies, and he has no claims\nupon society. He is an outcast. All such should be considered as\nunfortunates rather than criminals. They are the inevitable result of our\ntwisted social fabric. They must be dealt with, not to protect society,\nbut for their own sakes. So long as we look upon them mainly as a\nmenace to society, our hand is against them and theirs against us. They\nshould not be punished, but helped, loved, eficouraged. Where a specimen of this sort is treated cruelly he is cruel. Where treated with indifference he is indifferent. When he shall be treated with love, will he not be\nlovely, for is not love the greatest power in the world?\n\n\"Love never\n\nfails.\"\nThe industrial school, by means of kindness and regular habits, is able\nto reclaim a large proportion of those intrusted to its care, but only a few\nout of the great army of children who are daily becoming thieves are so\nreached.\nGAMBLING\n\nGambling is recognized as one of the greatest evils of the age, yet\none looks for it in vain as the cause of imprisonment in penal institutions.\nLaws against gambling are for the most part dead letters. The reason is\nin the nature of the vice itself. The man who loses his money at the\ngaming table cannot prosecute one who robs him, because he is himself\nequally guilty. The wife has no redress when her husband loses his all\nwithout involving him in the punishment, as the law makes no distinction\nbetween the winner and the loser. Local laws, imposing fines and terms\nin jail, check but little this growing evil. All this is unfortunate, for <\ngambling is more seductive in its nature, and far more destructive to \\\nmorality, than theft. The respectability of gaming, the coolness and *\nkeenness of intellect required, the element of danger, the daring, the •\napplause incident to winning, the possibility of large gains and a life of |\nease, all go to make the life of the gambler a fascinating one. It is one r\nof the most popular evils in the land. Men who call themselves good ^\nand moral citizens bet their money on elections, horse races, ball games\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 605, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nVICES\n\nOF\n\nCHILDHOOD\n\nAND\n\nYOUTH\n\n597\n\nboat races, anything in short that offers a chance for winning. Boys,\nwith their keen interest in whatever men do, think it manly to follow\ntheir example. Playing marbles for keeps is one of the earliest forms of\ngambling. The difference between it and other forms is one of quantity\nand not of quality. Boys have marbles, men have money. Each stake\nwhat they have to win or lose. From marbles for keeps it is matching\npennies, then the nickel in the slot, then games of chance, and the\nhabit is formed.\nBoys thus learning to gamble lose all interest in school and books,\nplay truant and manufacture lies to deceive -parents and teachers. It\nleads to sabbath -breaking, and often to chewing and smoking, in order\nto be more manly and abandoned. Add wine and the prostitute, and the\nboy is a true \" sport.\" •\nThousands of boys every year go thru this experience. Many\nlook eagerly forward to the time when they can indulge freely in sporting\namusements. They read the sporting news with all-absorbing interest.\nThey are more familiar with the champions of the wheel, the diamond,\nand the ring than with the characters of history. Their admiration for\nsome famous pugilist amounts almost to adoration. If the teacher could\narouse the same interest in the characters of history, she would never\nhave- cause to complain. Even local sports have a large circle of admirers among the boys. How the evil shall be met is a problem burning for\nsolution.\nKindred to this and the vices already discussed are\nVULGARITY\n\nAND\n\nIMPURITY\n\nThe minds of children, especially boys, are everywhere poisoned by\nimpure, vulgar, and obscene words and expressions. Wherever idlers\ncongregate bad language is used, vulgar stories are told, evil thoughts\nfind expression, the most sacred relations are profaned. The vice of\nvulgarity is so common that a boy can scarcely be sent to a neighboring\ngrocery without danger of contamination. In barber shops, livery\nstables, railroad stations, and such places boys get their education in profanity and obscenity. In looking over the occupations of convicts in\npenitentiaries one is struck with the great number of barbers. The cause\nis manifest. Almost every barber shop keeps a stock of sensational\nliterature, and pictures of pugilists and actors in tights on the wall.\nFrequenters and customers thus find the way open for gossiping upon\nthe latest sporting news or sensational stories. So tainted is the moral\natmosphere that there is scarcely a boy thirteen years of age who is not\nfamiliar with the vilest street terms.\nProfessor De Motte, in his lecture on \" The Harp of the Senses,\" says\na girl may travel with her mother from New York to San Francisco and\nback and never hear a vile word, but a boy cannot travel with his father\n\n"}
{"page": 606, "printed_page": null, "text": "598\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\nfor a single day without being exposed to contaminating language ; and\nhe demands that society shall give the boy the same chance to be pure\nthat his sister enjoys.\nTouching impurity, I cannot do better than to quote from the letters\nof men high in authority. Regent E. von Forell, chaplain of the State\nIndustrial School for Boys at Kearney, Neb., says : \" It may not be\ngenerally known, but it is true, that there is a systematic recruiting of\nboys and girls to take the place of those so far gone in disease that they\ncan no longer give their bodies to earn their bread. Boys are induced to\nenter dens of iniquity and are led astray long before puberty, and when\nonce entrapped are used to persuade other boys to enter.\" Regent\nForell calls prostitution the greatest sin of the age, and says the evil of\ntobacco and alcohol appears like a joke when compared with it.\nJosiah Strong, of New York city, writes as follows :\nIn a Pennsylvania city I was assured that girls thirteen or fourteen years old\nsolicited traveling men on the streets, taking them to their own fathers' houses. The\ncorruption is widespread. The active cause of this condition of things would seem to be\nthe extensive distribution of obscene literature, both through the mails and by hand.\nMen fill their grips and pockets, step onto platforms when the train stops, with a quick\neye pick out the young fellows of the right sort, put into their hands specimen pages\nwhich give information how to get more, tell them to pass it around, jump onto the train,\nand are gone. Sometimes they distribute the poison to the school children on the playgrounds.\n\nAnthony Comstock, secretary of the New York Society for the Suppression of Vice, considers licentiousness and self-abuse the greatest vices\nof childhood and youth. He says : \" The overwrought stories of social\nvices, as told in the daily papers, the baneful illustrations of the weekly\nillustrated criminal papers, the exciting and pernicious dime novel, the\ndisgusting displays of bill-boards, fences, and sides of buildings, all bid for\nthe destruction of the purity of childhood and youth. The results are\nseen on every hand. The harvest of this impure seed-sowing is a seared\nconscience, a broken constitution, mental, moral, and spiritual death.\"\nTHE\n\nAGE\n\nOF\n\nCRIMINALS\n\nStatistics of prisons and reform schools, while they show the age of\ndelinquents at conviction, do not tell us when these unfortunates began\ntheir career of crime. In a great majority of cases they are habitual\noffenders before being brought to justice. The criminal instinct shows\nitself at a very early period in life. A large proportion, of the\nhabitual criminals are on record as law-breakers before they are out of\ntheir teens. The age of females entering upon a life of crime is greater\nin proportion to the number than that of males. This is partly due to\ntheir better protection at home and partly to the kind of crimes\ncommitted by them. According to Morrison, 26 children in every\n100,000\nof the juvenile population\nunder the age of twelve were\n\n"}
{"page": 607, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nVICES\n\nOF\n\nCHILDHOOD\n\nAND\n\nYOUTH\n\n599\n\nconvicted of indictable offenses. Of the juvenile population between the\nages of twelve and sixteen years 261 in every 100,000 were convicted of\nindictable offenses. Between the ages of sixteen and twenty-one years\n330 in every 100,000 of the juvenile population were convicted of indictable offenses. This shows that juvenile crime steadily increases in amount\nthe nearer maturity is approached.\nHOW\n\nTHE\n\nCRIMINAL\n\nRANKS\n\nARE\n\nRECRUITED\n\nWhile all good people hate sin for its own sake and deplore it for its\neffect upon humanity, and while leagues for social service, and for the\nsuppression of cruelty and of vice and crime, have been and are being\norganized ; while the schools, the churches, and the charitable boards are\nanxious to prevent the spread of evil and to uplift humanity, the hosts\nof wickedness are not idle. The enemies of righteousness are thoroly\norganized, armed, and equipped for the spread of evil. They spare\nneither time nor money in enticing boys and girls into sin. Music,\npictures, gaudy attire, gayety, comfort, indulgence, deceit, treachery, and\ndishonesty are all coupled with the greatest skill ingenuity can invent to\ntempt the young, to entrap the unwary. Alcohol, both as the cause and\nthe effect of crime, is so well-known that we have not taken the time to\nshow the great proportion directly or indirectly traceable to it, but the\nmethods of training boys to become drunkards is worthy of notice.\nEvery saloonkeeper knows that first-class customers do not last many\nyears. The greater their patronage, the shorter their career. When their\nmoney is gone they are useless, and their places must be filled by younger\nmen. Thousands of boys must become patrons every year, or the saloonkeepers would be compelled to go out of business. Some two years ago\nthere was published a statement from a brewer in an address to saloonkeepers advising them to be generous in treating boys. Nickels invested\nthat way would bring dollars into the till a few years later. The choicest\ncake, puddings, and confectionery are flavored with wine or brandy to\ndecoy the young and the weak-willed.\nTobacco is likewise put into convenient and enticing form with the\npurpose of alluring boys to its use. An alarmingly large percentage of\nboys in towns and cities show the effects of cigarette-smoking before they\nleave the grammar grades. Teachers are so familiar with its deadening\neffects that they can pick out at a glance those who have become addicted\nto it. It is significant that 90 per cent, of the cigarette fiends who\nenlisted for the Spanish-American war were rejected as physically\nincapacitated. A well-organized and vigorous war upon the manufacture\nand sale of cigarettes would be more in the interest of humanity than\nany that has yet been inaugurated.\nTwo g,rticles in recent numbers of the New York Indepetident show how\nprofessional tramps recruit their ranks by systematically and effectively\n\n"}
{"page": 608, "printed_page": null, "text": "6oo\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\nworking upon the minds of boys from ten to fifteen years of age. Scores\nof such are being added daily to this menacing army, thinking to lead\na life of ease and adventure. When entrapped they are made to beg,\nsteal, and wait upon their captors, who treat them cruelly, but from whom\nthey are unable to escape. They come eventually to accept the life,\nmiserable and hopeless as it is, and simply look forward to the time when\nthey shall have graduated from their servitude and shall be able to practice the same cruelty upon other boys.\nThe above are but a few of the ways by which the young are led into •\nsin and crime. It is a painful subject to dwell upon, but cannot justly\nbe closed without referring to one that in moral turpitude overshadows\nall the others. Such books as William T. Stead's If Christ Came to\nChicago and Mrs. Charlton Edholm's Traffic in Girls well illustrate the\nevil referred to. The latter especially describes how young and beautiful\ngirls are entrapped by the snares of false employment, mock marriage,\ndrugs, the dance, and starvation wages, and smuggled or enticed into\nhouses of infamy, from which there is no escape.\nWhat is needed is more light. Concealment of crime has become a\nscience. Evil must work in the dark in order to thrive. Criminality\nwould almost cease to exist if thoroly exposed. Idleness and ignorance\ngo hand in hand with vice and crime. Knowledge, courage, and an\nuntiring devotion to humanity will in time overcome evil and usher in\nthe millennium.\n\n"}
{"page": 609, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF SECONDARY\n\nSECRETARY'S\nFIRST\n\nEDUCATION\n\nMINUTES\n\nSESSION.— Wednesday,\n\nJuly 12, iSgg\n\nThe session of this department was opened in the auditorium of the Los Angeles High\nSchool, at 3 p. M. ; President Edward F. Hermanns, Denver, Colo., in the chair; F. H.\nClark, San Fiancisco, Cal., secretary.\nUpon motion of W. H. Housh, Los Angeles, Cal., the appointment of a committee\non nominations was ordered.\nLater President Hermanns appointed as the committee :\nPrincipal O. S. Westcott, Chicago, 111.\nPrincipal W. H. Housh, Los Angeles, Cal.\nSuperintendent L. E. Wolfe, Kansas City, Kan.\n\nMr. A.E. Baker, of Los Angeles, chairman of the Local Committee of Arrangements,\ninvited the members of the department to a reception for the coming evening at\nBlanchard Hall, tendered by the Local Department Committee and the faculty of the\nLos Angeles High School.\nMr. A. Horatio Cogswell, of Los Angeles, favored the department with a vocal\nsolo.\nPrincipal (lilbert B. Morrison of the Manual Training High School of Kansas City,\nMo., presented the first paper of the afternoon's program, upon the subject, \" Do Our High\nSchools Prepare for College and Life, in Accordance with the Present Requirements of\nBoth ? \"\nDiscussion was opened by Dr. A. F. Nightingale, of Chicago, who was followed by\nPrincipal William H. Lynch of Mountain Grove Academy, Missouri ; Principal O. S.\nWestcott, of Chicago ; Superintendent L. E. Wolfe, Kansas City, Kan., and Principal\nW. H. Housh, of Los Angeles.\nProfessor J. W. Crabtree, inspector of accredited schools of the University of\nNebraska, presented the second paper of the afternoon, upon the subject, \" Should\nArithmetic, Grammar, Geography, and History of the United States be Reviewed in\nthe High School ? \"\nJ. H. Lewis, state superintendent of public instruction, St. Paul, Minn., opened the\ndiscussion with an account of the experience of Minnesota in introducing the review of\nthe common branches into the high school. The discussion was continued by Principal\nE. W. Coy, Cincinnati, O.; Superintendent J. F. Keating, Pueblo, Colo.; Miss Davis,\nLos Angeles, Cal.; Principal Allyn O. Taylor, Benicia, Cal.; Principal O. S. Westcott,\nChicago, 111.; J. H. Miller, Lincoln, Neb.; Miss A. F. Olcutt, Ishpeming, Mich.;- Principal J. F. Lynch, Mountain Grove, Mo.; and Superintendent Hugh J. Baldwin, San Diego,\nCal.\nAt 5 o'clock the department adjourned, to hold its next session in conjunction with\nthe Department of Higher Education.\nJOINT SESSION\n\nOF SECONDARY AND HIGHER\nThursday, July 13\n\nDEPARTMENTS.—\n\nThe joint session of the Secondary and Higher Departments, to consider the report of\nthe Joint Committee on College Entrance Requirements appointed at the Denver meeting,\n601\n\n"}
{"page": 610, "printed_page": null, "text": "602\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\n1895, was called to order in Temperance Temple at 3 o'clock by Edward F.\nHermanns, president of the Department of Secondary Education. F. H. Clark,\nsecretary of the same department, acted as secretary of the joint session. Copies of the\nreport were distributed among the members of the departments.\nDr. A. F. Nightingale, superintendent of high schools, Chicago, 111., chairman of the\njoint committee, presented the subject-matter of the report, discussing its provisions and\nmaking further recommendations, especially that a new committee should be appointed\nto perfect the work in science.\nThe discussion of the report was opened by President Joseph Swain, Indiana University, Bloomington, Ind., who read portions of the report and discussed its leading\nprinciples.\nHe was followed by Principal E. W. Coy, of Cincinnati; President James H. Baker,\nof Colorado ; Principal -fl. L. Boltwood, of Illinois ; President William H. Black, of\nMissouri, and President David Starr Jordan, of California.\nThe Pasadena High School Young Ladies' Quartette entertained the audience with\nmusic, and for an encore gave a pretty little song of welcome to the National Educational Association, arranged for the occasion by Miss Edith Parker.\nTo dispose of the report. President Swain introduced a resolution of indorsement\nand approval ; but the following motion was, after some debate, adopted by the joint\ndepartments :\nResolved^ That in view of the fact that the carrying out of this report would make many radical changes\nin our high -school work, and that so few members have had opportunity to read the report, further consideration of it be postponed one year.\n\nL. W. Babcock, Ukiah, Cal., moved the following, which was unanimously adopted :\nResolved, That a vote of thanks be extended to the committee for its careful and conscientious report. ■\n\nAfter a song by a male quartet composed of the following members of the association, W. H. Ressler, H. J. Boke, F. O. Mower, and L. T. Merwin, the joint session of\nthe departments was adjourned.\nSECOND\n\nSESSION.— Friday, July 14\n\nThe final session of this department for the Los Angeles meeting was called to order\nin the auditorium of the Los Angeles High School at 3 p. M.; President Edward F. Hermanns in the chair.\nThe program was opened by a mandolin and piano duet by Mr. and Mrs. Monlux,\nof Los Angeles. This was followed by a vocal selection by a quartet of members of the\ndepartment — Messrs. E. D. Ressler, H. J. Boke, F. O. Mower, and L. T, Merwin — who\nreceived a hearty encore.\nThe following report of the Committee on Nominations was read by the secretary :\nMr. President and Members\n\nof the Department\n\nof Secondary Education:\n\nYour committee, after mature consideration, respectfully submits the following names for the officers of\nthis department for the coming year:\nYox President— E. W. Coy, Cincinnati, O.\nFor Vice-President — G. B. Morrison, Kansas City, Mo.\nFor Secretary — H. L. Boltwood, Evanston, III.\n(Signed)\nO. E.\nS. Wolfe,\nWestcott,\nL.\nW. H. HousH,\nCommittee.\n\nUpon motion of E. D. Ressler, of Eugene, Ore., it was unanimously ordered that\nthe report be accepted, and that the secretary be authorized to cast the ballot of the\ndepartment for the nominees. This being done, the above-named gentlemen were\ndeclared as officers of the department for the ensuing year.\n\n"}
{"page": 611, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department)\n\nFOR\n\nWHAT\n\nDO\n\nOVR\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nPREPARE?\n\n603\n\nThe first paper of the afternoon, upon the subject, \" The Ethical Influence of the\nStudy of Economics,\" was written by Byron C. Mathews, City High School, Newark, N. J.\nMr. Mathews was unavoidably absent, and by special authorization of the executive committee of the association the paper was read by Superintendent J. F. Keating, Pueblo,\nColo.\nPresident Hermanns suggested that the discussion of the paper be deferred until\nafter the reading of the second paper of the afternoon, as the subjects were similar.\nThe audience was again favored with a vocal selection by the quartet.\nPresident Sylvester F. Scovel, University of Wooster, Ohio, then presented the second\npaper of the afternoon, upon the subject, \"In Fundamental Civil Ethics, What Ought We\nto Teach as the American Doctrine of Religion and the State ? \"\nPresident James H. Baker, University of Colorado, opened the discussions of the\nafternoon, confining himself mainly to the second paper.\nThe paper of Mr. Mathews was discussed by Superintendent J. F. Keating, Pueblo,\nColo.\nAt 5 o'clock the president declared the sessions of the department adjourned.\nFrederick H. Clark,\nSecretary.\n\nPAPERS\n\nAND\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nDO\n\nOUR HIGH SCHOOLS PREPARE FOR COLLEGE AND\nFOR LIFE, IN ACCORDANCE WITH THE PRESENT\nREQUIREMENTS\nOF BOTH?\n\nBY\n\nPRINCIPAL\n\nGILBERT\n\nB.\n\nMORRISON,\nKANSAS\n\nMANUAL\nCITY,\n\nTRAINING\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nMO.\n\nAny discussion respecting a preparation for life presupposes an ideal\nof life's objects. My own opinion of what constitutes a proper course of\nstudy and training as a preparation for life will be accepted as sound or\nrejected as faulty to the same extent that my ideal of what an education\nis for agrees with or differs from yours.\nI assume that the objects of life are happiness, contentment, and\nusefulness to others. All of these depend upon a true interpretation of\nthe environment and an adaptation to the requirements of physical, moral,\nand intellectual law. The present requirements of life differ from those\nof the past only as they involve a fuller comprehension of nature's laws,\nforces, and possibilities.- Happiness is conditioned upon the complete\nmastery of the principles underlying the vocation which is to be followed\nfor the gaining of a livelihood. Weakness is misery, and ignorance of the\nfacts and forces underlying human activities is followed by failure and\ndiscontent. Quantitatively, very few of the facts constituting the world's\nknowledge can be learned during the brief period in school ; the most,\n\n"}
{"page": 612, "printed_page": null, "text": "6o4\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\ntherefore, that can be done is to give the pupil the power of self-help —\nto enable him to help himself to the accumulated experience of the race.\nLife as existing at the present time demands of the young graduate\nentering it that he be able-bodied, quick in adaptation to changing\nconditions, and willing to take hold of the first useful employment that\ncomes to his hand. He must possess a love for labor and find his chief\nenjoyment in overcoming the difficulties of his daily occupation. He\nmust be ambitious, upright, and honorable. Confident of his own powers,\nbut modest in exhibiting them in the presence of superiors, he must\npossess high ideals of life and its possibilities, and be absolutely free from\nthose vulgar and vicious habits so common in our modern youth. He must\nlearn to love his work for its own sake, and not to drag heartlessly thru a\ndaily routine as a means of gratifying some vapid social longing as his\nonly relief from the slavery of his condition. The young graduate\nseeking employment must possess a mind tutored to close application, with\na sympathetic grasp upon the physical problems and the material achievements that characterize this age. He must be one with the throbbing,\nliving forces that he will encounter on every hand. He must be able to\nthink in terms of dynamic as well as social forces. This is not all. He\nmust be able to answer the question, \"What can you do ?\" as well as the\nquestion, \"What 'do you know?\" He will find that the demand is not\nso much for a savant to solve the labor question as for a boy who can\nfurnish some of the labor and who can improve upon its methods and\nupon its spirit. He will also speedily discover that the miserable\nsmattering of three or four languages is not so much in demand as a\nfacile possession of his own English, and that to express himself with\nbrevity, clearness, terseness, correctness, and without mistakes in spelling\nor punctuation is indispensable both in securing employment and in\nholding it. Furthermore, he will discover that to be able to execute with\nneatness and dispatch the plans of his employer is more acceptable than\nadvice on how the \" old man's\" business should be run. He will find\nthat it is not his diploma and his Greek fraternity pin, but his all-round\nusefulness that is competent to secure a \" pull \" with his employer.\nIt is our object here to inquire to what degree our high schools are\nproviding for the youth of this country the qualifications named in the\nforegoing outline. It should, of course, be remembered at the outset that\nno school, however well-appointed and wisely managed, can make him or\nher able to overcome the incapacity of hereditary weakness and the\nban of natural incapacity. In this consideration of the course of study\nnatural ability and preliminary preparation are presupposed.\nThe whole process of education may be embodied in the words \" thought\"\nand the \"expression of thought ; \" and these should correlate at every step.\nThe material provided for thought should be that which most characterizes this age — that which will put the pupil into sympathetic relations\n\n"}
{"page": 613, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nFOR\n\nWHAT\n\nDO\n\nOUR\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nPREPARE?\n\n605\n\nwith the life he must live and with the work he must do. Natural science,\nas taught in our best high schools, furnishes a fruitful field for thought,\nand the facts it deals with are close to the daily requirements of life.\nThe habit of reasoning from cause to effect is a necessary qualification\nfor the citizenship as well as for the pursuit of a trade or profession. All\nthe sophistry and clap-trap of the politician is made possible by the\nalmost universal absence of correct notions of cause and effect on the part\nof the average voter. Could every boy in our high schools receive the\nproper training in science, and. have incorporated into his mental and\nmoral fiber a love for truth, as well as an appreciation of cause and effect,\na belief that there is any particular relation between \"good times\" and\nthe prevailing political administration would become obsolete, and many\na demagog would turn his attention to the question of how he could\nbecome really useful and productive, and away from his ridiculous claims\nas a benefactor. There is not enough science training of the right sort\nin our high schools. Our graduates, taking them as a whole, are not\nimbued with the true scientific spirit at all, chiefly because the school\nadministrations subordinate the useful and practical to the theoretical and\nornamental.\nPhysiology, which is usually taught from the text-book in the most\nsuperficial and perfunctory manner, should take its rank as a laboratory\nscience, and should be so thoroly treated, both from the standpoint of\nphysiology and hygiene, that the laws underlying physical well-being\nwould be thoroly instilled into the minds of ihe pupils. Much of the\nfailure in life comes from ignorance of the laws of physical being. The\nteaching of science has only recently approached a scientific and practical\nbasis, but from the improved methods now in vogue, and the rapid\nimprovement in the qualification of teachers, there is much to be hoped\nfor in the near future.\nExcellent as is experimental science in its power to set the student\nin working order, it is not sufficient. Activity is the law of youthful growth. A certain reflex action between brain and hand is essential\nto normal growth. The full and complete realization of the laws of\ndynamics and of the properties of matter which comes to a boy in\nthe workshop when executing a piece of work systematically is fully\nas essential as the abstract principle which too often exists in the mind as\na shadowy impression held just long enough to pass the examination.\nThe application of science is seldom seen by a boy whose experience is\nlimited to the laboratory and the class-room. In order that a boy may\nbe fitted for life thru the study of physics, he must be made to see the vital\nrelation of its laws to the common mechanic, and how an accurate knowledge of it has advanced civilization thru the industries of life. But our\nhigh schools, except in isolated cases, do not provide this hand-training ;\nand here — let me express my sincere belief-— is the great weakness of the\n\n"}
{"page": 614, "printed_page": null, "text": "6o6\n\nNATlbNAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nhigh school of the present. The objects of manual training in schools\nare twofold : first, to stimulate and nourish the growth of faculty, and,\nsecond, to place the pupil into correct relations with labor. The first\nobject alone would fully justify its introduction from a purely educational\nbasis. I am fully prepared to state, and to prove from observation and\nexperience, that a pupil can and does do as much and better academic\nwork in four years with an incorporated course of manual training and\ndrawing as he can without such training. The second object .is paramount.\nCorrect relations to industry involve : love of labor, a knowledge of its\ndifficulties and of the cause of the laborer, his weakness, his trials, and\nthe causes which lead to his complaints and his strikes. The discussion\nof the labor question in political-economy classes by youths who are too\nlazy to work and too ignorant and helpless to be of the slightest practical\nservice is a travesty on public education. It is important that the youth\nin his preparation for life learn to think, but it is vastly more important\nthat he learn to work. I cannot but express a fear that our high schools\nare not fulfilling this function. It will be found on close investigation\nthat the most of them are cramming for examination with the diploma as\nthe goal, that many pupils are attending school for social ends, and that\ntheir training is tending toward politics, socialism, and militarism, instead\nof industry, individualism, and peace. This is plainly seen in the literary\nschool society, which is a sort of semi-secret dilettantism, and inculcates\na spirit of snobbishness and caste ; it is also seen in the Greek-letter\nfraternities, those juvenile hotbeds of selfish love, self-seeking, and\npolitics. The tendency in too many high schools is toward the nonproducing professions and away from the productive industries — toward\nthe making of statesmen instead of the building of states. The sympathies\nof the youth are being directed toward the arts of war instead of toward\nthe arts of peace, how to make trouble instead of how to prevent it. Our\nhistories treat principally of war and politics, instead of those activities\nwhich foster peace and prosperity. The tendency is toward selfishness,\nnon-productiveness, caste, militarism, socialism, politics, laziness, and\nconsequent ennui and misery ; as against broad-minded generosity, both\nindividual and national, industrial productiveness, catholicity, individuality,\ndomesticity, industry, and consequent mental and moral buoyancy and\nhappiness. This condition is also fostered by an undue amount of time\ngiven to militant, political, and selfish Romanism, as imbibed thru a\nprotracted four-years' study of Latin. Julius Caesar is a colossal historical\ncharacter, but he can hardly be chosen as a model for nineteenth-century\nAmerican citizenship.\nBut here I must again remind you that your acceptance of these views\non the preparation of our youth for citizenship will depend wholly on\nyour ideal of life. If you hold the French ideal, that life means political\npreferment and dependence or a barnacle existence in army barracks ;\n\n"}
{"page": 615, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nFOR\n\nWHAT\n\nDO\n\nOUR\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nPREPARE?\n\n607\n\nthat preparation for life is skill in sharp -practice schemes to \"live by one's\nwits \" instead of by industry ; that the function of the citizen is administrative and militant instead of productive and industrial — then these\nwords will have little weight with you. If the qualities attributed to us as\na part of the Anglo-Saxon race by Edmond Demolins in his famous book\non Anglo-Saxon Superiority actually existed to the extent that he assumes,\nan affirmative answer to the question, \"Are our high schools preparing\nfor life,\" would be speedy and decisive; but unfortunately the qualities\nand practices which he so graphically portrays of the schools in France\nare also to a considerable degree descriptive of ours. The beautiful picture which Demolins paints of English schools is the exception, not the\nrule, in the United States of America.\nMathematics should, and doubtless does, stand as an important\nthought-study in our high schools. The effect of mathematical study on\nthe after-life of the pupil depends on how it is taught and learned.\nWhere it is taught as a means of thought-expression — as a means of\nphysical measurement — it will take hold of the pupil and form a\ncomponent of his mental constitution ; but where it is taught as an\nabstract means of mental discipline, without application, it is of little\nvalue except as a stepping-stone in the scramble for \"points.\" Abstract\nmathematics is much like abstract eating. To be of constitutional value\nit must answer to an appetite for it to supply an actual need, and this\nneed will be seen and felt by the pupil in a school in which the things\nand forces to be measured in laboratory and workshop form a part of his\ndaily experience.\nThe value of history as a thought-study depends on the facts selected\nand the method and spirit of presenting them. Those of our schools\nwhich teach biography of men selected from various walks of life, industrial and philanthropic as well as military and political, weaving about\nthem the necessary facts of contemporary history, are doing something\ntoward the making of good citizens. It is important that our boys and\ngirls be smart and able to take care of themselves in debate, but it is\nimperative that they be honest, moral, truthful, and upright. The human\ninterest furnished by the lives of worthy men and women in all walks of\nlife makes biography a potent means of study for the preparation for life.\nOne of the most important of the studies in high schools, and at the\nsame time the one receiving the most anomalous treatment, is that of\nEnglish. The correct and ready use of the mother-tongue in written and\nspoken language is the most important factor as a preparation for life.\nThru English is furnished the means of all thought-expression. The\nthought furnished by science, manual training, history, etc., should find its\nexpression in English. It must here be confessed that the average highschool graduate is not able to express even the few thoughts he has in\nanything but clumsy and inaccurate English.\nThis is chiefly because the\n\n"}
{"page": 616, "printed_page": null, "text": "6o8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nStudy of .English is usually pursued, like mathematics, as an end in itself\ninstead of as a means to express thought, and because it has not been\nproperly correlated in the course of study. The chief work thruout the\nentire course should be the writing of short daily essays on the work the\npupils are doing in the other departments of the school. Pupils are too\noften sent out on a wild-goose chase for material for an essay instead of\nrequiring of them a direct and simple expression of what they are doing\nand thinking from day to day. Teachers should be given an extra period\neach day in which to visit other departments of the school for the purpose\nof familiarizing themselves with the work their pupils are doing — for the\npurpose of finding appropriate subjects for pupils to write upon. Pupils\nmust learn the language from use as well as from theory, if they ever\nlearn it at all.\nThere is altogether too much study of foreign languages in our high\nschools to make them the best agencies as a preparation for life. I am\nnot here assailing them on their educational value per se, but only on\ntheir occupancy of time which should be given to the mother-tongue ;\nand it is only in the assistance which foreign-language study gives to a\nbetter understanding of English that they have any right to a place in\nthe curriculum at all. I am, of course, ready to admit that a perfect\nunderstanding of English or of any other language, considered from an\netymological or historical standpoint, would require an exhaustive study\nof all languages, but this cannot be undertaken in four years. The\nquestion is : \"What can be done for English in four years ?\" It seems to\nme that if the time in three of the four years usually put on Latin were\nput on English composition and criticism, the pupil would come out with\na better mastery of his mother-tongue. One year of Latin would, if\nrightly presented, furnish the pupil all he really needs as an assistant to\nhis own language. The advantage of the knowledge of certain roots,\nboth of Greek and Latin, can be secured to a considerable degree without\ntaking an extensive classical course. As says Bain in his Education as a\nScience: \"The roots actually employed in the language are separated\nand presented apart, and their derivatives set forth ; and we are thus\ntaught exactly that portion of the Latin and Greek vocabulary that serves\nthe end in view.\"\nIt will be inferred, then, from the foregoing, that while our high\nschools, as they now exist, without the proper correlated training in\nscience, manual training, and English, do turn out boys and girls able to\npass certain examinations, to pursue courses leading to professions, and\nto secure certain office and commercial clerkships, they are not preparing\nthe youth of this country with that all-round, symmetrical development —\npractical as well as theoretical — which is commensurate with the money\nexpended upon them.\nDo our high schools prepare our boys and girls for college ? The\n\n"}
{"page": 617, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nFOR\n\nWHAT\n\nDO\n\nOUR\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOLS. PREPARE?\n\n609\n\nfact that thousands of high-school graduates are admitted to colleges\neach year seems to answer the question affirmatively. Most high schools\nfurnish two courses — one leading to entrance to college, and the other\nleaving out the time-honored requirements, a quantum of this or that.\nIt has always seemed to me a curious travesty on American education that\na certain training is considered necessary for entrance to college, while\na different training is considered necessary as a preparation for life. The\nbest preparation for life which a high school can give is to put the pupil\ninto full possession of his best thinking and executive powers, and to\ninculcate habits of industry and perseverance, while implanting in him an\nhonest, candid sincerity of purpose. Now, it seems to me that something\nmust be wrong with a college that requires a different preparation. If it\nis the function of the high school to prepare its students for life, then it\nis the function of the college simply to extend that preparation, making\nit fuller and more complete. If the high school adds to the pupil's\nchances for happiness and success in life, then the aim of a college should\nbe to increase these chances. It is an encouraging sign of the times that\nour better colleges are diminishing the number of \"protected industries\"\n— -those industries which require a student who wishes to pursue a certain\nline of work to spend a number of years at something else. It should\nno longer be necessary to pay tribute to Greek and Latin in order to\nmatriculate in the A.B. course. A thoro mastery of and facility in the\ncommon uses of English is a better preparation for the higher pursuit of\nthe arts than is that which is usually insisted upon.\nIt may be questioned whether our high schools are really preparing\ntheir students for college in the fullest and best sense. I have tried to\nshow that the preparation for life is not so adequate as could be wished.\nThe same is probably true with the preparation for college. The world\nreceives the boys and girls as they are, not because they are fully prepared\nto assume life's duties, but because it is the only material furnished, the\nfinal result in life's successes being lowered. So it is with college ; our\nhigh-school graduates are received there, not because they have the best\npreparation for entering upon advanced work, but because they are the\nonly material which is available. The causes which have led to these\nimperfect conditions — conditions which make it possible for a boy to\npass thru the high school and on thru the college and come out without\nany of the true elements of an education — are complex and beyond the\nscope and purpose of this paper ; but a bare and brief enumeration of the\nmore potent causes would include (i) a popular demand for the ornamental in preference to the useful ; (2) the fictitious college requirements\nof quantitative prescription instead of power to pursue higher work ; (3)\nthe assumption on the part of parents and teachers that the average boy\nand girl have sufficient native ability to take the course which our higher\nschools prescribe.\n\n"}
{"page": 618, "printed_page": null, "text": "6io\n\nNAilONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nIn conclusion, let me state that the view here taken need not be considered pessimistic. I believe that, under all the conditions incident to\nthe present stage of our educational evolution, the outlook is most\nencouraging, and I only wish to emphasize that, while the prospect for\nthe future is bright, we need to guard ourselves against any selfcomplaisant belief that we have reached the best which the wealth of our\npresent opportunities affords.\n\nDISCUSSION\n\nDr. a. F. Nightingale, of Chicago, 111., made vigorous protest against many of\nthe points of the paper. He did not believe that the high schools of the country are as\nunworthy as represented. If the high schools are preparing neither for college nor for\nlife, they must be preparing for destruction and death, and the speaker considered such\nan idea altogether false. At the present time the greatest weakness in the public schools\nis in the grammar grades, but it is not for high-school teachers to spend their time criticising them. The speaker did not believe that an interest in science and manual training makes it necessary to condemn the foreign languages and Latin. There should be\nno teaching for examinations. The word \" examination \" should ht blotted out of the\nlanguage of the schools. Teachers who are working with pupils thru the whole year\nknow whether they should receive promotion or not.\nPrincipal William H. Lynch of Mountain Grove Academy, Missouri, considered\nthe study of Latin as essential as grammar itself. He claimed that the high schools do\nprepare for college and for life.\nPrincipal O. S. Westcott, of Chicago, protested against condemning other\nstudies in the interest of manual training. The man who teaches in a manual-training\nschool does not use any better English than his fellow from the literary school. To train\napprentices is not the work of the public schools.\nSuperintendent L. E. Wolfe, of Kansas City, Kan., defended the paper. Education has become more and more concrete. Scholasticism has been outgrown. Once we\nstudied about science ; now we come in contact with actual material.\nPrincipal W. H. Housh, of Los Angeles, Cal., spoke for California. The West\nlooks to the East for inspiration in educational matters, but in this paper he thought there\nwas a strong bias toward one line of work. As a teacher of science in Los Angeles, he\nhad found that the best work was done by pupils who had taken the classical course.\nPrincipal Morrison, in closing the discussion, claimed that it was the business of\nthe department not to praise the high schools, but to discover and point out their defects,\nto the end of ultimate improvement. It is not claimed in the paper that our high schools\nare not preparing for life, only that they are not preparing for it in the fullest and best\nsense. It is our business as teachers not so much to admire our work as to improve it.\nin order to improve it, we must point out its defects.\n\n"}
{"page": 619, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nWHAT\n\nSTUDIES\n\nTO REVIEW\n\nIN HIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\n6ll\n\nSHOULD ARITHMETIC, ENGLISH GRAMMAR, GEOGRAPHY,\nAND THE HISTORY OE THE UNITED STATES BE\nREVIEWED IN THE HIGH SCHOOL ?\n\nBY J. W. CRABTREE,\n\nINSPECTOR\n\nOF NEBRASKA\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nLINCOLN,\n\nNEB.\n\nThe modern high school is the popular secondary school of America,\ntaking upon itself all the functions of both the public school and the\nacademy. In its first years of development its purpose was to add a few\nhigher branches to the knowledge of pupils who had spent the required\ntime in the lower grades. There was no thought of the high school preparing for college until in the sixties. Since then it has had a most rapid\ngrowth and expansion. Once intrusted with the work of secondary\ninstruction, it has rapidly outstripped academies and private schools.\nWe started out with the idea that the work of the public school was to\ngive instruction in the common-school branches only. Men raised their\nhands in horror when it was first suggested that higher education should\nbe offered at public expense. But our public-school system has had an\nexpansion the like of which the world has never before seen. Where the\nsystem has had the fullest development, it now includes the whole range\nof instruction, beginning with the primary grades in the city and country\nschools, and ending with the highest graduate work of a great university.\nThe extension of the system to include college and university work\nnot only changes the nature of the university, but it modifies all the work\nbelow. It does away with the break between the lower grades and the\nhigh school, and fills the gap between the high school and the university.\nIt gives a continuous school, without those unnatural divisions of the old\nsystem. Under this system subjects difhcult of mastery may be placed\nfarther along in the course and the easier ones pushed farther down\ntoward the elementary school.\nAs a part of this great public-school system, the high school, besides\ngiving the pupil such a training as will enable him to enter college and\npursue his college course successfully, gives the best preparation for life.\nIt stimulates mental activity and\" affords educational growth itself. It\nhas vocational aims, social aims, and culture aims. It fits for college, but\nit fits for society as well. It does not attempt to teach each vocation, but\nit acquaints the pupil with the meaning and importance of a vocation,\ngiving a general preparation for life, with only the underlying principles\nof a specific vocation. In the small town it will combine in one course,\nso far as possible, that which will give a training in the mechanical and\nindustrial, commercial and intellectual, affairs of the world — a training\nwhich the new university will accept for entrance requirements as readily\n\n"}
{"page": 620, "printed_page": null, "text": "6l2\n\n'\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nas a preparation in an academy. In the larger cities, the course, as it\nadvances, will branch out along these lines, giving still further advantages\nto pupils. But in all the courses in all the towns certain essential\nbranches will be thoroly mastered. In such high schools, should arithmetic, grammar, geography, and history be reviewed ?\nNo argument need be presented to show their importance. They\nbelong to that group of essential subjects needed by all. The farmer,\nthe merchant, the professional man, the student, all attach the greatest\nimportance to a thoro mastery of these branches.\nThe question, then, resolves itself into this : When pupils enter the\nninth grade, is their knowledge of arithmetic, grammar, geography, and\nhistory sufficient ? Is such a review needed ?\nPupils entering the high school at the age of fourteen and under, if\nthey have been well taught, are ready to take up elementary high-school\nsubjects, but their immaturity prevents their having a thoro knowledge of\narithmetic, grammar, geography, and history. At that age they do well\nto have a working knowledge of the grammar-grade branches ; that is,\nsuch a knowledge as will enable them to begin algebra, Latin, English,\netc. A better grasp of these subjects must come later. It must come\nafter the pupils have advanced, not only in years, but in their studies.\nTheir knowledge of the common branches will be broadened and\nextended somewhat in connection with certain high-school subjects, but\nbesides this they should have a thoro review, especially in arithmetic and\ngrammar in the latter part of the course.\nThere is a knowledge of these branches that no immature mind can\ngrasp. Nothing would be gained by giving the review in the first and\nsecond years of the high school. It would merely be a repetition of the\nwork of the grammar grades, without much, if any, improvement therein.\nA half year of good, thoro work on these branches in the eleventh or\ntwelfth year is worth two years on the same at the beginning of the high\nschool. Whether the question is viewed from the university or highschool standpoint, the answer must be the same. Whether the student is\nto continue in school or to step out, no school work is more valuable to\nhim than a knowledge of these common -school branches.\nThe possible objection to a review is the lack of interest in some\nschools where this work is attempted. I have observed a lack of interest\nin the common branches in many schools where they are taught in the\nninth year, and in some where they are taught in the twelfth year.\nThere are good reasons for the lack of interest in the ninth grade, but I\nsee no reason for it in the twelfth. In the twelfth I would hold the\nmanner of presenting the review responsible for any lack of interest. As\na rule, the trouble may be traced to the teacher. Un4ess the teacher\ncarries the same enthusiasm into this work that is taken into other highschool classes, the students will not be interested.\nAs a matter of fact,\n\n"}
{"page": 621, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nWHAT\n\nSTUDIES\n\nTO REVIEW\n\nIN\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\n613\n\nmany high -school teachers who attempt to do this work have never\nmastered these subjects themselves. Observation will show a larger\nnumber belonging to this class than would be expected.\nAn investigation in my own state shows that the graduates of schools\nwhere these subjects are emphasized in the last year of the course seldom\nfail to pass the examinations for teachers' certificates, while in schools\nwhere the review is not offered, or where it is offered in the ninth or\ntenth grade, a large percent, of the candidates for certificates fail to pass.\nIn theory country teachers should have professional preparation, but in\npractice high-school graduates without further preparation do the\nteaching.\nThere has been such a demand for professional training in the high\nschool that many of the larger cities have established normal courses.\nEvery high school should at least give a thoro knowledge of the common\nbranches, and this can only be done in the last part of the course.\nIn order to get a consensus of opinion, the following questions were\nsent to the principals of seventy of the leading high schools of the United\nStates :\n1. When your pupils enter the ninth grade, is their knowledge of\ngrammar, arithmetic, geography, and history sufficient?\n2. Do you consider it advisable to review these branches in the high\nschool ?\n3. If so, in what year would you give the review ?\n4. What is the nature of the review in your own high school ?\n5. How much time is spept on each of the subjects?\nOut of the sixty-one replies, fifty-six say that their classes on entering\nthe high school have not had a sufficient mastery of these branches. The\nother five believe that their classes have a sufficient knowledge, three,\nhowever adding that normal classes should have further work, especially\nin arithmetic and grammar.\nIn answer to the second question, \" Do you consider it advisable to\nreview these branches in the high school ? \" forty-two say \"yes ;\" fourteen\ndo not favor a review, but simply additional technical work in each\nbranch. Those favoring the review would have it include additional\nwork also.\nFifty-two would have the review the last year of the high-school\ncourse, while four would continue these subjects in the ninth grade.\nThirty-four of these high schools have the review in some form.\nSeven others will begin next year.\nThese reports, representing the leading high schools of the United\nStates, may be taken as the average opinion of our most progressive\neducators on this question. The opinion, it will be noticed, is clearly\nfrom the high-school standpoint.\nAs to the amount of time and attention to be given to the review, the\n\n"}
{"page": 622, "printed_page": null, "text": "6 14\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nreports differ widely. A few would devote most of the twelfth year,\nwhile a number would use only a few weeks for each subject. The tendency is evidently toward the review, together with additional work in\neach- of the essential common-school branches.\nA great many principals express views similar to the following, which\ncomes from Des Moines, la.:\nMy opinion is that a review of arithmetic, grammar, geography, and history of from\nsix to twelve weeks during the last year of the high-school course is desirable, and\nespecially so for those who expect to engage in the work of teaching without further\npreparation. I would place the review late in the course, because the more mature the\npupils, the more they would be able to appreciate the principles involved in the subjects\nnamed.\n\nSeveral mention the fact that the review has been forced upon the\nhigh school on account of the large number of high-school graduates\nwho engage in teaching immediately upon finishing the high-school\ncourse.\nI also collected matter from city superintendents and found .their\nviews to be about the same as those of the high-school principals. Superintendent J.M. Greenwood, of Kansas City, expresses the average conservative opinion when he says :\nI am of the opinion that the English teaching in the high school should continually\ndip into English grammar ; that history and civics should dip into geography; and that\narithmetic and algebra should form one subject. No intelligent teacher of algebra will\nfail to connect algebraic work, wherever possible, with the arithmetical by pointing out the\nexpansion of the lower into the higher.\nAside from what I have indicated, the latter part of the twelfth year the graduating\nclass should at least have a terrific drill in faulty English.\n\nSeveral of the states have encouraged a further study of the commonschool branches by offering state aid to such high schools as have a proper\nreview of these subjects in the junior and senior years. Minnesota is an\nexample.\nInspector Aiton, of that state, writes as follows :\nFive years ago we decided to recognize what, for want of a better name, we call\n\"the senior common branches.\" As the name indicates, they are to be offered in the\nsenior year of the high school. It is not an ordinary review, but a study of the fundamental principles of each. I do not think they should be accepted for entrance to\ncollege, but they are certainly contributing to a noticeable revival of interest in the common branches in our state.\n\nThere are two ways of arranging the reviews : the work (i) to occupy\nso many weeks at the end of the senior year ; (2) to extend thru the\nyear, occupying one hour each day. It does not matter so much whether\nit is bunched at the last of the year or strung out thru the course, but\nitis important to give the review. It is important from every standpoint.\nNo work in the high school is of more practical value or of more culture\nvalue.\nThe nature of the review will depend upon the work done in the\n\n"}
{"page": 623, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nWHAT\n\nSTUDIES\n\nTO REVIEW\n\nIN\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\n615\n\ngrammar grades, upon the attention given in connecting high-school subjects with the elementary subjects, and to some extent upon local conditions.\nIf arithmetic has been well taught in the grades and emphasized in\nconnection with algebra, less time will be required to master it, and the\nwork need not be so elementary in character. It should then consist of\na rapid review of the essential divisions of the subject, together with an\nanalysis of practical problems and a discussion of the principles involved\nin the various operations. As a rule, six or eight weeks, with one recitation aday, would afford ample time for this subject.\nBesides teaching geography in connection with history, literature, and\nscience, it should have a place in the high school in the nature of physical\ngeography, or physiography, and better than other subjects it could be\nplaced before the senior year, if necessary.\nWhere classes on entering the high school are unable to take hold of\nthe first work in Latin, they should have a drill at once in English to\nenable them to pursue the Latin work with credit, but no more than this\nuntil later. If the grammar work in the grades is well done, a drill in\nthe ninth year will not be necessary. The principles of grammar will be\nbrought out in the study of Latin, in rhetoric, and in literature also. Then,\nnear the last of the course devote several weeks to a thoro review, getting\ndown to bed-rock principles, closing with Superintendent Greenwood's\n\"terrific drill in faulty English.\"\nThe work in history should not be so much in the nature of a review\nas a further study of the problems of history, using the sources. A term\nor more intensive work in American history can be given profitably in\nthe twelfth year. The study of special topics, using a text similar to the\none just from the press, the New Source Book, by Dr. Hart, of Harvard\nUniversity, or better, Mrs. Sheldon's history, or the work prepared by\nProfessor H. W. Caldwell, of Nebraska University, would not only give a\nneeded review, but it would give the student a new and deeper meaning\nfor history.\nLetters from six university presidents favor attention to these subjects\nin the high school. The following from President James H. Canfield,\nlate of the University of Ohio, will be of interest to those who desire to\nknow the attitude of the state universities on this question. Permit me\nto use this letter as a summary for this paper :\nI think arithmetic, grammar, geography, and history should be reviewed rapidly in\nthe high school — if possible in the last year, and if not then, as near the last of the\ncourse as possible.\nI regard this as exceedingly essential, (i) in order to fix fundamental principles in\nthe minds of those who are going out from the high school and will possibly receive no\nfurther instruction ; (2) in order to give all high-school graduates a connected view of\nthe entire field of each of these subjects ; (3) in order to prepare those who expect to\nteach for the usual elementary examination.\n\n"}
{"page": 624, "printed_page": null, "text": "6l6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nIN FUNDAMENTAL\nTHE AMERICAN\nST A TE ?\nBY\n\nPRESIDENT\n\nSYLVESTER\n\n'EDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nCIVICS, WHAT SHALL WE TEACH AS\nDOCTRINE OF RELIGION AND THE\n\nF.\n\nSCOVEL,\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nOF\n\nWOOSTER,\n\nOHIO\n\nIn the education of its children and youth society finds its most sacred\ntrust, its greatest opportunity, and its severest test.\nWhat is true of society is a fortiori true of those to whose special\nagency society intrusts so largely its educational function. Our responsibility isundeniable and grave. It is proportioned quantitatively to the\n21,082,000 of our school population, and qualitatively to much more.\nFor we have under our care the finest youth of all the world (when taken\ncollectively) ; and we have them under the conditions of that amazing\nprodigality with which public and private means are furnishing us the\nbest facilities for our work, and the equally amazing confidence with\nwhich our people intrust their means and their children to our use and\ncare, joined to the liberal extension of the preparatory period of life, and\nthe heartfelt anxiety with which home and church and state await the\nresults of our work. The greatest question about our whole task, so conditioned, isits inner meaning and final end, and how that end may be\nsecured. We shall miserably fail in the use of our splendid opportunities\nif we miss our way at this point.\nWe approach the central point in the inquiry of our theme.\nThe teaching of civics has obtained a marked development in recent\nyears, beginning with the close of the war to subdue rebellion. It has\nbeen discerned that training for citizenship is an indispensable constituent\nin an education which will fit men and women for life under our free\ninstitutions and in our times. Everything serves to quicken this tendency.\nIt is increasing, and must increase. The propriety of it is as evident as\nthe fact. Society and government and the public welfare demand more\nof this work, and better. Here again it is both desire and duty to\ninquire for truths and principles, as well as proportions and methods.\nAnd they must be of real and lasting interest in proportion as they are\nfundamental.\nThere can be no question as to the fundamental character of our\ninquiry after the American doctrine of religion and the state. Religion\nas a social force is now fully acknowledged by all who can be claimed as\nauthority. Writers on sociology must deal with it for today, as every\nhistorian deals with it for yesterday as the maker of today. And religion\nhas made, and must make, great impressions in connection with political\nthought. It has had so much to do in making the world as it exists tod^y\nthat there can be nothing of greater interest to us, as teachers both of\n\n"}
{"page": 625, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nWHA7\n\nTO\n\nTEACH\n\nIN FUNDAMENT AL\n\nCIVICS\n\n617\n\nwhat has been and of what ought to be, than to know the right relations\nof religion and the state.\nFundamental civics must include, at least, instruction concerning\nthese four things: the true nature of the state; the rights it establishes;\nthe duties it may demand; with its relations to other great forces and\norgans of society, and to other states. Here we must discover that\nreligion touches the whole territory and has something to say concerning\neach of these radically important matters.\nEspecially does this seem to be true for us, if there is a distinctively\nAmerican doctrine — which may be traced alike in our earlier and later\nhistory, and must be taught as we teach that history ; which has been\nobserved by shrewd students of our institutions from without, and\nacknowledged by masters of their philosophy from within ; a doctrine\nwhich is not only itself to be taught, but which provides a sound and\nsatisfactory basis for teaching a system of morals in our whole public\neducation which shall be in thoro. accord with itself, and shall be taught\nupon the same basis of effective sanction which it claims for itself; and\nwhich doctrine, and the education it has authorized and created, shall\nbe found abreast of education's highest ideals, and hopefully adequate to\nthe demands of our country and to the exigencies of our times.\nOur task in outline would be, if time allowed :\nI. To sustain the assertion that there is an American doctrine of\nreligion and the state, which is plain and clear enough to be taught in\nfundamental civics.\nII. To show that this doctrine provides a firm basis for the teaching in\nall our schools of a satisfactory system of Christian morals, on a solid basis\nof Christian sanction.\nIII. Then should follow the effort to make it appear that this doctrine\nand the education it authorized and created are abreast of education's\nhighest ideals, and are hopefully adequate to the demands of our country\nand the exigencies.\nI must omit from the present discussion both the second and third\ndepartments, and confine what may be said under the first to suggestions\nsuch as may lead the earnest-hearted teachers (whose attention I hope to\ngain for the theme's sake) to pursue elsewhere further inquiry and investigation.\nI. In beginning the definition and distinction of the American doctrine of religion and the state, we make this first assertion concerning its\ncontent :\nI. It holds firmly the moral nature of the state. The moral nature of\nthe state and the moral nature of man are bound indissolubly together.\nIt is impossible to constitute a non-moral state out of positively moral\nconstituents. Moral nature in man is essential, and it cannot, therefore,\nbe accidental in the state.\n\nFreeman says: \"That a nation\n\nin its public\n\n"}
{"page": 626, "printed_page": null, "text": "6i8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\ndealings should be guided by the same general principles of moral\nconduct by which an individual is, or ought to be, guided in his private\nconduct, is a truth which seems involved in the very conception of national\nbeing.'''' This is the American doctrine, not because any act of Congress ever said so in terms, or courts ever decided so in words, but\nbecause common-sense (with no nonsense of realism or refinement of\nspeculation) decides that when men who are moral agents unite for government, according to necessities implanted in their nature by their\nCreator, and for distinctively moral ends, they do, in the collective body so\nformed, come under moral responsibility which necessitates a clearly\nmoral nature in the body politic.\n2. The moral state has a right and a duty in selecting the morality it\nmust adopt and the sanctions which will make these morals effective and\nsupreme. It finds both in the nature and will of God. (This is the\nfamiliar truth of history, as even Plutarch shows.)\n3. The state, now become religious for itself and its own purposes,\nthat it may accomplish its moral mission, must not legislate anything\ncontrary to the moral precepts which God makes known, and must make\nthese precepts obligatory only so far as they concern overt acts — because\nthis is the limit of its commission.\n4. The state, now religious for itself, is under bonds to carry out\njustice to the utmost attainable boundary, in its administration, because its\nlaws are founded upon and are representative of the justice of God.\n5. The state, religious for itself, may of right and ought to employ all\nits educational appliances and facilities toward the preparation of its\ncitizens for the exercise of every virtue demanded in its laws and in the life\nthey define and establish, thus providing for the minimum of physical\nrestraint by providing the maximun of moral impulse (i. e., developing\nthe human in them to minimize and then subsidize the animal — a course\nof conduct for the suggestion of which we are not indebted to the ethics\nof evolution).\n6. At the same time the state, religious for itself, may and must grant\nfullest liberty of conscience in all matters of opinion, since the divine\nlaw has charged it only with superintendence of action. The just limits\nof religion in the state embrace toleration of different sects, no penalty\nor disability on account of religious preferences, no tithings or church\nrates, no compulsory legislation concerning the spiritual interests of men\nas distinguished from their moral interests and conduct. All this forbids\nutterly any connection between church and state. Both these institutions\nare divine, and therefore it is evident that they must cover different\ndomains.\nThey may co-operate, but may never coalesce.\n7. It must now be added that this state, religious for itself, must be\nsuch at the free choice of its constituent citizens. The idea of a religion\nforced upon a people is more repulsive than their being compelled to\n\n"}
{"page": 627, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nWHAT\n\nTO\n\nTEACH\n\nIN FUNDAMENTAL\n\nCIVICS\n\n619\n\nsubmit to a form of government they do not choose. There must be no\ndictation to the people in this matter from any source whatever. As there\nmust be no interference with the indefeasible right of a nation to be\nreligious, there must be no interference with the form of religion which\nit may assume. The adopted religion must be no political fiction held\nfor effect. An honest clinging to God is the only one which God can\naccept, and the only one a nation can render without utter and final\ndemoralization.\nTo recapitulate : This doctrine is that of a state, religious for and of\nitself, holding (i) the state to be supremely moral in its nature; (2)\nholding itself responsible to God for its moral legislation and moral\nlife; (3) not willing to legislate against his precepts and confining its\nprohibitive legislation to overt acts ; (4) acknowledging itself bound to\nexecute justice to all men ; (5) confessing its obligation to educate to a\nmorality which is divine in its origin and sanctions ; (6) commissioned to\nguarantee freedom of conscience as the most precious of human liberties ;\nand (7) resting securely upon the genuine convictions of the popular\nheart.\nThat this is the American doctrine is clear from the fact that I have\ndescribed substantially just the outline of our national life. Our origin\nwas Christian, and origin is always vitality, and religion is even stronger\nthan language (as Max Muller assures us). Church and state never existed\nas a national institution, and never at all in the center or in the great\nWest. Ultramontanism was never hinted at. The commercial or purely\nsecular theory of government was (happily) not yet discovered, so that we\nwere born into this American idea of a state religious for itself. The\nwhole world was ripe for such a birth, the type of future perfection, and it\ncould not have come earlier or later. Our colonial experience and our\nnational period are alike full proof of this general assertion. Remember\nthe Declaration of Rights of the Continental Congress in 1774, Washington's orders, and the quadruple appeal to God in the Declaration of Independence. Inthis great document American institutions are stamped as at\nonce Christian and free. Equality toward man and responsibility toward\nGod are announced on the same page. The same thing is true of the\ngreat ordinance of 1787 for the Northwest Territory, and measurably true\nof the constitution, which is far from atheistic in the moral ends of government it seeks, in the acknowledgment of the sabbath and the Christian\nchronology, and in the sanction of the oath. Continuous legislation,\nfederal and local, has borne unceasing witness to this doctrine. Christian\nrights of property; Christian laws of marriage; Christian oaths in all\ncourts of justice; Christian laws against profanity ; Christian prohibitions\nof lotteries and other temptations to vice; Christian provisions of chaplaincies for legislative bodies, for army and navy ; Christian exemptions\nof the Bible from execution ; Christian influences in prison life ; Christian\n\n"}
{"page": 628, "printed_page": null, "text": "620\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\npolicy in civilizing the Indians; Christian laws for sabbath defense,\nand special seasons of national worship ; together with adherence to all\nthis despite of much clamor and discussion — all, taken together, show\nthat we have always been, are now, and always expect to remain, God\nhelping us, a generously tolerant, but conscientiously decided Christian\nnation. We may take pride as well as pleasure in remembering that our\ncountry presents the first great commonwealth of the world's history in\nwhich religion has played so nearly its typical and proper part to our\nown great advantage and its own great prosperity. The state constitutions (save a very few) acknowledge God in terms. Christianity's spirit\nunderlies our common law and leavens our common life and assimilates\nto the cardinal virtues of our origin the masses of those who come among\nus, and Christian organizations gain numerically upon our increasing\npopulation ; and when occasion urges we come to the \" God of our\nfathers\" with trustful faith and loyal love, and determine again to obey his\nvoice and keep his commandments. All the surface contradictions and\nopposite opinions and contentions are but eddies in a great stream. We\nare keeping right on, in the way our fathers began to go, and in a yet\nwider and deeper way, as a Christian nation. There is much to be done,\nbut what has been done and is being done cannot be successfully denied\nby any and ought to be ignored by none. In our 'American doctrine we\nstand nearer an ideal relation between religion and the state than any\nnation under the sun. I wish the time permitted the comparison which\nwould prove this claim. Out from this relation should come and must\ncome yet more beneficent results than in the past. All depends upon\nour understanding and using aright our privileged position in this regard.\nWe\n\nhave given up church and state, rationally, voluntarily, and forever ;but we have done this only to take fairer and faster hold upon\nreligion, and to relieve it from incubus and to make it fruitful. The\ncutting away of a fallen spar is not smashing the compass. It would be\nthat to sacrifice the religious features of our government and thus enthrone\nnatural morals (if anybody can discover them) instead of Christian morals\nin our laws, and thus to destroy the firm foundation for an adequately\nChristian education. The acknowledgments of this American doctrine\nare many and of high character. Three classes of testimony may be\ncited :\n1. Such foreign students of our institutions as Burke, De Tocqueville,\nHoffmann, Pere Hyacinthe, Castelar, Bryce, and Lieber (to be counted in\nthis list, tho he wrought and lived among us).\n2. The acknowledgments of our founders, such as Washington and\nFranklin, of whom the first warns us not to expect national blessings\nwhile we \" disregard the eternal rules of order and right which heaven\nitself has ordained.\" With these semi-official declarations should\nbe enumerated\nthe numberless acts of early Congresses, the special\n\nII\n\n"}
{"page": 629, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nWHAT\n\nTO\n\nTEACH\n\nIN FUNDAMENTAL\n\nCIVICS\n\n621\n\nacknowledgments of 1861-65, and those which came from the nation's\ntouched heart in 1876.\n3. More important still would seem to be the decisions of courts and\nthe opinions of jurists. It is an almost unbroken line from Justice\nStory's assertion that our laws recognize \"the divine origin and truth\" of\nChristianity, to the recent decision of Justice Brewer (1892). I regret I\ncannot wait even to quote enough of it to demonstrate its value, whether\nas history or as law. It ought to be in the hands of every school-teacher\nin the United States, and might well be pondered by some professors of\nsocial science. To commend it to lawyers, I add it is ofificially published in\nUnited States Supreme Court Reports, 143, p. 457. The line of testimony\nmay be fittingly closed by referring to President Cleveland's significant\nwords, when remonstrated with by someone for the evangelical tone of\nhis Thanksgiving proclamation. He said : \" I guess we are a Christian\nnation, and we shall have to face the music.\"\nThe ordinary objections to the view now advanced are (i) the occasionally divergent declarations and decisions; (2) an urging of the clause\nconcerning a religious test, and the language of the First Amendment ;and (3) a fear that liberty of conscience will in some mysterious way\nbe affected. To which it is sufficient now to say that there is (i) not so\nmuch divergence of opinions and legislation about this as about many\nother important and virtually finally settled matters in our national life ;\n(2) that the clause and amendment referred to are wholly consistent\nwith this doctrine — in fact, part of it; (3) that liberty of conscience\nhas never yet been transgressed, but always established whenever an\napparent case of difficulty occurred.\nWhat is far more to the purpose is to note the importance and\nvalue of our American doctrine and practice. It conforms to the best\ntheory of the origin and authority of government; it goes along with the\nincreasing testimonies to the power of religion as a social force ; it is\nabreast of the high conception of the Christian nation as the tool of\ndivine Providence in working out most beneficial results which can be\nreached by no other instrumentality whatever ; it enables us to demand a\nhighly moral \\\\i& from every citizen for every citizen, and to stand at the\nimmigration courts with the severe demand of five years of moral life\nproved to the satisfaction of the court. Our whol-e moral legislation is\ndependent logically upon our position as a Christian nation, because it is\nChristian morals which we legislate. No man has a right to do wrong in\nAmerica because it's a free country, for its freedom is limited by its\nmorals.\nOur American doctrine of the Christian nation quickens our patriotism without exposing us to the fearful necessity of saying \" my country,\nright or wrong,\" because it keeps our country right all the time in the\nmain issues of its life. This doctrine gives us a reasonable paternalism\n\n"}
{"page": 630, "printed_page": null, "text": "62 2\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nin government to take real care of those who need care, and a deep and\ntrue-hearted fratenialism — free from socialistic extravagances. The\nnation must steadily grow in likeness to its ideal as each generation comes\nto realize it. This is the way to obedience for conscience sake, and that\nis the moral power which is the very soul of the Christian state. Emerson exclaims : \"The fire of fire, the soul of soul, the force of force is\nmoral power.\"\nThe advantage of our national Christian position has been abundantly proven by the success of it. With the freest institutions of the\nworld, and with the greatest temptations the world ever knew to materialism, amid political convulsions the most profound, along with an accumulation of wealth the most rapid and massive the world ever witnessed,\ntogether with the inpouring of an unprecedented immigration, much of^\nwhich has been unsympathetic, we have kept our institutions both Christian and free. We are more free than we were at the beginning, and we\nare not less Christian.\nThe stability of our institutions is dependent upon our Christian\ncharacter as a nation. Things stand when their foundations stand.\nDe Tocqueville read this nation's heart when he wrote as follows: \"I am\ncertain that the Americans hold religion to be indispensable to the maintenance of republican institutions. This opinion is not peculiar to a\nclass of citizens, or a party, but it belongs to the whole nation and to\nevery rank of society.\"\n{Din. A., I, p. 285.)\nGod in national life we know to be necessary to the very conception\nof liberty (thru the erection of the true individuality of the man made in\nGod's image), and necessary as well to the realization of liberty (since\nhe has been contending for it in all ages) ; necessarv, also, to the definition of liberty (since its only clear restraint is the morality which God\nordains); necessary, besides, to the transmission of liberty (since that is an\naffair of generations which can only be trained to be worthy of freedom\nby being trained in the fear of God and the love of man).\nOnly by our national religion do we have moral unity in legislation,\nthus making law the greatest of ethical teachers ; and moral unity in education by one general and consistent system of what is to be taught ; and\nthe moral unity of conscientious submission to and patriotic support of\nthe government. This is a line of unities, amid the mazes of our divergencies, which we cannot afford to lose or even to allow to waver. We\nknow the morals which are included in the Christian doctrine of the\nstate. They are neither \" independent\" nor \" natural\" nor an \"evolution\nmorality\" founded upon perception of tribal advantage, nor an \"eclectic\"\nmorality gathered from everywhere by everybody. No ! The system we\nhave been professing and largely practicing for so long, and which has\nhad so much to do with our marvelous prosperity and stability, is a\nGod-rpspecting,\n\nsabbath-keeping,\n\nparent-honoring,\n\nhome-preserving,\n\n"}
{"page": 631, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nWHAT\n\nTO\n\nTEACH\n\nIN FUNDAMENTAL\n\nCIVICS\n\n623\n\nlife-reverencing, charity-teaching, violence-forbidding, truth-compelling,\n})urity-demanding, oppression-destroying morality. It is clear as the\nblue skies in the depths of its content, and as powerful as the spring\nsunshine in evoking the best there is in human nature.\nWithout our national religious character we cannot hold fast our significant and wonderful past. Nor can we secure our justly to-be-expected\nnational future if we lose this best of our early characteristics. The moral\nvitality in us is from that root, and it is moral vitality that conditions\neverything in the whole future of the race. Without it we cannot assimilate and convert to a like texture with the original body the millions who\nare coming to us and the millions to whom we are coming. We need all\nwe have in the Christian features of our national institutions that we may\nbecome in yet fuller measure the Christian nation we have begun to be.\nThe life that is in us is making its own organism, but every bit of that\norganism which has been realized is according to nature's law, essentially\nnecessary to its further and final realization. Genesis and development\ncannot be separated. What else makes the long lines traced by Roman\ninstitutions and laws, English struggles for regulated liberty, and Switzerland's persevering stability ? And what but the lack of this makes French\nhistory a series of chromotropes ? We need our national religion that we\nmay fulfill our national mission to show the world the pattern of institutions which are at once Christian and free. Grand mission, that ! x\\nd\nno other nation under the sun has the requisites for it as we have.\nNor less plainly do we need our Christian national position when we\nlook out upon the international complications in which we are becoming\nmore and more involved. All there is good in the amelioration of war's\nhorrors, or the prevention of war's frequency, or the improvement of the\ncondition of aliens and noncombatants, or in provision for the independence of smaller nations and justice to the uncivilized, is by the world's\nunited testimony referred to the Christian element in our civilization.\nHere there is a field of grandest opportunity, and into it we are making a\nnoble entrance. But our place and power there will be more clearly than\never dependent upon the positiveness with which we may assert our\nresponsibility as a Christian nation, and upon the consistency of our\nconduct therewith.\nWe must hold our religious position, because the attempt to be neutral\nis both illogical and irrational. Concealment of such a thing as national\nChristian character, where it really exists, is impossible. There are and\nwill ever be questions of conduct and education and of law which will\ncall into immediate prominence this element. Shall we decide these\nthings as a nation should which as gladly owns the obligation to obey\nGod as it thankfully acknowledges its indebtedness to his countless\nbeneficence ?\nHere, then, we rest the case.\n\n"}
{"page": 632, "printed_page": null, "text": "624\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nIf we have sufficiently proved the existence of an American doctrine\nof religion anji the state, and have correctly described its main content,\nand have shown the constancy and judicial character of its acknowledgment, and have exhibited something of its importance to the stability and\ngrowth of our institutions, to our normal development, and to our mission\namong the nations — then it follows that this doctrine ought to be taught\nin our schools with such care and efficiency that no American citizen\ncould ever arrive at the exercise of citizenship ignorant of its true place\nand irreponsive to its directing force.\n\nDISCUSSION\n\nPresident James H. Baker, of Colorado, prefaced his discussion by stating that\nhe believed the world to be a moral world, and that religion is the ultimate sanction of\nmorality. Had he listened to the paper of President Scovel as a sermon, he would have\nagreed with its doctrine almost wholly. But as a scheme of public-school teaching, he\nthought too much importance was attached to the formal recognition of religion. It is\nnot so important that God shall be recognized in the constitution and the laws as it is that\nhe be recognized in the hearts of the people. Formal religious, exercises are not so\nimportant as actual living influence upon character.\nPresident Baker spoke at length upon the necessity of absolute freedom of conscience.\nHe thought that thru the public schools we shall by and by get to a full realization of\nreligion and Christianity. There is no hope, however, in formal, perfunctory, often soulless exercises called religious. But even a bad man desires that his child shall be taught\nto do right. There is a need of the spirit of altruism in the schools, a genuinely democratic\nspirit of sympathy and helpfulness for all classes. Growth in morality is an actual\ngrowth — ^ free, joyous, and in all directions. All right work is ethical. A dead-head in\nsociety, like a parasite, must perish.\nSuperintendent\n\nJ. F. Keating, of Pueblo, Colo., was called upon for a discussion\n\nof Mr. Mathews' paper. He indorsed the paper in its essentials, calling especial attention to the logical manner in which the subjects of high-school study had been treated\nwith reference to their ethical content. He favored the introduction of economics into\nthe high-school studies, and suggested reducing the amount of Latin as a means of making\nroom. He feared the spirit of militarism developed in some of the high-school studies,\nand made a vigorous appeal that the doctrine of American schools shall be that of \"hands\noff\" to every foreign oppressor of a weak people, our own government being no exception.\nPresident Scovel closed the discussion of the afternoon, protesting against the\nuse of such terms as \" cold,\" \" formal,\" \" soulless,\" as applied to exercises in religious\nschools.\nPresident Baker disclaimed any intention to give offense, and stated that he had\nspoken entirely from his experience.\n\n"}
{"page": 633, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPRESENTA\n\nJOINT\n\nTION\n\nSESSION\n\nPRESENTATION\n\nOF\n\nCOLLEGE\n\nBY\n\nDR.\n\nF.\n\nT OF JOINT\n\nOF SECONDARY\nDEPARTMENTS\n\nON\n\nA.\n\nOF REPOR\n\nTHE\n\nREPORT\n\nENTRANCE\n\nNIGHTINGALE,\n\nOF\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nAND\n\nOF\n\n625\n\nHIGHER\n\nTHE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nREQUIREMENTS\nCHICAGO,\n\nCHAIRMAN\n\nMr. President, Members of the Secondary Department and the Department\nof Higher Education of the National Educational Association :\nThe fruit of the labors for four years of your Committee on CollegeEntrance Requirements is before you. There is little I need to say, much\nthat I should be pleased to say, in the discharge of the duty devolving\nupon me as chairman, in the presentation of this report.\nThe world-wide publicity given to the celebrated report of the Committee of Ten, the favorable comments thereon, and the new blood infused\ninto the arteries of secondary education everywhere in this country in consequence, made the further consideration of the subject essential, to the\nend of a better articulation of the secondary schools and the colleges.\nSo rapid has been the progress of education since 1895, so logical and\nso sensible have been the changes of attitude toward this great question, •\nthat your committee has found it difficult to keep pace with the evolution\nof educational opinion, and your chairman expresses the belief that this\nreport, however timely and needful it may seem today, will be considered\nbut faint prophecy before another half decade shall have passed.\nThe wise athlete summons into action all his reserve force as he\nnears the end of the race ; his blood flows with renewed vehemence, his\nnerves tingle with renewed strength, as his glistening eye fastens itself\nupon the goal. As we approach the end of a century that has been\nkaleidoscopic in its transitions, and the clock strikes the hour of another\ncycle, new thought, new energy, and the reserve wisdom of contemporary study are everywhere visible. The secondary schools of today are\nmore and better, because richer in equipment and more rational in method,\nthan the colleges of fifty years ago ; and fifty years hence they will be in\nadvance of the colleges of today, while higher education, whose concepts\nare now illy defined, will consist of individual research, professional\ninvestigation, and the solution of those life-problems which an infant\ncivilization has not presumed to attack.\nIn the preparation of this report the committee has drawn from all\nsources ; it has studied the problem in the light of more recent conclusions in England, France, and Germany ; it has scanned the whole\nhorizon of American education.\nThe correspondence undertaken, the\n\n"}
{"page": 634, "printed_page": null, "text": "626\n\nNATfONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nStatistics gathered, the papers written, the discussions of conferences, the\ncontributions of the press, secular and educational, the reports of subcommittees, would fill tomes of books ; but we have contented ourselves\nwith a brief discussion of principles, and the claims of studies which\nshould underlie and enter into the programs of secondary schools, as\nschools fostered by the state, for the good of the state, and at the same\ntime as tributary to the colleges which are to conserve the interests of\nhigher education, furnish opportunities for professional training and for\nindividual research along special lines.\nThe report is concise, conservative, conciliatory. Tho far from being Utopian, it. approaches the ideal.\nIt assumes that the secondary schools are for the purpose of giving the\nbest possible equipment for citizenship and for success in life, within the\nlimits of a four-years' curriculum, so arranged that the influence of heredity\nand individual aptitudes shall be kept constantly in view.\nIt assumes that\nthe colleges will fix their own requirements of admission, but requirements that will not discourage worthy students nor compel a preparation\nwhich is contrary to their tastes and talents, but rather such as will encourage and enable them to build on foundations well laid.\nThe report does\nnot deal with fixed programs for all schools, nor for any school, nor\nwith curricula for individual pupils, but rather with courses of study, their\nmatter and method, and the quantity and quality of work to be done, the\nplace for each study and the time to be consumed in its pursuit.\nIn Latin,\na well-defined course is given for four, five, and six years; in Greek, for\nthree years ; in French and German, courses are prepared in detail, named\nelementary, intermediate, and advanced, covering respectively for each,\ntwo years, three years, and four years.\nThe first may be taken in addition\nto Latin and Greek, the second as a substitute for Greek, and the third\nindependently of either or both ancient languages.\nEnglish should be\ngiven a prominent position in all secondary schools, and pursued, whether\nas a preparation for college or not, four periods a week for four years.\nThe mechanism of the language should not be neglected, its literature\nshould be a constant study : there should be much practice in writing, and\na taste for the best reading should be inculcated by a wise selection of\nbooks, graded and classified with the utmost care.\nTo roam at large thru\na library, to select books by their titles and not by their content, is not\ncommended.\nIn every school there should be a reference library supplemental to the texts in the program of studies, and, in addition, a small,\nwell-selected, thoroly graded miscellaneous library of the choicest literature, secured in duplicate.\nFive copies each of two hundred such books\nare better than a thousand books, one copy each, carelessly selected.\nIt\nis not the quantity but the quality of books that makes a good library.\nThe report in this respect is in a very large measure in harmony with the\nmost excellent work of the Joint Conference on English, and with its\necent promulgations, issued after this report had gone to press.\nSixty of\n\n"}
{"page": 635, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPRESENTA\n\nTION\n\nOF REPOR\n\nT OF JOINT\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\n627\n\nthe books recommended by it in an open list for home reading will be\nfound in the volume before you. This is a striking and most happy\ncoincidence, as the two bodies were not in communication with each\nother, nor was the membership in any respect duplicated. The report on\nEnglish, therefore, should meet with universal recognition and adoption.\nThe committee recommends, and with all the force of its influence\nemphasizes the recommendation, that American history be given a place\nfor one entire yeai in the program, and even in the curriculum of every\nsecondary school, and preferably in the fourth year of the school. Courses\nin history are presented for from one to four years, with the understanding that the schools will adopt as many of them as their members,\nequipment, and teaching force will permit, and that the colleges will\naccept and give credit for as many as they may deem wise and just.\nStrong and extended courses in mathematics are proposed. There\nwas some difference of opinion in the committee as to the wisdom of\nrequiring so much.\nThere is a widespread conviction in the public mind that a very large\nand respectable minority of pupils, especially girls, while intellectually\nwell furnished by nature and attainment in other respects, are deficient\nin the mathematical faculty.\nThere is serious doubt with many whether solid geometry should be\nforced into every preparatory curriculum. The chairman sympathizes\nwith this view, and hopes the colleges will give earnest heed to this question before they insist upon making anything a constant in preparatory\nmathematics beyond algebra and plane geometry.\nThe committee prepared courses or made suggestions concerning the\nstudy of the sciences in secondary schools. 'It recommends for the first\nyear, physical geography ; for the second year, biology ; that is, botany\nand zoology, or botany, or zoology ; for the third year, physics ; and for\nthe fourth year, chemistry. It was a matter of the most poignant regret\nthat the committee appointed to co-operate with us by the Science\nDepartment of this associa'.ion did not furnish us with as harmonious,\nelaborate, and satisfactory reports as those which came from other organizations on other subjects. The report on zoology came too late for our\ncareful examination ; that on physics is incomplete, by reason of a lack of\nharmony in the subcommittee as to matter and method. No reports were\npresented on geology, astronomy, or physiology, subjects which are considered worthy of a large place in secondary-school programs.\nWe suggest, therefore, the appointment of a special committee to\nsurvey the whole iield of science teaching in the secondary schools, and\nto make a report as exhaustive, as suggestive, and as conclusive as those\nof the American Philological Association and the Modern Language\nAssociation of America, which reports ought to be in the study of every\nhigh-school teacher of language in the nation.\n\n"}
{"page": 636, "printed_page": null, "text": "628\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nAs one studies this report in detail, he will at once see that the program of studies here discussed is beyond what most schools, except in the\nlarge cities, can offer, and far beyond what any pupil can compass in four\nyears. It is expected that schools will arrange their programs in accordance with their opportunities, as limited by the public funds at their disposal, by the equipment at their command, by the numbers of their\npupils, and by the number and quality of their teachers ; and that pupils\nwill be allowed to arrange their curriculum as dictated by their tastes\nand talents and their plans for the future.\nIt is hoped that the courses of study laid down in this report, with the\nunanimous indorsement of the committee, will be adopted and used by\nall schools as national norms to the extent in which these studies are\nincluded in their programs. It is further hoped that all the colleges will\naccept toward satisfying the requirements for admission any unit of work,\nrecommended in this report, when proof shall have been presented by\ncertificate or examination that the work has been well done; and that\nthey will also give credit for any unit of advanced work, and desist from\nthe injustice of compelling a student to go over ground which he has\nalready carefully surveyed. The committee limited the constants for all\nschools to a minimum, in order that full play may be given to both the\nsecondary schools and the colleges — to the one in fixing their requirements for admission, and to the other in determining the requirements for\ngraduation. We believe there will be no difference of opinion regarding\nthe constants here presented, so far as they go. There are many principles enunciated in this report which those who follow me will doubtless\ndiscuss. I need not enlarge upon them. If there is one central thought\nin the report, it is that of 'eclecticism, of wide options in secondary\nschools and in the requirements for admission to college. The question\nof intrinsic and relative value of studies is not dwelt upon. The test of\nthe value of a study resides more in the teacher and the pupil than in the\nstudy.\nPhysical conditions are determined largely by diet. While I am not\nat variance with the principles or the practice of Christian science, I\nrealize that what I eat has a very close connection with the normal or\nabnormal action of my digestive, absorptive, and assimilative machinery.\nThat which I relish is better for me than that for which my physical system\nby nature or acquirement has an abhorrence. Some people can eat only\ncereals, others only vegetables, while many flourish on roast beef and\npastry. There are foods for everyone, that suit everyone, if he is wise\nand discreet enough to select them. It is much the same with the intellectual. The same mental diet is not equally adapted to all. What you\nshould study that you may make the most of yourself, as determined by\nyour endowments, the gifts of the Creator, is not perhaps what I should\nstudy for the same end.\nThe percentage of loss in our secondary pupils\n\n"}
{"page": 637, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPRESENTATION\n\nOF REPORT\n\nOF JOINT\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\n629\n\nfrom year to year is lamentable.\nThis loss is not wholly due to home\nconditions.\nThe program of study has been much at fault.\nPupils have\nbeen forced to pursue studies, and given up the pursuit without capture,\nin sheer discouragement.\nThey have been compelled to bolt down food\nwhich has been nauseating, but not nourishing.\nIntellectual dyspepsia\nhas been the result, and they have abandoned school because it did not\nmeet the demands of their nature, it did not feed their appetite ; and yet\nin later years many of these same pupils have come to the very front in\nthe honorable callings of life. There has been a noticeable increase in\nthe per cent, of students who remain in college to the end of a curriculum since electives were introduced into college programs.\nThere may\nbe the same desirable results in our secondary schools, when pupils,\nunder interested and safe guidance, are given a large liberty of choice in\nthe studies they may pursue.\nThere is a niche for everyone of average\nintelligence to fill, but the misfits in life are deplorable in the extreme.\nThe opportunities for success and usefulness are rich and varied.\nThe\nteaching profession needs better-trained specialists ; in the learned professions there is vacant room at the top ; in the world of nature there is\nmuch to be discovered, in the laboratory of science much to be developed. The institutions of mankind await the touch of master-minds to\nreform them and adapt them to new eras, new modes of living, and new\nmethods of thought.\nOur own government needs rejuvenation ; our\nmunicipalities, reeking with rottenness, need revolutionizing.\nThe whole\nmoral sense of the public needs quickening.\nAll these high ideals must\nbe reached thru the instrumentality of education.\nThe young people of\nthe nation, then, must be furnished opportunities for such an education\nas their natural endowments seem to foreshadow will be of most value\nto them.\nWe shall not have, then, so many physicians that ought to be\nfarmers, so many lawyers that ought to be blacksmiths, so many preachers that ought to be peddlers, nor so many failures in business because\nof mistaken vocations.\nWoe be to the one who crowds upon a young and innocent mind a\nstudy which, tho meat to the parent or teacher, may be poison to the\npupil ! Child study, mental aptitudes, individual trend, the eternal fitness\nof things should absorb our thought and demand our vigilance in the\narrangement of a curriculum of study for every boy or girl who passes\nthru the secondary school and the college. The sky is streaked with the\ngray of a better dawn ; the clouds of pedantry are passing away ; individualism in education is the promise of a rational future.\nOn behalf of the committee appointed by your departments to study\nthe question of college-entrance requirements, with gratitude for your\npatience in waiting four years for our conclusions, with acknowledgments\nto the hundreds who have given us valuable aid, and in the hope that\n• this report will be received and studied in theVsame earnest^and honest\n\n"}
{"page": 638, "printed_page": null, "text": "630\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nspirit in which it has been prepared, I submit it, with the unanimous\nendorsement of the committee, for your consideration.\n\nDISCUSSION\n\nPresident Joseph Swain, Indiana University. — In opening this discussion, I wish\nto say with emphasis that the committee of which Dr. Nightingale is the honored chairman deserves much commendation for the four years of intelligent and painstaking\nservice which it has performed for the schools of the United States. It has labored long\nand faithfully. It has its reward in the knowledge that its labors will be most helpful to\nthe cause of education. The committee very wisely, as I think, recognizes that uniformity\nof college-entrance requirements as regards particular subjects is not only undesirable,\nbut impossible. It does hope, however, to establish a collection of units which shall be\npractically equivalent, and out of which the requirements for entrance shall be selected,\nthus making national units which shall be understood thruout the limits of this association.\nIn order that we may have in mind its terminology, I quote the language of the\ncommittee :\nThe committee, for itself, adopts a definite terminology which will be used during this discussion. Three\ndistinct terms seem to be needed : first, program of studies, which includes all of the studies offered in a given\nschool ; second, curriculum, which means the group of studies, schematically arranged for any pupil or set of\npupils; third, course of study, which means the quantity, quality, and method of work in any given subject of\ninstruction.\nThus the program of studies includes the curriculum, and may, indeed, furnish the material for the\nconstruction of an indefinite number of curriculums. The course of study is the unit or element from which\nboth the program and the curriculum are constructed.\n\nThe committee has secured leading experts from all sections of this union to aid it\nin the formation of these units. The result of its investigation deserves the very careful\nconsideration of this association, and warrants the members in giving their most cordial\nco-operation in trying this scheme in our respective institutions. Dr. Nightingale has\nintimated in the paper to which we have listened that he would leave the resolutions,\nstating the principles upon which the report is based, to be discussed by those who come\nafter him.\nI shall discuss briefly two of these :\nI. Resolved, That the principle of election be recognized in secondary schools.\n\nThis resolution is properly placed as a fundamental one. The committee does not\n. undertake to say how much election there shall be in any given school. It simply recognizes election as an established fact, and leaves to each school the range of election.\nAbsolute prescription is no longer feasible, and absolute freedom of selection on the part\nof the pupil is not encouraged. I have no quarrel with those who have already found\nthe exact curriculum for the development of the child, but there are too many exact\ncurricula, each having the same claim to command general confidence in any one. For\nmyself, I am inclined to believe for the present that the high school can do most for the\ngraduate of the elementary school by giving him as a curriculuin a minimum amount of\nthose subjects which are very generally regarded as proper subjects for his study, and are\nrepresentative subjects in the several fields of human knowledge; leaving the rest of the\ncourse to be selected from a wide range of subjects, partly by the student, partly by the\nparents, and partly by the teacher. There may be an ideal curriculum for a particular\nchild, but there is no one curriculum for all children. The idea that one student may\nreceive the training best for him thru the study of one subject, and another student thru\nthe study of another subject, is rapidly gaining ground.\nI am willing to accept thoro\n\ni\n\n"}
{"page": 639, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPRESENTATION\n\nOF REPORT\n\nOF JOINT\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\n63 1\n\nwork in any proper high-school subject which, has been pursued for at least one year\nunder competent instructors, with adequate equipment, as a part of the work for collegeentrance requirement.\n2. Resolved, That the teachers in the secondary school should be college graduates, or have the equivalent\nof a college education.\n\nI believe it is certainly significant that the present committee, the chairman of which\nis a secondary-school man, should so strongly reinforce the declaration laid down by the\nCommittee of Ten. The greatest need I believe to be teachers of larger and more\naccurate scholarship. Scholarship's not by any means the only requisite a high-school\nteacher should have, but no teacher can lead students to proper ends without mastery of\nthe subject he is required to teach. It is too frequently the case that the knowledge\nwhich the teacher has of the subject he is trying to teach is limited to the narrow and\npartial view of some text-book. The opinion expressed in the resolution, that a teacher\nshould be in scholarship at least four years in advance of the pupils he is trying to teach,\nis certainly sound. A grade- and common-school teacher should at least be a graduate of\na high school. A high-school teacher should be a graduate or in scholarship equivalent\nto a graduate of a reputable college. I would go farther and say he should have a fouryears' course in college in the subject he is expected to teach in the high school. For\nexample, if he is a teacher of mathematics, he should have a four-years' course of thoro\nmathematical training in college. There is a large amount of misdirected energy in our\nschools today because of the failure of many of our teachers to grasp the essentials of the\nsubjects which they are endeavoring to teach.\nA teacher who is merely able to solve the problems in some text-book may get\nalong ; he may be able to convince the pupils that they are getting on satisfactorily ; he\nmay have superior skill in class management ; he may have a wide knowledge of educational literature ; but unless he is master of the subject he is trying to teach, there can be\nno adequate compensation for time and energy expended ; for it is the blind leading the\nbliiin, and they are sure to fall in the ditch at last.\nThe committee well says :\nThe time is past when a superficial knowledge of a variety of subjects, coupled with a knack for giving\ninstruction and some administrative ability, can be considered sufficient qualifications for teaching in a high\nschool. In many departments of study, work is now being done in these schools as advanced as that done in\nthe first year of a college course, and there is no better reason in the high school than in the college for\nintrusting this work 'to the care of teachers who lack adequate special training for it.\n\nProfessor F. H. Clark, Lowell High School, San Francisco, emphasized the\npoint that the secondary schools have a field of education distinctly their own, and that\nthe colleges must recognize this and accept what the high schools find to be their proper\nwork.\nPrincipal E. W. Coy, Hughes High School, Cincinnati, O., criticised the report as\nhaving made a requirement of at least one half-year's work in Greek and some work in\nLatin beyond what was now customary or desirable.\nPresident James H. Baker of the University of Colorado, being called upon,\nexpressed himself as in general sympathy with the report. He stated that he was a\nconservative in regard to the doctrine of the equivalents of studies, but thought that the\ncommittee had been successful in adopting the only plans under which an agreement\namong colleges was practicable. He thought that it is the duty of the schools to train\nmen and women rather than professional men and women ; even those who stand most\nstrongly for freedom of election in practice actually do insist upon certain studies as\nessential.\nPrincipal H. L. Boltwood of the Township High School, Evanston, 111., criticised\nthe report as being impracticable in certain points, notably in the recommendation that\nall high-school teachers should have college preparation, especially if the high-school\ncourse be extended to six years.\nHe did not think that the pay would be sufficient to\n\n"}
{"page": 640, "printed_page": null, "text": "632\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nsecure college graduates for seventh- and eighth-year work. He commended the system\nof units presented in the report as the basis of college admission.\nPresident William H. Black of Missouri Valley College commended the report,\nespecially for the careful distinction drawn between the principle of election, as defined\nin the report, and specialization, as ordinarily understood. Specialization, so-called, is\none of the hobbies which we are in danger of overdoing. He commended the remark of\nPresident Baker that the schools should train men and women rather than professional\nmen and women.\nBoys and girls in the high school are not then choosing professions.\nPresident David Starr Jordan of Stanford University, California, said that\ncolleges have done much mischief by putting requirements upon the secondary schools as\nto what they should teach. Secondary schools should give the pupils work upon which the\nworld can build ; the universities desire work upon which they can build. These demands\nare identical. The schools should teach what they can teach best ; the only thing that the\ncolleges should insist upon is thoroness. President Jordan related the experiences of the\nStanford University faculty in trying to decide on a basis of admission to the university.\nAfter much trouble the \" Stanford system \" was brought about. According to this system,\nany twelve units admit a student, the only thing being demanded from all being training\nin English composition, and there being a further restriction that any science units offered\nmust represent work actually performed in the laboratory for not less than a year. Even\nthe English requirements he thought unnecessary, believing that the high schools would\ninsist upon that anyway. The speaker expressed himself as not being able to find anything in the report with which he could disagree.\nMr. Seely, of Texas, continued the discussion of the report, speaking of the burdens\nof high schools in trying to connect with the varying requirements of colleges, and commending this effort to unite them.\nDr. a. F. Nightingale closed the discussion. He regretted that more opposition\nhad not been developed in the discussion ; and gave fuller explanation of points in the\nreport concerning which fault had been found.\n\nREPORT\n\nOF THE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nENTRANCE\nNATIONAL\n\nON\n\n•\n\nCOLLEGE-\n\nREQUIREMENTS'\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nLos Angeles, Cal., July 13, 1899.\nTo the Department of Secondary Education and the Department of Higher\nEducation of the National Educational Association :\nThe committee appointed by your honorable bodies in July, 1895, to\nstudy the question of college-entrance requirements\nsubmit the following report.\n\nhas the\n\nhonor to\n\nA. F. Nightingale, Chairman. Burke A. Hinsdale.\nWilliam H. Smiley, Secretary. Ray Greene Huling.\nGeorge B. Aiton.\nEdmund J. James.\nJ. Remsen Bishop.\nWilliam Carey Jones.\nJohn T. Buchanan.\nJames E. Russell.\nPaul H. Hanus.\nCharles H. Thurber.\n\nf\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 641, "printed_page": null, "text": "DepartmentJ\n\nCOLLEGE-ENTRANCE\n\nPART\n\nREQUIREMENTS\n\n633\n\nI\n\nTo the Department of Secondary Education and the Department of Hight/\nEducation of the National Educational Association :\nThe committee appointed by your honorable bodies to study the\nquestion of college- entrance requirements, for the purpose of harmonizing the relations between the secondary schools and the colleges, to the\nend that the former may do their legitimate work, as the schools of the\npeople, and at the same time furnish an adequate preparation to their\npupils for more advanced study in the academic colleges and technical\nschools of the country, submits the following report :\nHISTORICAL\n\nSKETCH\n\nAt the meeting of the Department of Secondary Education of the\nNational Educational Association at Denver, in 1895, a paper was read\nby Professor William Carey Jones, of the University of California, on the\nsubject, \"What Action Ought to be Taken by Universities and Secondary\nSchools to Promote the Introduction of the Programs Recommended by\nthe Committee of Ten ?\" Discussion of this paper led to the motion\nfor the appointment of a committee to report a plan of action on the\nbasis of Professor Jones' paper.\nThe committee presented the following report :\nWhereas, The most pressing need for higher education in this country is a better\nunderstanding between the secondary schools and the colleges and universities in regard\nto requirements for admission ; therefore\nResolved, That the Department of Secondary L^ducation appoint a committee of five,\nof which the present president shall be one, and request the appointment of a similar\ncommittee by the Department of Higher Education, the two to compose a committee of\nconference, whose duty it shall be to report at the next annual meeting a plan for the\naccomplishment of this end, so urgently demanded by the interests of higher education.\n\nThis resolution was unanimously adopted, and the result communicated to the Department of Higher Education, from which the following\nreply Avas presently received :\nSecretary Thurber.\nDear Sir : The Department of Higher Education has arranged to have a committee\nappointed to co-operate with the Committee on Secondary Education in regard to requirements for admission into colleges and universities. Very truly,\nJoseph Swain,\nSecretary.\n\nThe president of the Department of Secondary Education announced\nthe appointment of the following committee in accordance with the above\naction : William Carey Jones, Berkeley, Cal.; A. F. Nightingale, Chicago\n\n"}
{"page": 642, "printed_page": null, "text": "634\n\nAATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\n111.; C. H. Thurber, Hamilton, N. Y.; J. R. Bishop, Cincinnati, O.; in\naddition to the president, W. H. Smiley, Denver, Colo.\nPresident James H. Baker of the University of Colorado made the\nfollowing nominations to represent the Department of Higher Education : Nicholas Murray Butler (an original member of the committee,\nwho has been unable to participate in its deliberations), New York city ;\nB. A. Hinsdale, Ann Arbor, Mich.; James E. Russell, Boulder, Colo.;\nJohn T. Buchanan, Kansas City, Mo., and Paul H. Hanus, Cambridge,\nMass.\nEarly in January, 1896, at the suggestion of Professor C. H. Thurber,\nthe committee proceeded to organize by correspondence, each member\nsending his vote to William H. Smiley, of the Denver High School.\nThis action resulted in the election of Dr. A. F. Nightingale, superintendent of the Chicago high schools, as chairman, and Mr. William\nH. Smile}^ principal of the Denver High School, District No. i, as\nsecretary.\nAs no appropriation had been made for the prosecution of the work\nby the committee, no general conference was held this year, but members\nof the committee as individuals, yet acting in their official capacity, sent\nout circulars, collected opinions, gathered statistics, and requested the\nvarious educational associations of the country to enter upon a discussion\nof questions correlated with the general subject of college-entrance\nrequirements.\nThe chairman also invited the four associations which were maintained for the purpose of furthering the interests of secondary and college\neducation to appoint each a committee of three to co-operate with the\nnational committee in its investigation of all matters pertinent to the\ngeneral subject of inquiry.\nAccordingly there were appointed, from the New England Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools, Messrs. Albert Bushnell Hart,\nJohn Tetlow, and Ray Greene Huling ; from the Association of the Middle States and Maryland, Messrs. Melvil Dewey, E. H. Griffin, and Wilson\nFarrand ; from the Southern Association, Messrs. W. P. Trent, • E. A.\nAlderman, and W. H. Bartholomew : from the North Central Association,\nMessrs. G. B. Gilbert, J. H. Canfield, and W. H. Butts.\nThe national committee, altho no general conference had been held,\npresented its first unofficial preliminary report at the meeting of the\nNational Educational Association at Buffalo, July, 1896. This consisted\nof one hundred and fifty pages of printed matter, which was published in\nthe June number of the School Review, thru the courtesy of the University of Chicago and of Professor Charles H. Thurber, editor and member\nof the committee.\nThe report was devoted largely to a tabular statement of entrance\nrequirements to sixty-seven representative colleges and universities of the\n\n"}
{"page": 643, "printed_page": null, "text": "DepartmentJ\n\nCOLLEGE-ENTRANCE\n\nREQUIREMENTS\n\n635\n\nUnited States, with a resume and critique of the requirements in the different subjects, by members of the committee and others who were deeply\ninterested in these tables.\nThis June, 1896, number of the School Review is a very valuable document, since it presents for the first time since 1879,^ i^ ^ compact form,\nin parallel columns, the requirements for admission to the A.B., Ph.B.,\nand B.S. courses of the leading colleges and technological schools of the\ncountry. These requirements deserve careful study, and the more they\nare studied, the more conflicting, incongruous, and unsatisfactory will\nthey appear, and the keener will be the appreciation of the absolute\nnecessity of radical reforms, and the reasonableness of the suggestions in\nthe reports to follow. In the same volume appears a semi-official report\nof the chairman, from which we extract the following :\nThere is no educational subject before the American people requiring more serious\nattention, demanding a calmer discussion, greater wisdom, a keener appreciation of the\ntrend of present civilization, and a loftier spirit of altruism than that which relates to an\nAmerican system of education which shall be consistent with psychic law from the kindergarten to the graduate school of the university.\nThe kindergarten has not as yet become an integral part of the public-school system,\nbut its claims are being rapidly recognized The common-school curriculum, both urban\nand rural, is in a plastic state, awaiting the touch of inspired artists. The colleges are\nmuch at variance as to what constitutes a liberal education in these closing years of a\ncentury which began with scarcely any difference of educational opinion ; while the secondary schools, awaiting, on the one hand, the abridgment and enrichment of the common-school curriculum, and, on the other, a more uniform expression of opinion on the\npart of the colleges as to their functions, are suffering from their inability to supply the\ndeficiencies of the former or to satisfy the demands of the latter.\nIt is generally admitted that, until secondary education commences, children should\nhave much the same training ; yet even in the lowest grades individual direction should\nnot be lost sight of, as the mind very early gives evidence of a divine implanting which\nmust not be ignored. Thruout the course of secondary instruction, surely, there must be\nno Procrustean bed which every pupil by some process of dwarfing or stretching must be\nmade to fit, but natural endowments, as soon as discovered, should have full scope, within\ncertain limitations. College courses ought to be so adjusted that every pupil at the end\nof a secondary course recognized as excellent, both in the quality and quantity of its\nwork, may find the doors of every college swing wide to receive him into an atmosphere\nof deeper research and higher culture along the lines of his mental aptitudes. We do\nnot mean that secondary programs should be purely elective, but that they should be\neminently elastic, and that this elasticity, based upon psychological laws, should be\nrecognized by the colleges. There is no identity of form, either in mind or matter, in\nthe natural or the spiritual, and since power, power to adapt one's self to the sphere for\nwhich nature designed him, is the end of education, every student should find in the\ncollege and university the means by which that power may be secured.\nThe universal recognition of this oneness of education would bring about harmonious relations between the secondary schools and the colleges. A careful study of the\nrequirements of admission in the School Review for June, 1896, seems to indicate a wide\ndivergence of opinion, which we believe does not really exist. The discussions of recent\n' Dr. A. F. Nightingale, chairman of this committee, prepared a similar volume, which was published by\nD. Appleton & Co., in 1879.\n\n"}
{"page": 644, "printed_page": null, "text": "636\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nyears, the admirable report of the Committee of Ten, and the agitation it has provoked,\nthe deliberations of the various associations formed to bring about unity in diversity, all\npoint to a wise and happy solution of this vexed problem.\nThe results of the conferences held at Columbia College are encouraging in the\nGxirtra& {Educational Review, May, 1896). It is the most advanced step in the right\ndirection which has yet been taken.\nThese conferences took on a local color, but the unanimity of their conclusions\npresages the feasibility of national unity on this same matter.\nThe secondary schools are the schools of the people, and the people have demanded,\nand in still more effectual ways will demand, that their courses must be practical, beneficial, disciplinary. The sciences no longer knock at the doors for admission. They\nhave been admitted, and a larger and still larger place will be provided for them.\nPhysiography, biology, physics, chemistry, in all their elementary principles, and in\ntheir relations to man, whose duty and privilege it is to conquer nature and to make it\nsubservient to his advancement and happiness, are no longer to remain in the category\nof informational studies, and suffer the opprobrium of being contrasted with the humane\nand the literary as the sole dispensers of intellectual culture. The sciences, as they are\nbeginning to be taught in our best schools, add to the wealth of mind as well as to the\nstock of facts, and the colleges must recognize them as full equivalents for other work\nwhich they have hitherto demanded to the exclusion of science.\nIn pleading for uniformity in college-entrance requirements, there are a few vital\nfacts which cannot be ignored : First, the triple function of the public high school, viz.,\nto equip pupils for the business of life, to give a proper training to those who will teach\nin the common schools, and to prepare for college. Secondly, a majority of our young\npeople who go to college come to a decision late in their secondary course. Thirdly,\nevery young man or woman who has successfully devoted at least four years to earnest\nstudy in a well-equipped secondary school should be admitted to any college in the\ncountry, whether such a pupil has devoted a greater part of his time to Latin, Greek, and\nmathematics, or to Latin, modern languages, and mathematics, or to Latin, mathematics,\nand the sciences, or to any other combination of studies which has developed his power\nand been in harmony with his intellectual aptitudes. To this end, secondary programs\nof study should be thoroly elastic and with varied electives, suited to the talents of the\nindividual child ; a college program should be still more elastic and with a larger number of electives. Every person will then find opportunities for the development of that\npower which will enable him with confidence to attack the problems of life which he\nwishes to help to solve.\nThe public high school can become a link in the golden chain of our American system of education only when the colleges begin where the best high schools leave off ;\notherwise the gap between the common school and the college must be filled by the\nprivate schools, patronized by the children of the rich, and the sons and daughters of\nthe gieat middle class must be deprived of the benefits of a higher education because,\nforsooth, they have failed to fulfill some specific requirement of the college they would\notherwise enter. I have faith, however, that these conflicting requirements will be harmonized, their incongruities removed, so that we may in the near future have a unified\nsystem of education, from the kindergarten to the graduate school of the university, which\nwill give to every child, without let or hindrance, the right of way for such an education\nas will best develop the power with which, in a plastic state, he has been endowed by the\nInfinite Architect.\n\nA conference of the committee with members\n\nof the committee of\n\nco-operation and others interested was held at Buffalo on Tuesday, July\n7, 1896.\n\n"}
{"page": 645, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCOLLEGE-ENTRANCE\n\nREQUIREMENTS\n\n637\n\nIn the absence of Chairman Nightingale, who spent the summer\nabroad. Mr. W. H. Smiley presided. A committee, consisting of Dr.\nJames E. Russell, Dr. Melvil Dewey, and Professor Elmer E. Brown, was\nappointed to draft a plan of work for the general committee for the year\n1896-97.\nThis committee presented the following at the conference held on\nWednesday evening, July 8, Dr. B. A. Hinsdale acting as chairman of\nthe meeting :\nPLAN\n\nOF\n\nWORK\n\nFOR\n\n1896-97\n\nIt is within the province of the committee, according to the resolution passed at\nthe Denver meeting, to investigate existing college-entrance requirements and to report\non w^ays and means of securing such uniformity in extent and method as will be conducive to the best interests, both of higher and of secondary education. The first step\nin investigation of existing requirements has been taken; in our opinion the program of\nthe ensuing year should be chiefly as follows :\n1. The committee should invite the active co-operation of associations already\norganized for the study of such problems ; it should appoint representative subcommittees\nof specialists interested in the various subjects ; it should ascertain the views of individual\ninstitutions — secondary schools, colleges, and universities — all with a view to the\nultimate determination of what should constitute a normal requirement in each of the\nsubjects set for the admission to college.\n2. To this end it is recommended that the requirements be considered in the following groups : English, classical languages, modern languages, history, mathematics, and\nsciences.\n3. Within the several groups special attention should be given to what should constitute a year's work in each subject (e. g., first-year French ; second-year PVench, physics,\nchemistry, etc.) ; or, as may be preferable in some groups, what should constitute the\n\"elementary\" and what the \"advanced \" requirements, and, in general, the constitution\nof entire courses of study in the separate subjects.\n4. It is recommended that a schedule of options or equivalents within the various'\ngroups, or between separate groups, be prepared.\n5. The committee should make special effort to secure a more satisfactory method\nof admission to college. The views of the associations, subcommittees, and institutions\n(above referred to) should be sought as to the best pedagogical means of testing the\nwork done in preparation for college.\n6. All partial reports should be submitted to the committee as early as possible, that\na tentative report may be prepared for discussion at the next annual meeting of the\nNational Educational Association.\n7. The Departments of Higher and Secondary Education and of Science should be\nrequested to make this subject a special order in their program for the meeting of 1897.\n8. It is evident that the work outlined cannot be done without the expenditure of\na considerable sum of money. This committee should urge upon the Departments of\nHigher Education, of Secondary Education, and of Science the necessity of petitioning\nthe Board of Directors of the National Educational Association for an appropriation, to\nbe made at as early a day as practicable, sufficient to complete the work.\n\nGeneral discussion of the report, as it was read seriatim, followed, and\nit was finally adopted as reported by the committee. At the joint\nmeeting of the two departments on the following day it received the\nunanimous approval of the large body of representatives of secondary\nand higher education in attendance.\n\n"}
{"page": 646, "printed_page": null, "text": "638\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nProfessor West, of Princeton College, and Professor Kelsey, of the\nUniversity of Michigan, expressed the opinion that the American Philological Association would be willing to co-operate with the joint committee bypresenting at a later stage classical programs prepared by the\nassociation. The members of the committee accepted gratefully and\nunanimously this suggested help, and on motion of the secretary an\ninvitation was extended to the Philological Association, by unanimous\nvote of the two departments, to prepare a report on Greek and Latin.\nThe invitation was accepted by the Philological Association, which proceeded to make an investigation of remarkable thoroness and efficiency.\nThe report of its committee (Professor Thomas Day Seymour, of Yale\nUniversity, chairman) is presented in Part II of this report. The co-operation of the Science Department of the National Educational Association,\ntendered thru its president. Professor Bessey, was also gladly accepted.\nThe reports of several committees appointed by this department also\nappear in Part II.\nIn the autumn of 1896 Chairman Nightingale sent a request to the\nAmerican Historical Association to appoint a committee to prepare a\nreport on the scope and place of history in the secondary schools, with\nmodel courses of study for the same. A committee of seven was\nappointed, with Professor A. C. McLaughlin, of the University of Michigan, as chairman. Its most excellent report is presented herewith in\nPart II. Professor C. H. Thurber attended the meeting of the eastern\nbranch of the Modern Language Association of America at Cleveland in\nDecember, and the chairman of the committee met with the western branch\nat St. Louis at the same time. As a result, a committee of twelve was\nappointed by this association, with Professor Calvin Thomas, of Columtria\nUniversity, as chairman, to prepare a report on German and French, with\nmodel courses of study for secondary schools. Its very exhaustive report is\nalso to be found in Part II.\nA second preliminary report of the committee was presented at the\nmeeting of the National Educational Association at Milwaukee, July,\n1897, which was printed by courtesy and without expense to the committee in the June, 1897, number of the School Review. We quote the\nfollowing from the report presented by the chairman at that time :\nThe committee, sensible of its responsibilities, and sensitive that no means were\nprovided for their proper discharge, has labored, with a zeal fed by its intense interest in\nthe problem, to make a commendable advancement along all lines. Every educational\nassociation in the country dealing in any respect with secondary-school and college work\nhas given this question a prominent place upon its program. Educational papers and\nmagazines have abounded with articles on this subject. The secular press has not been\nremiss in its instruction to the public, and never in the centuries of our educational\nhistory has there been a tithe of the interest awakened that now exists in bringing about\nthat harmony which ought to, and eventually must, prevail between elementary, secondary, and higher education in this republic of free schools, of free opinions, and of universal suffrage.\n\ni\n\n"}
{"page": 647, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCOLLEGE- EN\n\nTRANCE\n\nREQUIREMENTS\n\n639\n\nThere must be the closest affiliation between the secondary schools and the colleges.\nThis can be brought about only by the adoption of a plan that shall be consistent with\nwhat the secondary schools can do, and what the colleges must have. It is not, however, a question of compromise or of expediency ; it is rather one of psychology, or, to\nuse a rational term, of common-sense and justice. All omens point to a successful issue.\nOne after another the old idols are broken. The giants that stood in the path and said\nto every student, \" Let him who enters here \" leave all behind but Latin, Greek, and\nmathematics, are growing limp and lifeless. Requirements for admission are being\nleveled up ; wide options are to be allowed ; the element of value in preparation is to be\na time element ; Harvard, Cornell, Vassar, University of Michigan, University of Chicago, and Leiand Stanford, Jr., are unfurling their banners of freedom. There is already\na path blazed thru the thicket and jungle of conservatism and tradition, and before the\ntwentieth century dawns in its glory there will be a broad highway thru which a pupil\nmay walk unfettered, amid attractive associations, from the kindergarten to a degree at\nthe end of the postgraduate course of the university, and still will the people of the\nfuture be able to say, \"There were giants in those days.\" ^\n\nAt a meeting of the committee at the Pfister Hotel it was decided to\nrequest from the joint departments the privilege of adding four members\nto the committee. The privilege was granted, and the balloting resulted\nin the choice of Professor H. B. Fine, of Princeton University, and Dr.\nEdmund J. James, of the University of Chicago, to represent the Department of Higher Education, and of George B. Alton, inspector of high\nschools, state of Minnesota, and Ray Greene Huling, of the English High\nSchool, Cambridge, Mass., to represent the secondary schools. These\ngentlemen accepted, and have since acted with the committee. At this\nconference it was also decided to ask the National Educational Association for an appropriation to enable the committee to finish its work,\nwhich had thus far been prosecuted at individual and private expense.\nA subcommittee was appointed for the purpose, and the directors\nvoted to appropriate $500, provided the funds of the association would\npermit.\nAnother year passed, and it was learned only at the meeting at Washington, July, 1898, that the money had been voted. During the winter\nthe chairman requested the American Mathematical Association to prepare a report on the subjects in which it was especially interested. The\nrequest was too late for the general association, but the Chicago branch\nwas empowered to appoint a committee to study the matter and to report.\nProfessor J. W. A. Young, of the University of Chicago, was chairman.\nHe labored with commendable zeal, sent out circulars, called several conferences, and two or three drafts of a report were prepared, and one,\nwhich we print in Part- II, was presented.\n' \" And, lastly, public sentiment among those who have the schools in charge must devise some way by .\nwhich all grades of schools, from the kindergarten to the college, shall be so correlated that there shall be a\nstraight and open pathway from the lowest to the highest — with no hurdles to jump over and no hoops to\njump through — along which free -acting children may be led by teachers acting freely within the necessary\nlimits of relativity.\" (George H. Martin, in his Evolution of the Massachusetts Public- School System,\nD. Appleton & Co. ; p. 276.)\n\n"}
{"page": 648, "printed_page": null, "text": "640\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nEfforts were put forth, in the meantime, to secure the elaborate reports\nwhich had been promised by the eminent committees of the different\nassociations which were co-operating with the national committee, and\nwhen it seemed probable that all these reports would be ready, the chairman called a conference of the general committee in Chicago for April\n13, 14, and 15 of the present year.\nThru the courtesy of Dr. William R. Harper, who welcomed the committee in a brief address, and thru the generous kindness of the Quadrangle Club, every facility in the way of rooms and entertainment was\n■ provided at the University of Chicago. The first session was held at the\nHaskell Museum, where the chairman presented a general outline of the\nwork to be done. All other meetings — and there were three sessions a\nday for three days — were held.at the Quadrangle Club. Subcommittees\nwere appointed on the several subjects of study, and their reports were\ndiscussed and amended, or approved and passed. All resolutions were\npresented and debated in general session. To aid the Committee on\nScience and English, Dr. John M. Coulter, head of the department of\nbotany. Dr. Alexander Smith, professor of chemistry, of the University\nof Chicago, and Mr. Charles W. French, principal of the Hyde Park High\nSchool, were invited to meet with the subcommittees. Their counsels\nwere highly appreciated and of great value. Ten of the national committee and two of the advisory committee were present at all the sessions.\nLetters were received from the four absentees of the general committee,\ngiving special and satisfactory reasons for their forced absence. Excellent\nletters, containing many valuable suggestions, were received from Professor\nAlbert Bushnell Hart, Dr. John Tetlow, Dr. Melvil Dewey, Principal W. H.\nBartholomew, Professor William P. Trent, Professor Edward H. Griffin,\nDr. James H. Canfield,and Mr. Wilson Farrand. The reports that follow,\nboth that of the regularly appointed Committee on College- Entrance\nRequirements and those of the special committees appointed by the eminent associations organized for the purpose of advancing the interests of\nhigher education along special lines, are the result of four years of thought,\nstudy, and investigation. They contain not only the opinions of the\nscores of distinguished educators whose names are appended to the special reports, but they also embody the conclusions of conferences, institutes, and conventions, which have zealously studied this question since\nthe meeting of the National Educational Association at Denver in July,\n1895. They are submitted, therefore, with confidence that they must in\na large degree meet with the approval of the better class of colleges and\nsecondary schools of the country.\nENGLISH\n\nThe committee presents first the proposition that the study of the\nEnglish language and its literature is inferior in importance to no study\n\n"}
{"page": 649, "printed_page": null, "text": "Deparment]\n\nCOLLEGE-ENTRANCE\n\nREQUIREMENTS\n\n641\n\nin the curriculum. It offers all, or nearly all, the opportunities for mental training afforded by the study of any language, and introduces the\npupil to the literature of his own tongue, which must always be the chief\nsource of his own thought, inspirations, ideals, and aesthetic enjoyment,\nand must also be the vehicle of his communication with his fellow-men.\nHence this study should be placed in a position at least not inferior to\nthat allotted other languages.\nThe course of study in English should include two elements : the\nstudy of English literature, and the cultivation of the art of expression ;\nto the end of securing, respectively, sympathetic and comprehensive\nappreciation of the writings of great thinkers, and the power to use language in a clear, logical, convincing, and agreeable manner. Such study,\nfor the accomplishment of both of these aims, should include the reading\nof many works of literature carefully selected, the study of the principles\nof composition and literary style, and abundant practice in production, in\nobedience to the principles studied under the inspiration of the pleasurable reading of good books.\nThe subjects selected should be in themselves dignified and elevating,\ntaken from the higher or spiritual environment of the pupil, as found\nactually in his school work, and from the environment of his common\nlife.\nThe study of the principles of composition should include the following subjects : a study of words as to their origin and meaning ; a study\nof the structure of the sentence and of the larger units of discourse — in\nother words, concrete logic; a study of the principles of effective literary\ncomposition, as illustrated in the various divisions of literature; and also\na study of the aesthetics of literature.\nThese need not in all cases be taken up formally as grammar and\nrhetoric. Usually it is better that they be studied in connection with literature and composition ; but they should not be neglected. A pupil\ncompleting a course in English, or any specific portion of such a course,\nshould be able to appreciate literature that falls within the possibilities\nof his comprehension, and to express logically, and in good style, such\nthoughts as he is capable of expressing at all. This should be the test.\nFurthermore, the committee recommends that the two departments,\nliterature and composition, be pursued side by side thruout the entire\n• secondary-school course, and that they be so related thruout that one\nshall, in so far as possible, supplement and strengthen the other.\nWe desire to express approval of the following principles :\n1. That there should be no difference between the regular courses and the collegepreparatory courses in English in secondary schools ;\n2. That the college requirements in English should be distributed thru the four years.\n\nIn accordance with the above, we recommend the following suggestive\noutline of a course of study in English, the main points of which are in\n\n"}
{"page": 650, "printed_page": null, "text": "642\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION^\n\n[Secondary\n\naccordance with the paper presented by Mr. W. F. Webster, of Minneapolis, and thoroly discussed at the Washington meeting of the Secondary\nDepartment of the National Educational Association :\nFIRST\n\nYEAR\n\nFIRST\n\nHALF\n\nLiterature — Narration.\nNarratives in both prose and verse, some brief, some of greater length, selected\nfrom such authors as Scott, Poe, Tennyson, Lowell, Whittier, Browning, Stevenson, and\nKipling, representing various qualities of style, which qualities should be clearly pointed\nout to the pupils. The selections should be well within the comprehension of the pupils.\nThe following plan of study is suggested :\n1. Meaning of the author,\na) Outline of story.\nd) Incidents in the lives of characters.\nc) Central idea and purpose of the story.\n2. Method of the author.\na) Does the interest center in the incidents or in the characters ?\nb) Is there a climax ?\nc) Do all the parts converge to this point ? (unity).\nd) Are the parts arranged in a sequence ? (coherence),\ne) Is the interest sustained ?\n,\n3. Style of the author.\nIt is suggested that here special attention be given to the movement of any selected\npassage (verbs).\nComposition — Narration.\nTo give spontaneity.\n1. Incidents.\n(It is better that at this stage of study pupils compose tales without regard\nto plot.)\na) Selection of material (unity).\nb) Arrangement of material (sequence, coherence).\nc) Proportion in treatment (mass, emphasis).\n2. External form of composition.\nHeading, margins, indentations of paragraphs.\n3. Grammar study.\nReview of principles. (Attention should here be called especially to the sentence as\nthe unit of thought. Attention should also be given to inflection of pronouns and verbs,\nagreement of verbs and pronouns.)\nConcord.\nPunctuation.\nCapitalization,\n4. Figures of speech, based on likeness.\nSimile.\nMetaphor.\nPersonification.\nFIRST\n\nYEAR\n\nSECOND\n\nHALF\n\nLiterature — Description.\nExamples of description.\nExamples illustrative of various styles of descriptive literature, in both prose and\nverse, should be selected from such authors as Hawthorne, Lowell, Gray, Goldsmith, Poe,\nBlackmore, Burroughs, and Kipling.\nSome of the books should be studied in class,\n\nI\nJL\n\n"}
{"page": 651, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCOLLEGE-ENTRANCE\n\nREQUIREMENTS\n\n643\n\nothers assigned for home reading.\nIn some cases it is well to study in class portions of a\nwork of considerable length and require that the remaining portion be read at home.\nThe same general plan of study as that suggested for the first half of the year should\nbe followed.\n1. Meaning of the author.\n2. Method of the author.\na) Does he retain his point of view? (unity).\n^) Does he arrange details in order ? (coherence).\nc) Are they treated in right proportion ? (emphasis).\n3. Style of the author.\na) Words that produce pictures.\nd) General words or specific words.\n(It is well here to introduce a somewhat thoro study of words, as to origin and meaning, and of the analysis of words into their various elements.)\nComposition\n\n— Description.\n\nAim, accurate expression. Subjects to be individual rather than general. They\nshould be such objects as the pupil hag seen, or is able to reproduce from imagination,\nconcerning which it is possible for him to find adequate expression.\nTreatment,\nThe selection of details should be decided by the purpose of description.\nA point of view should be secured and held (unity).\nDetails should be arranged with some plan (coherence).\nArrangement and proportion of details should effect a purpose (mass, unity).\nTechnical subjects — paragraph structure.\nHaving secured in the previous half-year a clear conception of the sentence and its\narrangement, the combining of sentences in paragraphs can now be properly considered.\nThis consideration should include not merely the construction of paragraphs, but\nsuch arrangement of the sentences within them as shall secure clearness and proper\nemphasis.\nWords. Continuation of the analysis of words and of the study of their history.\nSelection of words which give pictures (rhetorical figures). Specific words and general\nterms compared.\nNouns, adjectives, verbs.\nA review of etymblogy regarding them.\nSECOND\nLiterature\n\n— Exposition.\n\nYEAR\n\nFIRST\n\nHALF\n\nLyrical poetry.\n\nAttention should be given to the study of those authors who have not merely told\nstories well and described objects well, but have expressed ideas in such a way as to make\nthem convincing. Many selections of lyrical poetry also can be properly studied. Poems\nshould be selected that are not too difficult of comprehension, that have an easy, flowing\nmovement, and that are pleasing because of the freedom of their rhythmical qualities, as\nwell as for the the beauty of the thought. The following points may profitably be considered, under the headings already indicated :\n1. Meaning of the author.\nIndicate the main thesis and subordinate propositions, their\nproper dependence and their relative importance (especially for exposition).\n2. Method of the author.\na) Does he sti,ck to his point ? (unity).\n3) Does he pass from the known to the unknown ? (coherence).\nc) Does he arrange the material to get the highest effect ? (emphasis).\n3. Style of the author.\nHis use of connectives, conjunctions, relatives, adverbs, and phrases.\na) How does he obtain clearness ?\nb) Are his figures of speech and comparisons effective ?\n\n"}
{"page": 652, "printed_page": null, "text": "644\n\nNATIONAL\n\nComposition — Exposition.\nTerms.\nDefinitions.\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nTo encourage logical thinking and adequate expression.\n\nPropositions.\n1. Clear statement of proposition (key sentence).\n2. Discussion as limited by the above.\na) What shall be included ? (unity).\nb) What shall be excluded ? (unity).\nc) In what order ? (coherence).\nd) In what proportion ? (emphasis, mass).\nSECOND\n\nYEAR — SECOND\n\nHALF\n\nLiterature — Exposition {continued).\nPoetry.\nSuggestions made for the first half year should be here followed.\nComposition — Exposition.\nParagraph structure.\nStudy of paragraphs introduced the preceding year should be here followed with\nmuch practice.\nA further study of connectives, and methods of transition.\nClauses.\nSentences.\nPeriodic, loose, balanced.\nTo make pupils think a whole sentence before writing, insist on many periodic sentences. Compare the effect of long and short sentences.\nStudy of argumentation.\nTHIRD\n\nYEAR\n\nFIRST\n\nHALF\n\nLiterature.\nIntroduction of character study, as exemplified in the novel.\nPoetry.\nNovels, representing the different classes of fiction, for study both in school and at\nhome.\nIt is best to select novels not too long, and those that have abundance of incident.\nMeaning of author.\n.\nMethod of author.\nIs the interest centered in plot or in the characters ? Do the details work toward a\nclimax ? (unity).\nAre the parts arranged in the best order ? (coherence).\nStyle of author. As exemplified in his power to picture, to phrase, to draw characters,\nto arouse emotions.\nThe principles already studied should be continually reviewed as occasion occurs.\nAttention, however, may now be drawn to some of the refinements of composition. Continually increasing attention should be given to the best word for the place in every\ninstance. Pupils should now be led to express themselves, not only with accuracy, but\nwith some degree of elegance. It is well to call attention to the fact that the best authors\nuse the simplest language, and that for English-speakmg people words of Anglo-Saxon\norigin are commonly best. Care should also be given now to the arrangement of words,\nwith the special view to securing force, smoothness, and elegance. Subjects of composition should be drawn to a considerable extent from the literature studied. It is also well\nto draw upon the other subjects of the curriculum for suitable topics, particularly history\nand science. Stories, episodes, conversations upon various topics, descriptions of scenes,\ncharacter sketches, are good topics. It is also well that occasionally outlines of compositions upon the various subjects be prepared by the students.\n\nk\n\n"}
{"page": 653, "printed_page": null, "text": "Oepartment] '\n\nCOLLECM-ENTRANCM\nTHIRD\n\nYEAR\n\nRE<^UiREMENTS\n\nSECOND\n\n645\n\nHALF\n\nLiterature — Drama.\nIt is suggested that the literature of this half-year be the drama, with special\nreference to Shakespeare. Attention should be given to the grammatical construction,\nespecially to the difference between the plot and a narrative poem. In this connection it\nmight be well to read some such critical studies of poetry as may be found in the works\nof Matthew Arnold and James Russell Lowell.\nComposition.\nComposition work of this half-year may very properly be largely studies of characters\nof the drama, and the critical treatment of the various plays studied, from the student's\npoint of view. This last phrase is important ; the student should not merely read the\nplays, but should study them, and should give expression, not to the teacher's nor the\ncritic's view, but to his own.\nFOURTH\n\nYEAR\n\nDuring this year literature should be studied with due attention to the history of its\ndevelopment. It is well to select for study some works which will test to the full the\nstudent's mature power. Pupils should now learn to meet new difficulties, both in\nthought and vocabulary.\nThe technical work of this year, to take the place of the grammar and rhetoric suggested for the earlier years, should be based largely upon the study of the history\nof the English language. ,\nComposition.\nThe composition work of this year should be varied in topic and style. Some\ncompositions of considerable length should be required. These should be upon subjects\nthat will employ the student's most mature thought. Considerable time should be spent\nin their preparation, and they should be examined and criticised step by step by the\nteacher. At the end of the course in English each student should be required to submit a final essay or thesis upon some literary subject, to show to a degree his appreciation\nof the work done, and to illustrate as fully as possible his power of expression.\n\nThe committee recommends that four periods per week for four years\nbe allotted to the work in English, and that at least one-half of this\ntime be devoted to the department of literature.\nThe committee recommends that a suggestive list of books, graded\nand classified, be offered, not less than thirty for each year, from which\nlist selections shall be made by the various schools, not less than five\nbooks of average length, or a total of 1,000 pages, covering both class\nwork and home reading, to be required for each school year.\nLIST\n\nOF\n\nBOOKS\n\nThe following list, as the committee states, is simply suggestive. Principles and preferences, local and literary, will always govern in the choice\nof books which teachers will urge their pupils to read and which they will\nprefer for class study. The main purpose is to inculcate a taste for the\nbest reading in the young people of today, to help them to form the reading habit, and to guide them into the way of a critical study of authors.\nWe believe there should be in our secondary schools, and in the requirements for college in English, no hard and fast rule as to just what books\n\n"}
{"page": 654, "printed_page": null, "text": "646\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nshould be read or studied. Uniformity may be excellent, but equivalents\nshould be accepted. The list 'below contains all that the joint conference\nrecommends both for general reading and for careful study. Many more are\ngiven. They are graded and may be readily classified. They are submitted, not as the best list, for there is no such, but as a collection of\ngood books worthy to be read, worthy to be studied, and among which\nwe believe a sufficient number may be found which will interest, instruct,\nand entertain the pupils of every secondary school.\nFIRST\n\nI\n\nYEAR\n\nLamb\n2* Tales 0/ Shakespeare Hawthorne\n3 Wonder Book\nHawthorne\n- Kipling\n4 Tanglewood Tales\n5* Jungle Book, No. i\nKipling\n6* Jungle Book, No. 2 Austen\n7 Beity Alden Burroughs\n8 Sharp Eyes\n- Franklin\n9* Autobiography of Franklin\n10* Totn Brown at Rugby\n- Hughes\nAldrich\nII Story of a Bad Boy\nDickens\n12* Nicholas Nickleby Dana\n13 Two Years before the Mast\nIrving\nWebster\n14* Bunker Hill Speeches\n1 5* Sketch Book\n16* Washington's Rules of Conduct, Fare\nwell Address, and Lincoln's Inaugu\nral and Gettysburg Speech\n- Hale\n17* Man Without a Country\nDodge\n18 Hans Brinker\n- Scott\n- Scott\n...\n19 Ivanhoe^\n20* Quentin Durward\n21*23 Tales of a Wayside Inn - Longfellow\nGrinnell\n22\n24 The Story of the Indian\n- Jewett\nTales of New England Warner\nBeing a Boy\n- Allen\nShakespeare\nMerchant of Venice^\n26\nThe\nChoir\nInvisible\n*\n25\nLife of Washington\nIrving-Fiske\n29 *\n- De Amicis\n28\n27 Cuore\nMcDonald\nBack of the North Wind\nMacaulay's or Chesterfield's Letters\n30\n\nSECOND\n\nLyrics and Sonnets ( \" Cry of the Chil dren \" ) Mrs. Browning\nTheSouthey\nLake Poets, Wordsworth, Coleridge,\n\n- Whittier\n\nSnow Bound\n\nYEAR\n\nI Vision of Sir Launfal^\n2* Lady of the Lake 3* Marmion -\n\nLowell\nScott\n- Scott\n\nJulius CcBsar^\n- Shakespeare\nTranslations from the Iliad (Books I,\nVI, XXII, XXIV)' - Pope\n8 Last of the Mohicans ' - Cooper\n9* Tales of a Traveller •\n- Irving\n10 The War of Independence\nFiske\n1 1 Young Folk's Plutarch - Kaufmann\n12* Apology of Socrates\nPlato\n1 3 Back Log Studies\nWarner\n14 Brave Little Holland Griffis\n15 Julius CcBsar\nFroude\n16 Little\n23 People of Asia Olive T. Miller\nY\"]* Bulfinch's Mythology - Hale\n18* Twice\nTold Tales Hawthorne\n24\n19 John Halifax Muloch\n20* Kenilworth\nScott\n25\n21 * Tale of Two Cities Dickens\n22\nRab27 and his Friends Dr. John Brown\nThe Private Life of the Romans\nPreston and Dodge\n29\n\n26\n\n28\n\nHero Tales from American History\nRoosevelt and Lodge\nGirls and Women - Chester\nShakespeare the Boy - Rolfe\nInnocents Abroad - Mark Twain\nRudder Grange Stories - Stockton\nThe Hoosier Schoolmaster Eggleston\nRanch Life and the Hunting Trail\nRoosevelt\nTHIRD\n\nYEAR\n\nI* Richard II.\n•\nShakespeare\n2* Twelfth Night\n- Shakespeare\n3 Macbeth' Shakespeare\n4* Legends of the Alhambra\nIrving\n30\n\n*In the list of home reading books suggested by the joint conference on English, April, 1899.\n1 College requirements for general reading and composition work, as recommended\nence on English.\n\nby the joint confer-\n\n2 College requirements for careful study, as recommended by the joint conference on English.\n\n"}
{"page": 655, "printed_page": null, "text": "COLLEGE-ENTRANCE\n\nDepartment]\n\nREQUIREMENTS\n3\n\nCritical Period of American History\nFiske\n\n4\n\nAmerican\n\nWulftke Saxon - G. A. Henley\nPolitical Ideas ■ Fiske\n\n5\n6\n\nEssay on Btirns ' (and Poems), Carlyle\nNineteenth Century\nMackenzie\n\nTAe Young Carthaginian\n\n7\n8\n\nLife of Charlotte Brand\nAbraham Lincoln -\n\nSilas Marner^ .\n. Eliot\nCritical Essays\nLowell and Matthew Arnold\n\nCommonwealth\n\n(abridged)\nBryce\n\nLectures and Speeches, Wendell Phillips\n9\n10\nII\n12\n13\n15\n14*\n1167\n\nHenley\n\nThe Roman and the Teuton - Kingsley\nMilton\nMinor Poems *\nGoldsmith\nVicar of Wakefield'^\nEmerson\nEssay on Friendship\nStevenson\nKidnapped Hawthorne\nOur Old Home Prophet of Great Smoky Mountain\nCraddock\n\n18 Dombey and Son -\n\n-\n\n-\n\nDickens\n\n19 John Brent - Winthrop\n20* Lorna Doone Blackmore\n21 Paradise Lost ^ (Books I, II) Milton\n22* Westward Ho! - Kingsley\n23* Prue and I\n- Curtis\n\n-\n\nGaskell\nSchurz\n\n-\n\n9 Hoiv the Other Half Lives\n10 Judith Shakespeare\n11 Egyptian Princess\n12 The Destiny of Man\n13\n14*\n15\n16*\n17*\n18*\n\nReis\nBlack\nEbers\nFiske\n\nIVarren Hastings - Macaulay\nHenry Esmond - Thackeray\nPrincess^- • Tennyson\nPride and Prejudice - Austen\nMarble Faun Hawthorne\nDavid Copperfield Dickens\n\n19 Les Miserables\n20\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\nHugo\n\nRime of the Ancient MarinerColeridge\n'\n\n24* 77/1? Newcomes - Thackeray\n25* Autocrat of the Breakfast 7a3/^, Holmes\n26\nUarda\nEbers\n\n21 Shakespeare's England\n22* Sesame and Lilies\n-\n\n•\n\n23\n\nOn Style (Part I) -\n\n-\n\n27* Lord Clive\n28 Ben Hur\n\nMacaulay\nWallace\n\n24\n\nSpeech on\n\n29 Palamon and Arcite '\nDryden\n30 Roman Life in the Days of Cicero\nChurch\n\n26\n\nConduct of Life\n\nEmerson\nMacaulay\nThoreau\n\n28\n\nMilton and Addison ' IValden\nMy Summer in a Garden\n\n-\n\n•\n-\n\nFOURTH\n\n-\n\nYEAR\n\nI* HamletShakespeare\n2 Sir Roger de Coverley Papers in the Spectator^ ...\nAddison\nFOREIGN\n\nLANGUAGES\n\nSpencer\n\nConciliation with America\nBurke '\n\nEssay on Matiners\n25*\n30* Romola\n27*\nAND\n\n- Winter\nRuskin\n\n-\n\n- Emerson\nWarner'\n- Eliot\n\nLITERATURES\n29*\n\nThe committee recommends that the courses of study prepared by the\ncommittees of the American Philological Association and of the Modern\nLanguage Association of America, as printed in Part II, be adopted, with\nthe suggestion that the word \"selections\" be placed after \"Sallust's Catiline'''' in the tables on pp. 701, 702.\nHISTORY. CIVICS, AND\n\nECONOMICS\n\nThe committee recommends that our colleges and universities should\naccept as a unit for admission a year's work in economics, including under\nthis head a course in elementary political economy, supplemented by\n* In the list of home reading books suggested by the joint conference on English, April, 1899.\n'College requirements for general reading and composition work, as recommended\nence on English.\n\nby the joint confer-\n\n2 College requirements for careful study, as recommended by the joint conference on English.\n\n"}
{"page": 656, "printed_page": null, "text": "648\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nadequate instruction in commercial geography and industrial history. It\napproves the courses of history recommended by the committee of the\nAmerican Historical Association, with the following proviso, namely :\nthat it is highly desirable that one year of United States history and\ncivil government should be furnished by the secondary schools, and be\naccepted as a requirement for admission by all colleges and universities.\nIt will be noted in the report of the American Historical Association that\nit is possible to omit the course in United States history. The committee\ndesires to reaffirm \" the principles of college requirements \" as given in\nthe report of the committee of the American Historical Association, if\nit understands correctly the statement in regard thereto. In order to\navoid misapprehension, however, the committee feels that it is important\nto make its understanding of these principles explicit.\nAs to the meaning of the first principle as formulated there appears\nno uncertainty, and we approve of it heartily, viz.:\n1. That the fundamental scope and purpose of the secondary schools should be.\nregarded.\n\nBut the formulation of the second principle, especially when taken in\nconnection with a note thereto, seems open to misconstruction. The\nprinciple is stated as follows :\n2. That such elasticity be allowed that schools may fit for college and adapt themselves to local environments and local needs.\n\nThe note is as follows :\nIt does not seem wise, etc. (p. 757).\n\nThe aim of the Committee on College-Entrance Requirements is to\nset forth such a series of interchangeable units of substantially the same\nvalue as will meet with acceptance everywhere.\nLocal conditions and\ntraditions may give rise to differing groups of college-entrance requirements, but within these groups the several units should have the same\nvalue.\nThat is to say, one unit of history taught in one place should equal\none unit of history taught in another place, even tho the subjectmatter of the instruction varies.\nSuch an arrangement will tend to secure greater flexibility of the curriculum, and, at the same time, to preserve all legitimate claims of variation growing out of differences of environment, as well as to break down\nsuch claims as are not real.\nMATHEMATICS\n\nThe committee begs to submit the following report on mathematics.\nIt will be found that our recommendations are in the main in agreement\nwith those of the mathematical conference of the Committee of Ten and\nwith those contained in the appended report of the committee appointed\nby the Chicago Section of the American Mathematical Society.\nThese\n\nm\\\n'\n\n"}
{"page": 657, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\n•\n\nCOLLEGE-ENTRANCE\n\nREQULREMENTS\n\n649\n\nreports contain many suggestions relative to the teaching of mathematics\nin which we heartily concur, but which we have not thought it necessary\nto repeat.\nI. We recommend that the course in arithmetic required of all students be limited, roughly speaking, to the following topics : the four fundamental operations for integers, and common and decimal fractions ; the\nmost important weights and measures ; percentage and its application to\nsimple interest ; and that it be completed in the sixth grade. An admirable statement of the reasons for this recommendation is to be found in\nthe report of the mathematical conference of the Committee of Ten, and\nthey need not be repeated here. The recommendation involves the omission of commercial arithmetic from the prescribed course in mathematics.\nIf it be deemed necessary, an elective course in this subject may be offered\nat some convenient time during the high-school period, and in connection\nwith it a course in bookkeeping.\nWe concur with both committees in urging that the instruction in\narithmetic be enlivened by numerous applications to problems which are\nof immediate interest to the. pupil, or can be made so by simple explanations— notably. problems of elementary mensuration and physics.\nThe most important practical end to be secured by the study of\narithmetic is skill in accurate reckoning with integers and common and\ndecimal fractions. That the pupil may not lose this skill, after having\nonce acquired it, we deem it indispensable that he be given frequent\npractice in numerical reckoning thruout the school course. Algebra,\nmetrical geometry, and the physical sciences afford abundant opportunities.\nII. We suggest the following arrangement of the course in mathematics from the seventh to the twelfth grades inclusive, assuming the length\nof the recitation period to be at least forty-five minutes :\nSeventh grade— Concrete geometry and introductory algebra\nEiglith grade — Introductory demonstrative geometry and algebra Ninth and tenth grades — Algebra and plane geometry\nEleventh grade — Solid geometry and plane trigonometry\nTwelfth grade — Advanced algebra and mathematical review^s -\n\n4 periods\n4\n\"\n4\n\"\n4\n\"\n4\n\"\n\nI. The algebra of the seventh and eighth grades should, at the outset,\nbe mere literal arithmetic. But we are of the opinion that, by limiting the\nworking material to very simple polynomials and fractional expressions,\nand to equations of the first degree with numerical coefficients, the four\nfundamental operations for rational algebraic expressions, simple factoring, and the solution of equations of the first degree in one and two\nunknown quantities may be taught effectively in the course of these two\ngrades.\nYoung students enjoy reckoning, and elementary algebraic reckoning\nwill interest them far more than the complexities of commercial arithmetic.\n\n"}
{"page": 658, "printed_page": null, "text": "650\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nThe principles of the subject must, of course, be presented concretely,\nand unnecessary generalizations should be carefully avoided. Simple\nproblems which can be solved by aid of equations of the first degree should\nbe introduced as early as possible. The sooner the pupil appreciates the\npower of algebraic methods, the sooner will the subject attract him.\n2. Concrete geometry may be taught with advantage earlier than the\nseventh grade. But even in that case we deem it wise to devote half the\ntime given to mathematics in the seventh grade to this subject.\n3. The amount of demonstrative geometry which should be given in\nthe eighth grade will depend somewhat upon the knowledge of concrete\ngeometry which the pupil has by that time acquired. In any event, we\nshould question the wisdom of undertaking any systematic study of a textbook of demonstrative geometry in this grade. An important object of\nthe instruction should be to awaken an interest in the demonstrative process, and that may be best accomplished by confining the pupil's attention to the propositions which his concrete work has taught him to appreciate, and which admit of easy demonstration. The theorems which\nrelate to the congruence of triangles, parallel. lines, the angle-sum of the\ntriangle, parallelograms, and some, of the simpler and more useful properties of the circle, and many of the problems of construction, belong to\nthis category ; the propositions which necessitate the consideration of\nincommensurables do not.\n4. We recommend that the time allotted to mathematics in the ninth\nand tenth grades be divided equally between algebra and plane geometry ;\nand that the course in algebra include: (a) a more systematic and comprehensive study of the topics treated in the introductory course of the\nseventh and eighth grades, with a thoro drill in factoring, highest common factor, least common multiple, and complex fractions ; (^) radicals\nand fractional exponents, and quadratic equations in one and two unknown\nquantities; (<r) ratio and proportion, the progressions, the elementary\ntreatment of permutations and combinations, the binomial theorem for\npositive integral exponents, and the use of logarithms.\nThere is time enough in this course for the topics (^), and they seem\nto us to belong here rather than in the advanced algebra of the twelfth\ngrade, because of their elementary character and general interest. The\nacquisition, thus early, of a practical acquaintance with logarithms in particular would be of great advantage to the pupil in his work in metrical\ngeometry and physical science. The slight theoretical knowledge of logarithms which it requires is easily within his reach; for the theorems\nrelating to the logarithm of a product, a quotient, a power, and a root are\nmere restatements of theorems regarding exponents with which he is\nalready familiar, and it is certain to interest him, for it appeals, as few\nother topics in algebra can, to the utilitarian instinct which is so strong in\nyoung students.\n\n"}
{"page": 659, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCOLLEGE-ENTRANCE\n\nREQUIREMENTS\n\n651\n\n5. By \"advanced algebra\" we mean the remaining topics which\nare to be found in an ordinary text-book of \"college algebra,\" viz.:\nthe elementary treatment of infinite series, undetermined coefficients,\nthe binomial theorem for fractional and negative exponents, the theory\nof logarithms, determinants, and the elements of the theory of equations.\nIII. In solid geometry, plane trigonometry, and advanced algebra the\nschools should insist upon the same amount of work and aim at the same\nstandard of scholarship as the best American colleges require in their\ncourses in these subjects.\nIV. When a student who is preparing for college does not intend to\noffer advanced algebra, he should defer some or all of the mathematics of\nthe eleventh grade until the last year of his school course, or be given\nopportunity for mathematical reviews in that year.\nV. We recommend that the several mathematical subjects count toward\nsatisfying the requirements for admission to college, as follows:\n(a) Elementary algebra, as defined in II, 4\n- i/^ units\n{b) Advanced algebra\n-------^ unit\n(f) Plane geometry -------- i\n\"\n((/) Solid geometry\n%\n\"\n[e) Plane trigonometry\n- /^ \"\nSCIENCES\n\nWe recommend that \"nature study\" of the kind described in an\nappended report. Part II, be made an -integral part of the school work\npreceding the high-school period.\nWe recommend the following arrangement of courses in 'natural and\nphysical science in the high-school period itself :\nFirst year\nSecond year\nThird year\nFourth year\n\nr\n\n.\nPhysical geography\n- Biology : botany and zoology, or botany, or zoology\nPhysics\nChemistry\n\nand that the time allowance for each of these courses be at least four\nperiods a week thruout the year.\nThis allowance seems necessary to entitle these subjects to recognition\n(as one unit each) in a list of college-entrance requirements.\nSo far as the reports in our possession have enabled us to do so, we\nhave indicated in some detail what the character of these courses in science should be. Unfortunately, this has been impossible in the case of\nphysics and zoology,' and we recommend that the Committee on Physics\nand Zoology appointed by the Natural Science Section of the National\nEducational Association be again requested to supply detailed descriptions of suitable school courses in these sciences.\n•The report on zoology is inserted in Part II, but came too late for inspection by the committee.\n\n"}
{"page": 660, "printed_page": null, "text": "652\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION^\n\n[Secondary\n\nThe committee also makes the following general recommendations :\nIn our opinion it is important that the last two grades that now precede\nthe high-school course, should be incorporated in it, and, wherever\npracticable, the instruction in those two grades should be given under\nthe supervision of the high-school teacher.\nThis recommendation really means a six-years' high-school course of\nstudy, and therefore that the qualifications of the teachers of the seventh\nand eighth grades shall not be inferior to those of the teachers in the\nremaining high-school grades.\nPHYSICAL\n\nGEOGRAPHY\n\nThe committee approves the report of the Subcommittee on Physical Geography appointed under the auspices of the National Educational Association, appended to this report; and it accordingly recommends :\n1. That this committee adopt the definition of physical geography\ngiven in the report of the Subcommittee on Physical Geography\nappended to this report, namely, \" the physical environment of man ; \"\nand that its principal themes are, the earth as a globe, the atmosphere,\nthe ocean, and the lands, all appropriately Kmited in scope and difticulty\nby the time at the disposal of the course and the capacity of high-school\npupils, and all taught \"with the motive and the special point of view\ndefined above;\" and that \"the distribution of organisms should not be\ntaught with reference to zoological and botanical classifications, but in\nexposition of the organic environment of man, and as itself controlled\nby physiographic and other influences.\"\n2. That in public high schools and other secondary schools physical\n\n■\n\ngeography be taught in a course occupying not less than four periods a\nweek during one school year; and that this course should be placed in\n\n*'\n\nthe ninth grade (first high-school year, in the present organization of most\npublic schools).\n3. That the course in physical geography should include a large\namount of field and laboratory work ; and lectures, discussions, and textbook study should, so far as practicable, be related to such work. Notebooks should not be an end in themselves ; they should be kept in such\na way as to emphasize the spirit and method of scientific work.\n4. That the course in physical geography outlined in the foregoing\npropositions, when satisfactorily completed, count as one unit toward\nsatisfying the requirements for admission to college.\nBIOLOGY\nThe course in biology in the second year of the school course may\nconsist either of a half year of botany and a half year of zoology, or of\na whole year in either science.\n\n"}
{"page": 661, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCOLLEGE-ENTRANCE\n\nREQUIREMENTS\n\n653\n\nBOTANY\n\n1. That in public high schools and in preparatory schoels botany be\ntaught in a course occupying not less than one-half year, and preferably\none year, with at least four exercises a week.\n2. That this course in botany include a large amount of individual\nlaboratory work, supplemented by as much field work as possible, done\nby the pupil under the careful direction of a competent instructor, and\nrecorded by the pupil in the form of careful drawings and descriptions\nin a permanent notebook.\n3. That such laboratory work, including the keeping of the notebook,\noccupy approximately one-half of the whole botany assignment, double\nperiods of time being given to each laboratory exercise.\n4. That the course also include instruction by text-book, informal\nlectures, and frequent quizzes, elucidating and enforcing the laboratory\nwork, or dealing with matter not touched upon in that work, to the end\nthat the pupil may gain a comprehensive and connected view of biological principles, as exemplified by plants, rather than merely a knowledge\nof a few disconnected facts.\n5. That a pupil who has successfully completed such a course in\nbotany as that here described may offer it for one-half or one unit of\nwork in satisfaction of the requirements for admission to college.\n6. That for entering students who have thus satisfied a definite requirement in botany, and who continue the subject in college, there be provided\na suitable sequel to the school course in continuation of the study ; such\nstudents being in no case placed in the same class with beginners.\n7. The standpoint of the entire course should be that of plants as\nliving things and at work, details of the structure being entirely subordinated. Observation should be directed to the most obvious facts,\nthose which form a fitting background for subsequent study, and which\neasily enter into the subsequent experience of those who do not study\nfurther. Professional terminology and difficult and expensive apparatus\nshould be avoided as much as possible. Constant and accurate drawing\nshould be insisted upon as the only means of securing and recording\ndefinite observation. Great care should be taken not to overload the\nstudent with details or to demand too exhaustive a study of single forms.\nClearness and variety are essentials in such work.\nZOOLOGY\n\nThe committee presents no special report on zoology, but refers to\nthe report on this subject made by the committee appointed by the\nDepartment of Science. This report is printed in Part II, and will be\nfound to be in essential harmony with the report on botany.\n\n"}
{"page": 662, "printed_page": null, "text": "654\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nPHYSICS\n\nYour committee suggests that an effective working basis for a\nsecondary-school course in physics would be attained by planning such a\ncourse substantially in accordance with the following propositions :\n1. That in public high schools and schools preparatory for college\nphysics be taught in a course occupying not less than one year of daily\nexercises, more than this amount of time to be taken for the work if it is\nbegun earlier than the next to the last year of the school course.\n2. That this course of physics include a large amount of laboratory work, mainly quantitative, done by the pupils under the careful\ndirection of a competent instructor and recorded by the pupil in a notebook.\n_ 3. That such laboratory work, including the keeping of a notebook and\nthe working out of results from laboratory observations, occupy approximately one-half of the whole time given to physics by the pupil.\n4. That the course also include instruction by text-book and lecture,\nwith qualitative experiments by the instructor, elucidating and enforcing\nthe laboratory work, or dealing with matters not touched upon in that\nwork, to the end that the pupil may gain not merely empirical\nknowledge, but, so far as this may be practicable, a comprehensive and\nconnected view of the most important facts and laws in elementary,\nphysics.\n5. That college-admission requirements be so framed that a pupil who\nhas successfully followed out such a course of physics as that here\ndescribed may offer it toward satisfying such requirements.\nCHEMISTRY\nYour committee approves the report of the majority of the Committee on Chemistry of the Natural Science Department of the National\nEducational Association, appended to this report, and it accordingly\nrecommends :\n1. That in the public high schools and in preparatory schools chemistry\nbe taught in a course occupying not less than an assignment of four\nexercises a week for a year ; more than this amount of time to be taken\nfor the work if it is begun earlier than the third year of the school\ncourse.\n2. That this course in chemistry include a large amount of individual\nlaboratory work, including some quantitative exercises, done by the pupil\nunder the careful direction of a competent instructor and recorded by the\npupil in a notebook.\n3. That this laboratory work, including the keeping of the notebook and the working\nout of the results from laboratory observations,\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 663, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nLOLLEGE-ENTRANCE\n\nREQUIREMENTS\n\n655\n\noccupy\napproximately\none-half\nof the whole chemistry assignment ;\ndouble periods of time being given to each laboratory exercise.\n4. That the course also include instruction by text-book, demonstration, with qualitative and quantitative experiments by the instructor, and\nfrequent quizzes, elucidating and enforcing the laboratory work, or dealing with matters not touched upon in that work, to the end that the pupil\nmay gain, not merely empirical knowledge, but, so far as this may be\npracticable, a comprehensive and connected view of the most important\nfacts and principles in elementary chemistry.\n5. That a pupil who has successfully followed out such a course of\nchemistry as that here described may offer it for one unit of work in\nsatisfaction of the requirements for admission to college.\n6. The subject-matter should include the chemistry of both metals and\nnon-metals. More detailed study should be confined to a restricted list\nof elements and compounds — say twelve of each — other substances\nbeing drawn upon for broadening the -course, when required for illustration of principles or for classifying facts.\nAttention should be given to the atmosphere, manufacturing processes, and familiar substances.\nThe treatment. — The selection should be rational, such facts being\npreferred as can be classified or as lead most directly to principles.\nThe theoretical matter, including the theory of solutions, equilibrium,\netc., should include all that can help in co-ordinating and elucidating the\nfacts.\nThe presentation should be inductive, as far as possible. The principles and theories should not be stated as dogmas, but should follow the\nfacts and supply the explanation for which a need has already been felt.\nSymbols and equations should not be introduced until after quantitative experiments, and then in the character of abbreviated expressions of\nthe results of quantitative work. Such experiments should, therefore,\nappear fairly early in the course.\nFormal qualitative analysis should not form a part of a one-year course.\nThe laboratory work must be intelligent, and every effort must be\nmade to avoid the mechanical tendency to which it is liable.\nRESOLUTIONS\n\nThe following resolutions adopted by the committee serve to put in\nconcrete form the leading principles that guided the committee itself in\nits consideration of the special reports, and which in its judgment are to\nbe considered as first principles in the adjustment of relations between\nsecondary and higher schools. These resolutions, embodying such prin-.\nciples, are what the committee offers in lieu of any ideal program or\ncurriculum. The resolutions that follow are to be considered as covering, not every principle that the committee might wish to see recognized.\n\n"}
{"page": 664, "printed_page": null, "text": "656\n\nNATfONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nbut only those which could be discussed and agreed to in the limited\ntime at the committee's disposal.\nI. Resolved, That the principle of election be recognized in secondary schools.\n\nIn this resplution the committee merely ifidorses a practice already\nvery common in secondary schools. The tendency toward wide option\nin college-entrance requirements is too obvious to be ignored. The\nstudent is no longer limited to a single group of prescribed subjects, which\nalone secure admission to college study. Not only are many different\ncourses offered by most colleges, but there is increasing latitude of choice\nin entrance requirements for each of these courses, and it seems probable\nthat this latitude will continue to increase. The committee would agree,\nfor instance, where one year of history is required, that the particular\nsubject in history should not bespecified, but that either one of the four\ntypical year's courses recommended by the historical committee should\nbe accepted. In modern languages an option between French and German now generally exists. In science, while the disposition is now to\nmake physics a required subject where only one science subject is offered,\nyet the committee indorses the tendency to allow election among the other\nsciences, and, aside from physics, to specify the requirement by amount\nrather than by subject. At the same time free and unrestricted election\nis not suggested, but, on the contrary, an election made after the most'\ncareful consideration of the matter by the pupil, the teacher, and, if possible, the parents. The administration of such an elective system makes\nextensive demands upon the insight, tact, and time*of the principal, who\nwill, in most cases, be the adviser from the teacher's standpoint. The\nwork of the principal under a properly administered elective system must\ninevitably be greatly increased by much personal consultation with students\nand study of the nature and capacity of individual students. The administration of the secondary school at present makes large demands upon\nthe principal along lines that were practically unknown to his work but a\nshort time ago. The principals, the committee believes, are ready to\naccept these new duties, and to discharge them with fidelity and skill, but\nit ought to be recognized that in order to do so they must be relieved of\nmere routine functions. The personal direction of individual students is\nthe most delicate and responsible part of the principal's work, requiring\nthe highest intellectual and moral qualities. It is the duty of school\nboards to see to it that principals possessing these qualities should be\nrelieved of so much of the drudgery of administration as will give them\nopportunity to perform properly this highest work.\nII. Resolved, That the requirements for admission to technical schools should be as\nextended and thoro as the requirements for admission to college.\n\nIf Students are admitted to technical schools with lower entrance\nre.quirements than those set by the colleges and universities, three consequences follow : (i) that the students enter on the technical studies at\n\n"}
{"page": 665, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCOLLEGE-ENTRANCE\n\nREQULREMENTS\n\n657\n\nan earlier age ; (2) that they have less general culture than is provided by\na high-school course ; (3) that they leave the high school before the completion of that course. It seems to the committee that the foundation\nof general culture provided by the full high-school course is none too\nmuch for students whose after-studies are to be almost exclusively technical, and yet who, in their professional careers, will be called upon to\nfill positions where not only technical knowledge, but also general education, and especially the ability to write with ease and precision, will be\nimportant elements in their success. Nor does it seem, to the committee\ndesirable that students should be admitted to technical studies at an\nearlier age than that at which they are admitted to the studies of the\ncollege course. Technical training is essentially professional training.\nIf a student is able to enter a technical school a year earlier than he\ncan enter a college, and complete his technical studies in four years,\nhe is ready to enter on his professional work at a date three years\nbeyond the time when he would have left the secondary school after completing its full course. The student who chooses the profession of law\nor medicine, for example, who seeks- the best preparation for his career,\ncompletes the high-school course, adds to it a four-years' course in college, and to that at least a three-years' course of professional study.\nHe, therefore, enters upon his professional work with six years' more\ntraining than the technical student has. There seems to be no valid\nreason for this very great difference between the best preparation for the\nso-called learned professions and corresponding preparation for the technical professions.\nThe difficulties of the secondary schools in fitting students for college\nare now, and have in the past been, very great, on account of the different\nspecifications from institutions which require theoretically the same\namount of preparation. The technical school introduces an additional\ncomplication into the problem, and one of very serious import, in that its\nrequirement is not only different in amount from that of the colleges,\nbut also different as to specification. The tendency of this requirement\nis to develop a special class of schools, such as separate manual-training\nschools and elementary technological schools, whose function is to prepare students for the higher technical schools. This differentiation, however, does not seem to be in accord with the fundamental principles and\nideals of the American educational system. Such a differentiation in\nsecondary schools necessarily limits the field of their usefulness to those\nstudents who can reach the specialized institution. Such specialized\ninstitutions are apt to be remote and difficult of access, whereas the high\nschool is almost everywhere accessible.\nThe condition to be desired is that in which a four-years' high-school\ncourse shall prepare the student for advanced study along the lines of his\nchoice, whether literary or technical.\nIt is believed by the committee\n\n"}
{"page": 666, "printed_page": null, "text": "658\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nthat it is the general purpose of the technical schools to advance their\nrequirements as rapidly as possible to meet the standard outlined above.\nThere can be no question that the lower and differing requirements for\ntechnical schools are becoming a disturbing factor of considerable importance in secondary-school work ; nor is it doubtful that this factor would\nbe removed if the requirements for admission both for colleges and for\ntechnical schools were made substantially equivalent. It is, of course, not\nsuggested that they should be identical in subject; nowhere does the committee assume that such identity of requirem^t is desirable.\nIII. Resolved, That the teachers in the secondary schools should be college graduates,\nor have the equivalent of a college education.\n\nThe time is past when a superficial knowledge of a variety of subjects,\ncoupled with a knack for giving instruction and some administrative\nability, can be considered sufficient qualifications for teaching in our high\nschools. In many departments of study work is now being done in\nthese schools as advanced as that done in the first year of the college\ncourse. And there is no better reason in the school than in the college\nfor intrusting this work to the care of teachers who lack adequate special\ntraining for it.\nOf course, it is not proposed that able teachers already connected\nwith our schools should be displaced because of the lack of a college education, nor implied that young men fresh from our universities are qualified\nfor the administrative responsibilities of the high-school principal. The\nmost responsible positions in high-school work will naturally be intrusted\nto those alone who have been tested in less responsible positions — in the\ndepartmental work of the school. Our proposition is mainly concerned\nwith the appointment of teachers to do this departmental work.\nOur colleges and universities are now turning out each year numbers\nof young men and women of liberal training who are eager to teach\nsubjects which they have been pursuing with enthusiastic devotion and\ndistinguished success. Many of them have personal qualities which\nshould fit them admirably for teaching. Surely, it is reasonable to urge\nthat the best teachers for our high schools may be chosen from among\nthem. Not only have they the requisite special knowledge, but they have\ngiven evidence that they possess the love of learning, lacking which the\nteacher is likely sooner or later to lose enthusiasm for his work and\nbecome a drudge.\nFortunately, the policy of recruiting the high -school force from college graduates already prevails in many of our great cities, and there is\nlittle doubt that the practice will soon become general. It will react\nmost happily on the higher education of our people by enlarging the\nfield of work open to college men and women, and will be a potent influence in elevating our secondary schools to a position as dignified as that\nnow held by the secondary schools of France and Germany.\n\n"}
{"page": 667, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCOLLEGE-ENTRANCE\n\nREQUIREMENTS\n\n659\n\nIV. Resolved, That we favor a unified six-year high-school course of study beginning\nwith the seventh grade.\n\nThe most necessary and far-reaching reforms in secondary education\nmust begin in the seventh and eighth grades of our schools. Educators\nagree that these grades must be enriched by eliminating non-essentials\nand adding new subjects formerly taught only in the high school. These\nreforms require the highest pedagogic knowledge and the most efficient\nsupervision. In our opinion these problems can be solved most quickly\nand surely by making the seventh and eighth grades parts of the high\nschool, under the immediate direction of the high-school principal.\nRecent attempts to teach Latin and German in these grades have not\nmet with the success to which they are entitled, on account of the lack\nof qualified teachers and competent supervision. The improvements in\nthe mathematical schedules in the grades have not been given a chance to\nshow their value, because the teachers have lacked the technical training\nand the breadth of view absolutely essential to good teaching in the introductory courses of algebra and geometry. Science study is now acknowledged to have a place in the grades, yet slow progress has been made in\nproducing educational results, largely because the grade teacher has been\npoorly prepared to teach the subject, and the leading scientists of the\ncountry, in their efforts to circumvent this obstacle, have failed to agree\non a suitable course of study for the grades.\nThe proper adjustment of these studies in a unified high-school\ncourse would add much to the effectiveness and solidarity of secondary\neducation. The seventh grade, rather than the ninth, is the natural\nturning-point in the pupil's life, as the age of adolescence demands nevv\nmethods and wiser direction. Six elementary grades and six high-school,\nor secondary, grades form symmetrical units. The transition from the\nelementary to the secondary period may be made natural and easy by\nchanging gradually from the one-teacher regimen to the system of\nspecial teachers, thus avoiding the violent shock now commonly felt on\nentering the high school. The seventh-grade pupils, if thought necessary, could still be taught and given individual attention by one teacher\nin all but one or two subjects which require the services of specialists.\nThe personality of the teacher and her intelligent direction of the individual student should be insisted on and made more effective than at\npresent. Under the system proposed an inefficient teacher in the\nseventh or eighth grade would do less harm in blasting bright intellects\nand in turning able students away from higher study. The inspiration\nafforded by a well-equipped high-school principal and by a special\nteacher in language, science, or mathematics would do much to retain\ndesirable students in the high school, thus raising the educational standard of American citizenship. Statistics show that the number of students leaving school at the end of the sixth grade is comparatively small,\n\n"}
{"page": 668, "printed_page": null, "text": "I\n660\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDVCATtOl^AL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nwhile the number is very large at the end of the eighth grade. ' By the\nproposed change, the studfents in the seventh and eighth grades would\ngradually gain the inspiration of the high-school life, and the desire to\ngo farther in the languages and sciences which they have already begun\nunder favorable conditions. The result would doubtless be a more\nclosely articulated system, with a larger percentage of high-school\ngraduates.\nFrom an administrative point of view, the six high-school grades\nshould eventually be in one building. As far as statistics are accessible\non this point, the experiment of placing these grades in the high-school\nbuilding has been successful, resulting in better scholarship and a greater\npercentage in the number of students entering the ninth grade. The\ngradual change to this system would probably lead to the establishment\nof a larger number of less expensive high schools, thus placing the\n\" people's college \" nearer their homes without additional expense to the\ntaxpayer, but with a saving in money and strength to students attending the high school.\nV. Resolved, That in the interpretation of the recommendations of this committee\nconcerning the subjects to be inchided in the secondary-school program and the requirements for admission to college, for which credit should be given, it is distinctly understood\nthat all secondary schools will not offer opportunities for the pursuit of all these subjects,\nand that the colleges will select those only which they deem wise and appropriate.\n\nThe very large secondary schools containing six hundred or more\npupils are, perhaps, the only ones which can offer all the studies which the\ncommittee enumerates as legitimately belonging to a four-years' secondary\nprogram. No pupils in these schools can pursue them all, for no study\nshould occupy less than one year, and no pupil should carry more than\nfour regular studies which occur four periods a week. The larger the\nschool, the more elective can be the curriculum, without any considerable\nextra expense. The smaller schools must content themselves with more\nrigid programs, but the welfare of the individual pupil should be the first\nconsideration, consistent with the limitations of public funds. Every\nsecondary school worthy the name can offer one, and in most cases two,\nforeign languages, two years at least of mathematics beyond arithmetic,\none or two sciences, one or two years of history, of which one should\nalways be American history with civics, and a full course in English.\nMore languages, more sciences, more mathematics should be added as\nnumbers and funds warrant. The coHeges should be very explicit in\nregard to constants, and equally so in regard to electives and equivalents,\nand all requirements should be so elastic that a pupil will not find himself, after a good four-years' preparatory course of study, debarred from\nentering the college of his choice.\nVI. Resolved, That, while the committee recognizes as suitable for recommendation by\nthe colleges for admission the several studies enumerated in this report, and while it also\n\n"}
{"page": 669, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nCOLLEGE-ENTRANCE\n\nREQUIREMENTS\n\n66 1\n\nrecognizes the principle of large liberty to the students in secondary schools, it does\nnot believe in unlimited election, but especially emphasizes the importance of a certain\nnumber of constants in all secondary schools and in all requirements for admission to\ncollege.\nResolved, That the committee recommends that the number of constants be recognized in the following proportion, namely : four units in foreign languages (no language\naccepted in less than two units), two units in mathematics, two in English, one in history,\nand one in science.\n\nThe recognition of elective courses in secondary schools is no longer\na controversial subject; all educators acknowledge educational values, but\nthese educational values are relative rather than fixed, and depend not so\nmuch upon the subject-matter of the study and its intrinsic power to train\nand develop and strengthen mental fiber as upon the skill of the teacher\nwho is to elucidate, illuminate, and make attractive such study, and upon\nthe innate endowments, the heredity, and the acquired talents of the student. It is believed, therefore, that there should be no absolutely fixed and\ninelastic requirements for admission to college, except so far as they may\nbe within correlated groups. If, for instance, a college permits a modern\nlanguage to be substituted for Greek, and the pupil presents in addition\na year of mediaeval and modern history in place of a year in ancient history, the former should be regarded as a full equivalent for the latter.\nThe same may be said of science. If a pupil finds it more to his taste to\npursue the study of biology, or even botany, a year in the place of- physics\nor of chemistry, he should not be embarrassed by the refusal on the part\nof the college to accept the substitute.\nSecondary schools, therefore, should be allowed to arrange their programs in accordance with local environment, the demands of their constituency, and the tastes of their pupils ; and when the work in any study\nis well done and a sufficient amount of it has been acquired, and this\nwork is consistent with that done along other lines, it should be accepted\nby the college. The committee believes there should be constants in\nevery secondary school. It is difficult, however, to fix these to the satisfaction of all. The committee would, therefore, have the constants in the\nforegoing resolution regarded as suggestive rather than unalterable. Few\ncolleges, few committees, few boards of education will dissent from the\nproposition that every pupil should have at least one year of history, one\nyear of some science taught by laboratory methods, and two years of\nEnglish, including composition and literature ; some will argue that there\nare those who cannot master geometry, and yet, if one has the scholarship\nwhich will warrant the expenditure of four years in college, he will have\nthe ability to assimilate algebra and geometry to the extent of two full\nyears of work. The question of foreign languages is a mooted one, and yet\nmost intelligent people will agree that one foreign language — and that, too,\npursued four years — or two, each followed two years, is valuable, if for\n\n"}
{"page": 670, "printed_page": null, "text": "662\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nno other purpose than to give the pupil an enlarged and a more appreciative idea of our incomparable English. These constants are submitted,\ntherefore, as important for every secondary school.\nVII. Resolved, That the colleges will aid the secondary schools by allowing credit\ntoward a degree for work done in secondary schools, beyond the amount required for\nentrance, when equal in amount and thdr.oness to work done in the same subjects in\ncollege.\n\nIn many, and perhaps most, colleges the plan suggested in the above\nresolution is already in effect. Such recognition of school work by the\ncolleges will tend to raise the estimation in which the school is held by the\ncommunity. It will also directly assist the school in its natural effort\nto induce students to continue their studies in college, for if a student\nhas, on finishing the school course, already one-third or a half year or\nmore of work to his credit that may be counted toward a college degree,\nthis fact constitutes a great incentive for going on with college work.\nFurthermore, it frequently happens that a student at the end of the last\nschool year has one or two subjects to complete in order to finish the\nschool course. This may happen for a variety of reasons, among which\nchange of school and ill-health are most common. Should the student\nwish to go to college, two courses are open — either to enter college\nwith conditions, or to remain an additional year in school so as to\ncomplete the course. But if the second alternative is adopted, the\nstudent, while making up deficiencies, can and should carry one or two\nadditional studies, in order that the year's work may be complete. If\nthese studies cannot be counted for college credit, there is temptation on\nthe part of the student to do light work, and to take only the subjects\nrequired, with a tendency to acquire indolent habits of study. If the\nadditional subjects above those required for completing the school course\nare accepted by the college toward a degree, a strong incentive is offered\nthe student to do the best work possible, and the danger of falling into\nindolent habits is avoided. This college credit, furthermore, puts into the\nhands of the school principal one of his strongest arguments for inducing\nthe pupil to remain an additional year at school, so that he may not\nenter college with conditions. It seems to the committee that there can\nbe no question that the mutual interests of both school and college will\nbe best subserved by making the class of conditioned students as small as\npossible.\nVIII. Resolved, That for students who have met a definite requirement in any science,\nand who continue the subject in college, it seems to us desirable that there be provided a\nsuitable sequel to the school course in continuation of the study ; such students being in\nno case placed in the same class with beginners.\n\nIt seems to be a somewhat common practice among colleges to accept\na subject for entrance, but not to give it credit after the student has been\nadmitted.\nThis is illustrated specifically by the case in which physics is\n\n"}
{"page": 671, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCOLLEGE-ENTRANCE\n\nREQUIREMENTS\n\n663\n\naccepted as an entrance requirement, but not required of all students.\nStudent A comes to college and presents a year's good work in physics,\ndone in a high school or academy, as one of his entrance subjects. Student\nB has no physics, but presents something else, which is accepted as an\nentrance equivalent. In college, however, both A and B take precisely\nthe same course in physics, one having had a year's work, with laboratory\nexperiments, the other not having studied the subject at all. This practice\nis justified by the colleges on two grounds: (i) that the year's work in\nthe high school really, after all, amounts to nothing, and (2) that it is\nimpossible to make two different classes. The latter argument may be\ndisregarded. In some cases it doubtless is true that the teaching force of\nthe college does not permit the organization of two separate classes, and\nthere is no argument with necessity. But the other argument, that the\nyear's work in the high school is not of any value to the college, is refuted\nby the college itself, in two wa3^s : (i) by accepting this year's work as of\nfull value for entrance to the university, and (2) by allowing university\ncredit for exactly the same sort of work in other subjects, as, for example,\nin Latin, French, or German. The student who offers French or German\nfor admission to college is not put into the same college classes in either\nof those subjects with students who have not presented them for entrance,\nbut is always put in an advanced class, and remains there until he has\nshown his unfitness. The practice of combining in the same college\nclass students who have had previous high-school instruction and those\nwho have not is most common in the sciences, and while physics has been\nspecified above, all of the sciences that are accepted as entrance requirements share equally in this practice. The effect cannot be otherwise than\ndisastrous upon science teaching in the high school, for if a student goes\nto college with a year's course in science and finds that work totally disregarded by the college authorities, he can but infer that the school\nwork is without value. He is likely to send the report back to the school,\nand other students will be deterred from taking the course in science,\nknowing that they will have to do the work over again when they go to\ncollege later. The effect on the student himself who, having had a year's\nwork in science, is required to go again over the same ground, to a large\nextent, alongside of students who have no previous knowledge of the subject, is most unfortunate. Experience totally disproves the argument that\nsuch work is in the nature of a thoro review and is, therefore, beneficial to the student. On the contrary, it is distastetul and tiresome. The\nstudent is likely to rely upon his previous knowledge and slight the work\nas much as possible. It frequently happens, therefore, that the student\njvith the entrance equipment attains no better rank in his class than his\nfellow who entered without previous knowledge. This does not show,\nas has been supposed, that the high school is of no value, but it\nconclusively proves that such repetition is destructive of interest and\n\n"}
{"page": 672, "printed_page": null, "text": "664\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\ncalculated to foster careless habits of work. The adjustment of college work to a wide range of elective entrance requirements certainly\npresents many difficulties, but it seems to the committee that, when\nthe colleges have taken the step of offering this wide range of\nelectives, they cannot well stop there, but are bound, so far as possible,\nto adjust the college work so that the students may not have to\nrepeat in any branch work that has already been done, and presumably, bythe college's own recognition of it, well done, in secondary schools.\nIX. Resolved, That we approve of encouraging gifted students to complete the preparatory course in less time than is required by most students.\n\nIn this resolution the committee desires to approve a principle, rather\nthan to recommend a definite plan for the application of that principle.\nGifted students should be allowed special opportunities quite as much in\ngrades below the secondary school as in the secondary school itself, and\nit seems probable, indeed, that the saving of time may be expected most\nadvantageously in the lower grades. The subject of the grading of\npupils below the secondary school is, however, not in the province of this\ncommittee.\nIn laying out a course of study the average student must be the basis\nof reckoning, but in the schematization of educational work there is constant danger that the interest of the individual student may not be\nsufficiently considered. There are students who must take more than the\nallotted time in which to complete the preparatory course, while there are\nothers who can easily finish the course in less than the schedule time.\nThis can be done, too, without overpressure and consequent injury to\nhealth. It is a truism that some students acquire much more readily and\neasily than others. Modern educators do not accept the doctrine of\nHelvetius, that all men are by birth endowed with the same natural\ncapacities. Instead of cramping and confining the more gifted students,\nit is the duty of the secondary school to discover them and to furnish\nthem every opportunity for progress in their work. There are difficulties\nof administration, caused chiefly by the time schedule, which sometimes\ncannot be overcome; but it seems to the committee that students have a •\nright to expect that the school officers will use their best efforts to overcome these obstacles, and, so far as is consistent with good administration, offer to the students full opportunity for progress according to their\nindividual capacities.\n\n•\n\nX. Resolved, That in general we recognize in schools the admissibility of a second\nyear in advanced work in the same subject, instead of a second year in a related subject ;\nfor example, two years in biology, instead of one year in biology and one year in chemistry, where local conditions favor such an arrangement.\n\nSound pedagogical reasons might be advanced in favor of the general proposition that two years' work in one scientific subject is better\n\n"}
{"page": 673, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCOLLEGE-ENTRANCE\n\nREQUIREMENTS\n\n665\n\nthan one year's work in each of two scientific subjects. This principle\nis, indeed, generally held in regard to language studies. But in adopting the above resolution the committee was influenced mainly by other\nconsiderations. In the smaller schools it is not usually possible to\nhave more than one teacher for science. It can hardly be expected that\na teacher will be equally able in physics, chemistry, botany, zoology,\nphysiography, and the other sciences that enter into the course. With\nthe general trend toward the adoption of departmental work in the\nschools and the gradual introduction of university-trained specialists into\nthe corps of teachers, there are more and more teachers who are especially\ncapable and well trained in one special branch of scientific study. Where\na school possesses such a teacher, better results in scientific training may,\nand probably will, be obtained by permitting specialization in the field of\nthe teacher's particular interest. Again, in not all schools is it possible\nto have a number of scientific laboratories. A school may be able to\nequip one laboratory adequately, but would find it quite impracticable to\nequip two or three. Since laboratory work is now regarded as an indispensable part of scientific instruction, two years in one science with full\nlaboratory facilities might properly be regarded as better than one year's\nwork in the same science with laboratory facilities plus a second year's\nwork in a different science with laboratory facilities either very inadequate or totally lacking. Where a laboratory is equipped for one year's\nwork in science, the additional expense for equipping it for a second\n'year's work in the same science is inconsiderable as compared with the\nexpense of equipping another laboratory for a different science. For\nthese reasons, mainly, it seems to the committee wise to recognize the\nsubstantial equivalence of two years' work in one science for a year's\nwork in each of two different sciences. Some schools would be able to\nprovide a year's work in one science and two years' work in one other\nscience — a total of three years in science. The comm'ittee believes that\nthe aim to be attained is a certain amount of scientific training of the\nproper and adequate sort, but that, so far as combination of subjects to\nmake up this total is concerned, local conditions may properly be a determining factor.\nThe committee is not to be understood as recommending, as a rule, a\nsecond year of study in the same subject, but only that such an arrangement is admissible or desirable under certain conditions.\nXI, Resolved, That it is desirable that colleges should accept, in addition to the\nyear of United States history and civil government already recommended, at least\none-half year of intensive study of some period of history, especially of the United\nStates.\n\nTo recommend collegiate recognition of the \"intensive study\" of history in the secondary schools is only to ask the same recognition for history\nthat is already accorded to other subjects.\n\n\"Advanced\n\nrequirements\"\n\n"}
{"page": 674, "printed_page": null, "text": "666\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nin languages, mathematics, and science have long been recognized ;\nno one is likely to assert that an advanced requirement in history is\nless desirable than such a requirement in other subjects. But the chief\nreason for this recommendation is, of course, the belief that the secondary\nschool will gain a valuable extension of its course of study — an important source of culture for the best students in history, in particular, but\nalso for all interested pupils.\nThe elementary course in history gives many glimpses of unexplored\nfields of knowledge that invite further inspection, and suggests many\nproblems of social development that can be dealt with only incidentally\nat the time. Intensive study of history permits single pupils, or, at least,\ngroups of pupils, to explore some of these fields, and to attack some of\nthese suggested problems. To gratify the interest in historical study\nthus aroused is to promote the instinct of true scholarship, and hence\nafford an admirable preparation for college work.\nIn a word, intensive study in history affords pupils an opportunity to\npursue a favorite subject beyond the usual elementary course in history\nwith which they must otherwise be content. It is, accordingly, a valuable\nstimulus and a satisfaction to both teachers and pupils. But unless this\nintensive study can be recognized in college-admission requirements, few\nschools will be able to provide it.\nXII. Resolved, That we recommend that any piece of work comprehended within the\nstudies included in this report that has covered at least one year of four periods a week\nin a well-equipped secondary school, under competent instruction, should be considered\nworthy to count toward admission to college.\n\nIt is the opinion of the committee that a larger option ought to be\nallowed to high-school pupils in selecting the subjects which they desire\nto offer for admission to college than is accorded at present. It is felt\nthat the adoption of this policy of permitting larger options lies in the\ninterest of the colleges, and of college education, as well as of the high\nschools and of high-school education.\nThe acceptance of this larger option will make it possible for many\nhigh schools to prepare properly for college which cannot do so at\npresent, and thus the number of possible college students may be considerably increased.\nMany high schools find it impossible to offer one or another of the\nsubjects required for admission to college at present, while they do offer\ninstruction in subjects which there seems to be no adequate reason for\nexcluding from the category of accepted branches.\nIt will thus become possible for many high schools to undertake the\nwork of preparation for college without seriously impairing that other\nand perhaps more necessary, work involved in answering the demands of\nthe public for instruction in the specific subjects which the local public\ninsists upon.\nThis will, moreover, permit the individual\nhigh school\n\n"}
{"page": 675, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nCOLLEGE-ENTRANCE\n\nREQUIREMENTS\n\n667\n\npupil a range of choice among the subjects which he may desire to offer,\nwhich will be only a legitimate recognition of the elective principle in the\nsphere of secondary education.\nIt will be noted that the recommendation of the committee in favor\nof a wider option in subjects is connected with this positive condition\nthat such a subject must be' pursued long enough to guarantee serious\nwork, and that the high school must have adequate facilities for teaching\nthe subject, and competent instructors to handle it.\nIt is felt that the acceptance of the proposed wider range of options,\ncombined with the insistence upon such a method of treatment, upon\nsuch amount of time, and upon such facilities for teaching as will secure\ngood educational results from a disciplinary and cultural point of view,\nwill have a pronounced influence in persuading high schools to adopt the\nprinciple of selecting a few subjects in which they can give adequate training, rather than the patchwork system of selecting very many subjects and\ngiving only slight attention to each one, which prevails in so many of our\nAmerican high schools. And it is believed that this will be a very\nvaluable educational result, which might well compensate for any slightly\ninjurious effects which might possibly flow from allowing this wider\noption.\nThere is a general argument in favor of this plan which applies to the\nelective system' in general, so far as it can be properly employed, namely,\nthat the pupils themselves will take a greater interest in their work, will\nconceive a more earnest desire to attend the college and university, knowing that they have an opportunity to pursue there the studies which have\ninterested and benefited them in the high school. It is believed that the\nlimitation of this recommendation to studies included in this report\nmakes the above recommendation an exceedingly conservative one, and\none in which all college and high-school men can unite.\nThis proposition does not involve of itself, necessarily, the idea that\nall subjects are of equal cultural or disciplinary value, or even that the\nsubjects here proposed are of equal or similar value. The acceptance of\nthis recommendation does not, therefore, hold the committee to the\nespousal of any such doctrine, or the association, if it accepts the report\nand recommendation of this committee. It does involve, however, the\nproposition that, even tho there may be a difference in the disciplinary or\ncultural value of these subjects pursued under the conditions indicated,\nyet the advantages to our educational system of the adoption of this\nprinciple will be so great as far to outweigh any incidental disadvantage which may accrue from accepting as of equal value for college purposes the more or less unequal values represented by these studies.\nIt is certainly a further argument for the wisdom of this recommendation that it is directly in the line of all present movements in the educational field. All the leading associations of college and secondary\n\n"}
{"page": 676, "printed_page": null, "text": "668\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nteachers in the United States have recently expressed views similar to\nthese incorporated in the recommendation. It would seem, therefore,\nas if the conditions in different portions of the country were so similar\nthat we have here to do with a principle which is applicable to all sections of the United States.\n•\nXIII. Resolved, That it is desirable that our colleges and universities should accept\nas a unit for admission a year's work in economics, including under this head a course in\nelementary political economy, supplemented by adequate instruction in commercial\ngeography and industrial history.\n\nThe present recommendation is really included in the preceding one,\nand we need not, therefore, spend very much time upon it.\nIt is worth noting, however, that this is an additional recommendation\nto those contained in the various reports by the Committees on History\nand Civics, which from time to time have appeared of late in connection\nwith our educational associations. It is the opinion of the committee\nthat the subject of political economy, which is now taught in one form\nor another in very many of our high schools, is entitled by its importance^\nand by its disciplinary and cultural value, to a position in the programs\nof all high schools, and that, when it is a part of such a program, and is\nconducted during the entire year, in a school with proper facilities, and\nwith properly qualified teachers, it deserves the same recognition as other\nsubjects pursued under similar conditions.\nIt will be noted that the committee recommends that some attention\nbe given to commercial geography and industrial history in connection\nwith the work in elementary political economy, and that these three subjects be taken as one.\nThis recommendation is made because the committee feels that such\na subject as this may easily become merely formal in the actual instruction in the schools, and that it should receive a concrete treatment, which\nwill be assured to a certain extent by linking it with the practical subjects\nhaving such an intimate relation to it as commercial geography and\nindustrial history.\nIt appears to the committee that in a country like the United States,\nwhere all citizens are called upon to take sides in the discussion and\ndecision of important economic questions, it is exceedingly desirable that\nthe elements of economics should be included in the program of high\nschools for the sake of the pupils who may not go to college. And, following the general line of the recommendations of this report, it is urged\nthat, when the subject is so taught as to secure adequate results for those\nwho do not go to college, it will also be so taught as to entitle the pupil\nwho pursues it to the privilege of offering it as one of his requirements\nfor admission to college.\nXIV. Resolved, That we recommend an increase in the school day in secondary\nschools, to permit a larger amount of study in school under supervision.\n\nk\\\n\n"}
{"page": 677, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nCOLLEGE-ENTRANCE\n\nREQUIREMENTS\n\n669\n\nIn presenting this resolution the committee is aware that there is a\ngreat divergence of custom in the length of the day in secondary schools,\nthe number and length of recitation periods, the noon intermissions, and\nthe time devoted sacredly to study within the schoolhouse. A few have\ntwo sessions, following the rule governing the elementary schools ; some\nare from 8 a. m. to i p. m., and many from 9 a. m. to 2 p. m., with onehalf hour at noon for a light lunch.\nWe appreciate the almost unanimous and perhaps enlightened opposition on the part of teachers to the proposition for a longer school day.\nThe committee believes, however, that it is a subject for intelligent\ndiscussion, and that the weight of argument favors a longer day. The\ncommittee does not trace its convictions on this matter to the fact that\nthe German secondary schools are one-half longer in session than our\nschools, and no hardship seems to result.\nThere is no disposition to imitate European methods because they\nare European, but we believe it is easily demonstrable that it is in the\nclass recitation and under the inspiration and instruction of the teacher,\nand not in the study hours at home, that the pupil acquires the bulk of\nhis scholastic knowledge.\nA very large majority of the pupils who attend our secondary schools\nare of the middle class, a very respectable minority are of the poorer\nclass, and only a small fraction are from the homes of the rich.\nIn the cities and large towns the school buildings offer better conveniences for study than the homes ; pupils of immature age do not know how\nto study, and need the guidance and direction of an intelligent and interested teacher; lessons should be learned largely in school in the quietness\nof rooms thoroly equipped for that purpose, in the midst of referencebooks, maps, charts, pictures, and all of the paraphernalia incident to study;\nrecitation periods should not be less than fifty' minutes, instead of forty,\nas prevails in too many schools ; there must be time for drawing, physical\nculture, vocal music, and laboratory practice.\nThe committee, therefore, recommends that the secondary-school buildings be open for pupils from 8 a. m. until 4 p. m., and that all who find it\nmore convenient and attractive be encouraged to occupy the rooms for\nreading and study, and that as many teachers as are necessary remain to\nassist these pupils in the prosecution of their work.\nThe practice in some schools of having two sessions a day, with a long\nintermission at noon, is to be deplored. The committee especially disapproves of the plan recommended by some with a view to economy, but\nwhich we think false economy, of having two sessions with different sets\nof pupils for morning and afternoon, whether taught by the same or different teachers at each session. This method will require all study, all\npreparation of lessons, to be done at home, without the conveniences, the\nequipment, the inspiration of the school itself. It will destroy, in a large\n\n"}
{"page": 678, "printed_page": null, "text": "670\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nmeasure, the real function of the secondary school ; it will lessen the interest of the pupils, and limit the influence of the teachers ; it will separate\nchildren of the same families in the different years of the school ; it will\nmake the instruction less potent and the discipline more difficult ; it will\nin every way tend to destroy the school as the real laboratory and workshop of the pupil.\nNATIONAL\n\nUNITS, OR NORMS\n\nThe vocabulary of pedagogy is not as yet clearly differentiated in all of\nits branches, a fact which accounts for no little confusion in educational\ndiscussions. The words \"curriculum\" and \"course of study,\" for\nexample, are used synonymously to apply either to the entire range of\nsubjects pursued in a school, to the schematic arrangement of those subjects\nfor an individual student, or to the quantum of any given subject, as mathematics or history. So we have the expressions, \"high-school course of\nstudy,\" \"high-school curriculum,\" \"high-school course,\" the \"Greek\ncourse\" and the \"course in Greek \" (which may designate either a special\nschematic arrangement for the whole work of a pupil taking Greek, or\nspecific work in Greek itself), \" Latin course \" and \" course in Latin,\"\netc., thru all the subjects. It is difficult to avoid the confusion which this\ninaccurate use of language makes almost inevitable.\nThe committee, for itself, adopts a definite terminology which will\nbe used during this discussion. Three distinct terms seem to be needed :\n{i) program of studies, which includes all of the studies offered in a given\nschool ; (2) curriculum, which means the group of studies schematically\narranged for any pupil or set of pupils ; (3) course of study, which means\nthe quantity, quality, and method of the work in any given subject of\ninstruction.\nThus the program of studies includes the curriculum, and may, indeed,\nfurnish the material for the construction of an indefinite number of curriculums. The course of study is the unit, or element, from which both\nthe program and the curriculum are constructed.\nWith the construction of a curriculum, or of several curriculums, this\ncommittee has not dealt. A very large number of such schematic plans\nare already in print. It is difficult to decide, upon general principles, why\none is better than another, and still more difficult to formulate a new one\nwhich shall be better than any other ; nor does it seem to the committee\nnecessary or desirable that such a work should be undertaken. Individual\ndifferences of opinion among principals and teachers, as well as the\ninfluence of local conditions and surroundings, have always been reflected\nin school curriculums, and it seems necessary that they always should be.\nAbsolute uniformity in our secondary education thruout the country, or\nthruout any considerable section of it, is so improbable that it is a waste\nof time to discuss the question as to whether it be desirable or not.\nThe\n\n"}
{"page": 679, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCOLLEGE\n\nENTRANCE\n\nREQUIREMENTS\n\n671\n\ncommittee believes it is not desirable, but it is also of the opinion that\nuniformity is possible, practicable, and desirable in certain features of\nsecondary work, and that, therefore, the proper course to pursue is one\nthat will leave sufficient scope for individuality, in the field where individuality rightly has most play. The committee aims to secure uniformity\nin that part of the field in which uniformity is most desirable. Using the\nterminology outlined in the above paragraph, there seems to be no need\nfor uniformity in curriculums, and no possibility of it, but there does\nseem to be a great need for uniformity in courses of study, and no insurmountable obstacles to the securing of such uniformity are discoverable.\nThe course of study is the unit out of which curriculums and programs\nare framed. It is with this unit that the work of the committee has been\nchiefly concerned.\nActing on these lines, the committee has devoted its chief energies,\nthru several years, to securing the formulation of satisfactory courses\nof study which should serve as units, or norms, worthy of national\nacceptance. The process of formulating these units has been outlined in\nthe preceding sections of the report. The work, on the whole, represents\nthe consensus of opinion of a very large body of the ablest experts in\nthe country. The committee was obliged to rely upon the free co-operation of bodies of specialists for the work of laying out courses in the\nseveral subjects. Under such circumstances it was inevitable that there\nshould be some differences in the thoroness and enthusiasm with which\nthe work was performed. Had the committee been able to call together\nspecial bodies of scholars and schoolmen to represent each subject taught\nin secondary schools, a more complete and symmetrical report might\nhave been presented. On the other hand, it would have been impossible\nfor the committee, with the amplest financial resources, to have secured\nsuch expert work as is represented in some of the special reports submitted, notably those on Greek and Latin, modern languages, and history.\nOn the whole, therefore, it was, perhaps, fortunate that the method of work\npursued by the committee was forced upon it by circumstances. Each\nbody of specialists was invited to outline an ideal and also a practical\ncourse of study in the special study it represented. These courses are\nprinted, each under its appropriate head, in the department of special\nreports.\nThese courses of study constitute so many national norms, or units,\nout of which any school may make up as rich a program of studies as its\nmeans and facilities permit ; a program, moreover, which may be made to\nyield several curriculums, or, possibly, almost as many curriculums as\nthere are students, each curriculum perhaps being better than the others,\nfrom an individual point of view.\nIn so far as the courses of study representing national units, or norms,\nmay be adopted by the schools and colleges, great simplification\nwill\n\n"}
{"page": 680, "printed_page": null, "text": "672\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nresult in the subject of college-entrance requirements, the subject specifically referred to this committee. Hitherto there has existed the widest\nconfusion in this matter, a confusion that has been more emphatic in\nsome studies than in others, no doubt, and yet it has pertained to all of\nthem. It has been owing largely to this confusion that the colleges have\nbeen unwilling to abandon entrance examinations. For instance,\nelementary German as prescribed for an entrance requirement meant\nnothing unless the ground covered were outlined with some minuteness\nin the college catalog ; for what might constitute elementary German in\none school might be a course of three periods a week for a year, in another\nfive periods a week for a year, in another four periods a week for two\nyears ; in one school it might be pursued by the conversational or natural\nmethod, and in another by the grammatical method. The same, of\ncourse, is true of French. In history there has existed a great amount of\nconfusion. There has also been lacking a general consensus of opinion\nas to what constituted proper work in science for entrance requirements\nto college. In the older studies, mathematics and the ancient classics,\nthere has been less confusion, as they have had a longer time to crystallize\ninto definite form; but the report on classics by the American Philological\nAssociation represents a very distinct and important advance in the\norganization of classical education in this country.\nThe fundamental problem in this connection, in the minds of the\ncommittee at least, is to formulate courses of study in each of the several\nsubjects of the curriculum which shall be substantially equal in value,\nthe measure of value being both quantity and quality of work done.\nThis idea has been kept firmly in mind by all the special committees, as\nis evinced by the fact that the courses of study outlined by these committees make no great or unusual demands upon the schools, and are\nevidently, at a first glance, in a general way, substantially equivalent.\nIf schools and colleges were able, generally, to accept these courses, the\nstatement of entrance requirements would be extremely simple and perfectly intelligible. That such a general acceptance of these courses may\nnot unreasonably be anticipated is shown from the experience with the\nEnglish requirements for college entrance, which have within a few years,\nwithout any external pressure and authority, become practically uniform\nthruout the country, simply by reason^ of the formulation by a reputable\nbody of experts of a definite course of work. It is not to be expected,\nnor is it desired, that all colleges should make the same entrance requirements, nor is it to be expected that all schools will have the same program of studies. What is to be desired, and what the committee hopes\nmay become true, is that the colleges will state their entrance requirements\nin terms of national units, or norms, and that the schools will build up their\nprogram of studies out of the units furnished by these separate courses\nof study.\nA college may recognize more or fewer of these units, but\n\n"}
{"page": 681, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCOLLEGE-ENTRANCE\n\nREQUIREMENTS\n\n673\n\nwhere it recognizes a subject at all, it is to be hoped that' it will\nrecognize it in the shape of the national unit. So, probably, very few\nschools will be able or desire to offer all of the units, but out of the\ntotal number of units outlined any school should be able to build up\na satisfactory program from which all necessary curriculums could be\nextracted.\nNotwithstanding the care with which these courses of study representing different units, or norms, have been formulated, it cannot be expected\nthat they will meet with universal acceptance.\nIn many matters of detail\nthey are bound to be criticised ; but the committee earnestly expresses\nthe hope that where individual preferences differ in minor details from\nthe' statements made in the special reports and the principles outlined in\nthe report of the committee as a whole, these individual preferences will\nbe subordinated for the sake of the general good.\nThe reports of the\ncommittees represent a large consensus of expert opinion, and as such\nshould be entitled to weight and consideration.\nThey are entitled also to\nthe advantage of the doubt, where any individual questions as to whether the\nviews expressed are sound on a given point. The opinion is held by good\nthinkers that we are living in an age of excessive individualism.\nIt is certainly true that the educational system of the country has suffered, and still\nsuffers, from the great opportunity afforded by our system for the play of\nindividual\nidiosyncrasies.\nIt is quite true, on the other hand, that\neducation, as a whole, has gained vastly from the freedom offered to\nindividual initiative ; but on certain measures of national bearing the\ntime has come to subordinate some personal preferences in order to\nreach an agreement which shall make for the public good.\nSuch an\nagreement does not mean the abandonment or sacrifice of a principle,\nbut it may involve the non-insistence on carrying the principle into\nimmediate practice.\nIn the curriculums large and, it would seem, ample\nscope is still left for the play of individuality.\nThe committee distinctly\nrefrains from entering upon the task of constructing curriculums to be\nimposed, for the sake of uniformity, upon the schools of the country.\nSuch uniformity is not needed ; but uniformity in courses of study which\nshall lead to the establishment of national units, or norms, does seem to\nbe of so great importance that both colleges and secondary schools may\nfairly be expected to yield, to a large extent, individual opinions which\ninterfere with its establishment.\nWhile the committee is unanimous in\nthis opinion, it feels that the opinion would still be of little value but for\nthe fact that in the course of four years' work upon this problem it has\nbecome convinced that there is a widespread sentiment among thoughtful educators of the country which demands such action.\nIn formulating\nthese courses of study, these units, or norms, and presenting them to the\npublic, the committee does not, therefore, feel that it is leading the\nway into a new and untried field, making suggestions which may come\n\n"}
{"page": 682, "printed_page": null, "text": "674\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nto fruition in after-years, but that it is formulating, crystallizing, putting\ninto definite shape beliefs and sentiments that have already taken hold\nupon the educational public. Legislation is largely the official recognition of existing facts or sentiments. The committee in this work feels\nthat it is acting more in a legislative than in a pioneer capacity.\nRESOLUTIONS\n\nOF THANKS\n\nResolved, That the conference desires to express its hearty thanks to all who have\ncontributed to the success of the meeting ; to President Harper for his cordial welcome\nand interest in the prosecution of its work ; to the university for opening wide its doors\nand extending all its privileges ; to Dr. William Gardner Hale for his special hospitality ;\nto many other professors of the university for generous entertainment ; and especially to\nthe officers and members of the Quadrangle Club for the free use of their rooms and\nmany other courtesies that have facilitated the work of the conference, and contributed\ngreatly to the pleasure of its individual members ; and to the Chicago press for the\nunusual pains taken to give full and impartial reports of its proceedings.\nResolved, That the hearty thanks of the committee are due, and are hereby extended,\nto the American Philological Association, the Modern Language Association of America,\nthe American Historical Association, the western branch of the American Mathematical\nAssociation, and the Natural Science Department of the National Educational Association, for the great interest they have taken in our work, for the valuable services they have\nrendered in furnishing reports and other manuscript material for our use in preparing our\nreport. Also to Professor Alexander Smith and Dr. John M. Coulter, of the University\nof Chicago, and Mr. Charles W. French, of the Hyde Park High School, of Chicago, for\nassistance similar in kind, and for the information and counsel they have so kindly\nfurnished the committee since our session began.\nResolved, That the committee heartily appreciates the sustained interest of its chairman, and realizes that what measure of success it has attained is largely due to his indefatigable labors toward securing material from experts for the consideration of the committee.\nRESOLUTIONS\n\nDEFINING\n\nDUTIES OF EDITORIAL\nAPPOINTING SAME\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nAND\n\nResolved, That the chairman, Mr. Nightingale, together with Professors James and\nThurber, be constituted a committee to prepare for publication the final report of the\njoint committee, and to carry it thru the press.\nResolved, That this committee of three has permission and authority to call upon the\nindividual members of the joint committee for such facts and views as in their judgment\nmay be necessary in preparing the report.\nResolved, That the report, when in type, be sent to all members of the general committee, in proof sheets, for their suggestions and criticisms, with the understanding that\nthe committee of three shall be the final authority as to the admissibility of such suggestions and criticisms into the report as finally published.\nResolved, That when in the opinion of this committee of three such suggestions an\ncriticisms cannot be properly admitted into the report, their authors shall have liberty to\nexpress them in dissenting special reports over their names.\nResolved, That it is not desirable that such dissenting reports shall be insisted upon\nexcept in the cases of serious divergency of views, of which the authors themselves shall\nbe the sole judges.\n\nIt will be seen, by reference to the resolutions constituting and\ninstructing the editorial committee of three, that the general committee\n\n"}
{"page": 683, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCOLLEGE-ENTRANCE\n\nREQULREMENTS\n\n675\n\nthought it desirable to avoid, as far as possible, divergent views and dissenting opinions in the final report, and to secure the largest possible\nconsensus of opinion consistent with the truth. This instruction has been\ncarried out in its spirit. While the names of all the committee are signed\nto the report, and there are no dissenting reports, it is not to be supposed\nthat the members of the committee all indorse every view and opinion\nthat the report contains.\nCONCLUSION\nUpon several subjects of \"great importance this report is silent, much\nto the regret of the committee. These omissions and deficiencies must\nbe regarded as due to the conditions under which the committee has\nworked, and not at all to any feeling on the part of the committee that\nthese subjects are of relatively small importance. That courses of study\nhave not been prepared in geology, astronomy, and physiology — subjects\nwhich play an important part in secondary courses, and which are, to\nsome extent at least, recognized for entrance to college — is perhaps the\nmost important omission. The committee is bound to state, in justification of its own action, that, in accepting the proffered aid of the\nDepartment of Science of the National Educational Association, it\ndepended upon the department for detailed reports upon courses of study\nin the several sciences taught in secondary schools, in the same way that\nit depended upon the Philological, the Historical, and the Modern Language Associations for detailed reports in their several branches of instruction. These reports were not forthcoming on the subjects of astronomy,\ngeology, and physiology. In the three-days' session held by the committee it was quite impracticable to secure any reports that would have weight\nand value. The detailed consideration of these subjects is, therefore,\nreluctantly omitted from this report. But the committee would call\nattention to the fact that the general principles laid down in the report\nas a whole apply quite as thoroly to the branches just enumerated as to\nall the others for which detailed courses of study have been submitted. It\nmight be helpful to the schools if carefully planned courses of study in\nastronomy, geology, and physiology could be presented in this document,\nbut the general principles upon which such courses should be constructed\nand administered, in order that they may be received for college entrance,\nhave been fully elucidated in connection with the.other subjects of instruction and in the general resolutions adopted by the committee. So far,\ntherefore, as the specific work of this committee is concerned in determining the principles to be followed in adjusting secondary courses to meet\ncollege-entrance requirements, and vice versa, it cannot be held that any\nsubject has been slighted, for the fundamental work of the committee has\nbeen a formulation of principles that are equally applicable to all subjects\nof instruction.\n\n"}
{"page": 684, "printed_page": null, "text": "676\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nSince the work of the committee is concerned in large part with the\ncourses of study in secondary schools, it would, no doubt, have been\ndesirable that the subject of commercial instruction should have been\ntaken into consideration. What relation commercial studies shall have to\nother studies in the program, and whether any commercial studies, such\nas history of industries, history of commerce, and commercial geography,\nshould be recognized for admission to college, are questions that will\nsoon have immediate practical importance. The whole subject of commercial education in secondary schools seems to the committee one\ndeserving of special study — one, indeed, for the consideration of which a\nspecial committee might well be appointed. Nor is the committee\nunmindful of the fact that it has not carried out that part of its self-adopted\nprogram of work which committed it to an investigation of the best methods of admission to college, whether by examination or by some form of\ncertification. This question, however, seems not so fundamental as those\nto which the committee has advocated its labors. Still it would, no\ndoubt, be desirable to have an adequate study made of this matter in all\nof its phases and bearings. The time and resources at the disposal of the\ncommittee, however, were not adequate for accomplishing more than is\nherewith presented.\nWhen it is remembered that the investigations carried on by the committee itself and those carried on at its suggestion, the results of which\nare herewith presented, have all been completed under a single appropriation, from the National Educational Association, of $500 — an appropriation, moreover, which did not become available until the present\nyear — it will be obvious at once that the committee has been favored by\nthe generous and self-sacrificing assistance of many collaborators. A\nlarge number of educators, including those whose names are signed to\nthe various special reports, and many others as well, have given generously of time, and also of money, to further the work of this committee.\nThe cordial and enthusiastic support accorded to this investigation from\nthe outset has been an unfailing source of inspiration to the members of\nthe committee themselves, and a sure sign of the importance ascribed to\nthe relations of high schools and colleges as a factor in the development\nof our higher education. The officers of the National Educational Association have given their cordial support to the work of the committee\nat every stage of its progress. The committee now submits its report,\nwith the most cordial appreciation of the generous aid it has thus far\nreceived, with a conviction of the importance of the subject discussed, that\nhas grown more intense with every additional day of labor given to the\nreport, and with no feeling that the work intrusted to the committee has\nbeen finally and forever accomplished, but in the hope that an important\ncontribution has been made to the adjustment of the vexed relations\nbetween secondary and higher education, and with confident expectation\n\n"}
{"page": 685, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nCOLLEGE-ENTRANCE\n\nREQUIREMENTS\n\n677\n\nthat the report thus submitted will receive the careful study and, so far as\nmay be justified, the approval and adoption of those who direct the\nhigher education of this country.\nA. F. Nightingale, Chairman,\nSuperintendent of High Schools, Chicago, 111.\n\nW. H. Smiley, Secretary,\nPrincipal of High School, District No.\nColo.\n\nGeorge\n\ni, Denver,\n\nB. Aiton,\nState Inspector of High Schools, Minneapolis, Minn.\n\nJ. Remsen\n\nBishop,\nPrincipal, Walnut Hills High School, Cincinnati, O.\n\nJohn T. Buchanan,\nPrincipal of Boys' High School, New York, N. Y.\n\nHenry\n\nB. Fine,\nProfessor of Mathematics,\nPrinceton, N. J.\n\nPrinceton\n\nUniversity,\n\nPaul H. Hanus,\nProfessor of the Science and Art of Education,\nHarvard University, Cambridge, Mass.\nBurke\n\nA. Hinsdale,\nProfessor of the Science and Art of Education,\nUniversity of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich.\n\nRay\n\nGreene\n\nHuling,\n\nPrincipal of the English High School, Cambridge,\nMass.\nEdmund\n\nJ. James,\nProfessor of Public Administration,\nChicago, Chicago, 111.\n\nWilliam\n\nCarey\n\nUniversity\n\nof\n\nJones,\n\nProfessor of Jurisprudence, University of California,\nBerkeley, Cal.\n\n•\n\nJames E. Russell,\nDean of the Teachers' College, Columbia University\nNew York, N. Y.\n\nCharles\n\nH. Thurber,\nAssociate\nProfessor of Pedagogy,\nChicago, Chicago, 111.\n\nUniversity\n\nof\n\n"}
{"page": 686, "printed_page": null, "text": "678\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nPART\nSPECIAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nII\n\nREPORTS*\n\nREPORT OF THE COMMITTEE OF TWELVE OF THE\nAMERICAN PHILOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION ON COURSES\nOF STUDY IN LATIN AND GREEK FOR SECONDARY\nSCHOOLS^\nINTRODUCTION\nI.\n\nTHE\n\nWORK\n\nOF THE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nOF TWELVE\n\nThe Committee of Twelve of the American Philological Association\nwas appointed at a special session held in Philadelphia in December,\n1894. It was instructed to bring to the attention of those who were\ninterested in the subject a resolution, which the association had unanimously passed, that \" in any program designed to prepare students for\nthe classical course hot less than three years of Greek should be\nrequired.\" The same committee was afterward requested to take into\nconsideration also \"the question of the amount of Latin needed for the\nvarious courses in secondary schools.\"'\n* The special reports that follow were prepared by committees, appointed by the different associations which they represent, at the request of the Committee of the National\nEducational Association on College-Entrance Requirements. They call for careful study\nand the most earnest consideration, and can but be regarded as the most valuable contributions to secondary education which have ever been published.\nThe model courses of study presented are commended by the committee, altho it was\nnot within the limits of its labor to verify all the statistics which will be found interesting, nor does it comment on the inferences drawn. These reports have been written after\nan amount of correspondence and investigation which can scarcely be estimated, and\nhe large expense incurred has been borne by the associations calling them forth. We\nbelieve they Wll be of incalculable value to the better class of secondary schools thruout\nthe country.\nA. F. Nightingale, Chairman.\n■f The Committee of Twelve desires to express its sense of obligation to the twelve\nhundred teachers who have aided it by generously imparting information and counsel.\nThe heaviest burdens of the committee have been borne by Professor Hale, of the University of Chicago ; Professor Kelsey, of the University of Michigan ; Professor West, of\nPrinceton University ; and the chairman, Professor Seymour, of Yale University. Special\nrecognition is due to the courtesy of the United States Commissioner of Education, Hon.\nW. T. Harris, who caused the preparation of the\" important table in Appendix B and\nfurnished the data for Appendix C.\n''^Proceedings of the American\n\nPhilological Association, Special Session, 1894, p. xxviii.\n\n"}
{"page": 687, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCOLLEGE-ENTRANCE\n\nREQUIREMENTS\n\n679\n\nIn accordance with these instructions, in the spring of 1895 the committee prepared an address on the study of Greek, which was ap'proved at\nthe next session of the association and was extensively circulated.\" At\nthe meeting of the National Educational Association in July of the same\nyear a copy of this address was laid before the Department of Secondary\nEducation, which received it cordially and gave it a place in the minutes\nof the meeting.\"\nIn the spring of 1896 the committee prepared a report on the amount\nof time that should be allotted to Latin in school programs. This report\nwas not only submitted to the American Philological Association, but\nwas also, in accordance with a suggestion made by several members of\nthe National Educational Association, presented at Buffalo in July to the\njoint session of the Departments of Higher and of Secondary Education,\nwhich expressed hearty approval of it by a unanimous vote, and ordered\nit printed in the minutes.^\nAt this time the National Educational Association was undertaking a\ncomprehensive study of school programs in their relation to collegeentrance requirements. At the Denver meeting a joint committee, composed of prominent members of the Departments of Higher and of\nSecondary Education, had been appointed, with instructions to report on\nthe whole subject of entrance requirements the following year. This\ncommittee first made an extensive investigation of existing conditions,*\nand then proceeded to formulate a plan of work. Having reached the\nconclusion that the problem of securing uniform entrance requirements\ncan be solved only thru the attainment of greater uniformity in\ncourses of study, the joint committee voted, as a part of its scheme, to\ninvite certain scientific societies to render expert assistance in forming\nmodel programs which might be adopted by high schools, academies, and\nprivate schools in all parts of the country. The plan of work elaborated\nby this committee, including a proposition to invite the co-operation of\nthe American Philological Association, was laid before the joint session of\nthe Departments of Pligher and of Secondary Education at Buffalo, and\nwas adopted without modification.^ The secretary of the joint committee\nat once sent a telegram to the American Philological Association, which\nwas then in session at Providence, inviting it \" to prepare at its convenience a report on the proper course of secondary instruction in Latin and\nI Proceedings for July, 1895, pp. xxxii-xxxviii.\n^Journal of Proceedings and Addresses of the National Educational\n581, 632-5; School Review for June, 1895, pp. 434-41.\n\nAssociation, 1895, pp.\n\n3 Proceedings and Addresses of the National Educational Association, 1896, pp. 559-62; Proceedings ofthe American Philological Association for July, 1896, pp. li-lv. The report was published\nalso in the School Review for June, 1896, pp. 472-4; the New York Evening Post for July 11, 1896;\nand Book Reviews for August, 1896, pp. 101-3.\n4 See the School Review\n\nfor June, 1896.\n\n^Proceedings and Addresses\nReview for June, 1898, p. 443.\n\nof the National Educational\n\nAssociation, 1896, pp. 558-9; School\n\n"}
{"page": 688, "printed_page": null, "text": "68o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nGreek.\" The American Philological Association accepted the invitation\nand instructed its Committee of Twelve to draw up courses of study in\nthe two languages as requested.'\nThe Committee of Twelve took up promptly the important work that\nhad been assigned to it, and, after some preliminary correspondence, met\nin New York in December, 1896. It voted to send a circular of inquiry\nto teachers in all parts of the United States, requesting information regarding the present condition of the study of the classics, and suggestions in\nrelation to classical programs.. It decided also to invite representative\nmen engaged in the work of secondary education, scholars of undoubted\npedagogic ability and experience, to co-operate with it, as auxiliary committees for Latin and for Greek, and to hold a meeting of the combined\ncommittees in the spring vacation of 1897.^\nMore than six thousand copies of the circular of inquiry were sent\nout to teachers of Latin and Greek, to superintendents, to principals of\nschools, and to others who are prominent in educational work. About\none thousand replies were received, and thus there was placed in the hands\nof the committee a mass of material for consideration — exact information,\nand the opinions of specialists — such as had never before been gathered\nin relation to this subject. Great and general interest in the undertaking\nwas evinced by the care with which most of the answers to the questions\nof the circular had been prepared. The replies were carefully tabulated\nby Dr. Arthur Fairbanks, of Yale University, and were brought before the\ncommittee at the meeting in New York, April 14.' The Committee of\nTwelve was in session with its auxiliary committees for two days. After\nlistening to a statement with regard to the answers to its inquiries, and\nto a discussion of certain fundamental questions connected with secondary\ninstruction in the classics, the combined committees divided into two\nsections for the preparation of school programs for Greek and for Latin.\nIn the time at their disposal the committees were able only to draft\ntentatively a four-year Latin course and a three-year Greek course ; the\nwhole matter of five-year and six-year Latin courses was referred to a\nspecial subcommittee, which met in Chicago in May.\nAs a result of these labors, in the fall of 1897, the Committee of\nTwelve issued a preliminary report, which contained a brief statement in\nregard to the organization of the committee and the purpose of its work,\nand presented for criticism the tentative courses that had been drawn up\n— four-year, five-year, and six-year courses in Latin, and a three-year course\nin Greek.^ This preliminary report was submitted to the principal educational associations of the country, and copies were sent also to a number\n'^Proceedings of the American\n^Ibid., July, 1897, p. xxviii.\n3 See the School Review\n\nPhilological Association for July, 1896, p. Ix.\n\nfor June, 1897, pp. 330-59.\n\n4 Published also (in essentially the same form) in the School Review for June, 1897, pp. 362-6;\nProceedings of the American Philological Association for July, 1897, pp. xxxi-xxxiv.\n\n"}
{"page": 689, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCOLLEGE-ENTRANCE\n\nREQUIREMENTS\n\n681\n\nof educational experts; many kindly and helpful suggestions were received,\nand it became evident that the tentative programs, with slight modifications, would give as general satisfaction as any courses of study which the\ncommittee could devise.\nNotwithstanding the. favorable reception of this report, the Committee of Twelve resolved again to avail itself of the advice and criticisuj\nof those who are actually engaged in the work of classical instruction\nin secondary schools, before issuing its report in final form. A meeting\nof the combined committees was appointed to be held at Ann Arbor,\nMich., in the spring vacation of 1898, and in order to attract a number\nof classical teachers, with whom the problems under consideration could\nbe discussed face to face, a classical conference was arranged, with a twodays' program of scientific and pedagogical papers.\nThe meetings opened with a session of the Latin section of the combined committees, on March 30; the conference was held on March 31\nand April i, and the Committee of Twelve met for its final session on\n'April 2. The attendance at the classical conference was full and representative,' while at the sessions of the committee officers and representative members were present, by invitation, from the more important\neducational associations of the East, the South, and the West, whose\ndirect testimony gave a deeper insight into the conditions of classical\nstudy, in all parts of the country, than could have been gained from\ncorrespondence alone. Before adjourning, the Committee of Twelve voted\nthat the publication of the courses of study, to the formulation of which\nso much time and effort had been given, should be accompanied by a\nstatement of the reasons which had influenced its conclusions.\nFrom what has been said it will be evident that this report was not\nprepared hastily by a committee anxious to avoid the consideration of burdensome details, and that it is not based primarily on theoretical considerations. Itembodies conclusions reached after painstaking inquiry into\nactual conditions, as well as the results of mature and intelligent experience on the part of the advisers of the committee; and it was drawn\nup after full consideration of the difficulties that lie along the path of\neducational advance in the secondary field.\nThe committee is' firmly of the opinion that the work outlined in the\nclassical programs here offered lies within the range of accomplishment\nof any school which has a competent classical teacher, and that there is\nno reason why at least the four-year Latin course and the three-year\nGreek course may not be generally adopted as a standard of classical\nwork in the schools of the North, the South, the East, and the West.\nII.\n\nPRELIMINARY\n\nOBSERVATIONS\n\nREGARDING\n\nTHE\n\nREPORT\n\nThe investigations pursued by the committee show that a tendency\nexists in many places to increase the amount of time allowed to Latin in\nI See the School Review for June, 1898, pp. 425, 481.\n\n"}
{"page": 690, "printed_page": null, "text": "682\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nschool programs, and that there is nowhere a movement in the other\ndirection. The reports of the United States Commissioner of Education\nfor the last nine years also reveal the highly encouraging fact that the\nincrease of enrollment of pupils in Latin in our secondary schools is very\nlarge, and is relatively greater than the increase in any other study .^ Nearly\n175,000 more pupils were studying Latin in 1897-98 than in 1889-90.\nThe increase of pupils in Greek, while not so marked, is likewise distinctly\nencouraging. Nearly 25,000 were reported as studying Greek in preparatory courses in 1897-98, against about 13,000 eight years earlier. This\nincrease is not confined to any one section of the country, as may be\nseen from the map on p. 706, which shows the distribution of Greek and\nLatin students in the secondary schools in 1890 and in 1898.\nThen, too, substantial progress has been made in the proper training of\nteachers. We are undoubtedly still far from having attained a proper professional standard ; but, on the other hand, the facilities for training classical\nteachers are being constantly, even if somewhat irregularly, developed. It\nis now possible, as it was not twenty years ago, to find a fair number of\nwell-equipped university courses devoted, at least in part, to the special\ntraining of capable instructors for our high schools and academies. There\nis also a distinct tendency to adapt text-books, in both Latin and Greek,\nto the pedagogical needs of pupils and teachers, and to emphasize the\nhumanistic, as opposed to the pedantic, ideal of classical culture. The\nexistence of all these favorable tendencies at the present time seems to\nindicate that we are entering upon a better age for the school study of the\nclassics. A situation so hopeful as this naturally makes the necessity of\ngiving organic unity to the increasing body of classical interests more\npressing than ever before.\nThe committee is the more encouraged in proposing the courses of\nstudy submitted in this report, because it has made a careful investigation\nof the classical instruction in about a thousand high schools and academies, and has had associated with it, in all its conferences, representative\nschoolmen from the chief regions of our country where the classics are\ntaught. On the basis of information thus obtained as to the actual condition of the teaching of Latin and Greek, and the resources and legitimate\nexpectations of the secondary schools, the committee has been enabled\nto test in advance, so to speak, the practicability of the plans here presented. It is gratifying to be able to state that these plans are not based\non a compromise of conflicting interests, but that, both in the judgment\nof the committee and in that of the auxiliary committees, composed of\nrepresentative teachers of Latin and Greek, the courses present a rational\nand practical standard, containing all the essentials in a sufficiently uniform\nrelation, and yet affording a flexibility sufficient to allow for all reasonable diversity in different classes of schools in different parts of the land.\nI See Appendix B at the end of this report.\n\n"}
{"page": 691, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCOLLEGE-ENTRANCE\n\nREQUIREMENTS\n\n683\n\nThe plans involve no radical recons.truction, but aim to bring the actually\nexisting practices of our schools into organic unity thru gradual adaptation to a more consistent standard.\nThe problem encountered in dealing with the question of instruction\nin Latin in our American high schools, academies, and other secondary\nschools, while similar to the corresponding problem for Greek, is more\ncomplicated. It is similar, because the principles which regulate the introduction of young students to both languages have long been recognized\nas practically identical. Utrique eadem via est, the maxim of Quintilian,\nmight be taken without modification as summing up the settled belief of\nthe best teachers of our own century with reference both to the unity of the\nclassics as a field of study and to the unity of method to be pursued in teaching the two classical languages. The problem is more complicated, because\nLatin is taught in a far larger number of schools than Greek, because many\nschools have more than one course in Latin instead of a single course as\nin Greek, and lastly because the length of time devoted to Latin varies\nmore than the length of time devoted to Greek.\nBut another, and far more serious, cause of complication lies outside\nthe relation of the two languages to each other, and is, in fact, a difficulty\nwhich underlies our secondary education generally, so far as concerns\nthe drawing up of programs of study ; that is, the lack of uniformity in\ncourses of study in high schools and academies, with its concomitant,\nthe lack of uniformity in college standards of entrance. If, as we believe,\nthe need of greater uniformity is urgent in order to enable our secondary\neducation to accomplish its proper ends, then in no part of the field is it\nmore conspicuously urgent than in the framing of programs of study.\nFor unless school programs can in some rational way be so brought into\nharmony that classical courses, for example, so far as equal amounts of\ntime are allotted to them, shall mean substantially the same thing in all\nparts of the country, we cannot expect to remedy the existing inequalities\nand stop the waste of time and energy in our school instruction, or to\nadjust the equally irrational inequalities of our college-entrance requirements in the same field. If, on the other hand, school programs in Latin\nand Greek can be made substantially uniform, the schools themselves will\nbe greatly helped, and a long step will have been taken toward the solution of a question which has deeply vexed the colleges.\nIn the case of the classics, as in the case of other studies, the desired\nremedy is not to be sought in any attempt to bring all the schools to the\nadoption of a single inflexible program. Such uniformity would be\nboth impracticable and in itself undesirable. Neither is it desirable that\nthe various regions of the country should each make an independent program. There is already too much of such diversity, which tends to stereotype and perpetuate causes of division and hindrance, to provincialize\nrather than to nationalize our teaching.\nThe committee recognizes, of\n\n"}
{"page": 692, "printed_page": null, "text": "684\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\ncourse, that local differences in the Latin and Greek courses will always\nexist, and that many of these differences are inevitable under any plan\nthat may be proposed. Many of them are, indeed, made reasonable\nby local conditions. The committee was not directed to prepare a plan\nwhich could be carried out at once in every school, but the best program\nwhich is practicable for the schools of the country under prevailing conditions— for public high schools, as well as for endowed academies and\nprivate \"fitting schools.\" The precise amount of time that a school can\nallow for Latin and Greek determines much, and this amount is sure to\nvary. Even more is determined by the strength and skill of the teaching\nforce. Legitimate differences of opinion must also exist with reference\nto the order in which the several authors may best be taken up, and the\nprecise amount of each that shall be read. Still other causes of variation\nwill occur to those who are actually engaged in the work of teaching, and\nallowance must be made for such causes in any proposal designed to\nsecure general assent. But after all concessions have been made to the\ninevitable diversity that arises from differences of locality and of methods,\nthere still remain other differences which need elimination, or at least\nreduction to some common standard of variation, if any permanent success is to attend the present hopeful movement toward uniformity.\nIt is, indeed, fortunate for the cause of classical studies at the present\ntime that the schools and colleges are already generally agreed as to the\nimportance of greater organic unity in the courses of our preparatory\nschools. The present decade has witnessed far more extensive and intelligent discussion and conference looking toward the accomplishment of\nthis result than has ever before been known in our country.\nIn offering the fruits of its labors to the two educational bodies under\nwhich it has been working, the Committee of Twelve desires to make\ngrateful acknowledgment of the invaluable assistance which it has received\nfrom the members of its auxiliary committees and from other educational\nworkers, who have freely responded to every request for information and\ncounsel ; and it wishes further to express the hope that this report may\ncontribute in some measure to the unification and advancement of our\nsecondary instruction in Greek and Latin.\nIII.\n\nTHE\n\nCONSTITUTION OF THE COMMITTEE OF TWELVE\nOF THE AUXILIARY COMMITTEES\nTHE\n\nThomas\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nOK\n\nAND\n\n'\n\nTWELVE\n\nDay Seymour, professor of Greek, Yale University, chair-\n\nCecil F. p. Bancroft, principal of Phillips Andover Academy.\nFranklin Carter, president of Williams College.\nWilliam Gardner Hale, professor of Latin, University of Chicago.\n\n"}
{"page": 693, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCOLLEGE-ENTRANCE\n\nREQUIREMENTS\n\n685\n\nWilliam R. Harper, president of the University of Chicago.\nFrancis W. Kelsey, professor of Latin, University of Michigan.\n' Abby Leach, professor of Greek, Vassar College.\nCharles Forster Smith, professor of Greek, University of Wisconsin.\nClement L. Smith, professor of Latin, Harvard University.\nHerbert Weir Smyth, professor of Greek, Bryn Mawr College.\nMiNTON Warren, professor of Latin, Johns Hopkins University.\nAndrew F. West, professor of Latin, Princeton University.\nTHE auxiliary\nTHE\n\nLATIN\n\nCOMMITTEES\n\nAUXILIARY\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nGeorge B. Aiton, inspector of state high schools, Minneapolis, Minn.\nJ. Remsen Bishop, Walnut Hill High School, Cincinnati, O.\nDavid Y. Comstock, principal of St. Johnsbury Academy, St. Johnsbury, Vt.\nE. W. Coy, principal of the Hughes High School, Cincinnati, O.\nLawrence C. Hull, Lawrenceville School, Lawrenceville, N. J.\nRichard A. Minckwitz, Kansas City High School, Kansas City, Mo.\nOscar D. Robinson, principal of the Albany High School, Albany, N. Y.\nCharles H. Thurber, dean of Morgan Park Academy, Morgan Park, III.\nA. W. Tressler, principal of the High School, Ripon, Wis.\nW. R. Webb, principal of Webb School, Bell Buckle, Tenn.\nTHE\n\ncity.\n\ngreek\n\nauxiliary\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nEdward B. Clapp, professor of Greek, University of California, Berkeley, Cal.\nE. G. Coy, principal of the Hotchkiss School, Lakeville, Conn.\nJ. G. Croswell, principal of the Brearley School, New York city.\nWilliam Gallagher, principal of the Thayer Academy, South Braintree, Mass.\nRobert P. Keep, principal of the Free Academy, Norwich, Conn.\nC. A. Mitchell, classical master of the University School, Cleveland, O.\nW. D. MooNEY, principal of the Mooney School, Franklin, Tenn.\nJ. H. Pratt, principal of the Milwaukee Academy, Milwaukee, Wis.\nJulius Sachs, principal of the Collegiate School, W. Fifty-ninth street. New York\nH. G. Sherrard, classical master of the High School, Detroit, Mich.\n\nGREEK\n\nCOURSES\n\nIN\n\nSECONDARY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nThe preparation of the Greek programs presented to the committee a\nsimple problem, in view of the limited time which can be given in the\nschools to the reading of Greek literature, and of the small amount of\nGreek literature which is suitable for classes of beginners. The problem\nhad been still further simplified by the discussions and actions of recent\nconferences, particularly the Greek conference of the Committee of Ten,\nthe Commission of New England Colleges, and the Greek conference\nheld at Columbia University in the spring of 1896 — all of these being in\nsubstantial agreement, and already approved by many of the most able\nteachers of the country. The replies to the committee's circular of inquiry\ngave abundant information, both as to what is actually done in our\nschools, and as to what is desired.\nFrom California, Wisconsin, and\n\n"}
{"page": 694, "printed_page": null, "text": "6U\n\nNATIOJ^AL EDUCATlOl^AL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nTennessee, in particular, had come letters which presented a most hopeful\nview of the position of the classics in the schools, and urged that the committee should yield to no suggestion of a weaker, less exacting course of\npreparation for college. The committee is unanimous in reaffirming\nthe position taken by the Greek conference of the Committee of Ten,\nand proposes a program which is in essential agreement with those of\nthe Commission of New England Colleges and the Columbia Conference\nof 1896.\nThe committee recommends that three years be devoted to the study\nof Greek in secondary schools, with the understanding that the year consists of not less than thirty-eight weeks of school work, and that five\nperiods of recitation a week, of not less than forty-five minutes eaich, be\ngiven to this study. In some .parts of the United States work is crowded\ninto two years, to which, in other parts, three years are devoted. Under\nexceptional circumstances, with earnest scholars and skillful teachers and\nlong school years, the work of preparation for college in Greek may be\ndone well in two years ; but in general, with less earnestness and skill,\nthis work is likely to be superficial if it is so hurried, and the Committee\nof Twelve still (and more earnestly than ever) urges the maintenance of a\nthree-year preparatory course in Greek.\nThe committee further recommends heartily a thoro and methodical\nstudy of Greek grammar as the necessary basis of accurate reading. No\none proposes to return to the former practice of committing to memory\nall of the rules of Greek grammar before applying them in reading ; but\npupils cannot be expected to prove fair scholars unless they know Greek\nforms and the elements of Greek syntax well before they are sent to\ncollege. Moreover, a vigorous and continued effort should be made to\ncorrelate and arrange the isolated grammatical facts in the pupil's mind. !\nOur Greek grammars aim to be scientific, and their arrangement should\nbe well understood by the pupil, in order that he may know where to\nlook for the information which he needs. The teacher is in danger of\nforgetting that the pupil does not easily obtain the general view of the\nfield of grammatical study with which he is himself familiar, and that it\nis this knowledge alone which enables the beginner to put into their\nright relations the grammatical facts which he learns. For instance, the\npupil should know the most important syntactical uses of each case —\nunderstanding that the genitive has accepted the work of the ablative in\naddition to its own, and the dative that of the instrumental and the\nlocative. The correspondence between the constructions of conditional\nand relative sentences should be clearly apprehended. Altho the\n' analysis \" of the verbal forms is no longer required so strictly as it was\na quarter of a century ago, the pupil may well be taught the elements of\nword-formation and inflection.\nC\nThe\ncommittee\nfurther recommends\nthat, from\nthe beginning,\n\n"}
{"page": 695, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCOLLEGE-ENTRANCE\n\nREQUIREMENTS\n\n687\n\nsystematic instruction be given in Greek composition, and that exercises\nin writing Greek, based upon connected reading in Greek prose, be\ncontinued thru the third year. Elementary Greek composition, which\nalone is attempted in the schools of America, is an indispensable auxiliary to, and we may almost say a part of, grammatical study. The teacher\ndoes not expect to train his pupil to vie with Xenophon as a Greek\nwriter ; he is entirely satisfied if his pupil can read Greek. Composition\nshould not, therefore, be considered as taking time from reading, but as\npreparing the pupil to read more readily and accurately. It fixes the\npupil's vocabulary more firmly in his mind, serves as a constant review of\nGreek forms, quickens his sensitiveness to the peculiar significance of the\norder of words in the Greek prose sentence, and to the difference of\nmeaning between similar words and constructions. It is useful also as a\ncheck to the carelessness into which many pupils are in danger of falling,\nif (as is well) they read large quantities of Greek cursorily \" at sight.\"\nFor accurate scholarship in Greek we know no better training than many\nand carefully corrected exercises in Greek composition. These exercises\nshould not be postponed to a late part of the course, but should be begun\nat the outset, when they will materially assist the pupil in mastering the\nforms, make his knowledge of constructions exact, cause him to observe\nGreek usage, and help him to feel the accuracy and force with which the\nGreek language can express thought. If they are neglected during any\npart of the reading course, to be resumed only a short time before the\npupil leaves the secondary school, the subject is likely to become distasteful, because unwonted and difficult to the pupil, who will have been\ndeprived of the aid which he should have received from the exercise\nduring his entire course.\nThe continuance of exercises in Greek composition during the third\nyear, while most of the time of instruction is given to Homer, is particularly important. This has been proved to be the best means of preserving the familiarity with Attic forms and constructions which is essential\nfor satisfactory work in the college course, in the reading of Plato,\nDemosthenes, Sophocles, Euripides, etc.\nIn the hands of a skillful teacher, the most efficient exercises in Greek\ncomposition are in retroversion, that is, the re-turning into Greek of the\nEnglish of some' Attic prose which has been read by the student. If the\nteacher has not the time to prepare such exercises for his class, several\ntext-books are ready to render this service. Certain advantages,\nhowever, are possessed by the systematic presentation of Greek constructions, in books which are prepared with no reference to a special\ntext. A combination of the two methods is desirable, wherever practicable.\nIn this country, teachers are in little danger of going to excess in\nattending to the niceties of Greek composition.\nThe making of Greek\n\n"}
{"page": 696, "printed_page": null, "text": "688\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCLATION\n\n[Secondary\n\niambic and lyric verse, which has been practiced in England, quickens\nthe aesthetic and literary sensibilities, but is useful chiefly for those who\nhave time for advanced scholarship. The criticisms which have been\nuttered against such composition of verses do not hold against the composition of simple Attic prose which is here recommended.\nThe committee further recommends that exercises in the reading of\nunprepared passages (commonly known as sight reading) be begun at the\noutset of the Greek course and be continued thru it. Exercises in\nthe reading of unprepared passages of Greek enable the teacher to discern, and so to meet, the pupil's difficulties in the interpretation of a new\nsentence. Very many freshmen seem to have pursued a wrong method\nof seeking to gain the understanding of a Greek sentence which a little\nreading of unprepared passages in the class-room would enable the\nteacher to detect, and perhaps to remedy. If the pupil comes to the\nteacher only with work carefully prepared with the aid of lexicon and\ncommentary, the teacher may not discover some of the pupil's weaknesses, and may not understand his difficulties. These exercises also\ngive the pupil readiness in translation and a feeling of mastery over the\nnewly acquired language. Rapid reading, as well as exact interpretation,\nis necessary to true scholarship.\nThe practice of reading Greek aloud with intelligent expression is\nwarmly recommended by the committee. This aids materially in the\ntreatment of Greek as a living language, and, so far as the acquisition of\nforms and vocabulary is concerned, the voice is as important for the\nteachers of Greek and Latin as for those of German and French. Careful\nattention should be paid to the quantity of the syllables, since the rhythm,\nnot only of the poets, but also of the great orators, was based upon this\nquantity.\nIn the Greek preparatory course small opportunity can arise for\nquestion as to what shall be read, and in what order. Altho Xenophon's\nstyle is now known to be not absolutely pure Attic, yet no Greek reading\nbetter than the Anabasis has been found for the second year of the Greek\ncourse. Some teachers, however, may prefer to read only two books of\nthe Anabasis, and make up from other works of Xenophon, or from-other\nauthors, the equivalent of the third and fourth books of the Anabasis.\nIn order to secure a much-desired uniformity, colleges have been\nrequested by several commissions and associations to base their examinations in Greek grammar and composition (in distinction from the ability\nto read Greek and translate it) on the first two books of the Anabasis.\nThe committee, finally, recommends that Homer be read in the last\nyear of the preparatory course. From one point of view the pupil ought\nto continue the study of Attic prose without interruption during the third\nyear of his Greek course, without being introduced to another Greek\ndialect.\nBut for the sake of those students who take Greek\nin the\n\n"}
{"page": 697, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCOLLEGE-ENTRANCE\n\nREQUIREMENTS\n\n689\n\nsecondary school, but do not go to college, and as an inspiration to the\nscholars who are at an age to be thoroly interested in the Homeric poems,\nthe teachers of secondary schools are almost unanimous in their desire\nihat the third year of the three-year Greek course should be given mainly\nto Homer. The best pupils feel Homer to be literature, and so get an\nenticing foretaste of what awaits them in the reading of the college\ncourse. Some teachers prefer to begin Homer with the reading of the\nearly books of the Iliad; others prefer the Odyssey ; others would read the\nIliad owQ year and the Odyssey another. Most colleges allow an option\nbetween equivalents, in order to give the fullest freedom to the secondary\nschools.\nCOURSE\n\nOF STUDY\n\nRECOMMENDED\n\nIN GREEK\n\n[Five periods weekly thrtioui the three years)\nFIRST\n\nYEAR\n\nFirst and second terms : Introductory lessons.\nThird term : Xenophon's Anabasis (twenty to thirty pages).\nPractice in reading at sight and in writing Greek.\nSystematic study of grammar begun.\nSECOND\n\nYEAR\n\nXenophon's Anabasis (continued), either alone or with other Attic prose (seventy-five\nto one hundred and twenty pages).\nPractice in reading at sight, systematic study of grammar, thoro grammatical review,\nand practice in writing Greek, both based on the study of Books I and II of the Anabasis.\nTHIRD\n\nYEAR\n\nHomer (twenty-five hundred to four thousand lines); e. g., Iliad, I-lII (omitting\nII, 494-end), and VI-VIII.\nAttic prose (twenty-five to forty pages), with practice in writing Greek ; grammar ;\npractice in reading at sight.\nNote. — If preparation for an advanced examination in Greek composition is not desired, the course may\nbe reduced by one lesson a week the first year.\n\nLATIN\n\nCOURSES\n\nIN SECONDARY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nThe determining factor in constructing a course in Latin in any\nof our high schools, academies, or private schools is practically the\namount of time which can be allowed to that study, in view of the claims\nof other studies and the length of the school course. The ordinary\narrangement is that of the four-year course of five exercises weekly. The\naverage age of pupils at the beginning of the course is between fourteen\nand fifteen years. This four-year course is commonly the standard in our\nhigh schools and academies. There are schools, however, which are\nunable to allow four years to Latin, and these, as a rule, provide a threeyear course. In a considerable number of schools, on the other hand, a\nfive-year or a six-year course is to be found. The tendency to lengthen\nthe Latin course beyond four years is clearly becoming stronger.\nThi?\n\n"}
{"page": 698, "printed_page": null, "text": "690\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\ntendency did not receive its initial impulse from the colleges and\nuniversities, but manifests rather the characteristics of a spontaneous\nmovement on the part of principals and teachers in secondary schools.\nIt had its origin in a growing conviction that the ends of education,\nat least in the earlier stages, are best subserved by the concentration\nof effort upon a limited number of leading studies, properly correlated,\nrather than by the scattering of energies over an indefinite range of\nloosely related subjects. The lengthening of the Latin course is being\naccomplished, however, not by keeping the pupil at school longer, but by\nhaving him begin Latin earlier. The old four-year course in many places\nhas been extended downward one or two years ; and it is in this way that\nmost of the five-year and six-year courses have been established. Such is\nclearly the rational procedure, both because of the better results obtained\nwith pupils who begin Latin early, and because of the undesirability,\nif not the impossibility, of securing the additional Latin by keeping\npupils at school beyond the age at which they now usually complete the\ncourse.\nThe problem, therefore, which is likely to be encountered by every\nschool that has to face the question of the extension of its Latin course\nis the problem of having Latin begun one or more years earlier than at\npresent, and of using the additional time upon a rationally coherent plan.\nAs a four-year or five-year course is extended, here and there in different\nparts of the country, into a six-year course, and even as a three-year course\nis extended into a four-year course, it is desirable that the extension be\naccomplished according to some common understanding. In the case\nof schools which do not purpose to extend the course in length, but\ndesire to use the present available time to better advantage, it is perhaps\neven more important that the inner modifications which may be introduced\nwithout additional expenditure of time should likewise be made in\naccordance with a common plan.\nIn taking up the first problem — the problem presented by the variation in length of Latin courses — the committee was forced to regard the\nfour-year course of five exercises a week as the only available general\nstandard, for the reason that, as has been said, it corresponds, moVe nearly\nthan any other, to the actual practice of the majority of American schools.\nThe three-year course was considered as an incomplete four-year course,\nand was not treated as a separately existing type. Consequently no\nattempt was made to present a model three-year course, for it was assumed\nthat three-year courses, if constructed, would be formed out of elements\nof the four-year course. Then a six-year course was framed, containing\neverything in the four-year course, together with such amplifications and\nadditions as would render the six-year course a rationally connected\nwhole. The five-year course, being intermediate between the four-year\nand the six-year courses, appeared in one aspect as an extension of the\n\n"}
{"page": 699, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCOLLEGE-ENTkANC^\n\nREQUIHEMENTS\n\n691\n\nfour-year course, and in another as on uncompleted six-year course.\nInasmuch as, in many instances, the conversion of a four-year into a sixyear course might be made, not by establishing a six-year course immediately, but by passing thru a transitional five-year course, it seemed best\nto draw up the five-year course in such a manner that it would serve as\na transition from the four-year to the six-year course, and would at\nthe same time preserve its own rational unity, so that schools which might\nnever attain to a sjx-year course should nevertheless find all the parts of\na five-year course thoroly co-ordinated with one another.\nMoreover, since schools with younger pupils naturally find it better\nto spend more time on the elements, while schools with older and presumably more mature pupils may prefer to do a larger amount of reading,\nthe five-year course has been drawn up in a double form, with this\nalternative in view; but in either form it will serve as a logical transition\nfrom the four-year to the six-year course, and likewise as a course complete\nin itself. The proposed arrangement, whereby it will be made possible for\nschools to devote either four, five, or six years to Latin in accordance with\na common plan, traveling the same road together, and parting company\nonly where one stops and another goes on, will, if adopted, greatly reduce\nthe practical difficulties arising from the present lack of uniformity in\nthe length of Latin courses.\nIn dealing with the second problem, that of using to better advantage\nthe time now allowed to Latin, thru inner modification of the existing\ncourse of study without increase of length, the committee found it\nnecessary to construct, piece by piece, a standard course. Again the\nfour-year course of five exercises a week had to be assumed as a standard.\nThis number of exercises forms a fourth of the usual school week of\nabout twenty periods. The proportion of time thus assumed for Latin corresponds closely, as has already been intimated, to the present practice of\nmost of the schools possessing a four-year course. For some of them\nsuch a standard would represent an increase, the a very slight one,\nbeyond the amount of time now given. A standard of five exercises\nweekly for four years is, therefore, a practicable one for most of the schools\nthat now give four years to Latin.\nThis amount of time being assumed as available, or obtainable without great effort, the next question which confronted the committee was to\ndetermine what subjects should be included in the four-year Latin course,\nhow far each should be carried, and in what order they should be taken\nup. It would have been an easy task to draw up an inflexible program\nbased solely on theoretical considerations ; but such a program would\nshow little wisdom. The only course left open to the committee was to\nendeavor to find a feasible way of improving. upon our present practice,\nkeeping constantly in mind the limitations prescribed by existing conditions.\n\n"}
{"page": 700, "printed_page": null, "text": "692\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nThe staple of our Latin instruction in the existing four-year courses\nconsists of Latin grammar — usually taught in the form of Latin lessons— Latin prose composition, four or five books of Caesar's Gallic\nWar or some equivalent, six orations of Cicero, and six books of Virgil's\n^neid. These may be taken as constituting a \"substantially irreducible\nminimum. Most schools having a four-year course do as much work\nas this ; some do much more, many a little more. The contents of\nthis minimum enter solidly into college-entrance requirements thruout\nthe country, and the propriety of regarding them as essential elements\nin any Latin program will not be questioned. At times, indeed, some\nopposition has been made to the study of Caesar, as too difficult for students in the second year of the course. But this objection loses its\nvalidity when the study of Caesar is preceded by the reading of an adequate amount of simple Latin, and, in any case, the objection suggested\nmay be met by allowing an equivalent from some easier author to be\noffered for a part of the Commenlaries ; to omit Caesar entirely would be\na retrograde step in the framing of Latin programs. Apart from this\nquestion with regard to the availability of Caesar, no serious difference\nof opinion exists.\nIf, then, we assume that Latin grammar, Latin composition, some\neasy reading, four or five books of Cassar (with a partial equivalent\nallowed), six orations of Cicero, and six books of Virgil may be considered\nas forming the assured basis of a standard four-year course, the question\nat once arises whether this is all that should enter into such a course.\nThese subjects represent nothing more than the average practice of the\nmajority of schools with four-year courses, and something less than many\nsuch schools are actually giving — and that, too, without being able to\nallow quite so much time as five exercises weekly thruout the four years.\nTo accept this substantially irreducible minimum found in the great\nmajority of four-year courses, without adding anything to allow for the\nextra work now actually done in many places, and without taking account\nof the present marked tendency to increase the amount of Latin taught,\nwould be equivalent to the proposing of a standard actually lower than\nour present practice. Accordingly it is necessary to strengthen the proposed standard four-year course to an extent which will make it somewhat better than some of the existing four-year courses ; otherwise no\nproper model will be presented, in conformity with which our present fouryear courses may be made not only more nearly uniform, but also a little\nbetter intrinsically. The small increment thus desired ma}' be added in\neither of two ways. One is by an increase of the amount of work in the\npresent subjects — a little more grammar, or easy reading, or prose composition, or Caesar, or Cicero, or Virgil. The other is by increasing the\nvariety and interest of the course by adding other subjects.\nThere is merit in both methods, and neither is to be recommended to\n\n"}
{"page": 701, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nCOLLEGE-ENTRANCE\n\nREQUIREMENTS\n\n693\n\nthe entire exclusion of the other. In laying out a four-year course with\nfive exercises weekly, it will be found practicable to take advantage of\nboth methods. The desired increment, if it is to be obtained without\nadding to the list of existing subjects, may be secured by devoting more\ntime to the grammar lessons, the written prose exercises, and the easy\nreading which precedes and prepares for the reading of Csesar, Cicero,\nand Virgil ; or it may be secured by an increase in the amount of reading\nin the works of one or more of these authors, provided it always is\nunderstood that, in case a school cannot both improve the quality of the\nmore elementary work and at the same time read the maximum quantity\nsuggested in any or all of the authors, it is better to do with thoroness\nthe elementary grammar, written prose exercises, and easy reading, and\nto read the minimum amounts of the authors, than to sacrifice in any\ndegree the earlier and fundamental work.\nBut in many schools, for various reasons — principally the desire for\ngreater variety to increase the interest of pupils — other authors are introduced in addition to Caesar, Cicero, and Virgil. Many teachers favor the\nLives of Cornelius Nepos for easy reading just before Ceesar, or in place of\na part of the Commentaries. The plan proposed by the committee, while\nnot giving Nepos a fixed place, leaves ample room for such use as has been\nindicated. Selections from Eutropius, Florus, and the Fables may, of\ncourse, be employed, or the useful \" made-Latin\" of Lhomond's Viri\nRomae. The committee, however, does not find it expedient to recommend any one of these classes of material, or any special combination of\nthem, as a fixed part of a course. They may all be made to serve one\npurpose, and, while uniformity may appear desirable at this point, it is by\nno means essential.\nIn the list of authors two additions are proposed — the Catiline of\nSallust and a small amount of Ovid. Sallust, indeed, has of late years\nbeen less read in schools than formerly, but there are excellent reasons in\nfavor of this author. His Catiline forms the best bridge over the gap\nbetween Caesar and Cicero. Even young pupils find it attractive. It is not\ntoo hard. It helps to illustrate from a different angle of vision the intensely\ninteresting age to which Caesar and Cicero also belong. Its fine portraitures and graphic style give it merited rank as a classical masterpiece.\nAnd, finally, it is so brief that, while adding little to the amount read, it\naffords a special satisfaction in that it enables the young student to complete an entire work, instead of constantly occupying himself with selections ; while at the same time it introduces variety into his reading.\nHaving made the acquaintance of Caesar, Sallust, and Cicero, the pupil has\ngained a considerable knowledge of the golden age of Latin prose — the\nfoundation of all his subsequent study of the literature — as well as of the\nmost important period of Roman history, that imnif^diately preceding\nthe downfall of the republic.\nIn like manner the study of Ovid forms a\n\n"}
{"page": 702, "printed_page": null, "text": "694\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nuseful preparation for the reading of Virgil. Even a few hundred lines\nwill serve to give variety to the poetical reading of the student, and\nenhance his appreciation of the golden age of Roman poetry, the period\nof Augustus, which forms the literary as well as the historical sequel to\nthe great republican period.\nIt will be seen that a preference is here indicated for a particular order\nof authors : first, the prose writers of the republic, represented by Caesar,\nSallust, and Cicero ; and then the poets of the Augustan age, represented by Ovid and Virgil. The prose writers give the normal syntax\nand the general standards of literary expression, thus providing the\nyoung student with the proper foundation for all subsequent study of the\nlanguage. The poets selected not dnly belong to a later age than the\nprose writers named, but are read with greater ease and profit after the\nstudent's knowledge of prose usages is established. A further consideration in favor of the order recommended may be found in the relation of\nthe authors read to the exercises in prose composition. Prose composition\nshould be taught thru the whole four years of the course, and the exercises\nshould be formed upon the best prose models. In the program of the first\nyear provision is made for easy written exercises in connection with lessons\nin grammar. In that of the second year the Latin writing will naturally\nbe based on Caesar. If Cicero is read in the third year, the Latin writing\nwill, of course, be based on Cicero, and may continue to be based upon\nthis author in the fourth year, even if poetry be read exclusively. If, on\nthe other hand, Virgil is read in the third year, it will be difficult to maintain the course in Latin writing, in either that or the following year, on as\nhigh a level as is possible under the other arrangement. Still, the fact\nremains that there is a division of opinion upon this one phase of the subject. In many schools Virgil is read before Cicero. If the adoption of a\nmodel four-year Latin course were to turn upon this one point of the order\nin which the two authors should be read, probably no agreement would be\nreached. It is, of course, more important that the two authors be read,\nin whatever order, than that the order of the reading should be uniform.\nIt is also important that the reading of additional writers, such as Sallust\nand Ovid, shall not be made to depend upon any considerations of\norder. In the four-year course outlined below, the last two years are\nmainly occupied with Sallust, Cicero, Ovid, and Virgil. The order in\nwhich these four authors are placed in the program indicates the clear\npreference of the committee, reached after extended conference with\nrepresentative schoolmen in the auxiliary committees ; while, on the other\nhand, the omission of any line of separation between the third and fourth\nyears is intended to express the recognition, on the part of the committee,\nof the existence of differing opinions on the subject.\nThe arrangement of the earlier part of the four-year course naturally\ninvolves several questions connected with the methods to be pursued in\n\n"}
{"page": 703, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\n\"\n\nCOLLEGE-ENTRANCE\n\nREQUIREMENTS\n\n695\n\nthe elementary study of the subject. The work of the earliest stage must,\nof course, be mainly disciplinary. The study of grammar gives acquaintance with the forms and laws of the language, and the progressive\nacquisition of vocabulary gives the material for reading, while easy\nexercises in the writing of Latin prose and training in simple reading\norganize this material again under the forms and laws of grammar. These\nprinciples govern all sound elementary teaching in the subject.\nAt the same time emphasis needs to be laid on the spirit and perspective characterizing this earlier work.\nEasy reading should be begun\nat the earliest possible moment.\nThe writing of easy sentences, even if\nconsisting of only three or four words, should be commenced\nat the\noutset, and out of this writing should be developed gradually the fuller\npractice in connected expression which ought to be continued thru the\nentire course.\nIn all written exercises, of whatever kind, the long vowels\nshould be marked.\nThere should be abundant practice in reading Latin\naloud, pains being taken to make the pronunciation conform to the\nquantities; while, at the same time, great emphasis should be laid upon\nintelligent expression.\nThe student should be carefully trained to take in\nthe meaning of the sentence in the order in which it stands, and before translating. The English of the translation, too, should h^ genuine English, not\nZa////-English. As a help to the pupil's understanding, he should memorize\nshort prose passages, maxims, and bits of poetry.\nThese will remain with\nhim, and will ever afterward contribute to his enjoyment of the classics.\nThe proposed standard four-year course has been drawn upon the\nbasis of these convictions.\nIt has not, to be sure, been the intention to\nrepresent our present practice without change ; and accordingly we can\nscarcely expect that all of the schools which give four years to Latin will\nMramediately adopt the course as it stands.\nIn the case of most schools,\nhowever, it seems reasonable to look forward to the acceptance of as\nstrong a program as is here given, even if only the minimum amounts of\nthe authors recommended\nshall be read.\nThe plan is proposed as a\nmodel toward which all our present four-year courses can be made to\napproach closely, and thus to conform to one another in a degree which\nin no other way seems possible of attainment.\nTho uniformity in the\nparticular parts of the authors read may be desirable, no recommendation\nis made in this respect, except in the case of Sallust's Catiline. Teachers\nnaturally will not be in perfect agreement in regard to the particular\nbooks of Ceesar and orations of Cicero which they would prefer to have\ntheir classes read.\nIn most cases the selection is influenced by tradition,\nand, in any event, it is impossible to arrive at uniformity, for the reason\nthat many teachers prefer to make changes from year to year.\nIn relation\nto college entrance\nrequirements, however, this diversity occasions no\nespecial difficulty, because the colleges are inclined more and more to be\nliberal in accepting equivalents.\n\n"}
{"page": 704, "printed_page": null, "text": "6g6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nEmbodying \"in a program the suggestions which have been offered,\nwe obtain the following standard four-year Latin course :\nPROPOSED\n\nFOUR-YEAR\n\nLATIN\n\nCOURSE\n\n{Five periods weekly thrnout the four years)\nFIRST\n\nYEAR\n\nLatin lessons, accompanied from an early stage by the reading of simple selections.\nEasy reading : twenty to thirty pages of a consecutive text.\nIn all written exercises the long vowels should be marked, and in all oral exercises\npains should be taken to make the pronunciation conform to the quantities.\nThe student should be trained from the beginning to grasp the meaning of the\nLatin before translating, and then to render into idiomatic English ; and should be taught\nto read the Latin aloud with intelligent expression.\nSECOND\n\nYEAR\n\nSelections from Caesar's Gallic War equivalent in amount to four or five books;\nselections from other prose writers, such as Nepos, may be taken as a substitute for one,\nor at most two, books.\nThe equivalent of at least one period a week in prose composition based on Csesar.\nReading aloud and translating, together with training in correct methods of apprematerial.\n\nhending the author's meaning, both prepared and unprepared passages being used as\nThe memorizing of selected passages.\nTHIRD\n\nAND FOURTH\n\nYEARS\n\nSallust's Catiline.\nCicero : six to nine orations (including the Manilian Law).\nOvid : five hundred to fifteen hundred verses.\n\n__\n\nVirgil's yEneid: six to nine books.\nThe equivalent of at least one period a week in prose composition based on Cicero.\nThe reading of Latin aloud.\nThe memorizing of selected passages.\n\n■ The bearing which the adoption of a standard four-year course would\nhave on college-entrance requirements is obvious. The minimum\namounts proposed ^— consisting of Latin grammar, prose composition,\nfour books of Csesar, Sallust's Catiline, six orations of Cicero, a little\nOvid, and six books of Virgil — may easily be accepted as a fixed minimufli entrance requirement.\nThe question may be raised whether the proposed standard four-year\ncourse is sufficiently elastic in the choice of subjects. If it is not, it is in\nso far impracticable. Nevertheless, if a standard is made too elastic, its\nvalue as a standard is destroyed. American schools exhibit a marked\ndiversity, such as, perhaps, will not be found in the schools of all Europe.\nThis striking individuality is not a thing to be rashly denounced or\nunduly discouraged. It is in accord with our diversified and free American life. But in the case of our schools, and of our colleges too, the\nindividuality is excessive, and detrimental to the interests of scholar and\nteacher alike. The effect upon the colleges produced by this individuality\non the part of the schools may be imagined when it is remembered that\n\n4\n\n"}
{"page": 705, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department J\n\nCOLLEGE-ENTRANCE\n\nREQUIREMENTS\n\n697\n\na single class in one of the former is sure to contain students from a\nlarge number of the latter.\nThe differences in our Latin programs ought not to be so great\nas to preclude agreement upon a list of fundamental subjects, their\ngeneral order of presentation, and their mode of treatment. The line\nbetween tolerable and intolerable differences may, like some other\nboundary lines, be impossible to draw with precision ; yet, even when\nwe cannot draw exact boundaries, it is usually possible to distinguish\nregions, and to define, and even reduce, the area under dispute. Such\ndisagreement as actually exists in the present instance is mainly\nthe result merely of particular preferences in matters of detail. The\nprincipal difference, as already mentioned, concerns the reading of\nCsesar ; but the diffifulty occasioned by the difference is met, in the\n•proposals of the committee, partly by the suggestion of an equivalent\nfor a part of Caesar in the program of the school, and partly by the\nwillingness of colleges to accept still other equivalents at the entrance\nexaminations. There is also a minor difference of opinion in relation to\nthe use of Sallust and Ovid ; but, with these exceptions, there is no\nimportant disagreement regarding the minimum .amounts. Where so\nmuch is unanimously approved, and where the preponderating weight of\nopinion is strongly fixed in regard to even the mildly disputed points, it\nis certainly time to agree upon a minimum standard for gradual imitation, especially when the proposed standard is homogeneously consistent,\nand embodies a fundamental principle.\nUp to this point the question of flexibility has remained untouched,\nbut agreement as to the mode of attaining flexibility has been made possible. In the framing of a standard course, the committee found itself\nconcerned, not so much with the question whether it should recommend\nmore or fewer subjects, but whether it should recommend a greater or\nless amount of each subject. In the case of grammar and prose composition, itrecognized that the determination of the amount of ground to\nbe covered must be left to the individual teacher; tho the committee is\nof the opinion that the systematic study of both of these subjects should\nbe carried thru the entire course.\nAs regards the ground to be covered in the authors, while it is desirable that as much reading as possible should be done, nevertheless\nthoroness should never be sacrificed to quantity. Only a moderate range\nof variation therefore is suggested — which amounts, for example, to a\nsingle book in the case of Caesar, three orations in the case of Cicero, a\nthousand lines in the case of Ovid, and three books in the case of Virgil.\nThis additional reading can be done rapidly, if the earlier work in the\n^ authors has been sufficiently accurate and painstaking. It may not be\nexpedient for all schools at once to read the maximum amounts suggested.\nBut the program presented possesses the advantage of conforming closely,\n\n"}
{"page": 706, "printed_page": null, "text": "698\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nin the statement of maximums, to the actual practice of many schools —\na practice which is not beyond the attainment of a school that is able to\ndevote five exercises weekly to Latin for four years — while in the statement of minimums it presents a standard easily reached under almost any\nconditions.\nThe committee, however, would not have been justified in limiting its\nattention to the problems presented by the four-year course. It was surprised to find in how many schools five-year and six-year courses are in\nactual operation today. The demand seemed imperative that it should\nundertake to formulate courses extending beyond the four-year limit. It\naccordingly presents a five-year course, drawn in double form. The\nfirst form is the standard four-year course, with the work of the first year\nextended over two years in order to give twice the amount of time for\ngrammar lessons, the writing of simple exercises, and easy reading. Thisform is intended to meet the needs of students who commence Latin a\nyear earlier than in the ordinary four-year course. All educational experience shows that the best results may be secured from the study of Latin\nwhen the subject is commenced somewhat earlier than is usual in this\ncountry, and at least two years are given to the elementary work before\nthe pupil begins the reading of Nepos or Caesar. The second form is\ndesigned for schools which have more mature and stronger pupils. The\nwork of the first four years of this course coincides with that of the fouryear standard course ; the additional year is devoted mainly to reading.\nThe recommendation is made that Virgil's y£\"«^/V/ be completed, in order\nthat pupils who have the time for a five-year course may enjoy the satisfaction of reading to the end the greatest Latin epic, and viewing it as\nan artistic whole. An additional amount of Cicero is also recommended :\nthe two essays On Old Age and On Friendship, wh.ich are short and complete in themselves, together with some of the briefer and more interesting Letters. Thus the pupil's acquaintance with Cicero's many-sided\nliterary and intellectual accomplishments will be extended, while the\nselections suggested will furnish the best possible model of style for the\nwriting of Latin in the latter part of the course.\nA six-year course may be established at once by introducing Latin\ninto the last two years of the grammar schools; such was the method\nadopted in the city of Chicago. Or a six-year course may be developed\nout of the five-year course, thru the use of either of the forms which\nhave been suggested. In either case it is obviously desirable to aim at a\nfair degree of uniformity in such courses, and thus avoid for them the\ninconveniences from which our present four-year courses suffer. In the\nsix-year course, at any rate, two years can be given to that careful and\nthoro preparation for reading which not only forms the best foundation\nfor all later work in Latin, but also constitutes, for this period of the\nstudent's education, the most effective instrument of training in exact\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 707, "printed_page": null, "text": "liepartment]\n\nCOLLECE-ENTRAMCE\n\nREQUIREMENTS\n\n699\n\nhabits of thought and of expression. If two years are given to this sort\nof work, most of the difficulties felt by the young pupil in entering upon\nthe study of Caesar will have been anticipated and overcome. Thus\narranged, the first five years of the six-year course and the five-year course\nin the first form presented will be identical in respect of the subjects\ntaken up and the order of arrangement. The work of the sixth year will\nthen correspond closely with that of the last year of the five-year course\nas given in the second form ; that is, it will be devoted to the finishing of\nthe yEneid, to the reading of Cicero's essays On 0/d Age and On Friendship,\nand of selected Letters, and to weekly exercises in prose composition\nbased on Cicero. Here also the principal object should be, not to\nextend widely the range of authors taken up, but so to adjust the work\nof the course to the needs of the pupil's intellectual life as most effectively to promote his development at this period.\nIn a number of cities it has been thought advantageous to give two\nyears of Latin in the grammar school rather than one. The reason is\nthat, since the length of the high-school course, by common consent,\nremains fixed at four years, the study of Latin for only a single year\nbefore entrance into the high school is not only less fruitful in itself, but\nis also less satisfactorily adjusted to the other studies of the grammarschool course. The arrangement is also found to be advantageous from\nthe point of view of the adjustment of the grammar-school and high-school\ncourses to each other. In a city in which two years are given to Latin\nin the grammar school, the high school also will undoubtedly continue\nto give a four-year course. Pupils, then, who come up from the grammar\nschools with two years of Latin will in the high school find it possible to\nenter upon work which corresponds with that of the second, third, and\nfourth years of the four-year course, and will need to be taught separately from other high-school students only in the sixth year of their\nLatin study ; in other words, immediately upon entering the high school\nthey may be united with the second-year students in the four-year course.\nIn large high schools separate sections need to be formed in any case\nfor each Latin class, and probably it will be found advantageous to teach\nthe students of the six-year course by themselves. In like manner,\nthe adjustment of a six-year or five-year course to an already existing\nfqur-year course will be found easy in the case of academies and private\nschools.\nA plan by which the work of the four-year Latin course may be\ncorrelated with that of the six-year course is indicated in the following\ndiagram :\n\n"}
{"page": 708, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\n700\n\nSIX-YEAR\n\nCOURSE\n\nNexl-to-last grade in grammar\nschool\nFOUR-YEAR\n\nFirst year of Latin\nLast grade in grammar\n\nCOURSE\n\nFirst year in high school\n\nschool\n\nSecond year of Latin\n\nFirst year of Latin\n\nFirst year in high school\n\nSecond year in high school\n\nThird year of Latin\n\nSecond year of Latin\n\n\\-\n\nSecond year in high school\n\nThird year in high school\n\nFourth year of Latin\n\nThird year of Latin\n\nThird year in high school\n\nFourth year in high school\n\nFifth year of Latin\n\nFourth year of Latin\n\nFourth year in high school\nSixth year of Latin\n\nLed by the considerations which have been briefly presented, the\ncommittee, after careful deliberation, has framed the three programs\nsubjoined : one for a four-year course, one for a five-year course (in two\nforms), and one for a six-year course. We commend these programs to\nthe consideration of the schools, hoping that they may be found convenient as standard or model courses.\nFOUR-YEAR\n\nLATIN COURSE\n\n(^Five periods weekly thruout the four years^\nFIRST\n\nYEAR\n\nLatin lessons, acompanied from an early stage by the reading of very simple selections. Easy reading : twenty to thirty pages of consecutive text.\nIn all written exercises the long vowels should be marked, and in all oral exercises\npains should be taken to make the pronunciation conform to the quantities.\nThe student should be trained from the beginning to grasp the meaning of the Latin\nbefore translating, and then to render into idiomatic English ; and should be taught to\nread the Latin aloud with intelligent expression.\nSECOND\n\nYEAR\n\nSelections from Caesar's Gallic War equivalent in amount to four or five books;\nselections from other prose writers, such as Nepos, may be taken as a substitute for an\namount up to, but not exceeding, two books.\nThe equivalent of at least one period a week in prose composition based on Caesar.\nReading aloud and translating, together with training in correct methods of apprematerial.\n\nhending the author's meaning, both prepared and unprepared passages being used as\nThe memorizing of selected passages.\n\n"}
{"page": 709, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCOLLEGE-ENTRANCE\nTHIRD\n\nAND\n\nREQUIREMENTS\n\nFOURTH\n\n70 T\n\nYEARS\n\nSallust's Catiline.\nCicero : six to nine orations (including the Manilian Law).\nOvid : five laundred to fifteen liundred verses.\nVirgil's yEneid: six to nine books.\nTlie equivalent of at least one period\nCicero.\nThe reading of Latin aloud.\n\na week\n\nin\n\nprose\n\ncomposition\n\nbased\n\non\n\nThe memorizing of selected passages.\n\nFIVE-YEAR LATIN\nFIRST FORM\n\nCOURSE\n\n(Five periods weekly thru out the five years)\nFIRST\n\nAND\n\nSECOND\n\nYEARS\n\nThe same as the first year of the four-year course.\nTHIRD\n\nYEAR\n\nThe same as the second year of the four-year course.\nFOURTH\n\nAND\n\nFIFTH\n\nYEARS\n\nThe same as the third and fourth years of the four-year course.\nFIVE-YEAR\n\nLATIN\n\nSECOND\n\nCOURSE\n\nFORM\n\n(Five periods weekly thruout the five years)\nFIRST\n\nYEAR\n\nThe same as the first year of the four-year course.\nSECOND\n\nYEAR\n\nThe same as the second year of the four- year course.\nTHIRD\n\nAND\n\nFOURTH\n\nYEARS\n\nThe same as the third and fouth years of the four-year course.\nFIFTH\n\nYEAR\n\nVirgil's yEneid: completed.\nCicero : De Senectute and De Ainicitia; selected Letters.\nThe equivalent of at least one period a week in prose composition based on Cicero.\nThe reading of Latin aloud.\nThe memorizing of selected passages.\nSIX-YEAR\n\nLATIN\n\nCOURSE\n\n(Five periods weekly thruout the six years)\nFIRST\n\nAND\n\nSECOND\n\nYEARS\n\nThe same as the first year of the four-year course.\nTHIRD\n\nYEAR\n\nThe same as the second year of the four-year course.\nFOURTH\n\nAND\n\nFIFTH\n\n«\n\nYEARS\n\nThe same as the third and fourth years of the four-year course.\nSIXTH\n\nYEAR\n\nVirgil's yEneid: completed.\nCicero : De Senectute and De Amicitia; selected Letters.\nThe equivalent of at least one period a week in prose composition based on Cicero.\nThe reading of Latin aloud.\nThe memorizing of selected passages.\n\n"}
{"page": 710, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n•5\n\n•o\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCITAION\n\n702\no ^\n\n3\n\n.-> Oc\n\nn.\n\nrro\n^ ►Jac c 1\nan\nO-O\n\ns^ o oc\n\no\n\n^\n\n■V. 2\n\n-ii\n\nac c o\n\nO\n\n5s\n\nW\n\n^\n\n«u tc E\n^\n\na\n(IhHHH\n2\n\nH\nU\n\nH\n\n>a -S\n\na\nn\n\nJ\n\n•!3 ^s\n\nc\n\nw\n\n•«S\n\nO -^ ~\n^£$^\n\no\n\n8 \"^\n.. —\n\nE\n\nU\n\nO\n\n>\n\na,\n\nH\n\no>\n\nS\n\n—\n\nH\n\nj=\n\n■^ 1,\". «\n>\n\n•o-c\n\no o-^-s s —M\n\nJ<o I.\nu «5. C.S\n\n5\n\n-Jo\n\n5 „ c «- o\n\n^ :l i\n\n•5\n\n!R\n\n11 ^.is\n\n■*■ o.E'„\n!^ c8 '^ at o'o\nj; u c c-H t3\n\no S\nS\nG O\n\no\n\n?;\n\nr S'i^\n\nS S\n\n«j\n\nX.\n\n2 U\n\n>\n\n5 H\n\nU\n\n3\n\nMl\n\no\nc o\n\nbl\n\n«\n\nbo\n\n5 s\n.1.\n\n■s 5\n\nt.\n\no\n\n<\n\nQ\n\nz\nc\n\nn\n\nu•^\n\nW\n\nur-)\n\na\na\n\no\n\no\n\nc\nc\n\n1a s. c c\n\ni\n\na\n\no\n1)\n\n8 \"^\n\n■* '-C\n=\n\nO\n\n8\n\n« ^s\n\nB V\n\ne\n\nV\no\n.c\nPhHHH\n\ncd\nc. O\n\nz\no\nu\n\nzHH\no\nz\no\n\nU!\nQ\n\nO\n\nz\nu\n\nS\nS\n\nU\n\nc\n\nQ\n\n03\n\nfe,\n\n£\n\n.s\n\n>\n\nC\n\nC\n\n4)\n\n«\n\n1 itin6*\n\n*2\n■ c i^\no »>.5a«6c £s'\nJ- g 6 at c'C\n\nu\n\n> u\nm\nor)\nb\nS\n\no\n\n.8■s O-^\n\n> ;r I e\n\nw u O > P« r\n\n8\nB u ^\n\n2J'S^\n\n"}
{"page": 711, "printed_page": null, "text": "COLLEGE-ENTRANCE\n\nDepartment]\n\nAPPENDIX\nON\n\nTHE\n\nENROLLMENT\n\n,\n\nPRIVATE\n\nOF\n\nSECONDARY\n\nPUPILS\nSCHOOLS\n\nIN\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nB\n\nVARIOUS\n\nTHE\n\n703\n\nREQUIREMENTS\n\nUNITED\n\nSTUDIES\nSTATES\n\n■*\n\nIN\n\nFOR\n\nTHE\n\nTHE\n\nPUBLIC\n\nYEARS\n\nAND\n\n189O-98\n\nChap, xl of the Report of the United States Commissioner of Education for iSqb-qy (Washington,\n1898) is devoted to the statistics of secondary schools, and contains comparative tables showing the percentages\n-<?\nof pupils in the principal studies for each year from\n1890 to 1897. In order to be able to exhibit the numerical\ntotals as well as the percentages, and to bring the figures down to 1898, a member of the committee addressed\nan inquiry to the Hon. William T. Harris, United States Commissioner of Education, who furnished the\nappended statistical table :\n\n■* 0\n\n■* o o\n\n' m '^ ON ON m 0 00 m\n00\n\n-d-\n\nS a 0 S\n\n10\n\n-^\n\n'^ d\nTfWMlON\n\nOn\n\ni\n\n^\n00\n\n10\n\nt^ S^S\n\nz\nL.\n\n\"0\n\n»\n\n00\n\nVO\n\n0\n00\n\n■\"\n\nS:\n\n4,\n-O\n\n_\n\n0\n\n•^\n\nH\n\n00\n\n3 «j\n\nrC\n\ni2\nc\n00\n\nS c 0 i5\n\nt^\nVO\nVO\n\nS\n\nt^\n\nN\n\nN\n\nlAoo\n\n(N h\n\nOoooo\n\nm N\n\n0\n\n00\n000 :\n\n00C<\n\nMMMMW\n\n^^\n\n3\n\n3\n\n:z;\n\n1^\n\nmo-o\n\nMinommmooo\n\nw\n\n•\n.\n\n;\n\nvd-^-dmminmiOMd-^iOMmw\n-^SMinw\nc*\nN\nmm;\n\n•\n\n-*•\n\nA\n\n^\n\n0\n\n9\n\n■\n■\n\nN w\nlo\ncT -^vo\nd^ ■* ^oiNMtso-^WNinMin\nd^ in »n in^d\" 4^ m\" in m oo*^ t^\n«\nOH\nM\nM\nM\nM\n\n■\n\".\n•\n\nm\n\nt^oo\n\nCT;\n\nOMiot-^mHTj-NminH\n\nMinw\n\nWW\n\n.\n•\n\nMm;\n\n-^ t^ n\n0\nt^ t>»\nfOvo \\0\n\n•\n•\n•\n\nin\ninoo\" inTfin-^mmininp-T\ninvd\"\nO (N\nM-^m-^M\nHMO\n-^-O M mi-i-^\nN\nW\nM\nM\nM\nM\nM\n\n.\n\n0\nm\n\nONONHOOMino\n\nImh\n\n:\n\nm4dM«^mm\n\n:jd\n\n:\n\noomdMrn-^j-o\nONin t^ in M in 0\n\n--^0\n• i^^o\n\n•\n•\n\nt^M'i-inMOM\nH\nMM'\n\n'- o^^\n\n'*\n\n\"* N T^ 0 Mvo M\nOi o\\ o> 0 ON mvo\n\n; inco\n. M o>\n\n;\n.\n\nm -^ in H moo\n■^\n\nm\n\nin\n\n-^\n\nm\n\nONOO\n\nm\n\n^ co oo\n\n00\n\n•\n\nm\n\nt•\n\nO 00\n00 \\o\n\n. '^CO\n, q O\n\n;\n.\n\n• M\n; M\n\n•\n;\n\nOn M\ninvo\n\n-^00\n\nM\nM\n\nm\nNO\n\nM VO\nin o\\\n\nt^ M\n-^ M\n\neJ\n\nvOO-^ininmin\nm'-t-Tj-ofOMoo\n0\nON M^ in H vO^ 0^\n\n*\n\nm in\nM di\nM ON\nmvo^-^\nt^ 0M\ncT\n\nd\nH\n\n0\nii\n\n\\\n\n00_\n\n0\n0\nm\n\nm\n'^ocToo\" '<? H\n«MM-*int^*\n\n*. T.tN.m.\nM N *•\n\nOv\n\nM«MootN.c^:\nvq m •* -^ c*. 0\n.\n\n;nom\n, rnvq\n\nm^dNMNO\nM Tt- tN)\n\n•;\n\n; M\n;\n'MdN-\n\n-^ONNoot^w\n'^NO m 0 ONOO\nMooOMmt^,\n\n:\n.\n\n:-*in\n. '^NO\n.vONO\n\nOi\n\n^l\n\n«\n\n1g-o-S1\n\nC\n-Jt^\nOn\n\n2^\n\nON\n\n1\n\nSJ2\n\nlA\n\n'\n;\n\nfo\nm\n\n:[\n\nM\n\n•\n\n:\n•\n\nON\n\n'•\n\nlit\nP^\n\nZ\n\n•\n\nbeET s\n\no '■\n\n\" ■\nNt^\n\n;•\n\nm\n\n:\n\n:\n.\no> •\n\n■■. ■t\n:\n\n; I\n\n(JN\n\n.\n\nSt/i :\n\n*•.\n\n, n\n\n.\n\n^S\n\n• ^^u:H\n\nn\n\n^ ill iil-nill 11\n\n.\n\n.\n\nC\n\n■ ia . >. >. . u\n\nc\n\n■\n•\n\\\n\nt^\nNO\n\nmt^ •;\n\n•\n;\n\n0\n•I mod\"\nw cToo -^ tC\n\"^ <>' 1>;*. >»*nom\nOMMcnMin\n\n3\n\nH\n\n;\n\nNO\n\nt*\nv^\n\n•^ :\n\nI\n\n<>« ;:\n\n3\n\n-S^g\nS\n2\n\nOn\n\n•\n\nNO\nNO\nt^\n\nInO t^ ;\n- o f^ .\n!I?g\nI\n\n.'. .m«\n^sNO\n: . 1 1\n\n00\n\n;•\n\nH\n\n•\n'.\n\nvOMQvOt^M\nt^ 0 ON ON •* M\n^ \"t; ^^ *0^ t\n\n<?\n\n,^\n1^u c0 o2■\"\n\n•\n\n0m\n\nfO« ■•\n\n^Min\n1\n-oov; O\nM^\n;\n. ir\ntN. ^\nm\n'•\n\n0 invO 00 On-*\n00 NO 0 NO 00 q\ndN4dNinONm\n\n00\n\nlH\n\n•\n\n0\n\n•\n\nt^ in\nm\n*- <>\n\n0\n\nZ 5 S«\n\nt^\n\n^ !\n\n'-\n\nm\n\n-<j- tC\nM invd'\nm •* cC\\d^\nt^oo m\"\nM\nON\n\n00\nm\n\n« c 0 iS\n\n0^\n\n'.\n;\n\no;\n\nVO\n\nJD\n\n•\n\nM\nNO\n\n00\n\n•n\n\n0\n\nPL, U0 \"\n\n•\n\nCO\n\nM-^ ThONmON'^m\nM ■* N '; M ON ■;\nt^ m M m M H NO ■ ONNO .\n\n1\n\n^\"\n\n00\n\n•\no-^\nt^ .■\n\n*^^ ^ 9. t °- 9- \";? ,* ^ H. ;\n\nac3\nts\n\n.\n\n•\n\nt^ ■\n\n;\n\n0\n\n—\n\nJ\n\n\\o\n\ntr,\n\n00\n\nc\n3\n\n'^ -\"l- t^ m 0^ t^OO\nMt^t>.'i-OHM00\nNOOwoomwt^N\novo\nm O' <s 0\nH mmw\n-<^c^ m«\n'<fin'-j-m m\\0\nw\n\nT^\n\n_\n\n^\n3\n\nH\n\nf-s\n\no^mmMoovo\nmoo o'o> N o\\ \"* m lo o t>-\\a\n•\n\n■*\n\ns\n=1\n\n*\n\n00moM\nt^ M\n\nmm\n\n'^'<i-d*m\n\nTf oxvo t-i in m m Q 00 t^ -^vo\nQ in ^ M VO\nM\n-^ 0^0\nQ\nN \\Q\nO\nH\nt^ ON '^OO^ <N VO\nt^vO\nM\n0\n\n1 1\n\nJ;\nz\n\no^\n\nt^o.ts.in-^iONWiHmrhinomm\nm^tt-d^w w \"S-mincN dNcJ looo m h\n\n1 1\n\n^3\n\nm\n\nr^\n\n«o\n\nS c o2\nfil § \" s\n\n8-\n\nfo^o\n\n0\"\n\n<\n\nr\n^\n\n■* 1^\n\" :\n\nno\n\ncovo\n\n./t\n\n0 c 0 2\n\nt\n\n'\"t'dco\n\nmM\n\nwoo\n\n:?\n►2\nsij\n\niz;\n>5\n\n«\n\nCN\n\n0 m^c Moooo\nN 00 in H m\\o\n\nts\n\nf^ u\n\nQ>\n\n^r,\n\noomMiHOmmint^.f-.t^ininO'^f\n-* N m t^oo mMWO-^tswioHt^\n\n0\n\n-^\n\n•*\n\n\"*\n\niO\n\n«\n\na, u ■\" 0\n*-<\n\ntO^\n\n-^\n\nH ooovo « -^00 o> ooo ■* moo « oo\n:\no\\o ot-*« « ooooo H^ o ooo t^ .\n00 ■*• c> m -^vd m-^ddv'*-\"«J-d^mm\n*\n■*'^Hio«\n«\nN\n«\nm;\n\nTS\n\n1 f\niz;\n\n•*■\n\n«\n\nfi^ 0 -M 0\n\nmoo\n\n00\n\nN o M o t^ »n c>» ■«^^o rj- croo o m oo oo\n■^\n■<? co'oo'vrr\ntCio-^frntC-^ftncTdmin\nl^CS\nmC-.0\n-^MW\nM\n-^mW^O\nN\nONW\n\n0 c 0 2\n\ni\n\nw\n\nrO'^fii-J'^iOiriC^roOOO\n\n%\njj\n\nN\n\nmvo\n\n•\n\nSP ■\n\nX\n\ncT •\n\nu\n\ncT '.\n\nf:\n\n"}
{"page": 712, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n704\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nAn examination of the Commissioner's report and the statistics contained in the\ntable brings to light the following interesting facts :\n1 . In the nine years covered by the table the total enrollment of pupils in the second -►\nary schools of the United States has risen from 297,894 to 554,814. This is a gain of 86\nper cent., a rate probably five times that of the increase of population.\n2. The remarkable increase just noted is found mainly in the high schools,' the enrollment in which increased in the eight years 1889-90 to 1896-97 from 202,963 to 409,443,\na gain of more than 100 per cent. The enrollment in other secondary schools rose from\n94,931 to 107,633, a gain of only 13.5 per cent., the rate of increase being about the same\nas that of the increase of population.\n3. The statistics show that in these nine years marked progress has been made toward\nthe concentration of sghool work upon a few central studies, in place of the tendency\ntoward scattering which was formerly manifest. The rate of increase in the number of\nstudents pursuing such studies as algebra, geometry, history, Latin, and German far exceeds\nthe rate of increase in the total enrollment. This fact indicates that studies of ce6tral\nimportance are receiving recognition of their proper place and value ; while other studies\nare being relegated to a secondary position or altogether excluded from the schools\n\" Many hundreds of schools, \" says the Commissioner in his report, \"which formerly\noffered courses of study made up of elementary and secondary branches, now confine their\ninstruction strictly to high-school studies. This may be seen in the steady increase in the\nproportion of students pursuing these secondary studies.\"' So, too, in the private schools\nthere are \" indications of the strengthening of the secondary courses of study as in the case\nof the public high schools. Mixed courses made up of elementary and secondary studies\nare being replaced by courses in which only secondary studies proper are included. The\ndemand for a better preparation of students for college is being met by private schools\nof secondary grade in all parts of the country. \" 3\n• 4. If now we arrange the studies of our table with statistics running from 1889-90 to\n1897-98 according to the rate of increase in the enrollment of students pursuing them in\nthe period extending from 1889 to 1898, we have the following order :\nStudies\n\n1. Latin\n2. History\n(except U. S.) .\n3. Geometry\n4. Algebra\n5. German\n6. French\n7. Greek\n8. Physics\n9. Chemistry\n\nEnrollment in\n1889-90\n100,144\n82,909\n127.397\n12,869\n28,032\n63,644\n59.781\n28,665\n\nEnrollment in\n1897-98\n209,034\n274.293\n\nPer cent, of\nincrease\n\n■\n\n306,755\n147.51S\n24.994\n78.994\n58,165\n113,650\n\n34,208\n\n152 +\n107 +\n174 —\nJ47 —\n131\n65 —+1 —\nyears14 has\n\nFrom these figures it appears that the study of Latin in the47,448\nlast nine\ngained in the enrollment of pupils at a rate greater than that of any other secondary-school\n94 + in\nstudy. The total gain of 174 percent, is more than double the percentage of increase\nthe total enrollment of pupils in the schools. While the enrollment of pupils in Latin\nhas thus increased 174 per cent., the increase of enrollment in German has been 131 pcF\ncent., and in Greek 94 per cent. In the same period the increase in the enrollment in\nphysics has been 79 per cent., and in chemistry 65 per cent,,\n79 —\n5. It is at least encouraging to the friends of classical study to notice that in 1897-98\nalmost one-half of all the pupils enrolled in the secondary schools ( 49.44 per cent.) were\nengaged in the study of Latin. With this general increase of interest in Latin studies\nundoubtedly will come also a fuller recognition of the importance of Greek as an educational instrument. In the next decade an even more rapid increase in the enrollment of\nstudents in Greek may be expected than the very satisfactory one of 94 per cent, reported\nfor the period covered by the table.\n<\nI The figures for this are given up to i8()7 in the Commissioner's Report, p. 1874.\n« See Commissioner's Report for 1896-97, p. 1877,\n\n3 See the same, p. 1880.\n\n"}
{"page": 713, "printed_page": null, "text": "7^5\n:OLLEGE-ENTRANCk\n\nDepartment]\n\nREQUIREMENTS\n\nAPPENDIX\nGEOGRAPHICAL\n\nDISTRIBUTION\n\nOF CLASSICAL\n\nTHE\n\nSTATES\n\nUNITED\n\nIN\n\nC\n\nSTUDENTS\n\nIN THE\n\n1889-9OAND\n\nIN\n\nSECONDARY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nOF\n\n1897-98\n\nTable showing the number of classical students in the secondary schools of each state and territory in\n1890 and 1898: ' .\nLatin\n\n839 Greek\n1890\n\n1898\n\n1890\n100,144\n\n893\n\n2,375\n\n38,833\n\n^17,731\n25,126\n\n2,394\n9,399\n\n5,377\n\n2,520\n\n2,382\n\n6.171\n24.260\n20,652\n\n239\n\n4,487\n\n134\n\n1,048\n\n34\n\n1,811\n1,058\n591\n366\n18\n\n1.075\n3,693\n1,050\n\n21\n130\n147\n197\n208\n82\n\n1,732\n93\n\n4,624\n408\n1,306\n\n68\n267\n384\n106\n\n415\n2,972\n583\n\n1,545\n\n3,071\n6,268\n2,955\n3,030\n205\n2,635\n4,595\n204\n\n1,104\nT.711\n\n1,877\n\n1,911\n3,218\n233\n637\n178\n171\n951\n375\n\n113\n\n503\n14\n665\n\n567\n\n5,178\n593\n1,792\n0\n\n1,201\n15\n1,376\n5,030\n345\n419\n\n427\n\n7,107\n\n2,599\n1,298\n1,325\n\n1,988\n\n619\n601\n\n813\n\n14,648\n87\n\n1.834\n3,024\n5.090\n\n3,066\n1,113\n1,721\n\n239\n\n272\n\n27,611\n1,937\n15,341\n20,139\n2,530\n11,039\n2,078\n\n2,127\n\n8,232\n1,151\n\n11,229\n39,763\n7,253\n\nNorth Atlantic Division —\nMaine\nNew Hampshire Vermont\nMassachusetts\nRhode Island\nConnecticut\nNew York\nNew Jersey\nPennsylvania\nSouth Atlantic Division —\nDelaware\nMaryland\nDistrict of Columbia\nVirginia\nWest Virginia\nNorth Carolina\nSouth Carolina\nGeorgia\nFlorida\nSouth Central Division 2 —\nKentucky\nTennessee\nAlabama\nMississippi\nLouisiana\nTexas\nArkansas\nIndian Territory Oklahoma\n\n2,106\n7,856\n21,919\n\n168\n308\n833\n\n35\n209\n239\n3\n0\n\n1,239\n\n413\n\n35\n215\n177\n228\n547\n\n177\nS8i\n4\n\n34\n\nNorth Central Division —\nOhio\nIndiana\nIllinois\nMichigan\nWisconsin\nMinnesota\nIowa\nMissouri\nNorth Dakota\nSouth Dakota\nNebraska\nKansas\nWestern Division —\nMontana Wyoming\nColorado New Mexico Arizona\nUtah Nevada\nIdaho Washington\nOregon\nCalifornia\n\n274.293\n88,484\n\nUnited States\nNorth Atlantic Division\nSouth Atlantic Division South Central Division 2\nNorth Central Division Western Division\n\n24,994\n\n12,869\n\n771\n127\n\n15,948\n695\n\n3,964\n9,741\n6,660\n2,140\n2,682\n25\n64\n2,808\n3,195\n3,679\n\n19,398\n\n2,237\n\n15\n\n118\n25\n275\n\n1,482\n\n8171\n7\n\n9.905\n10,907\n34\n122\n2\n3072\n\n4,790\n11,601\n\n165\n\n7,542\n645\n277\n\n130\n\n6,700\n\n81\n0\n\n7,556\n\n0\n\n585\n\n82\n\n4\n\n.\n\n53\n51\n\n91\n72\n\n48\n\n1097\n0\n421\n280\n320\n\n10\n130\n\n362\n\n184\n\n770\n\n706\n\n211\n3.24»\n\n1.973\n151\n\n73S\n\n1,288\n7,863\n\n1 The statistics here given are taken from the Report of the Commissioner of Education for 1889-90 and\nfrom an advance sheet of the Report for 1897-98.\n48\n\n316\n2 The figures for Latin in 1890 in the South Central Division\nreally foot up 8,117, instead of 7,253, as\ngiven here. The error is due to an incorrect addition on p. 1390 of the Report of the Commissioner of Education\n931\n\nfor 1889-90. The additions of all the figures given have been carefully tested, and no other error has been\ndiscovered.\n\n"}
{"page": 714, "printed_page": null, "text": "7o6\n\nAtAT/ONAL EDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\n"}
{"page": 715, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCOLLEGE-ENTRANCE\n\nREQUIREMENTS\n\n707\n\nREPORT\nOF\nMODERN\n\nTHE\nCOMMITTEE\nOF\nTWELVE\nOF\nTHE\nLANGUAGE ASSOCIATION OF AMERICA\n\nThe committee appointed two years ago to make recommendations\nupon the subject of preparatory requirements in French and German\nhas the honor to submit the following report :'\nSECTION\n\nI.\n\nPRELIMINARY\n\nIt will be remembered that the appointment of the committee grew\nout of a request of the National Educational Association, which has for\nsome time been endeavoring to bring about a better regulation of secondary instruction in the subjects usually required for admission to American\ncolleges. In pursuing this laudable undertaking the National Educational Association very properly saw fit to ask for the advice of various\nprofessional bodies, our own among the number. In particular, it was\ndesired that we draw up model preparatory courses in French and German, and make recommendations concerning the practical management\nof these courses. The matter was brought to the attention of both\nbranches of this association at the sessions of 1896, and we were asked to\ntake appropriate action. As the business appeared to be of very great\nimportance, it was thought best to turn it over to a large committee having a somewhat general mandate to investigate and report. The resolution under which the committee was appointed reads as follows :\nThat a committee of twelve be appointed («) to consider the position of the modern\nlanguages in secondary education ; {b) to examine into and make recommendations upon\nmethods of instruction, the training of teachers, and such other questions connected with\nthe teaching of the modern languages in the secondary schools and the colleges as in the\njudgment of the committee may require consideration.\nThat this committee shall consist of the present president of the association, Professor Calvin Thomas, as chairman, and eleven other members of the association, to be\nnamed by him.\nThat the association hereby refers to this committee the request of a committee of the\nNational Educational Association for co-operation in the consideration of the subject of\ncollege-entrance examinations in French and German.\n\nIn pursuance of this resolution the committee was made up early in\nthe year 1897, and began its work by preparing a circular, which was sent\n'The report was submitted in December, 1898, to both branches of the Modern Language Association, but owing to its length it could not be read in its entirety. The\nchairman of the committee was accordingly directed to have the report printed and mailed\nto the members of the association, who would thus be in a position to consider the document intelligently and vote upon the question of its adoption at the session, or sessions, of\nDecember, 1899. At the same time permission was given to hand in the report, with the\nnecessary explanation, to the Committee on College-Entrance Requirements of the\nNational Educational Association.\n\n"}
{"page": 716, "printed_page": null, "text": "7o8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary'\n\nout to some 2,500 teachers.\nThe object of the circular was to obtain\ninformation with regard to the present status of secondary instruction in\nFrench and German in the country at large, and also to elicit opinionsi\nwith respect to a number of more or less debatable questions which, as]\nwas thought, would be likely to arise in the course of the committee's]\ndeliberations.\nSeveral hundred replies were received and collated, andj\nthe information thus obtained was laid before the committee at a session\nheld in Philadelphia one year ago.\nWe have not thought it wise to|\ncumber this report, which will be long enough at the best, with a detailed ,\nrecital of these statistics.\nSuffice it to say that, taken as a whole, theyj\ngive us a picture of somewhat\nchaotic and bewildering\nconditions.\nUnder various names our secondary schools have a large number of\ncourses in which French and German figure as prominent or as subordinate subjects of instruction ; courses of one, two, three, and four or more\nyears ; courses providing for two, three, four, or five recitations a week,\nand for recitation periods ranging from twenty-five to sixty minutes.\nAnd when we come to the colleges and higher scientific schools, the\nrequirements for admission are hardly less multifarious.\n\nVarious bache-\n\nlor's degrees are conferred, and for admission to the courses leading to\nthese degrees French and German figure variously, according as the modern language is offered in addition to the Latin and Greek of the classical preparatory course, or in place of Greek, or as the main linguistic\nstudy.\nSome of the colleges have also an elementary and an advanced\nrequirement, with options variously managed.\nUpon surveying the intricate problem thus presented, the members of\nthe committee perceived at once that any report which they might make,\nif it was to be really useful, must be adapted, so far as practicable, to the\nconditions as they are. It was not for us to recommend radical changes\nin the American system, or lack of system, which has grown up in a natural way and must work out its own destiny. It was not for us to attempt\nto decide which of the various competing courses is the best course, or •\nto antagonize any particular study. Nor could we assume to dictate to\nthe colleges just how much knowledge of French or German, or both,\nthey shall demand for admission to this, that, or the other undergraduate\ncourse. The colleges would certainly not consent to any surrender of\ntheir liberty to regulate their requirements in their own way. Most\nimportant of all, it was not for us to propose any arrangements which\ncould be taken to imply that secondary instruction in French and German exists only for the sake of preparation for college. The great\nmajority of those studying the modern languages in school do not go to\ncollege at all. Our secondary education must be recognized as having\nits own function, its own aims and ideals. In the great mass of the\nschools those who are preparing for college receive instruction in the\nsaoje classes with those who are not preparing for college.\nAnd this\n\nk\n\n"}
{"page": 717, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCOLLEGE-ENTRANCE\n\nREQUIREMENTS\n\n709\n\nmust always be so. These considerations seem to indicate that the proper\nline for the committee to pursue was as follows :\nTo describe a certain number of grades of preparatory instruction,\ncorresponding to courses of different length ; to define these grades as\nclearly as possible in terms of time and work and aim ; and to make a\nfew practical recommendations with regard to the management of the\ninstruction — recommendations having as their sole object the educational benefit of the pupil. The members of the committee are naturally\nof the opinion that the study of a modern language in school has a distinct educational value of its own. The teacher's problem is to realize\nthis value from the study. Whether the learner is going to college or\nnot makes no difference, save as this consideration affects the amount of\ntime he can devote to the modern language while preparing himself in\nthe other necessary subjects. If such courses could be wisely drawn up,\nand if then they were to be recommended to the country upon the combined authority of the Modern Language Association and the National\nEducational Association, it seemed reasonable to expect that they would\nsoon become the national norm of secondary instruction in the modern\nlanguages. It also seemed reasonable to expect that the colleges would\nbe not only willing but glad to adopt the practice of stating their requirements in -terms of the national grades. Such a mutual understanding\nbetween the colleges and the secondary schools should do much to bring\na definitely understood order out of our existing chaos.\nHaving come a year ago to this general conclusion as to what could\nand should be done, the committee saw that it would be impossible to\nsubmit a satisfactory final report at the Philadelphia meeting. There\nwere various matters that required further study. First, there was the\nquestion as to how many grades were really needed — whether two, or\nthree, or more. Then there was the question of French and German in\nthe lower school grades. This subject, it is true, had not been expressly\ncommitted to us; but it was known that many private schools, and not a\nfew of our best public schools, already provide instruction in French or\nGerman in grades below the high school. It was also known that many\ngt)od teachers strongly advocate this idea. But if it is wise to begin a\nmodern language some time before the high school is reached, and if this\npractice is to be extended and to become more and more a part of our\nnational system, it is evident that the modern -language work of the\nsecondary schools must be more or less affected. Again, there was the perplexing question of method. In view of the sharp differences of opinion\nand of practice known to exist among teachers, the committee thought it\nbest, before undertaking to advise teachers how to teach, to re-examine\nthe whole matter carefully in the light of experience and in the light of\nrecent contributions to the subject, to the end that its final recommendations might be as free as possible from any vagaries of personal prejudice.\n\n"}
{"page": 718, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\n7IO\n\nFinally, there was the large task of drawing up the proposed courses and\nformulating the recommendations. Seeing all this work ahead, the committee decided, at the Philadelphia session, to report progress, ask for\nadditional time and money, and, if this request should be granted, to\nappoint a number of subcommittees whose task it should be to inquire\ninto and report upon the various questions just enumerated. The request\nwas granted, and the committee adjourned after passing unanimously a\nsingle resolution, the import of which will be apparent from what was said\na little while ago. The resolution was to the effect that secondary instruction in French and German should not be differentiated, according as the\npupil is, or is not, preparing for college.\nDuring the first half of the year 1898 the subcommittees worked at\ntheir several tasks by means of circulars and correspondence. Early in\nNovember a three-day session of the general committee was held in New\nYork city. The meeting was attended by ten of the twelve members, two\nbeing unavoidably absent. The reports of the various subcommittees were\nreceived and discussed, together with other matters germane to the committee's general task. As a result of the three days' discussion, the substance of the following report was agreed upon. Since the November\nmeeting the report, as hereinbelow drawn up, has been submitted to the\nmembers of the committee, and, after some further interchange of views\nby mail, has been agreed to by them unanimously.\nSECTION\n\nII.\n\nVALUE\n\nOF THE\n\nMODERN\n\nLANGUAGES\n\nIN SECONDARY\n\nEDUCATION\n\nAside from the general disciplinary value common to all linguistic and\nliterary studies, the study of French and German in the secondary schools\nis profitable in three ways : first, as an introduction to the life and' literature of France and Germany; secondly, as a preparation for intellectual\npursuits that require the ability to read French and German for information ;thirdly, as the foundation of an accomplishment that may become *\nuseful in business and travel. Under each of these heads a great deal\nmight be said ; but an exhaustive discussion of the several topics would\nswell the volume of this report beyond the limits within which it is likely\nto be most useful.\nA few words must therefore suffice.\nWhat we have called the general disciplinary value of linguistic and\nliterary study is well understood the world over, and has long been\nrecognized in the educational arrangements of every civilized nation. The\nstudy of a language other than the mother-tongue requires the learner\nto compare and discriminate, thus training the analytic and reflective faculties. The effort to express himself in the unfamiliar idiom, to\ntranslate from it into his own, makes him attentive to the meaning of\nwords,. gives a new insight into the possible resources of expression, and\ncultivates precision of thought and statement.\nIncidentally the memory\n\n"}
{"page": 719, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCOLLEGE-ENTRANCE\n\nREQUIREMENTS\n\n711\n\nis strengthened and the power of steady application developed. In time\nsuch study opens the gate to a new literature, thus liberalizing the mind\nand giving an ampler outlook upon life. Thru literature the student is\nmade a partaker in the intellectual life of other times and other peoples. He\nbecomes familiar with their manners and customs, their ideals and institutions, their mistakes and failures, and with the artistic forms in which\nthe national genius has expressed itself. When he leaves school, such\nknowledge not only enriches his personal life, but makes him a more useful, because a more intelligent, member of society. It exerts a steadying,\nsanative influence, for it furnishes him with standards based upon the\nbest performance of the race everywhere. For us Americans, with our\nlarge confidence in our own ways and destiny, there is special need of the\nwisdom that comes from familiarity with the life, literature, and history\nof the great makers of European civilization.\nWhat has been said up to this point relates to the profit of linguistic\nand literary study in general, a matter about which there is no serious\ndifference of opinion among intelligent people. When, however, we come\nto consider the relative value of the ancient and the modern languages,\nwe raise a moot question over which there has been endless discussion.\nHere, again, we refrain from lengthy argument. Let it be remarked,\nhowever, that the question is a very large one, to be decided only in the\nlight of long and wide experience. To reach a sane view of the matter it\nis necessary to make some allowance on both sides for the partisanship of\nthe professional teacher, who is generally more or less prone to overstate\nthe importance of his specialty. Nor should we allow too great weight\nto the views of publicists, men of letters, and so forth, who treat the question from a purely personal point of view. The man in middle life, who\nhas the advantage of knowing just what knowledge is most useful to him\nin his own work, can usually look back upon his early education and tell\na tale of neglected opportunities and misapplied energy. Educational\narrangements must be made for the many, and human tastes, needs, and\naptitudes are various. For the boy or girl who must select a course of\nstudy long before he or she can know just what special attainment will be\nthe most useful in after-life, it is enough to be assured that the discipline\nand culture derived from the study of foreign languages, whether ancient\nor modern, will certainly prove valuable.\nThe committee is of the opinion that the best course of study for the\nsecondary school will always provide instruction in at least one ancient\nand one modern language. Beyond this we do not undertake to pass\njudgment upon the comparative merits of competing courses. It has always\nbeen the policy of the Modern Language Association not to antagonize the\nstudy of Latin and Greek. We ask for the modern languages in school and\ncollege nothing more than a fair chance to show what they are worth. We\nbelieve that they are worth, when properly taught, no less than the ancient\n\n"}
{"page": 720, "printed_page": null, "text": "7 12\n\nNATIONAL\n\nED UCA TIONAL\n\nASSOCIA TION\n\n[Secondaty\n\nlanguages.' It is, of course, conceded that the Latin and Greek are the more\n\"difficult\" in the initial stages. But difficulty cannot be the highest test\nof educational utility, else Latin and Greek should themselves give way to\nSanskrit and Chinese. Evidently it is the goodness of the kernel, and not\nthe thickness and hardness of the shell, that we are mainly to think of.\nThe kernel is the introduction to the life and literature of a great civilized\npeople, which it is, for some reason, very important for us to know about.\nAnd here it may properly be urged on behalf of the modern languages\nthat, just in proportion as they are easier to acquire, the essential benefit\nof the acquisition is the sooner realized. They give a quicker return upon\nthe investment. This is a consideration that is of special importance for\nthe secondary school. It is quite possible in an ordinary school course to\nlearn to read French and German easily. The high-school graduate who\nhas acquired this ability can at once turn it to account, even if he does not\ngo to college. If he allows his ability to slip from him thru lack of practice, itis at least his own fault. In the case of the ancient languages, on\nthe other hand, it is a well-understood and oft-lamented fact that the great\nmajority, even of college graduates, never learn to read Latin and Greek\nwith ease. Up to the last the effort is more or less painful. After leaving\ncollege they usually drop their Latin and Greek, and in a short time they\ncannot read at all. The profit of the study thus reduces, for the many, to\nits purely gymnastic value. That value, we are prepared to admit, is very\ngreat ; but we would urge that the purely gymnastic value of the modern\nlanguages is, potentially, also very great. The argument of \" difficulty \"\nis often misused. There may be as much valuable exercise in walking\nfive miles up a gentle slope as in climbing a mile up a sharp acclivity.\nThe first and greatest value of the study of the modern languages\nmust be looked for, then, in the introduction of the learner to the life and\nliterature of the two great peoples who, next to the English stock, have\nmade the most important contributions to European civilization. That\nthese literatures are as important, as worthy of study, as full of instruction\nfor the modern man and woman as are those earlier literatures that once\nformed the great staple of education, is a proposition that we do not\nthink necessary to argue, tho it is sometimes denied in tote by zealous\nadvocates of classical study. For the peculiar intellectual myopia that\ncan see nothing new and nothing good in modern literature the only\nremedy is the classical hellebore.\nWe attach greatest importance, then, to linguistic discipline and literary\nculture. But the ability to read French and German has also another\nvalue not directly connected with the study of belles-lettres. In nearly all\nbranches of knowledge at the present time a large part of the best that has\nI\" It seems to me that the teaching of modem languages in many of the schools .... has now reached\nsuch a stage that we may fairly say that a training in French or German, or both, can be given which is just\n\nI\n\nas substantial, strong, and useful a training as any other that is given in the same period.\" (President Eliot,\nEducational Reform, p. 378.)\n\n"}
{"page": 721, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\n•\n\nCOLLEGE-ENTRANCE\n\nREQUIREMENTS\n\n713\n\nbeen written is to be found in the German and French languages. One\nwho wishes to study anything thoroly, no matter what, finds it highly\nconvenient, if not absolutely necessary, to be able to read these languages\nin the pursuit of information. The high-school graduate who brings this\nability with him to college has a great advantage in that he can at once\nbegin to use it as a tool in prosecuting his studies. Of those who do not\ngo to college it is fair to presume that a considerable portion will continue\nsome line of private study, if not as a vocation, then as an avocation. For\nall such the ability to read French and German will be of great service.\nIt is next in order to remark briefly upon what is popularly called the\n\"practical\" value of French and German; that is, their utility as a means\nof intercourse. The practical command of a foreign language has a\npotential value that is at once perceived by everyone. It is felt to be\ndesirable by multitudes who would probably care but little for the considerations presented in the preceding paragraphs of this section. The\ncommittee holds, however, that in our general scheme of secondary education the ability to converse in French or German should be regarded as\nof subordinate importance. We by no means say that it should be\nignored, or that colloquial practice may safely be neglected in teaching.\nWith this point the report will deal further on. Here we merely express\nthe opinion that the ability to converse should not be regarded as a thing\nof primary importance for its own sake, but as auxiliary to the higher ends\nof linguistic scholarship and literary culture. The grounds of this opinion\nare briefly as follows :\nThe practical command of a living language, such as will be really\nuseful for the ordinary purposes of life, presupposes a large amount of\npractice in speaking. The requisite amount of practice cannot possibly\nbe given in an ordinary school course, even in a course of four years in\nlength, in which the pupils come together four or five times a week, perhaps in classes of considerable size, remain with the teacher for threequarters of an hour, and the rest of the time speak English. With the\nmost skillful teachers, working with the best methods that can be devised,\nand concentrating their effort upon the one aim of teaching the pupil to\ntalk, the results of such a course, unless the work of the school is supplemented by practice at home, is only an imperfect command of the\nlanguage, which is of little use outside the class-room. Meanwhile the\nconcentration of effort upon this one object necessarily involves the\nneglect of other things that are of more importance in the end. For it\nmust be remembered that the process of learning to speak a foreign language has no educational value except as it is connected with, and grows\nout of, the improvement of the mind.\nIn the second place it is to be remarked that, while in certain\nEuropean countries, by reason of their geographical position, or the\ncharacter of the population, it is of very great practical importance that\n\n"}
{"page": 722, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n714\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nthe rising generation learns to speak two or three languages with facility,\nthe conditions in the United States are different. If it were possible in\nthe secondary school to impart a good practical command of French, it\nis evident that all but a minute proportion of those leaving school with\nthis accomplishment would soon lose it for lack of occasion to use it.\nWe have, it is true, a number of communities in which the ability to speak\nGerman is highly convenient, and may even have a local market value.\nBut nowhere in the United States is this ability indispensable. The English language is the vernacular of the country and the medium of our\ncivilization, and we wish it to become more so, rather than less so, with the\nlapse of time. So far as purely practical considerations go, it is for those\nwho come to us to learn our language, not for us to learn theirs. If we\nteach a foreign language in our schools, it should be for the sake of its\ngeneral educational value. At the same time, its potential value as a\nmeans of intercourse may very properly be kept in view. One who has\nreceived the best training that the secondary school can give may not be\nable to speak his modern language with facility for the practical purposes\nof life ; but he will have been started in the right way, will have obtained\na good general knowledge of the language, and will have had some practice in speaking. If, then, after leaving school, he needs to be able to\nspeak the language, he has an excellent foundation on which to build.\nProficiency will come rapidly with practice.\nSECTION\n\nIII.\n\nA\n\nCRITICAL\n\nREVIEW\n\nTHE\n\nGRAMMAR\n\nOF\n\nMETHODS\n\nOF\n\nTEACHING\n\nMETHOD\n\nWhen the modern languages first became a regular subject for serious\nstudy in secondary schools, it was natural that teachers, having no other\nmodel to imitate, should adopt the time-honored plan followed in the\ndepartment of Greek and Latin. According to this method the pupil is\nfirst put thru a volume of paradigms, rules, exceptions, and examples which\nhe learns by heart. Only when he has thoroly mastered this book is he\nallowed to read ; and even then his reading is usually regarded as a means\nof illustrating and emphasizing grammatical principles, rather than as a\nsource of inspiration or of literary education. The amount of foreign\nliterature studied by the class is, moreover, extremely small ; but it is all\ncarefully analyzed and translated, every lesson being, in general, repeated\nseveral times. Composition is used as an instrument for increasing still\nmore the student's familiarity with inflections and rules. The foreign language is never spoken, and pronunciation is considered unimportant.\n■ This method has fallen into discredit ; and while it is not yet entirely\nbanished from classical instruction, it can scarcely be found, in its original purity, among the modern-language courses of any civilized region.\nIt has, however, certain undeniable advantages. In the first place it trains\nthe mnemonic faculty; in the reaction against the hard, unattractive\n\n"}
{"page": 723, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCOLLEGE-ENTRANCE\n\nREQUIREMENTS\n\n715\n\nschooling of our fathers, modern pedagogical fashion has gone so far that\nthe power of conscious acquisition and retention is hardly exercised at\nall ; children go to college or out into life with an embryonic memory,\nand the teacher's task rivals the labor of the Danaides. Secondly, the careful study of grammatical rules and their nice application in translation\nand composition form one of the best possible exercises in close reasoning. It may be urged that logical processes are not natural to the child ;\nneither are they natural to the uninstructed adult ; but to be a successful\nstudent or an intelligent citizen, a boy or man must be able to arrive at\nrational conclusions. Hence it is one of the chief duties of education to\nafford practice in clear and orderly thinking. The principal value of\narithmetic and algebra as secondary-school studies lies in the fact that in\nthem right and wrong reasoning are immediately and unmistakably distinguished bytheir results. In most subjects the white and black are not\nso clearly defined ; between them lies a broad gray zone, the region of\n\"not quite correct\" and \"not altogether bad,\" and it is toward this neutral belt that nearly all the pupil's efforts bend. The children \" don't see\nwhy \" their answer is not as good as any other, and the sloth and slovenliness native to the untrained human mind remain undisturbed. Now,\ngrammatical analysis and synthesis, while less mechanical and more varied\nin their operations than elementary mathematics, are nearly or quite equal\nto it as a means of inculcating the habit of accurate ratiocination.\nOn the other hand, the grammar method is open to criticism on the\nground that it neglects two of the most important objects of foreign-language study : thebroadening of the mind thru contact with the life, the ideas,\nand the forms of thought and expression of different times and countries ;\nand the cultivation of the artistic sense by the appreciative study of literary masterpieces. A still more potent objection is the contention that\npure grammar is not calculated to inspire interest in pupils of the highschool age. This objection seems to be well founded, and, if so, it is a fatal\none ; for modern pedagogy, if it has accomplished nothing else, has established the fact that interest is absolutely essential to the performance of\nthe best work in any field. It appears, then, that the day of the pure\ngrammar method is past ; but while devising a system more in accordance\nwith the principles and the possibilities of our time, let us not forget that\nthe old-fashioned way had its good features.\nTHE\n\nNATURAL\n\nMETHOD\n\nAt the opposite pedagogical pole from the process just described we\nfind the conversational or \" natural \" method. This educational \" natu\nralism \" is a reaction against the inflexible systematism of earlier teachers ;\nwe should, therefore, expect it to be somewhat aggressive and somewhat\nformless, more given to pulling down than to building up. It is a principle, an impulse, rather than a plan ; and its products depend, to a\n\n"}
{"page": 724, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n[Secondary\n7i6\ngreater extent than those of any other school, on the personality of the\ninstructor. Too often the res^ilts of a protracted and supposedly successful course of unalloyed conversation are a rapid but unintelligible pronunciation, the fluent use of incorrect forms, and, worst of all, a most\ndiscouraging self-complacency. Some peculiarly gifted teachers have succeeded in combining alertness with a reasonable degree of accuracy, but '\nit will probably be found, in all such cases, that the instructor has resorted\nto devices not strictly \"natural.\"\nWhat is the genuine \" natural method\" ? In its extreme form it consists of a series of monologs by the teacher, interspersed with exchanges\nof question and answer between instructor and pupil — all in the foreign\nlanguage ; almost the only evidence of system is the arrangement, in a I\ngeneral way, of the easier discourses and dialogs at the beginning and the\nmore difficult at the end. A great deal of pantomime accompanies the\ntalk. With the aid of this gesticulation, by attentive listening, and by\ndint of much repetition the beginner comes to associate certain acts and\nobjects with certain combinations of sound, and finally reaches the point\nof reproducing the foreign words or phrases. When he has arrived at\nthis stage, the expressions already familiar are connected with new ones\nin such a way that the former give the clue to the latter, and the vocabulary is rapidly extended, ev'en general and abstract ideas being ultimately\nbrought within the student's comprehension. The mother-tongue is\nstrictly banished, not only from the pupil's lips, but, as far as possible,\nfrom his mind. Not until a considerable familiarity with the spoken idiom\nhas been attained is the scholar permitted to see the foreign language in\nprint ; the study of grammar is reserved for a still later period. Composition consists of the written reproduction of the .phrases orally acquired.\nThis method — if \" method \" is the proper term — is based on two\ngeneral ideas ; one true, the other false. The first is the belief that the\ninterest so necessary to the successful prosecution of any study (and\nespecially of language work) can most easily be aroused by the actual\nspoken use of the foreign tongue. The second is the theory that a boy\nor man can best learn a new language in the manner in which an infant\nfirst acquires its native speech. Hence, comes the epithet \" natural.\" The\nadvocates of this view overlook, first, the fact that the child requires eight\nor ten years of incessant practice to gain even a tolerable command of its\nown tongue, and, secondly, the vast difference between the mind of the baby\nand that of the youth. The really natural methods of acquisition at these\ntwo stages of development are almost diametrically opposed. Let us.\"\nconsider, for instance, the learning of pronunciation. The newborn child,\nafter various unsuccessful experiments, reproduces sounds correctly because\nit has no previous habits of speech to contend with. The boy or man,\nunless he is phonetically trained, or exceptionally acute of hearing, does\nnot imitate at all. He merely substitutes for the several strange vowels and\n\n"}
{"page": 725, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCOLLEG^-El^TJiANCE\n\nREQUlkEMENTS\n\n71 7\n\nconsonants the English sounds which the foreign ones happen to suggest\nto him. That is why the pronunciation of conversational classes is generally not a whit better than that of scholars taught after the most antiquated fashion. In the attempt to inculcate the other elements of speech\n— inflections, syntax, and phraseology — the purely imitative process shows\nitself to be almost equally inadequate. We may justly urge, furthermore,\nagainst this style of teaching, that it provides little discipline for the intelligence; that it affords only the poorest kind of mnemonic training; that\nit favors vagueness of thought and imprecision of expression ; and, finally,\nthat it sacrifices the artistic interest of langnage study to a so-called \" practical\" one. On the other hand, it certainly does awaken enthusiasm\namong its disciples, and it stimulates and holds the attention.\nThe natural method has been vehemently attacked and just as vigor\nously defended. At present the violence of the contest has abated, and\nwe are able to judge dispassionately the results of its introduction into our\neducational life. Those results have been mainly good. In summer\nschools and other institutions that have used the imitative process exclusively most of the pupils are persons who have had or will soon get some\npractice in grammar and reading. For them the conversation lessons are\nsupplementary and form a useful addition to their training. In schools\nand colleges that have not accepted the \"naturalistic\" theory the fame of\nthe new method has obliged teachers to adopt some of its practical features, thus bringing much needed life and variety into their instruction. It\nseems probable that the next generation will regard \" naturalism \" rather\nas a vivifying influence than as an independent method.'\nTHE\n\nPSYCHOLOGICAL\n\nMETHOD\n\nOut of the conviction that modern-language study should be made\nattractive, aind out of the desire to adapt instruction to the known workings of the human mind, has come a system that seems more deserving of\nserious attention than the grammar method or the \" natural \" style of\nteaching. This is the system invented by Gouin and brought into general\nnotice by Betis.^\n1 For a description of the natural method see Der Lettfaden fur den Vnterricht in der deutschen\nSprarhe^ by G. Heness, and L. Saiiveur's Introdtiction to the Teaching of Living Languages, The\nmethod is well exemplified, not only in the Leitfaden, but in Der Sprachlehrer unter seinen Schiilem,\nby Heness, and in Sauveur's Causeries avec mes elcves a.nA Petites causeries.\npublished by Messrs. Henry Holt & Co., of New York.\n\nAll these works are now\n\n2 Its operation and results are described at considerable length in Die ncueren Sfrachen, by R. Kron,\nin ni, I, 2, 3,4, 5, 6 (published separately under the title Die Methode Gouin, oder das Serien- System in\nTheorie und Praxis, Marburg, i8g6), and by V. Knorr in HI, 8, and V, q. The method has been subjected\nto a searching criticism by Traugott in the same periodical, VI, 6. It should be said here that Betis has considerably altered the original plan ; and opinions are divided concerning the respective advantages of the two\nversions. The real Gouin system can be studied in the author's Art d'enseigner et d^etudier les latigues,\nParis, i88o (third edition in 1897) ; the Betis or \" psychological \" method is illustrated by a volume called The\nFacts of Life (New York, 1896), by Betis and Swan. Without presuming to pass judgment on the merits of\nthe case, we shall confine ourselves to the revised plan, since that is the one more widely known and the only\none that has been tried in America. It was brought to the attention of the English-speaking world in 1892\nand 1893 by the articles of W. T. Stead, in the Review of Reviews. In the years 1895-97 it was used in Boston, Mass., by Betis himself, and it is now on trial in one of the public high schools of the same city.\n\n"}
{"page": 726, "printed_page": null, "text": "[Secondary\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n7i8\nThe psychological method rests on the principle of the association of\nideas and the habit of \"mental visualization.\" The whole current vocabulary of a language, in the form of short, idiomatic sentences, is divided up\n\ninto groups, every group consisting of phrases that are intimately connected in subject. One group forms a lesson. These brief divisions are\ngathered together in chapters, each of which treats of one general topic,\nand several chapters make a \" series.\" When a pupil has gone thru all\nthe series, with numerous reviews, he will have mastered (so we are told)\nthe whole spoken language. Every lesson is first worked out orally and\nthen studied by the pupil ixox\\\\ his book. On presenting each new word\nto the beginner the instructor exhorts him to close his eyes and form a\ndistinct mental picture of the thing or act represented. This image (it is\naffirmed) will remain indissolubly connected with the word, and the evocation of the one will always recall the other. Sometimes real objects or\ndrawings are used, and pantomime is frequently resorted to ; but in most\ncases reliance is placed on the child's active imagination. It is never considered a sin to put in a word or two of English, and at the outset that\nlanguage is very freely employed. Altho most of the talking is done by\nthe teacher, the pupils are constantly called upon to repeat his sentences\nand to answer questions. After the first lessons written compositions may\nbe prepared, made up of phrases already acquired. Grammatical instruction is beg4in early, concurrently with the other exercises, but the reading\nof consecutive texts is postponed until the bulk of the ordinary vocabulary\nhas been learned. Many innovations have been introduced into the presentation of grammar, but most of them are more radical in appearance\nthan in reality. Some, however, are extremely ingenious, and will doubtless be copied by instructors who do not see fit to adopt the whole\nsystem.\nThe Betis method has the following obvious advantages : it trains the\nmemory ; it fascinates the student and holds his attention more closely than\nany other mode of teaching now in vogue ; it gives the pupil, in a reasonably short time, a ready command over a large, well-arranged, and welldigested vocabulary ; it affords, thru some of its conversational groups, an\ninsight into the life of a foreign country. As for the other side, the system seems, as far as we can ascertain the facts, to lay itself open to these\ncriticisms : it affords but little opportunity for the exercise of judgment;\nit entirely neglects, in the first years, the cultivation of the aesthetic sense,\nand assigns literary study to a stage which high -school pupils will scarcely\never reach. Moreover, its treatment of pronunciation is decidedly unsatisfactorybut\n;\nthis defect can probably be remedied without disturbing\nthe rest of the scheme.\nTHE\n\nPHONETIC\n\nMETHOD\n\nPronunciation, neglected in the three modes of instruction just mentioned, isthe very foundation of a system that has of late years attracted\n\n"}
{"page": 727, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCOLLEGE-ENTRANCE\n\nREQUIREMENTS\n\n7 IQ\n\nattention in all northern Europe, and has gained a considerable footing\nin Germany and Scandinavia.' Its advocates, while not entirely free from\nthe intolerance and the self-confidence so characteristic of enthusiastic\nreformers, are men of sound scholarship, successful experience, and good\nstanding in the educational world. As far as can be ascertained, they\nhave arrived at results which go far toward, justifying their seemingly\nextravagant claims. There have been few attempts to introduce the phonetic teaching in this country ; probably the most extensive trial of it has\nbeen made at the Johns Hopkins University.\nThe phonetic method resembles the \"natural\" and the \"psychological\" schools in that it takes the modern spoken language as a basis, and\nat first relies mainly on oral instruction, using, as far as possible, the foreign language itself as a medium of communication. Unlike most \"conversation\" courses, however, it is very systematically constructed, and its\nbeginning is strictly scientific. It begins with a training of the ear and\nthe vocal organs, the pupils being thoroly drilled in the vowels and consonants of the strange tongue. These sounds are considered both as isolated phenomena and as elements of idiomatic phrases. The phrases, in\nturn, are combined into dialogs, descriptions, and stories. At this stage\nprinted texts are used, but only in phonetic notation. The ordinary\nspelling is carefully kept from the students during the elementary period.\nIt is said that the transition from sound symbols to standard orthography\npresents no serious difficulty. Objects, pictures, and maps are constantly\ndisplayed, and every effort is made to familiarize the class with the surroundings, the institutions, the habits, the character, and the mode of\nthought of the people whose language it is learning. The phonetic texts\ngradually increase in length and difficulty, and some of the latest are\nrepresentative of literature. Inflections and syntax are studied inductively. Composition consists first of the oral and written reproduction of\nmatter already heard or read, then of combinations of familiar phrases.\nSystematic grammar is reserved for a late stage, and translation comes\nlast of all.\nI The names by which it is known are the \" reform,\" the \" new,\" and the \" phonetic \" methods. It was\noutlined by Vietor, in his famous monograph Der Sprachunterricht muss 7imkehren (1882, new edition,\nHeilbronn, i886), and its principal features are set forth on the cover of every number of the Maitre phonciique. Both this periodical (the organ of the Association Phonetique Internationale) and Die neneren\nSprachen. edited by Vietor, are devoted to the propagation of the phonetic method. The list of publications\n— books, pamphlets, and articles — which deal with the \" reform method\" is very large. A complete bibliography down to 1893 is given by H. Breymann in Die neus/>rachliche Reform- Litteratur von I8^b-I8Q3:\nEine bibliographisch-kritische Uebersicht (Leipzig, 1893). Two articles by leading exponents of the method\nhave appeared in American journals, viz., ''A New Method of Language Teaching,\" by W. Vietor, in the\nEducational Review, Vol.. VI, p. 351, and \" Phonetics and Reform Method,\" by A. Rambeau, in Modern\nLanguage Notes, Vol. VIII, p. 161. An excellent report of observations made during a six-months' tour of\ninspection of German schools is given by Mary Brebner in The Method of Teaching Modern Languages in\nGermany (New York: Macmillan, 1898). A conservative, and, at the same time, fairly representative, presentation ofthe aims and methods of the \" reformers\" is given by W. Miinch in his and F. Glauning's Didakttk und Methodik des franzosischen und englischen f/w^^rri'c/i/j, Sonderausgabe aus A. Baumeister's\nHandbuch der Erziehungs- und Untcrrichtslehre fur hohere Schulen, On pp. 102 f. is to be found a\nselect list of the more important writings on method in modern -language teaching whigh have appeared in\n\nregent years,\n\n"}
{"page": 728, "printed_page": null, "text": "720\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nIt is evident that this sort of instruction requires a special preparation\nand a special apparatus. Altho the pupils are not taught phonetics,\nit is essential that the teacher be something of a phonetician ; and the\npresent difficulty of obtaining adequate instruction in the science of\nspeech-sounds has doubtless done much to hinder the rapid general adoption of Victor's prograrn. Let us hope that in the near future such\ntraining will be brought within the reach of all by means of courses conducted, in our universities and in our summer schools, by men who unite\nwith the necessary scientific attainments a practical knowledge of the\nrequirements of American pedagogy.\n\nPhonetic texts, too, tho not abso-\n\nlutely indispensable, are of the greatest assistance.'\nThis method, while it lacks the logical discipline of the old grammatical instruction, is more successful than any other in forming a good pronunciation and in giving pupils a ready and accurate control of the\nspoken language. The training it affords can hardly fail, moreover, to\nimprove the quality of the student's voice and his enunciation of his\nmother-tongue. From the standpoint of mnemonic education, too, it\nranks high. In stimulating interest it is nearly equal to the \"natural\"\nand \" psychological \" courses, and it is second only to the latter in holding the attention. The training of the attention should, by the way, be\nregarded as an important part of any pedagogical scheme ; for the habit\nof inattention — the utter inability of pupils to fix their minds on anything for more than a few minutes at a time — is the most serious obstacle\nthat confronts our secondary teachers. The attempt to give scholars, by\near and eye, by description, and by the use of objects and pictures, a correct and vivid idea of foreign life has been carried farther by the phoneticians than by any other school ; but there is no reason, save the lack\nof rightly prepared instructors, why this feature should not be introduced\ninto every method ; the neglect of it defeats one of the principal objects\nof modern -language study. Another means to the same end is the system\nof international correspondence between school children of different\ncountries.^\n1 Some good ones are already available: For French, by Beyer and P. Bassy. Rambeau and J. Passy\nhave provided us with suitable chrestomafhies. In German we have a little book by Vietor. The Maitre pkonetique, furthermore, is constantly furnishing material in various languages.\n2 Mentioned by Vietor in Die neueren Spracken, V, 3, 165, and described by Professor Magill in Modern Language Notes, XIII, 3. The plan was first suggested in the Revue universitaire for June, 1896,\nby Professor P. Mieille, who gave an account of his efforts to bring about an interchange of letters between\nFrench children studying English and English children studying French. His idea attracted immediate attention in France and England, ere long also in Germany, Italy, and the United States, and it was soon perceived\nthat it could be turned to profit, not only for school children, but also for adults, especially for teachers.\nHaving already been tried on a large scale, the plan has passed the experimental stage, and may be confidently recommended as a valuable aid in the learning of a living language. At first, correspondents could be\nsecured only thru certain journals, which published lists of names in consideration of a subscription.\nLater, on the initiative of the Manuel general de rinstruction primaire, a large committee was\nappointed, which now undertakes gratuitously to bring correspondents together. The vice-president of tha\nEnglish section for women is Miss E. Williams, professeur aux ficoles de Sevres et de Fontinay, whose address\nis No. 6 rue de la Sorbonne, Paris.\n\nt\n\nMiss Williams' secretary, who conducts her correspondence, is Mme.\n\n"}
{"page": 729, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCOLLEGE-ENTRANCE\n\nREQUIREMENTS\n\n7zi\n\nWhat are the disadvantages of the \"phonetic\" plan, when we consider itfrom the point of view of our American high schools ? In the\nfirst place, it seems, like other \" oral\" methods, to overlook the importance of literary education, for it postpones the reading of real books to\na stage that is beyond our secondary period. In Europe, where intercourse between foreign countries is easy and frequent, and a command of\nseveral languages has a recognized commercial value, it is natural that a\npractical mastery of the strange tongue should seem highly desirable.\nWith us, isolated as we are, a speaking knowledge of French and German has, except for teachers, but little pecuniary worth ; and even in the\ncase of a student, who has acquired it for pleasure alone, the opportunities for practice are so few that his hardly won accomplishment will soon\nslip from him. Familiarity with pronunciation and a certain ability to\nhandle foreign constructions are, indeed, essential to a proper appreciation of the literature; but if literary study is not reached, of what avail\nis the preparatory training ? For we must bear in mind that the vast\nmajority of our pupils — those for whom the course should be planned\n— will not continue their education beyond the high school. It has been\npointed out that oral work, besides exercising the organs of speech,\narouses interest and fosters a certain alertness of mind, and is therefore\nvaluable for its own sake. We may question, however, whether these\nbenefits make up for the sacrifice of all the aesthetic culture and the intellectual broadening that come only from the reading of good books.\nTo this criticism the European advocates of the method would surely\nreply that they believe in abundant reading, after the student has mastered the spoken idiom. It appears, then, that the real fault • of their\nprogram, as applied to our conditions, is not so much that its underlying\nprinciple is entirely incompatible with our creed as that it calls for much\nmore time than we allot to foreign language. In fact, we may well doubt\nwhether, with our three or four hours a week for three or four years, our\nscholars would ever reach the end even of the elementary stage ; they\ncertainly would not go beyond it; their acquisition would be only a fragment. If we should wish to introduce this or any other thorogoing\nmethod, we should be obliged to increase the importance of French and\nGerman in the school curriculum ; and such increase is desirable from\nevery point of view. Not only should the pupils who are intending to\ncontinue these studies in college receive the best possible preliminary\ntraining, but all children who begin the subjects at all should give them\nRossignol.iiy rue Notre Dame de Champs, Paris. The vice-president of the English section for men is Professor A. Mouchet, i6 rue de St. Guillaume, Asnieres (pres Paris). Either of these three can be addressed by\nAmerican teachers desiring French correspondents for themselves or for their pupils. In Germany the plan has\nbeen taken up prominently by Dr. K. A. Martin Hartmann, of Leipzig, who has reported upon a trial of it in\nthe Saxon schools and published a body of Vorschl'dge relating to it. The advantages of the system are\nwell set forth by Petri in Die neueren Sprachen, VI, 511, and objections to it are answered by Hartmann in\nthe same journal, VI, 324. A second and more extended article by Professor Edward H. Magill, of Swarthmore College, Pennsylvania, may be found in Modern Language Notes for February, 1899.\n\n"}
{"page": 730, "printed_page": null, "text": "722\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n.\n\n[Secondary\n\ntime enough to admit of an extended course, conducted according to\nthe most enlightened principles. In order to gain the necessary hours,\nthe foreign language must be taken up earlier, or some other high-school\ntopic must be sacrificed. A few things thoroly and intelligently done\nmake the best secondary discipline. As long, however, as our present\nconditions last it is clear that we must give up something. Until we are\nall willing greatly to lengthen the time given to the linguistic part of our\nchildren's education, we shall have to renounce 'the idea of a full, wellrounded knowledge of French and German, and, selecting the portion of\nthe subject that appears iflost important for the greatest number, devote\nourselves to the cultivation of that restricted field. Considerations of\nthis nature have led many thoughtful teachers to adopt a mode of instruction that we may call the \" reading method.\"\nTHE\n\nREADING\n\nMETHOD\n\nThe title explains itself. The study of texts from the very beginning of the course, abundant practice in translation at sight, leading\nultimately to the ability to read the foreign language with ease and without the interposition of English, are the principal features of this program. Grammar and composition are regarded merely as a help to reading, and are reduced to the essentials ; sometimes accidence and syntax\nare first learned inductively, but oftener a small text-book is used concurrently with translation. Great importance is attached to the use of good\nEnglish in the renderings. Pronunciation receives scant attention ; there\nis little or no oral exercise.\nThis method has been much used of late in our schools and colleges,\nespecially in those that have large classes, a short course, and an American\nteacher. The great advantage of the process is that it quickly enables the\nstudent to read French and German literature — ^not with the complete\nappreciation that only an all-around command of the language can give,\nbut with the same kind of intelligence and enjoyment with which good\nclassical scholars read Latin. Indirectly it helps the pupil to form a\ngood style, and to increase the volume and precision of his English\nvocabulary ; it cultivates the taste by dwelling upon delicacies of expression; it exercises the memory thru the enforced retention of words\nand idioms ; it trains the linguistic sense by calling attention to the points\nof resemblance and differences in various tongues ; and the exact fitting\nof phrase to thought forms an excellent discipline for the judgment.\nOn the other hand, in addition to the fact that it deals with only one\naspect of language, the reading method is lacking in vivacity and in\nstimulus to the attention ; it interests only the more serious pupils.\nMoreover, the continued use, year after year, of an easy way of teaching\n— for it is comparatively easy, and requires but little special training— may prove demoralizing to the instructor, dull his appetite for\n\n"}
{"page": 731, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCOLLEGE-ENTRANCE\n\nREQUIREMENTS\n\n723\n\nself-improvement, and make him indolent and easily satisfied with his\nqualifications.\nSECTION\n\nIV.\n\nMETHOD\n\nAS\n\nRELATED\n\nTO\n\nTHE\n\nPREPARATION\n\nOF\n\nTEACHERS\n\nIf all our classes were in the hands of born teachers, ideally prepared\nfor their work, advice with respect to method would be quite superfluous.\nEvery teacher would create for himself the method best suited to his\nclass and to his own peculiar gifts. His personality would infuse life and\nefficacy into any process he would be likely to adopt. But in a profession\nso widely pursued we cannot expect the majority of its followers to show\ngenuine vocation. The most of our teachers are made, and we must see\nto it that they be as well made as possible. It cannot be too strongly\nurged upon school authorities that, if modern-language instruction is to\ndo the good work which it is capable of doing, it must be given by thoroly\ncompetent teachers. The committee's investigations show, and it is a\npleasure to testify to the fact, that we already have a goodly number of\nsecondary teachers who answer to that description. Nevertheless, our\ngeneral standard is still far too low. For some time to come the majority\nof our teachers will necessarily be \"guided to a large extent, in the choice\nof methods, by the consideration of their own competence.\nBut, while it is easy to insist, broadly, upon the importance of adequate\npreparation for teachers, it is not so easy to define, in exact terms, the\nminimum of attainment which can be regarded as sufficient. Much will\nalways depend upon personality, upon general alertness of mind, and\naptitude for teaching. The best of teachers learn with their pupils, and\nit will sometimes happen that one who knows too little of his subject will\nteach it better than another who knows more. Nevertheless, it remains\nbroadly true, and should never be forgotten for a moment, that what the\nteacher most needs is to be a master of his subject. With the sense of\nall-around mastery come independence of judgment and the right kind\nof self-assurance. Without this sense the attempt to follow someone\nelse's method, however good the method may be in the hands of its\ninventor, can never produce the best results.\nTo be ideally prepared for giving instruction in a modern language,\neven in a secondary school, one should have, aside from the ability to\nteach and the general culture necessary to secure the respect and attachment of pupils, a thoro practical command of the language to be taught,\na solid knowledge of its literature, and a first-hand acquaintance with\nthe foreign life of which the literature is the reflection. To be decently\nprepared, he should, at least, have read so much in the recent literature of\nthe language that he can read about as easily as he would read matter of\nthe same kind in English. He should have studied the principal works\nof the great writers, and should have taken a course in the general history\nof the literature.\nHe should know thoroly the grammar of the language\n\n"}
{"page": 732, "printed_page": null, "text": "724\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nin its present form. If he has some knowledge of the historical development of forms, such knowledge will help him in his teaching, especially\nin the teaching of French to pupils who have studied Latin. He should be\nable to pronounce the language intelligently and with reasonable accuracy,\nth6 he may not have the perfect \"accent\" of one who is to the\nmanor born. He should be able to write a letter or a short essay in the\nlanguage, without making gross mistakes in grammar or idiom, and to\ncarry on an ordinary conversation in the language without a sense of\npainful embarrassment. Even this degree of attainment will usually\nrequire residence abroad of those for whom English is the mother-tongue,\nunless they have enjoyed exceptional opportunities in this country. In\nany case, the residence abroad is greatly to be desired.\nIn insisting that secondary teachers of a modern language should be\nable to speak the language with at least moderate facility and correctness,\nthe members of the committee are well aware that they set up a standard\nhigher than that which has very generally been deemed sufficient. But it\nis a standard to which we must come. Many of the best schools have\nalready come to it. Nor need we fear that such a standard will result\npermanently to the advantage of the foreign-born teacher in the competition for positions. If we leave out of account cases of exceptional\nindividual talent for teaching, the general principle holds good that the\nbest teacher of a foreign language is a person of the same nationality as\nhis pupils, who is thoroly at home in the language to be taught. The\nAmerican-born teacher will thus have a substantial advantage over his\nforeign-born competitor, but he cannot afford to be vulnerable in so\nvital a point as the practical command of the language in which he\nundertakes to give instruction.\nTo many of our teachers residence in Europe will probably seem out\nof the question. Those who, by dint of thrift and sacrifice, contrive to\ncross the ocean can now enjoy fine opportunities in the way of summer\ncourses at Paris, Geneva, Jena, Marburg, Greifswald, and elsewhere. The\nothers must content themselves, for the time being, with a somewhat inadequate equipment, the defects of which, however, can be to a great extent\nremedied by the reading of well-chosen books, by work in American summer schools, and by association with foreigners in this country. It is to be\nhoped that our colleges and universities will recognize, more largely than\nthey have heretofore recognized, the need of practical courses for teachers\nof the modern languages.\nWith respect, now, to the main subject of this section, it is hardly\nnecessary to observe that the teacher who cannot himself speak his modern\nlanguage should not attempt seriously to teach his pupils to speak it.\nHe should not try to work the \"natural method,\" or any private variation thereof ; if he does, he will be almost certain to do more harm than\ngood.\nHe may and should provide memory exercises that exhibit natural\n\n"}
{"page": 733, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCOLLEGE-ENTRANCE\n\nREQUIREMENTS\n\n725\n\ncolloquial forms, but in so doing he should be guided by some good\nmanual, and make that the basis of the class-room work. The native German or Frenchman will naturally think that success will be easy for him'in\na \"conversation\" course, but it is for him to remember that he can accomplish nothing worth while without system ; that he must have the proper\nbooks; that he cannot comprehend his pupils' difficulties unless he\nknows English well, and that he can never govern his class unless he\nhas a sympathetic understanding of American character. For the \"psychological,\" and still more for the \"phonetic,\" program special study\nis necessary, and no one, foreigner or native, should imagine that he can\ncope with such a method off-hand.\nBut if the availability and goodness of the several u]ethods described\nin the preceding section depend mainly upon the fitness of the teacher,\nthey also depend upon the age of pupils, the probable length of the\ncourse, and the size of classes. If the study begins in childhood, and the\nbeginner is looking forward to a long and thoro course of the best possible kind, it is obviously the right thing that he devote a large amount of\ntime at first to the acquisition of a faultless pronunciation and an easy\ncommand of the colloquial language. He will then have the best possible\nfoundation for literary study. But if he begins later in life and the problem is to reakze the maximum of benefit from a limited course, he should\ndevote less time to the colloquial language and proceed more quickly to\nthe study of literature. It is also evident that in classes of considerable\nsize the most efficient colloquial practice cannot be given ; the pupils may\nlearn to understand the language (and this is, of course, well worth while),\nbut they will not learn to speak with much facility. If this report were\nintended to meet ideal conditions, that is, if it were addressed to teachers\nwhose training would permit them to choose freely from the methods that\nhave been described and to combine them with wise discretion, the\ncommittee might be disposed (altho in that case, as we have already\nremarked, advice with regard to method would hardly be needed) to make\nsome such recommendations as the following : For very young children,\n.say up to the age of ten, the \" natural \" or imitative method of the nurse or\nthe governess, with some help, perhaps, from the \" psychological \" method.\nFor a course of six years, beginning, say, at the age of twelve, a combination during the first three years of the \"psychological\" and \"phonetic\"\nmethods, accompanied by some study of grammar; after that a more thoro\nstudy of grammar, together with the reading and translation of good literature, supplemented by oral practice in the language and written composition. For a four-years' course, beginning in the high school, we should\nrecommend a similar procedure, the division between the \"psychologicalphonetic\" and the \"reading \" methods coming, however, somewhat earlier,\nsay, after the first year. In combining the \"psychological\" and \"phonetic\"\nmethods the general plan of the former would be followed, while the latter\n\n"}
{"page": 734, "printed_page": null, "text": "726\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nwould be imitated in its treatment of pronunciation and, so far at least as\nFrench is concerned, in its use of phonetically transcribed texts. For any\nshorter course we should advise the \"reading\" method, accompanied, however, byscientific training in pronunciation, drill in the rudiments of grammar, and a moderate amount of oral practice.\nRecognizing the somewhat idealistic character of these recommendations, the committee will present farther on a scheme of secondary\ncourses, with suggestions relating thereto, which are meant to be adapted\nto existing conditions. First, however, it is necessary to deal briefly with\nanother subject, or rather with two closely related subjects, which are more\nor less involved in any consideration of the modern languages in secondary education.\nSECTION\n\nv.\n\nMODERN\n\nLANGUAGES\nSION OF THE\n\nIN THE\n\nPRIMARY\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nGRADES\n\n;\n\nTHE\n\nEXTEN-\n\nCOURSE\n\nIn a number of American cities modern-language instruction, mainly\nGerman, has already been introduced in the primary' grades of the public\nschools, and the propriety and value of such instruction have been warmly\ndebated in the newspapers and in local educational circles. On the one\nhand, it is urged that in any community where Germans preponderate or\nconstitute even a large minority of the taxpayers, they have a right to\ndemand that the German language be taught in the public schools. The\nreply is made that the primary schools of the Unites States have an important function to perform in preparing children for life and citizenship in an\nEnglish-speaking country, and that this mission will best be performed if\nthe English language and no other is made the subject and the medium of\ninstruction. To this it is rejoined that the learning of a foreign language\nin childhood need not prejudice the learning of English or any other\nimportant subject, that the rudiments are quickly and easily acquired, and\nthat the early beginning is in accordance with sound pedagogical principles. This line of assertion, in turn, is met with the reply that the primary\nschools have all they can do in teaching the subjects that are of obvious\nand undeniable use to everybody, and that the smattering of a foreign language which they can impart serves no educational purpose and is of no\npractical value in life.\nWhen the issue is thus stated, one sees at once that there is a measure\nof soundness in all these contentions. The committee feels that it would\nbe futile to attempt here an answer to the question whether it is or is not\ndesirable, in the abstract, that a foreign language be taught in the primary\ngrades of our public schools. The question in its politico-social bearings\nis a very large one, but it is a question which every community must and\nwill decide for itself in view of local conditions, and the wisdom of its\ndecision must abide the test of experience.\nWe believe, however, that\n» We use the word \" primary \" to denote in a general way all grades below the high school.\n\n"}
{"page": 735, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCOLLEGE-ENTRANCE\n\nREQUIREMENTS\n\n72?\n\nexperience is already sufficient to enable us to formulate certain general\nprinciples which should always be kept in view in the practical management of the matter under consideration.\nIn the first plate, if a foreign language is taken up in the primary\ngrades, it should always be as an optional study. This point seems to\nrequire no argument. The value of the study is at best so uncertain, so\ndependent upon circumstances of one kind or another, that the work\nshould not be made obligatory for anyone.\nIn the second place, it is not worth while, as a rule, that the study of\na foreign language be taken up in the primary grades, unless the beginner\nhas at least a prospect and an intention of going on thru the secondary school. The reason for this opinion is that what can be acquired of\na foreign language in the primary grades, even with the best of teaching,\nand under the most favorable conditions, is good for nothing except as a\nfoundation. For while it is true that children learn quickly and easily the\nrudiments of \" conversation \" in a foreign tongue, it is also true that they\nforget them no less quickly and easily. The children of parents who\nspeak German at home, and expect to speak it more or less all their lives,\nmay be taught in the primary school to use the language a little more correctly; but if they leave school at the age of twelve or fourteen, they inevitably drop back into the speech habits of those with whom they associate,\nand their school training thus becomes, so far as the German language is\nconcerned, a reminiscence of time wasted. The children of parents who\nspeak English at home may get a smattering of German at school ; but if\nthey leave school at the age of twelve or fourteen, they soon forget all they\nhave learned.\nIn the third place, if a foreign language is taught in the primary\ngrades, it should be by teachers who handle the language easily and\nidiomatically. Classes should be as small as possible, and there should be\nat least one exercise on every school day. Infrequent lessons in large\nclasses amount to nothing. It is important that the teacher know his\npupils intimately and be able to adapt his instruction to their individual\nneeds. The general aim should be to familiarize the learner with the\nvocabulary and phraseology of the spoken language, and to teach him to\nexpress himself readily and correctly in easy sentences. The free use of\nRealien is to be recommended.\nIn what has just been said we have had in view the usual arrangement\nof work, in accordance with which the secondary or high school is supposed to begin with the ninth grade (the average pupil being then about\nfourteen years old) and to extend over a period of four years. Grades below\nthe ninth we have classed as primary. But while this is still the typical\narrangement for the country at large, schoolmen have here and there\nlengthened -the high school by extending it downward; in other words,\nby making provision that some of the solid disciplinary studies of the\n\n"}
{"page": 736, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\n728\n\nsecondary period shall begin in the seventh or eighth grade. There\nappears to be strong argument in favor of this plan. It is urged by\nthoughtful schoolmen that our American high school has become congested ;that the increased requirements of the colleges and the pressing\ndemands of new subjects for \"recognition\" have given to the secondary\nschool more work than it can do thoroly in the traditional allotment\nof time. When, as sometimes happens, the colleges are blamed for this\nstate of affairs, and it is suggested that they reduce their requirements\nfor admission, they are able to reply with much force that present requirements, even where they are highest, are none too high, unless we are\nwilling to fall far below the standard of the Old World. The average\ngraduate of an American high school is of about the same age as the\naverage graduate of a German gymnasium, but the latter is farther along\nin his studies and better prepared for higher work. We have, therefore,\nto consider the problem of strengthening the preparatory course, while\nrecognizing that the ordinary four-year curriculum can bear no further\nburdens, and should, if anything, be simplified. Of this problem the\nobvious solution is to begin the proper work of the high school at an\nearlier date. Instead of dividing our educational years into eight primary, four secondary, and seven or eight higher, we should divide them\ninto six primary, six secondary, and six higher.\nIt is probable, then, that the six-year high-school course will meet with\nincreasing favor, for the idea is a good one. At the same time we can\nnot expect that the now usual organization of school Work will be changed\nimmediately or even rapidly, and for this reason the model courses to be\ndescribed below have been drawn up primarily with reference to existing\nconditions. Our principal object in touching here upon the subject of\nthe six-year secondary curriculum was to prepare the way for an expression of the opinion that, where such extended courses are provided, a\nmodern language can be very advantageously begun in the seventh\ngrade.\n^\nWhether Latin or a modern language should come first in a wellordered course of study is a question upon which teachers differ. It is\none of the questions upon which, in the existing state of psychological\nand pedagogical science, it is just as well not to dogmatize. In fixing\nthe order of studies in any school course, practical considerations of one\nkind or another will often outweigh general argument. Probably the\nsanest view of the matter is that it does not make very much difference\nwhether Latin or a modern language precedes, if only the elementary\ninstruction in either case be rightly adapted to the learner's age and\nmental condition. It is often urged that the discipline afforded by the\nstudy of Latin makes the subsequent learning of a modern language\neasier. This is true, but the converse is no less true. In beginning the\nserious study of any foreign language there are certain mental habits to\n\n"}
{"page": 737, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCOLLEGE-ENTRANCE\n\nREQUIREMENTS\n\n729\n\nbe formed, certain faculties to be called into play and exercised. The\npupil must learn how to study. He must become familiar with strange\nforms and with their equivalent in his own tongue. He must learn what\nidiom means and how to translate ; must learn to observe, compare, and\nthink. For the purpose of this elementary discipline one language is as\ngood as another, if only the teaching be intelligent ; and the discipline\nof the first lii^guistic study makes the second easier. In general, it is\nsafe to assert that the average boy or girl of twelve will take more kindly to\nFrench or German than to Latin. The modern language is easier and\nmore interesting. It seems more real and practical. Progress is more\nrapid. The value of the Latin has to be taken on trust, that of the\nmodern language is more obvious to the juvenile mind. For the children\nof twelve the Latin grammar is a very severe study. It means usually for\nmany months little more than a loading of the memory with paradigms,\na blind investment of labor for the sake of a mysterious future profit\nwhich the learner cannot comprehend. The elementary reading matter\nis usually dull stuff, devised to illustrate grammar. Up thru Csesar's\nCommentaries there is almost nothing to touch the feeling, to feed the\nimagination, to suggest a real connection with the pupil's own life. It is\nall a grind ; in its time and place, to be sure, a very useful grind. We\nbelieve in it heartily. But the question is whether for children of twelve it is\nnot best to break the force of the initial impact with Latin by using a\nmodern language as a buffer.\nIt may also be remarked, finally, that one who wishes to acquire a\nmodern language thoroly will always do well to begin in childhood\nThe later period of youth is distinctly a bad time to begin. In childhood the organs of speech are still in a plastic condition. Good habits\nare easily formed ; bad habits more easily corrected. The mind acts\nmore naively, and the memory is tenacious of whatever interests. Forms\nof expression are readily mastered as simple facts. Later in life, in proportion as the mind grows stronger, it also grows more rigid. The habit\nof analyzing and reasoning interferes more or less with the natural receptivity of the child. The fixation of speech habits in the mother-tongue\nmakes it increasingly difficult to acquire even a moderately good pronunciation, and perfection is usually out of the question.\nSECTION\n\nVI.\n\nPROPOSAL\n\nOF\n\nINSTRUCTION\n\nTHREE\nIN\n\nNATIONAL\nTHE\n\nMODERN\n\nGRADES\n\nOF\n\nPREPARATORY\n\nLANGUAGES\n\nThus far this report has not dealt specifically with requirements for\nadmission to college. In accordance with the idea embodied in the\nresolution referred to in Section I, we have approached our subject from\nthe point of view of the secondary schools. We have endeavored to\nstate and explain the principles which should be kept in view in order to\nrender our school work in French and German as valuable as possible to\n\n"}
{"page": 738, "printed_page": null, "text": "73°\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nthe learner. We have recognized that the secondary school does not\nexist solely, or even mainly, for the sake of its preparatory function ; and\nwhat we have said would be in the main true, and we hope valuable,\neven if there were no colleges. Nevertheless the preparatory function of\nthe secondary school is obviously of very great importance. In practice\nsecondary courses are shaped quite largely with reference to college\nrequirements. The school naturally looks to the college as a regulative\ninfluence. It turns to the college catalog, learns what must be done\nto prepare its pupils for admission, and concludes, not unnaturally, that\nthis is about what ought to be done from an educational point of view.\nIn the absence of any central control of education in the United States,\nthis regulative influence of the college is the most potent agency at our\ncommand for creating and maintaining a high standard of secondary\nteaching. We come, then, to the subject of secondary instruction as\nrelated to college requirements.\nFor the purpose of simplifying the relation between the colleges and\nthe secondary schools, and for the purpose of securing greater efficiency\nand greater uniformity in the work of the schools, it is hereby proposed\nthat there be recognized, for the country at large, three grades of preparatory instruction in French and German, to be known as the elementary, the intermediate, and the advanced, and that the colleges be invited\nto adopt the practice of stating their requirements in terms of the national\ngrades.\nExplanatory. — The proposed three grades are designed to correspond\nnormally to courses of two, three, and four years, respectively, the work\nbeing supposed to begin in the first year of a four-year high-school\ncourse, and to proceed at the uniform rate of four recitations a week.\nThe elementary course is designed to furnish the minimum of preparation required by a number of colleges in addition to the Latin and Greek\nof the classical preparatory course. The intermediate course is designed\nto furnish the preparation required by many colleges which permit the\nsubstitution of a modern language for Greek. The advanced course is\ndesigned to furnish the highest grade of preparation of which the secondary school will ordinarily be capable in a four-year course.\nWith respect to the time required, in years and in hours per week, for\nthe satisfactory completion of the work to be outlined below, it should\nbe said that the committee has no thought of imposing upon the schools\nan inflexible program. Teachers will continue to make their programs\nin accordance with their own judgment and convenience. The rapidity\nwith which the proposed work can be done will, of course, vary greatly\nin different schools, with the age and aptitude of pupils, the size of\nclasses, the efficiency of teaching, and according as the beginner of\nFrench or German has or has not studied Latin. It makes no small\ndifference whether the modern language is begun in the first year or in\n\n"}
{"page": 739, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCOLLEGE-ENTRANCE\n\nREQUIREMENTS\n\n731\n\nthe third year of the high-school course. In attempting to draw up\nmodel courses, however, the committee obviously had to make some\ndefinite assumption with regard to the time of beginning and the number\nof recitations per week. It was also necessary to provide for the case of\nthe work beginning in the first year, since many of our best schools\nalready have four-year courses in German or French, or both. It is\nclearly desirable that such courses be made as good as possible, and that\nthey have a recognized place and value in our general scheme of requirements for admission to college.\nWith regard to the four recitations per week, let it be observed that\nthat number has been made the basis of our calculations, not because\nthe committee prefers it to five, or wishes to recommend it to the\nschools instead of five, but because it is believed to be the smallest\nnumber\n\nthat will permit the proper completion of the work proposed, if the work begins in the first year. When a modern language\n\nis begun in the third year of the high school, it may be possible to complete the intermediate course in two years at the rate of five recitations a\nweek, and the elementary course in proportionally less time. Where\nFrench is taken up in the last year of the classical preparatory course, it\nmay be possible sometimes to meet the elementary requirement in one\nyear at the rate of five recitations a week. But this will almost never be\npossible in the case of German, and in general the committee does not\nrecommend one-year courses. The attempt to meet the elementary\nrequirement in one year will result usually in a cramming process, with\nneglect of that thoro drill upon the rudiments which is necessary for a\ngood foundation.\nIn drawing up model courses the committee has had in view the\nneeds and the conditions of the United States at large.' The work of the\nsubcommittee charged with the matter was first submitted for criticism\nand suggestions to some two hundred secondary teachers of known\nability and experience. It was then carefully revised in the light of the\ninformation and opinions gathered, and finally ran the gauntlet of thoro\ndiscussion in the Committee of Twelve. It. is believed to represent the\nbest intelligence of the country ; to set a standard which is high, but not\ntoo high; and to be thruout entirely practicable. Teachers who do not\nfind their own ideas perfectly expressed\nby the scheme\nwill please\nI In the spring of i8g6 representatives of Harvard, Yale, Princeton, Columbia, Cornell, and the University ofPennsylvania met in New York and, in conference with representatives of a number of prominent\neastern preparatory schools, agreed upon a scheme of uniform requirements which has since been accepted by\nthe institutions concerned. The modern-language conference framed an elementary and an advanced\nrequirement in French and in German. The elementary requirement of the New York conference is substantially the same as that proposed by this committee, and its advanced requirement is nearly identical with\n•our intermediate requirement. Slight differences appear in phraseology, in estimates of time required, and in\nthe number of pages suggested for reading. But these differences are insignificant. It is believed, therefore,\nthat the six prominent institutions which have already made so good a beginning in the unification of entrance\nrequirements will have no difficulty in adapting their statements to the scheme which is here proposed for the\ncountry at large.\n\n"}
{"page": 740, "printed_page": null, "text": "732\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nremember that the committee had to find its way among\ncounselors.\nRECOMMENDED\nSECTION\n\nVII.\nA.\n\nCOURSES\n\nTHE\n\nELEMENTARY\n\nTHE\n\nAIM\n\nOF THE\n\n[Secondary\n\na multitude of\n\nOF STUDY\nCOURSE\n\nIN\n\nGERMAN\n\nINSTRUCTION\n\nAt the end of the elementary course in German the pupil should be able to read at\nsight, and to translate, if called upon, by way of proving his ability to read, a passage of\nvery easy dialog or narrative prose, help being given upon unusual words and constructions, to put into German short English sentences taken from the language of everyday\nlife or based upon the text given for translation, and to answer questions upoYi the rudiments of the grammar, as defined below.\nB.\"\n\nTHE\n\nWORK\n\nTO\n\nBE\n\nDONE\n\nDuring the first year the work should comprise : (i ) careful drill upon pronunciation ;\n(2) the memorizing and frequent repetition of easy colloquial sentences; (3) drill upon\nthe rudiments of grammar, that is, upon the inflection of the articles, of such nouns as\nbelong to the language of everyday life, of adjectives, pronouns, weak verbs, and the\nmore usual strong verbs ; also upon the use of the more common prepositions, the simpler\nuses of the modal auxiliaries, and the elementary rules of syntax and word order; (4)\nabundant easy exercises designed not only to fix in mind the forms and principles of\ngrammar, but also to cultivate readiness in the reproduction of natural forms of expression;(5) the reading of from 75 to 100 pages of graduated texts from a reader, with\nconstant practice in translating into German easy variations upon sentences selected\nfrom the reading lesson (the teacher giving the English), and in the reproduction\nfrom memory of sentences previously read.\nDuring the second year the work should comprise: (i) the reading of from 150 to\n200 pages of literature in the form of easy stories and plays ; (2) accompanying practice,\nas before, in the translation into German of easy variations upon the matter read, and\nalso in the off-hand reproduction, sometimes orally and sometimes in writing, of the\nsubstance of short and easy selected passages ; (3) continued drill upon the rudiments of\nthe grammar, directed to the ends of enabling the pupil, first, to use his knowledge with\nfacility in the formation of sentences, and, secondly, to state his knowledge correctly in\nthe technical language of grammar.\nC.\n\nSUGGESTIONS\n\nTO\n\nTHE\n\nTEACHER\n\nThe following paragraphs are submitted in the interest of good teaching, and not in\nthe interest of the most expeditious preparation for college. It is well known that a\ncapable boy or girl can be crammed for a college examination in any subject in much less\ntime than a proper training in the subject would require. Here, however, we are concerned with the proper training. The college-entrance examination is admittedly an\nimperfect test of attainment in a modern language. Where candidates are numerous and\nthe time limited, the examination is necessarily in writing ; and then the only available\ntest of the ability to read is the ability to translate, while pronunciation and readiness of speech are not tested at all. It is evident, then, that a good symmetrical training\nin the secondary school must keep in view more things than are likely to be \" required\"\nof the candidate at his examination for admission to college. In what follows we shall\ntake up the more important points that are involved in the teaching of beginners, and\nmake some practical suggestions — suggestions that are by no means intended to prescribe a routine, but rather to state and explain guiding principles.\nI. Pronunciation. — It is hardly necessary to say that the first matter of importance\nfor the beginner is the learning of a good pronunciation.\nDrill upon the subject should\n\n"}
{"page": 741, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nCOLLEGE-ENTRANCE\n\nREQUIREMENTS\n\n733\n\nbe kept up steadily and inexorably until right habits are firmly fixed ; because wrong\nhabits formed at the outset are very persistent and very difficult to correct. In attempting to imitate his teacher's utterance of the strange German sounds the learner will at\nfirst neither hear nor reproduce correctly, but will utter rough approximations of his own.\nIt is necessary to train both his ear and his vocal organs. In doing this most teachers\nrely only upon oft-repeated imitations of their own pronunciation ; and this is the best\nreliance, always supposing that the model itself be good. What usually happens, however, isthat teachers cease or slacken their drill too soon. They find it dull business.\nAfter correcting some faulty utterance a score or two of times, they conclude that the\nresult obtained will \" do,\" that it is the best obtainable, that practice will make perfect —\nin the future. But the learner, being no longer regularly brought to book for his faults,\nperpetuates them, and makes no further progress except to pronounce badly with greater\nfacility. In this way is acquired the slovenly pronunciation with which too many leave\nschool.\nThe opinion is sometimes expressed that it is not worth while to take great pains in\nthe teaching of pronunciation, since perfection is out of the question. The argument is\nthat American youths will not learn in school, however they may be taught, to pronounce\nGerman as Germans pronounce it; and that, since they will speak badly anyway, the\nquestion of more or less cannot greatly matter. But this is not the right attitude. For,\naltho one who is not a German will very rarely learn after childhood to use the organs of\nspeech precisely as Germans use them, so that his pronunciation will ring absolutely true,\nstill any boy or girl of average apitude may, by careful attention to the subject, acquire a\npronunciation so good that it will be pleasing rather than displeasing to a cultivated\nGerman ear; just as, in the case of Germans learning English, that which is called the .\nforeign \" accent \" may be reduced to such minute proportions that it does not offend, tho\nit is noticeable. Now, this is a result worth working for ; but it can only be obtained when\nthe teacher is interested in pronunciation and well informed with regard to it. And right\nhere comes in the great value of a knowledge of phonetics. Without such knowledge\nthe teacher's only resource is the imitation of himself as model ; his own personal habits\nof utterance become the standard of the class. But his habits may not be the best. If\nan American, he may have received a faulty training ; if a German, he may have dialectic\npeculiarities which should not be taught to a class. One who knows just how the German\nsounds are produced, and how they differ from the English sounds with which they are\nmost apt to be confounded, has a great advantage in teaching pronunciation. If he\nhears a faulty utterance, he will Icnow what is the matter and can correct it in the most\neffective way. If he knows something of German dialects, of provincial or local peculiarities of pronunciation, of the nature and claims of the so-called standard pronunciation,\nhe will know what \"correctness \" means and will be able to teach more intelligently.\nAnd, what is most important of all, for one who has a scientific interest in pronunciation\nthe class-room drill upon the subject will not be a dull, mechanical routine, but a highly\ninteresting employment. He will himself learn much incidentally, and will make his\nteaching of pronunciation useful to his pupils, not only for German, but also for English.\nIt is, therefore, very much to be desired that teachers of German in the secondary\nschools be qualified to deal scientifically with the subject of pronunciation. For this purpose itis not at all necessary that they be accomplished phoneticians. A very rudimentary knowledge of general phonetics will suffice. Of greater importance is it to have at\nhand, and to have carefully studied, a good treatment of the special problems of German\nEnglish phonetics.'\n' Such a treatment can be found in Hempl's German Orthography and Phonology (Boston, 1897).\nThe second \" book \" of Professor Hempl's work gives, in chap, i, a sufficient introduction to general phonetics, with bibliography on p. 6i ; then, in chap. 2, a scientific description of German speech sounds. Chap.\n3 discusses such topics as \" A Standard of Pronunciation,\" \"Stage Pronunciation,\" \"The\n\nBest German,\"\n\n\"The\n\nValues of\n\nDifference\n\nbetween German\n\nand English Pronunciation,\" and, very fully, \"The\n\nthe\n\n"}
{"page": 742, "printed_page": null, "text": "734\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\n2. The memorizing of colloquial sentences. — If there is any point upon which progressive teachers of living languages the world over have lately been coming to an agreement,\nit is that, in any course of study making the slightest pretension to thoroness, the proper\nstarting-point in teaching is the vocabulary and phraseology of the language as represented in its everyday forms of expression. It is, of course, possible to learn to read a\nlanguage with some facility and still not be able to utter a sentence in it intelligibly or to\nunderstand a sentence uttered by another ; in short, without acquiring any feeling for the\nlanguage in its characteristic modes of expression. Scholars and men of science who\nfind it necessary in their work to read a number of foreign languages can very quickly,\nby the aid of grammar, dictionary, and translation, reach a point at which they can\n\" make out the sense \" or \" get the drift \" of an article or a pamphlet. But this is not\nlearning the language any more than \" picking up \" a few tunes on the piano is learning\nmusic. Such reading, tho better than nothing and useful for certain purposes, is unsatisfactory. In the field of belles-lettres, where so much depends upon style, upon niceties of\nexpression, and the subtle association of ideas, it is extremely unsatisfactory. The school,\nin dealing with languages so important as German and French, should aim at something\nbetter.\nIt should aim to be thoro ; to begin in the best way, and lay a good foundation.\nFor literary appreciation — that is, for reading of the most profitable kind — one\nneeds before all things a sensitive feeling for the language. One needs the sense of\nbeing at home in it. In teaching, this principle should be recognized from the outset.\nThe learner's knowledge is to be made second nature. His facilities and organs must be\ntaught to respond instantly and naturally to the foreign symbols, whether they are seen or\nheard. Idea and form of expression must become so intimately associated that the one\nsuggests the other without any intervening process of ratiocination. To accomplish this,\nthere is no kind of drill so good as the memorizing and frequent repetition of easy colloquial sentences. Such sentences can be given out and learned without any attempt at\ngrammatical analysis and quite in advance of the pupil's grammatical knowledge. To\nknow the meaning of es thut mir leid, and to be able to handle the sentence appropriately,\nit is not at all necessary that one be able to parse a single one of the words. It is to be\nborne in mind that psychologically the unit of speech is the sentence or the phrase, and\nnot the individual vocable. Thoughtful teachers sometimes object to this form of drill\non the ground that it is mere memory work, that it does not teach the pupil to think or to\nreason. This, however, is not a valid objection. Such drill does much more than to load\nthe memory. It develops aptitude by making psychological reactions instantaneous ; in\nshort, by creating Sprachgefiihl. Its value has some analogy to that of the finger exercises\nof the incipient pianist.\nIt is obviously important that what is given out to be learned in this way should\nconsist of nothing but natural, oft-recurring forms of expression. The pupil is to learn\nhow Germans actually say things, and not how they might possibly say something which\nno one would ever have occasion to say outside the class-room. The ideal condition is,\nof course, that the teacher have such a command of colloquial idiom that he will be able\nto furnish the necessary materials from the resources of his own knowledge. It will,\nthen, be best that the pupil's repetitions be elicited by questions addressed to him in\nGerman ; in other words, that the drill take the' form of short dialogs without the use of\nEnglish. But, as we have already intimated, the teacher who does not command the language should not attempt this, but follow a book or note down suitable sentences from\nLetters.\" Bibliography, on p. 107. From the works there mentioned we select, as likely to be most useful to\nthe teacher (aside from Professor Hempl's own book) : Grandgent's German and English Sounds (Boston,\n1892); Brandt's German Grammar (second part) (Boston, 1888); Victor's German Pronunciation, 4th\ned., 1890 (Lemcke & Biichner, 812 Broadway, New York, American agents) ; also Victor's German essays,\nDie Aussprache des Schrifldeutschen, 1890, and Wie ist die Aussprache des Deutschen zu lehrent\n1893I It is hardly necessary to say that the most widely used school grammars deal very briefly and superficially with the subject of pronunciatiQQ, and are an insufficient reliance, even when free from positive error.\n\n"}
{"page": 743, "printed_page": null, "text": "DepartmehtJ\n\nCOLLEGE-EMTRANCE\n\nREQUlkEMENTS\n\n735\n\nhis reading of realistic stories and plays.\nSuch sentences may then be given out to be\nlearned and repeated frequently, the teacher giving the thought in English.'\nThis is, perhaps, an appropriate place to say a word upon the subject of memorizing\npoetry, a kind of drill which is highly thought of and largely practiced by many teachers.\nThe argument in its favor generally takes some such form as this : Boys and girls are\napt to memorize easily, and they must memorize something ; then why not have them\nmemorize gems of poetry and great thoughts of great writers rather than the banalities of\nordinary discourse ? But this argument is fallacious. The object of the drill in colloquial German is, as we have already remarked, not to load the memory with things\nsupposed to be highly valuable in themselves, but to create an instinctive feeling for the\nlanguage in its usual and natural modes of expression. Now poetry, as the language of\nemotion, is a more or less artificial — often a highly artificial — form of expression, and\nit is better that the natural become lodged in the mind first. The beginner who has\nlearned to recite \" Sah ein Knab' ein Roslein stehn, Roslein auf der Heiden,\" is hardly\nin a better, but rather in a worse, position for learning how a German would ordinarily\nexpress that idea. It may further be remarked that in simply hearing recitations of poetry\nin the class-room the teacher can be of little use except to see that his pupils have done\ntheir task, which is, to make the best of it, one of his lowest functions; to correct. mistakes of pronunciation, and to give points in elocution, if his talent runs in that direction.\nIt is an easy business for him, but it is apt to involve a great waste of valuable time for\nall except the reciter. Finally, it is not to be forgotten that this kind of exercise, if it is\nfelt as an irksome task, may easily create a positive' distaste, instead of a liking, for the\ngems of poetry.\nWe must remember Lord Byron's pathetic exclamation :\nThen farewell, Horace, whom I hated so.\n\nTo sum up, we would not be understood as condemning altogether the exercise of memorizing poetry, but we have not thought it of sufficient importance to deserve a place in\nthe scheme of work outlined above. At any rate, it should not be made much of in the\nearly stages. The poems given out for committing to memory should be few and short,\nand selected with reference to their simplicity and naturalness of expression. The\nteacher who omits the exercise altogether during the first year will make no great\nmistake. The recitation of well-chosen dialogs, with the parts assigned, is a better exercise, and, we believe, is usually found more interesting co learners.\n3. Grammar. — It is assumed that simple exercises in colloquial German will begin\nwith the very first lesson and take a portion of each recitation period, even when the\npupil is learning the alphabet and becoming familiar with the values of the letters. It\ngoes without saying that the sentences learned should occasionally be written down, as\nwell as often repeated orally. Practice in writing German from dictation is helpful in\nlearning to spell, and should be kept up for some time. It may, however, be discontinued earlier than in case of French, because German spelling is much easier to learn\nthan French.\nWhether the script letters should be learned at the same time with the print letters\nand regularly used in all written work is a question upon which opinions differ. On the\none hand, it is urged that the script letters are not at all difficult to master, and that the\nuse of them facilitates learning to spell ; that such spellings as musz, miissen, Herz, sitzen,\n' For reasons sufficiently obvious the commitiee does not undertake to recommend particular American\ntext-books for class use. There are a number of publications from which material more or less suitable can\nbe culled. The test in choosing is whether a sentence represents (i) a natural and (2) a usual or oft-recurring\nform of expression. A scientific manual of spoken German, on the general lines perhaps of Sweet's Elementarbuch des gesprochenen EngHsch, is a desideratum. Worthy of recommendation for its thoro trustworthiness inrespect of idiom, and equally good for German and French, is the German edition of Storm's\nDialogues franqais, i.e., Franzosische Sprechubungen (Leipzig, 1888). For an excellent theoretical\ndiscussion of colloquial German, containing many useful hints to the teacher, we call attention to Wunderlich's Unsere Umgangssprache\n\n(Weimar, 1894).\n\n"}
{"page": 744, "printed_page": null, "text": "736\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nand others come more easily in the German than in the Roman script. It is also urged\nthat, as Germans use the script in their ordinary writing, those who are studying the\nlanguage should learn to use it. The opposing arguments are that there is nothing\neducational or practically useful about learning to write the German script; that for\nAmericans it is quite sufficient to be able to read it, in case they should some time get a\nletter written in it ; that boys and girls of high-school age have usually formed their\nhand in English, and that, unless great pains be taken with them at the start — that is,\nunless the teacher be both able and willing to teach penmanship for its own sake — they]\nare almost sure to learn to write the script in an ugly un-German hand, like nothing ever\nmet with outside the class-room. From this it is clear that there is something to be said\nupon both sides. Upon the whole, the committee is of the opinion that the use of the\nGerman script in the schools should not be regarded as a matter of great importance, arid\nshould never be required at a college examination. Teachers who write it well, and are\nwilling to take the time to teach it well, may very properly insist upon it. Others will be\nupon safe ground if they permit the use of the Roman letters in all written work. In\nthat case, however, they should sooner or later give their pupils some practice in reading\nGerman handwriting.\nIt is assumed that learners who are of high-school age will take up the study of\ngrammar after a few preliminary lessons. But for several weeks the grammar lessons\nshould be short and easy, so as to allow an abundance of time each day for colloquial\nexercises and drill upon pronunciation. As the course proceeds, the study of grammar\nand the doing of exercises directly related to the study of grammar may properly be\nallowed to absorb an increasing portion of the time, but the colloquial practice should be\nkept up. In the teaching of grammar the most important principle to be kept in view is\nthat the grammar is there for the sake of the language, and not the language for the sake\nof the grammar. The recitation of paradigms, rules, and exceptions is always in danger\nof degenerating into a facile routine, in which there is but little profit. The important\nthing is not that the learner should acquire facility in telling off paradigms, quoting\nstatements, and explaining principles according to the book, but that he should acquire\nfacility in understanding and using the language. The maxim should be : Little theory\nand much application. It is of small use to be able to state correctly the principle of\nadjective declension, so long as the pupil, in attempting to apply the principle in a simple\ncase, is obliged to stop and think, to recall his grammar, and perhaps to guess after all.\nThe right forms must be so bred into the blood that they come naturally from tongue and\npen. This, of course, requires an endless amount of repetition, which may at times\nbecome tedious. But the time spent upon this elementary drill is well spent and tells for\ngood thruout the course. Teachers should not be in too great haste to get to reading\ngood literature.\nThe first difficulty of practical importance in teaching German grammar relates to\nthe gender and declension of nouns. If the attempt is made to master the gender and\ndeclension of every noun that is met with, either progress will be very slow (as in case of\nGerman children learning the mother-tongue), or the learner's memory soon becomes\novertaxed. Trying to remember everything, he soon ceases to remember anything with\nabsolute confidence. The best way to deal with this difficulty is to concentrate attention\nfrom the start upon those nouns that belong to the language of everyday life — the\nnames of familiar objects, relationships, and ideas — to make sure of these and let the\nothers go. A list of such nouns can be made out which need not contain more than, say,\nthree hundred words. The pupil who at the end of a two-years' course has really\nlearned that number of nouns, so that the right gender and the right plural come to him\ninstantly, has done quite enough. More should not be expected by the college examiner,\nso far as concerns those nouns the gender and declension of which cannot-be determined\nby inspection.\nIt is, of course, assumed that the candidate will know about nouns in\n\n"}
{"page": 745, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCOLLEGE-ENTRANCE\n\nREQUIREMENTS\n\n737\n\n-chen, -lein, -ei, -heit, -keit, -in, -schaft, -ung. Whether he knows any other rules for\ngender is not very important.\nAfter the inflection of the noun the other grammatical topics that require the most\nattention are the inflection of the adjective, the forms of the strong verbs and motlal\nauxiliaries, the use of prepositions, and the subject of word-order. In dealing with these\nand the minor difficulties of German grammar it is customary to rely, first, upon grammatical exercises — that is, the translation from German into English and from English\ninto German of collections of sentences devised or selected for the express purpose of\nillustrating some grammatical point ; and, secondly, upon drill connected with the\nGerman reading lesson. Both these resources are'good, if properly handled, and neither\nshould be neglected. To do its proper work the grammatical exercise should not be\nsimply worked thru once and then dismissed, but reviewed and repeated until the\nright forms come instantly from the tongue and pen. From this it follows that the\nsentence of the grammatical exercise, no less than those learned in colloquial practice,\nshould represent natural forms of expression — things that Germans say or might\nsay under easily supposable conditions. It used to be thought — and perhaps some\nteachers and text-book makers still think — that anything grammatical will do for\nteaching grammar. And so, perhaps, it will ; but it is possible to teach the grammar at\nthe expense of the language, and the language is what we are after. To ask a learner to\nupset into alleged German such sentences as: \"The pupils' coats and shoes are in the\nmaids' hands,\" or, \"I give warm clothes and red apples to poor little children,\" is, to say\nthe least, inexpedient. Instead of a help, it is a hindrance to the acquisition of a\nsensitive feeling for the language. Rather than exercise his wits upon the translation of\nsuch English into such German it were much better that the learner should do no EnglishGerman translation whatever, but simply read German and learn the grammar by\nobservation and appropriate drill. Perceiving rightly that the translation of bad exercises\nis a waste of time and positively harmful, some teachers have been led to the position\nthat all English-German translation is out of place in a beginners' course. They argue\nthat one should not be expected to translate into a language until he knows something\nabout it, until he has a certain working capital in the way of a vocabulary, phraseology,\nand linguistic feeling ; that so long as he must look up his words in the vocabulary and\npainfully and faultily piece them together, according to his understanding of the grammar, itis better for him to occupy himself with German produced by those who know the\nlanguage. This reasoning is not altogether unsound, but properly applied it does not\nlead to the rejection of all English-German translation in the early stages of study. On\nthe contrary, such translation is itself highly useful in acquiring that larger working\ncapital which is desired. All that is necessary is to avoid difficult or independent translation. Thruout the elementary course the English-German translation should consist\nof little else than easy variations upon a German text already studied. The German\nVorlage should furnish or suggest substantially all that the learner needs to know, previous acquirements being, of course, taken into consideration. Here the maxim should\nbe : A great deal of the easy rather than a little of the difficult.\nWe come now to the subject of drilling upon the reading lesson. There are various\nkinds of questions that can be asked about a text, but three types are prominent in the\npractice of teachers. In the first type the questions call for the recitation of paradigms\nand rules and the explanation of grammatical principles. In the second type the questions call for the translation into German of English sentences based upon the text. In\nthe third the object is to draw the pupil out and induce him to talk about what is said in\nthe text. To illustrate, supposing the text in hand to be, Der See macht eine Bucht ins\nLand:\nI. Decline der See. What is the meaning of die See? Decline die See. Give the\nprincipal parts of macht.\nInflect macht in the present indicative active.\nGive a synopsis\n\n"}
{"page": 746, "printed_page": null, "text": "738\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary]\n\nof its tense in the indicative, first person singular.\nWhy is the accusative used after in?\\\nDecline Land.\nWhat is the difference between Lande and Lander?\n2. How would you say in German : The lake is quiet.\nThe sea is quiet.\nMy homel\nis on the lake.\nI see a ship on the sea.\nThere are many lakes in Switzerland?\nGive\nthe German for : I made.\nI have made.\nI shall make.\nWhat are you making?\nPaper\nis now made of wood.\nWould it do to say eine Bucht im Lande?\nHow would you say^\nHe is coming to land.\nI am going into the country.\nI live in the country.\nThat is the\ncase in all lands except the Netherlands ?\n3. Was macht der See? Welcher See ist gemeint ? Wo befindet sich dieser See? Vbi\nwelchem Lande ist hier die Rede ? War en Sie je in der Schweiz ? Was fiir eine Regierung\nhat die Schweiz?\nNow, the best teaching will make some use of all these types of drill questions, but\nmore of the second than of the first or third.\nThe objection to an exclusive, or even\npredominant, use of the first is that it teaches th^ pupil to \" rattle off \" paradigms anc\nrules, but not to understand or to use the language.\nInstead of learning to think in Ger-j\nman, as the phrase is, he learns to think grammar in the terms of his text-book.\nEver\ncollege examiner is acquainted with the youth who will write er hat gekommen and thei\non demand, give correctly the rule for the use of the auxiliaries of tense.\nWhat\nneeded in his case is not more practice in repeating the rule, but more practice in writing\nand saying er ist gekommen.\nThe objection to an exclusive use of Type 3 is that it does\nnot specifically teach grammar at all. In Types i and 2 the questions may, of course, be\nput in German instead of English.\nIt is to be observed, however, that the German\ngrammatical terms are rather difficult to learn and do not come under the head of \"ever)'day forms of expression.\"\nThe principal value of grammatical drill conducted in German is to teach the learner to handle the sentence.\nSo far as the vocabulary is concerned,\nhe might better be learning something else.\n4. Reading matter. — In outlining the work of the elementary course we have recommended that, asMe from the German-English exercises of the grammar, the reading\nmatter of the first year consist of graduated texts from a reader. This is the usual practice, and it certainly has some argument in its favor. The advantage of a reader is that\nit offers variety, introduces the learner to different styles, and leads him gradually from\nthat which is very easy to that which is more difficult. Some teachers, however, prefer\nto make no use of a reader, but to pass directly from the grammar to complete stories\nhaving some literary value. They urge that such reading is more interesting and profitable than the disconnected texts usually found in readers. Others, while approving the\nuse of a reader, will prefer to drop it earlier than our scheme proposes, and to read at\nleast one complete story during the first year. Questions of this kind are not very impor*\ntant; and there are no general principles on which to decide them. Teachers must\ndecide according to the character of their classes. Fortunately there is now no lack of\nsuitable material. We have several very good readers and a large number of Mdrchen,\nGeschichten, Erzdhlungen, and Novellen, published both separately and in collections,\nand all annotated for beginners.\nIn choosing from the mass of literature available for the second year the aim should\nbe, of course, to find that which is interesting to the young, wholesome, well written, and\nnot too difficult. It is natural to begin with the fairy stories, or Mdrchen, in which Germany is so prolific, but pupils of high-school grade should not be kept too long on a diet\nof Mdrchen. If, at the end of the elementary course, the pupil is to be able to read easy\nnarrative prose at sight, it is necessary that he have practice in reading different styles,\nLively, realistic narrative, with plenty of dialog, is to be preferred. The German\nMdrchen is apt to appear childish to American boys and girls. On the other hand,\nteachers often complain that most of the tales furnished by conspiring editors and publishers are more or less mawkish love tales, and they sigh for vigorous stories of adventure, with the grand passion left out or made little of. This is a demand which future\n\ni\n\n"}
{"page": 747, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCOLLEGE-ENTRANCE\n\nREQUIREMENTS\n\n739\n\neditors may well keep in view. Meanwhile we must remember that the Germans are a\nmore sentimental people than the Americans, and that one of the objects for which we\nstudy German in school is to learn what the Germans are like.\nStories suitable for the elementary course can be selected from the following list : '\nAndersen's Mdrchen and Bilderbuch ohne Bilder; Arnold's Fritz auf Ferien; Baumbach's\nDie Nonna and Der Schwiegersohn; Gerstacker's Germelshausen ; Heyse's L' Arrabbiata,\nDas Mddchen von Treppi, and Anfang und Ende; Hillern's Hoher ah die Kirche; l^n^tri's Die braune Erica; Leander's Trdumereien a-xiA. ICleine Geschichten; Seidel's Mdrchen; Stokl's Unter detti Christbaum; Storm's fmniensee a.nd Geschichten aus der Tonne;\nZschokke's Der zerbrochene Krug.\nGood plays adapted to the elementary course are much harder to find than good\nstories. Five-act plays are too long. They require more time than it is advisable to\ndevote to any one text. Among shorter plays the best available are perhaps Benedix'\nDer Prozess, Der Weiberfeind, and Giinstige Vorzeichen; Elz' Er ist nickt eifersiichtig;\nWichert's An der Majorsecke; Wilhelmi's Finer muss heiraten. It is recommended, however, that not more than one of these plays be read. The narrative style should predominate. A good selection of reading matter for the second year would be Andersen's\nMdrchen, or Bilderbuch, or Leander's Trdumereien, to the extent of, say, forty pages.\nAfter that such a story as Das kalte Herz or Der zerbrochene Krug; then Hoher ah die\nKirche or Immensee ; next a good story by Meyse, Baumbach, or Seidel ; lastly Der\nProzess.\nA minor question which sometimes exercises the mind of the teacher is the question\nof the special vocabulary versus the dictionary. The obvious advantage of the special\nvocabulary is that it is very much more convenient for the learner. A well-known\nschoolman, in writing to the committee upon this subject, sums up his views in the\nproposition that \"dictionaries are a nuisance.\" Nor is it easy to find any valid pedagogical objection to the use of a properly prepared special vocabulary. The objection most\noften urged is that in using a special vocabulary the scholar does not learn, nor try to\nlearn, what the word really means in and of itself, but only what it means in the context\nwhere he has found it. It is urged, therefore, that before he can become independent,\nand acquire scholarly habits of study, he must emancipate himself from the special\nvocabulary and learn to use the dictionary. There is some force in this argument, but\nnot much, for what the learner invariably does in using the dictionary is to pick out,\nfroip the various meanings given, the particular one which suits his occasion. To the\nothers he pays no attention. When he comes across the word in another sense, he looks\nit up again. It is thus a saving of time if he have the right meaning, unincumbered by\nthe others, given him in a special vocabulary. Really the whole question is mainly one\nof saving time. If, in getting his lesson, the learner could have at his elbow someone\nwho would simply tell him the meaning of the word, that would be better still, if he\nwould but remember what he was told. But there is undoubtedly some truth in the\nprinciple that what is acquired with difficulty, that is, with exertion and exercise of\njudgment, is the more likely to be remembered. Meanings that come easily in footnotes\nare apt to go no less easily. The whole question is one upon which no fixed rule can be\nlaid down. There is no serious objection to the use of special vocabularies thruout\nthe elementary course, provided the right texts are available in editions provided w i i\nvocabularies, but the choice of reading matter should not turn primarily upon this consideration. Itis best to provide a course of reading, with variety, interest, and progres\nsion, even if, toward the end, the dictionary has to be used.\n5. Translation into English; sight reading. — In the majority of schools it would\nappear that, after the first few months, the study of German consists principally in the\ntranslation of German literature into English. Translation is the exercise which is felt\n' In all the reading lists the order is alphabetical. It expresses no opinion with regard to the merit of\nthe texts as compared with one another.\n\n"}
{"page": 748, "printed_page": null, "text": "740\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondaiy|\n\nby both teacher and pupil to be the most important, and it is the one, accordingly, whic\nis most insisted upon.\nIt is also the exercise most easily handled.\nTo sit and hold\nbook while the members of the class translate, one after the other, into class-roomj\nEnglish, to correct their more serious blunders, and help them to \" get the sense, ;\nrequires no great amount of preparation, no great expenditure of energy or ingenuityj\nBut while it has its dangers, the profitableness of translation cannot be successful!)\nattacked.\nWhatever may be true of very young children, one who already knows one\nlanguage will learn another most \"naturally,\" most expeditiously, an^ most thoroljj\nby means of comparison with his mother-tongue ; and this comparison, as was pointe\nout in a preceding section, is an important instrument of discipline and culture.\nMor\nover, translation is the most effective and the most readily available means of determininj\nwhether the sense of a passage is exactly understood.\nIt is the best detective of mentall\nhaziness, half-knowledge, and self-deception.\nAt the same time it should not be forgotten\nthat the principal object of study is not to learn to translate, but to learn to read without\ntranslating.\nHow to deal with translation so as to make neither too much nor too little of it, so as\nto get the good and escape the evil of it, is not a simple problem for the teacher. It is\neasy to say that good translation should always be insisted on, and that bad English\nshould never be allowed to go uncorrected. As a counsel of perfection, this is no doubt\ngood. The trouble is, however, that really good translation of real literature is an art\nrequiring literary skill. There must be time for the mental balancing of alternatives, the\ntesting of synonyms, etc. No one can do it off-hand. To expect schoolboys or college\nstudents to do it in the ordinary routine of class work is to expect impossibilities. On the\nother hand, slovenly, incorrect, and unidiomatic translation is worse than a waste of time.\nThe young person who gets into the habit of murdering his mother- tongue in cold blood,\nunder the pretense of learning a foreign language, does himself more harm than good.\nWhat, then, is to be done ? The practical answer would seem to be this : Between the\nextremes of atrocious English, which should not be endured, and the really good English,\nwhich is unattainable, there is a wide belt of what may be called tolerable English ; English\nwhich is not excellent from a literary point of view, but is at least clear, grammatical, free\nfrom gross improprieties in respect to idiom, and reasonably faithful to the meaning of\nthe original. Such tolerable English is all that can be expected in the ordinary routine of,\nthe class-room. It is, however, desirable that the learner become aware that there is a\nhigher ideal, and that he have some practice in trying to reach it. To this end a passage\nin German text should occasionally be given out for a carefully prepared written transla*\ntion, with instructions to take time and make the work just as good as possible. Such\ntranslations should then be criticised by the teacher and compared with one another ili>\nthe class. Attention should be called to the small points of idiom, arrangement, choice\nof words, turn of phrase, etc., which make up the difference between the tolerable and\nthe excellent. In this way the pupil's literary sense will be cultivated ; he will become\nfamiliar with the idea of translation as an art, and the effect will be to improve gradually\nthe quality of his ordinary work.\nThe next question is : How lon^ and to what extent should the routine translation\nof good German into tolerable English be insisted on in the class-room ? The answer is:\nSp long as and wherever the teacher is uncertain whether the meaning of the original is\nunderstood. If there is complete certainty that the learner can translate his passage of\nGerman into tolerable English, it is, as a rule, not worth while to have him do it ; the\ntime can be used to better advantage. An exception may be made, of course, in the case\nof pupils who are for any reason unusually backward in their English, or for such as may\nbe suspected of not preparing their lessons. But for capable pupils who have a right\nattitude toward their teacher and their work, there presently comes a time when the\nroutine translation in class of what they have previously prepared ceases to be profitable.\nThey learn no new German in the process, and they do not improve their command\n\nm\n\n"}
{"page": 749, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCOLLEGE-ENTRAMCE\n\nREQUlkEMENTS\n\n741\n\nof English. For A, B, C, and D, who have prepared their lessons and know perfectly\nwell how to translate a given passage, to sit in the class while E actually translates it,\nmeans a waste of time. When that stage is reached, it is time to drop the systematic\ntranslation of the entire lesson in class, to call only for the rendering of words or passages\nthat are liable to be misunderstood, and to use the time thus gained in some exercise more\nprofitable than superfluous translation.\nOne such exercise is reading at sight. Since the general aim in the elementary course\nis to learn to read very easy narrative prose at sight, and not to learn to translate any specified texts, and since the candidate for admission to college will probably be tested upon\nsome text that he has never studied, it is evident that considerable practice should be\ngiven in sight reading. Teachers sometimes object to this exercise on the ground that it\nencourages guesswork and inaccuracy. But the objection is not valid. The object of\nthe exercise is to increase the learner's vocabulary, to make him feel that he can read German that he has not previously studied, and to give him facility in such reading. There\nis not the slightest objection to his guessing at the meaning of a new word. All our reading is largely a process of divination, and the better we can divine from the context, the\nbetter we can read. Of course, the wrong guesses must be corrected, and the teacher is\nthere for that purpose. It is hardly necessary to say that for sight reading the very easiest\ntexts that can be found should be chosen. Grimm's Mdrchen are well adapted for\nthe earliest experiments, then Meissner's Aus tueiner Welt or Volkmann's Kleine\nGeschichten.\n6. Reproductive translation into German. — It will be observed that the program of\nwork for the second year of the elementary course provides for practice \" in the off-hand\nreproduction, sometimes orally and sometimes in writing, of the substance of short and\neasily selected passages.\" This is what the Germans call freie Reproduktion, and is one\nof the most profitable exercises possible. It teaches the pupil to give heed, not only\nto the meaning, but to the form in which it is expressed ; to put thoughts in German with\nGerman as a starting-point. The language of the original should, of course, not be memorized verbatim ; what is wanted is not an effort of the memory, but an attempt to express\nthought in German forms that are remembered in a general way, but not remembered\nexactly. The objection to independent translation from English into German is that for\na long time it is necessarily mechanical. The translator has no help except his dictionary\nand grammar. His translation is mere upsetting. In free reproduction, on the contrary,\nhe instinctively starts from his memory of the original. His thoughts tend to shape themselves in German form.\nIn short, he learns to think in German.\nSECTION\n\nVIII.\nA.\n\nTHE\n\nINTERMEDIATE\n\nTHE\n\nAIM\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nCOURSE\n\nIN\n\nGERMAN\n\nINSTRUCTION\n\nAt the end of the intermediate course the pupil should be able to read at sight German prose of ordinary difficulty, whether recent or classical; to put into German a connected passage of simple English, paraphrased from a given text in German ; to answer\nany grammatical questions relating to usual forms and essential principles of the language,\nincluding syntax and word-formation, and to translate and explain (so far as explanation\nmay be necessary) a passage of classical literature taken from some text previously studied.\nB.\n\nTHE\n\nWORK\n\nTO\n\nBE\n\nDONE\n\nThe work should comprise, in addition to the elementary course, the reading of about\nfour hundred pages of moderately difficult prose and poetry, with constant practice in\ngiving, sometimes orally and sometimes in writing, paraphrases, abstracts, or reproductions from memory of selected portions of the matter read ; also grammatical drill\nupon the less usual strong verbs, the use of articles, cases, auxiliaries of all kinds, tenses\nand moods (with special reference to the infinitive and subjunctive), and likewise upon\nword-order and word-formation.\n\n"}
{"page": 750, "printed_page": null, "text": "742\n\nNATIONAL\nC.\n\nEDUCATIONAL\nSUGGESTIONS\n\nTO\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nTHE\n\n[Secondary\n\nTEACHER\n\nThe intermediate course is supposed to be the elementar\\- course, plus one year's work\nat the rate of not less than four recitations a week. Suitable reading matter for the third\nyear can be selected from such works as the following : Ebner-Eschenbach's Die Freiherren von Gemperlein ; Frey tag's Die Journalisten and Bilder aus der deustchen Vergangenheit — for example, Karl der Grosse, Aus den Kreuzziigen, Doktor Luther, Aus dent Staat\nFriedrichs des Grossen; Fouqu^'s Undine; Gerstacker's Irrfahtten ; Goethe's Hermann und\nDorothea and Iphigenie; Heine's poems and Reisebilder ; Hoffmann's Historische Erzdhlungen; Lessing's Minna von Barnhelm; Meyer's Gustav Adolf s Page; Moser's Der\nBibliothekar; Riehl's Novellen — for example, Burg Neideck, Der Fluch der Schbnheit, Der\nstumme Ratsherr, Das Spielmannkind ; Rosegger's Waldheimat ; Schiller's Der Neffe ah Onkel, Der Geisterseher, Wilhelm Tell, Die Jungfrau von Orleans, Das Lied von der\nGlocke, Balladen; Scheffel's Der Trompeter von Sdkkingen; Uhland's poems; Wildenbruch's Z>aj edle Blut. A good selection would be : (l) one of Riehl's novellettes ; (2)\none of Freytag's \" pictures ; \" (3) part of Undine or Der Geisterseher ; (4) a short course\nof reading in lyrics and ballads ; (5) a classical play by Schiller, Lessing, or Goethe.\nThe general principles of teaching set forth in the preceding section apply also to\nthe work of the intermediate course. Translation should be insisted on so far as necessary, but the aim should be to dispense with it more and more. Every expedient should\nbe employed which will teach the scholar to comprehend and feel the original directly,\nwithout the intervention of English. Occasional exercises in preparing very careful,\nwritten translations should be continued. Practice should be given in reading at sight\nfrom authors of moderate difficulty, such as Riehl or Freytag. The \" free reproduction \"\nshould by all means be kept up. It will be found much more valuable at this stage than\nindependent translation of English into German. In dealing with classical literature\nthoro literary studies are, of course, not to be expected, but an effort should be made to\nbring home to the learner the characteristic literary qualities of the text studied, and to\ngive him a correct general idea of the author.\nSECTION\n\nIX.\n\nTHE\n\nA.\n\nTHE\n\nADVANCED\nAIM\n\nOF\n\nCOURSE\n\nTHE\n\nIN\n\nGERMAN\n\nINSTRUCTION\n\nAt the end of the advanced course the student should be able to read, after brief\ninspection, any German literature of the last one hundred and fifty years that is free from\nany unusual textual difficulties, to put into German a passage of simple English prose, to\nanswer in German questions relating to the lives and works of great writers studied, and\nto write in German a short, independent theme upon some assigned topic.\nB.\n\nTHE\n\nWORK\n\nTO\n\nBE\n\nDONE\n\nThe work of the advanced course (last year) should comprise the reading of aboat\nfive hundred pages of good literature in prose and poetry, reference readings upon the\nlives and works of the great writers studied, the writing in German of numerous short\nthemes upon assigned subjects, independent translation of English into German.\nC. SUGGESTIONS\n\nTO\n\nTHE\n\nTEACHER\n\nSuitable reading matter for the last year will be : Freytag's Soil und Haben; Fulda's\nDer Talisman; Goethe's dramas (except Faust) and prose writings (say, extracts from\nWerther and Dichtung und Wahrheit) ; Grillparzer's Ahnfrau or Der Traum ein Leben;\nHauff's Lichtenstein ; Heine's more difficult prose (for example, Ueber Deutschland)',\nKleist's Prinz von Hamburg ; Korner's Zriny ; Lessing's Emilia Galotti and prose writings (say, extracts from the Hamburgische Dramaturgie ox Laokoon); Scheffel's Ekkehard;\nSchiller's Wallenstein, Maria Stuart, Braut von Messina, and historical prose (say, thQ\n\n»•\n\n"}
{"page": 751, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCOLLEGE-ENTRANCE\n\nREQUIREMENTS\n\n743\n\nthird book of the Geschichte des dreissigjdhrigen Krieges) ; Sudermann's Johannes;\nTieck's Genoveva; Wildenbruch's Heinrich.\nA good selection from this list would be : (i) a recent novel, such as Ekkehard or\nSoil und Haben, read not in its entirety, but in extracts sufficient to give a good idea of\nthe plot, the style, and the characters; (2) Egmont\n\nor Gotz; (3) a short course of read-\n\ning in Goethe's prose (say, the Sesenheim episode from Dichtung und Wahrheit) ; (4)\nWallensteins Lager and Wallensteins Tod, with the third book of the Thirty Years\nWar; (5) Emilia Galotti; (6) a romantic drama, such as Genoveva or Der Prinz von\nHamburg. It is assumed that by the time the fourth year is reached, if the preceding\ninstruction has been what it should be, translation in class can be largely dispensed with\nand the works read somewhat rapidly. Of course, they cannot be thoroly studied, but\nthoro literary study belongs to the college or the university. It is not sound doctrine for\nthe secondary school that one work studied with the painstaking thoroness of the professional scholar is worth half a dozen read rapidly. In the secondary school the aim\nshould be to learn to read easily, rapidly, and yet with intelligent, general appreciation,\nsomewhat as an ordinary educated American reads Shakespeare. Such a person in reading Shakespeare will find much that he does not fully understand : archaic phrases,\nobscure allusions, etc. If he were to work out all these things in the manner of a\nscholar, and go deeply into the literary, historical, and psychological questions involved\nin a single one of Shakespeare's great plays, it would take a very long time. Nevertheless, he can read the play intelligently in a few hours. An editor's note helps him\nquickly over the graver difficulties, and when he has done he has a good general idea of\nthe work, and has been greatly profited by the reading of it.\nThe other lines of work suggested for the advanced course appear to require no\nfurther comment. They explain themselves, and grow naturally out of what has gone\nbefore.\nSECTION\n\nX.\nA.\n\nTHE\n\nELEMENTARY\n\nTHE\n\nAIM\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nCOURSE\n\nIN\n\nFRENCH\n\nINSTRUCTION\n\nAt the end of the elementary course the pupil should be able to pronounce French\naccurately, to read at sight easy French prose, to put into French simple Englisli sentences taken from the language of everyday life, or based upon a portion of the French\ntext read, and to answer questions on the rudiments of the grammar as defined below.\nB.\n\nTHE\n\nWORK\n\nTO\n\nBE\n\nDONE\n\nDuring the first year the work should comprise : (i) careful drill in pronunciation;\n(2) the rudiments of grammar, including the inflection of the regular and the more\ncommon irregular verbs, the plural of nouns, the inflection of adjectives, participles, and\npronouns ; the use of personal pronouns, common adverbs, prepositions, and conjunctions; the order of word^ in the sentence, and the elementary rules of syntax ; (3) abundant easy exercises, designed not only to fix in the memory the forms and ' principles of\ngrammar, but also to cultivate readiness in the reproduction of natural forms of expression;(4) the reading of from 100 to 175 duodecimo pages of graduated texts, with constant practice in translating into French easy variations of the sentences read (the teacher\ngiving the English), and in reproducing from memory\nwriting French from dictation.\n\nsentences previously read; (5)\n\nDuring the second year the work should comprise : (i) the reading of from 250 to\n400 pages of easy modern prose in the form of stories, plays, or historical or biographical\nsketches ; (2) constant practice, as in the previous year, in translating into French easy\nvariations upon the texts read; (3) frequent abstracts, sometimes oral and sometimes\nwritten, of portions of the text already read ; (4) writing French from dictation ; (5) continued drill upon the rudiments of grammar, with constant application in th^ constrqctjon\n\n"}
{"page": 752, "printed_page": null, "text": "744\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nof sentences ; (6) mastery of the forms and use of pronouns, pronominal adjectives, of\nall but the rare irregular verb forms, and of the simpler uses of the conditional and subjunctive.\nSuitable texts for the second year are : About's Le roi des montagnes, Bruno's Le\ntour de la France, Daudet's easier short tales. La Bddoll^re's La Mire Michel et son chat,\nErckmann-Chatrian's stories, Foa's Contes biographiques and Le petit Robinson de Paris,\nFoncin's Le pays de France, Labiche and Martin's La poudre aux yeux and Le voyage de\nM. Perrichon, Legouv^ and Labiche's La cigale chez les fourmis, Malot's Sans famille, ,\nMairet's La t&che du petit Pierre, M^rimde's Colombo, extracts from Michelet, Sarcey's Le: '\nsiige de Paris, Verne's stories.\nC.\n\nSUGGESTIONS\n\nTO\n\nTHE\n\nTEACHER\n\nThe suggestions already offered upon the teaching of elementary German are, in the\nmain, equally applicable to the teaching of elementary French.\nWhile each language :\nhas its own peculiar difficulties that require special attention from the teacher, the general\nprinciples that should regulate the work are the same for both.\nTo avoid needless repe- i\ntition, we refer the reader back to what is said in Section VII, c, and content ourselves;\nhere with adding a few further observations which may be regarded as supplementary.\nThe educational value of the study of French in cultivating habits of careful discrimination, ofmental alertness, of clear statement, must never be lost from view, and the\nexpediency of an exercise must often be determined by its utility in attaining these ends.\nThe knowledge gained in the secondary school alone can rarely be of immediate com- •\nmercial value, but it should be a most serviceable foundation for later acquirements, and]\nthe advocates of oral methods may fairly lay some stress on this consideration.\nThe^\ndemand for more spoken French in the class-room rests chiefly, however, on other grounds,^\nwhich may be summarized as follows :\n1. Tongue and ear are most efficient aids to the memory, and he who depends on\neye alone deprives himself of indispensable allies.\n2. Oral work gives vivacity to the class, stimulates the'pupil by active participation,\nand encourages him by making him feel that he is gaining a practical command of the\nlanguage.\nIn reproducing French sentences several can be spoken in the time needed to\nwrite 3.'one.\n4. The hearer is compelled to grasp the sentence as a whole, while the reader is apt\nto dwell on separate words, distorting and often reversing the sense, which can only be\nobtained by making the sentence the unit of thought and interpreting each word in the\nlight of its relation to its fellows.\n5. The rapidity of speech also conduces to grasping thought directly from the\nFrench with no intermediate English. Many readers really read only the English into\nwhich, more or less laboriously, they change the French words. It is needless to dwell\non the fact that such readers get their entire thought from a translation, usually a very\nbad one, and can never have any exact perception of literary excellence in French nor\ndistinguish shades of meaning different from those to which they have been accustomed\nin English. It is hard to see how such a one can have any vivid conception of a lyric, an\noration, or a dialog; nor can he understand how, when translation is required, the\nproper order is French-thought-English, and not French-English, with the thought last or\nnever.\nOn the other hand, that time may be economically used, rambling, aimless talking\nmust not be tolerated in the class-room ; and a teacher who does not possess a good pronunciation and a ready command of the language generally does far more harm than\ngood by practicing on his pupils. Whatever recommendations the committee has made\nas to oral work apply only to those teachers who can speak French well.\nEspecially with beginners should the French spoken be accurately pronounced.\n\n"}
{"page": 753, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCOLLEGE-ENTRANCE\n\nREQUIREMENTS\n\n745\n\nFaults of pronunciation once fixed are very difficult to eradicate. In some places French\nhas been introduced into grades below the high school, and the classes intrusted to\nteachers unable to pronounce well. Irreparable injury has thus been done. The utmost\npains must be taken at the beginning, especially with the vowels ; and the separate\nsounds, and the words containing them, should be pronounced many times by the\nteacher and repeated by the pupil. For a long time every new word should thus be\ntreated, and, unless a phonetic text is used, the pupil should always hear a new word before\nhe tries to pronounce it.\nCareful memorizing and frequent repetition of a few lines of simple prose are\nhelpful and furnish a standard of pronunciation to which new words may be referred.\nBoth for this and for mastering colloquial and idiomatic expressions, word-order, and\ngrammatical forms, it is advised that a small amount of French, preferably simple prose,\nbe carefully memorized the first year. Later, selections should be made for their literary\ninterest.\nMost teachers know how they prefer to teach the rudiments of grammar in a given\nclass. We may remark, however, that it is not for the secondary school to spend time\nover the many pages of exceptions, peculiarities in number and gender, idioms that one\nrarely sees and never thinks of using, and grammatical puzzles for which each learned\ngrammarian has a different solution, that form so large a part of some grammars. The\ngreat universals, however (the regular and the common irregular verbs ; negative and\ninterrogative variations ; the common use and meaning of moods and tenses ; the\npersonal pronouns and their position ; the general principles governing the agreement of\nadjectives, pronouns, and participles ; the partitive constructions ; the possessives,\ndemonstratives, interrogatives, and relatives ; the most common adverbs, conjunctions,\nand prepositions), should all be thoroly understood by the end of the second year of the\nhigh-school study, and subsequent study should give considerable facility in using them.\nThe verb seems most formidable ; but when it is perceived that most forms of all\nverbs may be treated as identically derived from the \" primitive tenses,\" the difficulties\nappear less numerous, and when the principle of stem-strengthening under the influence\nof tonic accent, persisting in the older and more common verbs, is a little understood, the\nnumber of really unique forms is inconsiderable.\nTranslating into English should mean giving in well-chosen language the exact\nthought and spirit of the original. Thus understood, it is extremely difficult, and should\nnever be attempted by the pupil before the meaning of the original is clear to him. It is\n. then rather an exercise in English than in French. Nothing should be accepted as\nEnglish which is not English. The teacher who complacently listens while a pupil turns\ngood French into bad English is, to put it mildly, not doing his duty. Translating into\nEnglish is often the most rapid means of ascertaining whether the pupil has correctly\nunderstood the French read, but a few well-chosen questions asked and answered in\nFrench, or an abstract in the same language, is often equally effective as a test, and far\nbetter as training in French.\nJust as English should be English, French should be French ; and merely using\nFrench words and conforming to grammatical rules do not make a sentence French.\n• At first, sentences formed by pupils should exactly follow French model sentences, being\neither verbatim reproductions or differing only in simple and immaterial verbal changes.\nNot until the pupil, by much assimilation of French models, has become imbued with the\nform and spirit of the language, can he be safely left to his own invention. In choosing\nreading matter, the tendency is to select something too hard. The teacher adopts a book\nbecause it is world-renowned, because it interests him personally, because it teaches\na valuable lesson, moral or historical. While all pedagogical roads should lead to the\nRome of a broad culture, the attempt to teach literature, aesthetics, history, or morality\nfrom a work in which linguistic difficulties dismay the pupil and engross his attention, can\nonly end by making him detest both the book and its lessons.\nThe beginner in French\n\n"}
{"page": 754, "printed_page": null, "text": "746\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\ncan be taught these things best in the vernacular ; while searching a dictionary to discover\nwhether /«/ comes from faire or irom falloir, he has little leisure to think of the relative\nmerits of literary schools. Give him at first the easiest reading attainable, remembering\nthat simple language does not mean infantile conceptions, nor vice versa. Let there be\nfrequent repetition, that he may be encouraged by finding that he can cover a respectable\nnumber of lines at a lesson. Entertain no thought of teaching literature until the pupil\nis quite familiar with ordinary prose and can read page after page of the text assigned\nwith no great need of grammar or dictionary. The classics of dramatic literature may\nvery properly be postponed until the fourth year, and we do not consider them always\ndesirable even then ; but a few have been given among texts suitable for the third year in\nthe hope that these rather than others will be selected by teachers who, for reasons of their\nown, choose to read something of the kind at this stage of the course.\nThe reading lists are meant to be illustrative simply, not exhaustive. Other texts\nequally good might no doubt be mentioned under each head. The answers to the committee's circulars indicate clearly that teachers would not welcome a narrow range of\nprescribed reading, such as teachers of Latin have in their Caesar, Cicero, and Virgil. A\ndefinite curriculum of that kind would no doubt have its advantages, but in the case of\nthe modern languages it is not practicable and, upon the whole, not desirable. The disadvantages would far outweigh the advantages. The mass of available literature is so\ngreat, the preferences of teachers and the needs of classes so divergent, that the only safe\ncourse is to leave a large latitude of choice. This being so, it has seemed best merely to\ngive examples of the kind of reading appropriate to each year.\nSECTION\n\nXI.\n\nTHE\nA.\n\nINTERMEDIATE\n\nTHE\n\nAIM\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nCOURSE\n\nIN\n\nFRENCH\n\nINSTRUCTION\n\nAt the end of the intermediate course the pupil should be able to read at sight\nordinary French prose or simple poetry, to translate into French a connected passage of\nEnglish based on the text read, and to answer questions involving a more thoro knowledge\nof syntax than is expected in the elementary course.\nB.\n\nTHE\n\nWORK\n\nTO\n\nBE\n\nDONE\n\nThis should comprise the reading of from 400 to 600 pages of French of ordinary\ndifficulty, a portion to be in the dramatic form ; constant practice in giving French\nparaphrases, abstracts, or reproductions from memory of selected portions of the matter\nread ; the study of a grammar of modern completeness ; writing from dictation.\nSuitable texts are : About's stories ; Augier and Sandeau's Le Gendre de M. Poirier; ^\nB^ranger's poems; Corneille's Le Cid z.nd Horace; Coppde's poems; Daudet's La BelleNivernaise : La Brfete's Mon oncle et mon cure; Madame de Sdvign^'s letters ; Hugo's\nHernani and La Chute; Labiche's plays ; Loti's Pecheur d'lslande; Mignet's historical\nwritings ; Moli^re's L'Avare and Le Bourgeois Gentiihomme ; Racine's Athalie, Andromaque, and Esther; George Sand's plays and stories ; Sandeau's Mademoiselle de la Seigliire;\nScribe's plays ; Thierry's Recits des temps merovingiens ; Thiers's V Expeditiothde Bonaparte\nen Egypte; Vigny's La canne de jonc; Voltaire's historical writings.\n\n\\\n\nSECTION\n\nXII.\nA.\n\nTHE\nTHE\n\nADVANCED\nAIM\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nCOURSE\n\nIN\n\nFRENCH\n\nINSTRUCTION\n\nAt the end of the advanced course the pupil should be able to read at sight, with the\nhelp of a vocabulary of special or technical expressions, difficult French not earlier than\nthat of the seventeenth century ; to write in French a short essay on some simple subject\nconnected with the works read ; to put into French a passage of easy English prose; and\nto carry on a simple conversation in French.\n\n"}
{"page": 755, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCOLLEGE-ENTRANCE\nB.\n\nTHE\n\nWORK\n\nREQUIREMENTS\nTO\n\nBE\n\n747\n\nDONE\n\nThis should comprise the reading of from 600 to 1,000 pages of standard French,\nclassical and modern, only difficult passages being explained in the class ; the writing of\nnumerous short themes in French ; the study of syntax.\nSuitable reading matter will be : Beaumarchais's Barbier de Siville; Corneille's\ndramas ; the elder Dumas's prose writings ; the younger Dumas's La question (T argent;\nHugo's Ruy Bias, lyrics, and prose writings ; La Fontaine's fables ; Lamartine's Graziella;\nMarivaux's plays ; Molifere's plays ; Musset's plays and poems ; Pellisser's Mouvement\nlittiraire au XIX' sihle; Renan's Souvenirs (fenfance et de jeunesse; Rousseau's\nwritings ; Sainte-Beuve's essays ; Taine's Origines de la France contemporaine ; Voltaire's\nwritings ; selections from Zola, Maupassant, and Balzac.\nSECTION\n\nXIII.\n\nSPECIMEN\n\nEXAMINATION\nCOLLEGE\n\nPAPERS\n\nFOR\n\nADMISSION\n\nTO\n\nThe complaint is sometimes heard from teachers in the secondary schools — and\ninvestigation shows it to be nbt altogether groundless — that, even at colleges having the\nsame or very similar requirements for admission, the entrance examinations are apt to\ndiffer not a little in respect to difficulty and in respect to the general character of the\nquestions asked. To a certain extent this lack of uniformity is inevitable. With the best\nintentions examiners will differ more or less in their estimate of difficulty and in their\nchoice of test questions. Some will prefer to set a more difficult paper and mark liberally ;\nothers to set an easier paper and mark more closely. The only obvious way to bring\nabout uniformity in the papers set would be to intrust the preparation of them each year\nto a central committee or bureau (say of the Modern Language Association), which should\nfurnish them on demand, in sealed packages and at a fixed rate, to such colleges as might\nwish to receive them. Such a plan would have much in its favor. Under its operation\nthere would be no room for criticism of particular colleges. The papers would presumably\nbe prepared with very great care ; they would improve in the light of criticism, would\nfurnish teachers with a pattern to work by, and so could hardly fail to make for greater\nexcellence and uniformity in the work of our secondary schools. The feasibility of such\na plan would depend largely upon the attitude of the colleges, and whether it would work\nwell in practice could only be determined by trial. Difficulties of one kind and another\nwould no doubt arise, but they do not appear in advance to be insuperable. At any rate\nthe plan seems worthy of serious consideration.\nMeanwhile, without wishing to imply an exclusive preference for a written as\nopposed to an oral test (the best plan, wherever practicable, is undoubtedly a combination of the two), the committee has thought it appropriate to close this report with a\nseries of papers designed to illustrate in a general way the kind of test which, in our\nopinion, the candidate for admission to college may reasonably be expected to pass upon\ncompleting any of the courses above described. The papers are by no means offered as\nperfect models for imitation, but as an approximate indication of what, in our judgment,\nthe college-entrance examination should be. The time required is estimated in each case\nat about two hours. Unless the contrary is expressly stated, the texts are not supposed\nto have been previously studied by the candidate.\nA.\n\nELEMENTARY\n\nFRENCH\n\nI. Translate into English :\n(a) Lui, penchd sur sa chaise, regardait dans la cheminde, les yeux fixes. Et tout a\ncoup, comme on se taisait, il se tourna de mon cotd et me dit d'un ton de bonne humeur :\nVoici bientot le printemps, monsieur Florence, nous ferons encore plus d'un bon\n\n"}
{"page": 756, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\n748\ntours dans la montagne ; j'espfere que cette ann^e vous viendrez plus souvent, car vous\navez beau dire, vous aimez ce pays autant que moi ....\nHe ! je ne dis pas le contraire, Georges ; mais a ton Sge, dans ta position ....\nEnfin laissons cela . . . . Et puisque tu restes, eh bien, oui, tu as raison, nous irons\nplus souvent nous promener ensemble dans la montagne ; je suis toujours content d'etre\navec toi.\nA la bonne heure, dit-il en riant, voilci ce qui s'appelle parler.\nEt durant plus d'une demi-heure, la conversation roula sur les fleurs de nos montagnes, sur la belle valine de la Sarre-Rouge, etc. On aurait cru que rien d'extraordinairej\nne s'dtait dit. — Erckmann Ckatrian.\n[b) Le temps dtait sombre, il tombait une petite pluie de brouillard qui ^paississait\nencore Tobscuritd, les bees de gaz brfilaient mal, et leur lumifere, r^fldchie par les flaques\nd'eau, ^clairait la rue d^serte d'une fa5on incertaine et changeante. Le jeune hommei\nmarchait rapidement, son parapluie baiss^ en avant pour s'abriter de la pluie qui lui frappait dans la figure. Tout a coup, sans qu'il les eut vus venir ou sortir d'une embrasure\nde porte, il se trouva en face de deux hommes et, surpris de cette brusque apparition, il\nsauta de cotd par un mouvement instinctif et nerveux. II dtait a ce moment a une\ncentaine de metres de chez lui, a I'encoignure d'une ruelle qui descend vers la rue de\nCharenton. — Malot.\n{c) Un jeune homme plein de passions, assis sur la bouche d'un volcan, et pleurant\nsur les mortels dont a peine il voyait a ses pieds les demeures, n'est sans doute, 6 viellards ! qu'un objet digne de votre piti^ ; mais quoi que vous puissiez penser de Rend, ce\ntableau vous offre I'image de son caract^re et de son existence : c'est ainsi que toute ma\nvie j'ai eu devant les yeux une creation a la fois immense et imperceptible, et un abime\nouvert a mes cotds. — Chateaubriand.\nIL (a) Write the five principal parts of the three verbs (the forms here given occur in\nI, 3) : vus, sortir, descend.\n(6) Write a synopsis of the conjugation (first person singular of each tense) of se\nrejouir and savoir.\n{c) Write the inflection of : the present indicative of boire and /aire; the future of\npouvoir; the present subjunctive oi prendre.\n(d) Write the forms of the demonstrative pronouns.\n(e) In what ways may the use of the passive voice be avoided in French ?\nII. Translate into French :\n(a) Here is the pen, shall I send it to her ? No ; do not send it to her ; give it to me.\n{b) Cats and dogs are domestic animals.\n{c) You must give them some white bread and good coffee, if they have none.\n(d) The old man is very well this evening, altho he has worked all day.\n(e) We have just searched for your gloves, but we do not find them in the room where\nyou left them a quarter of an hour ago.\n(/) Why do we weep for mortals whose life and character we scarcely know ? We\nalways have them before our eyes. Whatever we may think of them, they are surely\nworthy of our pity.\n*.\nB.\n\nINTERMEDIATE\n\nI. Translate into English :\n\nFRENCH\n\n?!'\n\n{a) Nulle part, a aucune dpoque de ma vie, je n'ai vdcu aussi compl^tement seul. La\nmaison dtait loin de la route, dans les terres, dcartde meme de la ferme ddpendante dont\nles bruits ne m'arrivaient pas. Deux fois par jour, la femme du fermier me servait men\nrepas, a un bout de la vaste salle k manger dont toutes les fenetres, moins une, tenaient\nleur volets clos. Cette Proven5ale noire, le nez icrasi comme un Cafre, ne comprenant\npas quelle Strange besogne m'avait amend a la campagne en plein hiver, gardait de moi\n\n"}
{"page": 757, "printed_page": null, "text": "749\nDepartment]\n\nCOLLEGE-ENTRANCE\n\nREQUIREMENTS\n\nune mdfiance et une terreur, posait les plats i la hate, se sauvait sans un mot, en ^vitant de\ntourner la tete. Et c'est le seul visage que j'ai vu pendant cette existence, distraite\nuniquement, vers le soir, par une promenade dans une allde de hau,ts platanes, a la tristesse\nd'un soleil froid et rouge dont les grenouilles saluaient le coucher hatif de leurs discordantes clameurs. —Daudet.\n{b) Amis, loin de la ville,\nLoin des palais de roi,\nLoin de la cour servile.\nLoin de la foule vile,\nTrouvez-moi, trouvez-moi,\n\nQuelque asile sauvage,\nQuelque abri d'autrefois,\nUn port sur le rivage,\nUn nid sous le feuillage,\nUn manoir dans les bois !\n\nAux champs ou I'ame oisive\nSe recueille en revant ;\nSur une obscure rive\n\nTrouvez-le moi bien sombre,\nBien calme, bien dormant,\n\nOil du monde n'arrive\nNi le flot, ni le vent.\n\nDans le silence et I'ombre\nCache profondement !\n\nCouvert d'arbres sans nombre,\n— V. Hugo,\n\n(c) Denise. Fernand ?\nFernand. Qu'est-ce que tu veux ?\nDenise. Oii as-tu mis le livre que tu as ete chercher pour mademoiselle de Bardannes ?\nFernand. Li, sur la table.\nEst-ce qu'elle est ddja prete ?\nDenise. Pas encore, mais elle ach&ve de s'habiller.\n{Elle prend le livre sur la tablet)\nAndre, entrant, a Denise. Je n'ai pas pu vous demander tout a I'heure, devant tout\nce monde, mademoiselle, si vous etes tout a fait remise de votre indisposition d'hier qui\nvous a empech^e de diner avec les amis qui me sont arrives, dont deux sont deja des\nvotres. J'esp^re que ce soir j'aurai le plaisir et I'honneur de vous voir a notre table, ainsi\nque monsieur et madame Brissot.\nDenise. Oui, monsieur, ma mfere m'a ddji fait part de votre aimable invitation.\nFernand, a Andri. Et moi, je vais monter un peu d'avance le cheval de ta sceur\npour le bien mettre i sa main ; montes-tu avec nous ?\nAndr6. Non, nous avons une inspection a faire avec M. Thouvenin.\nFernand. A tant6t, alors.\nII. {a) Write a synopsis, in the first person singular, including infinitive, participles,\nand imperative singular, of the five verbs (see I, a) : vecu, tenaient, comprenait, amene, vu.\n{b) What are the general principles governing the use of the indicative, conditional,\nand subjunctive moods ?\nIII. Translate into French :\nTell me, what has kept you from selling that old house, the shutters of which always\nremain closed ? It is quite alone ; at night one hears strange noises in it ; and little boys\nwho have to pass near it run away without looking at it. I am sorry you did not sell it\nto M. Andr^ when you sold him your farm and your brother's. You will do well to\naccept what M. Andr^ has offered you for it ; and I wish you to go and see him this very\nevening.\nc. advanced French\nI. Translate into English :\n(a) Tous ces dons sont communs aux orateurs; on les retrouve avec des propoitions et des degrds differents chez des hommes comme Ciceron et Tite-Live, comme\nBourdaloue et Bossuet, comme Fox et Burke. Ces beaux et solides esprits forment une\nfamille naturelle, et les uns comme les autres ont pour trait principal I'habitude et le\ntalent de passer des iddes particuliferes aux iddes gdndrales, avec ordre et avec suite,\ncomme on monte un escalier en posant le pied tour a tour sur chaque degr^. L'inconvdnient de cet art, c'est I'emploi du lieu commun.\nLes hommes qui le pratiquent ne\n\n"}
{"page": 758, "printed_page": null, "text": "75°\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\npeignent pas les objets avec precision, ils tombent aisement dans la rhdtorique vague,\nlis ont en main des ddveloppements tout faits, sorte d'^chelles portatives qui s'appliquent\ndgalement bien sur les deux faces contraires de la meme question et de toute question. —\nTaine.\n(b) Les rjigles gdn^rales ne sont que des expedients mesquins pour supplier ^\nI'absence du grand sens moral, qui suffit a lui seul pour rdvdler en toute occasion i I'homme\nce qui est le plus beau. C'est vouloir supplier par des instructions prdparees d'avance a\nla spontaneity intime. La vari^t^ des cas d^joue sans cesse toutes les provisions. Rien,\nrien ne remplace I'ame : aucun renseignement ne saurait supplier chez I'homme ^ I'inspiration de sa nature. — Renan,\n(r)\n\nPhedre, si ton chasseur avait autant de charmes\nQu'en donne k son visage un si docte pinceau,\nTa passion fut juste et merite des larmes\nPour plaindre le malheur qui le met au tombeau.\nEt si tu parus lors avec autant de grace\nQu'en ces vers eclatants qui te rendent le jour,\nEstime qui voudra son courage de glace,\nSa froideur fut un crime, et non pas ton amour.\nAussi, quoi qu'on ait ditdu courroux de Thesee,\nSa mort n'est pas I'effet de son ressentiment,\nMais les Dieux I'ont puni pour t'avoir meprisee,\nEt fait de son trepas un juste chatiment.\n— Corneille.\n\n{d)\n\nDu Dieu qui nous crea la clemence infinie,\nPour adoucir les maux de cette courte vie,\nA place parmi nous deux etres bienfaisants,\nDe la terre a jamais aimables habitants,\nSoutiens dans les travaux, tresors dans I'indigence,\nL'un est le doux sommeil, et I'autre est I'esperance:\nL'un, quand I'homme accable sent de son faible corps\nLes organes vaincus sans force et sans ressorts,\nVient par un calme heureux secourir la natyre\nEt lui porter I'oubli des peines qu'elle endure ;\nL'autre anime nos coeurs, enflamme nos desirs,\nEt meme, en nous trompant, donne de vrais plaisirs ;\nMais aux mortels cheris a qui le ciel I'envoie\nElle n'inspire point une infidele joie;\nElle apporte de Dieu la promesse et I'appui ;\nElle est inebranlable, et pure comme lui.\n\n— Voltaire.\n\nII. (a) Explain the two cases of subjunctive that occur in I, {c).\n(b) Point out two cases of poetic inversion in I, {d).\n(c) Define aimable as used in classic poetry and as used in modern prose.\nIII. Write fifteen or twenty lines of French about the author of one of the preceding\nselections, or about one of the persons mentioned in I, (a).\nIV. Translate into French :\nThe following day, at three o'clock in the afternoon, they came to Surg&res. The\ncardinal was waiting there for Louis XIII. The minister and the king exchanged many\naffectionate greetings, and congratulated each other on the lucky chance that had rid\nFrance of the relentless enemy who was stirring up Europe against her. Thereupon the\ncardinal, having been informed by Rochefort that U'Artagnan had been arrested, and\nbeing eager to see him, took leave of the king, and returned to the house he occupied, near\nthe bridge of La Pierre. There he found D'Artagnan standing without a sword before\nthe door, and the three guardsmen armed.\n\n.\n\n*\n♦f-\n\n"}
{"page": 759, "printed_page": null, "text": "COLLEGE-ENTRANCE\n\nDepartment]\n\nD.\n\nREQUIREMENTS\n\nELEMENTARY\n\nGERMAN\n\nI. Translate into English :\n(a) Ich folgte sogleich dem Boten, und er fiihrte mich in ein kleines Zimmer, das\nseiner schlechten Einrichtung' nach zu den billigsten des Gasthauses gehoren musste,\n751\nAuf einem Bette lag eine schone, junge Frau mit geschlossenen Augen und totenbleichen,*\naber edlen und feinen Ziigen. Ein Dienstmadchen war mitJeidig um sie bemiiht,^ und\nnebenihr im Bette sass ein etwa dreijahriges, blondlockiges BUbchen.jammerlich'* weinend\nund seine Mutter mit den siissesten Namen rufend und flehentlichs bittend, sie mochte\ndoch die Augen aufmachen und ihn wieder lieb haben. Ich hob den kleinen Burschen\nvom Bett herunter und setzte ihn auf den Boden nieder. Er blieb auch ruhig sitzen,\nseine grossen, blauen Augen unverwandt * auf die Mutter gerichtet. Meine Bemiihungen,\ndiese wieder zum Bewusstsein? zu bringen, wurden bald mit Erfolg belohnt. Die Frau\natmete schwer und schlug die Augen auf, aber sie war zu schwach um auf meine Fragen\nvernehmlich^ antworten zu konnen. — Adapted from Helene Stdkl.\n{b) Waldgegend. Vorn rechts ein altertUmliches' Gebaude ; vor demselben ein\nTisch mit StUhlen und einer Bank, unter einem Baume ; links ein Thor ; im Hintergrunde eine Mauer.\nHedwig\n\nVor derselben eine Anhohe.™\n\n{st'ngt) :\n\nWenn ich ein Voglein war'\nUnd auch zwei Fliiglein hatt', —\n\nUrsula {kommt mil Friihstiick, das sie auf den Tisch stelli) : Du bist ja schon friih\nbei der Hand, mein Kind.\nHedwig : Sagst du nicht immer : Morgenstund' hat Gold im Mund ?\nUrsula : Das ist schon recht, dass du mit der Lerche auffliegst, aber die Vogel, die\nzu friih singen, holt am Abend die Katze.\nHedwig : Soil ich eine Lerche sein, dann muss ich auch mein Lied fiir mich haben.\nUrsula: Das Lied passt nur nicht an diesem Ort.\nHedwig : Aber es passt zu meinem Herzen. Ja, alte Ursula, ich wiinschte, dass\nich ein Voglein war', und auch zwei Fliigel hatt'.\nUrsula : Und wo sollte es dann hinaus?\nHedwig\n\n: Weit, weit weg ! Uber die Mauer, iiber die Baume,\n\niiber den Wald,\n\niiber das Feld — -in die feme, schone Gotteswelt !\nII. {a) Give the nominative and genitive singular (with definite article) and the\nnominative plural of Boten, Fiisse, Zimmer, Einrichtung, Hauses, Bette, Frau, Auge,\nZiigen, Mutter, Fragen, Gestalt.\n(^) Decline thruout the German phrases meaning the new house, my dear friend.\n(c) Give the principal parts of musste, lag, geschlossen, rufend, bittend, mochte,\naufmachen, hob herunter, blieb, sitzen, bringen, schlug auf, konnen.\n{d) Give the third person, singular, of each tense in the indicative mode, of bittend,\nblieb, schlug auf.\n((?) What case is governed by each of the prepositions: auf, aus, bei, durch, fiir, in,\nmit, iiber, um, von, wegen, zu?\nIII. Translate into German :\n(a) Who\nsomewhere.\"\n\nis that old gentleman with the white beard?\"\n\n1 Einrichtung, egtiipment, furnishings.\n\nSurely I have seen him\n\n7 Bewusstsein, consciousness.\n\n2 Bleich, pale.\n\n8 Vernehmlich, audibly,\n\n3 Bemiiht, occupied.\n\n9 Altertumlich, ancient- looking.\n\n4jammerlich, piteously.\n\n10 Anhohe, elevation.\n\n5 Flehentlich, imploringly\n\n\"Beard, der Bart.\n\n* Unverwandt, incessantly.\n\n12 Somewhere, irgendivo.\n\n"}
{"page": 760, "printed_page": null, "text": "752\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\n(^) So this is your new house. What a lovely view ' from this window ! But I do\nnot see the old castle* of which you told me in your letter.\n(r) He has lived two whole years in Germany, and has just returned. He speaks\nGerman pretty well, but does not seem to have read much.\n((/) I will do the best 1 can, but you must not expect too much. Perhaps it would\nbe better if you should go to him yourself.\n{e) Come now, Hedwig, and eat your breakfast. You are not a bird and cannot fly.\nAnd, after all,3 is it not better to be a pretty girl than a stupid ♦ bird ?\n'View, dit Aussicht.\n\n2 Castle, </af Schloss,\nE.\n\nINTERMEDIATE\n\n3 After all, am Ende.\n\n4 Stupid, dumm.\n\nGERMAN\n\nI. Translate into English :\n(a) Die Wohnungen in den Badern von L. sind entweder unten in einem Dorf, das\nvon hohen Bergen umschlossen ist, oder sie liegen auf einem dieser Berge selbst, unfern\nder Hauptquelle, wo eine pittoreske Hausergruppe in das reizende Thai hinabschaut.\nEinige aber liegen auch einzeln zerstreut an dem Bergesabhangen, und man muss miihsam hinaufkommen durch Weinreben, Myrtengestrauch, Lorbeerbiische und andere vornehme Blumen und Pflanzen, ein wildes Paradies. Ich habe nie ein reizenderes Thai\ngesehen, besonders wenn man von der Terasse des oberen Bades, wo die ernstgriinen\nCypressen stehen, ins Dorf hinabschaut. Man sieht dort die Briicke, die iiber ein Fliisschen fiihrt, welches L. heisst, und, das Dorf in zwei Theile durchschneidend, ein\nGerausch hervorbringt, als wolle es die an^enehmsten Dinge sagen, und konne vor dem\nallseitig plaudernden Echo nicht zu Worte kommen. — Heine.\n(b) Bernhard schritt durch enge Gassen nach dem Markte. Er fand die Strassen voll\nvon geschaftigen Menschen, die den Fremdling neugierig und forschend ansahen, viele\nunter ihnen in mangelhafter Bekleidung, mit bleichen und vergramten Gesichtern. Auch\ndie Hauser waren mit Einliegern' iiberfiillt, noch in den Dachfenstern guckten\n\nKinder-\n\n1 Einlieger, lodger.\n\nkopfe und hing die Wasche armer Leute. Aus dem engen Hofen horte er Gebriill der\nKinder, und neben den Hunden liefen grunzende Schweine vor den Hausthiiren. Denn\nviele Landleute waren nach der Stadt geflUchtet und hausten mit ihrem Vieh gedrangt in\njammerlichen Wohnungen. Auch der Marktplatz war mit Bretterbuden und Leinwandzelten\" besetzt, an welchen armselige Frauen wuschen und kochten und halbnackte Kin2 Leinwandzelt, canvas tent.\n\nder auf den Steinen spielten. — Freytag.\nGessler.\n\nI\n\n(i:) ' Nun, Tell ! well du den Apfel triffst vom Baume\n\nJ\n\nI The candidate is here supposed to have read Schiller's Tell. If he has not, passage (c) should be\nreplaced by another, taken from a classic previously studied.\nAuf hundert Schritt, so wirst du deine Kunst\nVor mir bewahren miissen.\nNimm die Armbrust —\nDu hast sie gleich zur Hand — und mach dich fertig,\nEinen Apfel von des Knaben Kopf zu schiessen —\nDoch, will ich raten, ziele gut, dass du\n\n**\ny\ni\n\nDen Apfel treffest auf den ersten Schuss !\nDenn fehlst du ihn, so ist dein Kopf verloren.\n\n■ ;'\n\n[Alle geben Zeichen des Schreckens.']\n\nTell.\n\nHerr, welches Ungeheure sinnet Ihr\nMir an? — Ich soil vom Haupte meines Kindes —\nNein, nein doch, lieber Herr, das kommt Euch nicht\nZu Sinn. — Verhiit's der gnad'ge Gott. — Das konnt Ihr\nIm Ernst von einem Vater nicht begehren !\n\n41\n\n"}
{"page": 761, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCOLLEGE-ENTRANCE\n\nREQULREMENTS\n\n753\n\nII. (a) Compare the adjectives alt, kurz, bedeutend, wild, dunkel, hoch, ober, erst,\ndeutsch, ganz.\n(^) Explain the use of sein and haben as auxiliaries of tense, and put into German :\n(l) The boy has fallen into the water. (2) He has traveled much, but seen little. (3) I\nhave remained too long. (4) I have been sitting in my room all day. (5) You have\nslept two hours.\n\n(6) The child has fallen asleep.'\n\nI Fall asleep, rinschlafen,\n\n{c) How do the modal auxiliaries differ in conjugation from ordinary weak verbs,\nand how from strong verbs ? Put into German: (l) I will tell you something. (2) We\ncannot go. (3) He had to stay at home, (4) I should like to know. (5) She will not\nbe permitted to come.\n(6) I have not been able to see him.\n{d) In passage {c) explain (i) the plural Schritt, (2) the subjunctive treffest, (3) the use\njf the article in des Schreckens.\nIII. Translate into German :\n\n*\n\nThere was once an old goat' that had seven kids.*\n> Goat, die Ziege.\n\nOne day she had to go out into\n\n2 Kid, Geislein.\n\nthe woods to get foods for her young ones.\n\nSo she called them all to her and said : \"I\n\n3 Food, das Futter.\n\nmust go away now, and shall not come back till evening. You must all stay in the house\nand not let anyone in till I come home.\nIf the wolf comes, you will know him by* his\n4 By, an.\n\nrough s voice and his black feet,\"\n\nSoon the wolf came and said : \" Open the door and\n\n5 Rough, rank.\n\nlet me in. I am your mother and have brought you some cakes.\" But the kids knew by\nthe rough voice that it was not their mother, and the oldest kid looked out of the window\nand saw the wolf standing there and told him to go away.\nF.\n\nADVANCED\n\nGERMAN\n\nI. Translate into English :\n{a) Die Kunst ist lang, das Leben kurz, das Urteil schwierig, die Gelegenheit fliichtig. Handeln is leicht, Denken schwer, nach dem Gedachten Handeln unbequem. Die\nNachahmung ist uns angeboren, das Nachzuahmende wird nicht leicht erkannt. Selten\nwird das Treffliche gefunden, seltener geschatzt. Die Hohe reizt uns, nicht die Stufen ;\nden Gipfel im Auge wandeln wir gerne auf der Ebene. Nur ein Teil der Kunst kann\ngelehrt werden, der Kiinstler braucht sie ganz. Wer sie halb kennt, ist immer irre und\nredet viel ; wer sie ganz besitzt, mag nur thun und redet selten oder spat. Jene haben\nkeine Geheimnisse und keine Kraft; ihre Lehre ist wie gebackenes Brod, schmackhaft\nund sattigend fUr einen Tag: aber Mehl kann man nicht saen, und die Saatfriichte sollen\nnicht vermahlen werden. Die Worte sind gut, sie sind aber nicht das Beste. Das Beste\nwird nicht deutlich durch Worte. Der Geist, aus dem wir handeln, ist das Hochste.\nNiemand weiss, was er thut, wenn er recht handelt ; aber des Unrechten sind wir uns\nimmer bewusst. Des echten Kiinstlers Lehre schliesst den Sinn auf ; denn wo die Worte\nfehlen, spricht die That. Der erste Schiiler lernt aus dem Bekannten das Unbekannte\nentwickeln und nahert sich dem Meister. — Goethe.\n{b) Alle Morgen wird auf unseren FriihstUckstisch mit der Zeitung eine Bundel der\nverschiedenartigsten Neuigkeiten gelegt : Weltlauf und Privatschicksale, Handel und\nVerkehr, Feuilleton und Theaterskandal, Borse und pikanter Roman.\nUnter dieser Fiille\n\n"}
{"page": 762, "printed_page": null, "text": "754\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nvon Dingen, wie Vieles davon ist brauchbar fiir unser Leben und unsere Bildung ? Wie\nVieles nahrt das heilige Feuer der Humanitat ? Und wie Vieles schmeichelt unseren\nschlimmeren Neigungen und Trieben ? Man sage nicht, dass hier nur das Angebot der\nNachfrage entspreche ; die Nachfrage hatte zuriickgedrangt werden Icbnnen, ware das\nAngebot nicht so eifrig gewesen. Und wenn es dabei bliebe ! Aber dabei hat es sein\nBewenden nicht, der Leser erhalt durch die Zeitung nicht bloss den Stoff, sondem den\nStoff in einer bestimmten Form und Fassung, begleitet von eineai entschiedenen, wenngleich anonymen Urteil. . . . Und mag sich ein eifriger Zeitungsleser noch so sehr und\nso lange strauben, die Meinung des Blattes, das er halt, als die seinige aufzunehmen, es\nkommen erst Augenblicke, dann Tage und Wochen, in denen es ihm bequem ist, wenn\ndas Journal fur ihn denkt, und ist er so weit, dann wird ihm das Denken iiberhaupt zu\nmiihsam, und er iiberlasst es ein fiir allemal seinem gedruckten Orakel. - — Schbnbach.\nII. {a) Without translating, paraphrase the following passage in ordinary- German\nprose :\nEs ist der Kriee ein A>h, gewaltsam Handwerk.\nMan kommt nicht aus mit sanften Mitteln, alles\n\nLasst sich nicht schonen.\nWollte man's erpassen,\nBis sie zu Wien aus vier und zwanzig Uebeln\nDas kleinste ausgewahlt, man passte lange !\n— Frisch mitten durchgegriffen, das ist besser !\nReiss dann, was mag I — Die Menschen in der Regel\nVerstehen sich aufs Flicken und aufs Stuckeln,\nUnd finden sich in ein verhasstes Miissen\nWeit besser als in eine bittre Wahl. — Schiller.\n\n(b) Explain in German (i) the use of the unmflected forms roh, gewaltsam; (2) the\ndifference between passen and erpassen; (3) the use of durchgegriffen.\n{c) Give the first five lines as they would appear in a report introduced by er sagte.\n{d) Explain in German the meaning of the last two lines.\nIII. Write fifteen or twenty lines in German upon the plot of some play or novel\nthat you have read.\nIV. Translate into German :\nOne of the most beautiful traits in the character of Frederick the Great was his strict\nlove of justice. Who does not know the story of the windmill at Potsdam, which the king\nwished to buy of the owner because it stood in his way in the laying out' of the park of\nI Laying out, die A nlage.\n\nSans-Souci ? The miller refused steadfastly to sell his property, tho the king offered\nhim a large sum and promised to have another mill built for him. But the obstinate old\nfellow only answered : \"My grandfather built this mill, I inherited it from my father, and\nmy children shall inherit it from me.\" The king now became impatient and said : \" But\nyou know, I suppose, that I might have your mill for nothing, if I wished.\" \"Yes,\"\nanswered the miller, \" if there were no chamber of justice 'at Berlin.\"\nPleased at the\n» Chamber of justice, das Kamtnergericht.\n\nconfidence which the old miller had in the Prussian courts, the king dismissed the man\nwithout further words.\nCalvin Thomas, Chairman,\nProfessor of Germanic Languages, Columbia University.\n\nE. H. Babbitt, Secretary,\nInstructor in German, Columbia University.\n\n"}
{"page": 763, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCOLLEGE-ENTRANCE\n\nREQUIREMENTS\n\n755\n\nB. L. BowEN,\n,\nProfessor of Romance Languages, University of Ohio.\n\n.\n\nH. C. G. Brandt,\nProfessor of German, Hamilton College, New York.\nW. H. Carruth,\nProfessor of German, University of Kansas.\nS. W. Cutting,\nAssociate Professor of German, University of Chicago.\nA. M. Elliott,\nProfessor of Romance Languages, Johns Hopkins University.\nC. H. Grandgent,\nProfessor of Romance Philology, Harvard University.\nG. A. Hench,\nProfessor of Germanic Languages, University of Michigan.\nH. A. Rennert,\nProfessor of Romance Languages, University of Pennsylvania,\nWilliam B. Snow,\nTeacher of French, English High School, Boston, Mass,\nB. W. Wells,\nProfessor of Modern Languages, University of the South.\n\nREPORT\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nAMERICAN\n\nCOMMITTEE\nHISTORICAL\n\nOF\n\nSEVEN\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nTo the Committee on College-Entrance Requirements of the National Educational Association :\nThe committee making the following recommendations was appointed\nin 1896 by the American Historical Association to consider the subject\nof history in the secondary schools and to draw up a scheme of collegeentrance requirements in history. Since that time we have been engaged\nin this work, endeavoring to gather information concerning existing conditions and tendencies of historical instruction, and to make suggestions\non the general subject under consideration.' In the statement which\nfollows we mark out a system of college-entrance requirements in history\nwithout seeking to give all the reasons which seem to us to support the\nconclusions presented.\n'A statement of the grounds upon which these conclusions are based is made in the report of this committee to the American Historical Association. This report is published by Macmillan & Co., 1899, and also\nappears in the proceedings of the American Historical Association for 1898. Besides discussing the value of\nhistory audits place in the curriculum, the report considers the manner of treating different periods of history\nand methods of instruction. Articles on the teaching of history in foreign countries and select bibliographies\nfor the use of teachers are also included.\n\n"}
{"page": 764, "printed_page": null, "text": "756\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nIMPORTANT\n\nPLACE\n\nNOW\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nHELD\n\nBY\n\nrSecondaty\n\nHISTORY\n\nHistory as a secondary study demands serious attention. The report\nof the United States Commissioner of Education for 1896-97 shows that\nthere were, at that time, 186,581 pupils in the secondary schools studying\nhistory (other than United States history). No statistics have been\ncollected to show the number of students studying the history and government of the United States; but there is good ground for saying that,\nif such pupils were taken into account, the number of history pupils would\nbe found to exceed two hundred thousand, and perhaps equal, if not exceed,\nin number those engaged in the study of any other subject save algebra.\nAccording to the statistics of the Bureau of Education, the number of\npupils studying history (other than United States history) has increased\n152 per cent, in the last ten years, a rate of increase below that of only\none subject in the curriculum. These simple facts seem to make it plain\nthat college-entrance requirements thai are properly based upon the\nwork and tendencies of the secondary schools should include a liberal\namount of history among the prescribed and optional studies.\nPRINCIPLES\n\nOF\n\nCOLLEGE\n\nREQUIREMENTS\n\nIn all our consideration of college-entrance requirements in history we\nhave endeavored to bear in mind certain facts and principles which we\nconceive to be fundamental, and it may be well to state at the outset what\nwe conceive these facts to be, and upon what main principles we have\ndrawn up the following recommendations. The great majority of\nsecondary schools are primarily not preparatory schools where boys and\ngirls are fitted for college. The curriculum must be prepared for the\npurpose of developing boys and girls into young men and women, not\nfor the purpose of fitting them to meet college-entrance examinations, or\nof filling them with certain information which some faculty thinks desirable as a forerunner of college work. Many of the academies, and some\nof the high schools, can, without much trouble, meet the requirements of\na college, however artificial, but the great majority of high schools, and\nsome of the academies, have great difficulty in so doing, and it is an almost\nimpossible task to arrange the program so that pupils can be fitted for\nmore than one institution.'\nWe welcome the efforts of the committee of the National Educational\nAssociation to simplify and unify college-entrance requirements. But we\nbelieve that the first requisite for the successful accomplishment of this\ntask is the recognition of the fact that the great majority of schools are\nnot fitting schools for colleges, and it seems to us that any rigid and\ninelastic regime which does not take into consideration the fact that\n« We find, for example, in the catalog of a good high school — a school rather large than small, and well\nequipped with teachers — this typical statement, that a pupil can prepare in that school for one of several\nuniversities, but he should know what he intends to do at the beginning of his second year, and that a failure\nto choose accurately in any one semester involves the loss of a year.\n\n"}
{"page": 765, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCOLLEGE-ENTRANCE\n\nREQUIREMENTS\n\n757\n\nschools are working in many different environments and are subject to\ndifferent limitations and conditions cannot be widely accepted or prove\nuseful for any length of time. We venture to suggest, then, that in an\neffort to simplify the situation and to relieve the schools from their\npresent burdens, two things are essential : (i) that the fundamental\nscope and purpose of the secondary schools be regarded ; (2) that such\nelasticity be allowed that schools may fit for college and adapt themselves\nto local environments and local needs.'\nWe feel justified, therefore, as students and teachers, in marking out,\nin a general way, what we think is the best curriculum in history ; and we\ndesire to emphasize the thought that history is a peculiarly helpful study\nin a secondary course which is fashioned with the thought of preparing\nboys and girls for the duties of daily life and intelligent citizenship. But\nwe do not feel that we should seek to lay down hard and fast collegeentrance requirements and ask your committee to declare in favor of\nan altogether inflexible regime. It seems to us that the time has\ncome when the colleges should recognize the value of history and\nadmit to their lists of requirements a liberal amount of historical\nwork.\nCHOICE\n\nOF\n\nSUBJECTS\n\nWe have carefully considered how the general field of history can best\nbe covered, and how much time should be devoted to the work. We\ncannot recommend a short course in general history in which an effort\nis made to cover the whole field of the world's progress in a single year's\nstudy. Such a general conspectus requires four years' work, if the results\nare to be thoroly satisfactory ; it need hardly be said that three years are\nbetter than two, and two years are better than one. But we recommend,\nif less than four years is given to historical work, that some portion of the\nworld's history be omitted, in order that the portions selected may be\nstudied in a manner likely to produce good pedagogical results. Training in historical thinking and the discipline coming from a careful\nexamination of a limited period — a period large enough, however, to\nconstitute a significant part of the world's development — seem to us\nmore important than obtaining a bird's-eye view of the whole field.\nWe recommend that the four-years' course include the following\nblocks or periods of history. Each of these periods has a certain unity\nand meaning, and they can best be pursued in the order in which they are\nhere set down, which follows the natural chronological sequence.\nI. Ancient history, with special reference to Greek and Roman\nhistory, and including also a short introductory study of the more ancient\n' It does not seem wise, even if it were possible, to outline the same entrance requirements for the University of California, the University of Kansas, the University of North Carolina, Vale, Harvard, Tulane, and\na hundred others. If the curriculum is rigid and inflexible, this means that secondary schools everywhere should\nconform to the same mold, disregard environment, and come under the domination of external force.\n\n"}
{"page": 766, "printed_page": null, "text": "758\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nnations and the chief events of the early Middle Ages. The period may\nclose with the establishment of the Holy Roman Empire (800), the death\nof Charlemagne (814), or the Treaty of Verdun (843).\nII. Mediaeval and modern European history, from the close of the\nfirst period to the present time.\nIII. English history.\nIV. American history and civil government.\nEach of these periods deserves careful study, and we do not think, as'\nwe have already said, that less than four years is sufficient to cover them\nall in a satisfactory manner. If only three years can be given to historical work, three of these periods can be chosen and one omitted.\nSuch omission seems to us to be wiser than any condensation of the\nwhole. But if it seems best to compress two of the periods into a single\nyear, one of the following plans may be wisely adopted : {a) combine\nEnglish and American history in such a nianner that the important principles wrought out in English history and the main facts of English\nexpansion will be taught in connection with American colonial and\nAmerican political history ; {!)) treat English history in such a way as to\ninclude the most important elements of mediaeval and modern European\nhistory.\nRECOMMENDATIONS\n\nFOR\n\nCOLLEGE\n\nREQUIREMENTS\n\nFor convenience of statement we have adopted in the following\nrecommendations the term \"unit,\" and by one unit we mean either one\nyear of historical work wherein the study is given five times per week, or\ntwo years of historical work wherein the study is given three times per\nweek. We have thought it best to take into consideration the fact that\ndifferent colleges have now not only different requirements, but also\nentirely different methods of framing and proposing requirements. It\nhas not seemed wise to outline historical courses on the supposition that\nall colleges would at once conform to a uniform arrangement.\n1. If a college or scientific school has a system of complete options\nin college-entrance requirements, that is, if it accepts a given number of\nyears' work or units, without prescribing specific subjects of study (as,\nfor example, at Leland Stanford University), we recommend that four\nunits in history be accepted as an equivalent for a like amount of work\nin other subjects. Likewise, that one, two, or three units in history be\naccepted.\n2. If a college or scientific school requires a list of certain prescribed studies, and also demands additional subjects chosen out of an\noptional list (as, for example, at Harvard University), we recommend\nthat one unit of history be placed on the list of definitely prescribed\nstudies, and that one, two, or three other units of history be placed\n^mpng the optional studies.\n3. If a cqlle^e or ggieutific school has rigid requirements without\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 767, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCOLLEGE-ENTRANCE\n\nREQUIREMENTS\n\n759\n\noptions (as, for example, at Yale College and the Sheffield Scientific\nSchool), we recommend that at least one unit of history be required for\nentrance.\nThese recommendations (i, 2, and 3) do not seem to us unreasonable,\nand we do not believe that their adoption would impose any burden upon\ncolleges or preparatory schools. If the traditional requirements in other\nsubjects need to be diminished in order to allow one unit of history in\nany regime of rigid requirements, we do not think that such diminution\nis unwise, because history is now very generally studied, and because the\ntraining obtained from historical work is an essential of good secondary\neducation. It will be seen from the statement that follows (under 4) that\nwe do not recommend any particular field or period of history to which\na year's study should be given. To constitute this unit any one of the\nperiods or blocks of history previously mentioned can be selected.\n4. Where a college has several distinct courses leading to different\ndegrees, and marks out different groups of preparatory study, each group\npreparing for one of the college courses (as, for example, at the University of Michigan), the use to be made of history requires more detailed\nexposition. In one of these preparatory courses the ancient languages\nare given chief attention; in a second, a modern language is substituted\nfor one of the ancient languages ; in a third, the chief energy is devoted\nto natural sciences ; in a fourth, main stress is laid upon history and\nEnglish language and literature. The general recommendations above\ngiven will aid somewhat in outlining preparatory courses in history,\nwhere such definite routes for admission to colleges are marked out :\nA. We believe that in each preparatory course there should be at\nlea^t one unit of history. This recommendation tneans that classical\nstudents should have at least one full year of historical work. A course\nwhich purports to deal with the \"humanities\" cannot afford to be without one year's work in a study whose sole theme is humanity. When\nfour years are given to Latin, two or more to Greek, two or three to mathematics, one, or perchance two, to sciences, some room should be found\nfor history, even if the time given to other studies must be diminished.\nIf we take for granted that the great majority of secondary pupils do\nnot go to college, can we declare that they should go out into life with no\nknowledge of the humanities save that acquired by the study of the\nGreek and Roman tongues?\nTo decide what field of history should be chosen is a matter of considerable difficulty. We believe it desirable that pupils should know the\nlife and thought of Greece and Rome, and the development of their\ncivilization ; that they should study the great facts of European history\nafter the downfall of the Roman empire ; that they should have some\nknowledge of how England grew to be a great empire, and how English\nliberty developed ; that' they should come to know their own political\n\n"}
{"page": 768, "printed_page": null, "text": "760\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nsurroundings by studying American history and government. We hesitate, therefore, to recommend that any one particular field be chosen to\nthe exclusion of the rest, and yet we think that far better educational\nresults can be secured by devoting a year to one period than by attempting to cover the history of the world in that length of time. We believe\nthat it is more important that pupils should acquire knowledge of what\nhistory is and how it should be studied, than that they should cover any\nparticular field.\nPerhaps it is not impossible in connection with the study of Greek\nand Latin to pay attention to the growth of Greece and Rome, so that\npupils may be led to an appreciation of the character and essential\nnature of ancient civilization. This is one'of the great ends of historical work ; and if the humanities can thus be humanized, there will be\nless need of prescribing Greek and Roman history as a distinct subject\nfor classical students,' and some other historical field may then be\nchosen. We cannot be sure, however, that such methods of teaching the\nclassics will prevail, and we must content ourselves with recommending\none of the four blocks, or periods, which are marked out in the earlier\nportions of this paper, without designating any particular one.\nB. The secondary course, sometimes called the Latin course, in which\na modern language takes the place of Greek, presents nearly the same\nproblems as the classical course. It does not afford much time for the\nstudy of history, and we recommend\ntioned above be selected.\n\nthat some one of the blocks men-\n\nC. In the scientific secondary course more opportunity for historical\nstudy is often allowed, and here, perhaps, two units of history can be\ngiven. One of them, at least, will naturally be a modern field; and yet\nit may be said that it is highly desirable that scientific pupils should by\nthe study of ancient history obtain something of the culture which is not\nwrongly supposed to come from the study of classical civilizations,\nD. The fourth secondary course, commonly called the English course,\nshould have history for its backbone, inasmuch as it is a study peculiarly\ncapable of being continued thruout the four years, and offering that\nopportunity for continuous development which the classical pupil\nattains from the prolonged study of Latin. We strongly advise that\nsustained effort be devoted to history, in order that this course may have\na certain consistency and unity. There are already schools which offer\nhistory for four years, and give four full units, consisting substantially\nof the four blocks we have outlined. If the four full units cannot jbe\ngiven, it may be well to offer history only three times a week in one of\nthe four years. If only three years can be devoted to the study, one of\nthe four blocks must, as we have already said, be omitted, or two fields\n'That the desirability of such method is recognized by many classical teachers is shown, for example,\nby the paper by Professor Clifford H. Moore on \" How to Enrich the Classical Course,\" published in the School\nReview, September, 1898.\n\n"}
{"page": 769, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCOLLEGE-ENTRANCE\n\nREQUIREMENTS\n\n761\n\nmust be compressed in some such manner as that suggested in the earlier\nportion of this paper.\nThe general recommendations under this head may be summed up\nas follows : {a) for the classical course, one unit of history, to consist of\none of the four blocks previously mentioned ; {p) for the Latin course,\nthe same ; (r) for the scientific course, two units, consisting of any two of\nthe blocks ; (d) for the English course, three units, consisting of any\nthree of the blocks, or of two blocks and a combination of two others.\nWe strongly recommend that four years be given in this course.\nMORE\n\nTHAN\n\nONE\n\nUNIT\n\nDESIRABLE\n\nIt should be said in conclusion that, in demanding but one unit of\nhistory as the minimum requirement for entrance to a college or scientific school, the committee does not wish to be understood as expressing\nits approval of this amount as an adequate course in history for secondary\nschools. In this portion of the report we have been obliged to work\nwithin the limits of the systems of entrance requirements which now prevail, and to frame recommendations which may be adapted to existing\nconditions ; but we do not believe that a single unit of history constitutes\na sufficient course — viewed with reference either to the relative importance of the subject or to the possibility of realizing the aims of historical\ninstruction within the time that would thus be at the teacher's disposal.\nWhile it may not at present be feasible for every college to require more\nthan one unit of history, the committee believes that two units should\nconstitute the minimum amount offered in any school, and it maintains\nthat a still more extended course in history has claims quite equal to\nthose that may be urged on behalf of any other study in the secondary\ncurriculum.\nENTRANCE\n\nEXAMINATIONS\n\nOne subject connected with college-entrance requirements has peculiar importance in connection with the study of history, namely, entrance\nexaminations. Higher institutions which admit students on the basis of\ncertificates need have no administrative difficulty in giving large recognition to history as a preparatory subject, but in colleges and universities\nwhich can be entered only after passing examinations the problem is\nsomewhat different. The utility of historical study lies not only in the\nacquisition of certain important facts, but in great measure in its indirect\nresults in training the power of discrimination and judgment ; and it will\noften happen that pupils who have profited largely from their study of\nhistory will, especially after two or three years have elapsed, show surprising lacuncB in their stores of historical information. While a course\nin history should be progressive and built steadily upon what has gone\nbefore, one stage does not depend so immediately upon the preceding\n\n"}
{"page": 770, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\n762\n\nand involve so persistent a review of earlier work as in the case of languages and mathematics, and growth in power of historical thinking is\nmuch more difficult to measure than progress in mathematical knowledge\nor linguistic facility. These difficulties are present, in some degree, even\nwhen the candidate is examined on work done in history in the last year\nof the secondary school, but they become exceedingly serious when the\nsubject has been studied some years before, or when the course in history\ncovers two, three, or four years of the period of secondary instruction.\nThe remedy, in our opinion, lies, not in the exclusion or unnatural\nrestriction of history as a subject for entrance, but in the reform of methods of examination in history ; if the present system of entrance examinations does not — and it generally does not — properly test the\nqualifications of candidates in history, it is time to consider how it may\nbe changed. Certainly nothing has done more to discredit history as a\nsubject for college entrance than the setting of papers which demand no\nmore preparation than a few weeks' cram. The suggestions which follow\nare offered in the hope, not that they will afford a final solution of the\nproblem, but that they may prove helpful in bringing about a more just\nand adequate system of examinations in history. Their complete adoption will naturally involve a larger allotment of time to history than is\nnow given in examination schedules, and impose a heavier burden upon\nthose to whose lot the reading of papers in history falls, but it is not\nlikely that the demands of time and energy will prove greater than in\nother well-recognized admission subjects, and it is not unreasonable\nto expect college authorities to make suitable provision in these\nregards.\nThe main element in entrance examinations in history must probably\ncontinue to be the written paper, but it should be set with the idea of\ntesting, to some extent, the candidate's ability to use historical material, as\nwell as his knowledge of important facts. The information questions\nshould not demand the simple reproduction of the statements of the text,\nbut should be framed, in large measure, so as to require the grouping of\nfacts in a different form from that followed in the books recommended\nfor preparation. There should also be questions involving some power\nof discrimination and some use of legitimate comparison on the part of\nthe candidate. It is not expected that skill in utilizing historical material\nwill be present in a high degree in the candidate for admission to college,\nbut the student who has learned how to handle books and extract information from them in the course of his secondary studies has the right\nand the ability to make this count for something toward college entrance.\nAs suitable tests may be suggested : comment on carefully chosen brief\nextracts from simple sources or modern works ; analysis or discussion of\nmore extended passages, supplemented, perhaps, by outline maps or concrete illustrations — anything,\n\nin short, which\n\nwill show the student's\n\n"}
{"page": 771, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCOLLEGE-ENTRANCE\n\nREQUIREMENTS\n\n763\n\ncapacity for taking ujj 3, fresh question in a way that indicates some development of the historical sense. Naturally, attainments in this direction will\nbe expected chiefly of those who present history as an additional option.\nTo many these tests will appear sufficient, but it must always be borne\nin mind that a written paper, even when the questions have been prepared with great care, cannot yield such decisive results in history as it\ncan, for example, in a subject like English composition. The examiner\nshould always have an opportunity, particularly in doubtful cases, of supplementing byother means the information gained from the paper. One\nexcellent adjunct is the submission by the candidate of written work done\nin connection with his study of history in school. This may include notebooks, abstracts of reading, and prepared papers — none of which, however, should be accepted without proper guarantee of authenticity and\nindependent preparation. Another supplementary test, which is largely\nused ip European examinations, and has commended itself to the experience of many American examiners, consists of a brief oral conference\nwith the candidate. This should be quite informal in character, and\nshould aim to discover, if possible, something concerning the personality\nof the candidate and the nature of his historical training, rather than to\nelicit brief answers to a few arbitrarily chosen questions.\nCOURSES\nfour-years'\n\ncourse\n\nin history\n\nFirst year — Ancient history to 800 A. D.\nSecond year — Mediaeval and modern European history.\nThird year — English history.\nFourth year — American history and civil government.\nthree-years'\n\ncourse\n\nin history\n\nA\nAny three of the above blocks.\none of the following :\n\nThis plan seems to the committee better than any\nB\n\nFirst or second year — Ancient history.\nSecond or third year — English history, with special reference to the chief events in the\nhistory of continental Europe.\nThird or fourth year — American history or civil government.\nC\nFirst or second year — Ancient history.\nSecond or third year — Mediaeval and modern European history.\nThird or fourth year — American history, with a consideration of the chief events in the\nhistory of England.\nD\nFirst yeai\nAncient history.\nSecond year — English history, with reference to events in later mediaeval history (three\ntimes per week).\n\n"}
{"page": 772, "printed_page": null, "text": "764\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nThird year — English history, with reference to the chief events in modern European\nhistory (three times per week).\nFourth year — Americail history and civil government.\nE\nFirst year — Ancient history.\nSecond year — Mediaeval and modem European history.\nThird year — American history, with special reference to development of English political\nprinciples and English expansion in connection with American colonial history (three times per week).\nFourth year — American history and civil government (three times per week).\n\nAndrew\n\nC. McLaughlin,\n\nChairman,\n\nProfessor of American History in the University of\nMichigan.\n\nHerbert\n\nB. Adams,\n\nProfessor of American and Institutional History in\nthe Johns Hopkins University.\nGeorge\n\nL. Fox,\nPrincipal of the Hopkins Grammar School, New\nHaven, Conn.\n\nAlbert\n\nBushnell Hart,\nProfessor of History in Harvard University.\n\nCharles\n\nH. Haskins,\n\nProfesssor of European History in the University\nof Wisconsin.\nLucy\n\nM. Salmon,\nProfessor of History in Vassar College.\n\nH. Morse\n\nStephens,\n\nProfessor of Modern European History in Cornell\nUniversity.\n\n^\n\nREPORT OF THE COMMITTEE OF THE CHICAGO SECTION\nOF THE AMERICAN MATHEMATICAL SOCIETY\nDr. A. F. Nightingale, Chairman.\nSir : In compliance with a request from you, the Chicago Section of the American\nMathematical Society, at its session in December, 1898, appointed a committee to co-operate with the committee of the National Educational Association of which you are chairman, by preparing for the use of the latter committee a report \" on the scope, aim, and\nplace of these studies (mathematics) in the secondary schools and in preparation for college, with model courses in algebra, geometry (plane and solid), and trigonometry, with\nmethods to be used, time to be consumed, etc., etc.\" This action was afterward approved\nby the Council of the society.\nIn order that the various phases of instruction in mathematics might be more fully\n\n"}
{"page": 773, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCOLLEGE-ENTRANCE\n\nREQUIREMENTS\n\n765\n\nrepresented, it was decided to associate with the members of the American Mathematical\nSociety upon the committee several persons not members of the society, these persons to have\nequal voice and vote with the members of the society in the proceedings of the committee,\nbut to be designated as associate members of the committee. The associate members are\nMessrs. Lyon and Schobinger.\nThe committee held several sessions in December, at which the various problems presenting themselves were discussed, and a subcommittee was appointed to prepare a draft\nof a report. This was done, and a copy sent to each member of the committee. These\ndrafts were returned with criticisms and amendments, upon the basis of which a second\ndraft was prepared by the subcommittee and a copy sent to each member of the committee .\nThe comments hereupon were discussed by those members of the committee present at the\nmeeting of the Chicago Section of the American Mathematical Society at Evanston, April\nI, 1899, and the subcommittee was directed to prepare a third and final draft, which is\nsubmitted herewith. Since the report is submitted to you directly, and not to the society,\nthe individuals concurring in the report are alone responsible for its contents.\nVery respectfully,\nJ. W. A. Young,\nChairman.\nPRELIMINARY\n\nREMARKS\n\n1. Terms used. — The term \" secondary school \" is used to designate,\ngenerically, all schools which have courses fitting for college. The term\nincludes high schools, academies, and private college-preparatory schools.\nThe course of study in the secondary school proper is assumed to cover\nfour years.\nThe term \" the grades \" is used to designate the work prior to the\nsecondary school. It is assumed to cover eight years. The work of each\nof these years is sometimes alluded to as a \"grade,\" the grades being\nnumbered in .order from one to eight. The child is assumed to enter the\nfirst grade at the age of six years.\n2. Scope of report.— in determining the phases of topics to be discussed\nand the nature of its detailed suggestions, the committee has been governed by the condition of instruction today, rather than the absolute\nimportance in themselves of the topics selected for remark. It was found\nimpracticable to discuss the work in mathematics in the secondary school\nwithout giving quite a little consideration to the closely related antecedent work in the grades.\n3. Scope of mathematical work. — At its sessions in December the following resolutions were adopted- by the committee:\n{a) That before the pupils reach the secondary school the work in\nmathematics should be the same for all.\n(^) That in the secondary school the standard course in mathematics\nshould be sufficient to admit to college ; that this course should be required\nof all pupils, and that the instruction in this course should be the same for\nall pupils.\n(c) That the main emphasis should be given to such topics as are useful in later work.\n\n"}
{"page": 774, "printed_page": null, "text": "766\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\n{d) That the best place for a topic in the course of study is where it is\nmost closely related to other topics; that there should be applications\nof algebra, geometry, and arithmetic to each other, and to various sciences\nand the practical affairs of life.\nCONCERNING\n\nMETHODS\n\nVarious methods of teaching mathematics are in vogue. The good\nteacher will not tie himself to any one method, but, on occasion, will make\nuse of the good features of every one. The committee recommends no\nsingle method above all others, but whatever method may be used, the aim\nshould always be to cultivate independent thinking on the part of the pupil.\nA method which encourages, or even permits, rote work, or mechanical\nmanipulations, is radically wrong. The value of the study of mathematics cannot be realized, not one of its objects attained, unless the\nstudent himself thinks, produces. Not to learn proofs, but to prove,\nmust be his task. This idea should dominate the instruction from the\nvery beginning. The independent work should not be left to the\nclose ; not to the closing years, nor to the close of the subject in hand,\nnor to the close of the chapter, nor even to the close of the first lesson\nin arithmetic.\nGENERAL\n\nMETHODIC\n\nSUGGESTIONS\n\n1. Steps. — The importance of distinguishing the various steps of a\nprocess, and of taking them one at a time, can hardly be overemphasized.\nThis is sometimes irksome to the pupil, and the consequent attempts to\ntake several steps at once are responsible for much of some pupils' lack of\nsuccess in mathematics.\n2. Oral work — In all the subjects of mathematics much stress should\nbe laid on oral solution of many easy and carefully graded exercises.\nPrinciples are just as effectually applied in these as in more complicated\nexercises, and the application is more readily seen.\n3. Testing results. — The pupil should be taught to test the accuracy of\nhis results by applying a check whenever this is possible, and before completing any topic he should have acquired sufficient facility in checking\nhis work against errors, to rely with confidence upon the correctness of his\nown results, independently of corroboration by the teacher or a printed\nanswer. Often a rough estimate of the probable character of the result\nwill enable the pupil to detect a glaring error, without the use of a more\ndetailed check. Written exercises should by no means all have results of\na simple form, since pupils are very apt to fall into the habit of thinking\nthat the result must be simple to be correct.\n4. Translation. — Mathematics has a language of its own. The teacher\nmust be unwearying in his endeavors to teach his pupils to speak the sentences of the mathematical language with intelligence, and he must be\n\n"}
{"page": 775, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCOLLEGE-ENTRANCE\n\nREQUIREMENTS\n\n767\n\never on the alert to check the tendency to use them as meaningless jargon.\nHere, as in other languages, one who has made some progress shows that\nhe has intelligent control of the language by uttering consistent sentences\nconveying ideas. Ability to think in the language is one of the ends\naimed at, but in the language of mathematics this can be attained only by\nmuch translating ; the beginner must assure himself that he understands\nthe mathematical sentence, by giving its equivalent in ordinary English \\\nand, what is more difficult, must be able to clothe in mathematical symbols thoughts expressed in English.\n5. Different presentations. — In the fundamentals and in the beginning\nof any subject the committee is decidedly of opinion that one set of definitions and style of presentation should be strictly adhered to. After a\ntime (and still adhering to the one style of treatment adopted) the presentation bythe pupils of other proofs which they may have found for the\nsame proposition, or of different methods of attaining the result of some\nexercise, and the discussion of these in class, is of great value. More may\noften be gained by proving one proposition in three different ways than by\nproving three propositions in the same way. This practice should, however, be introduced gradually, great care being taken to avoid confusion;\nand its use should be much increased as the pupils gain a firm grasp of\nthe subject.\nDefinitions, tho developed in class as needed, should not be left in\nan inaccurate form, nor inconsistent with the analogous definitions of\nlater mathematics. Tho in higher mathematics the definitions of the\nelementary subjects may be generalized, it should not be necessary to\noverturn them. (E. g., the circle should be defined as a curve, not as a\nportion of a plane.)\n6. Neatness and accuracy. — Papers written in a slovenly manner, slipshod work, half-guessing at results, and artificial juggling with the quantities involved, are far too frequently found. The difficulty can be met\nonly by persistent training, from the very beginning of mathematical\ninstruction, in neatness and accuracy. In particular, the committee suggests the use of numerous short written exercises, in which the pupil is\nnot hurried for time by the amount assigned, and in which the. requirement is made that what he hands in must be accurate and neatly\narranged.\n7. Synopses. — At the close of each chapter or topic a synopsis in\nschematic form of its definitions, methods, and results should be made.\nThe object of this is to correlate the material and to secure that view of\nthe topic as a whole which is too likely to be obscured by the details of\nthe first study and the working of exercises. This will serve also to bring\nclearly before the pupils that the solution of exercises is not an end in\nitself, but is a means of impressing a connected theory.\n8. Correlation of work. — The subjects arithmetic, geometry, algebra\n\n"}
{"page": 776, "printed_page": null, "text": "768\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nshould be treated as branches of one whole — mathematics — and each of\nthese subjects freely applied in illustrating and broadesing the others.\n9. Independent thinking. — Whatever specific method or methods may\nbe used in conducting the instruction, the controlling principle must\nbe that the pupil is to be kept thinking for ;himself. The learning of\nproofs, even tho it be done understandingly, is not sufficient. Not learning proofs, but proving, should be the pupil's principal activity in the\nstudy of mathematics.\nARITHMETIC\n\nThe instruction in arithmetic, except as it would properly come up in\nconnection with geometry, algebra, and trigonometry, thus adding to\ntheir interest and usefulness, should be confined to the following topics :\n1. The four fundamental processes with integers, all the computations\nbeing tested.\n2. Factorization of all numbers up to 100, and some above 100, exponents being used. The results not to be derived by rule, but from the\nmultiplication table.\n3. Easy work by short rule in L. C. M. and H. C. D. ; to be tested by\nseeing whether the quotients obtained by dividing L. C. M. by the numbers are relatively prime, and whether the numbers divided by the H. C. D.\nalso give relatively prime results.\n4. Simple work in denominate numbers, only the measures generally\nin vogue being used.\n5. Simple operations in fractions, geometric, i. e., graphic illustrations\nbeing given, and fractions with large terms being, as a rule, avoided.\nApplication of simple fractions to making rough estimates.\nMuch stress on cancellation ; actual multiplication or division being\nperformed by cancellation wherever possible.\n6. United States money. The commoner measures of the metric\nsystem ; the measures being actually constructed, and measurements\nperformed with them. There should also be rough comparison with our\nown measures.\n7. Decimals: the four rules, with especial attention to the correct placing of the decimal point.\n8. Simple problems in percentage ; the fact being emphasized that\n\"per cent.\" means hundredths, or a fraction with 100 for denominatoT.\nThe pupil should be trained always first to ask himself of what the per\ncent, is to be taken. This (the determination of the base) is largely a\nmatter of use of language. Making use of \" aliquot parts \" (where the per\ncent, can easily be converted into such) connects per cent, with fractions\nand helps to prevent rote methods.\n9. Examples in simple interest where the time and rate are given.\n10. The use of the \" method of analysis\" for the solution of problems\n\nM\n\n"}
{"page": 777, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nCOLLEGE-ENTRANCE\n\nREQUIREMENTS\n\n769\n\nin simple and compound proportion, and in interest, without ever introducing the terminology and machinery usual in proportion.'\nII. The concrete exemplification of the simpler geometric notions and\nfacts should begin with the beginning of the arithmetic and be carried on in\nconnection with this subject and with drawing during the first six years. By\nthe close of this time the leading facts and theorems of geometry, plane\nand solid, should have become familiar by means of concrete illustrations\nand computations (mensuration). The pupil will now, perhaps, himself\nbegin to feel the need oi proof rather than illustrations (or will be led to\nfeel it by the teacher), and at the beginning* of the seventh year this\ntransition may be made, and the developing of proofs begun carefully,\ngradually, and as informally as possible. In the seventh year the work in\narithmetic may permit the informal beginning (as abbreviations) of literal\narithmetic. The committee recommends that all topics not mentioned\nbe omitted from the instruction in arithmetic as such — in some cases to\nbetaken up later (in algebra, geometry, or trigonometry), in others to be\nomitted altogether.\nIn all the instruction in arithmetic there should be insistence upon\nneatness and upon accuracy; much oral work (object: correct thinking)\nand frequent short oral drills (object : quickness and accuracy); the testing\nof computations, both by rough estimates and exact tests ; avoidance of\ntechnical terms and formal rules, save where absolutely necessary and\nwhen the need is felt by the pupil ; ideas before definitions or rules.\nALGEBRA\n\nWhile not recommending any radical alterations in the subject-matter\nof algebra, as usually presented in our best schools,^ the committee\ndesires to emphasize the following points :\n' As sufficient exemplification of the method we give the following : If 48 men can do a piece of work in\n13 days, working 10 hours a day, in how many days of 8 hours each would 40 men accomplish the same work ?\n\n•^\n\nArrangement : Men\n48\n40\n\n• Days\n12\n?\n\nHours\n10\n8\n\nOral explanation : We seek days, so we begin with days. If 48 men accomplish the work in 12 days, i\nman would have to work 48 times as many days as 48 men, and 40 men ^ as many as i man. That is,\nworking 10 hours per day. To accomplish it by working i hour per day, it would take ten times as many days\nas when working 10 hours per day, and to do it by working 8 hours per day, | as many days as when working\n1 hour per day. We have now considered all the data, and, performing the multiplication, we obtain the\nresult.\nThe written work is by cancellation. Nothing is written down except the arrangement and the following\nequation :\n12 . 48 . A • lo- B=i8.\nThis method makes compound proportion correspondingly easy, and dispenses entirely with the confusing verbiage of the subject.\nThe work is precisely the same, no matter which of the quantities is unknown.\n^The report of 1896-97 of the Commissioner o'f Education contains (pp. 457-613) a collocation of the\nentrance requirements of 432 institutions having a course leading to the degree of A.B. Of these institutions,\n346 specify arithmetic as an entrance requirement, the others probably regard it as implied in the requirement of\nalgebra.\nAlgebra is required in 412 institutions to the following amounts :\n\n"}
{"page": 778, "printed_page": null, "text": "77°\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\n1. The arithmetical side of algebra. — Computations with numbers\nshould be constantly introduced, problems with literal quantities being\nworked out or verified with numerical data also. The processes of arithmetic, both oral and written, should not be allowed to fall into disuse,\nbut facility therein should rather be increased. At the same time, the\npupil should understand the value of algebra in abridging or simplifying\ncomputation with numbers, or in proving the correctness of rules of\ncomputation, and should understand clearly that the devices of mathematics (especially algebra) have the purpose of enabling us not to compute ;\nand that actual computations are usually not to be made so long as they\ncan be avoided ; that cancellation is to be resorted to wherever possible ;\nand that to obtain an expression in factored form, or in any form in\nwhich operations are indicated, is a distinct advantage, not to be surrendered byneedlessly performing the operations. Some of the topics\nomitted from arithmetic should be taken up at appropriate places in the\nwork of algebra.\n2. The equational side of algebra. — The equation should be made from\nthe very beginning. Very simple problems in words leading to equations\ncan be given at the outset.\n3. Algebraic translation. — What has been said as to the value and\nnecessity of translation in general applies with special force to algebra.\nHere the danger of mechanical, or even haphazard, manipulation of\nsymbols is perhaps the greatest, and it must be especially guarded against\nby care that the meaning of the symbols, and the reason for the operations, be always clear in the pupil's mind. This can be done to a large\nextent by requiring the pupil to give readily and clearly in words the meaning of the formulae and equations. On the other hand, the danger is\nexaggerated by the use of complicated and long examples, which seem to\nemphasize operative skill merely, and make that appear as the main\nobject sought.\nBetter many short examples with the principles always\nTo quadratics\n----Including quadratics\n\"\n\"\nAmount not specified\n-\n\n.\n\n\"\n\n.\n\n-\n\n37 institutions\n74\n\"\n201\n\"\n\nThe other requirements are as follows :\nPlane geometry in Solid geometry in\nTrigonometry in\n.\nConic sections in -\n\n-\n\n.\n\n-\n\n.\n\n-\n\n.\n\n294 institutions\n93\n\" \"\n3\n^ 12 \"\n- 2\n\"\n\nUpon looking over the detailed statement of the requirements for each institution, it appears that the better institutions require arithmetic (explicitly or tacitly), algebra including quadratics, and plane geometry.\nSolid geometry is required by many institutions of high rank, and not required by others of equally high\nrarik.\nThe territorial distribution of the institutions requiring solid geometry is interesting.\nDivision\nNorth Atlantic\nSouth Atlantic\nNorth Central\nSouth Central\nWestern\nTotal\n\n•\n\n....\n•\n-\n\nTotal number of\nNumber requiring solid\ninstitutions\ngeometry\n76\n.\n.\n5\n6.6 per cent.\n61 4\n6.6\n\"\n183\n68 37.1\n\"\n-75-8\n10.7\n\"\n37\n8 21.6\n\"\n\n....\n\n^^2\n\n.\n\ngj\n\n21.5 per cent.\n\n"}
{"page": 779, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCOLLEGE-ENTRANCE\n\nclearly apprehended than\nobscured.\n\nREQUIREMENTS\n\na few complicated ones with\n\nthe\n\n77 1\n\nprinciple\n\n(Skill in manipulating long and intricate algebraic expressions should\nalso be attained, and for this purpose the use of long and hard examples,\nafter the principles and methods of a topic are clearly understood, is\nindispensable.)\n4. Topics to be emphasized. — The following topics require especially\ncareful treatment :\nThe meaning and use of exponents, positive, negative, and fractional ;\nthe handling of the simpler surds ; the distinction between identical equations and equations of condition ; the character of the roots of the\nquadratic equation as determined by inspection ; the connection between\nthe roots and the coefficients of the quadratic ; the solution of equations\nby factoring; and the making of the algebraic statements for problems\ngiven in words.\n.5. Secondary-school algebra and college algebra. — It should be the aim\nof the secondary school to avoid taking up any of the topics which are\ncustomarily treated in college algebra, but rather to secure as thoro a\nmastery as possible of those topics which the college presupposes. It is\nrecommended that schools which have hitherto taken up topics anticipatory of college algebra devote the time gained by omitting them to a\nmore thoro study of the topics of the previous head.\nThe progressions, arithmetical and geometric (with applications to\ninterest, simple and compound), and the theory and use of logarithms,\nmight well, so far as the nature and difficulties of the subject are concerned, be included in the secondary-school course, but as they are required\nfor entrance by very few colleges, and are accordingly taken up in connection with college algebra, the committee recommends that they be\nomitted from the secondary-school course, in the interests of economy of\nenergy, and to avoid duplication of work ; until such time at least as, by\naction on the part of the colleges, these topics (or any of them) are\nrelinquished as parts of college algebra, and made parts of the entrance\nrequirements.\nThese remarks relate solely to the work in algebra required of all pupils\nin the secondary school. It is not meant to discourage the offering of\nmore advanced courses in algebra (\"college algebra\") or in trigonometry\nto such pupils as may wish to take them. As these pupils will often\ndesire that these advanced courses in the secondary school should be\naccepted by some college as the equivalent of college work, the scope and •\ncharacter of the work will usually be determined i)y the requirements of\nthe college in question.\nDEMONSTRATIVE\n\nGEOMETRY\n\nThe instruction in demonstrative geometry should not 'begin with\na mass of definitions and axioms.\nAll definitions should be introduced\n\n"}
{"page": 780, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary i\n\n772\n\nwhen needed, and not earlier ; and, as a rule, only after the teacher has,j\nby suitable examples and problems, familiarized the pupil to some extent,\nwith the notion in question, and the pupil himself feels the need of some\nconvenient term by which to designate it, or the need of a precise agreement as to the meaning to be given to a term already used vaguely in\ncommon parlance.\nCare should be taken to select for the early instruction such propositions as are less difficult to understand because less nearly self-evident;\nthose that are more nearly self-evident being reserved for a later stage.\nSuch propositions as, \"All straight angles are equal,\" \"All right angles'\nare equal,\" should be omitted altogether.\nOral proofs (i. e., proofs in which nothing but the figure is placed!\nupon the board) may well be used in geometry. Later even the figure]\nmay often be omitted. After the pupil has had some practice of this sort]\nwith familiar proofs, he will be able to work out the proofs of simple new!\npropositions, with the figures only before him, and even if no figure,]\ncarrying the whole proof in the mind.\nFrequent drills in seeing relations in a given figure (angles equal,]\nsupplementary; lines parallel, perpendicular; triangles equal, similar;]\netc., etc.) as a general exercise, without having any specific theorem pro-j\nposed for proof, are also helpful.\nThe teacher should prepare the figure,\nat first simple and anticipating coming propositions ; later more complicated and unlike any of the figures of the text.\nAs to subject-matter, the propositions taken up may be divided into\ntwo classes : fundamental propositions and exercises. The fundamental\npropositions together constitute the micleus or skeleton of the subject,\nbeing that minimum which all pupils alike should know. They should\nbe reduced to as small a compass as possible. All other propositions\nconstitute the class we have called exercises. The proofs of the exercises\nare to be based upon the fundamental propositions. Every course\nin geometry should invariably include all the fundamental propositions\nand a large number of exercises ; the selection of the latter may\nvary from year to year. It is not at all implied here that the proofs\nof the fundamental propositions may not also be obtained as original\nexercises.\nWhat has been said applies to both plane and solid geometry. A word\nmay be added as to the use of models in solid geometry. While not\nwishing to undervalue models which are presented to the pupils readymade, the committee believes that, as a rule, the pupils gain more by\nconstructing their own models, and that this can be done very easily in\na sufficient number of theorems. Some pieces of cardboard, darning\nneedles, and thread constitute apparatus sufficient for making models of a\nlarge class of propositions. Another large class of models can be cut out\nof potatoes.\nA broomstick furnishes all the models\nneeded for the\n\n"}
{"page": 781, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCOLLEGE-ENTRANCE\n\nREQVLREMENTS\n\n773\n\ncylinder. An orange will do fairly well for the sphere, but a small slated\nglobe in the hand of each pupil is better.\nThe attempt has been successfully made to teach geometry by interweaving solid and plane geometry from the outset. While the committee\nis not prepared to commend this, there are advantages to be gained by\nbeginning solid geometry before plane geometry is completed. In the\nopinion of the committee, the restriction of the study of geometry in\nmany secondary schools to plane geometry is unfortunate, and it is desirable that the school course and the college-entrance requirement in\ngeometry should cover both plane and solid geometry.\nThe notions and results of modern geometry may be used with\nadvantage, but only so far as they actually simplify or make clearer the\ntopic in hand.\nThe work in demonstrative geometry should be accompanied by construction and measurement. E. g., in connection with similar triangles,\npupils may measure distance of some inaccessible object, simply measuring base line and two angles, and then drawing to scale. Of course, the\nwork is crude, but this form of exercise opens a new window in the child's\nmind.\nIn the work in geometry, arithmetic, and also algebra (so far as\nthis subject has been developed), should be frequently applied.\nTRIGONOMETRY\n\nTrigonometry is at present usually not required in the school curriculum ;to prepare pupils for admission to certain technical schools and\n\"colleges, it is sometimes taught in the schools. When thus taught, the\nsubject-matter taken up is determined by the requirements of the institutions in preparation for which it is taught.\nThere is, however, no intrinsic reason why the elements of plane\ntrigonometry should not be an integral part of the school course in mathematics it\n; can be developed well in continuation of algebra and plane\ngeometry, and is a fitting sequel to them. The matter should be restricted\nto that needed for the solution of plane triangles — numerous, but simple\napplications to the determination of heights and distances should be\nmade.\nTo avoid duplication of work, the introduction of plane trigonometry\ninto the school course (like that of certain portions of algebra mentioned\nabove) should be an action of school and college jointly.\nThe trigonometric functions should be defined as ratios, and the whole\ntreatment should be based upon the ratio definitions exclusively.\nBefore logarithmic tables are introduced, sufficient training should\nhave been given in the solution of problems by means of the natural\nfunctions to make the pupils regard these as the real functions ; log sin.,\nlog COS., etc., appearing merely as tools.\n\n"}
{"page": 782, "printed_page": null, "text": "774\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nThe object of a logarithmic table is to abridge computations. Those\ntables are accordingly to be preferred which furnish such aids to interpolation that the value sought may be read off quickly with the desired\ndegree of accuracy and without side computations.\nDISTRIBUTION\nI.\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nGRADES\n\nThe committee believes that the work in arithmetic outlined by it can\nbe completed in the seventh grade, and that in this grade half the time\ncan be given to demonstrative geometry. In all the preceding grades\nconcrete geometry should be interwoven with arithmetic and with\ndrawing. The transition to demonstrative geometry will thus not be\nabrupt, but will find the pupil prepared for it. The introduction of demonstrations into the concrete work should be gradual and informal ; there\nshould be much demonstration before the machinery and technical terminology of demonstrations are introduced. In the eighth grade demonstrative geometry would continue to occupy half the time, and the other half\nwould be devoted to the beginning of algebra. This should be a natural\ngrowth of the arithmetic ; the use of letters to stand for numbers may be\nintroduced even earlier in formulating rules ; as, \" The area of a rectangle\nis equal to the length times the breadth,\" A^^LB. The equation with\none unknown quantity may also be introduced informally as occasion\nmay arise. Under favorable circumstances the following ground could\nperhaps be covered in the grammar grades :\nGeometry. — Lines, angles, triangles, parallelograms, elements of the\ncircle.\nAlgebra. — The four fundamental operations with positive and negative\nnumbers ; simple cases of factoring under multiplication ; simple equations with one unknown, and problems leading to such equations.\nIn the work in these subjects and in their further development\nin the secondary school, numerical applications of the results should\nbe made continually. These applications should lead to computations\nsufficiently difficult to keep in practice the facility in computation gained\nin arithmetic, and to increase it. Stress should be laid on the simplifications in computations which may often be made by the literal notation of\nalgebra.\nIn suggesting this course of study for the grammar grade, the committee realizes that in many places it would be impracticable to adopt the\nsuggestions at once as a whole. In fact, under some circumstances the.\ncommittee would not encourage, but would actually discourage, the immediate and complete adoption of its suggestions. On the other hand, in\ncases where some (perhaps a large part) of the suggestions of the committee are already in force, and where the corps of teachers is prepared\nto adapt its work to the new plan, there would be no obstacle, but indeed\n\n"}
{"page": 783, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCOLLEGE-ENTRANCE\n\nREQULREMENTS\n\n775\n\na distinct gain, in putting the committee's suggestions as a whole into\nimmediate operation. The committee believes that the suggestions made\n(followed, if need be, gradually) are generally feasible.\nThe study of demonstrative geometry should in all cases be begun\nbefore that of algebra. Geometry is less abstract, less artificial, lends\nitself less readily to mere mechanical manipulations, and is more easily\nillustrated by concrete and familiar examples than algebra.\nII.\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nSECONDARY\n\nSCHOOL\n\nThe great desideratum for the distribution of mathematics in the\nsecondary school is that it should be studied thruout each of the four\nyears of the course. It is not meant by this that more time should be\ngiven to mathematics, but that this time should be distributed over the\nentire secondary-school course. The committee recommends no specific\ndistribution over the four years of the hours now given to mathematics,\nbut simply the general rule that there be work in mathematics required of\nall thruout the course, and that in no year less than two hours weekly be\ngiven to mathematics during the whole year.\nIf in any school it is altogether impracticable to take up mathematics\nin each of the four years, the state of affairs is to be deplored. If a year\nmust be left free from mathematics, the committee''*recommends that it be\nthe second or the first year.\nThe distribution of the subject-matter over the various years will be\ninfluenced by the distribution of the hours. The same general principles would, however, govern in all cases ; of these are :\n1. The study of geometry should be begun before that of algebra.\nReasons for this have already been indicated.\n2. When algebra has been begun, the two subjects should be carried\non simultaneously in each year of the remainder of the four years. By\nsimultaneously is meant simply in the same year. It is not necessary that\nthe hours of instruction be given to each alternately. The division may\neven be the first half-year to one (geometry) and the second half-year to\nthe other (algebra), but this arrangement is not to be preferred.\n3. The work of the fourth year should include a review of all of the\nprevious work of the course, with the aim to extend, broaden, deepen,\nand correlate what has already been done.\n4. The instruction in mathematics of each class or section of a class\nshould be, as far as practicable, in the hands of the same instructor for at\nleast two years. It is still more important that, instead of trying to plan\nthe assignment of work so that certain teachers do \"first-year work,\"\nothers \" second-year work,\" etc., year after year, the aim should be to plan\nthe assignment so that each teacher habitually teaches all the mathematical subjects, tho not necessarily all in one year.\n5. Under no circumstances should an instructor who has not qualified\n\n"}
{"page": 784, "printed_page": null, "text": "776\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATIOA\n\n[Secondaiy\n\nhimself especially to teach mathematics be intrusted with a class in mathematics simply because he may have a vacant hour which must be filled up.\nThruout the course (and especially in the last year) the more the subjects can be interwoven, and made to illustrate and support each other,\nthe better. The teacher should not hesitate to introduce a geometric illustration or a geometric truth into algebra, nor to avail himself in algebra\nof apt occasions for recalling previous geometric theorems, or developing\nand discussing new ones. Quite similarly, algebraic proofs and methods\nshould be freely used in geometry, and, as need arises, new algebraic\nresults established. It is quite wrong to teach geometry and algebra (and\narithmetic) in the high school as subjects so essentially different that the\npurity of the one would be impaired by the use of the methods and results\nof the other.\nPREPARATION\n\nOF\n\nTEACHERS\n\nThe preparation of teachers for high-school work should include a\ngood college course, with special attention to mathematics, either by elective§ during the course or by some graduate study. The minimum attainment in mathematics should include analytic geometry, a first course in\nthe calculus, and the elements of the theory of equations (including\ndeterminants).\nThe committee regards it as desirable that the teacher should have\npaid some attention, under guidance, to the pedagogy of mathematics\n(problems, means, and methods of instruction ; if practicable, seeing\nactual teaching and discussing it afterward), before beginning his own\nteaching. Still more important is it that his first teaching should be\nunder the careful supervision of an experienced teacher of mathematics.\nIf possible, his first year or two of service should be explicitly and actually under the direction and guidance of older teachers. Perhaps each\nbeginner may be assigned by his principal to some specific teacher of\nexperience and tact, for supervision and counsel. The relation will be\nmore or less formal, under varying circumstances ; but it should always\nbe actual and effective, never merely nominal ; it should involve personal\nconsultation, mutual class-room visits, friendly, careful advice.\nMuch can be accomplished in this way. At present young teachers\nof no experience, having no pedagogic preparation, are often put into\nfull charge of classes, and receive no assistance, no advice, no encouragement from their more experienced colleagues. They have as model only\nsome recollections of their impressions (as -pupils) of the teaching which\nthey received. They profit as best they can by their own experience, and\nlearn from their own mistakes. Some never appreciate their shortcomings or how to remedy them ; even for the best it is a devious and painful\npath to excellence, which might be shortened and eased by the judicious\ncounsel of one who had traversed the path himself.\nIn institutions where there are several teachers of mathematics it would\n\n&\n\n"}
{"page": 785, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCOLLEGE-ENTRANCE\n\nREQUIREMENTS\n\n777\n\nbe well for them to meet statedly for the discussion of questions of local\nadministration, of pedagogy, of mathematical topics ; perhaps the systematic study together of some mathematical subject could be undertaken.\n(Among the suitable subjects for such study are the following : modern\nsynthetic geometry, analytic geometry, the differential and integral calculus, determinants, the theory of equations, analytic mechanics, the history\nof mathematics.)\nIt is very desirable that the teacher be making year by year new acquisitions of mathematical knowledge.\nCORRELATION\n\nOF\n\nWORK\n\nMathematics is unique in the extent to which it builds on previous\nwork. Hence secondary-school work should be correlated as closely as\npossible both with grade work and with college work. The division of\nthe work in mathematics into three portions, carried on in different\ninstitutions (grades, secondary-school, college) differing in management,\nmethods, and aims, and with teachers differing radically in type of prejjaration, causes a great waste of teaching energy. Much can be done to\ndiminish this waste by close relations between the teachers of the three\ndivisions, and the comparison of results and adaptation of work to mutual\nneeds. The relationship may be official or unofficial, formal supervision\nor friendly suggestion ; it should, however, never be a mere form, but a\ncordial co-operation for strengthening and unifying the work in mathematics in grades, secondary schools, and colleges.\n\nEvery secondary school should have for the use of the pupils, and\nespecially of the teachers, a carefully selected library of reference-books\nin mathematics (standard elementary texts, histories, tables, books of\nproblems and recreations, and advanced mathematical works suited to the\nneeds of the teachers). Measuring instruments should also be provided.\nSUMMARY\n\nOF\n\nPRINCIPAL\n\nCONCLUSIONS\n\nThe most important of the conclusions which were reached by the\ncommittee are the following :\n1. To the close of the secondary-school course the required work in\nmathematics should be the same for all pupils.\n2. The formal instruction in arithmetic as such should terminate with\nthe close of the seventh grade.\n3. Concrete geometry should be a part of the work in arithmetic and\ndrawing in the first six grades.\n4. One-half of the time allotted to mathematics in the seventh grade\nshould be given to the beginning of demonstrative geometry.\n\n"}
{"page": 786, "printed_page": null, "text": "7T&\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\n5. In the eighth grade the time allotted to mathematics should be\ndivided equally between demonstrative geometry and the beginning of\nalgebra.\n6. In the secondary school, work in mathematics should be required\nof all pupils thruout each of the four years of the course.\n7. Wherever, from local conditions, it is necessary to defer the beginning of geometry and algebra to the secondary school, here, likewise,\ngeometry should be begun before algebra.\n8. When once begun, the subjects of geometry and algebra should bedeveloped simultaneously, in so far, at least, that both geometry and algebra should be studied in each of the four years of the secondary-school\ncourse.\n9. The unity of the work in mathematics is emphasized, and the correlation and interapplication of its different parts recommended.\n10. The instruction should have as its chief aim the cultivation of\nindependent and correct thinking on the part of the pupil.\n11. The importance of thoro preparation for teachers, both in mathematical attainments and in the art of teaching, is emphasized.\nJ. W. A. Young, Chairman,\nAssistant Professor of Mathematical Pedagogy in the University of Chicago.\n\nJ. J. SCHOBINGER, Secretary,\nPrincipal of the Harvard School, Chicago.\nEllery W. Davis,\nProfessor of Mathematics in the University of Nebraska.\n\nThomas\nL.\n\nF. Holgate,\n\nProfessor of Applied Mathematics in Northwestern University.\nS. HULBURT,\nCollegiate\nversity. Professor of Mathematics in Johns Hopkins Uni-\n\nC. W. Lyon, Jr.,\nPrincipal of Grammar School No. 78 (formerly Professor of\n^\n\nMathematics in the Boys' High School), Brooklyn, N. Y.\nNewson,\nsity. Professor of Mathematics in Kansas State UniverAssociate\n\nH. B.\n\nW. F. Osgood,\nAssistant Professor of Mathematics in Harvard University.\nJames Byrnie Shaw,\nDepartment of Mathematics in Michigan Military Academy.\nB. M. Walker,\nProfessor of Mathematics in the Mississippi Agricultural and\nMechanical College.\n\n"}
{"page": 787, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCOLLEGE-ENTRANCE\n\nSCIENCE\n\nREQUIREMENTS\n\nIN THE\n\n779\n\nGRADES\n\n\"Nature study\" is hard to define, as it has been made to include a\nvery miscellaneous collection of observations. Its purpose is to bring\nyoung pupils into direct contact with nature. Its chief failure has been\ndue to the fact that this observation of nature has been often interpreted\nto mean exercises which are of no significance, which mean nothing\nwhen done, which are really dead mechanical work. The failure to present things of real importance arises from the fact that the teachers do\nnot have sufhcient knowledge to distinguish them. Another danger\nwhich is constantly confronting nature study is the tendency to make it a\nwildly imaginative and emotional subject. When a very young pupil is\nbeing trained to observe, the facts must be made to glow with interest,\nbut n'ot at the expense of truth or of training in the scientific habit of\nmind.\nAs one of the first tendencies that exhibit themselves in children is\ninterest in natural phenomena, it seems natural to take advantage of this\ninterest in the very earliest period of formal education. When observational work is lacking, and the whole contact is with conventional forms\nof training, the interest in observing natural phenomena fades away, and\nvery few pupils are able to survive such treatment and retain the early\nimpulse toward nature.\nTo keep the \"tentacles of inquiry\" functional, if not to develop\nthem, at least two exercises in nature study each week should be provided\nthruout the entire pre-high-school period. Numerous sciences should be\nmade to contribute a great variety of material, and no science should be\npresented in an organized form. The most available material should be\nselected, without any reference to scientific sequence. The material\nshould be obvious (entering into the experience of the pupils), important,\nand interesting. It should be suggested by the observed interests of the\npupils rather than by some pedagogical theory. It should be deliberately\nvaried and fragmentary, and should result in that miscellaneous collection\nof impressions which comes to an untrained but interested observer, without any definite organization. The knowledge of the wide-awake country\nboy who lives out of doors is probably the best illustration of the kind\nof knowledge nature study is expected to bring — a magnificent background\nof experience for the formal organization of the sciences in secondaryschool and college courses.\n\n"}
{"page": 788, "printed_page": null, "text": "78o\n\nREPORT\n\nNATIONAL\n\nOF THE\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nON PHYSICAL\n\n[Secondary\n\nGEOGRAPHY\n\nPRELIMINARY\n\nAugustus F. Nightingale, Ph.D., Chairman of the Committee on College^\nEntrance Requirements of the National Educational Association :\nI have the honor to submit the following as the report of the Sub-j\ncommittee on Physical Geography, appointed under the auspices of thel\nNational Educational Association^\nOn February 24 I received a letter from Professor Charles S.\nPalmer, corresponding secretary of the Committee on Science of the Jl B\nNational Educational Association, requesting me to assume the functions\nof chairman of the Subcommittee on Physical Geography, and formulate\na final report to be submitted to you, in view of the fact that Professor\nAlbert P. Brigham, who had been appointed chairman of that subcommittee, had departed for Europe in the hope of restoring his impaired\nhealth. Altho somewhat doubtful as to the legality of my appointment as chairman, I deemed it best to comply with the request ofProfessor Palmer.\nAt that late date it was, of course, impracticable to make arrangements for a meeting of the subcommittee. A preliminary report had\nbeen agreed upon at a meeting attended by five members of the subcommittee, in Springfield, Mass., in July, 1898. It • was believed that the\nviews expressed in that preliminary report would be in the main approved\nby other members of the subcommittee, most of whom had expressed\ntheir opinions more or less fully in correspondence with Professor Brigham. It seemed to me, accordingly, that the best course practicable was\nto submit as a final report that preliminary report, with such notes or\nappendices as might be suggested by correspondence with other members\nof the committee, or by my own reflections upon the subjects of the\nreport. I accordingly addressed a letter to each member of the subcommittee, whether present at the Springfield meeting or absent therefrom,\nexcepting two members who were known to be out of the country,\ninforming them of the plan adopted, and requesting them to communicate to me immediately any suggestions they might deem important as to\nnotes or appendices which should be added to the preliminary report.\nA copy of that report was transmitted with the letter to each member of\nthe subcommittee. In addition to the members named in the preliminary report, a copy of the letter was sent to George R. Twiss, head\nscience teacher, Central High School, Cleveland, O., who had been\nappointed as a representative of the North Central Association, but\nwhose name had not been received by Professor Brigham in season for\n\ni\n\n"}
{"page": 789, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCOLLEGE-ENTRANCE\n\nREQUIREMENTS\n\n781\n\nhim to be invited to the meeting at Springfield in July, 1898. The correspondence indicates that the preliminary report may be regarded as\nexpressing substantially the views of all, or nearly all, the members of the\nsubcommittee, altho there is, of course, difference of opinion upon\nsome details. The report is indorsed, either unqualifiedly or with criticism of unimportant details, by J. H. Jameson, instructor in physics,\nPratt Institute, Brooklyn, N. Y. ; George R. Twiss, head science\nteacher. Central High School, Cleveland, O. ; Ralph S. Tarr, professor\nof dynamical geology and physical geography, Cornell University,\nIthaca, N. Y. ; and Robert H. Cornish, assistant in physics. Girls' High\nSchool, New York city. G. L. Collie, professor of geology, Beloit College, was unable, on account of illness, to examine and criticise the\nreport. It appears that no member of the subcommittee has expressed\nradical dissent from the views set forth in the preliminary report.\nIt is only necessary to remark further that the few notes which I have\ndeemed it proper to add to the report are distinguished from the notes\nwhich originally formed a part of it, being inclosed in brackets.\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\nMENT\n\nPHYSICAL\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nGEOGRAPHY\nNATIONAL\n\nTO THE\n\nNATURAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nSCIENCE\n\nDEPART\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nTo the Natural Science Department of the National Educational Association :\nThe committee appointed to consider the course in physical geography\nin secondary schools would respectfully report as follows :\nThe decision of the department at the Milwaukee meeting, to double\nthe membership of the several natural-science committees, occasioned serious delay in the work. Diligent efforts were made to secure the additional appointments for geography. It was found in March last that\nthree vacancies still remained ; but, in order to prepare a report in time\nfor the meeting at Washington, with the approval of Professor C. S.\nPalmer, the general secretary of the committee, work was undertaken, the\ncommittee being constituted as follows :\nNEW\n\nENGLAND\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nWilliam North Rice, professor of geology, Wesleyan University.\nW. H. Snyder, master in science, Worcester Academy.\nMIDDLE\n\nSTATES\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nAlbert Perry Brigham, professor of geology, Colgate University, chairman\nJ. M. Jameson, professor in Pratt Institute.\nNORTH\n\nCENTRAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nG. L. Collie, professor of geology, Beloit College.\nSOUTHERN\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nCollier Cobb, professor of geology, University of North Carolina.\n\n"}
{"page": 790, "printed_page": null, "text": "782\n\nNATIONAL\nAMERICAN\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nEDUCATIONAL\nFOR\n\nTHE\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nADVANCEMENT\n\nOF\n\n[Secondary\n\nSCIENCE\n\nRalph S. Tarr, professor of dynamical geology and physical geography, Cornell\nUniversity.\nDEPARTMENT\n\nOF\n\nNATURAL\n\nSCIENCE,\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nW. M. Davis, professor of physical geography. Harvard University.\nR. H. Cornish, assistant in physics. Girls' High School, New York city.\n\nThe chairman prepared a preliminary list of questions for criticism\nby the several members of the committee. The following circular of\ninquiry was then issued as a basis of work for members of the committee\nand others :\n1. Should a high school offer the following subjects under the general head of geography ? Mathematical geography, meteorology, oceanography, physiography of the land,\ndistribution of organisms, economic geography, geology. If geology is included, what\nparts of the subject should be taught ? What topics should economic geography embrace ?\n2. In what year or years of the high-school course should physical geography have\nplace ? What studies should precede or follow ?\n3. What preparation in geography is to be expected from the elementary schools ?\n4. Outline of work for one- and two-year courses, including order and time allotment\nfor subjects named in i, and number of periods per week.\n5. Place of geography in college-entrance requirements. Should geography be elective or required in so-called English courses ? In classical courses ? To what extent\nmay geography be presented as a substitute for other subjects, particularly for other\nsciences ?\n6. Text-books.\n7. Laboratory work ; how related to lectures and recitations ; outline of laboratory\ncourses ; use of notebooks ; amount and character of field work to be done ; modifications\nirt field work or substitutions for it, in city schools.\n8. Standard equipment of maps, models, photographs, lantern slides, specimens, and\napparatus, for class-room and laboratory.\n9. Lists of books in geography recommended for school or teacher's library.\n10. Any other phase of the subject deemed important.\n\nThe several individual discussions thus prepared were embodied in\nthis report, which was amended and approved at a meeting of the committee held in Springfield, Mass., July 1-2, 1898. Only those who were\nable to be present at this meeting have signed the report. The gentlemen who were not present cannot be held responsible for the views here\nexpressed, but they have all made valuable contributions to the paper,\nand are believed to be in accord with most of its positions. In the case\nof the signers of this report, it is not to be understood that every one\napproves of every proposition announced as the opinion of the majority\nof the committee, tho all do find themselves in cordial harmony with the\nviews of the report as a whole.\nI\nThe committee finds itself in agreement as to the scope of physical\ngeography, and as to the topics which should constitute parts of a highschool course in this subject. The meaning and general scope of physical geography have never been better expressed than in the words, \"the\n\n"}
{"page": 791, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCOLLEGE-ENTRANCE\n\nREQUIREMENTS\n\n783\n\nphysical environment of man,\" used by the conference on geography in\nits report to the Committee of Ten. On the whole, the term \" physical\ngeography \" is to be preferred to \"physiography,\" as having in common\nusage a more precise definition. Physiography, in the English sense of a\ngeneral introduction to all sciences, is too broad ; and in the sense in\nwhich it is now employed by some American students it is not broad\nenough. The ideal high-school course in physical geography will neither\nbe too general and fragmentary, nor too special and difficult. The subject should be carefully held to the leading idea of the physical environment of man ; and it should be the aim to exclude a number of subjects\nfrequently treated under physical geography, but more appropriately\nincluded under the other heads, for example, purely astronomical matter,\ncertain principles of physics, the classification of animals and plants, and\ntables of the geological periods. Important and interesting as these subjects are in their proper connections, it is believed that a better mental\ndiscipline will be obtained from physical geography when all its parts are\nclosely joined to its leading theme. It may thus provide an intellectual\ntraining comparable in value to that secured from physics, mathematics,\nor language, in which continuity of theme is so well maintained.\nIt is agreed that the earth as a globe, the atmosphere, the ocean, and\nthe lands should be the principal themes of the course. Here one may,\nif preferred, use the more formal terms, mathematical geography, meteorology, oceanography, and geomorphology. A serious objection to these\nterms is that they do not sufficiently take human relations into account.\nIf, however, they are employed, it is to be understood that the character\nof high-school work, as well as the limited time at disposal, forbid the\ngiving of extended courses in these subjects. They must all, and especially the three former, be given in an elementary way, and all must be\ntaught with the motive and from the special point of view of physical\ngeography, as defined above.\nThe distribution of organisms should not be taught with reference to\nzoological and botanical classification, but in exposition of the organic\nenvironment of man, and as itself controlled by physiographic and other\ninfluences. Pupils should be taught the tendency of species to diffuse\nthemselves, and the limitation of the tendency by climatic, oceanic, and\ntopographic barriers. It will, for example, be easy to teach the influence\nof temperature in the establishment of zones of animal and vegetable\nlife. The difference in the effects of deep and shallow seas as barriers to\ndistribution should be illustrated by reference to Wallace's line, and to\nthe faunas and floras of continental and oceanic islands. The depth and\ntexture of soils and the quantity and distribution of ground water should\nbe explained in relation to their control over the distribution of plants\nand population. The whole subject may be treated by incidental references in the chapters on the atmosphere, the ocean, and the lands, or may\n\n"}
{"page": 792, "printed_page": null, "text": "784\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nform the theme of a supplementary chapter, or the two methods may be\ncombined.\nThruout the course in physical geography every opportunity should\nbe taken to illustrate the relation of economic products to physiographic\ncontrol on the one hand, and to the distribution and condition of mankind on the other hand. If time allows, a summary of the subject might\nbe added as a closing chapter.\nIn the next section of this report reference will be made to more\nadvanced elective courses of a geographic nature which may have place\nin the high- school curriculum.\nII\nThe committee recommends that the course in physical geography be\ngenerally placed in the first or second year.' If the elements of physical\ngeography have been used as a basis for work in geography in the\nelementary schools, then physical geography in the high schools might\nperhaps be a relatively advanced course in the fourth year, using the\nmaterials afforded by the study of physics, chemistry, and biology in the\nprevious years. It is, however, the opinion of the majority of the committee that, under any conditions, the study of physical geography should\ncome early in the high-school curriculum. Certainly this is the case as\nmatters now stand. It would be unwise to allow pupils to reach the age\nof eighteen years, or thereabout, without attaining the broad way of\nlooking at the earth that physical geography, of all subjects, gives.\nAdditional reasons for introducing the subject at an early stage are\nfound in the fact that only a small part of the pupils who enter the high\nschool complete the curriculum, and in the further consideration that the\nsubject can, without deranging the general order of studies, in some\ncases be taken by those who are preparing for classical courses in college.\nThe committee deems it entirely practicable to teach good courses in\nelementary physical geography without previous courses in other sciences.\nThe qualified teacher will readily supply any needed chemical or physical\nprinciples. In some cases rudimentary instruction in physics and chemistry has been given in grammar-school courses.\nAdvanced elective subjects of a geographic nature may be offered latc\"^\nin the curriculum. Among these is geology. It is agreed that the larger\nshare. of the time should be given to the dynamical and structural phases\nof the subject. Only the simplest facts about minerals and rocks can be'\ngiven, and such difficult dynamical subjects as metamorphism and vulcanism can only be treated in a general way. It will be possible for a\ncompetent teacher to give effectively the elements of historical geology,\nespecially if good museums or localities for fossils be at hand.\nDetailed\nI [The majority of those who have expressed a preference j(s between the first and second years prefer\nthe first.]\n^\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 793, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCOLLEGE-ENTRANCE\n\nREQUIREMENTS\n\n785\n\ninstruction in historical geology is too difficult for high-school pupils, and\nshould not be attempted.\nThe course in geology should, if practicable, follow those in physics\nand chemistry, probably in the last year of the curriculum. In dynamical and structural geology the subjects treated will necessarily be, to some\nextent, the same as those in the earlier work in physiography. But the\ntreatment of these topics in the course on geology will be in less degree\nsimply descriptive. For instance, in the earlier course, some general\nideas of the work of running water and the development of topographic\nforms can be given. In the later course the work of running water\nshould be explained in relation to the laws of energy, the steam being\nconsidered as a falling body. In the course of physical geography the\ngeneral action of the atmosphere in the decay of rocks can be presented ;\nbut in the later course in geology the nature of the chemical changes\ninvolved in weathering should be illustrated. In general, dynamical\ngeology should be regarded as the chemistry and physics of the globe,\nand the conduct of this course must, therefore, presuppose a knowledge\nof chemistry and physics on the part of the student. If the pupil has\nstudied zoology, or botany, or both, during the early years of the curriculum,\nit will be possible to make an outline of historical geology more intelligible than it could otherwise be.\nThe committee approves of the suggestion that an advanced elective\ncourse in meteorology may be introduced, if the number and qualifications of the teachers render it practicable. Such a course would probably\ncome in the last year, accompanying or following a course in physics.\nSuch a course would sustain to the meteorological chapters in physical\ngeography a relation similar to that which the course in geology bears\nto that section of physical geography which concerns geological processes.\nIf a course in astronomy is offered in the later high-school years, it\nwould follow as a natural expansion of the chapter on the earth as a\nglobe.\nIf a later course in physical geography should be introduced, it might\nbe either as an expansion of the first course, with more advanced treatment, or a course on the physical features of some land area, preferably\nthe United States.\nAltho it has seemed worth while to give brief indication of the nature\nof the four advanced courses above outlined, it is not desired to imply\nthat all high schools should at present offer all, or indeed any, of them.\nThe chief interest of the committee is in the establishment of a wellconsidered elementary course.\nIll\nIt may be reasonably expected that, in the teaching of geography in the\nelementary schools, a good beginning will have been made in acquainting\nthe pupil with the conceptions of physical geography.\nGeographical\n\n"}
{"page": 794, "printed_page": null, "text": "786\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary]\n\nteaching has greatly improved in the last two decades, and much is to be\nexpected in the near future from the current agitation in this field.\nFrye's Complete Geography, and the Natural Advanced Geography by\nRedway and Hinman, illustrate the kind of knowledge which may be\nexpected to be acquired in the grammar schools. Teaching that deals\nwith mere matters of location may with advantage be replaced by the\nintroduction of the causal notion.\nIV\nThe committee desires to emphasize at the outset that no one curriculum can be the best for all high schools. No outline of work can be made\nto fit all conditions. It is of doubtful utility to give to teachers at large anything more than a very general outline, which may offer suggestion and\nprove a help and incentive to better things. Not less than four periods per\nweek for one year should be assigned to the proposed elementary course\nin physical geography. Five periods would be better. Periods of less\nthan forty-five minutes each would be inadequate ; and, in any case, two\nperiods per week should be scheduled together, to be used, if desired, forj\nfield or laboratory exercises.\nOf the leading subjects — the earth as a globe, the ocean, the air, and\nthe land — -the first should occupy the least time, and the others should\nhave an increasingly larger allowance, in the order given. Adequate\ntreatment of the features of the land will require as much time as the\nother three subjects combined, and it may be more.^ If the distribution\nof organisms and economic geography are treated as separate subtopics,\nthe time allotted to them must necessarily be short. As regards the whole\nquestion of proportion, it must again be said that much depends on the\nteacher and the environment. A teacher in a school situated near the\nocean might give much attention to the features of the shore line, while\none in the interior might give a larger share of attention to plains or\nmountains.\nIt is not deemed necessary to present in this report detailed .outlines\nof teaching material. Recourse should be had to text-books, school\njournals, and especially to the report of the conference on geography to\nthe Committee of Ten.\nNor it is thought best to give estimates of time for the advanced\nelective courses which have been suggested, believing that time allotment\nmust vary with the views of teachers and the conditions of schools. If\nthe association desires the committee to go farther into the question of\noutlines, it will be glad to receive instructions on that point.\nV\nRecalling the fact that the Committee of Ten places physical geography\nas a requirement\nin the first year of all high-school courses, your\nI [One member of the subcommittee regards the last clause of this sentence as an overstatement.]\n\n€:\n\n"}
{"page": 795, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCOLLEGE-ENTRANCE\n\nREQUIREMENTS\n\njSy\n\ncommittee desires to express its agreement with this indication of the\nimportance of the subject, in the hope that it may be made accessible to\nall. The committee would, however, hesitate to propose the prescription\nof the study for all, but does strongly urge that physical geography be\nrequired in all 'English high-school courses. It also believes that it\nshould be elective in classical courses, either on the same footing with\nall the other sciences, or in a position secondary to physics, as indicated\nbelow.'\nThe attention of educators has been of late repeatedly called to the\ntruth that a four-years' course consisting almost exclusively of classics and\nmathematics, with scant recognition of English literature, practically no\nmodern history, and no physical or natural science, is a course so\nunsymmetrical as to be a monstrosity. The relation of the different\neducational institutions to each other ought to be such that a course\npreparatory to college will also be a course well adapted to fit the student\nfor the later work of life, and for social and civil duties, in case he should\nfail to take a college course. It cannot be claimed that the present\nclassical course in high schools, constructed with reference to the classical\ncourse in colleges, makes any approximation to this result. The student\nwho has completed a high-school course in preparation for the classical\ncourse in college has gained, not a tolerably complete and symmetrical\neducation as far as it goes, but a wretched torso of an education. Nor is\nthe exclusion of science injurious only to those whose studies are interrupted at the end of the high-school course. For those who enter college,\nthe ignoring of the study of nature in preceding years tends to unfit them\nfor success in such studies. Their powers of observation and imagination\nof physical phenomena are well-nigh atrophied by disuse, and they have\nlost their native curiosity about the world in which they live. It would\ntend to correct this evil if a certain amount of science were required for\nadmission to the classical course. Physical geography would be one of\nthe most suitable subjects to be thus required ; but, in the present unsettled and transitional condition of our educational system, it would probably be better for the colleges to allow an option among several scientific\nsubjects.\nTaking the point of view of the college, the sentiment of the committee isthat physical geography should not be required for entrance to\nany of its courses, but that the college should accept it as a part of the\npreparation for any course, when pursued for not less than one year, provided the teaching has attained a proper standard of excellence. In its\nrelation to physics, chemistry, zoology, botany, and physiology, several\nmembers of the committee believe that geography should stand on a perfectly equal footing, as an alternative requirement, but some would assign\n' [Two members of the subcommittee believed that, if one science is to be preferred to another, as a\nstudy in the classical courses in high schools and a condition for admission to college, physical geography,\nrather than physics, should be preferred.]\n\n"}
{"page": 796, "printed_page": null, "text": "788\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nISecondar\n\nto physics distinctly the first place. Those who take this view, however,\nwould insist that geography be accepted as an alternative for any other\nscientific subject. The college should not fail to set serious tests in\ngeography, where given at all.\nVI\nThe number of text-books- which represent the best current standards\nof high-school geography is not large. Several now before the public\nare fairly well adapted for class use. Their titles will be found in the\nannotated list to which reference is made later in this report. In the\nuse of these books, as well as in the preparation of new ones, it is hoped\nthat the definition of the subject, as already given, will be carefully\nregarded. The earth in relation to man should receive sustained emphasis, and irrelevant scientific matter should be reduced to a minimum. A\nnumber of good text-books are available in the subjects suggested for\nadvanced elective courses.\n\nVII\nField and laboratory work should receive emphasis in every highschool course in geography. So far as practicable, the lectures, discussions, and recitations should be related to such work. Notebooks\nshould be carefully kept, but their importance should not be emphasized\nin an artificial way. It is possible for a pupil to make a handsome notebook while entering little into the spirit of the subject.\nField work during the open season Should take the place of at least\nhalf of the laboratory work, if conditions allow. It must not be forgotten\nthat the field is, from one point of view, an out-of-door laboratory. The\nteacher must plan the work according to circumstances, but it should\ncertainly include practice in the making of sketch maps, study of the\ndevelopment of the land forms, and observation of the distribution of\nplants on a small and varied area. In most cities except the largest,' field\nstudy can be accomplished without serious difficulty by short excursions\ninto the country. Such work is strongly recommended. The interest\nattaching to such trips will frequently enable the teacher to place them\nin afternoons and holidays. Field work has been undertaken with favorable results in Buffalo, Chicago, and elsewhere. The report of the\nChicago committee for preparing a syllabus in physical geography includes\na valuable list of such possible trips for the use of the teachers of the city.\nEleven excursions are scheduled, giving route and cost of round trip, and\nnaming the phenomena to be seen and studied. The latter include stone\nquarries, streams, bowlders, and glacial topography, sand dunes, lake\nshores, and a large museum. Preparation of similar guides for other\ncities would greatly advance this kind of geographic study.\nChicago is\nI [One member of the subcommittee protests that on this point there is no need of recognizing any\nexceptions.]\n\n"}
{"page": 797, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCOLLEGE-ENTRANCE\n\nREQUIREMENTS\n\n789\n\nnot an exception.\nAn equally important group of facts is assembled in\nthe vicinity of nearly all cities.\nLaboratory work in geography is comparatively new to the schools at\nlarge, and hence suitable manuals or outlines are few; but sufficient bodies\nof suggestion are at hand for good beginnings. One member of the committee has contributed the following, which is here included, not as a\nspecific guide, but by way of informal suggestion : ' (Figures in parentheses indicate the number of hours for each exercise.)\nCause of day and night, and extent of sunlight over surface,\n(i)\nDetermination of latitude, north-and-south line, and high noon,\n(i)\nDetermination of difference of longitude by sending watch,\n(i)\nFinding variation of local and standard time,\n(i)\nMaking maps on different projections.\n(4)\nStudy of ocean-current maps,\n(i)\nStudy of tide charts,\n(i)\nStudy of map of the world, showing heights of land and depths of sea.\nDifference in temperature between the top and bottom of a hill, (i)\nFinding height of hill or building by barometer,\n(i)\n\n(2)\n\nDetermination of dew-point. ' (i)\nMaking isotherm and isobar maps from furnished data.\n(4)\nStudy and reproduction of weather map.\n(i)\nPredictions from weather maps (written with reasons).\n(2)\nObservations of rain-fall, temperature, velocity of the winds, etc.\nDetermination of the amount of snow-fall and the amount of water produced by an*\ninch of snow,\n(i)\nObservations of ground temperatures, depth of frost, etc.\nMaking contour and hachure maps from small models.\n(2)\nDrawing cross-sections from contour maps.\n(4)\nWritten descriptions of models.\n(4)\nPicture-reading (written description).\n(4)\nMap-readmg (written description).\n(4)\nReproduction of contour map in hachures.\n(i)\nMaking map of small area in neighborhood,\n(i)\nPlanning of journey, with study of country to be seen.\n(4)\nDetermination of the amount of sediment carried by a stream,\n(i)\nStudy of rocks and minerals.\n(10)\nStudy of erosion by sprinkling-pot.\n(2)\n,\nIn fall, four excursions, one a week.\n(8)\nFour excursions in spring.\n(8)\n\nFor another laboratory outline which has been tested by actual experience, see \" Laboratory Work in Elementary Physical Geography,\" by\nR.. H. Cornish, Journal of School Geography, June and September, 1897.\nVIII\nThere cannot be a uniform or standard equipment of apparatus for\ngeographical teaching.\nIt is sought here only to give such suggestions\nI [One member of the subcommittee considers some of these exercises too difficult, or otherwise unsuitable. It will be understood that the list is given, not as a program to be followed, but as a suggestion to be\nconsidered.]\n\n"}
{"page": 798, "printed_page": null, "text": "79°\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nas may enable teachers and schools to acquire, without serious mistake or\ndelay, materials for effective work.\nMaps and photographs will naturally\npredominate, and slides and projecting apparatus should be added, if\npossible, with the more common meteorological instruments.\nCare should\nbe taken to secure illustrations well related to the systematic progress of\nthe work.\nFor example, under land forms, the illustrations introduced\nshould be chiefly directed to explaining their causes and consequences\nrather than to the production of striking pictorial effects.\nA set of about\none hundred classified lantern slides selected by W. M. Davis, chiefly from\nthe Gardner collection of geological and geographical photographs of\nHarvard University, can be purchased from E. E. Howell, Washington,!\nD. C. Some of the more important materials, such as the topographic]\nmaps of the United States Geological Survey, cost but little; and much\nmaterial may be had free of cost, from official surveys, or as gifts from]\nindividuals interested in the school.\nSome account of these and otherj\nofficial maps may be found in \" Governmental Maps for Use in Schools,'N\npublished by Henry Holt & Co., New York.'. . Models serve a useful purpose, if their vertical scale is not too much exaggerated.\nAmong those\nthat may be mentioned are a number made by E. E. Howell, Washington,\nD. C, and the \" Harvard Geographical Models,\" published by Ginn &\nCo., of Boston.\nSuggestions concerning the use of these topographical maps in schools\nhave recently been published by the departments of public instruction of\nMassachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, and New York. Similar publications would be useful in other states. An important publication of the\nUnited States Geological Survey has lately been begun in the \"Topographic\nAtlas of the United States,\" of which the first folio, entitled Physiographic\nTypes, by Henry Gannett (price, 25 cents), will be found o.f much practical\nservice.\nOther folios of this series are promised for the future.\nIt is believed that school boards will in the end furnish appropriations\nfor geography as freely as for physics or chemistry, if the needs of geography are duly appreciated by superintendents, principals, and science\nteachers. Abundant allowance of time should be given to secondary\nteachers of geography, to perfect their equipment, and to work out the\nnew problems with which they have to deal.\nBy way of further suggestion, the teacher is referred to an article on\nthe \"Equipment of a Geographical Laboratory,\" by W. M. Davis, in the\nJournal of School Geography for May, 1898. The following list also\nindicates an equipment found practically useful by one member of the\ncommittee: good globe, small globes (25 cents), one for each two pupils,\nI Since the publication of this book, the free distribution of the pilot charts of the North Atlantic, issued\nby the United States Hydrographic Office, and of the topographical maps published by the United States\nGeological Survey, has been suspended. The charts and maps are now sold at a very low price by the\nrespective bureaus of publication. The method of purchasing the maps issued by the Geolgical Survey is\nexplained in the Journal of School Geography toi September, 1897.\n\n"}
{"page": 799, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCOLLEGE-ENTRANCE\n\nREQUIREMENTS\n\n791\n\nplumb-bobs, vertical standards for the determination of latitude, Kiepert's\n\"Physikalische Wanderkarten\" (Europe, Asia, North America, South\nAmerica), \"Weltkarte zur Ubersicht der Meerestiefen und Hohenschichten,\" small compasses, bright, thin metal dishes for the determination of\ndew-point, blank weather maps, co-ordinate paper, thermometer, barometer,\nrain gauge, tide charts, ocean-current maps, (copies from Challenger expedition), small wooden balls, small outline maps, sprinkling-pots and boxes,\na few typical charts, geological maps. United States contour maps (sufficient duplicates of some sheets to give one to each pupil), Harvard geographical models, fragments of models for contour-drawing, maps of\ndifferent projections, a few English hachure maps, photographs and\npictures, stereopticon and views, several atlases, collection of rock and\nmineral specimens, enough for each pupil, if possible.\nFor illustration of the structures and processes concerned in the\ndevelopment of land forms, there should be specimens of the common\nrock-forming minerals, and of such rocks and structures as are important\nin determining topographic forms, or have economic value. Thus there\nshould be sandstones, conglomerates, shales, and limestones, lavas, specimens showing faults on a small scale, slickensides, crumpled lamination,\nripple-marks, raindrop impressions and sun-cracks, glacial bowlders and\nglaciated surfaces, stalactites and stalagmites. If an advanced course in\ngeology is given, the amount of such material as has been indicated above\nshould be materially increased, and some fossils should be added. In all\ncases care should be taken to avoid such jumbles of miscellaneous minerals and fossils as often make up collections so-called.'\n\nIX\nAn annotated list of text- and reference-books has been prepared by\nMiss Mary I. Piatt, recently of Radcliffe College, now teacher of geography. High School, Holyoke, Mass. The list, including fifty titles, has\nbeen examined and criticised by W. M. Davis and R. E. Dodge, and is\npublished in the Journal of School Geography for May, 1898. This is by\nno means intended to be exhaustive of useful books, but outlines a useful\nbeginning of a school library which might to advantage be greatly\nincreased. It is further suggested that Xh^ Journal of School Geography is\nthe most important help with which teachers of the subject can provide\nthemselves. X\nPREPARATION\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nTEACHER\n\nIt is not to be expected that notable success in this or any other\nsubject will be attained, if attention is so far turned to the outline of the\ni[Mr. Cornish has furnished a list of apparatus for physical geography recently purchased for the high\nschools of New York city. As the list may be useful to teachers by way of suggestion, it is presented as an\nappendix to this report.]\n\n"}
{"page": 800, "printed_page": null, "text": "792\n\nNATI'ONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\ncourse or the equipment of the schoolroom that the preparation of the\nteacher is forgotten. The committee, therefore, wishes to emphasize\nthree points that are of prime importance in this connection. The training of the teacher should have reached a distinctly higher grade in physical geography than that of the course to be given. It should include\nlaboratory courses in physics, chemistry, botany, zoology, and geology,\nand it should have developed ability to take advantage of the local phenomena in the neighborhood of the school in the conduct of field work.\nThese considerations should weigh in the selection of new teachers.\nTeachers already employed and of good experience in their work should\nbe urged to supplement their preparation, if deficient in any of the lines\nabove indicated, by attending serious courses in teachers' classes and\nsummer schools, as far as practicable with due regard to rest and health.\nA primary object of this report has been to attempt a rational definition of physical geography, and to offer to teachers and school authorities\na line of suggestion in organizing geographic instruction especially to\nsecure a sound elementary course in the early years of the high school.\nMinute and specific directions are undesirable, because a great variety\nof conditions must be met, and the new must be built upon the old.\nA further object here sought is to set forth practicable views of the\nco-ordination of geography with the other sciences in the high-school\ncurriculum, and of geography as a factor in satisfying college-admission\nrequirements. The results, of course, are tentative. It is not thought\nthat this committee, and the other committees with which it is associated,\ncan formulate a rigid or final plan for all schools, but an approximation\ntoward unity can be made, with advance upon the chaotic conditions of\nsecondary science instruction in the past.\nThe committee would be glad to be continued for another year, in\norder that, profiting by the discussions of its conference already held,\nand by such criticisms as the publication of the present report may evoke,\nit may embody the results of further consideration in a subsequent report.\nAlbert Perry Brigham.\nCollier Cobb.\nW. M. Davis.\nWilliam North Rice.\nW. H. Snyder.\nWhich is respectfully submitted.\nWilliam North Rice,\nActing Chairman.\n\nm\n\n"}
{"page": 801, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCOLLEGE-ENTRANCE\n\nREQUIREMENTS\n\n793\n\nAPPENDIX\n\napparatus for physical geography recently purchased\nschools of new york city\nMaps.\nI set (6) Habernicht & Sydow physical wall-maps.\nAmerica, South America, Africa.\n\nfor the high\n\nHemispheres, Asia, Europe, North\n\nI bird's-eye view. United States.\nI blackboard outline. United States.\nI blackboard outline, middle and eastern United States.\nI physical map, Switzerland.\nI Guslin's definition map.\nGlobes and Models.\n\n.\n\n.\n\nI 1 2-inch Joslin globe.\nI 1 2-inch slated globe.\nI model. United States, E. E. Howell, Washington, D. C.\nI model. New Jersey, E. E. Howell, Washington, U. C.\n3 Harvard geographical models.\nGovernment\n\nMaps.\n\nI geologic atlas. New Jersey, New Jersey Geological Survey.\n9 selected geologic folios. United States Geological Survey, Washington, D. C.\n335 selected sheets, topographic atlas, United States, including complete sets of Massachusetts, Connecticut, and Rhode Island, and Pennsylvania and New York as far as\npublished, as well as maps of other states.\n3 special geologic sheets, United States Geological Survey.\nI set Mississippi river (preliminary) charts, Mississippi River Commission.\nI set flood plain, Mississippi river, Mississippi River Commission.\n22 lake-survey charts (selected). United States Great Lakes Survey Commission, Detroit,\nMich.\n67 selected coast-survey charts. United States Coast and Geodetic Survey.\n46 pilot charts of Atlantic and Pacific oceans. United States Hydrographic Oftice.\nBlank weather maps, Form D, United States Weather Bureau.\nPictures and Lantern Slides.\n126 selected lantern slides.\n54 selected mounted photographs\n50 selected mounted photographs\n12 selected mounted photographs\n6 selected mounted photographs\n1 set (5) photochromes, 18X20.\n2 Alpine photographs (large).\n\nof natural scenery, 12X10.\nof natural scenery, 6X7.\nof natural scenery, 12X14.\nof natural scenery, 7X8.\n\n' set (37) Holzel's geographical pictures.\nMinerals and Rocks.\n1 set prepared slides of mineral and rock sections.\n6 boxes selected mineral specimens, 40 specimens each of 40 different minerals.\n2 boxes selected rock specimens, 40 specimens each of 20 different focks.\nMeteorological Apparatus.\nI barograph.\nI thermograph.\n\n"}
{"page": 802, "printed_page": null, "text": "794\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nI exposed thermometer.\nX solar radiation thermometer.\nI aneroid barometer.\nI standard (mercurial) barometer.\nI set maximum and minimum thermometers.\nI soil thermometer.\nI wind-vane and anemometer.\n\nSPECIAL\n\nREPORT OF THE COMMITTEE\nCHEMISTRY\n\nON\n\nPRESENTED TO THE COMMITTEE ON COLLEGE-ENTRANCE\nREQUIREMENTS OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\nI.\n\nVALUE\n\nAND\n\nPLACE\n\nOF\n\nCHEMISTRY\n\nThe Study of chemistry is a valuable constituent of the high'-school\ncourse on account (i) of the training in observation in general and correct induction from observation which it affords, and (2) ni the first-hand\ninformation which it gives about well-known materials, the principles\nof their manufacture, and their properties, as the result of personal\nobservation.\nThe college invites its study in preparatory schools on account of\nthese two benefits. To be of subsequent use the method and content of\nthe courses in preparatory schools must be definite and uniform. The\nselected matter must be thoroly taught, so as to form a recognizable\nconstituent of the preparation of those who present it. When these conditions are fulfilled, the college must give proper recognition to the work.\nAll colleges must give admission credit for the subject. In addition to\nthis each college must provide definite means for advancing the entrant\nin chemistry to an extent corresponding to his previous knowledge of the\nsubject. The precise method of doing this will depend upon the nature\nof the courses the college itself offers. In any case no pupil who offers\nchemistry for entrance, and receives definite credit for it, should be\nplaced in the same class with beginners who had no such credit.\n.Without laboratory work school chemistry is wholly valueless for the\npurposes just mentioned. It should be preceded by physics, since chemistry necessarily assumes a knowledge of the physical properties of matter\nand of the phenomena connected with heat and electricity. If, on account\nof limited teaching force, relatively little time can be given to the sciences, itis more desirable to give a year each to one or two sciences than\nshorter periods to a larger number.\nIt must be remembered that, for the\n\n"}
{"page": 803, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCOLLEGE-ENTRANCE\n\nREQUIREMENTS\n\n795\n\nefficient teaching of science, preparation of apparatus and experiments\nfor demonstrations and laboratory work are necessary, and the science\nteacher cannot, therefore, carry more than half the number of recitations\nassigned to most other teachers.\nOUTLINE\n\nOF A ONE-YEAR\n\nCOURSE\n\nThe work outlined below will demand at least 200 hours' work ; about\nhalf the time, in two-hour periods, should be spent in the laboratory.\nII.\n\nMETHOD\n\nOF\n\nTEACHING\n\nLaboratory work. — The experiments must be performed by each pupil\nindividually.\nEach pupil must record his observations and the interpretation of\nthem in a notebook. His work should be continuously supervised and\nhis records frequently examined by the teacher.\nMost pupils will tend to fall into merely mechanical performance of\nassigned work. To combat this is the most difficult task of the teacher of\nchemistry. Each experiment is a question put to nature, and forethought\nand care are necessary in putting the question, and study and reflection in\ninterpreting the answer. Strenuous effort is required to make the pupil\nrealize this. The questions incorporated in the laboratory outline, to\nwhich answers are expected as part of the notes ; individual questioning\nin the laboratory ; above all, frequent, thoro quizzing of the whole class,\nare the best means of forcing the significance of this practical work intja\nthe foreground.\nBeginning at an early stage in the course, simple quantitative experiments should be given, in order to illustrate the laws of definite and\nmultiple proportion, the determination of combining and equivalent\nweights, the specific gravity of gases, etc. This will enable the pupil to\nappreciate the fact that, altho the quantities used in the majority of\nlaboratory exercises may not be measured, yet the proportions and the\ncompositions by weight of substances involved in all chemical changes are\ndefinite and measurable. Without such measurements atomic weights will\nseem purely mythical. Not less than six such exercises should be given.\nOne or two of these experiments must be introduced early, in order that\nformulae and equations, when the time for their employment comes, may\nbe given as abbreviated expressions of the results of quantitative measurements.\nQualitative analysis is a branch of applied chemistry, and cannot be\nlearned otherwise than mechanically without a long preparation in general\nchemistry. There should be no pretense of teaching it in a secondary\nschool as part (much less as the whole) of the first year's work. It gives a\ndistorted view of the classifications of the elements and of the relative\nimportance of their properties, and bears the same relation to the science\n\n"}
{"page": 804, "printed_page": null, "text": "796\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondaiy\n\nof chemistry that the Liniuean system of classification in botany bears to\nthe natural.\nYet exercises on the recognition of chemical substances will tend to\nfix their properties in the mind and give a useful review of many of the\nfacts and principles of the science, provided that a proper method of\nconducting them be pursued. Analytical tables encourage mechanical\nwork in a remarkable degree, and cannot be permitted. An outline suggesting suitable dry- and wet-way experiments, which will throw the\nburden of thought and rigid proof on the pupil, will be a sufficient\nguide. This part of the work may fitly occupy five or six weeks of the\ncourse.\nClass-room. — Many partsof the subject can best be introduced by'means\nof carefully reasoned and fully illustrated demonstrations by the teacher.\nSometimes also this method of teaching has to be used where the apparatus\nis complicated and cannot be supplied to each pupil, or where, in striving\nto make the experiment successful, the pupil will be in danger of wasting\ntime. Thus on pedagogical or practical grounds some of the Hofmann\nexperiments for illustrating the application of Avogadro's hypothesis\n(explosion of hydrogen and oxygen, electrolysis of hydrochloric acid,\netc. ) are best performed by the teacher. (No teacher should fail to read\nHofmann's admirable Lectures on Modern Chemistry, 1865.) The line of\nthought to be developed in connection with the experiments performed\nby the teacher and by the pupil is well given (pp. 1-9) in the Harvard\nRequirements in Chemistry by Professor Richards.\nThe theories and principles must be presented inductively. They\nshould not be stated as dogmas, or as if they were part of the facts. They\nshould be held in reserve until some accumulated facts demand explanation and correlation. Facts incapable of correlation should be avoided\nas far as possible. On the other hand, explanations by the handy affinity\nidea are worse than useless, as they are generally pure nonsense. When\nsymbols and formulae are first introduced, special care must be taken to\nshow how they are derived from quantitative measurements. The pupil's\nown observations and other examples must be used to show how the formulae,\nand finally the equations, are reached as expressions of- quantitative\nrelations. The whole process of determining the proportions by weight\nand constructing the formulae and equations must be done or described\nin connection with every chemical change, until the pupil is thoroly\nfamiliar with the operation and the exact significance of the equation is\nperfectly clear (cf. Harvard pamphlet already mentioned (p. 24) on this\npoint). Formulae must on no account be used before this can be done,\nas otherwise they will inevitably appear to be the source of information\ninstead of the receptacle for it. AH \"exercises in writing equations\"\nand rules for constructing them, as if they were mathematical expressions,\nmust be rigidly excluded as fantastic and misleading.\nThe misuse to\n\n"}
{"page": 805, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCOLLEGE-ENTRANCE\n\nREQUIREMENTS\n\n797\n\nwhich equations have been put has led to their omission or prolonged\npostponement by some teachers. Their introduction at an early stage\ncan do no possible harm, provided the laboratory work contains exercises\nspecifically intended to illustrate the way in which the facts recorded in\nthe equations are ascertained and the manner in which the equations are\nconstructed from these facts. The atomic theory should not be introduced until after this experimental foundation of the equation is thoroly\nfamiliar. The equation has no necessary connection with this theory.\nThe teacher will derive valuable hints in regard to method from Perkin\nand Lean's Introduction to Chemistry.\nLibrary. — Interest in the study should be fostered by providing a\nsmall library. The use of this will counteract the idea which the pupil\nmay possibly receive that the text-book employed in the class is a \"complete\" treatise. It should contain some more advanced works, as well\nas some of a more popular nature.\nIII.\n\nSUBJECT-MATTER\n\nThe following outline includes only the indispensable things which\nmust be studied in the class-room and laboratory. The material is, for\nthe most part, common to all elementary text-books and laboratory\nmanuals. Each book makes its own selection of facts beyond this which\nmay be necessary for the illustration of the principles of the- science.\nThe order of presentation will naturally be determined by each teacher\nfor himself.\nOutline. — -The chief physical and chemical characteristics, the preparation and the recognition of the following elements and their chief compounds : oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen, chlorine, bromine, iodine,\nfluorine, sulphur, phosphorus, silicon, potassium, sodium, calcium, magnesium, zinc, copper, mercury, silver, aluminium, lead, tin, iron, manganese,\nchromium.\nMore detailed study should be confined to the italicized elements (as\nsuch) and to a restricted list of compounds, such as : water, hydrochloric\nacid, carbon-monoxide, carbon-dioxide, nitric acid, ammonia, sulphurdioxide, sulphuric acid, hydrogen-sulphide, sodium-hydroxide.\nAttention should be given to the atmosphere (constitution and relation to animal and vegetable life), flames, acids, bases, salts, oxidation\nand reduction, crystallization, manufacturing processes, familiar substances\n(illuminating gas, explosives, baking-powder, mortar, glass, metallurgy,\nsteel, common alloys, porcelain, soap).\nCombining proportions by weight and volume ; calculations founded\non these and Boyle's and Charles' laws ; symbols and nomenclature (with\ncareful avoidance of special stress, since these are nonessential) ; atomic\ntheory, atomic weights and valency in a very elementary way ; nascent\nstate; natural grouping of the elements; solution (solvents and solubility\n\n"}
{"page": 806, "printed_page": null, "text": "79^\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nof gases, liquids, and solids, saturation) ; ionization ; mass action and\nequilibrium; strength (= activity) of acids and bases; conservation and\ndissipation of energy ; chemical energy (very elementary) ; electrolysis.\nChemical terms should be defined and explained, and the pupil should be\nable to illustrate and apply the ideas they embody. The theoretical topics\nare not intended to form separate subjects of study, but to be taught\nonly so far as is necessary for the correlation and explanation of the\nexperimental facts.\nThe facts should be given as examples from various classes, and not\nas isolated things. Thus to speak of a \" standard method of preparing\nhydrogen,\" whereby the action of zinc on hydrochloric acid is meant,\nshows narrow and infertile teaching. It should be shown that all acids\nare acted upon by a certain class of metals to produce hydrogen.\nExamples of both classes of metals should be given and the general\nprinciples derived. The reason for using zinc and hydrochloric acid in\nthe laboratory can then be stated.\nIV.\n\nEQUIPMENT\n\nChemistry cannot be taught satisfactorily without a proper laboratory\nand a sufficient supply of apparatus. The former should contain desks,\nwith gas- and water connections, bottle racks, and well- ventilated hoods.\nEach pupil should have his own set of apparatus.\nIn view of the prevailing idea that quantitative experiments require\nexpensive apparatus, it may be mentioned that a balance with case (Becker\nNo. 31) — costing, when imported duty-free, $15 — and weights ($1.25)\nwill amply suffice, and some teachers secure good results by giving each\npupil ordinary hand-scales, costing less than Si. 50. There should be one\nbalance to every six pupils working at one time. In addition to this the\nfollowing will be required :\nBarometer ; thermometers ; burettes, two for four pupils at least ;\nporcelain crucibles for each student ; bottle for aspirator (one liter) for\neach student.\nMost of the apparatus for demonstrations can be made by the teacher\nby use of the blowpipe, some glass tubing of various sizes, and a few\npieces of thin platinum wire.\nIt may not be out of place to add that a teacher competent to instruct\na class after the fashion indicated here must have had considerable training in the several branches of the sciences. His minimum equipment\nwill be : physics (one year), general chemistry (one year), qualitative\nanalysis (two terms; one term = twelve weeks), quantitative analysis (one\nterm), theoretical chemistry (one term), organic chemistry (one term),\nsome acquaintance with the history of the science, and familiarity\nwith all' the chief books suitable as works of reference in connection\n\n"}
{"page": 807, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nwith such\nchemistry.\n\na\n\nCOLLEGE-ENTRANCE\n\ncourse,\n\nand\n\nall\n\nthe\n\nREQULREMENTS\n\ntext-books\n\nfor\n\n799\n\nsecondary-school\n\nAlexander Smith, University of Chicago, Chairman.\nW. B. Graves, Phillips Academy, Andover.\nE. F. Smith, University of Pennsylvania.\nFrank Rollins, Boys' High School, New York.\nW. T. Van Buskirk, High School, Peoria, 111.\nW. L. Dudley, Vanderbilt University.\nC. F. Mabery, Case School of Applied Science.\nG. W. Benton, High School, Indianapolis, Ind.\nEXCEPTIONS\n\nBY PROFESSOR\n\nP. C. FREER\n\nIn discussing the above report, I would beg to make the following\nadditions and exceptions :\nI advise the omission of the determination of the specific gravities of\ngases.\nMy reasons are as follows :\nWith the pupil's knowledge and the apparatus at his disposal, the\nresult must be more or less inaccurate. Inaccuracy in quantitative experiments robs them of their significance. The laws of definite and multiple\nproportions are exact, and, if they are to be illustrated by quantitative\nexperiments, exact results are necessary.\nHofmann's Einleitung in die moderne Chemie is a very admirable work,\nbut, in my. opinion, the* gas laws are dealt with at unnecessary length,\nand their importance is exaggerated. For the purpose of the teacher,\nsuch works as Lothar Meyer's Elements of Theoretical Chemistry, or\nOstwald's Outlines of General Chetnistry, are better ; they also give the\ngas laws, and many other important things in addition.\nI cannot agree with the introduction of many commercial processes\nin an elementary course. The course in chemistry is for the purpose of\neducation, and mere information is not education. The time is all too\nshort as it is, and the attention should not be distracted from fundamental principles. Many commercial processes are of such a complex\nnature that a considerable chemical knowledge is necessary for their\nunderstanding, so that, as a consequence, the information must be conveyed to the beginner empirically. In chemical teaching, at present,\nthis method is used to excess, so that I deprecate calling especial attention to the matter.\nIn my opinion, accurate quantitative results can only be obtained by\nmeans of a sensitive balance, the cost of which is from $40 to ^50. I fail\nto see how hand-scales can give more than approximate results.\nThe best and most accurate quantitative experiments for beginners\nare, in my opinion, volumetric in character. For this purpose, experiments in titration, involving the neutralization of hydrochloric and sulphuric acids by caustic soda and caustic potash, are well adapted.\nThe\n\n"}
{"page": 808, "printed_page": null, "text": "8oo\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nsolution of known titer can be prepared by the teacher in bulk and kept in\nstock. The pupil should calculate equivalent weights of bases and acids.\nI would rather see the time spent in training the teacher in qualitative\nanalysis in part devoted to organic chemistry and to physical chemistry.\nWith a good training in general organic and physical chemistry, the\nhigh-school teacher is better equipped for his work than he would be\nwere he to devote his time more extensively to analysis, to the detriment\nof other branches. By this I would have it understood, however, that\nthe study of such a book as Ostwald's Foundations of Analytical Chemistry\nwould meet my objections.\nP. C. Freer, University of Michigan.\nProfessor Freer's opinions on Hofmann's work and on commercial\nprocesses are not inconsistent with anything in the report. In fact, I\nbelieve they express the views of the committee on these subjects. Qualitative analysis cannot be taught scientifically otherwise than on a basis\nsimilar to that outlined in Ostwald's Scientific Foundations. ^hx.Y.y.K^'O^Vi.\nSmith.\n\nOF THE\n\nREPORT\n\nOF THE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nSCIENCE\n\nDEPARTMENT OF THE\nASSOCIATION\n\nON BOTANY\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nIt does not seem necessary to discuss the proposition that contact with\nthe phenomena of life should form a part of the training of the secondary schools. If this be granted, either plants or animals, or both, are to\nbe studied. In case both are studied, it is the judgment of your committee that they should be studied consecutively, and not intermixed.\nThe two lines are entirely divergent, and to study plants and animals\nalternately leads to confusion, and often to entire misapprehension. All\nof the fundamental principles of biology can be obtained from either\nline.\nA. Probably the most common method of teaching botany in the\nsecondary schools is to conduct recitations, which are little more than\ndefinitions of the parts of flowering plants, and to demand as practicalexercises the preparation of a small herbarium, and the analysis of a certain number of flowers in accordance with some \" key.\" In the judgment\nof your committee this method is entirely inadequate. It deals with but\na small portion of the plant kingdom, and presents the least important\ndetails of that portion. It brings no conception of plants as living\nthings, and develops no biological principles.\nB. A newer method, and one prevailing in the larger , and betterequipped secondary schools, is organized upon a far more rational basis.\n\n"}
{"page": 809, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCOLLEGE- ENTRANCE\n\nREQUIREMENTS\n\n8oi\n\nIt seeks to present the essential structures of the whole plant kingdom\nby the examination of a series of types, and the facts observed are\nco-ordinated by a text-book or by lectures. The method involves the\nalmost continuous use of the compound microscope. In the judgmentof your committee the compound microscope is both useful and necessary\nin the demonstration of many important structures that should be brought\nto the attention of secondary-school students, but its excessive use in the\nfirst contact with plants is to be deplored. The compound microscope\nis a difificult piece of apparatus for a young student to use intelligently,\na proper interpretation of that which is seen demanding considerable\ntraining, involving more total time and longer periods than are given in\nsecondary schools. Another danger of such a course is that the contact\nwith plants is one of structure rather than of function, and details of\nminute structure are not related to previous or subsequent experience,\nexcept in the case of very few secondary-school pupils ; besides, it involves\na needlessly extensive and difficult terminology at the first contact.\nSuch a course as that referred to above may be conducted to great\nadvantage in schools with small classes, good equipment, liberal laboratory periods, and experienced teachers, but this combination of conditions is not present in the vast majority of secondary schools.\nC. A third method is suggested in this report, and is based upon the\nfollowing principles : the standpoint of observation should be that of\nplants as living things and at work, details of structure being entirely\nsubordinated ; observation should be directed to the most obvious facts,\nthose which form a fitting background for subsequent study, and which\neasily enter into the subsequent experience of those who do not study\nj, further, making the work result in a permanent possession ; professional\nterminology and difficult and expensive apparatus should be avoided as\nmuch as possible, the proper place for these being in college and university courses.\nD. With these principles in view, it would seem that the first contact\nshould be with plants in their general relations, forming the natural\ncovering of the earth's surface, and holding definite relations to their\nenvironment. In addition to the observation of essential life-relations,\nthe most important life-processes should be demonstrated. To develop\nsome elementary knowledge of the life-relations and life-processes of\nplants will demand at least' a half-year of work, and is the phase of botany\nthat will count for the most, if but a half-year is given to the subject.\nNaturally such a contact with plants will involve some knowledge of the\ngreat groups and their essential structures.\nE. In case a second half-year is given to botany, it should be devoted\nto a course in general morphology. Some knowledge of the structure of\nplants will have been developed during the work of the first half-year,\nbut during the second half-year the standpoint of structure is made more\n\n"}
{"page": 810, "printed_page": null, "text": "8o2\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nprominent, and the evolution of the plant kingdom is traced. For this\npart of the work compound microscopes and the ordinary laboratory\nequipment will be necessary. On account of previous training, the type\nplants selected for study will be related to their proper surroundings,\ntheir most obvious relations and processes will be known, and hence their\nstructure will have some significance.\nIn no case should structure be considered apart from function, so that\nthe course should involve a continuance of experiments in plant\nphysiology.\nF. An outline of suggested courses is herewith appended, the first\ncourse being for a half year of work, the second course being added to\nthe first for a whole year of work.\nFIRST\n\nCOURSE\n\n1. The Great Plant Groups. — Before undertaking the study of plants in their relations, itwill be necessary to give some general training in the recognition of great\ngroups. In a few exercises the pupil may be taught to recognize, in a general way,\nalgae, fungi, liverworts, mosses, ferns, equisetums, club-mosses, gymnosperms, monocotyledons, and dicotyledons. It should be understood that this preliminary training\nis not to develop much knowledge of the structures of these groups, but merely to\nenable the student to recognize them in laboratory and field work.\n2. Life-Relations and -Processes.\n(1) The foliage leaf as a light-related organ.\na) This fact explaining its position, its form, the relation of leaves to each other.\n6) The structure : demonstrating epidermis, stomata, mesophyll, chloroplasts,\nveins.\nc) Functions : demonstrating photosynthesis, transpiration, respiration.\nd) Protection of mesophyll : palisade cells, cuticle, hairs, movements, etc.\ne) These relations and functions in green plants without foliage leaves.\n(2) The stem as the leaf-bearing organ.\na) Stems bearing foliage leaves, the problem of foliage display being studied in\nconnection with subterranean, prostrate, submerged, climbing, and erect stems.\nb') Demonstrations of movements of water and elaborated material, growth, heliotropism, etc.\nc\") Compare stem structure of different types.\n(/) Stems bearing scale leaves, being connected with protection, or storage, or\nvegetative propagation, prominent examples being the bud, the tuber, and the\nrootstock types.\n^) Stems bearing floral leaves, the flowers being studied as to pollination and seed\ndissemination, but not as to their extensive terminology.\n(3) The root as an absorbing and hold-fast organ.\na) Relations to soil, water, air, mechanical support, etc.\nb) Demonstrations of absorption, geotropism, hydrotropism.\nc) Structure of roots.\nd) Absorption and grappling by plants without roots.\n\n1\n\nt\n\n3. The Plant Societies. — This is a study of natural plant areas, such as forest, meadow,\nswamp, etc., and is very desirable if practicable. It is recognized that in city schools,\nand in those with very large classes, the study of natural areas can form no large part\n\n"}
{"page": 811, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCOLLEGE-ENTRANCE\n\nREQUIREMENTS\n\nof the formal training, but it may always be encouraged.\n\n803\n\nThe conditions of several\n\nplant societies, however, may be imitated in the schoolroom, and many of the adaptations of plants observed.\n(i) Water plants. — An aquarium stocked with characteristic water forms, a collection\nof marine seaweeds, and some swamp plants are things to be obtained by any\nschool. The structures of such plants should be contrasted with those of plants\nliving under different conditions.\n{2) Drought plants. — Characteristic drought plants can be cultivated, and also the\neffect of drought conditions upon ordinary plants can be noted. The various\nmethods of regulating transpiration and of storing water should be observed.\n(3) Ordinary plants. — To contrast the plants growing in genial conditions with those\ngrowing in water or drought conditions is a fruitful subject of observation.\nSECOND\n\nCOURSE\n\nPlant Structures. — Such a course needs no outline. Types lepresenting each\ngreat plant group should be selected and the essential structures observed, unessential\ndetails being passed over. Naturally the structures will fall under two physiological\nheads, the nutritive and the reproductive. In the selection of types the following groups\nshould be represented : algce, fungi, lichens, liverworts, mosses, ferns, horsetails, clubmosses, conifers, monocotyledons, and dicotyledons.\nIn connection with this course it would be well to continue some work in plant\nphysiology, a number of simple experiments being \"set up\" to illustrate the more\nimportant functions of the structure under observation.\nSuch a course also incidentally involves the fundamental classification of plants,\nwhich phase of the subject may be carried into greater detail in connection with the study\nof the monocotyledons and dicotyledons by teaching the use of the ordinary manuals of\nseed plants.\n\nG. In connection with both of these courses your committee would\ncall special attention to the great importance of drawing as a means of\nsecuring definite observation.\nIt is also the judgment of your committee that to obtain the best\nresults the work, as herein outlined, should be done during the last two\nyears of the secondary-school period.\nBOTANICAL\n\nMEMBERS\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nOF\n\nFIVE\n\nREPRESENTING\n\n:\n\n1. New England Association of Colleges and Preparatory Schools:\nProfessor W. F. Ganong, Smith College, Northampton, Mass.\nMr. David W. Hoyt, English High School, Providence, R. I.\n2. Association of Colleges and Preparatory Schools of Middle States and Maryland:\nProfessor B. D. Halsted, Rutgers College, New Brunswick, N. J.\nMr. Frank Owen Payne, High School, Glen Cove, N. Y.\n3. North Central Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools:\nProfessor Charles R. Barnes, University of Chicago, Chicago, 111.\nMr. E. R. Boyer, High School, Chicago, 111. (Who has not indicated his assent\nto this report.)\n4. Southern Association of Colleges:\nProfessor Albert H. Tuttle, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Va.\nMr. Albert Ruth, High School, Knoxville, Tenn.\n\n"}
{"page": 812, "printed_page": null, "text": "8o4\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Second\n\n5. A. A. A.S.:\nProfessor Charles E. Bessey, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Neb.\ndissenting opinion.)\nMr. J. Y. Bergen, Jr., High School, Boston, Mass,\n\n(See\n\n6. National Educational Association :\nProfessor John M. Coulter, University of Chicago, Chicago, 111., chairman.\nMr. I. N. Mitchell, State Normal School, Milwaukee, Wis.\nDISSENTING\n\nCOMMENTS\n\nOF CHARLES\n\nE. BESSEY\n\nWhile cordially agreeing with the majority of the committee in the\ngeneral spirit of the foregoing report, and in many of its propositions\nand recommendations, I cannot subscribe to it in its present form. The\nessential points in which I dissent are as follows :\nI cannot agree to say, with the majority of the committee, that the\ncompound microscope \"is a difificult piece of apparatus for the young\nstudent to use intelligently,\" since I have known of its very successful\nuse in the fourth, fifth, and sixth grades of certain public schools in\nNebraska. .For pupils in the eleventh and twelfth grades (third and\nfourth years of the high school, where alone botany should be first taken\nup) the compound microscope is not as difficult to handle as the chemical\nand physical apparatus necessarily handled in a good high-school course\nin chemistry and physics. We are not called upon to make botany a\nsimpler science than chemistry and physics in the secondary schools. ^\nI must dissent emphatically from the proposition that \"the first contact [of the pupil] should be with plants in their general relations, forming the natural covering of the earth's surface, and holding definite\nrelations to their environment.\" This refers to the newest department of\nmodern botany, viz., ecology, which is just now, for the first time, finding\nits way into the botanical courses of our foremost universities. We who\nhave to deal with advanced students, well prepared in general and systematic botany, find it hard enough work to study the general relations of\nplants referred to above, and I hold it to be impossible to take up this\nwork successfully in the secondary schools without a much better preparathan than suggested in the report of the committee.\nI must dissent from much of the detail in the suggested course for\nthe first half-year. Instead of attempting the impossible task of teaching\nthe pupil in a few exercises \" to recognize, in a general way, algae, fungi,\nliverworts, mosses, ferns, equisetums, club-mosses, gymnosperms, monocotyledons, and dicotyledons,\" it will be far better to devote the halfyear to this work, giving the pupil the opportunity of becoming personally acquainted with enough kinds under each head given above to enable\nhim to recognize them in something more than \"a general way.\"\nAs to the \"life- relations and -processes\" I dissent from the prominence\nwhich the report gives them thus early in the course in botany.\nMany\n\n"}
{"page": 813, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCOLLEGE-ENTRANCE\n\nREQUIREMENTS\n\n805\n\nof the suggestions are useful, e. g., those pertaining to the position, form,\nand mutual relations of leaves ; the stems bearing foliage leaves ; prostrate,\nclimbing, and erect stems; relations of roots to soil, water, air, etc.; and\nsome of the experiments and demonstrations are suggestive; but others,\nagain, are impossible of performance in any but the loosest way by secondary-school pupils, e. g., the demonstration of photosynthesis, respiration, and movements of water and elaborated material.\nThe inclusion by the committee of the study of \"plant societies\" in\nthe suggested work of the secondary-school pupils is, to say the least,\nuntimely. The pupils with no further preparation than that allowed by\nthe committee are not able to designate the members of the plant societies, and, on account of the newness of this department of botany in\nAmerica, there are practically no teachers in the secondary schools who\nare able to give any instruction in it.\nI recommend that the committee's \"second course\" be more fully\nelaborated, and suggested to the secondary schools as the outline of work\nto be followed.\nCharles E. Bessey,\n\nREPORT\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nZOOLOGY\n\nThe committee takes it for granted that, in accordance with the general report of the Committee of Ten, published some time ago, the subject\nwill be awarded a place in the curriculum, and hence the present report\ncovers its position, the character of the course, and extent of the same.\nPOSITION\n\nIN\n\nCURRICULUM\n\nStudies on living things appeal more strongly to students of fifteen\nthan to those of seventeen years of age, whereas the reverse is true of\nprecise formal argument. The power of exact reasoning cannot be said\nto develop early, and the less formal methods of biological science are\nalso transitional to those of both physics and chemistry. Furthermore,\nthe mathematical training necessary for physics particularly is not obtained\nby the pupil, under present programs in secondary schools, early enough\nto allow the introduction of work in physics before the third year of the\nsecondary course; hence your subcommittee is all but unanimous in\nrecommending that, since work in zoology does not require the rigid\ntraining necessary for more formal work in physics and chemistry, it\nshould precede work in these branches. It should, however, be preceded,\nm its opinion, by a year in general science and physiography.\nWhether illustrated by the study of plants or animals, the phenomena\nof life are so sinjilar and so clearly complementary that a rational arrangement of courses calls for a study of botany and zoology in successive\n\n"}
{"page": 814, "printed_page": null, "text": "8o6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondly\n\nterms or years. Various circumstances may determine in the individual\ncase the order to be followed, yet neither should be studied at the expense\nof the other, but both receive a due share of attention.\nCHARACTER\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nCOURSE\n\n1. Probably the most general method of teaching zoology in secondary schools at present is the text-book method.\nA large amount of 1\ninformation about animals is acquired thereby in a limited time, and the\nminimum\nof attainment and preparation is demanded of the teacher.\nYour Subcommittee on Zoology is unanimously opposed to this method, ]\nfor not only is undue emphasis laid on the larger forms of animal life,\nbut also no course has any right to be regarded as a course in science i\nunless it include laboratory work.\n2. The systematic method involves the detailed study of a group or\ngroups in the most careful manner from a taxonomic standpoint. This\nplan has the advantage of bringing the pupils in contact with the objects\nstudied, and trains powers of discrimination and analysis, but it gives\nthe student an exaggerated idea of the importance of certain structural\nparts and of limited animal groups, and fails to develop general biological ideas.\n3. The laboratory study of a series of animals is the method now used\nwith the greatest success. Two tendencies are observed here : (a) the\nrapid superficial examination of a large number of forms, and {b) the\nmore accurate study of a limited series of types. Your subcommittee is\nof the opinion that the thoro, careful study of a few types, emphasizing\nthe quality of the work rather than the amount of ground covered, should\nbe recommended as yielding the best results, tho \"the course should not\nbe exhaustive to the extent of becoming exhausting.\" In content some\nchange in the prevalent character of zoological courses seems desirable.\nThe systematic and morphologic work of colleges is not most profitable\nto the student ; minute anatomy is clearly out of place, and exclusive\ndissecting is too time-consuming. External morphology, life-histories,\nhabits, economic interests, are of far greater interest and value to the\npupil, and all members of the subcommittee are united in emphasizing\nthe necessity of paying greater attention to observations on the living animal and its activities.\nA series of types can be selected on which it is possible to work without the use of a compound microscope, thus adapting the course to\nschools having a minimum equipment. The course may, however, be\nsomewhat improved by the addition of a little work on lower forms by the\naid of that instrument. The types may be selected with reference to the\nmaterial available for use, but always with regard to preserving the balance\nof the course in getting some idea of the wide variation in animal structure, and should be so arranged that related forms come in succession.\n\n"}
{"page": 815, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCOLLEGE-ENTRANCE\n\nREQUIREMENTS\n\n807\n\nIt is essential that the student find individually the answers to questions from the objects before him, record independently his observations\nin the form of notes, and especially of drawings portraying the essential\nfeatures with accuracy, and should himself conduct experiments of a\nharmless and simple character on the living animal. The definite information gained in this way and by comparison with other types should be\nbroadened by reading and class instruction on allied topics outlined by\nthe teacher. Of fundamental importance are field excursions for the\nstudy as far as practicable, of organisms in their natural environment, to\ncollect and compare other forms, to observe and record their habits and\nactivities. For the comparison of types not native to a given region a\nschool museum is desirable, but it should be a small working collection\nand be put to constant use. The collateral reading of the course should\nbe broad enough to include, not only work of immediate bearing on the\ntopic irt hand, but also the records of great naturalists and explorers,\nwhich will add to the interest as well as encourage love for nature.\nEXTENT\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nCOURSE\n\nNot less than one year of continuous work should be given to biological science, and half of the time should be devoted to zoology. Of the\nfive hours per week spent in the study, two may be used for class-room\nwork and three in the laboratory ; altho, by virtue of lack of outside\npreparation for laboratory work, some think that double time should be\ndevoted to it for a given credit. The choice of type forms used in the\nlaboratory is subject to individual variation, but should not exceed ten\nfor a half year's work. The line of study to be followed for each form is\nindicated by the following analysis:\n1. External anatomy : {a) general form and symmetry, regions, parts ;\n(/5) comparison with other individuals of the same species, emphasizing\npoints of variation and constancy ; (c) comparison with other types.\n2. Observations on the living animal, simple physiological tests,\nemphasizing care with regard to the inferences drawn from the reactions.\n3. Class topics, including talks by the teacher, selected readings, class\nwork, analysis of results.\nAs a specific instance of the application to the individual form, the\nfollowing instance is taken from the report of one member of the commit e :\nBUTTERFLY\n\nAny one of various species whose larvae can be obtained alive near the end of September may be employed. The cabbage butterfly (Pieris), the milkweed butterfly\n(Danais), or the swallow-tail butterfly (Papilio) will meet these conditions.\nDRAWINGS\n\n1. Imago : dorsal view, wings expanded.\nX, i or 2.\n2. Imago : left side, wings closed. (The bodies in i and 2 are to be drawn parallel\nto each other). X, i or 2,\n\n"}
{"page": 816, "printed_page": null, "text": "8o8\n\nNATIONAL\n\n3. Imago : front of head.\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nX, 10.\n\n4. Pupa : left side.\n5. Full-grown larva : dorsal view.\n6. Full-grown larva : left side.\nQUESTIONS\n\n1. How\n\nON\n\nEXTERNAL\n\nANATOMY\n\nmany segments behind the head in {a) the imago; {b) the larva; {c) the\n\npupa?\n2. What external organs of the imago can be identified in the pupa ?\n3. Which feet of the larva correspond with those of the imago ?\nOBSERVATIONS\n\nON\n\nTHE\n\nLIVING\n\nLARVA\n\nEach student (or group of students) should be provided with a glass vessel covered\nwith netting and containing food leaves, for keeping the larva during pupation.\n1. How is locomotion effected ? Illustrate by diagrams.\n2. How does the larva feed ? Observe and record the movements of the mouthparts\nand of the head during feeding.\nDraw the outline of a partly eaten leaf.\n3. (This observation must extend thru several days.) Make and record observations\nupon the act of pupation.\nTOPICS\n\nFOR\n\nTHE\n\nTEACHER\n\n(i) The habits and food of butterflies. (2) The number\nduring a single season and seasonal dimorphism.\n\nof broods of butterflies\n\n(3) Protective resemblance and\n\nmimicry. (4) The larger divisions and commoner native forms of lepidoptera. (Examples of lepidoptera illustrating the commoner native types should be shown, and students\nencouraged to collect and classify them.) (5) The hymenoptera ; their structure, classification, and habits.\nZOOLOGICAL\n\nSUBCOMMITTEE\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nOF\n\nSIXTY,\n\n1. From the Northeastern Association of Colleges and Preparatory Schools:\nProfessor William\nT. Sedgwick,\nMassachusetts\nInstitute of\nBoston, Mass.\nMr, William\n\nNATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nTechnology,\n\nOrr, Jr., High School, Springfield, Mass.\n\n2. From the Association of Colleges and Preparatory Schools of the Middle States and Maryland:\nProfessor\nMr. Oliver\n\nE. G. Conklin, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa.\nD. Clark, Boys' High School, Brooklyn, N. Y.\n\n3. From the North Central Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools:\nProfessor\n\nHenry\n\nBaldwin\n\nMr. J. W. Matthews,\n\nWard,\n\nUniversity of Nebraska, Lincoln, Neb.,\n\nsecretary-chairman.\nprincipal of High School, Grand Rapids, Mich.\n\n4. From the Southern Association of Colleges and High Schools:\nProfessor Henry B. Orr, Tulane University, New Orleans, La.\nMr. C. E. Harris, McDonough High School No. i. New Orleans, La.\n5. From the American Association for the Advancement\n\nof Science:\n\nProfessor Alpheus Spring Packard, Brown University, Providence, R. I.\nMr. Franklin W. Barrows, Central High School, Buffalo, N. Y.\n6. From the Department of Natural Science Teaching, National Educational Association :\nDr.^Charles^Benedict\n\nDavenport,\n\nHarvard University, Carobridge,,Mass.\n\n"}
{"page": 817, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCOLLEGE-ENTRANCE\n\nREQUIREMENTS\n\n809\n\nPHYSICS\n\nThe Committee on Physics of the Science Department of the\nNational Educational Association did not submit a regular report signed\nby the members of the committee.\nThese were :\nProfessor E. H. Hall, Harvard University, chairman.\nProfessor H. S. Carhart, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor.\nR. B. Fulton, Chancellor, University of Mississippi.\nC. L. Harrington, Sachs' Collegiate Institute, New York, N. Y.\nJulius Hortvet, East Side High School, Minneapolis, Minn.\nC. J. Ling, Manual Training School, Denver, Colo.\nProfessor E. L. Nichols, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y.\nE. D. Pierce, Hotchkiss School, Lakeville, Conn.\nProfessor Fernando Sanford, Leland Stanford Jr. University, Cal.\nProfessor B. F. Thomas, Ohio State University, Columbus.\nEdward R. Robbins, Lawrenceville School, Lawrenceville, N. J.\n\nThe basis of a report, suggested by Professor Hall, and consisting of a\nlist of laboratory experiments, is given below. Comments by the members of the committee, in case they dissented from any part of this, were\nto be sent at once to the chairman of the Committee on College- Entrance\nRequirements. It may be assumed that the list met with the approval of\nthose who did not so indicate dissent. Such comments as have been\nreceived are given after Professor Hall's statement.\nOUTLINE\n\nOF\n\nLABORATORY\nSECONDARY\n\nWORK\nIN\nSCHOOLS\n\nPHYSICS\n\nFOR\n\nAt least thirty-five exercises, selected from a list of sixty or more, not\nveiy different from the list given below. In this list the divisions are\nmechanics (including hydrostatics), light, heat, sound, and electricity\n(with magnetism). At least ten of the exercises selected should be in\nmechanics. The exercises in sound may be omitted altogether; but\neach of the three remaining divisions should be represented by at least\nthree exercises.\nThe division of the list into a first part and a second part is intended\nto facilitate and encourage beginning the study of physics very early in\nthe school course. Most of the exercises in the first part have proved\nto be within the power of boys of fourteen or fifteen years, altho older\npupils can do them more readily, as they can do all other work except\ntasks of pure memory. The cost of apparatus for the exercises of the\nfirst part is very small.\n\n"}
{"page": 818, "printed_page": null, "text": "8lo\n\nNATION'AL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\nFIRST\n\nISecondaiy\n\nPART\n\nPRELIMINARY\n[Recommended,\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nEXERCISES\n\nbut not to be counted]\n\nA. Measurement of a straight line.\nB. Lines of the right triangle and the circle.\nC. Area of an oblique parallelogram.\nD. Volume of a rectangular body by displacement of water.\nMECHANICS\n\nAND\n\nHYDROSTATICS\n\n1. Weight of unit volume of a substance.\n2. Lifting effect of water upon a body entirely immersed in it.\n3. Specific gravity of a solid body that will sink in water.\n4. Specific gravity of a block of wood by use of a sinker.\n5. Weight of water displaced by a floating body.\n6. Specific gravity by flotation method.\n7. Specific gravity of a liquid : two methods.\n8. The straight lever : first class.\n9. Center of gravity and weight of a lever.\n10. Levers of the second and third classes.\n11. Force exerted at the fulcrum of a lever.\n12. Errors of a spring balance.\n13. Parallelogram of forces.\n14. Friction between solid bodies (on a level).\n15. Coefficient of friction (by sliding on incline).\nLIGHT\n\n16. Use of Rumford photometer.\n17. Images in a plane mirror.\n18. Images formed by a convex cylindrical mirror.\n19. Images formed by a concave cylindrical mirror.\n20. Index of refraction of glass.\n21. Index of refraction of water.\n22. Focal length of a converging lens.\n23. Conjugate foci of a lens.\n24. Shape and size of a real image formed by a lens.\n25. Virtual image formed by a lens.\nSECOND\n\nPART\n\nMECHANICS\n\n26. Breaking strength of a wire.\n27. Comparison of wires in breaking tests.\n28. Elasticity: stretching,\n29. Elasticity: bending; effect of varying loads.\n30. Elasticity : bending ; effect of varying, dimensions.\n31. Elasticity: twisting.\n32. Specific gravity of a liquid by balancing columns.\n33. Compressibility of air : Boyle's law.\n34. Density of air.\n35. Four forces at right angles in one plane.\n36. Comparison of masses by acceleration test.\n37. Action and reaction : elastic collision.\n38. Elastic collision continued : inelastic collision.\n\n.\n\n^\na\ni\n\n^\n^■\nT\n\nI.\n\n"}
{"page": 819, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCOLLEGE-ENTRANCE\n\nREQUIREMENTS\n\nSll\n\n39. Testing a mercury thermometer.\n40. Linear expansion of a solid.\n41. Increase of pressure of a gas heated at constant volume.\n42. Increase of volume of a gas heated at constant pressure.\n43. Specific heat of a solid.\n44. Latent heat of melting.\n45. Determination of the dew-point.\n46. Latent heat of vaporization.\nSOUND\n\n47. Velocity of sound in open air.\n48. Wave-length of sound.\n49. Number of vibrations of a tuning-fork.\nELECTRICITY\n\nAND\n\nMAGNETISM\n\n50. Lines of force near a bar magnet.\n51. Study of a single-fluid galvanic cell.\n52. Study of a two-fluid galvanic cell.\n53. Lines of force about a galvanoscope*.\n54. Resistance of wires by substitution : various lengths.\n55. Resistance of wires by substitution : cross-section and multiple arc.\n56. Resistance by Wheatstone's bridge : specific resistance of copper.\n57- Temperature coefficient of resistance in copper.\n58. Battery resistance.\n59. Putting together the parts of a telegraph key and sounder.\n60. Putting together the parts of a small motor.\n61. Putting together the parts of a small dynamo.\n\nProfessor Carhart suggests forty experiments similar to these. Twentyfour of these coincide exactly, in title with items in the above list. The\nfollowing fourteen are new, but many of them are probably implied in\n■the list of sixty-one :\nThe Jolly balance.\nLaws of the pendulum.\nPressure.\nCurve of magnetization.\nAction of current on needle.\nFall of potential in conductor.\nE. M. F. of cell.\n\n'-\\\n\nThe tangent galvanometer.\nVelocity of sound in solids (Kundt).\nLaw of length for strings (sound).\nLaw of diameter for strings (sound).\nLaw of tension for strings (sound).\nLaw of reflection (light).\nMeasurement of angle of prism (light).\n\nt\n\n"}
{"page": 820, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n8l2\n\nPARTIAL\n\nHerbert\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\n[Secondary\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nLIST OF THOSE\nWHO\nHAVE\nASSISTED\nPREPARATION OF THIS REPORT\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nB. Adams,\n\nProfessor of American and Institutional History, Johns Hopkins University, Bal'l\ntimore, Md.\n\nGeorge B. Aiton,\nState Inspector of High Schools, Minneapolis, Minn.\nEdwin\n\nA. Alderman,\nPresident of the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, N. C.\n\nE. H. Babbitt,\nInstructor in German, Columbia University, New York city.\n\nCecil F. P. Bancroft,\nPrincipal of Phillips Academy, Andover, Mass.\n\nCharles R. Barnes,\nProfessor of Botany, University of Chicago, Chicago, 111.\n\nFranklin W. Barrows,\nCentral High School, Buffalo, N. Y.\n\nW. H. Bartholomew,\nPrincipal of Girls' High School, Louisville, Ky.\nG. W. Benton,\nHigh School, Indianapolis, Ind.\n\nJ. Y. Bergen, Jr.,\n\n«\n\nHigh School, Boston, Mass.\nCharles E. Bessey,\nProfessor of Botany, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Neb.\nJ. Remsen Bishop,\nPrincipal of Walnut Hills High School, Cincinnati, O.\nB. L. Bowen,\nProfessor of Romance Languages, University of Ohio, Columbus, O.\nE. R. Boyer,\nAssistant to Superintendent of Schools, Chicago, 111.\nH. C. G. Brandt,\nProfessor of German, Hamilton College, Clinton, N. Y.\n\nI\n\nAlbert Perry Brigham,\nProfessor of Geology, Colgate University, Hamilton, N. Y.\n\nJohn T. Buchanan,\nPrincipal of Boys' High School, New York city.\nWilliam H. Butts,\nInstructor in Mathematics, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich.\n\n%\n\nJames H. Canfield,\nPresident of Ohio State University, Columbus, O.\n\n>\n5\n\nH. S. Carhart,\nProfessor of Physics, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich.\n\n\\\n\nW, H. Carruth,\nProfessor of German, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kan.\n\nt\n\n"}
{"page": 821, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCOLLEGE-ENTRANCE\n\nREQULREMENTS\n\n813\n\nFranklin Carter,\nPresident of Williams College, Williamstown, Mass.\nEdward B. Clapp,\nProfessor of Greek, University of California, Berkeley, Cal.\nCollier Cobb,\nProfessor of Geology, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, N. C.\n\nG. L. Collie,\nProfessor of Geology, Beloit College, Beloit, Wis.\n\nDavid Y. Comstock,\nPrincipal of St. Johnsbury Academy, St. Johnsbury, Vt.\nE. G. CONKLIN,\nProfessor of Comparative\nphia, Pa.\nR. H. Cornish,\n\nEmbryology,\n\nUniversity\n\nof Pennsylvania, Philadel-\n\nAssistant in Physics, Girls' High School, New York city.\n\nJohn M. Coulter,\nProfessor of Botany, University of Chicago, Chicago, 111.\n\nE. G. Coy,\nPrincipal of the Hotchkiss School, Lakeville, Conn.\n\nE. W. Coy,\nPrincipal of the Hughes High School, Cincinnati, O.\nJ. G. Croswell,\nPrincipal of the Brearley School, New York city.\nS. W. Cutting,\nAssociate Professor of German, University of Chicago, Chicago, 111.\n\nCharles Benedict Davenport,\nProfessor of Zoology, Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass.\n\n!\n\nEllery W. Davis,\nProfessor of Mathematics, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Neb.\nW. M. Davis,\nProfessor of Physical Geography, Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass.\nMelvil Dewey,\nSecretary of the Board of Regents and State Librarian, Albany, N. Y.\nW. L. Dudley,\nProfessor of Chemistry, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tenn.\nA. M. Elliott,\nProfessor of Romance Languages, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md.\nArthur Fairbanks,\nYale University, New Haven, Conn.\nWilson Farrand,\nAssociate Principal, Newark Academy, Newark, N. J.\nHenry B. Fine,\nProfessor of Mathematics, Princeton University, Princeton, N. J.\nGeorge L. Fox,\nPrincipal of the Hopkins Grammar School, New Haven, Conn.\nP. C. Freer,\nProfessor of Chemistry, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich.\n\n"}
{"page": 822, "printed_page": null, "text": "8l4\n\nI^ATIOMAL\n\nEDUCATIOI^AL\n\nASSOCIATION'\n\n[Secondary\n\nCharles W. French,\nPrincipal of Hyde Park High School, Chicago, 111.\nR. B. Fulton,\nChancellor, University of Mississippi, University, Miss.\nWilliam Gallagher,\nPrincipal of the Thayer Academy, South Braintree, Mass.\nW. F. Ganong,\nProfessor of Botany, Smith College, Northampton, Mass.\nCharles B. Gilbert,\nSuperintendent of Schools, Newark, N. J.\nC. H. Grandgent,\nProfessor of Romance Philology, Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass.\nW. B. Graves,\nPhillips Academy, Andover, Mass.\nEdward H. Griffin,\nProfessor of the History of Philosophy, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md.\nWilliam Gardner Hale,\nProfessor of Latin, University of Chicago, Chicago, 111.\nE. H. Hall,\nProfessor of Physics, Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass.\n\nB. D. Halsted,\nProfessor of Botany, Rutgers College, New Brunswick, N. J.\n\n.m^M\n^fefl\n\nPaul H. Hanus,\n\nAssistant Professor of the History and Art of Education,\nCambridge, Mass.\n\nHarvard\n\nUniversity,\n\nWilliam R. Harper,\nPresident of the University of Chicago, Chicago, 111.\n\nC. L. Harrington,\nSachs' Collegiate Institute, New York city.\nC. E. Harris,\nMcDonough High School No. I, New Orleans, La.\nAlbert Bushnell Hart,\nProfessor of History, Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass.\nCharles H. Haskins,\nProfessor of European History, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis.\nG. A. Hench,\nProfessor of Germanic Languages, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich.\nBurke A. Hinsdale,\nProfessor of the Science and Art of Education, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor,\nMich.\nThomas F. Holgate,\nProfessor of Applied Mathematics, Northwestern University, Evanston, 111.\n\nJulius Hortvet,\nEast Side High School, Minneapolis, Minn.\n\nDavid W. Hovt,\nEnglish High School, Providence, R. I.\nL. S. HULBURT,\nCollegiate Professor of Mathematics, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md.\n\n"}
{"page": 823, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCOLLEGE-ENTRANCE\n\nREQUIREMENTS\n\n815\n\nRay Greene Huling,\nPrincipal of English High School, Cambridge, Mass.\nLawrence C. Hull,\nPrincipal\ncity. of Academic Department,\n\nEdmund\n\nBrooklyn Polytechnic\n\nInstitute, New York\n\nJ. James,\n\nProfessor of Public Administration, University of Chicago, Chicago, 111.\nJ. M. Jameson,\nProfessor in Pratt Institute, Brooklyn, New York city.\nWilliam Carey Jones,\n'\nProfessor of Jurisprudence, University of California, Berkeley, Cal.\n\nR. P. Keep,\nPrincipal of the Free Academy, Norwich, Conn.\n\nFrancis W. Kelsey,\nProfessor of Latin, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich.\n\nGeorge L. Kittredge,\nProfessor of English, Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass.\nAbby Leach,\nProfessor of Greek, Vassar College, Poughkeepsie, N. Y.\n\nC. J. Ling,\nManual Training School, Denver, Colo.\n\nG. W. Lyon, Jr.,\nPrincipal Grammar School No. 78, Brooklyn, New York city.\n\nC. F. Mabery,\nProfessor of Chemistry, Case School of Applied Science, Cleveland, O.\n\nAndrew\n\nC. McLaughlin,\n\nProfessor of American History, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich.\nJ. W. Matthews,\nPrincipal of High School, Grand Rapids, Mich.\n. .\nRichard A. Minckwitz,\nPrincipal of Kansas City High School, Kansas City, Mo.\nC. A. Mitchell,\nClassical Master of the University School, Cleveland, O.\nL N. Mitchell,\nState Normal School, Milwaukee, Wis.\nW. D. Mooney,\nPrincipal of the Mooney School, Franklin, Tenn.\nH. B. Newson,\nAssociate Professor of Mathematics, Kansas State University, Lawrence, Kan.\nE. L. Nichols,\nProfessor of Physics, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y.\nA. F. .Nightingale,\nSuperintendent of High Schools. Chicago, 111.\nHenry B. Orr,\nProfessor of Biology, Tulane University, New Orleans, La.\n\nWilliam Orr, Jr.,\nHigh School, Springfield, Mass.\nW. F. Osgood,\nAssistant Professor of Mathematics, Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass,\n\n•^\n\n*\n\n"}
{"page": 824, "printed_page": null, "text": "8l6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nAlpheus Spring Packard,\nProfessor of Zoology, Brown University, Providence, R. I.\nCharles Skeele Palmer,\nProfessor of Chemistry, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colo.\nFrank\n\nOwen Payne,\nHigh School, Glen Cove, N. Y.\n\nE. D. Pierce,\nHotchkiss School, Lakeville, Conn.\n\nJ. H. Pratt,\nPrincipal of the Milwaukee Academy, Milwaukee, Wis.\nH. H. Rennert,\nProfessor of Romance Languages, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa.\nWilliam North Rice,\nProfessor of Geology, Wesleyan University, Middletown, Conn.\nEdward R. Robbins,\nLawrenceville School, Lawrenceville, N. J.\nOscar\n\nD. Robinson,\nPrincipal of the Albany High School, Albany, N, Y.\n\nFrank\n\nRollins,\n\nBoys' High School, New York city.\n\nJames E. Russell,\nDean of Teachers' College, Columbia University, New York city.\n\nAlbert Ruth,\nHigh School, Knoxville, Tenn.\nJulius Sachs,\nPrincipal of the Collegiate School, New York city.\nLucy M. Salmon,\nProfessor of History in Vassar College, Poughkeepsie, N. Y.\nFernando Sanford,\nProfessor of Physics, Leland Stanford Jr. University, Cal.\nJ. J. SCHOBINGER,\nPrincipal, Plarvard School, Chicago, 111.\nWilliam T. Sedgwick,\nProfessor of Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston^ Mass.\nThomas Day Seymour,\nProfessor of Greek, Yale University, New Haven, Conn.\n\nJ. B. Shaw,\nDepartment of Mathematics in Michigan Military Academy, Orchard Lake, Mich.\nH. G. Sherrard,\nClassical Master of the High School, Detroit, Mich.\nWilliam H. Smiley,\nPrincipal of High School, District No. i, Denver, Colo.\nAlexander Smith,\nAssociate Professor of Chemistry, University of Chicago, Chicago, 111.\nCharles Forster Smith,\nProfessor of Greek, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis.\nClement L. Smith,\nProfessor of Latin, Harvard University, Cambridge Mass.\n\n,\n\n"}
{"page": 825, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nC0LLEGE-EN7 RANGE\n\nREQUIREMENTS\n\n817\n\nE. F. Smith,\nProfessor of Chemistry, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa.\nHerbert Weir Smyth,\nProfessor of Greek, Bryn Mawr College, Bryn Mawr, Pa.\nWilliam B. Snow,\nTeacher of French, English High School, Boston, Mass.\nW. H. Snyder,\nMaster in Science, Worcester Academy, Worcester, Mass.\nH. Morse Stephens,\nProfessor of Modern European History, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y.\nRalph\n\nS. Tarr,\nProfessor of Dynamical Geology\nIthaca, N. Y.\n\nand Physical Geography, Cornell\n\nUniversity,\n\nJohn Tetlow,\nHead Mass.\nMaster of the Girls' High School and of the Boys' High School, Boston,\nB. F. Thomas,\nProfessor of Physics, Ohio State University, Columbus, O.\nCalvin Thomas,\nProfessor of Germanic Languages, Columbia University, New York city.\nChar:les H. Thurber,\nAssociate Professor of Pedagogy, University of Chicago, Chicago, 111.\nWilliam P. Trent,\nProfessor of English and History, University of the South, Suwanee, Tenn.\nA. W. Tressler,\nSuperintendent of Schools, Monroe, Mich.\nAlbert H. Tuttle,\nProfessor of Biology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Va.\nGeorge.R. Twiss,\nHead Science Teacher, Central High School, Cleveland, O.\nW. T. Van Buskirk,\nHigh School, Peoria, 111.\nB. M. Walker,\nProfessor of Mathematics in the Mississippi Agricultural and Mechanical College,\nAgricultural College, Miss.\nHenry Baldwin Ward,\nProfessor of Zoology, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Neb.\nMiNTON Warren,\nProfessor of Latin, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md.\nW. R. Webb,\nPrincipal of Webb School, Bell Buckle, Tenn.\nB. W. Wells,\nProfessor of Modern Languages, University of the South, Suwanee, Tenn.\nAndrew F. West,\nProfessor of Latin, Princeton University, Princeton, N. J.\n\nJ. W. A. Young,\nAssistant Professor of Mathematical Pedagogy, University of Chicago, Chicago, 111.\n\n"}
{"page": 826, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF HIGHER\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nEDUCATION\n\nMINUTES\n\nFIRST SESSION.— Wednesday, July 12, 1899\nThe Department of Higher Education was called to order in\" Temperance Temple at\n3:15 P.M. by the president, Robert B. Fulton, chancellor of the University of Mississippi.\nIn the absence of the permanent secretary, Oscar J. Craig, president of the University of Montana, was appointed secretary pro tempore.\nAfter stating that those who were to present papers were absent, the chair requested\nPresident David Starr Jordan of Leland Stanford Jr. University to open the discussion\nof the topic, \"The Practicability of a National University.\" President Jordan was followed in the discussion by President James H. Baker of the University of Colorado, and\nDr. Nicholas Murray Butler, of Columbia University, New York city.\nAt the close of the discussion announcements were made of the future meetings of\nthe department, and the meeting was adjourned until July 13 at 3 P. M.\nSECOND\nJOINT\n\nSESSION\n\nSESSION.— Thursday, July 13\nWITH\n\nSECONDARY\n\nDEPARTMENT\n\n(For minutes of this session see minutes of Secondary Department.)\nTHIRD\n\nSESSION.— Friday, July 14\n\nThe department was called to order at 3 P. M. by President Fulton.\nThe first exercise was a paper on \" Continuous University Sessions \" by President\nJerome H. Raymond of the West Virginia University.\nPresident Raymond's paper was discusse'd by President White of the University of\nSouthern California, President F. W. Sanders of the College of Agriculture and\nMechanic Arts of New Mexico, President David Starr Jordan of. Leland Stanford Jr.\nUniversity, and others.\nDr. Elmer E. Brown, of the University of California, followed with a paper on \" The\nStudy of Education in the University.\"\nThe Committee on Nominations reported the following :\nYox President — Jerome H. Raymond, Morgantown, W. Va.\nFor Vice-President — William F. King, Mt. Vernon, la.\nFor Secretary — Oscar J. Craig, Missoula, Mont.\n\nThe report was unanimously adopted, and the nominees declared elected as officers\nof the department for the ensuing year.\nThe department then adjourned.\nOscar J. Craig,\nSecretary pro tempore.\n818\n\n"}
{"page": 827, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCONTlMUOUS\n\nPAPERS\n\nAND\n\nCONTINUOUS\n\nBY\n\nPRESIDENT\n\nJEROME\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nH.\n\nSESSIONS\n\n819\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nSESSIONS\n\nRAYMOND,\n\nVIRGINIA\n\nWEST\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nAt a gathering like this one — a gathering made up of men and\nwomen from every state and territory in our nation — one is forcibly\nimpressed with the fact that it is impossible to separate ourselves one\nfrom another; for in this age of progress and of invention, the ends\nof the earth are gathered together with as much ease as a lady folds\ntogether the corners of her dainty handkerchief. Mountains are leveled,\nand plains and valleys meet together. Thought touches thought. One\ncity shouts aloud to another city, and ocean cables, fathoms deep, bear\nthe greetings of distant lands to us. The chain that binds the human\nrace together is growing firmer. All that is thought out in the solitude\nof the scholar's study thunders or sings in the ears of the thronging\nmultitudes of the city, or of him who paces alone by the seashore.\nThis truth gleams thru every phase of human life, and from every field\nof the world's work. A great word is spoken today — a great, significant\nword on religion, on politics, on education. Tomorrow all men will\nrepeat that word with joy, and all minds and souls be the richer for that\nmessage.\nIn no field of work is the interdependence of society truer than in the\neducational world. Whenever some teacher, be he famous or known only\nto the few who receive the bread of life from his hands, thinks out that\nwhich, put into action, shall add dignity and worth to life, which will\nmake knowledge increase among men, which will bring into the mind\nand heart the voices of goodness and of beauty, do not the North and\nthe South, the East and the West cry : \"We, too, shall have this gift\" ?\nThe educational world is alive, in these days, to every suggestion\nwhich shall assist in solving the vexed problems of life : How shall we\nget better returns in brain and soul for the time and money and thought\nexpended ? or, How shall we create in lives indifferent to the marvels of\nknowledge a great hunger and thirst for the higher things of life ?\nToday I shall briefly review one means of bringing a college education to the reach of a far greater number of people than have heretofore\nbeen able to secure it. It is an innovation in university life. As yet it\nis, in the eyes of many, merely an experiment. Yet it will gradually but\nsurely force itself into our educational system, for its advantages are so\n\n"}
{"page": 828, "printed_page": null, "text": "820\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n[Higher\n\nmany and so obvious that even the proverbial conservatism of our systems\nof education cannot permanently hold out against it.\nThe plan of continuous sessions is a part of a larger whole. It is one\nmanifestation of the university-extension spirit — that spirit which, during\nthe last eight or nine years, has been leading many of the more prominent\nuniversities of our country to widen their fields of activity with the purpose of bringing the advantages of the university to those classes of the\npopulation that have heretofore been deprived of university culture.\nThis university-extension spirit led, in 1890, to the organization in Philadelphia of the American Society for the Extension of University Teaching.\nFrom Philadelphia the movement spread in all directions over our country. At first this university-extension spirit confined itself to the lecture\nfield, sending university professors from their class-rooms out into the\nsurrounding country to give more or less popular lectures to people who\ncould not or would not come to the university. Most educators and\nthe public generally continue to associate the term \"university extension\"\nwith this particular form of popular education. But the universityextension spirit did not stop with furnishing popular scientific and literary\nlectures to the public. It has enlarged the scope of its activities, and has\nmanifested itself in a number of new forms. Instruction by correspondence is one of these forms. Evening and Saturday classes for teachers\nand others is another. The summer quarter and continuous sessions of\nthe university itself is a third form in which this spirit has manifested\nitself. I am not called upon to discuss the other manifestations of the\nuniversity-extension spirit, but it ought to be understood that those institutions that have adopted the plan of continuous sessions have also\nadopted the other features of university extension. Indeed, the work of\ngiving instruction by correspondence to those who cannot attend the\nuniversity in person might almost be considered a necessary accompaniment of the plan of continuous sessions inaugurated by President Harper\nat the University of Chicago. In accordance with this plan of continuous\nsessions, while no student and no instructor is expected to work at the\nuniversity more than nine months out of twelve, unless he so desires, the\nuniversity itself is in continuous session thruout the year, there being no\nlong summer vacation, but, instead, four short vacations, one week long, at\nthe expiration of every period of twelve weeks. Each of these periods\nof twelve weeks is appropriately termed a \"quarter.\" Under this system\na student may begin his work at the beginning of any quarter, and may\ntake a vacation either in the summer quarter or in the autumn, winter, or\nspring quarter; but he is at liberty to continue university work during\nall four quarters, if he is strong enough and desires to do so. Similarly*\nan instructor may arrange to take his vacation in any quarter of the year,\nprovided not more than one-fourth of the instructors elect to take their\nvacations at the same time.\nIndeed, more than a fourth of the regular\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 829, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department J\n\nCONTINUOUS\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nSESSIONS\n\n82 1\n\nStaff may wfell be absent during the summer quarter, if the university be\nable and willing to spend a little money for outside help; for in the\nsummer it is easy to get able instructors from other institutions for comparatively low fees. The courses are so arranged that the work of each\nquarter is complete in itself, and courses for which there is great demand\nare given more than once in the same year, so that any student in attendance during that year may have the opportunity of taking them, in whatever\nquarter he. takes his vacation. This is a most important adjunct of the system. I believe there is now no difference of opinion in our faculty as to\nthe desirability of having subjects in the university begin at the beginning\nof a quarter and complete during that quarter. Until this past year\nwe have followed the old plan of having students pursue a good many\nsubjects two or three hours a week each, continuing the study of each\nsubject thruout the year. In this case students who do not enter at the\nopening of the fall term are unable to take up the work to any advantage\nwhen they do enter. Having adopted the four-quarter plan, we found it\neminently desirable to concentrate the work of the student during each\nquarter on fewer subjects. With few exceptions, at present our classes all\nmeet five times a week. In this way it is possible for us to complete\nmany subjects or sections of subjects in one quarter, and thus our work\nin most subjects begins four times a year, and students who enter at the\nbeginning of any quarter find classes which they may enter without the\ndisadvantage of making up back work, always so exceedingly unsatisfactory to students and teachers alike.\nSo much for the system itself. Its advantages are :\nFirst, it enables us to meet, far better than they have ever been met\nbefore, the needs of that noble body of young men and women who\nwork their way thru college — a body that would be much larger than it\nis if the conditions were more favorable to them. This body is a large\none in West Virginia, but we are painfully conscious that many of the\nmost deserving men and women of the state are kept out of college\naltogether, or until late in life, or are compelled to spend a great many\nyears in completing their course, because they cannot so arrange their breadwinning work as to make it fit in with a college course. Many of these\nyoung men and women are teaching school during the winter months,\nand thus lose from one- to two-thirds of each university year. And not\ninfrequently the school term begins and ends at such dates as to make it\nuseless to undertake to get anything of value from the university during\nthe few weeks in fall and spring that are left to them ; in such cases,\naltho their teaching takes hardly half a year of their time, they are cut\noff by it from all university privileges. This state of affairs ought not\nto exist, and it is quite unnecessary that it should exist. If a would-be\nstudent, in view of these difficulties, takes for granted that he cannot,\nwith any advantage, teach and go to the university during any part of the\n\n"}
{"page": 830, "printed_page": null, "text": "82 2\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Higher\n\nsame year, and therefore plans to work steadily until he has saved enough\nto carry him thru one or more years of the university course, he may be\nunable to get remunerative employment during all the four quarters of\nthe year, and thus again he will lose valuable time because he has not the\nchance he should have to study any quarter that he cannot work at moneymaking to advantage. Furthermore, it is obvious that it is a great advantage to a student who has saved enough to keep himself at school twelve\nmonths, to be able to attend college continuously iox twelve months,\ninstead of having to content himself with nine, because college is not in\nsession during the summer. Now that a young man or woman may\nattend the university during any quarter of the year, it is safe to say that\nthe university will serve an immensely larger body than it has served in\nthe past, and, moreover, that many of those whom it has heretofore served\nafter a fashion will be able to graduate anywhere from one to six or eight\nyears earlier than they could otherwise arrange to do.\nBut not only is there this great advantage to the regular student who,\nfor economic or other reasons, may wish to take his university vacation at\nother times than in the summer; there is to be considered, in the second\nplace, the advantages to the professional teacher and others who, without the summer session that is an incident of the four-quarter system,\ncould get no direct advantage from the existence of the university. For\nthe benefit of this class of students the summer quarter is divided into\ntwo terms of six weeks each, so that some short courses may be given\nwhich will enable the attendants to get valuable assistance from the university, either in the form of general culture, or in the form of special\ninstruction and training to make their regular work more effective, without givmg up their whole vacation. There are also, however, regular\ntwelve-weeks' courses such as are given during the other quarters.\nLet it be noted that a regular university session in the summer quarter,\nhaving in attendance a considerable number of regular university students,\nis very different from, and much superior to, a mere summer school. At\nleast one teacher of pedagogy will always be on duty during the summer\nquarter, to conduct classes and lead round tables for the benefit of the\nteachers ; and distinguished educators from other parts of the country\nare secured to give courses six weeks or twelve weeks in length. While it\nwill always be desirable to have the department of pedagogy represented\nduring the summer quarter, it will not be necessary to have all the other\ndepartments and subdepartments of instruction represented in the summer or any other quarter. One year the professor of geology, for\ninstance, may be present in the summer quarter, and take his vacation in\nthe spring or winter or fall ; the next year he may take his vacation in the\nsummer, and the professor of zoology be present that quarter; and so on.\nThe four-quarter system, therefore, need not necessarily be confined to\nuniversities that have great resources.\nWhile it is desirable, of course, to\n\n"}
{"page": 831, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCONTINUOUS\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nSESSIONS\n\n823\n\nhave all departments in operation every quarter, this is not an absolute\nnecessity; and in the case of institutions that have not the financial\nmeans to add one-third to their annual expenditure, the summer quarter\nmay still be adopted, and by proper arrangement of classes the continuous-session plan will at least double their usefulness, while increasing their\nexpenditure very little or not at all.\nA third advantage of the system is one that has, perhaps, already\nsuggested itself, namely, that the effectiveness of our instructors' work\nwill be materially increased by enabling them to take vacations when\nother universities are in session, so that they may learn at first hand what\nis being done in other institutions, and may see at work and learn from\nthe masters in their respective specialties. It will be possible, under this\nsystem, for an instructor to teach for six or nine quarters successively, and\nthus earn a vacation of six or nine months on full salary, which will\nenable him, without financial sacrifice, to spend a year abroad in study if\nhe desires to do so — a privilege of which many of our professors are\nalready planning to avail themselves. The result of this will be to keep\nour teaching force up with the times, and prevent the fossilization of our\nprofessors. Great as are the advantages of the four-quarter system to\nthe students, the professors have even more reason to appreciate it.\nI have not spoken of the possibility the four-quarter session will\nafford to the very strong and ambitious student of completing his university course in less than the regular four years, because I feel that such\nintense and unremitting application is not good for the average student ;\nbut, of course, there are cases in which such a course will be justifiable,\nand a great benefit to the student.\nAnd now let me add one word in regard to the business and financial\naspect of the matter. What business-man would build and equip an\nextensive plant, for manufacturing or other business purposes, in which\nhis own personal interests were concerned, and then regularly allow it to\nlie idle during three months out of every twelve ? What railroad president would advocate closing the stations, and stopping the service, for a\nlong vacation of three months each year ? None, I am sure. Shall we,\nthen, be less zealous to make the greatest possible use of the great educational plants, whose care and conduct have been committed to our charge,\nthan we would be of our own personal business interests ?\nOn the whole, it seems to me that there is everything to be said in\nfavor of this admirable invention of President Harper, and nothing of\nconsequence to be said against it.\nIt is a source of great satisfaction to me to be able to say that thus\nfar the system has worked admirably at West Virginia University. Let\nme come down to actual facts and actual experience, and give you the\nreal data of our first summer quarter, which began July i, 1898.\nAt the outset we were able to secure a number of lecturers of note,\n\n"}
{"page": 832, "printed_page": null, "text": "824\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Highef\n\namong whom were President E. Benjamin Andrews, now superintendent of\nthe public schools of Chicago ; Dr. Nathaniel Butler, president of Colby\nCollege, Waterville, Me.; Dr. Lester F. Ward, of the Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. C; Miss Jane Addams, founder and head\nresident of Hull-House, Chicago; Professor B. A. Hinsdale, of the\nUniversity of Michigan, and a number of others, who gave to us their\nbest and choicest gathered thru years of untiring labor. We made the\nprogram of courses for our summer quarter rich and varied, the evening\nlectures, which were opened to the public, becoming the central attraction\nof our little university city.\nNotwithstanding the fact that it was the first summer quarter, the\nnumber of students in attendance was 190, representing thirteen states,\nviz.: West Virginia, Georgia, Florida, Texas, Tennessee, Pennsylvania,\nNew York, Maryland, Wisconsin, Washington, Illinois, Colorado, and\nthe District of Columbia. Thirty-one of the fifty-five counties in West\nVirginia were represented.\nThe students were classified as follows: graduate students, 18\nseniors, 10; juniors, 12; sophomores, 16; freshmen, 20; law, 22\nengineering, 10; special, 43; pre-medical, 4; art, 8 ; commercial, 8\nmusic, 5 ; preparatory, 23. ,\nThe graduate students were graduates of the following institutions :\nWest Virginia University, 13; Yale University, i; Bethany College, i;\nHampden-Sidney, i; University of Washington, i; Allegheny College, i.\nAmong the students were three college professors — two from Bethany\nCollege and one from St. John's College, Maryland.\nTen teachers in the West Virginia state normal schools attended, and\na goodly number of city superintendents and high-school principals.\nIn addition to the 190 enrolled students, a large number, including\nnormal-school principals, clergymen, teachers, and others, attended some\nof the courses of public lectures, but did not matriculate.\nOur second summer quarter began the first day of this month, with\nan attendance much greater than last summer, showing that the opportunities for summer study are appreciated by ah increasing number of\npeople in our locality.\nOn July 12, last year, 164 students had enrolled. On that day this\nyear, as I am advised by telegram, 230 students had enrolled — an\nincrease over last year of sixty-six students, or a little more than 40 per\ncent. Of the 230 students, seventy-one are women. Thirty-six of the\nfifty-five counties of West Virginia are represented this year, as compared\nwith thirty-one last year, showing that the influence of the university is\ngradually extending thru the agency of the summer quarter. Twelve\nstates are represented by students in the summer quarter, indicating that,\nif students cannot get work during the summer at universities in their\nown states, they will come where they can get such opportunities.\nAnd\n\n"}
{"page": 833, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCONTINUOUS\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nSESSIONS\n\n825\n\nit is worth noting that students who come to a university for summer\nstudy are apt to stay there for study during the remainder of the year, if\nthey can get what they want. This consideration will, perhaps, be more\ninfluential than any other in persuading state universities to adopt the\nfour-quarter system.\nAccording to our homely proverb, the proof of the pudding is in the\neating. In this matter of the desirability of maintaining a summer\nquarter as one of the regular sessions of the university, the real argument\nto be considered is the attitude toward the summer quarter of the students\nwho attend it. And here I come to one additional advantage of the fourquarter system, which I have thus far omitted to mention. I refer to the\nenthusiasm which was manifested thruout the entire body of students\nwho attended during the summer last year. I question if our university\nhas ever manifested so much enthusiasm over any new line of policy as\nhas been manifested in regard to the summer quarter. This enthusiasm\nhas resulted in a very much larger attendance during fall, winter, and\nspring. Notwithstanding a very great increase in our entrance requirements, our total attendance of resident students this past year was 815,\nas compared with 644 the year before, an increase of 171, or more than\n26 per cent.; and we attribute this increase, in no small degree, to the\nenthusiasm aroused by the summer quarter. This enthusiasm has been\nmanifested, not only in our regular student body, but also in the body of\nteachers in the secondary schools thruout the state, whose interest in the\nuniversity has been quickened by their attendance during the summer,\nand who went to their homes, at the close of the summer quarter, filled\nwith a desire to induce as many as possible of their friends to attend the\nuniversity. I consider this to be by no means the least of the advantages\naccruing from the establishment of the four-quarter system.\nThe benefits accruing to the students in attendance on the summer\nquarter group themselves clearly along certain lines :\n1. The summer quarter gave many the opportunity of making up\nwork in which they were behind, thus enabling them to graduate sooner,\nor at least to be regularly classified.\n2. For those teachers who were \"working their way thru college\"\nthe summer quarter was a priceless boon. Teachers working for seven,\neight, or nine months in the year were able to devote their summer to\nstudy without losing their salaries.\n3. The public lectures were of especial value to the student body as a\nwhole, giving a good general idea of subjects of which they had had but\nlittle previous knowledge. The whole field of various subjects was\nattractively presented, and it was noticeable that very many students\nattended regularly all the public lectures, eager to get at least some\nglimpses into the world of sociology, or literature, or the sciences, or the\nlanguages.\n\n"}
{"page": 834, "printed_page": null, "text": "826\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Higher\n\n4. The professional teacher gained new zeal and inspiration, coming,\nas he or she did, into contact with other teachers from all over the state,\nand from other states as well. We had with us as students college\nprofessors, superintendents of schools, normal-school teachers, besides\nteachers from all grades in the city and rural schools. And all witnessed\nto the strength given by the summer session.\n5. The social education gained by attendance on the summer quarter\nwas not the least of the benefits gained. I mean the pleasant friendships\nthat were formed, the interchange of ideas between those teaching under\ndiverse conditions, the leisure to grow often denied during the year\ncrowded with the duties attendant upon teaching.\nAnd now, in closing, let me ask you, my fellow-teachers : Is there any\nindustry of which there is more constant need than the industry of education? Are we not unworthy of our high calling if we neglect to do\neverything in our power to multiply in every possible way the forces that\nare struggling for the enlightenment of humanity ? In all seriousness I\nsay : Let us close our factories and workshops three months out of every\ntwelve if we must; let us stop our railrbads and steamships for one-fourth\nof the year; but let us keep open the year round, day and night, in good\nweather and in bad, in summer and in winter, every library and every\nmuseum, every laboratory, every college, every university. Let us rest\nsometimes from the work of increasing our material goods and chattels,\nbut in the name of all that is good, all that is true, all that is beautiful,\nlet us see to it that the work of \" increasing and diffusing knowledge among\nmen \" shall never rest. You and I need rest sometimes ; but the buildings, libraries, museums, laboratories, and apparatus in our various universities do not need rest. While you and I are resting, why should we\ninsist on others being idle who feel like working ? \" Men may come and\nmen may go,\" but the real university should go on forever.\nIn the old time, when universities were first established, higher education was for the aristocratic few ; today we profess that it is for the many ;\nyet we cling tenaciously to the mediaeval superstition that all intellectual\neffort must cease during the summer. The heavy hand of the dead past\nstill crushes down, in many places, every attempt at educational development. Prejudice still sits in \"the seats of the mighty,\" and rules with\niron severity even in our universities, where reason is supposed to hold\nsway. But a new day is dawning, and most of us in this room will live\nto see the time when it will be generally conceded that to close a university during the summer is a foolish, if not a criminal, waste of material\nresources and of life.\n\n"}
{"page": 835, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCONTINUOUS\n\nUNIVERS/TV\n\nSMSSlO^TS\n\n827\n\nDISCUSSION\nPresident G. W. White of the University of Southern California believed that\ncontinuous- sessions would be wise, not only in the college, but in the public schools also.\nHe was inclined to believe that all of the university work should be carried on, and not\nmerely a part of it. He believed also that it would afford an opportunity to finish work\nthat was incomplete. The chief objection would be the difficulty of getting faculties to\nadjust themselves to this arrangement.\nPresident F. W. Sanders of the College of Agriculture and M'echanic Arts of\nNew Mexico stated that he was fully in accord with the paper. Continuous sessions do\nnot necessarily prevent vacations. If so, he would oppose the proposition. He had no\nopinion regarding the application to public schools, altho the Chicago experiment appears\nto be a success. He thought it would be well to give a part of the work ; for instance, German one quarter and French the next. In the matter of getting faculties to work in line\nwith the new arrangement he thought there would be no difficulty when the state of the\ncase was fully understood.\nPresident David Starr Jordan said that the system had not been adopted in\nStanford University, but not because of any opposition. He did not regard it as a wise\nplan to continue the service of the professors twelve months in the year.\nPresident Joseph Swain, of Indiana, said that he believed that the plan would be\nadopted in some form or other in all state universities. The University of Indiana has\nplanned a half session for next summer. Some localities may be unfavorable for this\nkind of work.\nPresident Samuel T. Black, of California, asked : \" What arrangements are\nmade for graduating exercises ? \" The answer was : \" Let these be at the close of\neach quarter.\" \" What will be the effect on tuition fees ? \" was next asked. The answer\nwas: \"The summer quarter will bring in fees in accordance with the number of\nstudents.\"\nPresident White thought that continuous sessions was the coming plan for all\ncolleges and universities, altho he looked upon it with some regret. It will break up\nclass associations and decrease university spirit.\nPresident Raymond, in answer to a question regarding expense, stated that for\nlast summer's quarter he asked $1,500 and expended about $750. For this year the\nlegislature had appropriated $3,000. Matriculation fees would bring in the most of the\nmoney. The professors in the University of West Virginia will yet receive their vacation.\nIt is difficult to get the professors to take vacations even in summer time. He stated\nthat the summer students were the best students. Students are not encouraged to finish\na college course in three years. The summer work has been better than that in\nthe other sessions. Classes meet but once per day ih any one subject. Advanced\nstudents get just as much from the summer work as from that of any other season of the\nyear. The buildings are pleasant, as also are the libraries, laboratories, and halls.\nThere is no double set of professors needed. Departments have one assistant. The\ntendency will be to a moderate increase in the number of the faculty.\n\n"}
{"page": 836, "printed_page": null, "text": "828\n\nTHE\n\nBY\n\nNATIONAL\n\nSTUDY\n\nPROFESSOR\n\nELMER\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nOF EDUCATION\n\nELLSWORTH\n\nBROWN,\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nIN THE\n\n[Higher\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nOF\n\nCALIFORNIA\n\nIt is fair to presume that every profession properly so called will\nultimately have its own university school of professional training. Education as a profession occupies, however, a peculiar position. For the\nuniversity itself, including its professional schools, is an institution of\neducation. When, therefore, the subject of education is pursued as a\nuniversity study, we have the university looking at itself, as it were —\nbecoming fully conscious of its own processes, as well as of the processes\nof other institutions in which its students may be preparing to teach.\nThis fact, I think, explains a part, at least, of the current difficulty in the\nadjustment of university departments of education to the other university\nactivities. Uncertainties and misunderstandings are unavoidable in making such adjustment. Yet there can be little doubt as to the ultimate\noutcome. In this paper I shall undertake to discuss only two aspects of\nthe matter ; and in this discussion shall attempt to show the importance\nof a university study of education as a whole, from the lowest grade to\nthe highest, including the study of the university itself as the highest\nmember of a complete system of schools.\nThe first aspect of the subject to which I would call your attention is\nthe study of methodology.\nUniversity activity falls into two main lines, instruction and research.\nThese two are intimately related to each other. It is generally agreed\nthat a university instructor must engage in individual research, if his\nteaching is to have the freshness and vitality which university standards\nrequire. It may not be so generally agreed that the giving of instruction\nis of advantage to the one engaged in research ; yet the best university\nmen approach to unanimity in the view that these two lines should be\nassociated together in university administration. Let us see wherein the\nconnection between the two consists. From the standpoint of the investigator it may be said that discoveries are of no general significance until\nthey have been announced to the world. Publication, then, is a necessary\naccompaniment of discovery, if the discovery is not to be hoarded up as\na miserly possession of the discoverer ; and oral instruction may be\nregarded as a part of the process of publication. By the presentation of\nhis acquired knowledge to regular students the professor has abundant\nopportunity of correcting and improving his form of presentation, whether\nbefore or after the matter is put into print. From the standpoint of the\ninstructor, the connection is still more intimate. Passing over other\nrelationships which might be mentioned, we may dwell upon this fact,\n\n"}
{"page": 837, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSTUDY\n\nOF EDUCATION\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\n829\n\nthat instruction, instead of having for its object the putting of the student\nin possession of certain knowledge, has to do with putting him in\npossession of methods by which he may acquire knowledge for himself.\nIndependent research is related, then, to instruction as a sort of terminus\nad quern.\nIt is worthy of remark that teaching varies greatly in the command of\nmethod which it imparts to the student. It may fairly be regarded as a\nfault when university instruction adds greatly to the student's stock of\nlearning without carrying him forward at the same time to the mastery of\nhigher methods of study. Almost any subject which presents a practically unlimited store of information is liable to this danger. It appears\nin the study of literature, of history, of modern languages, and in other\nsubjects as well. Under a free elective system, students are found to\nchoose many courses of a nearly uniform grade of advancement. They\npile up erudition without a corresponding advancement in method. I\nsuppose the significance of a group-elective system is found in the fact\nthat under that system a student may be carried toward the goal of\nindependent research, rather than in the mere fact that it gives acquaintance with a wide range of coherent knowledge. In the union of these\ntwo advantages the group-elective system is exceedingly valuable. It\nfails of attainment to its highest usefulness if the group is made up of\ncourses approximately on a level as regards the methods of study which\nthey involve. We see, then, that university instruction tends to admit\nthe student, not only to a kind of participation in the professor's knowledge, but also a kind of participation in the professor's method; and so\nenables the student to advance for a longer or a shorter distance toward\nthe mastery of methods by which he may attain to new knowledge —\nknowledge new not only to himself, but, finally, knowledge new to the world.\nThe method of instruction of mature students, then, while it may not be\ncarried on with any expectation of their becoming masters of research,\nmust look forward to the methods of research as the norm to which it\nshould approximate. This does not imply that the semblance of independent research is to be forced upon students at an early stage in their\nprogress. It does not, in fact, prejudge at all the question as to where\nany sort of independent research is to begin. But I think it is clear\nthat the method of instruction in all college classes must be judged\naccording to its place in a progressive system of instruction, the highest\nterm of which is represented by the free investigation of the real scholar.\nAs we go down thru the grades of instruction below the college,\nwe find it necessarily a continuity of method thruout. To suppose otherwise woiild be to assume a break in the dontinuity of the forms of consciousness. Many changes there must be on the way from the primary\nschool to the college ; but these changes appear within a continuous system.\nThe instruction in the primary grades is much more remote from the\n\n"}
{"page": 838, "printed_page": null, "text": "830\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Higher^\n\nresearch of the scholar than is that of the high school or college.\nYet\nthe instruction in the primary school as well must find its place and due\nrelationship among the several parts of a complete system.\nEven the]\nmethod of the lowest grades cannot be adequately judged without reference!\nto the ultimate goal of the highest instruction.\nIn the system of instruction, as in every true system, there is unity in\nvariety. We may at one time lay stress upon the essential unity of method\nin all grades of school ; at another time we may emphasize the differences\nbetween the several grades. But we do not attain to a complete theory of\ninstruction unless we take full account of both the unity and the variety.\nWe cannot fully understand any part save in its relation to the other parts\nand to the whole.\nIn a comprehensive survey of teaching methods, as we have seen, the\ninstruction in each grade appears as part of a progressive movement\ntoward putting the learner in full possession of the power of discovering\nnew truth. This one universal trend of instruction we, find modified in\ntwo principal ways : first, the particular method followed at any stage of\ninstruction is conditioned by the knowledge of the subject in hand and\nof related subjects which the pupil is found to possess; secondly, it is conditioned byphysiological peculiarities of the age to which the pupil has\nattained, and by the tendencies in mind and disposition which are bound\nup with those peculiarities. We may say, in a word, that the universal\nmethod of instruction must at any given stage be adapted to the degree\nof maturity which the pupils have attained ; but that maturity may be\nregarded with reference to mental conditions which are peculiarly dependent on bodily development, or it may take account simply of acquisitions\nin knowledge and the intellectual advancement which is indicated by\nthose acquisitions. Both of these elements of variation must be considered\nin solving the problem of method in any given grade ; and then there must\nalso be taken into account the immense range of differences between individual pupils, and the very important differences between the several subjects of\ninstruction. If we add to this the variations which the individual teacher's\npeculiarities bring into the case, it will appear that the differences which\na study of method must touch upon are sufficiently numerous and bewildering. It would be pedantically trivial to undertake the mapping out of\nthese things down to minutiae. It would be equally unscientific to adopt\na general form of instruction and take no account of obvious variations.\nA university view of the theory of education seems to demand a clear\nrecognition of unifying principles, coupled with a sufficiently complete\naccount of the elements of difference to serve the broad purposes of professional training.\nOne or two special considerations may be added. The ever-present\ndanger in the practice of teaching is that of continuing to give instruction\nby one grade of method when the pupil is ready to advance to a higher\n\n"}
{"page": 839, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSTUDY\n\nOF\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nUNIVERSI7Y\n\n831\n\nstage. This is, perhaps, the chief danger in our grammar schools. The\nshortening and enriching of the grammar-school course, of which we have\nheard much of late, means this, for one thing, that pupils shall not continue to be occupied with new information merely, when they are ready\nfor an advance in method. This is a danger which the grammar school\nshares with the last years of the college course. Abrupt changes of method\nare obviously harmful. So it is necessary to the most effective instruction\nthat the teacher should be familiar with the methods of grades lower and\nhigher than his own. Even for the college instructor it is desirable that\nthe methods in actual use should be seen in the light of a general theory\nof instruction.\nSo, I think, we may say that a complete view of instruction, from the\nlowest to the highest, is necessary to an adequate understanding of any\nstage of instruction. The professional training of teachers in a university\nshould present this comprehensive view. The ideal of instruction in\nmethodology, in the training of teachers at a university, maybe put about\nas follows : It should include logic, b\"oth deductive and inductive ; a\ngeneral survey of instruction in the several grades of school ; and, finally, a\ncourse in the methodology of some one of the ordinary school studies.\nThe department with which I am directly connected has to do especially\nwith the second of these enumerated elements, but I wish at this point\nto call your attention to the one last named.\nThe university-trained teacher needs to know the essential method of\nsome one subject in its higher ranges. Such knowledge will help to\nsecure a proper perspective in the study of earlier methods in the same\nsubject. It will also serve to round out the understanding of method as\na whole, which would be somewhat abstract and incomplete otherwise. I\ncan best illustrate what I mean by referring to courses in two of the\ndepartments at the University of California. The head of the department\nof mathematics gives a course in the logic of mathematics, which is an\nintroduction to the several types of method employed in algebra andgeometry. The course is intended for seniors and graduate students,\nand rests upon a large prerequisite in the same department. Questions\nrelating to instruction in mathematics, particularly in the high schools,\nare discussed in connection with this large view of the method of\nmathematical demonstration. In the department of English the associate\nprofessor of English philology conducts a seminar in method. This\ncourse concerns itself primarily with methods of advanced study in English. In connection with this higher view, the methods of instruction in\nthe lower schools, and particularly in the high schools, are examined.\nIn such courses the attempt is made, not to transform the methods in\nthe lower schools according to the pattern of more advanced methods,\nbut rather to see those more elementary methods in the light of the\nessential methodology of the subject, taking account of the necessary\n\n"}
{"page": 840, "printed_page": null, "text": "832\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n[Higher\n\ndifferences from grade to grade. Such studies as these cannot fail to\nenlarge and clarify the views of prospective teachers, and contribute to a\nscholarly consideration of the whole problem of method in the schools.\nThe second aspect of the study of education in a university to which\nI would ask your attention is the study of educational organization and\nadministration of public systems of schools. It is too commonly supposed that a university department of education has to do simply with\nmethods of teaching. But this should not be the case. The teachers\nwho go out from a university are not merely to be skilled instructors in\nan established order of schools. They will be looked to, as time goes on,\nfor wise counsel as to improvements in the established order. Some will\nhold positions of influence as principals and superintendents. Those who\nremain in the ranks as teachers will be expected, not only to work under\nprescribed courses of study, but also to aid in the remodeling of courses.\nThey will have to do in many ways, other than simply giving instruction,\nwith the relation of the school to the higher interests of the community\nand of the state. Reforms of aH sorts will be continually coming to the\nfront, which will call for the co-operation of the teaching body. It is\nimportant that university-trained ^eachers should have some higher insight\ninto the real nature of an educational system, which will enable them to\nfurther good movements and work against bad movements. So it is important that in the university they should learn to take a university view of the\ninstitutions of public education. And a university view, as I understand\nit, is one that takes account of all the parts, from the lowest to the highest, and sees them in their proper independence of function, and also in\ntheir due relation, one to another and to the whole.\nHere again the university itself must be one chief object of study.\nThe system of schools cannot be justly interpreted without large reference\nto its highest member. I would venture to add that that highest member cannot be fully understood without reference to the lower members\nand to the totality of which all are parts. With all of its internal differences, education is, after all, in all of its grades, one fairly compact\ninterest of society. If any school, even the highest, sets itself off in any\nsort of artificial isolation from the rest, it thereby narrows its range of\nvital relationships, and to that extent distorts and weakens its influence\nupon our civilization. That was a luminous conception of the university\nwhich appeared in France in the latter half of the eighteenth century ; a\nconception which embraced all educational interests of the state in one\ncomprehensive view, and applied to the whole the name university. This\nnew use of an old and familiar term is open to objection, to be sure ; but\nthe idea to which it gave a name was fruitful and magnificent.\nMany influences are at work making and remaking our civilization.\nSome of these are subtle and intangible ; some are personal, embodied in\nsingle, pre-eminent individuals ; but others have taken institutional forms,\n\nm\n\n"}
{"page": 841, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nSTUDY\n\nOF EDUCATION\n\nIN THE\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\n833\n\nand in this guise fill a large place in the movement of human society.\nOne of the most closely knit groups of institutions is that which embodies\nthe direct efforts of society to maintain and perfect its civilization thru\ninstruction and nearly related processes. To study the diversities of\nfunction within this group, in immediate connection with the unity of\nprinciple and purpose running thru all the members, would seem to be\nthe surest preparation for a right understanding of the part which\neducation in any of its grades has to play in modern life.\nThe interplay of institutions one upon another is a most fascinating\nsubject of inquiry. The schools have entered into, now one relationship,\nnow another, with other institutions, and these relationships are still\nprogressively changing. In order to understand them, it is necessary to\nknow the schools, as well as their institutional environment; and to know\nthe schools, for this purpose, is to know them in their organic connection\none with another.\nUsing the term \"university\" now in its more common signification, as\ndenoting the highest type of school, we can see how its relation to our\ncivilization is conditioned at all points by its relation to lower schools.\nIts students are prepared in the lower schools for admission to university\ncourses.\nWhat the university can and shall do for them depends on what\nthe lower schools have already done.\nThis is the most obvious, but not\nthe most important connection.\nThe university graduate goes out to his\nlife-work in a society made up largely of men and women whose formal\neducation has been received in the lower schools.\nThe message which he\ncarries from the university is a message addressed to that constituency ;\nand whether he makes the message effective or not depends, not simply\non its intrinsic worth and his understanding of it, but also on its being a\nreal message for that constituency.\nThe scientific results of university\nresearches are put forth in a commonwealth, the government of which is\nlargely influenced, if not determined, by those who have been educated in\nthe lower schools.\nWhether these results shall be welcomed and utilized\nfor the common good depends partly upon the laws of the state and\npartly upon public opinion ; and the kind of education given in the lower\nschools influences in a thousand ways both the laws and the public\nopinion which lies back of the laws.\nIt follows that the part of university\ninstruction in our modern life is not to be determined by studying the\ncharacter of the university as of an institution by itself, biit rather by\nviewing the university as a part of a more comprehensive institution,\nembracing the whole formal provision for public instruction.\nAnd so of the high school, the elementary school, the kindergarten,\nthe normal school, the school of technology, the school of commerce and\nof trades : to be really understood, each must be studied in relation to\nother institutions; and it must be seen that any particular school enters\ninto this relation, not as an institution complete in itself, but as a member\n\n"}
{"page": 842, "printed_page": null, "text": "834\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n[Higher\n\nof a greater institution — the educational system of the state. The students\nof education in a university are for the most part preparing to become\n\nteachers in secondary schools. A well-rounded institutional study of the\nsecondary school is accordingly a highly important part of their professional training.\nSuch are two of the elements which seem to me to demand a place in\nthe advanced professional training of teachers at a university. It may be\nadded that these are proper studies for the university aside from any\nquestion of training for a profession. As the proper study of mankind is\nman, a proper study of universities is the university ; and to study the\nuniversity in university fashion is to study it not only in its particularity\nbut also in its universality — not in its isolation only, but also in its\nintegral relations. The university view of education, to be a true university view, must be a view of education in its wholeness.\n\n"}
{"page": 843, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF NORMAL\n\nSECRETARY'S\nFIRST\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nMINUTES\n\nSESSION.— Wednesday,\n\nJuly 12, iSqq\n\nThe Department of Normal Schools met in the chapel of the State Normal School,\nLos Angeles, at 3 p. M.^with President Theodore B. Noss, of California, Pa., in the chair.\nPresident E. T. Pierce of the Los Angeles State Normal School welcomed the\ndepartment in a brief address.\nThe president of the department stated that the discussion at both sessions would be\nbased upon the report of the Committee on Normal Schools, particularly that part of the\nreport which relates to the training school.\nThe first topic discussed was \" The Comparative Value of Student Teaching in\nNormal-School Work.\" This topic was suggested by the following statement in Thesis\nII of the report :\nIn comparison with other lines of work in a normal school, practice teaching is capable of ranking as\nthe most valuable course for the student.\n\nThe discussion was opened by Herman T. Lukens, head training teacher of the\nCalifornia (Pa.) State Normal School, and was continued by John W. Hall, head\ntraining teacher, State Normal School, Greeley, Colo.\nMrs. L. L. W. Wilson, head of the department of biology in the Philadelphia\nNorinal School, led in the discussion of the second topic, viz., \"The Relation of the\nTraining School to Other Departments of the Normal School.\" This topic was suggested bythe following statements in Thesis XXVIII of the report :\nThe training school should be the correlating center of the normal school. . . . Heads of departments\nin the normal school should be supervisors in fact of their subjects in the training school. . . . Faculty meetings in a norma! school should be directed, not merely to executive work, nor primarily to that, but to\ninstruction.\n\n\"May a Training School be at the Same Time a Model School?\" was the third\ntopic under consideration. The proposition of the committee in Thesis XXV is as\nfollows :\nThe idea that a normal school should be provided with a training school anej a model school besides is\nhardly a feasible one.\n\nThe principal address was made by W. E. Wilson, president of the State Normal\nSchool, Ellensburg, Wash.\nA brief general discussion, participated in by Z. X. Snyder and others, followed,\nafter which the following Committee on Nominations was announced by the chair :\nOssian H. Lang, of New York.\nC. M. Light, of New Mexico.\nJohn W. Hall, of Colorado.\n\nSECOND\n\nSESSION.— Friday, July 14\n\nThe department met at 3 P. M.\nThe first subject under discussion was \" Lesson Plans.\" The committee's report.\nThesis XXIV, affirms :\nUntil a high grade of independence and skill in planning and conducting recitations has been proved, a\nwritten plan of each recitation should be required by the critic leacher.\n\n"}
{"page": 844, "printed_page": null, "text": "836\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Nonnal\n\nMiss Marion Brown, principal of the New Orleans Normal School, opened the discussion, and was followed by Ossian H. Lang, editor of the New York School Journal.\nThe next topic considered was \" Observation as a Factor in Training-School Work,\"\nsuggested by the following propositions in Theses XVI and XVII of the report as\nfollows :\nSome observation should precede actual instruction. . . . This observation, however, is comparatively\nuseless, unless it is supervised and discussed with the same care as the actual teaching of a student teacher.\n\nThe subject was discussed by Miss Gertrude Edmond, principal of the Normal\nTraining School, Lowell, Mass., and C. C. Van Liew, head training teacher. State\nNormal School, Los Angeles, Cal.\nThesis X of the report suggested the last topic of the discussion, viz., \" Qualifications of the Critic Teacher.\"\nThe report makes the following affirmation :\nNext to a wholesome personality, the special feature of a critic teacher should be the ability to show\nparticularly the merits, as well as the defects, of instruction, basing criticism plainly upon accepted principles\nof teaching.\n\nThe topic was discussed by Miss Harriet M. Scott, of Detroit, Mich., and Hon. N. C.\nSchaeffer, state superintendent of public instruction, Pennsylvania.\nThe Committee on Nominations recommended the election of the following officers\nfor next year :\nFor President — James E. Russell, New York, N. Y.\nFor Vice-President — Miss N. Cropsey, Indianapolis, Ind.\nFor Secretary — Charles C. Van Liew, Chico, Cal.\n\nIt was moved and carried that the secretary of the department be instructed to cast\nthe ballot of the department for the persons named. The ballot was cast, and the officers\nwere declared elected.\nThe\"department then adjourned.\n\nO. H. Lang,\nSecretary pro tempore.\n\nPAPERS\nREPORT\n\nOF THE\n\nAND\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nf\n\nINTRODUCTION\nTo the Normal School Department of the National Educational Association :\n\nThe undersigned members of the Normal-School Committee submit the following\nreport :\n^.\nI.\n\nORIGIN\n\nAND\n\nHISTORY\n\nOF\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nAt the session of the National Educational Association held in Denver, 1895, the\nNormal Department passed the following resolution, offered by President Snyder, of\nGreeley, Colo.:\nResolved, That a committee of five be appointed by the president of the department to meet during the\nyear and formulate a report, to be presented at the next meeting, upon such educational topics as directly\nconcern the department.\n\nAt the Buffalo meeting, 1 896, the committee made a brief report upon such matters\nas appert^ned directly to the work of normal schools.\nThe report was adopted and the\n\n^^\n\n"}
{"page": 845, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nREP0R7\n\nON NORMAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n837\n\ncommittee increased to eight, and instracted to make a printed preliminary report at the\nnext meeting. This preliminary report was presented at the Milwaukee meeting. It was\nvigorously discussed. On motion of President A. R. Taylor, Kansas, the following resolution was adopted :\nResolved, That the report be accepted, and the committee continued, with instructions to continue the\ninvestigation on the lines proposed, and also to submit a course of study with minimum of professional requirements for the state normal schools of the United States.\n\nThe work of the committee was progressing very slowly, because no funds had been\nappropriated to meet expenses. President Boone, Ypsilanti, introduced a resolution asking the Board of Directors of the National Educational Association for an appropriation of\nfive hundred dollars ($500) to meet the expenses of the committee in its investigations.\nAt this meeting the directors voted an appropriation of five hundred dollars ($500),\nsubject to the discretion of the Executive Committee and the Board of Trustees. At the\nChattanooga meeting of the Department of Superintendence the amount was granted.\nThis was too late for the committee to report at the Wa'shington meeting, except in a preliminary way. The committee met at Washington and arranged to make a final report\nat Los Angeles. The committee had its final meeting in Columbus, O., in February, 1899.\nIt was in session six days, and agreed upon the following report as its findings.\nII.\n\nWORK\n\nOF COMMITTEE\n\nAll of the topics studied have been printed in the proceedings of the National Educational Association from time to time. In the report will be found almost all the questions\nthat have interested the normal-school men of the country. They may have lost the\nform in which they were originally put, but their substance will, upon examination, be\nfound in the body of this report.\nSince the Milwaukee meeting the members of the committee have made a study of the\ncourses of study in operation in the normal schools in the various sections of the United'\nStates ; as well as a continuance of investigation in other lines. President A. G. Boyden\nreported at the Washington meeting on the New England state normal schools ;\nMiss Marion Brown, on the southern state normal schools ; President Seerley, on those\nwest of the Mississippi and east of the Rocky Mountains ; President Boone, on the north\ncentral state normal schools ; President Pierce, on the Pacific state normal schools ; Dr.\nN. C. Schaeffer, on the middle state normal schools ; Dr. Frank McMurry and President\nSnyder made a study during this time of the training school. The reports of these members, presented at Washington last year, were printed in the proceedings of the Washington meeting.\nFrom all of the foregoing reports have been obtained the data from which this report\nhas been formulated.\nThe work of the committee for the past year was distributed as follows : President\nSeerley, Iowa, was appointed a subcommittee to investigate and report on geographical\nand historical variations that exist among the normal schools of the United States ; Dr.\nN. C. Schaeffer, Pennsylvania, was appointed a subcommittee to report on maintenance and\ncontrol of normal schools ; Dr. P'rank McMurry, New York, was appointed to report on\nthe training department of the normal schools ; Miss Marion Brown, Louisiana, was\nappointed to report on the kindergarten as connected with the normal school ; President\nPierce, California, was appointed to leport on reciprocal recognition of diplomas;\nPresident Snyder, Colorado, made a study of the effect of normal schools upon public\neducation.\nDifferences of opinion have existed on many questions ; but, by concessions upon\nthe part of, all the members of the committee, they have been able to agree upon the\nreport as presented.\nThe committee fully appreciates how difficult it is to set forth, with any degree of\ndefiniteness, a report that will meet the approbation of all educational people.\n\n"}
{"page": 846, "printed_page": null, "text": "838\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\nThanking the educational people of the country and the officers of the National Educational Association for their courtesy and material assistance, the committee respectfully\nsubmits the report.\nZ. X. Snyder, Colorado, Chairman.\nR. G. Boone, Michigan.\nA. G. BoYDEN, Massachusetts.\nMiss Marion Brown, Louisiana.\nFrank McMurry, New York.\n• •\n\nFUNCTION\n\nI.\n\nTHE\n\nFUNCTION\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nE. T. Pierce, California.\nN. C. Schaeffer, Pennsylvania.\nH. H. Seerley, Iowa.\n\nOF\n\nTHF\n\nNORMAL\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\nIS\n\nSCHOOL\n\nTO\n\n.\n\nPREPARE\n\nTEACHERS\n\nThe work of the normal scht)ol is unique. It means more than teaching subjects ; it means more than the developing of the character; it\nmeans the teaching of subjects that they in tui-n may be taught ; it means\nthe development of character that it in turn may be transfigured into\ncharacter ; it means such a preparation for life that it in turn may prepare others to enter fully, readily, and righteously into their environment.\n'Thus to prepare an individual to lead and direct a little child is a grave\nresponsibility.\nII.\n\nTHE\n\nFUNCTION\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\nIN\n\nITS\n\nRELATION\n\nTO\n\nITS\n\nFACULTY\n\nThe faculty is the soul of the institution. Its members should be superior men and women. In general Tappan's law should hold, that \" a\nteacher should be trained in an institution of a higher grade than the one\niu which he teaches.\"\n1. Character %\\.2iv\\^'& first in the hierarchy of qualifications. Nothing\ncan take its place. There are two fundamental elements in it — force and\npower. ' Force is an inherent executive element. Some persons have\ngreat force in the administration of affairs; when they are thru, they are\nforgotten. Some persons administer affairs with power; when they are\nthru, they still live in the minds and hearts of those with whom they came\nin contact. A strong man in life — a man of strong character — is one\nwho has both force and power. Force is evolved in putting forth his\ndeterminations. Power is the soul in his actions ; power is mind and\nheart.\n2. Teaching ability stands second — the ability to adapt self and subject to pupil. It is ability to inspire to thought and feeling and action.\nIt is that kind of work which makes for character\nTeaching may be\n\n"}
{"page": 847, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nREPORT\n\nON\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n839\n\ndefined as causing an individual to think and act physically, mentally, and\nspiritually.\n3. Scholarship is the reserve power of every great teacher. It commands respect. It is fertility of mind. A liberal education, special\npreparation for the particular lines of work to be performed, pedagogical\ntraining, with a keen insight into tiie function of the normal school, are\nindispensable qualifications.\n4. Culture gives tone to the. entire being. It acts as a tonic in all we\ndo. It is the development of the finer self. It comes from wide scholarship— a liberal education baptized by the spirit of the individual.\n5. A professional spirit and professional ethics should characterize every\nmember of a faculty. It is that spirit and ethics that binds all parts of an\ninstitution together and makes it one grand force for good.\nIII.\n\nTHE\n\nFUNCTION\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nNORMAL\nPREPARING\n\nSCHOOL\nTO\n\nIN\n\nITS\n\nRELATION\n\nTO\n\nTHOSE\n\nTEACH\n\nI. Fundamental conditions for entrance.\nici) Maturity. — Those who enter should be mature. To comprehend\nsubjects and their interpretation and their value in the development of a\nhuman being requires maturity of mind. To understand the child as a\nbiological unit, to understand it as a psychological unit, to understand it\nas a social unit, requires a standard of maturity very far above the prevailing\nstandard in the normal schools. Therefore normal schools should be\nmore cautious in regard to those whom they admit and graduate.\n(^) Good health and soundness of organs. — No person should be admitted to a normal school who has not reasonably good health and who is\nnot sound in all his organs. The development of the germ theory of\ndiseases and infection, in many instances by contact, forbids the reckless\ninconsideration of this important matter. Again, an individual who is\nnot healthy is, in the very nature of the case, precluded from giving forth\n'his best. It is due the children that those who teach them be hale and\nsound of body. Sympathy which is often bestowed upon persons of this\nkind is always at the expense of thfe children ; it is misplaced sympathy.\n(c) Natural fitness to teach. — Natural fitness is a paramount condition\nin one who is preparing to teach. Education and training do much to\ngive power and skill, yet natural fitness stands superior. The individual\nwho is in close touch with the child, who can blend with it in its sorrows\nand joys, in its failures and successes, is the one whose presence makes for\ncharacter — for life. When normal-school authorities are fully convinced\nthat one who is preparing to teach lacks natural aptitude, they should be\nhumane enough, for the sake of the children as well as for the sake of the\nperson in question, to recommend his withdrawal from the school.\n\\d) Common-sense. — An intuitive knowledge of common affairs — to\n\n"}
{"page": 848, "printed_page": null, "text": "NA TIONAL\n\nEDUCA\n\nTIONAL ' ASSOCIA TION\n\n[Normal\n\n840'to do the right thing at the right time. This condition is essential.\nknow\n\nWe see its manifestations daily; we daily see the lack of it. It is an intuitive consciousness of the fitness of things.\n{e) High-mindedness. — Nothing will take the place of this virtue. It\nis difficult to make a low-minded person high-minded. High-mindedness\nis the very essence of morality. True training and education may suppress low-minded tendencies, but they cannot eradicate them.\n(/) Native ability. — An ordinary amount of ability is always presupposed. One only who is capable of grasp'ing subjects and relations in the\nvarious departments of learning and human endeavor\nis eligible fori\nadmission.\nThese six conditions are fundamental, inherent, intrinsic. They form\nthe matrix of all learning, of all culture, of all life in the truest sense.\nThe strength of the normal school lies in its recognition of these conditions. This recognition is a very important function. The great abundance of applicants for admission to the normal schools warrants the\nrecognition of these conditions.\n2. Scholastic condition for admission.\nFor entrance into the normal school the applicant should have a highschool education. This education includes the elementary-school course,\nwhich comprehends a gathering of facts and their simpler relations, as well\nas a study of the formal subjects which are largely means of expression.\nIt also includes a secondary education, in which the facts and relations\ngotten in the elementary school are enlarged and organized into sciences.\nThis larger view of human learning and endeavor is very essential when\nthe prospective teacher returns to the elementary subjects for the purpose\nof gaining a pedagogical interpretation of them. It is this setting which\nthe subjects receive that gives pedagogical insight as to their true evaluation in the process of education. It is this insight that characterizes and\nmakes unique the normal-school work. While the individual is thus gaiaing this pedagogical insight, he is gaining constructively a broader view*\nof the elementary subjects themselves by bringing to bear upon them the\nhigher subjects. Examples: arithmetic is made richer by algebra and\ngeometry ; geography, by physiography and geology ; history, by liter^\nture ; English grammar, by a study of English and literature ; the facts\nof nature, by physics, chemistry, zoology, botany, etc. ; drawing, by art ;\ncivil government, by sociology ; physiology, by biology ; etc. It is this\nkind of work that distinguishes normal-school work in the branches from\nacademic work proper, as we find it in the high school. It is professional.\nTo formulate, so far as subjects are concerned : In the high school the end\nin view is the subject and its value to the student; in the normal school it is\nthe value of the subject in an educational process and the best mode of presenta\ntion to produce the highest value.\n\n"}
{"page": 849, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nREPORT\n\nOM\n\nIV.\n\nOF\n\nNORMAL\n\nTHE\n\nFUNCTION\n\nTHE\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nSCHOOL\n\nIN\n\nITS\n\nRELATION\n\n841\n\nTO\n\nTHE\n\nCHILD\n\nThe supreme center in education is the child in its relation to its environment. What is in the child, how it got there, the child's development,\nthe end in view, the means employed, its relation to nature, to man, to\nsociety, and to Divinity are all pertinent in a discussion of the subject.\nFrom the standpoint of this conception it is a function of the normal\nschool to give an interpretation of the child and child life to its students\nwho are preparing to go out to teach, or to lead and direct, children.\nIndeed, the work of the normal school is an effort to study the child\nin all its bearings, to study it historically, by observation, scientifically,\nor in any way that may give an inkling into its natures and their development.\nV.\n\nTHE\n\nFUNCTION\n\nOF\n\nTHE\nSOCIAL\n\nNORMAL\nMIND,\n\nSCHOOL\nOR\n\nIN\n\nITS\n\nRELATION\n\nTO\n\nTHE\n\nSOCIETY\n\nThe social mind is made up of the individual minds. Again, the\nintegration of the individual minds gives the social mind. So we speak\nof public opinion, public sentiment, public conscience, public will, or the\nwill of the people. Each individual is an organic unit in the social\nmind. The expressions of the social mind are in our institutions — our\ninstitutional life. The home, the school, the church, society, the state are\nthe product of the social mind. This being true, the relation of the\nnormal school to the social mind is a most important one. Indeed,\nthe conception of education already stated becomes apparent : education consists in preparing the individual to enter fully, readily, and\nrighteously into his surroundings. While the relation of the child to\nsociety has been largely ignored in the past, it should be reckoned with\nin the future.\nThe aim of the public school is found in society.\nVI.\n\nTHE\n\nFUNCTION\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\nIN\n\nITS\n\nRELATION\n\nTO\n\nTHE\n\nHOME\n\nBetween the school-teacher and the home there should be a very\nintimate relation. The first school the child enters should not differ very\nmuch from the home — a good home. The spirit of this first school\nshould be homelike. This sort of school seizes the spirit of the child.\nIt is initiated readily. It eliminates the barrier that usually exists.\nThe intimacy between the parent and teacher should result in a hearty\nco-operation between them. The teacher should be an adviser of the\nparent and a companion of the children. There is a marked tendency\nin this direction brought about by child study and the women's clubs\nthruout the country.\nIt is a function of the normal school to impress its students with the\nclose relation of the home and the school.\n\n"}
{"page": 850, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n842\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n[Normal\n\nVII. THE\n\nFUNCTION\n\nSUBJECTS\nTHE\n\nOF\n\nTO\n\nCOURSE\n\nTHE\n\nBE\nOF\n\nNORMAL\n\nSTUDIED\n\nBY\n\nSCHOOL\nTHOSE\n\nIN\n\nITS\n\nRELATION\n\nPREPARING\n\nTO\n\nTO\n\nTEACH,\n\nTHE\nOR\n\nSTUDY\n\nA few years ago almost every school had its fixed, ideal course of study,\nthe gauntlet of which every child that remained in school had to run.\nAt present this is not true. There is no constant course of study. It is\nvariable. It is tentative. The course of study is beginning to be as\nvariable as individuals. This is as it should be, and it should be expected\nin this nascerit period of pedagogics.\nSince the aim of education has been set forth as a preparation for\nsociety, the function of the normal school in the preparation of teachers\nbecomes apparent.\nin this preparation of a teacher that he may understand the child as,\nan involution of possibilities, and that its education is an evolution of these\npossibilities under a proper adjustment of its environment, the following\ncenters of interest are suggested from which to derive a course of study.\nNo one of these centers should be ignored in the course. The derivation\nof a course of study from these centers gives the widest latitude for electives.\nThe committee feels that the shortest time that should be allowed for\nthe completion of this course is two years, with the understanding that\nthe applicant for admission has, at least, a high-school education or its\nequivalent.\nI. MAN\n\nIN\n\nMAN\n\nIN\n\nSOCIETY\n\nb) Government.\nc) Home.\nd\") Economics.\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nRACE\n\nEmbracing :\na) History.\nb) Anthropology.\nc) Literature.\nd) Genetic psychology.\nIII. MAN\n\nMAN\n\nEmbracing :\na) Sociology.\n\nEmbracing :\na) Physiology.\nb) Psychology.\nc) Ethics.\nd) Religion.\nII.\n\nIV.\n\nHIMSELF\n\nIN\n\nEmbracing :\na) Physics.\nb) Chemistry.\nc) Biology.\n</) Mathematics.\ne) Physiography.\nf) Astronomy.\n\nNATURE\n\nV.\n\nMAN\n\nIN\n\nEXPRESSION\n\nEmbracing :\na) Language.\n^) Drawing.\nc) Construction.\nd) Physical culture.\ne) Music.\nVI.\n\n/)Art.\nEmbracing :\n\nMAN\n\nIN\n\nSCHOOL\n\na) Philosophy of education.\nb) Science and art of teaching.\nc) History of education.\n</) School economics.\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 851, "printed_page": null, "text": "REPORT\n\nDepartment]\n\nON NORMAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nThe committee recommends that the above be the course toward which\nall normal schools should aim ; but owing to the diverse conditions existing in various parts of the country relative to normal schools, it deems it\nadvisable that a provisional minimum course, to bridge over the transition\nperiod from' the academic or semi-academic nature of the normal to the\nnormal as a professional school, be also recommended.\nThe conditions for entrance to the provisional minimum course, and\nthe course itself, are as follows :\nI. ENTRANCE\n\nThe applicant shall have finished a grammar-school course embracing the following\nsubjects, in which he is reasonably proficient : arithmetic, English grammar, geography,\nUnited States history, physiology and hygiene, drawing, civil government, music, grammar-school algebra, nature study, reading, penmanship, spelling, and English.\nII.\n\nLENGTH\n\nOF\n\nMINIMUM\n\nCOURSE\n\nThe course shall extend over a period of four years.\nIII.\n\nTHE\n\n1. Arithmetic.\n2. Elementary algebra.\n3. Plane geometry.\nII.\n\n1. Sociology.\n2. History.\n\n1. English grammar.\n2. English.\n3. Elements of rhetoric.\n\nSOCIAL\n\nSCIENCE\n\nVI. LITERATURE\n\n1. Folk-lore and myth.\n2. American literature.\n\n1. Biological science.\na) Zoology.\nb) Botany.\n2. Physical science.\na) Physiography.\nb) Physics.\nc) Chemistry.\n3. Nature study.\n\n3. English literature.\nVII.\n\nPHYSICAL\n\nCULTURE\n\n1. General physical education.\n2. Schoolroom gymnastics.\n3. Games in and out of school.\n4. Sanitation and schoolroom hygiene.\nVIII.\n\nPROFESSIONAL\n\nWORK\n\nA. Theoretical.\n\nART\n\n1. Penmanship.\n2. Drawing.\n3. Form, color work, etc.\n4. Manual\ntraining — domestic\nor sloyd, or both.\n\nv.\n\n3. Civics and economics.\n\nSCIENCE\n\nIV.\n\nCOURSE\n\n7. Fine arts.\n\nLANGUAGE\n\nIII.\n\nMINIMUM\n\n5. Reading.\n6. Music.\n\nI. MATHEMATICS\n\nscience\n\n1. Psychology — one year.\n2. Pedagogy — one year.\nB. Practical — training school.\n1. Observation — one year\n2. Teaching — one year.\n\nThe following is an outline of the minimum amount of work for the\ntraining department of a normal school, that it may make the students\npractical, successful, and growing teachers for the public schools.\nIn order to do this the training department should, first, build up in\nthe minds of the students ideals of what instruction in the several branches\n\n"}
{"page": 852, "printed_page": null, "text": "844\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n[Normal\n\nshould be; second, give them opportunities for actually instructing in\nthe light of these ideals in a sufficient number of subjects and grades,\nunder circumstances and for a length of time sufficient to warrant the faculty in recommending the student as a practical, successful, and growing\nteacher.\nThe actual teaching of the students should comprise at least five\nrecitation periods a week for one year, preceded and accompanied by\ndirected observation and discussions of actual recitations and their plans,\nas well as the writing of plans themselves. The more experienced the\n\"student teacher\" is, the more benefit he derives from the criticisms, and\nthe farther he advances the efficiency of the practice school.\nGAINING\n\nTHE\n\nIDEAL\n\nIn the beginning of the junior year the students should be formed\ninto small groups, perhaps ten in a group, and assigned to the critic\nteachers, in charge of the grades, for the observation of one, or, if practicable, two, recitations each week, and its thoro criticism under the direction of the critic teacher.\nThese\n\ndiscussions should involve a criticism of the following\n\npoints :\n3. Presentation of the new.\n\nI. The subject-matter.\n1. Tts value.\n2. Its fitness for the children of this\n\na) Narrated.\nb) Read.\nc) Developed or questioned,\n\nage.\nII. Correlation.\n\n(i) Form of questions.\n(2) Content of questions.\n\n1. Does the teacher utilize points of\n\n(3) Sequence of questions.\n4. Devices.\n\npreceding recitation ?\n2. Does she utilize points used in\nother studies ?\nIII. Method.\n1. Aim,\n\n5. Summary.\nDrills.\n6.\nIV. Results.\nV. Government of class.\n\na) P'orm.\nb') Content.\n2. Preparation of pupils' minds.\na) Relevant and irrelevant questions.\n\nVI.\n\nManner\n\nof the teacher,\n\nVII. Summary\n\nof the bad points.\n\nVIII. Summary\n\nof the good points.\n\nThese groups observe and criticise usually the work of the seniors,\nwhich should be good enough to be called \"model.\" The critic teachers\nand the superintendent should frequently conduct \"model\" recitations\nin the presence of the different groups. Nothing in a recitation is capable of pioper defense, unless it can be based upon some pedagogical\nprinciple ; all criticisms should be so based. When a student opposes a\npoint in a recitation, he is held to suggest something better in its place.\nWhen it seems advisable, and long before they are allowed to teach,\n\n"}
{"page": 853, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nREPORT\n\nON\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n845\n\njuniors are required to write detailed plans for recitations. These plans\nare subjected to the same thoro criticisms as the recitations that they\nhave observed.\nIt is in this way that the training department seeks to lay the foundations for the student teacher's ideal of a recitation.\nREALIZATION\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nIDEAL\n\nAt the commencement of the senior year the teaching should begin.\nFor each recitation the student prepares a detailed plan, seeking to avoid\nthe errors and to follow the suggestions that he has been led to appreciate in his observations and criticisms. The plan shows the leading\nquestions that he expects to ask and the answers they should bring. He\nstrives, as far as possible, to ask questions that will call for thought on the\npart of the pupil. The wording of the questions is important, the\nsequence equally so.\nThe student should have charge of his first class for one semester, taking\nanother in a different grade and a different subject for the second semester. This will give him a strong feeling of the universality of the pedagogical principles he has been applying. He should be allowed sufficient\nindependence in the discipline of his class to test and strengthen his\nability to govern it.\nDuring the senior year a recitation for public criticism should be held\nin the presence of all the seniors once a week by one of their number, by\na critic teacher, or by the superintendent. Two seniors working together\nshould prepare a written criticism according to the outline given above.\nThe teacher who holds the recitation — the practician — should prepare a\nwritten self-criticism. This should be read at a subsequent meeting and\nthoroly discussed.\n\nTRAINING\n\nSCHOOLS—\n\nTHESES\n\nI. A training school should be a place for illustrating, testing, and,\nat least in part, originating theory of education. It is an essential part\nof a school for teachers, being necessary for the progress of both students\nand faculty. But while the training school is established to this end, the\nfirst interest in the teaching process is the child ; the work can and must\nbe so conducted that the child shall receive a training as good as, or\nbetter than, the one he would otherwise be likely to receive.\nWhile the use of a training school for originating theory is subordinate to the other\nuses named, this use is, nevertheless, of much importance. Both faculty and students\nshould feel that all the good theory is not discovered, and should be constantly on the\nlookout for ideas.\nIn this way proper progress is made possible.\n\n"}
{"page": 854, "printed_page": null, "text": "846\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nINomal\n\nII. In comparison with other lines of work in a normal school, actual\nteaching is capable of ranking as the most valuable course for the student,\nsince it furnishes, at the same time, both theory and practice.\nMost lines of work aim chiefly to give insight into what is true, good, or advisable ;\nthat is, they give mere theor}'. But while actual teaching contributes much to such insight,\nit also gives. training in the application of this knowledge. It is usually more difficult to\napply knowledge than it is to acquire it ; but since practice in teaching does both, it is an\nespecially valuable line of work.\n\nIII. The training school in a state normal school should contain a\nkindergarten as well as the eight grades. Even tho the normal school may\nnot aim to send out kindergartners, a good kindergarten is very desirable,\nbecause the younger the children under instruction, the more fully are\nteachers and observers forced into a proper appreciation of the fundarpjental principles of teaching.\nThe younger the child, the more the teacher is forced to be really pedagogical. For\nexample, the college professor may have his mind on his subject-matter and ignore the\nstudents by gazing out of the window, yet they will remain respectful and at least\napparently attentive. But if the kindergartner were to do the same thing, the children\nwould cease to pay any attention to her ; they would play with one another and leave\nthe room. She mttst think of them first ; she must be pedagogical, and, therefore, she is.\nThe college professor does not have to be, and, therefore, up to the present time he\nvery often is not. For this reason primarily it is desirable that normal-school students\ncome in frequent contact with a kindergarten, even tho they are not planning to be\nteachers in the kindergarten themselves.\nThe training school maj' well include a country school also, since the normal\nschools must train country teachers. But this is scarcely feasible, unless there is an actual\ncountry school within easy reach of the normal.\n\nIV. The number of children intrusted to a beginning student teacher\nshould be small, approximately ten to twelve. The reason is that the chief\nproblems involved in instruction are presented by the smaller classes and\nthe student is less likely to be distracted or overwhelmed by mere numbers.\nThe object of this arrangement is properly to grade the difficulties with which the\npracticing teacher must contend. The ability to handle large numbers can well be\nacquired after some skill and self-confidence have been developed in the instruction of\nsmall classes.\n' ,\n\nV. The number of children in a grade might well be approximately\nforty, as in public schools, these being divided into two groups of different\nadvancement.\nThe training school should be, to a large extent, a duplicate of the public school,\nso that the more experienced practice teachers may finally meet the same difficulties\nthat they will later meet in schools of their own.\n\nVI. The training school should be practically under the control of the\nnormal-school authorities to such an extent that the latter can formulate\na curriculum, select text-books, choose and dismiss teachers, determine\n\n"}
{"page": 855, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\n.\n\nREPORT\n\nON\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n847\n\nmethods, and in general administer the affairs of the school according to\ntheir own best judgment.\nSince public schools, and private schools with high tuition, cannot usually meet\nthese conditions, they cannot generally be expected to make the best training schools.\n\nVII. The president of a state normal school should have ultimate\ncontrol of the training school in all particulars, but he may delegate this\nauthority according to later theses here presented.\nVIII. The training school should be under the direct control of a\nprincipal.\nHe should —\n1. Have general control of the school.\n2. Formulate the curriculum after consultation with heads of departments and critic teachers.\n3. Determine methods to be followed, also apparatus and books to\nbe used.\n4. Supervise the critic teachers and the student teachers.\n5. Call together critic teachers, student teachers, or heads of departments in the normal school for consultation.\nWhile the training school involves work in which all members of the faculty should\nshare, responsibility for the curriculum, for method, and for general management must be\ncentered in one person.\n\nIX. Heads of departments in the normal school should be supervisors\nin fact of their subjects in the training school, as follows :\n1. They should propose in writing to the principal the subjectmatter for the curriculum in their respective studies.\n2. They should propose to the principal what seems to them the\nleading points in method involved in the presentation of the subjectmatter suggested.\n3. They should assist the principal in supervising the instruction of\ncritic and student teachers in their special studies, offering suggestions\nand exchanging ideas freely.\nThese duties should be performed by the heads of departments for their own good\nas well as for the good of the training school.\nThe heads of departments should not be given authority to determine fully the\ncurriculum in their respective studies, because they are likely to overestimate the relative\nworth of their subjects, and are partially unacquainted with the other requirements that\nare necessarily made upon the children. But they should be active advisors to the\nprincipal as well as to the critic and student teachers ; and in case they have serious\ndisagreement with the rulings of the principal, they can, of course, appeal to the president\nof the normal school.\n\nX. Next to a wholesome personality, the special feature of a critic\nteacher should be the ability to show particularly the merits, as well as\nthe defects, of instruction, basing the criticism plainly upon accepted\n, principles of teaching.\nAccording to Thesis II, practice in teaching is capable of ranking as the most valuable course in a normal school.\nIts worth, however, depends primarily upon the qualities\n\n"}
{"page": 856, "printed_page": null, "text": "848\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Nonnal\n\nof the regular teacher as a critic. Her power in this direction can be gauged neither by\nher quality of knowledge nor by her skill as an instructor; it is something separate from\nboth of these. To secure that power a higher training is necessary than is generally\nfound among critic teachers, and consequently an unusually high salary should be paid\nfor it.\n\nXI. There should be at least one critic teacher to each grade room.\nUnless there is at least one critic to each grade room, much of the student teaching\ncannot be seen by a critic teacher, so that both the student teachers and the children\ninstructed by them are suffering serious neglect. That condition of affairs is not allowable in a properly equipped training school.\n\nXII. This critic teacher should (i) instruct her children a considerable\nportion of the time ; at least, no class should be turned over wholly to\nstudent teachers ; (2) criticise, accept, and reject plans for teaching\npresented by student teachers, taking the final responsibility for the plans\nfollowed; (3) observe and criticise closely at least most of the instruction\ngiven to her children by student teachers.\nWhile the principal of the training school, the heads of departments, etc., mark out\nthe curriculum and determine the method to be followed in a large way, a definite\nresponsibility should fall upon the critic teacher herself. She should be fully responsible\nfor carrying out, in detail, the work which these others have suggested ; she and the\nstudent teacher must be directly responsible for the final plans adopted by the latter.\n\nXIII. Beside giving daily private criticism to individual student teachers, the critic teacher should unite with others, including a considerable\nnumber of students, in an exhaustive discussion of a recitation which all\npresent have witnessed. Such a discussion might take place once every\ntwo weeks. Its peculiar objects are : (i) to show how many different\nmatters are involved in a twenty- or thirty-minute recitation ; (2) to show\nhow most of these details are controlled by a few great educational\nprinciples.\nThese objects can be attained, provided (i) those present take part\nfreely in the discussion, each stating what impressed him especially ; (2) a\nfull hour or more be set for this purpose.\nThe plan of such a recitation should be distributed and carefully\nexamined beforehand by those who are to observe the recitation.\nIn such a discussion the written plan might first receive careful\nconsideration, without reference to the actual execution. Then the\nmanner of education might be discussed, care being taken to eliminate\nthe new personal criticism that might be unfitted for public presentation.\nThe daily private criticisms are usually hurried and touch only upon the more salient\nmatters ; this occasional detailed criticism, where a considerable number of persons make\nsuggestions, should supplement the daily work.\nThe written plan might often be discussed before the recitation, rather than after,\nsince in that way the recitation itself would be observed with much more interest and\ncare.\n\n"}
{"page": 857, "printed_page": null, "text": "DepartmentJ\n\nREPORT\n\nON\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n849\n\nXIV. Presupposing good and close criticism on the part of the critic\nteacher, the minimum amount of instruction givgn by a student teacher\nshould not be less than one recitation period per day for one year.\nTeaching is an art that must be learned, and it is so difficult that it requires time.\nThe object of this student teaching is not merely to see whether the practician can teaph\npassably well or not, but rather to take the practician at whatever point of development\nhe may already have reached, and lead him to improve in his instruction.\nFor example, it requires a good deal of time and practice to accustom teachers to\nmake summaries at the proper time, to review and apply sufficiently the knowledge\nalready acquired, and to rank facts according to their relative worth. If the application of theory were easy, there would need be little student teaching; but since it\nis recognized as one of the most difficult of tasks, there should be abundant provision\nfor it.\n\nXV. No normal school should accept so many students that it cannot\ngive this minimum amount of student teaching. In other words, the\nsize of the training school should be one of the most important factors in\nlimiting the size of a normal school.\nJust as the size of a laboratory should limit the number of students in a class in\nscience, so the size of the training school should limit the number allowed to enter a\nnormal school.\n\nXVI Some observation work should precede actual instruction on the\npart of any student teacher.\nXVII. This observation, however, is comparatively worthless, unless'it\nis supervised and discussed with the same care as the actual teaching of\na student teacher.\nWhen students know that a strict account must be rendered of all that is observed\nin a class, and reasons must be given either in favor of or against the steps that are\ntaken, they will observe with far greater accuracy and learn far more about teaching\nOne of the surest ways of discouraging a prospective teacher and destroying his interest\nis to require him to observe regularly without the pressure of close supervision.\n\nXVIII. This observation can, perhaps, be best carried on as follows:\n1. A considerable number of students can together observe a recitation and take notes carefully, often quoting the exact words of the\nteacher and pupils, in order really to prove their points later.\n2. These notes should later be carefully arranged with the view of\npassing a well-grounded judgment in detail upon the lesson.\n3. Then all should meet together, including the instructor in charge,\nand exchange and discuss their views.\nOne lesson per week observed and discussed in this manner is far\nmore valuable than daily observations that are not followed by such\ndiscussions.\nAccurate notes, suggested under i, are particularly important. Teachers of\nexperience, as well as those lacking experience, often put questions in a form that is very\nawkward or indefinite ; they also repeat the same question. But they are so unconscious\nof the fact while it is taking place that they scarcely believe that it did take place when\nafterward assured of it by the critic. In such cases conviction is best established if the\n\n"}
{"page": 858, "printed_page": null, "text": "850\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\ncritic can reproduce the exact words of the instructor.\nBut aside from this reason, accurate notes allow definite and scientific criticisms in general.\n\nXIX. The observation suggested in Thesis XVII is a regular course\nof study, aside from the observations that students may be called upon to\nmake by professors in the normal school who illustrate their theories\nthru classes of children from the training school. Of course, however, this latter work is highly desirable.\nThe object of the latter kind of observation is primarily an insight into educational\ntheory; that of the former is to see how that theory is carried into practice. In the\nformer kind the observers are much more critically minded than in the latter, So that, on\nthe whole, the purposes of the two kinds of observation are occasionally different.\n\nXX. In making observations according to Thesis XVII\nnecessary to observe expert teaching all of the time.\n\nit is not\n\nThere are two special reasons for this statement : in the first place, if the instruction\nobserved is given by an inexperienced teacher, friction reveals itself much more easily, so\nthat criticism is easier; in the second place, if the observers know that the teacher is not\nconsidered an expert, they are much more likely to criticise the recitation on its merits,\npointing out both the strong and weak points freely ; but if the instructor happens to be\nan expert, they feel it presumptuous on their part to attempt to analyze the recitation :\nthey then not only omit mentioning the defects, but even their praise is not specific.\nWhat has thus far been stated is not intended to indicate that there should be little\nor no observation of expert teaching. There is strong reason for observing such teaching\nextensively, since it helps greatly to fix an ideal in the student teacher's mind.\n\nXXI. After a sufficient amount of observation students should be\nallowed to begin their practice teaching along lines of their greatest\nstrength.\nYoung teachers are prone to discouragement, being easily overcome by the multitude\nof new obstacles which they are obliged to encounter ; they should, therefore, be allowed\nto enter upon teaching in the study in which they feel strongest. In this way provision\nwill be made for self-confidence from the beginning ; they can later move over to other\nbranches and thus develop a more general confidence.\n\nXXII. They should be allowed to specialize to some extent in kindergarten work, in primary or grammar grades, but not fully.\nProper instruction of children necessitates a fair comprehension of work which\nprecedes and follows a given period ; therefore, students under training for teaching\nshould not be allowed to limit themselves to one grade of work.\n\nXXIII. If possible, the student teacher should have full charge of a\nroom for a few weeks, but usually not until he has somewhat accustomed\nhimself to teaching and has proved his efficiency in some one study.\nThe plan in general is, therefore, as follows : (i) observation work, (2) practice in\nteaching in one study, (3) practice in teaching where the instructor is in charge of a room.\nBy this arrangement the difficulties are carefully graded.\n\nXXIV. Until a high degree of independence and skill in planning\nand conducting recitations has been proved, the written plan of each\nrecitation, after having been accepted by the critic teacher, should lie\n\n"}
{"page": 859, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nkRPORT\n\nON\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n85 1\n\nupon the table in the room during the period of instruction, subject to\ngeneral inspection.\nAfter a time, when the student teacher has shown that he is conscientious and somewhat skilled, he should certainly be relieved of writing out his plan in full, for that\nwork then involves unnecessary labor.\n\nXXV. The idea that a training school should be provided with a practice school, and a model school besides, is hardly a feasible one. Aside\nfrom the financial difficulties involved, it is probable that a well-conducted\npractice school will not be inferior to the so-called model school.\nThere are several reasons for these assertions : (i) The different heads of departments,\nas supervisors, are likely to be more directly connected with a practice school than with\na model school, because the presence of student teachers obliges them to visit the rooms\nfrequently ; in a model school the same obligation is not present. (2) The critic teachers,\nbecause they are critic teachers, are likely to be much mere active-minded than they\notherwise would be. They are directly responsible for the acceptance of the plans of\nstudent teachers ; they must also show the merits and defects of the instruction that has\nbeen given, basing their statements upon the principles of teaching ; pressure of this kind\nforces them constantl}' to think over their work with care. In fact, this kind of work requires\nthe greatest degree of mental activity and forces the critic teachers into frequent discoveries of weakness on their part, and also of new thoughts. (3) A practice school, because\nit is a practice school, is surrounded by an experimental atmosphere ; this, instead of\nbeing a defect, is a marked merit. It means that all persons concerned in the school are\nlooking for progressive ideas and practices.\nThe soundness of these statements is suggested from the fact that the well-conducted\ntraining schools in the country are commonly recognized as being superior to the public\nschools in their neighborhood. Some of the training schools in the state normal schools\neven charge tuition, and still, in the minds of the public, maintain their superiority over\nthe public schools that are conducted by graduates of the normal school.\nIt certainly must be admitted that even in a well-conducted training school there will\nbe frequent blundering on the part of student teachers; one may even say, very serious\nblundering. But when the heads of departments, as supervisors, do their work properly ;\nwhen the critic teacher examines the plans with care before accepting them, and is present most of the time to offer criticisms, or to take charge of the class if necessary ; then\nthe opportunities for serious error are reduced to a minimum. It should be remembered\nalso that it is not solely in training schools that egregious blundering takes place ; much\nof the worst teaching in the country is found in private schools and in the schools that\nhave little supervision. The fact that there is no practice teaching in certain schools is\nno proof whatever that radical mistakes in instruction will be wanting. It must be\nadmitted from the start that errors of many kinds creep into every school ; and the only\nway to prevent a good part of them is to provide for a great abundance of supervision\nand pressure toward good work. This provision is so abundantly made in good training\nschools that it more than counterbalances the possible evils of practice teaching.\n\nXXVI. In case No. XXVIII is not accepted, still the training school\ncan and should be a model in the following very important respects :\n1. In the construction of the school building.\n2. In laboratory facilities.\n3. In library facilities.\n4. In artistic decoration.\n\n"}
{"page": 860, "printed_page": null, "text": "8s 2\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n[Normal\n\n5. In the attention given to the individual pupil from the physical,\nmental, and moral point of view.\n6. In the relation that exists between the teachers and the children.\n7. In the relation existing between the teachers and parents.\n8. In the curriculum that is adopted.\n9. In the plans of recitations.\nIt should be one object of the training school to present a standard for the public\nschools in all these respects.\nOf course, the needs and conditions of public-school work\nshould be taken into consideration, and the training school should adopt a model which 1\nseems within the reach of other public schools.\nIn most of these nine points, several of j\nwhich are radically important, the training schqol, because it is a practice school, is|\nlikely to be superior to other schools.\n\nXXVII.\n\nFrom the above statements it follows that the name model\n\nschool, as applied to the department where students receive practice in\nteaching, is not entirely a misnomer. Probably, however, training school\nis a better term. But either of these names is preferable Xo practice school.\nThis name does not throw emphasis upon the fact that there are carefully\nprepared plans and numerous active supervisors. It is usually taken in\nits lower sense, meaning experimenting, rather than practicing, in the\nsense that a physician practices medicine. On that account it depreciates\nthe work of student teachers, both in their own eyes and in those of\nparents and children. There is a good deal in a name, and it is highly\ndesirable that one be chosen that overestimates, to some extent, the\nquality of work done, rather than one that underestimates it.\nAs the name training school does not seem to have either of these\ndefects, it is recommended as the preferable one.XXVIII. The training school should be the correlating center of the\nnormal school.\n1. The curriculum of the training school should directly influence\nthat of the normal school ; for example :\n{a) Since home geography, including excursions, is required in the\ntraining school, there should be such a topic, including excursions, as a\npart of the normal-school course in geography.\nip) Since the training school requires an abundance of imaginative\nliterature, such as fairy tale's, legends, and myths, such literature should\nconstitute an important part of the normal-school course in literature.\n{c) If concrete geometry is required in the grades, it should constitute a part of the work in geometry in the normal-school curriculum.\n{d) If the arithmetical problem's in the grades are to be correlated with\nother lines of study, so that the content of these problems may be of real\nworth, the same degree of correlation should be required in the normalschool problems.\n2. The method of teaching in the normal school should be essentially\nthe same as that pursued in the training school, since both are founded\nupon the same general principles.\n\n"}
{"page": 861, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nREPORT\n\nON\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n853\n\nOf course, there must be diflEerences, but they are differences in nonessentials and devices, and not differences of principles. According to\nKant, method is procedure according to principles {Critique of Pure\nReason, translated by Meiklejohn, p. 516). One may rightly, therefore,\nspeak of the same method being employed in the training school as is\nemployed in the normal. The meaning of this requirement can be illustrated in the following way :\n(a) It is a principle of teaching that we reach new knowledge, emotions, and volitions thru related old knowledge, emotions, and volitions. Accordingly, in the instruction of children we take pains to glide\nthru the old into the new. The same pains should be taken in the\nnormal schools with adult students.\n{b^ It is another principle of teaching that the learner should be told\nas little as possible, and be allowed to discover as much as possible for\nhimself. This, in the training school, leads the teacher to reduce her\ntopics to a conversational basis, so that the children may offer suggestions,\npresent questions, etc. The same principle applied to normal-school\nwork must lead professors to allow the adult students, likewise, to propose\nand answer many problems.\nIn other words, if children in the grades, on account of the principle\nof self-activity, are not expected mainly to reproduce the content of textbooks, or listen to lectures, there is little more reason for allowing it in\nnormal-school instruction.\n{c) Influenced by the belief that a live interest in studies is the condition under which these studies will have the proper effect upon thought\nand conduct, the teachers in the training school watch primarily the\nchildren's attitude of mind toward their subjects, making the acquisition\nof knowledge relatively a minor matter. If that belief is a sound one for\nchildren, it is just as sound for adults.\n{d') If grade teachers should present the concrete before the abstract,\nunder the belief that new generalizations must be reached inductively,\nthe normal-school instructor should do the same thing.\nThere is another, very different and radically important, argument for\nthe statement that the method of teaching in the normal school shall be\nessentially the same as that in the training school. In spite of all the\ntheory that we offer to students in regard to the method of teaching, they\nwill always teach largely as they have been taught; that is, even with\nadults the tendency to imitate is a very marked characteristic, and shows\nitself very plainly in teaching. If a normal-school professor himself\nteaches in one way and still expects his students to follow essentially a\ndifferent way with children, he is likely to be greatly disappointed. The\nactual method followed by the normal-school professor is concrete, so\nthat it can be seen ; that very fact allows it to make a much deeper\nimpression\nupon a student than the opposing\ntheory which may be\n\n"}
{"page": 862, "printed_page": null, "text": "854\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\npresented.\nOne of the very best ways, therefore, for a normal school to\nsecure good teaching from its students is for the faculty itself to impart\ninstruction essentially in the same way in which it hopes to have the '\nstudents impart it.\n3. There should be frequent faculty meetings, whose subjects of discussion should bear close relation to the training school and often spring\nout of it directly. Lessons should be taught in the presence of the\nfaculty and followed by exhaustive criticism on the part of the faculty.\n- In other words, the faculty meetings in a normal school should be\ndirected, not merely to executive work, or primarily to that, but to instruction ;and since the work of the normal school culminates in the instruction of children, topits directly involved in the instruction of children\nshould be the subjects for frequent faculty discussion.\nOnly when Thesis XXVIII, with its three divisions, is kept in mind and\npracticed can the real aim of the entire institution called a normal school\nbe kept in the foreground, and the unity of the school be preserved.\nPoints I and 2 under Thesis XXVIII are probably the most important ones in this\nentire list ; and the central thought in them is that the faculty of the normal school should\nitself practice the things which it wants its students later to put into practice.\n\nXXIX. Since state normal schools are usually situated in cities possessing excellent systems of graded schools, it is recommended that such\nrelations with the city schools be sought as will enable those student\nteachers who have successfully completed the major part of their training to serve as unpaid assistants under conditions which will render such\nservices mutually profitable.\nIn establishing these relations, care should be taken that assistants be sent only where\nsuch service is deemed desirable by both the city superintendent and the responsible\nteacher in charge of the room.\nStudent teachers so appointed should be led to appreciate that such opportunities to\nmake their assistance profitable to the pupils of a regularly organized school furnish at\nthe same time the most valuable experience and the best test of teaching ability.\nStudent teachers enjoying these opportunities might be expected to serve with or\nwithout compensation as temporary substitutes in grades in which they have, served as\nassistants.\n\nGEOGRAPHICAL\nAND\nHISTORICAL\nVARIATIONS\nI HAT\nEXIS2 IN NORMAL SCHOOLS IN THE UNITED STATES\nI. The schools, being provincial, have certain limitations geographically.\n— A state normal school in every state where such a school exists is\nfounded on the theory that it is the duty of the state to prepare teachers\nfor the need of the schools of that particular state, and not on the theory\nthat citizens have a right to such preparation as will best fit them for the\n\n"}
{"page": 863, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\n'\n\nREPORT\n\nON\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n855\n\nbusiness of teaching in general. Hence the requirement of signing a\ncontract with the authorities of the state, agreeing to teach for a stated\ntime in the public schools of that state, or at least declaring the intention\nof preparing to teach in the schools of that state, is almost universal.\nThis custom, commonly enforced by statute, discriminates against professional teachers to an extent unheard of in other vocations. Many of\nthese same states have organized schools for the giving of collegiate education, and also law, medecine, dentistry, pharmacy, engineering, dairying,\netc., without any restrictive conditions whatever. The state normal\nschools alone are thus limited to the state lines for their students; their\ngraduates alone are restricted to a definite field in which to labor by the\nstudent contracts thus made to get advantage of the education offered, and\nby granting them state certificates which have no recognition outside of\nthe state in which they are issued. This condition of affairs exists to such\nan extent that there is little reciprocity between the states, and the business\nof teaching is too generally treated as a profession without either standard\nor basis of recognition except that granted by provincial or state lines.\nII. The course of study of these schools. — In many of the states the\nlegal requirements for state certificates, as well as statutory acts governing\nthe schools, have a decisive effect upon determining the course of study\nthat the school can grant. These conditions, united with many minor\nvariable factors, which cannot all be enumerated, give great variety to\nthese schools in different parts of the United States. The province of\nthese institutions is governed somewhat by the conditions in the several\nstates. The questions what student is capable of being admitted, what\nkind of teachers are to be prepared, what extent should be given to the\nwork to be done, are all decided by the individual needs and conditions\nof the several states. Where rural teachers are in the majority, there\nthe standard is of a low grade ; where high schools are numerous, and\nwhere the privilege to enter such schools is generous, there high-school\ngraduation is the standard of admission.\nThe standards also of these schools vary as do their names. In some\nthe tendency is to develop to college grade and give regular college\ndegrees, or degrees that are different in name, but equivalent in quality.\nIn Some the aim is to have the schools purely professional, no regular\nacademic work being offered as a part of the course of study. In others\nthey are secondary schools in fact, with very little professional work or\npedagogic and practical training; and at times they are of a lower scholastic grade than the secondary schools. The schools which give all the\ninstruction, both academic and professional, are in the majority; the\npurely professional schools are very few, and the purely academic schools\nare gradually growing fewer from decade to decade.\nIII. Recognition given graduates from state normal schools in their own\nstates. — There is very large variation as to state practice in recognizing\n\n"}
{"page": 864, "printed_page": null, "text": "856\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normalj\n\nthe work done at these schools.\nThe conditions imposed to obtain statei\ncertificates, and the encouragement accorded to those who become professionally educated to enter the business of teaching, are as follows: (i]\nIn some states the diploma of the school is authority to teach in that\nstate.\n(2) In some states a board of examiners, outside of the authority!\nin control of the management of the normal schools, has the power o|\ndeciding who can graduate from said schools and who can hold state cer-J\ntificates.\n(3) In some states the diploma of the school is not conferred\nuntil the person who has completed the course has taught successfully twc\nor more years after graduation, when it carries the authority as a state\ncertificate to teach in said state.\n(4) In some states the graduates arc\nexamined by the common authority to issue the local certificates authorized by law, and there are no state certificates.\n(5) In some states the\nstate superintendent has the authority to countersign such state norma\ndiplomas as he is satisfied are held by competent and successful teachers\nwhich makes them state certificates.\n(6) In some states the students\ngraduate from the schools on the authority of the management of the^\nschools, but the right to a state certificate is decided by another board\nentirely outside of the school, which may grant such graduates certificates\naccording to law, if such seems desirable and, at the same time, regardful\nof the public good.\nIV. Training schools, practice schools, model schools. — There is also\nmuch variation regarding the province of a well-organized school of children as a part of the normal school. In name they are also variable.\nThey are called training schools, practice schools, model schools, according as the interest and purpose of these schools differ. Some schools\nregard this part of the instruction and training as the most prominent part of the course of study and of work, giving not only practice\nin actual training, but also instruction in special methods by this agency.\nA very few do not regard the practice of teaching as' either a positive\nhelp or a safe and certain means in the training of a teacher. They\nconsider the candidate being trained as so hampered by theory and by\nclose, critical supervision that he is deprived of spontaneity and essential\nfreedom. Some give great credit to the value of observation as a help to\ntraining, while others do not consider it as a factor of sufficient importance to justify the large expenditure of time generally given.\nAs regards the length of time considered necessary to devote to practice teaching, the variation is all the way from two years to two terms,\nwhile some do not think a definite length of time so important as that the\nproposed teacher should be required to satisfy the training department as\nto skill in the same degree that he satisfies other departments of the\nschool.\nV. Types of normal schools in the United States according to geographical\nlocation. — A careful study of all the different characteristics of state\n\n"}
{"page": 865, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nREPORT\n\nON\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n857\n\nnormal schools found in the United States will determine the fact that\neach section of the union has its own peculiarities of type and development, as the needs and the circumstances of the different parts of the\nrepublic require. Only the broadest differentiation can be emphasized\nhere, but a study of these will prepare the investigator to make easily\nthe differentiations which exist between states, and even in some instances\nbetween different localities of the same state.\n1. The New England state twrmal school. — This type of school is most\nfully developed in Massachusetts, where the work deals with students who\nare high-school graduates from a good four-years' course. It admits none\nexcept actual teachers, or those intending to be teachers. The actual\nteachers are granted special privileges because of their experience, but they\nare not the larger number who graduate from the school and go out as\nits representatives. The minimum academic requirements for graduation\nare English and literature, mathematics, science, and history ; the subjects\nof the course not being very largely beyond the good high-school courses,\nbut the teaching of the subjects being much more thoro and from a\ndifferent standpoint than in the secondary school, and being regarded as\nprofessional. Music, drawing, elementary science, physical training, literature, and history suitable for children receive much attention in the\npreparation of the teacher for the work expected. The pedagogical work\nconsists of psychology, pedagogy, and history of education, each course\ncovering a year of study. Most of these schools have courses of two\nor three years, in which the definite limit of time attendance required\nin all cases is an individual question. It is asserted unanimously that\nthe function of the normal school is not to do distinctively academic\nwork. The other states of this section do not reach this standard of\nentrance or graduation, but they regard this condition as desirable of\nearly attainment.\n2. The southern state normal school. — There are two phases to the\nsouthern normal school : one which is planned for white students,\nmodeled, as far as possible, on the best lines, scholastic and professional ;\nand one which is planned for colored students, where elementary professional training is combined with special industrial instruction. In the\nfirst the problems are much like the problems of the normal schools\nof other parts of the union. In the second the problems are distinctly\nspecial and local, and have in mind many more interests and economic\nneeds than simply the preparation of teachers to teach the ordinary school\nalone, as it is the theory that these industrially trained colored normal\ngraduates have a larger and more fundamental mission than simply the\nscholastic instruction commonly considered as the province of the elementary school. They are to give a special trend to the industrial\nactivities of the people among whom they labor, and are to become\nleaders in all progress, intellectual and economic.\n\n"}
{"page": 866, "printed_page": null, "text": "858\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\n3. The middle states normal school. — These states have special characteristics as regards the organization and conduct of their schools.\nMost\nof the schools in this region are managed by joint local and state authority — the local predominating as regards numbers of trustees and business ,\nmanagement.\nIn Pennsylvania all of the thirteen schools maintain preparatory\nclasses below the entrance requirements of the several two-, three-, and fouryear professional courses of study. In addition, they maintain commercial and other academic studies, but the state contributes only to the\nsupport of the professional student, the other students paying their entire\nexpenses.\nIn the state of New York the admission of students is limited to persons recommended by the school commissioners. In New Jersey admission to its one normal school is obtained by passing a satisfactory\nexamination at the school, and none but professional students are received.\nThe fact is that each state has solved the problem according to its own\nindividual needs, and without much attention to future development or\ndemands. In New York there is one state normal school of a high grade\nlocated at Albany ; the others are of the common standard which generally\nprevails thruout the country. There is a tendency in the middle states to\naccept this plan as the best for fwture adoption : one school of high grade\nand many schools with a standard of admission as high as the condition\nof the elementary education of applicants will permit. In Maryland and\nNew Jersey, where but one normal school is maintained in each state, the\nauthorities require such a standard that they secure the preparation of the\nteachers who occupy the best-paid positions. The larger the salary\nobtainable, the better the candidate will prepare for his vocation, and the\nmore is he drawn away from the rural schools, whose salaries are not sufficient to induce one to go into the business as a permanent calling.\nThe system of payment on enrollment, or even on results, makes the\nreputation or the income or the success of the school depend upon the\nnumber of students enrolled or the number passing the examinations.\nThis produces a temptation to lower the requirements for entrance, and\nalso for graduation, to the minimum that will be acceptable or permissible.\nThis condition does not necessarily exist to so large an extent where a\nschool has a fixed income from state revenues or annual appropriations.\n4. The Mississippi valley normal school. — In this section of the union\nthe normal schools had their origin principally thru legislative action, the\nsame as universities and agricultural colleges, except that in most cases\nthey have had no advantages of land grants or special permanent endowments, as the higher educational institutions have had. These normal\nschools are, however, a part of the educational system of the states in\nwhich they are located, and are not dependent upon local support,\nlocal financial aid, or local management.\nTheir students are of three\n\n"}
{"page": 867, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nREPORT\n\nON\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n859\n\nkinds : {a) graduates of good high schools ; {B) practical teachers already\npossessed of county teachers' certificates and of considerable\nexperience as teachers in rural schools ; {c) such persons as can pass an\nexamination and are of prescribed age. None but professional students are\nreceived, and hence their enrollments mean much more to the teacher\nsupply than it would in states where academic and commercial students\nare enumerated as attending the normal schools. These schools are generally recognized by the state universities as fitting schools, with the right\nto have their graduates admitted to advanced standing, the usual custom\nbeing to grant junior-class standing to normal-school graduates of the\nstandard four-year course commonly offered. This has had the effect of\nbenefiting both the normal schools and the universities, and of placing in\nthe schools as superintendents and high-school teachers a large number\nof competent educators who are graduates of both the normal school and\nthe university. The tendency in this region is to have one large and\nstrong school of a high grade, approximating to a college for teachers,\nand a number of schools of lower grade to prepare teachers for the more\nelementary grades of public schools. In most of the states this tendency\nhas not yet assumed actual form, but there is gradually growing a sentiment in favor of this kind of an organization. The attendance at these\nschools is in most cases very large ; and, as a consequence, they are gradually coming to a plan which offers all the work 6i the several terms of\nthe several courses each term of the school year, thus allowing individual\nstudents to graduate at the close of any term of the school year. There\nis also a decided movement to open the schools for a summer term, making practically a continuous session of the school. This is due to the\ngreat need of better-educated teachers. There is no kind of schools in this\nregion so rapidly developing, or so cordially supported, as the state normal schools. The chief problem of all these states is elementary education. The conditions compel the normal schools to meet the public\ndemand rather than exploit theory, and it is a large work to undertake to\nunify the various nationalities into one people with the English language,\nand at the same time unite them in interest, sympathy, and labor for the\ncommon good of the common country. The normal schools, therefore,\nseek to meet a known positive demand, and are thereby wielding a mighty\ninfluence in shaping public sentiment and educational practice.\nThe academic requirements of these schools are quite uniform,\nexcepting the college grade school where already established. A fouryear course of study beyond the county superintendent's license standard\nis the common course offered. This course usually allows some choice to\nthe student, in which language, science, or history has minimum and\nmaximum limits, permitting the individual. student to have some preference according to his taste and special capability, but at the same time\ninsisting upon enough uniformity to assume that either one of the lines\n\n"}
{"page": 868, "printed_page": null, "text": "S6o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\ntNoimal\n\nelected is a satisfacfory preparation for a public -school teacher. The\npractice school is a department essential to proper normal training. The'\nmethod of using this part of the prescribed course greatly varies. Where\nthe need of scholarship is the chief public demand, there practice is at a\nrninimum ; where the demand is strong for the critically trained teacher,\nthere practice is at a maximum. The coming plan, therefore, promises\nto require no actually definite amount as to time of either observation or\npractice, but that each student being trained shall satisfy the department\nof practice the same as he now does the other departments of the school.\nThe majority of these schools believe that, to secure the kind of\nacademic instruction which their students need as to thoroness and extent\nin the branches to be taught, the function of the normal school, while\nprofessional in the main, will always continue to give academic instruction, despite the theory, so frequently advanced, that this academic work\nought to be relegated to other educational agencies. It should be borne\nin mind that the academic instruction here mentioned is from the teacher's standpoint, which renders it a different kind of work from that given\nin other kinds of schools.\n5. The Pacific slope normal school. — The normal schools of this section\ndo not need to furnish all the teachers required by their elementary\nschools, since many reasons have led to a large teacher population, welleducated and professionally trained, coming from other states. This\ncondition of population has enabled these schools, in even the younger\nstates, to set a higher standard for entrance than has been possible in\nother states of the union. The general opinion, therefore, prevails here\nthat a full high -school education should be the minimum standard of\nentrance. In addition, many of these schools do not undertake to prepare teachers for any work beyond primary and grammar grades, as the\nlimits placed upon the certificates of authority granted as teachers to\ntheir graduates forbid their teaching in higher grades, an additional\ncollege-standard examination being required to enable one to teach in\nhigh-school grades. This has the effect of keeping the course of study\nwithin the essential limits, and also enables more attention to be given to\nspecial lines and to training in the practice school than is common in\nother regions of the union. The welcome granted in these states to\ngraduates of normal schools from the other states and from Canada, as\nshown by the courtesy quite generally conceded to them by accepting\ntheir diplomas as evidence of ability to teach and authorizing them to\nteach anywhere in elementary grades, has induced thousands of teachers\nof high-grade preparation to make their home here, thus giving this region,\nin fact, an excellent corps of teachers.\nConclusion. — All these observations lead to the conclusion that there\nhas been constant progress in the three-quarters of a century the state\nnormal schools have existed.\nThat progress has been both experimental\n\n"}
{"page": 869, "printed_page": null, "text": "REPORT\n\nDepartment]\n\nON NORMAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n86l\n\nand evolutionary. The changes that have come to the possibilities and\nneeds have always found the normal school ready to adapt itself to the\nnew conditions. The normal school has been so near the public thoug-ht\nall this time that it is more nearly today an actual exponent of public\nsentiment than any other public institution of equivalent magnitude. It\nis specially sensitive to public demand, and sincerely endeavors to do for\nthe people what is assumed to be essential to prepare teachers for the\npublic schools. This accounts for much of the variation that is known to\nexist at present, and it is evident that, with a better knowledge of what\nhas been accomplished in the different states in the preparation of\nteachers, and what ideals prevail in producing the different characteristics\nof strength and successful results now known to be attained, there will be\nfound more satisfactory and uniform results, more sympathetic relation\namong the workers in this great field of labor, and a loftier conception of\nwhat the American teacher must become to fill the place of destiny conferred bydemocracy and Christianity.\n\nTHE\n\nINNER\n\nLIFE\n\nOF A NORMAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\nThe establishment and organization of a normal school has a definite\ndesign — that of preparing' teachers for public-school work. To meet this\ndesigned purpose certain kinds of work are naturally undertaken. These\nlines are definitely determined, and plans are arranged to accomplish the\npurpose with certainty and with efficiency. The plans of the board of\ntrustees, the legislation of the faculty, the, class work required, the course\nof study arranged, are all designed influences that have constantly in view\nthe end to be reached.\nBut there are other influences in the school that must not be left out\nof the reckoning in developing and training a teacher for public work, as\nthey are among the most powerful agents in bringing out the character,\nin testing strength, and in measuring the manly gifts, original and\nacquired, that betoken leadership and promise in the active life beyond\nthe school days. While not underestimating the efforts of board and faculty\nin bringing to bear upon the student body these designed personal\ninfluences, it is certainly not necessary to forget what the students do for\nthemselves socially, personally, intellectually, and morally, thru the inner\nlife of the institution.\nI. Intellectual life and culture. — Under proper management and care\nthe literary life of the institution can be much elevated and encouraged\nby the students thru self-help and self-dependence, as exhibited thru the\nliterary societies. If there are good reasons why students of colleges and\n\n"}
{"page": 870, "printed_page": null, "text": "862\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\nOther schools should be encouraged to organize and maintain literary\nsocieties, there are yet many more important reasons why student teachers\nshould enjoy and use this privilege. Teachers should be trained to write\nand speak. They should be at home on the page of the periodical and on\nthe platform. They should not only have ideas and theories, but they\nshould acquire the power to impress them upon others. In no way can\npublic educational interest be advanced and public opinion better established than thru a proper use of the press and the platform. These literary societies should control their own internal affairs, they should do more\nto develop their members than to entertain audiences, and they should\nhave great encouragement from faculties and boards of trustees, as afteryears will demonstrate the fact that no work at the school gave a student\nbetter command of himself than active membership in the literary society.\n2. Religious life and culture. — In recent years there has been great\ndevelopment in the social and religious organizations of young men and\nwomen of America. In the school life of normal schools there is probably collected a larger percentage of serious-minded, thoughtful, earnest\npeople than in any other kind of an educational institution. The majority\nof them have a definite purpose, and are prepared to do very much for\neach other socially, morally, and religiously. Wherever the student\norganizations known as Young Men's Christian Associations and Young\nWomen's Christian Associations are encouraged and authorized to exist,\nthere great benefit has always come to the moral and religious life of the\ngeneral student body. These associations conduct social meetings that\nare of marked benefit in developing the social spirit and nature of the\nwhole student body. They provide for religious meetings, such as public\nservice or Sunday prayer-meetings, Sunday schools, missionary circles,\npledged Bible-study classes, systematically conducted, lectures on social\nand religious subjects, that have a decided influence in giving a chance\nfor the exercise of the religious and spiritual nature of all interested.\nThey also have a positively good effect upon the government of the\nschool. Where they are given reasonable freedom and co-operation, they\nwill be able to prevent nearly all the cases of discipline that would arise,\nas they seek ways and means as organizations to reach all students whose\npersonal and social life does not conform with the high standard assumed\nfor a teacher.\n3. Social life and culture. — It is a well-known fact that many persons\nwho decide to give their lives to educational work are deficient in a personal knowledge of social courtesies, and have no experience in the practice of such amenities as must have much to do with their careers as\nmen and women of power and efficiency. At the normal school this\nwork of regeneration and reform must be accomplished, if the life to be\nconsecrated to the profession is to receive the recognition its natural gifts\nmerit.\nThe members of the faculty can do something to meet this need,\n\n"}
{"page": 871, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nREPORT\n\nON\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n863\n\nbut the students themselves, thru tlie advanced classes, must carry on a\nwork that means as much in the education of a teacher as any other exercises regularly designed and organized. This work can be kept in the\nforeground by certain friendly conversational lectures given by members\nof the faculty and other well-informed persons on these problems of social\nlife and culture. These lectures should be given to the sexes separately,\nthe subjects being selected by the students themselves and the discussion\nto follow being more in the form of an inquiry than a quiz. By this\nmeans cultivated ladies and gentlemen can give presentation of these\ntopics in such a manner that remarkable effects are noticeable. Then\nthese advanced students can easily maintain a kind of social life in the\nboarding houses by their example and their instruction, so that great things\nare accomplished without much labor. It is better to leave the management of such things to the students, as it will always be received with\nmore favor, and will accomplish more with less work, than when supported\nand directed by the faculty. To accomplish these effects, and to reach\nthe broader opportunity for the extension of this culture, the speakers\nand the conductors of these meetings should be men and women of\nspecial gifts and training thru experience in social life, without regard\nto membership in the faculty. In fact, the outside speaker will frequently be more effective in creating interest and producing results\nthan persons intimately acquainted with the students, as members of the\n'faculty are.\n4. The spirit of the school.— kxcvowg those influences that count for most\nin the development of the individual is the spirit of the school in which\nhe is a member. This spirit has decided effect upon the student, according as it stands for excellence in scholarship, high-minded purpose,\nand strength of character. It creates a public opinion in the student\nbody that practically determines the conduct and tendency of individual\nlife and decides the ideals that are assumed as foremost in student careers.\nThe so-called college spirit that is noted by yells and confusion and\norganized enthusiasm, and that frequently contributes to disorder and to\nlawlessness, is not the student spirit needed at a normal school. Teachers who are to become administrators of work and managers of children\nneed a training in self-government and self-control that the so-called\nschool spirit common in America would depreciate and destroy. To\nthis end the spirit of normal-school life should be of that law-abiding,\nauthority-supporting, quiet-preserving kind which makes the students\nrepresentatives of what is best in public and social life.\nThere is also a tendency in modern education, thru athletic contests,\noratorical contests, debating contests, etc., that cannot be omitted from\npresent attention in this report. These organizations, while excellent\nagencies of themselves in developing the power, the skill, and the spirit\nof student life, are very frequently allowed also to develop a disposition to\n\n"}
{"page": 872, "printed_page": null, "text": "864\n\n.\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Nonnal\n\n1\n\nscheme, to deceive, and to practice fraud. Further than this, a spirit of\ngambling on possible results has begun to be marked to such a degree\nthat the best possible results to student life are often greatly depreciated.\nThe ambition to win at all hazards, and by any method, without regard\nfor merit, honesty, or candor, is greatly to be deplored as an evil tendency\nof the times. The spirit of the true normal school must always be free\nfrom such types of student character and aim, as such influences degenerate individual character and debase conscience — essential elements in a\nteacher. Hence normal schools, in order to be able fully to reach the\nend and object of their founding, must continually be preserved from;\nthese vices of school spirit wrongly directed and falsely assumed and\ninterpreted, however much they may be popularized in recent educational\nthought and practice.\nIn the creation of this ideal spirit the influence of the president and\nfaculty may be decided in effect, but, after all, the main characteristics of\nthis element in human training m^ist depend upon the public sentiment\nof the students. They should never be able to get away from the thought\nthat teachers, servants of a critical public, should stand as models in character, purpose, and ideals for those types of ambition, application, and\nmanhood which are essential to the improvement and proper development of American citizenship.\n\nNORMAL-SCHOOL\n\nADMLNLSTRATION\n\nThe management of a state normal school is governed by the legislation of its board of trustees, which is authorized by law to make such regulations as the work and the needs of the institution require. The successful administration of such an organization depends upon the proper\ndefining of the exact province of each individual officer whose authority •\nand power interfere with the conduct of the work. It takes considerate\ndiscretion in the management so to divide the responsibility that each\nofficer becomes a useful and co-operative member of the administrative\nbody, and has also the opportunity to employ his influence, authority, and\nability to such an extent as to make his services economical as to effort\nand efficient as to results. To this end it is deemed expedient and essential to define the chief executive departments of the school administration,\nwhose harmonious co-operation is necessarily essential to the proper conduct of the school.\nI. The board of trustees. — At the original organization of the school\nthe official province of the board of trustees includes all the power that\nis to be permanently assumed by it or temporarily delegated to others.\n\n"}
{"page": 873, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nREPORT\n\nON\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n865\n\nPrudent management on its part will insure that it will delegate everything that is possible to the president and the faculty, without surrendering its responsibility conferred by law. The real function of the board of\ntrustees is to give specific, authoritative attention to the financial and\nbusiness management, so as to prevent undue extravagance or unnecessary loss, and general supervisory attention to all professional management, the original conduct of which has been properly conferred upon\nthe president and the faculty. It is the function of the board of trustees\nto know the plans of the internal management, and to comprehend the\naims and principles involved, so that it can be helpful in advancing the\ninterests by moral support and sympathy ; but the power to be exercised\nshould be one of investigation, discussion, and suggestion, rather than\none of construction, definition, and decision. A faculty is greatly hampered when the board of trustees does not delegate the entire professional\nmanagement to the wisdom and discretion of those that have been selected\nas experts and administrators, as it is not able to use its experience or its\njudgment in directing the internal affairs of the school.\nThe most important duty of the board of trustees is the selection of a\npresident. He should be so qualified personally as to character, experience in the work, and breadth of view as to the problems involved that\nthe next duty of the board is to give him cordial support and hearty\nco-operation in his arduous executive duties. He should, therefore, hold\nthe official relation to the board of chief executive officer, being its professional advisor and director in all that pertains to the development and\nthe internal management of the work in progress. To this end the president should be required to attend all board meetings and have a seat in\nthe board, with the privilege of the discussion of all problems under consideration.\nII. The president. — The success of the administrative work of the school\ndepends very largely upon the executive ability and fairness of the president. He should be a man of such judicial mind that he is capable of\nseeing consequences of policies and results of action, and deems this his\nchief function, rather than the supervision of details and the policies and\nplans of department work. He should be specially notable for his ability\nto eliminate personal prejudice from his official duties, and thus possess\nthe ability to secure the hearty co-operation of associates thru sympathetic helpfulness and sensible advice. His ability to manage and direct\nothers, without belittling their province of usefulness or arousing their\nopposition, is a magic power of vital importance. His relations with the\nboard of trustees, faculty, and students should be such as to give him the\nmaximum of influence with the minimum of personal attention or effort,\nwhile the spirit of fairness and consideration that is about his every day's\nwork should win confidence, inspire sympathy, and insure real co-operation in everything important or essential.\n\n"}
{"page": 874, "printed_page": null, "text": "866\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal]\n\nHe should be granted the authority, as chief executive officer, toj\nselect and nominate all members of the faculty, subject to the approvalj\nof the board of trustees.\nHis chief aim should be to choose persons off\nsuch capability that their becoming members of the faculty would lighten,\n■ rather than increase, the burdens of administration, as they should be\ncompetent to show such discretion and prudence in the management!\nof their part of the assigned work that their superiors in office are\nthereby relieved and rendered x:apable of a broader and more positive\nservice.\nHe should occupy such official relati(Tns to all departments of tW\nschool that he may thereby be able to secure harmony in the entire\nadministration in all essential respects, and have progress and develop*\nment as the fruits of effort. His supervision should be authoritative, yet\ngeneral, but so generous spirited and so naturally helpful that all realize\nthat they are benefited by consultation and co-operation.\nHe must be willing to assume the official responsibility for the conduct of the work in all important particulars, and also be willing to share\nthe credit for the success secured with his associates who have been his\nfaithful co-laborers. He should be worthy to befully depended upon as\nto policies and procedure, even- where there are reasons for difference ol\nopinion as regards the work in progress. Good executive management\nalways produces harmony, not discord; confidence, not distrust; unityl\nof effort, not uncertainty of purpose. It secures the best endeavors with-'\nout urgency or argument, preserves unanimity without seeming externally\nto emphasize it, establishes a lasting sympathy between student and faculty by true diplomacy, and emphasizes the best things thru a practical\nexposition of them in the daily conduct of affairs.\nLeadership in such a field exacts: (i) the unusual in personality,\ncapability, power, and character ; (2) ability to do work with readiness\nand thoroness ; (3) reliability in all transactions which touch the individual rights of all concerned ; (4) diplomacy in manner, language, and\nmethod, so as to secure what is needed without hostility or opposition ;\nand (5) a spirit of helpfulness and sincerity that insures growth and\ninspires confidence in the co-workers.\nHI. The faculty.\n1. The faculty must be a unit in all administrative affairs, so that the\nwork done may not be disintegrated by diversity of spirit or of action.\n2. Each member of the faculty should have his definite part of the\nwork, so that he shall share in the responsibility according to his experience and ability, and thus render the management as easy and successful\nas possible.\n3. To simplify the general management, all department business\nshould be transacted with the members in charge of said department,\nsubject only to the general regulations adopted by the faculty, and to\n\n"}
{"page": 875, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nREPORT\n\nON\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n867\n\nsuch necessary modifications as the president may be occasionally compelled to make in adjusting individual cases.\n4. To further simplify and render possible the reasonable dispatch of\nexecutive business, the faculty should be subdivided by the president into\ncertain standing committees with certain definite powers, said committees\nto be allowed to remain in organization as nearly permanently as possible\nfrom year to year, and thus be intrusted to manage at discretion the\nassigned business, subject to such instructions in general as the faculty\nmay decide upon, and to such modifications by the president in individual\ncases as may in his judgment be fair, just, and reasonable to protect all\ninterests.\n5. General faculty meetings for the purpose of transacting the regular\nbusiness of the school in committee of the whole, except in matters of\ngeneral interest, are not conducive to securing 'the best interests of the\nschool, waste the time in minor and unimportant matters, and use\nenergy and time that could be more profitably employed in the actual\nimprovement of the school.\n6. It is profitable to have faculty meetings at regular stated intervals,\nat which time the fundamental problems of normal schools and the best\nmethods of conducting the work in hand, as well as the real objects\nand aims of teacher-training, should be freely discussed and thoroly\nexamined. Such meetings harmonize interests, provoke sympath}',\nand awaken a genuine spirit of emulation and of desire for improvement.\n7. To enable the members of the faculty to do the kind and character\nof work needed, as well as to insure in them the best possible attitude\ntoward the work, the maximum amount of class-room work required\nshould not exceed twenty class hours per week, and it would be much\nbetter for all interests concerned if the maximum amount was placed at\nfifteen class hours per week. The overworking of teachers, as is common\nin normal schools, on the theory that the more hours required in the\nclass-room, the more economical the management, is contrary to business\njudgment or common-sense, and always depreciates the character of the\nwork where practiced. There are many other duties that each teacher\nowes his students and his work besides hearing class recitations, and not\nuntil this is recognized and the teacher allowed to be more of a personal\nand social factor in a school is more than half of the necessary work that\nought to be done for the student actually accomplished.\nIV. The student.\n1. The student has his share of the responsibility in assisting to make\nthe administrative work as successful as possible, for thereby he is much\nmore able to get out of the school and the teachers the training and\ninstruction which he needs.\n2. To the student body can be left many things that frequently are\n\n"}
{"page": 876, "printed_page": null, "text": "868\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal.\n\ntransacted by the faculty, the president, and the board. Students who\nare to become administrators and executives themselves must begin to\npractice in the school they attend the tenets of self-government and\ndirection.\n3. The student body can co-operate with the faculty in developing ai\nbetter spirit in the school — that spirit which is essential to growth, to j\ndevelopment, and to progress; and the aim should be to encourage this\nself-reliance, independence, and also co-operation which is so essentiaU\nwhen they leave the school and undertake public work.\n4. The students need to be so treated that they realize that their i\njudgment amounts to something. They can be of large social, moral,]\nand religious benefit to each other. They can become of such importance that they know they ar« responsible for the tone, the tendency, and\nthe ideals of the life of the school; and thus they occupy a province\nwhich, as individuals, insures them the preparation so necessary to the\nreal development they should individually have.\n\nSTATE\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nThe nineteenth century will be known as the period in which all\ncivilized nations began to attack in earnest the problem of banishing\nilliteracy and making ignorance impossible. The establishment of schools\nby the state emphasized, as never before, the need of trained teachers to\ninstruct the young. This need led to the creation of schools for the\ntraining of teachers.\nThe preparation of teachers for the elementary schools has everywhere\nbeen regarded as the special function of the state normal schools, altho,\nwhere the means were at hand, very excellent work has also been done in\nthe preparation of teachers for high schools and academies. Some states\nhave made provision for a general system of normal schools ; others have\ncentered their efforts upon one large institution. The latter plan has made\nit easier to adopt a satisfactory standard of admission, but, from the nature\nof the case, it has failed to supply teachers in suflficient numbers for all the\nrural schools. The states with a system of normal schools have thus far\nnot succeeded in furnishing an adequate supply of teachers trained at\nnormal schools. New York has gone farthest in the direction of requiring candidates to avail themselves of professional training.\nChapter 1031, Laws of 1895, contains an act to encourage and to\npromote the professional training of teachers which deserves to be quoted\nin full as showing the advanced ground taken by the legislature of that\nstate :\n\n"}
{"page": 877, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nREPORT\n\nON\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n869\n\nSection I. The board of education or the public-school authorities of any city, except\nthe city of New York, or any village eraployrng a superintendent of schools, may establish, maintain, direct, and control one or more schools or classes for the professional\ninstruction and training of teachers in the principles of education and in the method of\ninstruction for not less than thirty-eight weeks in each school year.\nSec. 2. Toward the maintenance and support of these schools and classes established\npursuant to this act, or heretofore established and maintained for similar purposes, and\nwhose requirements for admission and whose course of studies are made with the\napproval of the state superintendent of public instruction, and under whose direction\nsuch classes shall be conducted, the said superintendent is hereby authorized and directed\nin each year to set apart, to apportion, and pay from the free school fund one dollar for\neach week of instruction of each pupil ; provided, however, that said apportionment aad\npayment shall not exceed in the aggregate one hundred thousand dollars in each year.\nSuch apportionment and payment shall be made upon the report of the local superintendent of schools filed with the state superintendent of public instruction, who shall\ndraw his warrant upon the state treasurer for the amount apportioned.\nSec. 3. If the total sum to be apportioned and to be paid, as provided by section two\nof this act, shall in any year exceed the said sum of one hundred thousand dollars, the\nsaid state superintendent of public instruction shall apportion to each school and class\nits pro rata of said sum, upon the basis prescribed in section two of this act.\nSec. 4. After January first, eighteen hundred and ninety-seven, no person shall be\nemployed or licensed to teach in the primary or grammar schools of any city authorized\nby law to employ a superintendent of schools, who has not had successful experience in\nteaching for at least three years, or, in lieu thereof, has not completed a three-years'\ncourse in, and graduated from, a high school or academy having a course of study of not\n.less than three years, approved by the state superintendent of public instruction, or from\nsome institution of learning of equal or higher rank, approved by the same authority,\nand who, subsequently to such graduation, has not graduated from a school or class for\nthe professional training of teachers, having a course of study of not less than thirtyeight weeks, approved by the state superintendent of public instruction. Nothing in this\nact shall be construed to restrict any board of education of any city from requiring such\nadditional qualifications of teachers as said board may determine ; nor shall the provisions of this act preclude the board of education of any city or village from accepting\nthe diploma of any state normal and training school of the state of New York, or a state\ncertificate obtained on examination as an equivalent for the preparation of scholarship\nand professional training herein required.\n\nIn 1897 the law was amended so as to remove the phrase, \"except\nthe city of New York.\"\nCONTROL\n\nAND\n\nMAINTENANCE\n\nWith reference to the control and maintenance of the state normal\nschools the following conclusions have been reached :\n1. That, as a rule, the external affairs of the state normal schools are\nunder the control and management of a board of trustees, usually\nappointed by the governor and confirmed by the senate.\n2. That there is a general unanimity among state superintendents and\npresidents of the normal schools that the plan is good.\n3. That, in addition to the external control of affairs, the trustees\nselect the teachers, and delegate to the faculty or its head the powers that\nmust be exercised by those having the internal control.\n\n"}
{"page": 878, "printed_page": null, "text": "870\n\n,\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Nonnal\n\n4. That usually the wishes of the president are consulted in the\nselection of his colleagues. If this right is not accorded to him, either\ntacitly or by statute, there is constant danger of discord and friction in\nthe faculty.\n5. That, to increase the efficiency of control and management, more\nmoney, less politics, limitation of the power of local trustees, the vesting\nof greater power in the head of the faculty, and the raising of the\nstandard of admission, are necessary.\nDETAILS\n\nOF\n\nCONTROL\n\nThe following particulars relating to the control of normal-schools\nhave been obtained by correspondence with leading educators in the several states, and may be regarded as typical of the state normal-school\nsystems in the United States. The exact language of the person giving\nthe information has been used as far as possible.\nIn California each state school has a local board of five members,\nappointed by the governor. There is also a joint board, composed of\nthe presidents of the several normal schools, the presidents of the\nboards, and two elective members from each board. This joint board\nformulates the courses of study, altho much freedom is left to the\nmanagement of each school. The local board directs the expenditure\nof money for its school. Appropriations are made for each school\nseparately.\nThe State Normal School of Colorado is controlled by a board of seven\ntrustees; six are appointed by the governor and confirmed by the senate.\nEvery two years he appoints two. The state superintendent is a member\nof the board ex officio. These trustees have entire control of the school\nunder the law.\nThe law does not limit them in any way.\nThere are at present four normal schools in Illinois, two of which are\nin operation. Each school has its own board. A fifth school was provided for at the last session of the general assembly, and it will have its\nown board. All authority in the management of the institutions is put\ninto the hands of their boards. Each institution gets a biennial appropriation from the general assembly.\nThe members of the board of regents of the State Normal School at\nEmporia, Kan., are appointed by the governor, subject to the approval of\nthe state senate. They hold office for four years, one-half of the board\nbeing appointed every two years. They formulate courses of study, elect\nteachers, and fix their salaries. The last biennium, however, the legislature took it in hand to fix salaries, but the plan was abandoned by the\nlegislature making appropriations for the coming two years.\nThe Maryland State Normal School (there is but one) is governed and\ncontrolled by the state board of education, whose members are ex officio\nthe trustees of the school.\nSaid board formulates the courses of studji\n\n"}
{"page": 879, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nREPORT\n\nON\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n871\n\n(usually great respect is paid to the recommendation of the principal, who\nis a member of the board). The board appoints all the teachers, and also\ndirects how the annual revenues are expended. The principal is the secretary and treasurer of the board.\nIn Massachusetts \"the general management of the several state normal\nschools shall be vested in the board of education, and moneys appropriated for their maintenance may be expended under its direction\" (chap.\n41, p. 12, Public Statutes). \"The boarding houses of the state normal\nschools shall be under the general management of the state board of education \"{ibid., chap. 384, 1891). The board has entire control of the state\nnormal schools.\nThe normal schools of Minnesota are governed and controlled by a\nspecial board of nine members, of which the secretary is the state superintendent of public instruction. This board formulates the course of\nstudy, appoints the teachers, and directs how the annual revenues are to\nbe expended. Four members of this board reside in the several cities\nwhere the normal schools are located, and these resident directors>\ntogether with the presidents of the schools, manage the several schools,\nsubject to the general directions of the normal board. The nomination\nof teachers is in the hands of the presidents of the schools.\nThe normal schools of the state of Missouri are governed by boards\nof regents, holding office each for six years, appointed by the governor\nand -approved by the senate. There are three state normal schools, and\neach has its board of regents. The course of study, appointment of\nteachers, direction of the annual revenue, are wholly in the hands of these\nrespective boards of regents. The state board of education is merely\nnominal. The state superintendent of education is a member, ex officio, of\neach of these boards, with power to vote.\nThe law creating the State Normal School of Nebraska (there is but one\nup to this date) created a board of education for its control and management. This board of education is composed of seven persons — two of\nthem members ex officio, and the other five appointed by the governor.\nThe two are the superintendent of public instruction for the state and the\nstate treasurer. The five are appointed by the governor — one each year\nfor five years.\nThe faculty formulates the courses of study, and the same is submitted\nto the board of education. The board of education appoints the teachers.\nThe manner in which the appropriations are spent is left, very largely, to\nthe president, under the general direction of the board.\nThe governor of New Jersey appoints the state board of education,\nwhich consists of sixteen men, two from each congressional district,\nrepresenting different political parties. This board of education governs\nthe state normal school.\nThe normal schools of New York state are governed and controlled\n\n"}
{"page": 880, "printed_page": null, "text": "872\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\nby a local board of trustees, who are appointed by the state superintendent\nof public instruction and hold their positions for life, unless they resign\nor are removed for cause by the joint action of the state superintendent\nand the chancellor of the university.\nThese boards have local supervision of the schools, subject to the!\ndirection and approval of the state superintendent. They select and]\nnominate teachers subject to his approval, and he fixes the salary.\nThe revenues, which are appropriations from state funds by the legislature, and receipts from tuition in certain departments of the schools,;\nare expended by the local boards, subject to the approval of the state]\nsuperintendent.\nAt the end of each school year the local boards make a detailed repor\nof all receipts and expenditures to the legislature thru the state superintendent. This report is made directly to him, and he incorporates it\ninto his annual report to the legislature.\nThe normal-school policy of Pennsylvania is in many respects unique.\nBy law a school must have a faculty of six professors, accommodations for\nthree hundred boarders, and a chapel seating a thousand adults, before it\ncan be recognized as a state normal school. On applying for recognition\nthe school is inspected by a committee appointed by the state superintendent, and if the requirements of the law have been fulfilled, the school\nis officially recognized, and legislative appropriations are made, partly to\nassist the students in paying their tuition, and partly to complete the\nequipment or liquidate any indebtedness which may be resting upon the\nbuildings. The law places the business management in the hands of a\nboard of trustees of eighteen citizens, six of whom are appointed by the\nstate superintendent for a period of three years (two each year), and twelve\nare elected by the contributors for a term of three years (four each year).\nThe quarrels and lawsuits which have grown out of these elections show\nconclusively that the plan should be rejected by new states in organizing\na system of state normal schools.\nThe courses of study are fixed by the convention of normal-school\nprincipals, and are subject to approval by the state superintendent. In\norder to graduate the students must pass a final examination before a board\nappointed (for each school) by the state superintendent, consisting of\nhimself or deputy, two normal-school principals, of whom the principal\nwhere the students are to be examined shall be one, and not less than\ntwo nor more than six county, city, borough, or township superintendents\nof schools.\nThe rates of boarding and tuition are subject to the approval of the\nstate superintendent, but he has no voice in the appointment or selection\nof members of the faculty or in the fixing of their salaries.\nThere is but one normal school in Rhode Island. It is governed by\na board of trustees.\nIts functions are separate from those of the board of\n\n"}
{"page": 881, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nREPORT\n\nON\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n873\n\neducation, altho the membership is nearly identical. The course of study\nand practice is recommended by the principal and indorsed by the board.\nThe committee on qualifications and the board of trustees appoint principal and teachers.\nIn practice the principal is consulted.\nThe revenues are expended thru the board, the auditor approving the\naccounts. Practically, however, there is much freedom of action for the\nprincipal.\nAll the state educational institutions in South Dakota are governed\nand controlled immediately by a board of regents of education, created\nand empowered by the state constitution. They have all the usual powers\nof such boards in any state. They have the same control over the normal\nschools that they have over the State University, Agricultural College, and\nthe School of Mines.\nThis board of regents of education formulates the course of study upon\nthe recommendation of the faculty or president, tho this recommendation\nis not required ; appoints all teachers and officers or employes, and fixes\ntheir salaries ; directs the expenditure of all revenues from whatever source\n— state appropriations, endowment land fund, and \" local fund.\" The latter is from tuition, dormitory fees, etc.\nThe board is directed in its duty by statute, tho the general powers\nare \"legislated\" in the constitution.\nThe board now consists of five members only, but may by law be\nincreased to nine. There are five educational institutions — two normal\nschools. The board appoints a committee for each. The chairman of\nthis committee is granted limited powers, and may authorize special minor\nexpenditures. The whole board meets two or three times a year at each\ninstitution, and oftener when important building operations are in\nprogress.\nThe board grants all degrees and diplomas, upon the recommendation\nof the faculties.\nThe state treasurer holds all money, and the accounts are audited by\nthe regents, and then by the state auditor, and paid by his warrant.\nThe seven normal schools of Wisconsin are controlled by a board of\nten regents. The board of regents is supposed to formulate the course\nof study and appoint the teachers, altho these two functions of the board\nare administered by the presidents of the schools as a matter of fact.\nThe board, however, determines how the annual revenues are to be\nexpended.\nMAINTENANCE\n\nOF\n\nSTATE\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nThe manner of supporting the faculty of a state normal school is a\nmatter of prime importance. If the schools are dependent upon an annual\nor biennial appropriation, there is more or less danger of shipwreck, as\noften as a so-called reform wave sweeps over the state.\nThis crisis, in the\n\n"}
{"page": 882, "printed_page": null, "text": "874\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\nhistory of the state normal schools of New York, was met by the heroic\nrally of friends who temporarily supplied the means for carrying forward\nthe. instruction during the interim. The Pennsylvania system, by which\neach student pays tuition, lifts the schools somewhat above the whim and\ncaprices of political combinations, but it is hard upon those who prepare\nfor teaching. By reason of a large attendance and careful management\nsome of these schools have shown a tempting cash balance in the treasury\nat the end of the year. This has never been distributed as dividend\namong the so-called stockholders, but has always been put back into the\nschool in the shape of improvements, sometimes in the purchase of additional ground or in the erection of additional buildings. The plan of\nrequiring the students to aid in the erection of buildings can only be\nexcused on the ground of imperative necessity, and is only less deserving of criticism than the policy of the private normal schools whose\nowners have grown rich on the fees paid by those who are to be educated\nas teachers.\nThe necessity for these state normal schools is so generally acknowledged that for a number of years the legislatures of the various states have\nbeen quite liberal in their appropriations. An inquiry has elicited the\nfollowing interesting statistical replies :\nAlabama has eight state institutions (three for colored and five for white), furnishing\ntechnical education to more than four thousand students, at a cost annually to the state\nof about $49,000. The sum of 3164,285 was expended for the maintenance of these\nschools. The Fifty-fifth Congress of the United States passed a bill granting 25,000\nacres of land each to the Tuskegee and Montevallo schools.\nArizona has one normal school in operation. It is supported entirely by a territorial\ntax, which has amounted to about $10,000 per year during each of the past five years.\nArkansas has a normal department in connection with the Arkansas Industrial University, having one teacher in charge, whose salary is $2,000 ; and a branch normal at\nPine Bluff for colored teachers, for which there is an annual appropriation of about $5,000.\nIn California state appropriations have been made for the support and maintenance\nof state normal schools as follows :\nState normal\nFor the fiscal year ending June 30 :\nschools at:\n1895\n1896\n1897\n1898\nSan Jose\nLos Angeles\nChico\n- -\n\n-\n\n-\n\n$74,000 $45)Ooo\n$45iOoo\n- 30,000 41,000 41,000\n- - - 24,500 53,250\n23,250\n\n$S3,70o\n52,750\n30,000\n\nrSgg\n$53,75°\n52,750\n30,000\n\nFor the State Normal School at San Diego, established by law March 13, 1897, the\nsum of $50,000 was at that time appropriated for construction, and maintenance to cover '\nthe period between that date and July i, 1899.\nThe state normal schools are supported by direct appropriations made by the state\nlegislature. The Colorado Normal School has been supported by a tax of one-sixth mill on the\nstate assessment ever since it opened. This millage has averaged, for the nine years it\nhas been running, $35,000 a year. The last legislature raised this millage from one-sixth\nto one-fifth mill on the assessment. In round numbers the assessment will be, under\nthe new law, $200,000,000. The one-fifth mill tax is expected to realize about $40,000»\na year.\n\n"}
{"page": 883, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\n'\n\nREPORT\n\nON\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n875\n\nFrom time to time the school has received special appropriations.\nIn 1890-91 it received $20,000 special\n\" 1892-93 \"\n3S.OOO\n\"\n\"1894-95 \"\n10,000\n\"\n\" 1898-99 \"\n25,000\n\"\n\nConnecticut has three normal schools.\nthe last five years are as follows :\n\nThe appropriations by the legislature during\nBuildings\nMaintenance\n- $60,000\n\n189s\n1897\ni894 -\n\n60,000\n60,000\n\n1896\n\n-\n\n60,000\n60,000\n\n$71,880.39\n48,974.42\n26,206.75\n34,070.96\n1,650.96\n\nThe normal schools1898\nhave\nnever received anything from land grants made by the\nUnited States government.\nIn Florida there are two state normal schools (one for each race) supported by state\nappropriations. The one for whites, at De Funiak Springs, receives $6,000 a year, and\nthe one for negroes, located at Tallahassee, receives an average appropriation of about\n\n53,000, besides one-half of the Morrill Bill Fund, which has been increasing $500 per year\nuntil the present year, when it reaches the maximum of $12,500.\nGeorgia has two state normal schools. For the last four years they have received an\nappropriation of $22, goo each. For the next two years the appropriation will be $20,400\neach.\nThere are in Illinois two normal schools in operation, and two more will probably\nbe opened in September, 1899. The last general assembly passed an act authorizing the\nestablishment of a fifth normal school, known as the Western Illinois Normal. The\nbuilding will probably be completed within the next two years.\nFor the school years 1893 3-i^d 1894 there was appropriated for current expenses of\nthe Illinois State Normal University, each year, $31,493.56; for each year of 1895 and\n1896, $35,000 ; and for each year of 1897 and 1898, $35,000; for the year 1895 there was\nappropriated for a gymnasium building $40,000, and in 1897, for the completion of the\ngymnasium building, $10,000. For the two years beginning July i, 1899, the appropriation\nfor each year is $39,493.56, and there is an additional appropriation of $5,300 for repairs.\nFor each year of 1893 and 1894, for the Southern Illinois Normal University for current expenses, $22,1 16.44 ; for each year of 1895 and 1896, $22,116.44 ; ^i^<^l for 1897 <ind\n1898, each year, $23,826.44; for library and museum building, for 1895, $40,000, and in\n1897, for completing the library and gymnasium building, $6,000.\nOf the amount appropriated for these institutions for current expenses about $6,500\ncame each year from the College and Seminary Fund. Except this, they have received\nno support from land grants made by the United States government.\nIn 1895 the Northern Illinois Normal School received for building purposes $50,000,\nand the Eastern Illinois Normal School for the same purposes, $50,000 ; and in 1897 these\ninstitutions received each $50,000 for building purposes. The two normal schools\nreceived from the last general assembly $33,000 each for regular expenses, and for completing and equipping the Northern Normal a special appropriation of $98,339, and for\nthe Eastern Illinois Normal a special appropriation of $46,000.\nIndiana has one state normal school, which, under the act of 1895, receives about\n$65,000 each year. Previous to that time the normal school received about $30,000\nannually.\nIowa has but one state normal school. The following table shows the amount\n\nof\n\nexpenses for building, support, and contingent expenses for the biennial fiscal terms\nending :\nJune 30, 1889\nJune 30, 1891 Junt 30, 1893\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n$40,550.00\n37.508.3'\n58,791.69\n\nJune 30, 1895\nJune 30, 1897 -\n\n-\n\n-\n\n$68,125.00\n97,325.00\n\n"}
{"page": 884, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n876\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n[Normal\n\nThe school is supported by permanent and temporary appropriations as follows :\nI. Permanent appropriations — not needing legislative action to continue :\n1. Teachers' fund annual\n--------$28,500\n2. Contingent fund annual\n9,000\n3. Tuitions, students covering all contingencies and laboratory fees\n- 16,500\nTotal permanent support\nII. Temporary appropriations made by last assembly, annual\n\n---.-..Total annual support\nBuildings, $120,000; grounds, $10,000; water plant, $10,000; equipment, $30,000.\n\n$S4,ooo\n$61,000\n\nThe revenues of the State Normal School at Emporia, Kansas, are derived from three\nsources :\n7,000\n1. From appropriations by the legislature.\n2. From income on the endowment fund, which now brings about $13,500 per year.\n3. From fees from model-school and special pupils, making about $3,000 per year.\nThe income from interest on endowment fund, fees, and the appropriations by the\nlegislature approximates as follows\n:\n\"\n1896\n\"\n1897\nFor he year ending June 30, 1895\n\"\n1898\n\"\n1900\n\"\n\n$40,000\n44,250\n\n1901\n\nKentucky has two state normal schools, one for the preparation of white\n44,000and one for\n51.500\nthe preparation of colored teachers. During the past five years the state 4S»ooo\nhas paid to the\n72,000'\nformer $190,495.74, or an average each year of $38,099.15. During the same period this\ninstitution has received from the national government $98,422.25, or an annual average\nappropriation of $19,684.45, its average yearly income from both sources having been\n$57,783-60. During the last five years the latter has received from the state $27,173.15.\nor an annual average of $5,434.63, and from the national government $15,945, an average\nyearly appropriation of $3,189; total average from both sources, $8,623.63.\nLouisiana has one state normal school. The new state constitution requires the\nlegislature to appropriate annually for its support not less than $15,000 a year. In addition to this the legislature has given yearly varying sums for buildings, etc The appropriation in 1898 was :\nFor the year ending January 30, 1899\nRepairs\n\n$16,000\n6,500\n\nMaine has three normal schools, and a special training school in her territory, occupied by French-speaking citizens.\nThe state appropriates annually for current expenses \\ ),ooo for each normal school\nand $4,000 for the training school.\nSpecial appropriations :\nFarmington\nT895-96\n1897-98\n1899-1900\n\n....\n.\n\n-\n\n.\n\n.\n\nCastine\n\n$20,000 $3,500\n20,000\n3)5oo\n700\n700\n\nGorham\n\nFort Kent\n\n$15,000\n\n2,500\n$2,100\n\nI\n\nThere is but one state normal school in Maryland. The legislative appropriation for\nits support during each of the last five years, prior to 1898, was 33.500\n$10,500. The legislature\nof 1898 increased its annual appropriation to $20,000. It is alfowed by law to receive\none pay student, at $50 per annum, for every two students holding free scholarships by\nappointments of the school boards of the several counties of the state and Baltimore city.\nFrom this source from $7,000 to $8,000 per annum are received.700 It is strictly a state\n500\nschool. The building, furniture, apparatus, etc., are the property of the state, and it is\nentirely controlled by the state board of education, who are ex officio the trustees of the\nschool.\n\n» Of this amount $19,000 is for buildings.\n\n5\n\nt\n\n"}
{"page": 885, "printed_page": null, "text": "REPORT\n\nDepartment]\n\nON NORMAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nThere is also a normal school for colored students, which was established by private\ndonations, and to which the state makes an annual appropriation of $2,000, but it is not\nowned or controlled by the state.\nThe last legislature (1898) appropriated ^20,000 to build another state\n1897 normal-school\nbuilding, and #5,000 per annum for its support. This will be built during the present\n189s of education.\nyear and will be under the control of the state board\nMassachusetts :\n1894\nSTATE\n\nState appropriation for current expenses\n$128,500\nAmount apportioned to each normal school :\n31.697\nBridgewater\n.\n.\nFitchburg\n....\nFramingham\n....\n22,618\nHyannis\n....\nLowell\nNorth Adams\n.\n.\n16,098\nSalem\nWestfield\n.\n.\nWorcester\nNormal Art, Boston\n\n.\n\n.\n\n•\n\n22,066\n17.549\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n1898\n\n1896\n\n$266,527\n$143,858\n\n$171,832\n\n22,217\n32,948\n\n22,229\n19.532\n35.813\n\n$217,056\n37.699\n11,999\n22,230\n32,030\n13.797\n\n21,944\n5.966\n\n24,499\n22,474\n35.344\n40,052\n24.934\n25.713\n21,449\n\n24,815\n\n18,749\n23,123\n\n6,000\n19.974\n23.736\n\n9,123\n26,870\n22,992\n20,524\n\n25,024\n24,989\n22,050\n\n18,790\n18,500\n\n19,790\n\nIn addition to appropriation for current expenses, sums have been 19,780\nappropriated by\nthe state legislature as follows :\n1894.\n\nAddition to. building.\n\nBridgewater\nFramingham\nFitchburg\n\n$75,000\n1,000\n\nHyannis\nLowell\nNorth Adams\n\n/\n\n75.000\n75,000\n75,000\n\nTotal\n1895.\n\n75,000\n$376,000\n\nBridgewater\nFitchburg\n\n$S9,ooo\n25,000\n25,000\n\nHyannis\nLowell\nNorth Adams\nWorcester\nWorcester\nTotal\n1896.\n\n-\n\n50,000\n25,000\n15,000\n20,000\n\n-\n\nFramingham\nSaltm\nWorcester\nFitchburg\n\n$3 1, coo\n25,000\n10,000\n\nHyannis\nLowell\n\n25,000\n\nNorth Adams\nSalem\n\n-\n\nTotal\n\n'\n1\n\nGymnasium.\nRepairs.\n\n-\n\nLowell\nNorth Adams\nNormal Art, Boston\n\nImprovements.\nNew building.\nCompleting and furnishing gymnasium.\nGrading grounds, furnishing and finishing for occuSame pancy.\npurpose\nSame purpose\nSame purpose\nSame purpose\n\nas Fitchburg app.\nas Fitchburg app.\nas Fitchburg app.\nas Fitchburg app.\n\n$234,000\n43,000\n$12,888\n\nHyannis\nLowell\n\nTotal\n\n50,000\n25,000\n-\n\nBridgewater\nFitchburg\n\nNorth Adams\n\nAdditional buildings, etc.\nNew normal schools.\nNew normal schools.\nNew normal schools.\nNew normal schools.\n\n$219,000\n-\n\n25,000\n\n1897.\n\nSanitary improvements.\nNew normal-school building.\nNew normal-school building.\nNew normal-school building.\nNew normal-school building.\n\nRepairs and improvement.\n\n17,000\n\nEquipment, etc.\nAdditional land.\n\n20,000\n7,000\n15,000\n\nEquipment) etc.\n\n$71,888\n$2,000\n1,500\n\nTotal\n35.000\n$38,500\n\nCompleting and furnishing.\n\nBuilding sidewalks, etc.\nPurchase of additional land.\nErection of annex.\n\n"}
{"page": 886, "printed_page": null, "text": "878\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n[Normal\n\nThe State Nonnal College at Ypsilanti, Michigan, has support as follows :\nFor the two years\n1889-90\n189T-92\n1893-94\n1895-96\n1897-98\n\nState appropriations\n\n-\n\n-\n\n.\n...\n....\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n.\n-\n\n$ 84,700\n99,520\n120,220\n116,900\n134,800\n\nOther sources\n-\n\n$20,471.80\n23,037.97\n23,147.37\n23,000.73\n26,273.94\n\nMichigan has another normal school at Mt. Pleasant, called the Central State Nonnal\nSchool, which has received almost §25,000 per year for four years — $29,000 in 1897.\nThe state legislature of Minnesota, in the last five years, appropriated for the current\nexpenses of the state normal schools as follows :\nWinona\n\nMankato\n\n$24,000\n26,000\n26,000\n\n26,000\n$24,000\n26,000\n\nSt. Cloud\n\nMoorehead\n\n$22,000\n24,000\n26,000\n24,000\n26,000\n\n16,000\n$15,000\n15,000\n18,000\n18,000\n\n1894-95\n1896-97\n1895-96\n\n-\n\n1898-99\n1897-98\n\n-\n\n37,000 appropriated\nEight thousand dollars of the $37,000\nfor Winona and Mankato in 1898\n37,000\n37,000\n37.000state • normal schools of Minnesota\nwas for continuous (all-summer) sessions.\nThe\nreceive no part of their support from land grants made by the United States government.\nAlissouri has three state normal schools for white teachers and one for colored\nteachers. The legislature makes biennial appropriations for these schools. In 1895\nthere was appropriated for these four schools, for maintenance during the years 1895-96,\n3114,750. In 1897 the legislature appropriated for these four schools, for maintenance\nduring the years 1897-98, $127,830^\n\nN^ebraska has but one state normal school, located in the extreme southeastern portion of the state. The state superintendent thinks that there has been much prejudice\nagainst making a reasonable appropriation for the school because of its location, and\nthat the state needs at least two more state normal schools. To the one now in\nexistence the appropriation for the biennium 1895-96 was $48,296.89, and for the biennium 1897-98 it was $73,815.01.\nNevada has no separate normal institution, but the normal school is a branch of the\nState University ; there is no separate fund appropriated for its maintenance.\nPart of the support of the university comes from land grants, and part is appropriated\nbv the legislature from the general fund.\nNeiv Hampshire has one state normal school, for the support of which the sum of\n$10,000 is annually appropriated. This year there is an extra appropriation of $8,000\nfor a new heating plant.\nThere is but one state normal school in Nexv Jersey.\nIt is located at Trenton.\nThe legislature makes an annual appropriation, according to the estimated needs of\nthe school :\nFor\n1894-95\n1895-96 1896-97\n-\n\n-\n\nt\n\nFor\n\n$35,000\n3S,ooo\n40,000\n\n1897-98\n1898-99 -\n\n-\n\n$42,000\n45,000\n1897\n\nThis fund is supplemented by the tuition fees from the Model School, which have\naveraged $25,000 annually for the past five years.\n1894\n1895\nNeT.v York has eleven normal schools and one normal college. The amount expended\n1896\n. for these schools for the last five years is as follows :\n1898\nAlbany Normal College\n- $34,361.59\nBrockport\n....\n21.948.20\nBuffalo\n39,596.80\nCortland\n.\n.\n.\n25,253.72\nFredonia\n.\n. 27,589.82\nGsneseo\n.\n.\n.\n30,257.69\nJamaica\n-\n\n27,966.49\n$34,505.65\n24,139.65\n\n$35,985.20\n26,743-31\n43.558.14\n\n35,614.29\n37.786.13\n24,791.90\n31,948.66\n26,45.120\n\n95,734.04\n\n26,711.63\n$51,242.26\n28,336.01\n25,880.39\n31,261.58\n\n42,403.61\n\n$55>i79-58\n37,220.54\n38,631.39\n31.774.57\n25.136.97\n\n"}
{"page": 887, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nREPORT\n\nON\n\n1894\nNew Platz\n.\n•\nOneonta\n----Oswego\n.\n.\nPlattsburg\n.\n.\nPotsdam\n.\n.\n.\n\n-\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n1895\n\n■\n\n1896\n\n1897\n\n879\n1898\n\n$22,320.99 $ 20,989.66 $21,114.87 $22,066.26 $23,679.53\n79,674.51 166,355.18 63,860.21 27,978.68 25,000.00\n22,686.20 34,415.50 31,317.29 28,698.17 27,437.50\n22,859.75 24,290.37 73,212.47 37.377-23 23.789-07\n25,641.06 31,931.65 27,721.85 31,308.75 27,843.05\n\nThe school at Jamaica was recently established, hencfe it is possible to give figures for\nthe last year only. The ordinary expenses of running these schools vary from $22,000\nto $35,000 per year. In the above table, wherever the amounts in any one year exceed the\nfigures given, it indicates that an extra amount has been expended for repairs or new\nbuildings.\nNorth Dakota has two regularly established normal schools, besides the normal\ndepartment at the State University. It appropriates for the support of the schools about\n$50,000 for the biennial period. A land grant of 80,000 acres was made for normal\nschools by the federal government, and a small amount is received each year from the\nrental of these lands.\nOhio has no state normal schools, but her state universities maintain departments of\npedagogy.\n\nSections 3951 and 395 1«, R. S., provide for the levying of funds for the state\n\ninstitutions. There is levied upon the grand duplicate of Ohio for the Ohio State University j^of I mill ; for the Ohio and Miami Universities, ,§0 of a mill, to be divided,\n^ for Miami and y'^g for the Ohio University.\nIn addition to these, there is yjg- of a mill levied for the colored school, Wilberforce\nUniversity, near Xenia.\nThe territory of Oklahoma has supported one normal school for nine years, and two\nsince September, 1897. The last legislature made a levy and an appropriation aggregating about twenty-five thousand dollars per annum for each of these institutions. These\ninstitutions are each to receive five or six thousand dollars per annum. The amount is\nto be paid out of the rentals derived from the thirteenth section in each township of what\nis known as the Cherokee Strip.\nOregon has five state normal schools. There have been no land grants from the\nUnited States government, and the legislative appropriations, from January i, 1893, to\nDecember 31, 1900, have been as follows: Monmouth, $98,408.76; Weston, $73,500 ;\nLakeview, $5,000 ; Drain, $7,500 ; Ashland, $7,500.\nTotal, $191,908.76.\nPennsylvania has been making an annual appropriation of $130,000 in aid of\nstudents preparing to teach who are in attendance at the state normal schools, and an\nequal sum for maintenance, which was equally divided among the thirteen schools recognized as state normal schools. On the latter amount, the schools, by arrangement with\nthe governor, accepted for the last two years a reduction of 25 per cent., in view of the\ndiminished revenues of the state. No extra appropriations for buildings have been made\nin the last five years. For each of the two years beginning June, 1899, the legislature\nmade the usual appropriation of $130,000 to the state normal schools, and a like amount\nto aid students preparing to teach ; but the appropriation in aid of students for the year\nI900-1901 was vetoed by the governor, on account of a probable shortage of funds in the\nstate treasury.\nWithin the past four years Rhode Island erected near its state capitol a new building\nOr its state normal school. Over $500,000 was expended for the land, building, and equipment of the new school.\nThe appropriation for the current year is $54,000.\nThe money received by Winthrop Normal and Industrial College from the state of\nSouth Carolina for the scholastic 3'ear of 1897-98 is as follows :\nScholarship appropriation\n------$\nRegular appropriation (1897)\n-----Regular appropriation (1898)\nAppropriation for sewerage -:---.\nTotal (appropriated for one year)\n\n-\n\n-\n\n5,456\n13,000\ni7iSoo\n3.000\n-\n\n$38,956\n\n"}
{"page": 888, "printed_page": null, "text": "88o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n[Normal\n\nThe amount appropriated to the Colored Normal and Industrial College in February, 1899, for the ensuing scholastic year, is $15,000.\nSouth Dakota has three state normal schools under state control, but the legislature\nhas made appropriations for only two of them, one being supported almost entirely by\ntuition from the pupils ; a small amount being received from interest on money derived\nfrom the sale and rent of school lands.\nThe following amounts were appropriated by the legislature for the different years\ndesignated and for the schools mentioned above :\n1891\nMadison\nSpearfish\n\n-\n\n-\n\n$ 9,300\n10,700\n\n1892\n\n1893\n\n1894\n\n189s\n\n1896\n\n1897\n\n1898\n\n$ 9,300\n$16,050\n$12,250\n$12,500\n$12,500\n$12,900\n$12,900\n10,700 13,350 13,050 13,500 12,500 13,200 13,000\n\nTennessee appropriates ;?20,ooo per annum to the Peabody Normal College.\nThe annual appropriation for the support of the Texas Normal Institute made by the\nstate was $39,500. It gets no endowment, and is entirely dependent upon legislative\nappropriations. It is the only Texas state normal school for white teachers. The Prairip\nView Normal is established by the state for colored teachers. It is probable that the\npresent legislature will establish an additional normal school.\nUtah has but one normal school, which is a department, in fact, of the state university. It has a branch at Cedar City, in the southern part of the state. While this normal\nschool or department receives indirectly material aid from the legislature in its biennial\nappropriations to the University of Utah, the amount is not segregated from the general\nappropriation to the university. This department, in much of its work, is so intimately\nconnected with the other departments of the university that the same professor may have\nstudents in his classes from several different departments in the institution. The normal\nwork is specialized in a few branches only, as pedagogy, educational psychology, etc.\nThe only land grant the normal school, as it is called, has received from the United\nStates government is that of 100,000 acres, made on the admission of the state into the\nunion, in 1896. These lands have not yet been a source of revenue to the department. It\nhas also participated, as an element of the university, in what little benefit that institution\nhas received from its land grants — 46,080 acres by act of Congress, February 21, 1855,\nand 110,000 acres by act of Congress, July 16, 1894.\nThere are other normal schools in the state, but they are of a private or denominational character.\nVermont maintains three state normal schools. The appropriation to each is $5,000,\nwith $1,000 additional to each for supplies and appliances.\nThe legislature of Virginia appropriates annually $45,000 for the support of the state\nnormal schools, of which amount the State Female Normal School for whites gets $15,000,\nthe normal department of the College of William and Mary for white males, $15,000, and\nthe Virginia Normal and Collegiate Institute for negroes of both sexes, $15,000.\nIn addition to the foregoing, the state appropriates $2,500 a year for the support of\nsummer normal schools.\nThe state of Washington has three state normal schools. The last legislature made\nappropriations as follows :\nState Normal School at Cheney :\nMaintenance two years\nLibrary and repairs .......\nState Normal School at EUensburg:\nMaintenance two years\nRepairs, furniture, library, etc.\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n$25,000 $26,400\n1,400\n-\n\n$30,000\n8,500 $38,500\n\nState Normal School at Whatcom :\nMaintenance two years .......\nEquipment of building, etc.\n.....--\n\n$17,500\n16,000\n\n$33,500\n\n"}
{"page": 889, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nREPORT\n\nON\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n88 1\n\nWest Virginia has six normal schools.\nThe appropriation for teachers' fund for 1898-99 was $25,200, an increase of $6,000\nover the old appropriation. For 1899-1900 the appropriation is $30,000, an increase\nover the old appropriation of $10,800. The appropriations for the several schools are\ngiven below. Huntington gets\"$i5,ooo foradditions 18to building, and Concord gets a large\nappropriation to furnish a new building. The other 99schools received liberal appropriations for their running expenses, and repairs and improvements.\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nWHITE,\n\nINDIVIDUAL\n\nFUNDS\n\nTotal\nMarshall College\nFairmont\nWest Liberty\nGlenville\n\n$9,236.21\n\n- 5,883.40\n5.580.7s\n5,079-45\n\n-\n\nConcord Shepherd College\n\n1900\n$14,050.00\n6,030.00\n2,200.00\n\n11,913.40\n$23,286.21\n\n7.780.7s\n\n9.729.45\n11,684.50\n\n- 4,500.00\n4,650.00\n7,184.50\n\n3,578.00\n$33,857-81\n\n$37,165.10\n3,050.60\n\n6,628.00\n$71,022.31\n\nWisconsin claims to be the normal-school state par excellence of all the union.\nThe \"Normal School Fund,\" amounting to more than $1,922,000, was derived from the\nsale of public lands originally granted to the state as swamp lands. This fund is invested\nin public stocks and bonds, and yields an annual income, at present, of nearly $100,000.\nUntil the opening of the fifth normal school, in 1885, this was the sole income of the board,\nsave a few thousand dollars from local tuition receipts from pupils in the model schools.\nBut the opening of the Milwaukee school necessitated an appropriation by the legislature\nof $10,000 a year for its partial support. Here matters stood for eight years more. But in\n1893 a\" upward movement began. The legislature authorized the establishment of two\nnew normal schools, and ordained a tax for their support of one-twentieth of a mill on a\ndollar of the assessed valuation of the state. This enlargement of the system by the\nestablishment of two more schools rendered still further aid necessary from the state\ntreasury. Accordingly, the legislature of 1895, besides stated appropriations amounting\nto $72,500, for specified purposes, changed the one-twentieth mill tax to a one-fifth mill\ntax upon the assessed valuation of the state, this yielding an annual revenue of $120,000\nin addition to previous income. This appropriation enabled the board to equip the\nschools more adequately and put salaries on a somewhat better scale. From this and\nother causes the schools have experienced a large increase in popularity, as evinced by\nmembership, in the last two years, calling for enlargement of buildings and teaching force.\nAgain appeal was made to the legislature, at its session in 1897, and a further appropriation of a one-tenth mill tax on the valuation of the state was secured. The annual revenue of the narmal-school system amounts, therefore, at the present time, to nearly $300,000,\nof which about one-third is derived from invested funds and two-thirds from taxation.\nThese figures afford convincing proof of the attitude of the people of Wisconsin toward\nits normal schools. No other state is spending a proportionate amount for the professional\ntraining of teachers. Even in these recent years of financial stringency, no one has ever\nproposed any other than a most liberal policy toward the educational institutions of the\nstate.\nThe legislature of 1899 made a special appropriation of $70,000 for additional buildings at Stevens Point and Oshkosh, and some repairs at other schools ; repealed all laws\ngranting aid in different ways, and substituted therefor an act appropriating directly\n$198,000 per year, in addition to the income derived from invested funds, tuition, and other\nsources.\nThe only normal school in the state of Wyoming is that connected with the State University at Laramie — that is, the normal school is conducted as a department of the\nuniversity.\n\n"}
{"page": 890, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n[Normal\n\nThe state appropriation for the maintenance of the State University is a tax of onefourth of a mill on all taxable property in the state. Altho a grant of land was made by\nthe United States for the benefit of the institution, the income from this grant has been\nvery small, not averaging more than two hundred dollars per year.\nIndirectly, the normal school received some benefit from the government appropriations for an agricultural college, the institutions being all conducted together.\n\nAPPENDIX\nPROFESSOR\nBY\n\nJOHN\n\n\\V.\n\nHALL,\n\nREINS\n\nPRACTICE\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\nSCHOOL,\n\nOF\n\nA\n\nSCHOOL,\nTRAINING\n\nGREELEY,\n\nJENA,\n\nGERMANY\n\nDEPARTMENT,\n\nSTATE\n\nNORMAL\n\nCOLO.\n\nProfessor Rein's work at Jena is along two lines — a theoretical and a practical one.\nThe first line, the theoretical one, is carried out in the university proper, where he lectures\nfive hours a week, usually on two different lines of pedagogy ; in one semester he lectures\nthree hours a week on general didactics, and two on empirical psychology ; in another\nsemester, two hours a week on Herbart, three on systems of pedagogj' ; in a third, twa\nhours on fundamentals of philosophical ethics, three on special didactics, etc.\nThe second line of work, the practical, is done in the practice school, situated about\na fourth of a mile from the university. The practice school consists of three classes of\nfrom twelve to fifteen boys each, from the poorer families. The boys enter usually in the\nfirst grade and continue thru the eight school years. For example, one year the classes\nwould be the first, fourth, and sixth grades; another year they would be the second, fifth,\nand seventh grades ; a third year they would be the third, sixth, and eighth grades. The\nnumber of classes is limited by the lack of money. Each class is in charge of a critic\nteacher, who devotes his whole attention to it, is present at every recitation, and does all\nteaching not done b)' the students.\nThe teaching by the students is voluntary.\nThis line of work resembles that of our best normal schools, being distinguished from\nits\nthem by the inferiority of the equipment and the class of people from which it draws its\npupils.\nPerhaps the greatest distinguishing characteristic of the school is the relationship that\nis established between the theoretical and practical lines just mentioned.\nThis relatioi\nship is brought about in three ways :\nFirst, by the frequent visits of Professor Rein to the practice school — -observing the\nwork, offering friendly suggestions, frequently taking part in a recitation, and sometimes\nconducting an entire one — - a university professor actually engaged in the teaching of\nchildren.\nThe second means of establishing this relationship is thru the teaching of the students in the practice school. There the student strives to realize his theory in his practice.\nTo do this he puts himself in closest touch with his critic teacher and the class by close\nobservation and conference. Usually much time is spent on the preparation and discussion of his plan before he is allowed to go before the class. In this way he realizes thie\ndifference between talking about a recitation plan and actually making one which will\nstand the test ; he appreciates the difference between talking at)out the aim of a recitation\nand finding and really stating it properly ; between talking about preparing the mind for\nthe reception of the new and actually framing the questions that will do the work. The\nplan being satisfactory, he is permitted to take the class. He is led to see the imperfections of his recitations and to discover the causes.\nWith this experience he prepares for\n\n"}
{"page": 891, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department J\n\nREPORT\n\nON\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n883\n\nthe next recitation, each recitation calling for two thoro and helpful criticisms, the one of\nthe plan, the other of the recitation.\nThe third means of contact, and perhaps the most important, is the so-called Praktikum, or recitation for public criticism, and its criticism a few days later in what is called\nthe Konferenz, to which an entire evening is devoted.\nThis recitation is held at the practice school, in the presence of Professor Rein, the\ncritic teachers, and the students — sometimes numbering over sixty. It is held by a student during regular teaching or by a critic teacher, and is always one of a series — never an\nunrelated individual, never a show. The teacher who is to hold it is notified by Professor\nRein a week in advance, and the plan is prepared with special care, for it is subject to\ninspection and criticism as well as the recitation itself. The chief critic is also appointed\na week in advance, and begins at once to make himself thoroly acquainted with that\nwhich he is to criticise, in order to see the work in fitting perspective, and in order to distinguish between accidental mistakes and those indicating tendencies. His is a written\ncriticism. The other students content themselves with notes on the recitation, more or\nless copious.\nThere is an interval of several days between the recitation and the Konferenz, in order\nto allow time for the careful preparation of the criticism. This criticism forms the basis\nfor the discussion, and attention is directed to the following points :\n1. A description of the recitation.\n2. Criticism of —\n(a) Subject-matter, its fitness, its relation to other subjects, and its relation to the preceding and following recitations in the same subject.\n(b) Method : aim, movement, leading questions, tests, and summaries.\n(c) Results.\n{d) Government.\n(i) Manner.\nThe principal criticism is preceded by the reading of the self-criticism by the\npractician.\nIn the preparation of the self-criticism it behooves the practician to keep in mind the\nold precept of the seminar : \"Seek the error in thyself, not in the conditions, nor in the\nchildren.\" The actual time spent in the discussion of the practice recitation is, on the\naverage, two hours. Here it is determined how far the practician stands from his ideals.\nThe judgment is softened by circumstances, but the discussion is as nearly scientific as\npossible.\nIn the course of the semester such problems as the following, come up time and again\nfor discussion in these conferences : \" Does the aim, as stated, fulfill the essentials of a\ngood aim?\" \"Did the preparation of the mind for the new matter really prepare ? \"\n\" Wherein was the failure ? \" \"Did it make use of what the children had learned in certain other subjects ?\"\n\n\" Is the step of preparation the proper place to emphasize cor-\n\nrelation?\" \"What formal steps were involved ?\" \"How?\" \"Were they violated ? \"\n\"How?\" \"Was sufficient interest manifested ? \" \"When and why was it lacking?\"\nThe list might be continued indefinitely.\nAside from this discussion of the recitation, the outline of work for the three classes\nin all subjects is read from week to week in the Konferenz, and suggestions or objections\nare called for. Opportunity is given for criticism of any point in the general management, discipline, curriculum, and method, or of anything done or not done in the whole\nfield of their practice. Professor Rein presides at the Konferenz, and with exceptional\ntact controls the discussion. Direct attacks upon any practice or phase of the school is\nnot only allowed, but it is invited, for, in Professor Rein's own words : \" We can conceive of criticism only from the standpoint of helpfulness, and as given only in aid of\nfriends and fellow-workers.\n\nPersonalities underlying criticism adjust themselves.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 892, "printed_page": null, "text": "884\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nfNormal\n\nIn this way ample provision is made for bringing together the theoretical and the\npractical lines of work. Of these the practical, or that done in connection with the practice school, is by far the more important. It is, in fact, the very center of the educational\nactivity at Jena. At least this is the opinon of Professor Rein and of all Americans who\nhave been seriously engaged there. On this point Professor Rein says : \"The work of\nthe schoolroom is, and will remain, the test for how much the educator must yet add to\nhis inner treasures, first of knowledge, but above all of clearness, depth, and warmth of\nmoral sentiment. Let us conceive the work of our little practice school in this spirit.\nWe are fortunate that we have it, small and modest as it is, for here we can separate the\nchaff from the wheat. Here is the field for the growth of character in the teacher who is\nwilling to lessen the distance between himself and his ideal by unceasing effort, by deeds\nrather than words. To him who is in earnest every criticism will be welcome, for criticism challenges self-examination and frightens one to greater safety.\"\nWhat Professor Rein is striving for is, again in his words, \"that each one acquire\na pedagogical fundamental tendency; that it pervade his entire moral disposition ; that\nhe not only acquire such a tendency, but live itj that he shun all ostentation, and place\ntruth above everything, even tho it often be bitter.\" (See article on Professor Rein's\npractice school in reports for the National Educational Association, 1896.)\nHISTORICAL\n\nAside from his lecture on philosophy in the university at Konigsberg, where he\nwent in 1809, Herbart was required to lecture on pedagogics. Soon after this he established a pedagogical seminary, in connection with which w^as to be a practice school\nwhere scientific method might be exemplified in the teaching of twelve to fourteen boys.\nStudents did the teaching under the closest supervision and direction of Herbart himself.\nThe students were not obliged to follow the directions of Herbart, if they differed from\nhim and could support their points with good reasons.\nThese students were to become superintendents of schools when they had finished\ntheir course. One of them, Karl Volkmar Stoy, afterward established a similar seminary\nand practice school at Jena, based upon Herbart's ideas, according to his own interpretation of them. Professor Stoy died in 1885. This seminary and practice school are now\nconducted by Professor W. Rein, who succeeded Professor Stoy. Herbart's ideas are\nstill followed at Jena, altho the interpretation is somewhat different.\nProfessor Ziller conducted a similar seminary and practice school at the university\nat Leipzig, from about 1857 until his death in 1883, when the practice school was discontinued. Ziller's work was based upon Herbartian ideas. Professor Rein was a student and a teacher in Ziller's school, and agreed largely in his interpretation of Herbart.\n\nAPPENDIX\nGENERAL\n\nVIEW\n\nOF THE\n\nBY ALBERT\n\nWORK\n\nG. BOYDEN,\n\nB\n\nOF THE\n\nNORMAL\n\nBRIDGEWATER,\n\nSCHOOL\n\nMASS.\n\nThe function of the state normal school is to educate teachers for the schools of the\nstate. The state supports its public schools for the education of its children. It supports\nthe normal school that its children may have better teachers.\nI. The first requisite in the discharge of its function is that the normal school shall\ninspire the student with the spirit of the true teacher.\nIts atmosphere must be such that he will be continually breathing in this spirit. He\nis to consider the acquisition and use of knowledge, the exercises of the school, his own\n\n"}
{"page": 893, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nREPORT\n\nON\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n885\n\npurpose, manners, and conduct from the point of view of the teacher. It is vitally important to awaken in the normal student a just appreciation of the work of the teacher, that\nhe must have the spirit of service, must love his work, love his pupils, feel that he has a\nmission which he must accomplish, and come to his pupils, as the Great Teacher comes\nto men, that they may have life abundantly. This end can be accomplished only by a\nschool whose sole purpose is the education of teachers, and whose faculty is consecrated\nto this service.\n2. The second requisite is that the normal student must be carefully led thru the\neducational study of the subjects of the public-school curriculum, that he may learn how\nto use each in the teaching process and thereby learn the method of teaching.\nIn the elementary and secondary school the student is a learner, seeking the knowledge of the object and the mental discipline which comes from right exertion in learning.\nIn the normal school he is a teacher; he must think the object as the learner thinks it; he\nmust also think the process by which the learner knows, and the means he is to use to\ncause the learner to take the steps of this process. For instance, the teacher is leading the learner to acquire the knowledge of a bird. The learner, directed by the teacher,\nis occupied in finding the parts, qualities, movements, habits of the bird. In doing this\nhe perceives, remembers, imagines, compares, generalizes, reasons, but he does not notice\nthese modes of activity thru which his mind moves. The teacher thinks the facts with\nthe learner; he also must think the movement of the learner's mind, and how he shall\nincite him to the most effective thinking. The teacher thinks the mind to be taught into\nunity with the subject by which it is taught. The object of thought is used as the means\nto teaching. Studying a subject as a teacher is much more than studying the same subject\nas a learner.\nThe study of the subject for teaching is educational study.\nIt is important to notice that the teaching process cannot be studied apart from the\nsubjects which form the course of studies for the schools. As we have seen, these subjects furnish the objects of thought which must be used in teaching. It is a well-known\nlaw of mental activity that the mind proceeds from the particular and concrete to the\ngeneral and abstract. We must proceed from the particular ideas of individual objects\nto the general idea of a class which is composed of the individual objects. We must\nproceed fr.om the knowledge of many red objects to the abstract idea of redness. The\nsame law controls the learning of the teaching process. The normal student must be led\nthru the learning and teaching process in each subject ; he must buckle himself to the\nsubject, and study it definitely for teaching ; then teach and be criticised on his work until\nhe has firmly grasped the process. When he has thus gone thru the study of the concrete\nprocess in the several subjects, he can compare his experiences in these several studies\nand find the aim, the steps, and the means of the teaching process and the general\nmethod. This is the law which governs all learning. We can acquire skill in any\nmechanical or mental process only by going thru the intelligent performance of the\nprocess.\nNo one can produce the best quality of teaching in any grade without this educational study of the subjects he is to use as instruments in the unfolding of the life of the\npupil. There is no substitute for this study. The end cannot be accomplished by reading about it, by hearing lectures upon it, or by observing others do it. The separation\nof normal-school work into \" the academic study of subjects and the study of methods \"\nis not sound educational practice.\nThe teacher must have a full knowledge of each subject at his ready command.\nHe needs to be saturated with his subject, if he would teach effectively, so that he can\ngive his attention to the pupil's mind, put himself in full sympathy with the pupil, and be\nready to use the subject as the needs of the pupil may require. The normal student\nmust consider the subject philosophically, to,know why it has its place in the course of\nstudies. Take the subject-reading as an instance of the need of this study. What is it\n. to be able to read an author ? What is this power as a factor in life ? Why should\n\n"}
{"page": 894, "printed_page": null, "text": "886\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\nreading be taught ? What is its place in the course of studies ? These questions must\nbe answered by the teacher before he can effectively teach reading. Without this philosophical study of the subject the teacher will be formal, empirical, and fall into routine.\nHe must consider the subject scientifically, that he may know its principles in their systematic arrangement, and to place the subject in its true relation to other subjects. The\nprinciples of the subject in their orderly arrangement are the things essential to be taught,\nif the pupil is to be able to use his knowledge in solving the problems of life. Without\nthis scientific study of the subject the teacher's work will be fragmentary, will lack order,\nmethod, vitality. He must study the subject pedagogically, to know its relation to the pupil,\nto know what parts are to be used and emphasized in teaching, and the best method of\nusing them. Without this pedagogical study of the subject the teacher will fail to adapt\nhis teaching to the needs of the pupil. He needs to consider each subject from this\nthreefold point of view. The study of one subject in this way does not enable him to\nuse another subject in teaching without studying it in the same way. Teaching should\nbe rational, not empirical.\nThe normal student should have, at the beginning of his work in the normal school,\nan elementary course in psychology, to indicate distinctly the principles and the method\nof teaching in the school ; then begin at once upon the educational study of the subjects\nand continue it thru the curriculum.\nThe pupil in the elementar)' and secondary school has not the purpose, the attainments, or the maturity necessarj' for the educational study of the subject. He leaves the\nelementary subjects when he enters the secondary school, he takes the secondary subjects\nfor the first time in that school, and he is far from being saturated with the subjects -when\nhe leaves the secondary school. The secondary-school courses are elective. The best\ngraduate of the secondary school often has not taken at all some of the subjects called\nfor in the enrichment of the elementary-school course, as recommended by the Committee of Ten and the Committee of Fifteen. Hence it not infrequently happens that some\nof the best students in the normal school must take their first study of a subject from the\neducational point of view. It is by no means certain that this is any disadvantage to\nthe student as a teacher.\nTo be well equipped for teaching in the elementary schools the normal student must\ntake the educational study of the secondary-school subjects as well as that of the elementary-school subjects. The teacher in any grade cannot do his own work properly\nunless he knows the relation it holds to what precedes and follows. He must know\nmore than he teaches. Confining one's effort to any one grade is narrowing in its effect\nupon teacher and pupil. One cannot teach the program given by the Committee of\nFifteen for the elementary schools without this study. He cannot teach the language\nrequired by this program effectively without this study of other languages than English;\nhe cannot teach the arithmetic and elementary algebra in their proper relation to the\nstudy of higher mathematics without this study of algebra and geometry; he cannot\nteach geography intelligently without this study of history and the several sciences upon\nwhich geography depends ; he cannot teach nature study acceptably without this study\nof the natural sciences ; he cannot effectively use the myths and stories from ancient\nhistory now called for in the earlier grades, or make United States history a living study,\nwithout this study of general history ; he cannot use the gems of literature and art without something of this study of literature and art ; and to these must be added this study\nof drawing, vocal music, manual training, and physical culture.\nThere is a prevalent misconception of the true work of the normal school. It finds\nexpression in the statement, so often made, that the so-called academic studies should be\nleft out of the normal-school course of study, and the school should give its whole attention to strictly professional work — that is, to the study of psychology, the principles and\nmethods of teaching, the history of education, and training in the practice school. The\nstudy of psychology may be just as academic as that of arithmetic or grammar, and when\n\n"}
{"page": 895, "printed_page": null, "text": "iDepartmeml\n\nRRPOKT\n\nON\n\nNOKMAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n%%\"]\n\nSO studied it does not meet the teacher's needs. The study of these subjects is not professional until they are studied with direct reference to the teaching process.\nThis view of the work of the normal school is based on the false assumption that we\nmay supply the normal student with educational theory in the abstract, and leave him\nto make the application of the theory in teaching in each of the particular subjects ;\nwhereas all philosophy and experience show that theory and practice must be conjoined\nin the concrete teaching process. Persons equipped with educational theories may be\ngood talkers about teaching, but they never will become good teachers under this divorce\nof theory and practice.\nThe academic studies should not be taken in the normal course for academic study,\nbut the time will never come when we can safely dispense with the educational study of\nthese subjects in the normal school. The normal school is to be made professional, not\nby the exclusion of these studies from its course, but by the inclusion of the educational\nstudy of them. All the studies of the normal school should be strictly professional, that\nis, studied in their direct bearing upon the teaching process, whether the course be\nshorter or longer, for elementary or for higher work. The one function of the normal\nschool is the education of teachers. This function is capable of indefinite extension.\nAll teachers, from the kindergarten thru the university, should have their professional\ntraining.\n3. The third requisite is that the school should lead the normal student, after the\neducational study of the subjects of the school curriculum, thru the broader study of man,\nbody and mind, to find the principles of education which are derived by this study and\nwhich underlie all true teaching. This study is invaluable for its \" influence in expanding the mind, enlarging the views, elevating the aims, and strengthening the character of\nthe student.\" After this study the student should be led thru a careful analysis of the art\nof teaching, school organization and school government, and the study of school laws,\nand the history of education. In this study the student is constantly referring to his\nexperience in the educational study of subjects for illustrations to establish the general\nviews he is now discussing.\n4. The fourth requisite is that the normal student shall be led to make a practical study\nof children, which he should do as fully as possible thruout the course under intelligent suggestion ;that he should have ample observation under intelligent guidance in all the\ngrades of a good public school, with afirstclass teacher at work in charge of each room ; that\nhe breathe the atmosphere, become familiar with the workings, aiid become acquainted with\nthe children as pupils in such a school; that in the latter part of his course, when he\nhas some just conception of the nature and method of true teaching, and when he has\nbecome accjuainted with the pupils, he should have ample practice in teaching under\nsuch supervision as he needs, whether it be moie or less. To put the student to teaching before this preparation is a wrong to him, and a much greater wrong to the\nchildren. We have no right to waste the child's birthright by ignorant attempts to teach\nhim.\nThese four requisites are the minimum\n\nrequirements for a true normal school, which\n\nhas its distinctive place as a professional school. The child who\n\nis to be developed\n\nby the teacher is a self-active, rational being; a person, not a thing ; a free personality, a\nmoral cause; therefore self-exertion is the first condition of his development. \" He stands\nall by himself in the world as an individual, with his own thoughts and feelings, his own\nhopes and fears and possibilities, his own relations to his fellow-beings and to God.\"\nHis individuality is to be respected. The development of the individual according to his\nneeds is the end toward which all are to be trained.\nThe art of teaching is the finest of fine arts, inasmuch\n\nas it deals with the spiritual\n\nmaterial of human life. Its exercise calls for an artist who has the greatest natural aptitude, the noblest character, the fullest knowledge, the ripest expefience, and the mos t\ndelicate skill.\nWe cannot set the standard of the normal school too high.\n\n"}
{"page": 896, "printed_page": null, "text": "888\n\nNATIONAL\nSUBJECTS\n\nEDUCATIONAL\nFOR\n\nCOURSE\n\nOF\n\nASSOCIATION\nTWO\n\n[Normal\n\nYEARS\n\nThe students entering upon the course are graduates of a good high-school course\nof four years, or have had an equivalent of this course.\n1. An elementary course in psychology to indicate distinctly the principles and the\nmethod of the teaching in the school.\n2. The educational study of the following subjects for knowledge cf their educational value, their principles, and the method of teaching in each :\n(a) Mathematics. — Arithmetic and bookkeeping, elementary algebra, and plane\ngeometry.\n(^) Nature studies. — Minerals, plants, animals, physical force, chemical force,\ngeological agencies, geography, the human body, physical training, manual training.\n(c) Language. — Reading and vocal culture, English, including orthography, orthoepy,\netymology, grammar, composition, rhetoric, literature, drawing and color, vocal music.\n{d) History. — History of United States and civil government, school laws of the\nstate, history of education.\n3. The educational study of man, body and mind, for the principles of education\nthe art of teaching, school organization, school government.\n4. Child study, observation and practice in the model school.\nSTUDIES\n\nFOR\n\nCOURSE\n\nOF\n\nFOUR\n\nYEARS\n\nThe students start with the same qualifications as in the two-years' course.\n1. Elementary course in psychology, to indicate distinctly the principles and the\nmethod of the teaching in the school.\n2. The educational study of the following subjects for the knowledge of their educational value, their principles, and the method of teaching in each :\n(a) Mathematics. — Arithmetic and bookkeeping, algebra, geometry, plane and solid,\ntrigonometry, and surveying.\n{b') Nature studies. — The same subjects as in the two-years' course. Science: physics, chemistry, mineralogy, botany, zoology, geology, and astronomy.\n{c) Language. — More extended study of the subjects of the two-years' course, Latin,\nGreek, French, and German.\n{d) History. — History of the United States and civil government, school laws of the\nstate, general history, histor>' of education, political economy, sociology.\n3. The educational study of man, body and mind, for the principles of education, the\nart of teaching, school organization, school government.\n4. Child study, observation and practice in model school.\nThe subjects should be taken in the order of their dependence, and the distribution\nof time upon them will vary with the internal conditions of each school. Minimum and\nmaximum courses should be arranged to meet the varying abilities of the students.\nA three-years' course may be arranged for the accommodation of those desiring an\nelective course, by taking the studies of the two-years' course with electives from the\nadvanced subjects of the four-years' course. In some schools a special course is arranged\nfor college graduates, and for teachers of long experience.\nThe four-years' course is especially helpful in the proper training of teachers for the\nupper grades of the schools. Its necessity becomes increasingly apparent with the\nincreasing demand for teachers of higher qualifications. Its influence upon those pursuing the shorter course is of great benefit in raising the standard of qualification and in\nstrengthening the desire for more extended professional study.\nThe graduates from these courses will find their places in the schools according to\ntheir ability as teachers. The provision for certificates, diplomas, and degrees varies very\nmuch in the different states, and can be improved only as the better quality of the graduates of the normal school commends them to the best public sentiment.\n\n"}
{"page": 897, "printed_page": null, "text": "REPORT\n\nDepartment]\n\nON NORMAL\n\nAPPENDIX\nA TYPICAL\nBY\n\nGEORGE\n\nENGLISH\nMORRIS\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nC\n\nTRAINING\nPHILIPS,\n\nCOLLEGE\n\nPENNSYLVANIA\n\nTo most American teachers Sir Joshua Fitch is the best-known educator in England ; and so, when last November I went to London to learn something of English\nschools, I naturally called upon him for suggestions. A letter of introduction from an\nAmerican friend secured a most cordial welcome from Sir Joshua ; and let me suggest\njust here that, while I have no doubt any American teacher would be welcomed by Sir\nJoshua Fitch, the American traveler who wishes to get any intimate knowledge of European people or institutions should be sure to take with him letters of introduction. They\nare much more essential there than they would be in America.\nSir Joshua Fitch was, a few years ago, knighted by Queen Victoria for his eminent\nservices to education, but he was recently retired from active school work. Apparently,\nhowever, this only allows school committees and boards now to demand all of his time\nfor addresses, conferences, etc. Thru him I met Mr. Buxton Morrish, of London,\nchairman of the British and Foreign Society's committee on teachers' training colleges, a\ntypical English gentleman, who, having retired from active business, is able to devote his\ntime largely to serving the public, and of course without compensation. Instead of paying school directors for their services, as is often suggested, it seems to me that we should\nbe much better served in this country if many more of our officers were unpaid, in the\nhope that, when made posts of honor instead of profit, more of them would be filled by\ncapable, public-spirited men, like Mr. Morrish.\nThe British and Foreign Society was organized about the beginning of the present\ncentury to promote Lancaster's scheme of general elementary education. In 1870 Parliament, for the first time, authorized a public-school system in England, and as the British\nand Foreign Society's schools then began to be gradually turned over to the school\nboards organized under this act, the society now devotes its attention and its resources\nlargely to the training of teachers. It must be borne in mind that in England there are\nno state normal schools, in the ordinary American sense of the term. All of the teachers'\ntraining colleges, as normal schools are universally called there, are private enterprises,\nmany of them under the auspices of the British and Foreign Society, or its great rival, the\nNational Society. Such of these as provide training for teachers in the elementary\nschools may be aided liberally by the government, provided they comply with the government's conditions. There is a great gulf fixed in England between elementary- and\nsecondary-school teachers, and, as the state makes practically no provision for assisting\nin secondary instruction, so it gives no help to the training of teachers for secondary or\nhigh schools.\nSeparate training colleges are generally provided for the two sexes. Accompanied\nby Mr. Morrish, I spent a day at the Isleworth Training College for men, which is situated\na few miles west of London, and which is considered one of the best schools of its class\nin England. Like most of the training colleges generally, I found this to be a boarding\nschool, with a two-years' course of study. It has a fine building, well adapted to its purpose, surrounded by considerable grounds. Practically all of its students are Queen's\nscholars, that is, they have passed an entrance examination by government examiners,\nand, almost without exception, have been pupil teachers for four years in the elementary\nschools. This pupil-teacher system, by the way, which provides that boys and girls who\nintend to become teachers may, when they have finished the elementary schools at the\nage of fourteen, become assistant teachers in elementary schools for four years, assisting\n\n"}
{"page": 898, "printed_page": null, "text": "890\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\nthe regular teachers for a part of each day, and. studying the remainder of the time, is\nuniversal in England, and the great majority of elementary teachers are ex-pupil\nteachers.\nAt the end of each year's course the college students are required to pass a state\nexamination, which, like the preliminary examination, is uniform all over England. The\ncourse of study is also carefully laid down by the government authorities, and all students\nmust have physicians' certificates of physical fitness before entering the school.\nThe pupils sleep in small cubicles, each about nine by five feet, separated from each\nother by partitions six feet high. Of these there are some seventy-five in one great\nroom. Each contains simple but comfortable furniture, and teachers occupy certain of\nthrfse small bedrooms among the students. They are not separately lighted ; students\nmust, therefore, study either in the schoolrooms or in the large \" common room,\" the latter\nbeing an important feature in English schools.\nIn the dining-hall the teachers and a few postgraduate students sat at a table on a\nraised platform ; the undergraduates at long tables below. While there evidently were\ntwo bills-of-fare, yet all the tables were apparently well provided, and I was told that the\ndietary of the school was arranged by a physician. Some of the teachers wore the scholastic gowns which in English schools everywhere mark teachers who hold university\ndegrees.\nThe school contains about one hundred and fifty young men, the total cost of maintaining the school being rather more than three hundred dollars per year for each student.\nThe government gives each training college three-fourths of the legitimate cost of maintaining each student for the time he is in attendance. This is the general rule thruout\nEngland. A student at Isleworth pays one hundred dollars as an entrance fee, and has\nno other school expense during his two-years' course. The balance of the cost is made\nup by the society itself, and generally in England almost all the living expense, as well as\nthe tuition of students in the training colleges, is paid for them.\nThe course of study is largely academic, only about one hundred hours of class-room\nwork in the whole two years being given to pedagogic branches, including methods of\nteaching, psychology, etc. One hundred and fifty hours are required by law to be spent\nin practice and observation in practice schools. Here there had been considerable difficulty in securing sufficient facilities for practice work, and the school authorities, in connection with some public-spirited neighbors, had built and equipped a private school for\nthe neighborhood, which was used also as a practice school. Each graduate is obliged to\npledge himself to teach for two years in the elementary schools of the kingdom, altho I\nfound a few students in the school not intending to teach in the English schools. These,\nhowever, got no benefit from the government grant for support, and paid the full cost of\ntheir board and tuition. Special inspectors are appointed by the government for the\ntraining colleges, and the facilities and details of the work generally must conform to the\ngovernment requirements, and are carefully looked after.\nThe teachers of the training college are scarcely as well paid as corresponding\nteachers in America, and yet there is no more difference than between salaries in other\ncallings in the two countries. I was informed that the average salary received by graduates of this college for their first year's work was about $425. This, however, was said\nto be in excess of that received by recent graduates of the training colleges generally.\nAt the end of the two-years' course, and after passing the final examinations, graduates get preliminary certificates which permit them to teach in the elementary schools\nof the kingdom without further examination ; but, at the end of two years' successful\nteaching in the same school, they may get second diplomas, technically called \" parchments.\"\nTeachers are not yet everywhere required to be graduates of training colleges, but in\nLondon, and some other places, the local school authorities now require that all teachers in\nboard schools must be graduates of training colleges.\n\n"}
{"page": 899, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nREPORT\n\nON\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n891\n\nStudents of educational systems will be struck with the resemblance between the\ntraining colleges of England and the state normal schools of Pennsylvania. In both\ncases these schools are privately founded and controlled, altho in Pennsylvania the state\nnow appoints one-third of the trustees, and, in Pennsylvania also, the founding and organization of the schools are more closely regulated by law.\nThe normal schools of Pennsylvania, like the training colleges of England, are all\nboarding schools, and must be so under the laws of the state.\nIn Pennsylvania the normal schools all charge tuition, but the students' expenses\nare reduced by \"state aid\" appropriated regularly by the legislature, and paid to the\nschools to reduce the expenses of the students preparing to teach, tho this state aid is\nvery much less for each student than the corresponding government grant in England.\nIn both cases the final examinations are conducted by examiners not connected with\nthe schools, and graduates who receive benefit of the state aid are required to agree to\nteach in the state schools for two years, and, in England as in Pennsylvania, at the close\nof two years of successful teaching, a second certificate or diploma is granted to the\nstudent.\nIt would seem from these coincidences, that the framers of the normal-school law of\nPennsylvania must have been familiar with, and to a certain extent have copied, the\nEnglish system, which took substantially its present form in 1843.\n\nAPPENDIX\nCONTINUOUS\nBY\n\nIRWIN\n\nSHEPARD,\n\nSESSIONS\n\nPRESIDENT\n\nSTATE\n\nD\n\nIN NORMAL\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nWINONA,\n\nMINN.\n\n[The following extract from a paper read at the meeting of the Department of Superintendence at\nChattanooga, Tenn., in February, 1898, is reprinted at the request of the Committee on Normal Schools.]\n\n**\n\n*\n\n*\n\n************\n\nNo feature of our educational system is, by virtue of any authoritative adoption,\nexempt from criticism or change.\nThe conservative force in our national system of education is the strength of\ntradition. This conservatism often binds the teachers more strongly than the people, for\nit frequently happens that the former have progressed more slowly than the latter and\nhave yielded tardily to the advanced demands of public opinion. The traditional close\nclassification of the graded schools, with its rigid system of annual promotions, altho long\nsince coVidemhed by public sentiment, still quite generally prevails; or at most has yielded\nonly to the extent of substituting semi-annual for annual promotions. The method of\ndetermining qualification for promotion by written examinations alone was generally\nretained long after the people distrusted its efficiency and even demanded its discontinuance. The three-months' annual vacation season has come to be regarded by most\nteachers as an inalienable right, as well as a necessity, and any disposition to lengthen\nthe school year is generally looked upon as an unjustifiable encroachment upon this\nright.\nIt requires some courage to suggest, even in a convention of progressive superintendents, that other seasons than summer time may be equally profitable for vacation\npurposes, and that the intellectual work of the schoolroom may be as well done in summer as the intellectual work of other callings.\nI. In elementary schools. — The average school year for the United States is about\nseven months.\nIn many places, especially cities, it has been extended to ten months in\n\n"}
{"page": 900, "printed_page": null, "text": "892\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\nanswer to popular demands. It is not entirely clear why the extension should stop here.\nIn fact, very good reasons can be given why the school should be open as continuously as\nthe factory, the workshop, and the store.\nIf it is replied that pupils and teachers need two or three months annually for rest\nand recuperation from the intense strain and pressure of the year's work, it may be questioned ifa system which produces strain and pressure so near to the point of exhaustion is\nnot unwise and indefensible, and if a distribution of the same work over a longer period\nwould not be wiser, tho it involved longer or even continuous sessions. It is certain that\nthe point of efficient work on the part of both teacher and pupil is passed long before\nstrain, over- pressure, or exhaustion appears.\nWe may even question if the valuable enrichment of the courses of study in elementary schools, made in recent years, has not unwisely increased the pressure of daily\nwork in the absence of any corresponding extension of the school year.\nThe annual vacation itself, deemed so essential for rest, contributes in no slight degree\nto the burdens of the already overtaxed year which follows, by the necessity for recovering the loss incident to the breaking down of intellectual habits and the waste of\nacquired knowledge during the long vacation, even if no more serious results appear.\nThere are certain valuable compensations for the long school vacation when the\npupil can turn to some helpful occupation, as may usually be done in rural communities ;\nbut this is seldom the case in cities or even small towns ; therefore the question of continuous sessions versus short school years and long vacations belongs rather to the graded\nthan to the rural schools.\nThe profitable employment of the time of children of school age during the long\nsummer vacations is often the most serious and perplexing problem that confronts parents\nliving in cities and towns, even under the most favorable circumstances ; while in the case\nof children living in crowded districts of large cities, or in the saloon-cursed village, it\nbecomes a question of vital importance to society as well as to the family.\nIt is not difficult to conceive of such an adjustment of school work, rest, and recreative\noccupations that continuous attendance upon school may not only be free from overwork\nor strain, but may furnish the most healthful and enjoyable life that a child can live ;\nespecially if vacations may be taken, without prejudice to progress, whenever needed or\nwhenever the time could be otherwise more profitably spent. The ideal school life is\nthat of the most healthful living, and does not admit the necessity for long vacations as\nperiods for recuperation from overtaxing or unhealthful requirements.\nHowever, the plan of continuous sessions does not necessarily involve continuous\nattendance on the part of the pupils or continuous service by teachers. It means, rather,\ncontinuous opportunities to the pupil for attendance on regular school sessions, and relief\nto the teachers from enforced vacations, always annual and always at the same season.\nIn view of the growing demands for vacation schools, especially in large cities, it is\nimportant to determine whether these schools shall be preventive and sporadic, without\norganic connection with the school system ; or shall be constructive, progressive, and so\nadjusted as to contribute to advancement in the regular courses of the schools or to\nproportionate relief from the daily requirements of the following year. A division of the\npresent school year into three quarters of twelve weeks each, with quarterly promotions,\nwould be the first and most important step toward the organic connection of vacation\nschools as a regular part of the school year with the work accredited as such. .\nThe question may be asked if as much work can be accomplished in the twelve\nweeks of a vacation quarter as in any other quarter of the year. We have come to understand that the ability of anyone (children especially) to do intellectual work is dependent\nupon individual vitality rather than atmospheric temperature. We know that the vitality\nis lowest in winter and early spring and. at its maximum in the growing season — late\nspring and summer.\nThe general experience of summer vacation schools confirms the\n\n"}
{"page": 901, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nREPORT\n\nON\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n893\n\nbelief that as much and as effective work can be accomplished in summer time as in anyother part of the year if the early morning hours are substituted for the afternoon session ;\nwhile the opportunities to pursue the various forms of nature study excel those of any\nother season.\nIf, however, continuous attendance is not desired, continuous sessions, with the\nquarter of twelve weeks as the promotion unit, would make possible the distribution of\nvacations thruout the year, and the relief of crowded rooms to a corresponding extent ;\nor, in other words, would increase the school accommodations by 33 j^ per cent.\nIs it a wise policy for a city whose enrollment exceeds its seating accommodations to\nclose its buildings for three months of the year, if by any plan of administration these\nbuildings may be made available to relieve the excessive demands of the other nine\nmonths ? Under the pressing demands everywhere for greater school accommodations,\nis it justifiable that the common-school property of the nation, valued at five hundred\nmillions of dollars, should be permitted to lie idle from three to five months annually ?\nCompulsory school attendance and compulsory exclusion from school during the long\nvacation are antagonistic principles. The general tendency of the educational world to\n\"hibernate \" in summer time is contrary to all of the analogies of nature as well as of life\nin other callings.\nII. In normal schools. — The great increase in the number, importance, and attendance of summer schools is not more significant than the fact that this attendance is\nlargely made up of teachers in regular service, who are pleased to devote no small share\nof a meager salary and of the annual vacation to professional advancement.\nThe reports of the United States Commissioner of Education show that 75 per cent,\nof the teachers of the country enter upon their work without any special training whatever,\nwhile the training of a large share of the others is much less extensive and satisfactory\nthan is required in any other profession. Few who continue in teaching resign to make\nfurther preparation. Therefore the training of the teacher while in service is a problem\nof the utmost importance.\nThis problem would seem to be not difficult of solution when we reflect that the average school year for the entire country is but seven months, and rarely exceeds forty\nweeks. No other calling affords such generous vacation leisure for self-improvement.\nThe difficulties of the problem lie in the fact that the three to five months of enforced\nvacation include or coincide with the annual long vacation of the normal schools and all\nhigher educational institutions.\nTeachers' institutes and the summer schools are designed to supply the demands for\nvacation opportunities for professional improvement not offered by the normal schools\nand colleges ; either because their doors are closed, or because their courses of study and\nterm arrangements do not enable a teacher to use with profit the long vacation periods.\nWhile summer schools and institutes have accomplished much, they do not by any means\nsolve the problem of the efficient training of the teacher in service.\nThe state of Minnesota has led all other states in the establishment of vacation training schools for teachers. About fifty of these schools are in session every summer, for\nfour weeks each, with a total attendance which usually equals or exceeds the entire teaching force of the state; while, until the summer of 1897, all of the four normal schools of\nthe state, equipped at an expense of more than a million dollars, were closed, their laboratories and libraries deserted, and their faculties scattered, supposedly taking much-needed\nvacations, but many of them in reality teaching in these same summer schools, often under\nmost adverse conditions as to surroundings and appliances.\nIn September, 1895, when the faculty of the State Normal School at Winona\nreassembled after the annual vacation, during which half of the members had been teaching in the summer schools, a series of special meetings were held to consider the relation\nof the normal schools to these summer schools.\nA few conclusions were soon reached :\n\nI\n\n*\nV\n\n"}
{"page": 902, "printed_page": null, "text": "894\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\n1. That the phenomenal growth of summer training schools for teachers indicated a\ndemand which the normal schools had not met.\n2. That these summer schools were creating new demands which only normal schools\ncould efficiently meet.\n3. That, under the existing conditions for admission to teaching service, it is quite\nas much the proper function of the normal schools to provide for training teachers in\nservice as to furnish a preparation for entering such service.\n4. That the rural-school teachers, with an average vacation of five months each year,\nfurnished at the same time the most needy and the most available constituency for such\ntraining.\n5. That the policy is indefensible which closes the normal schools during that period\nof the year when teachers are most at leisure to attend school.\n6. That the terms of normal schools should be so adjusted in time that the usual long\nvacations of teachers could be utilized for further preparation, and that the course so\nprovided should not be special, but regular and progressive, and should constitute organic\nparts of the full courses offered.\nIt was decided, after full discussion, to recommend and, if possible, secure the adoption of the following general plan :\n1. The school year should be divided into four quarters of twelve weeks each, commencing, respectively, January i, April i,July i, and October i.\n2. The courses of study should be organized by quarters ; the work of each quarter\nconstituting a full unit on which credit should be given whenever completed.\n3. Classes should be graduated at the close of each quarter and new classes organzed at the opening of each quarter, if necessary.\n4. Special classes should be organized for graded-school teachers for the first six\nweeks of the summer quarter (July i to August 15), and this work should apply upon\nregular courses, with provisions for completing the quarter's work by non-resident stndy\nthru correspondence during the ensuing school year.\n5. Since the chief aim of this plan was to bring the normal schools into more helpful relations to the rural schools, whose interests they were- primarily created to serve, the\nquarters should be so arranged that a rural-school teacher could teach the usual winter\nterm of four or five months — which would alwavs come within the autumn and winter\nquarters (October to April) — and attend a normal school one or both of the remaining\nquarters, with a reasonable vacation ; or he could teach the entire school year (October\nto July) and attend one full quarter each year (July to October).\nIn this way progressive courses of normal-school work could be completed without\nwithdrawing from rural school service. This alone would be a distinct gain of the teaching supply of the rural schools.\nIncidentally this plan would prove a boon to hundreds of self-supporting young men\nand women, from whom the best teachers of the state are drawn, who would be enabled\nto work their way thru the normal-school courses with little difficulty and with little or\nno loss of time from teaching service.\nIt was believed that the results of trairring received while alternately teaching and\nattending school would also commend the policy.\nThe plan was subsequently approved by the presidents and faculties of the other\nnormal schools of the state and presented to the state normal board for adoption. After\nfull consideration for a year it was unanimously adopted and steps taken to secure the\nneeded appropriation for putting the plan into operation in all of the normal schools of\nthe state. It was estimated that an increase of 25 per cent, in revenue would cover the\nexpense of the proposed increase in the length of the school year of 2,2,14 per cent.\nThe teachers generally thruout the state approved the plan and gave it active\nsupport.\nSixty-two out of eighty of the county superintendents, and almost an equal\n\n"}
{"page": 903, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nREPORT\n\nON\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n895\n\nproportion of city superintendents, joined personally in urging upon individual members of\nthe legislature its advantages. No more popular educational measure ever came before\nthe legislature of the state. The year 1897 was not a favorable one in which to secure\nappropriations for new or untried measures. The avowed policy of the legislature was to\ngrant sparingly appropriations for the actual necessities only of the state institutions, but\nnothing for enlargements. Yet, so great was the confidence in the plan that the full\nappropriation asked for the two older schools — at Winona and Mankato — was granted\n— a larger increase than had ever been granted for extension of normal-school revenues\nin any one year in the history of the state.\nOh July I, 1897, these two schools entered upon the new plan. Duplication of the\nwork of the summer schools was avoided. Students were not admitted for less than a full\nterm or quarter. Those only were admitted to the six-weeks' special courses whose\nschools would begin before the close of the quarter. Rural-school teachers were not\nadmitted for less than the full quarter of twelve weeks. At Winona the standard of\nadmission was radically advanced to the point of admitting only graduates of high schools\nor teachers actually in service.\nAltho the announcement of the plan was not made until late in May, and forty county\nsummer schools, enrolling seven thousand, were in session thruout the state, the attendance\nduring the summer was all that could be desired in numbers and surprisingly good in quality.\nFive hundred were enrolled in the two schools. At Winona 15 per cent. -of the enrollment were former graduates of the school, all occupying important positions as teachers\nin the state, who had returned to enter upon the work of the recently extended advanced\ncourse; 40 per cent, were graded- and rural-school teachers ; 40 per cent, were high-school\ngraduates. Only 5 per cent, did not belong to one of the above-named classes. The\naverage age was twenty-three years and the average teaching service four years, varying\nfrom one term to twenty years.\nIt was predicted by some that the model or training schools could not be maintained\nduring the summer months ; but here again the success was marked, notwithstanding the\nfact that these are tuition schools.\nMany\n\nparents have transferred their children permanently to the model\n\nschools\n\nbecause of the evident advantages of continuous sessions. In the model schools promotions occur quarterly. Vacations of one quarter may be taken any quarter of the year,\neither semi-annually, annually, or biennially ; or the pupils may attend continuously,\ntaking full or partial work, with corresponding advancement if such attendance is deemed\nadvisable.\nThe advantages of these various options are quickly seen, and different plans are\nchosen to suit individual pupils. The work of last summer's quarter was not more\nexhausting to teachers or pupils than that of any other quarter, nor has it appeared to be\nless efficiently done.\nNo year in the history of the schools has shown so large an increase in enrollment as\nthe present. While the lengthened year will show a proportionate increase in results, in\ngraduates, and numbers instructed, the most important advantages appear in the large\nnumber of teachers in service who are preparing to take up regular courses while continuing their work in teaching, while many students, who formerly could not see the way to\ncomplete more than the short elementary course, now choose the full advanced course,\nunder the facilities offered for vacation attendance.\nContinuous sessions do not involve continuous teaching service by the faculty. Vacations will be granted as heretofore, with the difference that any quarter may be selected,\nsubject to the approval of the management of the school ; or, by continuous service, vacations may be accumulated to enable a teacher to secure a longer leave of absence. Additional teachers will be employed as assistants in the various departments, who will be\ncompetent to take the classes of the absent teachers.\n\n"}
{"page": 904, "printed_page": null, "text": "896\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\nA proposed plan, which is favored by many, provides that each teacher may serve\nfour consecutive quarters and take the fifth quarter for a vacation. This would bring\neach successive vacation of any teacher at a different season of the year.\nStudents are not expected to attend continuously except by permission of the faculty.\nIt is already found that they are not so averse to stopping for rest when it is needed,\nsince work may be resumed at the opening of the next quarter. Similarly, students are\nmore willing to repeat work that has been imperfectly done than under the usual plan of\nclassification, which imposes the penalty of a year's delay if the work of a single quarter\nis lost or repeated.\nUnder the usual plan normal-school graduates are annually thrown upon the market\nin the month of June, just when the graded-school authorities are seeking teachers to fill\nvacancies for the following year. The natural result is that the supply is exhausted\nbefore the rural school authorities are ready to act on the employment of teachers for the\nschools to begin later, in October or November. Hence only the undergraduate supply is\nleft for the rural-school service.\n'\nUnder the Winona plan the classes graduating in September, December, and March\nwill be available for rural-school service. Even tho this service shall be brief because\nof the competition of the graded schools offering a longer year, more certain tenure of\nappointment, and higher wages, it will be a distinct gain to the rural schools, as well as\nto the teacher herself, if she is able to say : \" My first teaching service after graduation\nwas in a rural school.\"\nThe plan was presented to the Committee of Twelve on Rural Schools at its meeting\nin Chicago in 1896, and received its indorsement and approval in both the report of the\ngeneral committee and of the Subcommittee on Supply of Teachers.\nThe 160 state normal schools of the United States, equipped with buildings and appliances at an expense of over ;? 17,000,000, graduate about 8,000 teachers annually, which is\na small proportion of the needed supply; and yet all of these buildings are closed\nduring three months of the year. An additional annual expenditure of about 3600,000\nwould open every one of these 160 state normal schools for the additional three months\nof each year, afford 50,000 teachers annual vacation opportunities for professional study,\nand secure to all teachers the many other advantages of continuous sessions.\n\nDISCUSSION'\n[The following discussions relate to the section of the foregoing report entitled\n\"Training Schools.\"]\nThesis II. In comparison with other lines of work in a normal school actual teaching is capable of\nranking as the most valuable course for the student, since it furnishes at the same time both theory and\npractice.\n\nJohn W. Hall, superintendent of the training department, Greeley, Colo. — That\nthe practice teaching in a normal school is capable of ranking as the most valuable\ncourse for the student is to me an important truth. That it usually so ranks is probably\nquite a different statement. Dr. Payne, it seems to me, is altogether right in denouncing\nthe practice teaching as he describes it in his recent interesting article in the Educational\nReview. The teaching and the critic work that he therein so graphically describes and\nso cordially denounces is probably not altogether a figment of the imagination. Let us\ntrust, however, that it is extremely rare. Dr. Payne has given us a vivid picture of what\nI [It is a matter of regret that several valuable discussions of this department were not furnished for\npublication, and that several others were furnished in abstract only.— EDrroR.]\n\n"}
{"page": 905, "printed_page": null, "text": "DepartmentJ\n\nREPORT\n\nON NORMAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\npractice teaching and criticism should not be, or, as the Germans would say, ein abschreckendes Beispiel. The objects of his criticism are obviously based on a total misconception\nof the principles of teaching, the province of criticism, and the character of a critic.\nAs fully as the time will permit, it is my purpose to describe one conception of\npractice teaching, as well as the character of the critic and the province of criticism, in\nsupport of the thesis under discussion.\nQuoting from our eminent critic : \"It is believed that the best way to teach a liberal\nart is to teach the essential doctrines and principles that underlie that art. Law, medicine, and theology are taught on this plan.\"\nIn such schools the science is learned, not\nthe art, he says. Nominally this may be true, actually it is not. In the hospital the\nstudent visits the patients, accompanied by his instructor, makes his own diagnosis and\nissues his own prescriptions ; when his instructor feels that he may be trusted further, he\nis allowed more freedom.\nThe instructor keeps a close supervision, but does not inter* fere so long as the student makes no mistake.\nThe student is not embarrassed nor\ndistressed by this relationship, but is strengthened by the consciousness of an ever*■, present help. The truth of the quotation is a matter of indifference, however, as the\n' cases cited and the training of the normal-school student are not parallel.\nThe minimum entrance requirement to our normal school is the minimum requirement to teach in the public schools of the state. The candidate for training in the normal\nschool is then from the beginning a licensed teacher, and were he given charge of a\nclass upon his entrance, nothing more could happen to him, or to the children, than is\nallowed to happen every day in the public schools. The candidate spends almost two\nyears from this time in trying to master the fundamental principles of his art and in discovering their application in well-directed observation of teaching in the training department. When he does begin to work in the light of these principles, which are as much\nhis as unapplied principles can be, the value of the work to himself and the children cannot be successfully questioned, provided, of course, that the conditions are what they\nmay be, and what they are in many schools.\nIn the first place, if the student has shown no grasp of the principles involved in a\nrecitation, if he has shown no power of analyzing a recitation and no ability to think out\na recitation in a given subject with a given class — that is, if he is unable to plan one — of\ncourse he will never be placed in charge of a class. It would be positively injurious to\neverybody concerned if he were. Having shown himself proficient in these things, the student may be allowed the responsibility of a class. The class is to be his, really his, as much\nhis as would be a class of any grade in a village or city school where he would be under\na supervising principal. This class is to be his an hour each day for perhaps half a year.\nHe calls for it at the appointed hour, conducts it to the recitation room and back. He is\nresponsible to the room teacher or the principal for the order and progress of the class\nwhile it is under his care, just as the teacher of a grade in a city is responsible to the\nsuperintendent, or to the principal of the building. In the former case he is held to a\nmuch stricter account than he would be in the latter.\nEvery such teacher, and every teacher that works at all efficiently, must have in\nmind more or less clearly what he expects to accomplish, and also how he expects to\naccomplish it. Germany's greatest field marshal says that it is, indeed, much to see the\nend toward which one strives, but it is a great deal more to find the way by which one is\nto reach it. In order that the critic teacher may know how the student is striving to realize\nhis ideal, and in order for him to be most helpful without being too frequent a visitor in\nhis class, the student is required to give the critic a detailed written plan of what he\nexpects to accomplish in each recitation, and the how thereof. If there is need of it, the\nplan is subjected to a thoro discussion before it is carried into practice.\nThe student is not to be mastered by his plan ; he is to be master of it. It is believeii\nthat the general who has made the most thoro and detailed plan of the coming battle\n\n"}
{"page": 906, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sq8\n\nnational\n\neducational\n\nassociation\n\n[Normal\n\nbased on Ihe knowledge of the strength and whereabouts of his own forces and those of\nthe enemy, because of that plan will be most liable to inspirations of the moment, and\nmost ready to take advantage of the least false step of his adversary. He never dreams\nthat he must follov? a prearranged plan, if events disclose a better. Events, however,\nnever disclose a plan to a planless man. The same is eminently true of the teacher. The\nfull force of the old saying holds here : \" Unto him that has [a plan] more shall be\nadded.\" The teacher that has his lesson mastered in this way is the only one that can be\nreally and fruitfully free, and only under such conditions can his experience be most\nvaluable.\nThese plans are conscious efforts to make the general individual, to make fundaimental pedagogical principles concrete. The student teacher has for the last year and a\nhalf been talking glibly and learnedly, perhaps even enthusiastically, about these farreaching fundamentals. Let him keep his enthusiasm, and he will if it is not a mushroom\ngrowth, for he is to see just what these laws of teaching should mean to him in the classroom. In this struggle, which is not without its discouragements, and certainly not\nwithout great delights, his critic teacher is his sympathetic friend and helper.\nThe freedom that is granted the student should be everythmg that is not license ; it\nshould be the freedom of intelligence ; he should be limited in what he may do only by\nthe great laws of teaching to which he has declared his allegiance. In fact, only in\naccord nee with these laws can he be free. Under the kindly and intelligent guidance 6i\nhis critic teacher he applies these tests and moves consciously toward his ideal. In this\nexperience he comes face to face with the diffculties while there is someone near to whom\nhe may appeal, and who, in these concrete cases, may point the way to solutions which\nwould otherwise be discovered at great waste of time and energy to himself and the\nchildren. Here, as in no other way, he realizes the difference between talking about\naims ; good, bad, and indifferent questions ; sequence of questions ; self-activity ; child\ndoing the work, etc.; and actually doing creditable work from all these points of view\neconomically.\nHere he gradually becomes his own critic.\nProfessor Rein says concerning this point :\nThe work of the schoolroom is, and will remain, the test for how much the student must yet add to his\ninner treasures, first of knowledge, but, above all, of clearness, depth, and warmth of moral sentiment. Let\nus conceive the work of our little practice school in this spirit. We are fortunate that we have it. small and\nmodest as it is, for here we can separate the chaff from the wheat. Here is the field for the growth of character in the teacher who is willing to lessen the distance between himself and his ideal by unceasing effort, by\ndeeds rather than words.\n\nWe have too many lamentable examples of men well-grounded in theory and left to\nthemselves to learn the art without supervision and training. The point is well put by\n\" The Autocrat of the Breakfast Table \" :\nSelf-made men ? Well, yes. Everybody likes and respects self-made men. It is a great deal better to\nbe made in that way than not to be made at all. Are any of you younger people old enough to remember the\nIrishman's house on the marsh at Cambridgeport, which house he built from drain to chimney-top with his own\nhands ? It took him a good many years to build it, and one could see that it was a little out of plumb, and a\nlittle wavy in outline, and a little queer and uncertain in general aspect. A regular hand could certainly have\nbuilt a better house, but it was a very good home for a \" self-made \" carpenter's house, and people praised it\nand said how remarkably well the Irishman had succeeded. They never thought of praising the fine blocks of\nhouses a little farther on.\nYour self-made man whittled into shape with his own jack-knife deserves more credit, if that is all, than\nthe regular engine-turned article, shaped by the most approved pattern, and French-polished by society and\ntravel.\nBut as to saying that one is in every way equal to the other, that is another matter.\n\nA great deal has been said about criticism, not of a reassuring nature. Without\ncriticism there is no assurance that teaching in the training department, or elsewhere,\nmay not be positively harmful. It is necessarily expensive. There are no eyes for the\nstudent's faults but his own. His eyes have not been trained upon himself, nor is there a\nqualified friend at hand for consultation.\nThe student must be made a qualified and\n\n"}
{"page": 907, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nREP0K7\n\nON\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n899\n\nexacting critic of himself, else his growth will cease at commencement. Eternal selfexamination is the price of continual progress toward freedom in the teacher.\nThe real critic is not the chronic grumbler and fault-finder with never a word of\ncommendation ; he is not one whose function is to find faults, and who must find them\neven if they are not apparent to the naked eye, because he is paid for it. This sometime\nprevalent idea is based upon a false conception of the functions of criticism. Criticism\nis not necessarily adverse, nor should it ever be simply an opinion or an attack upon\ndevices or so-called \" methods \" in themselves, but only as they conform or do not conform to a principle. Criticism is interpretation. It calls for a perfect comprehension of\nthe purpose of the author, the artist, the physician, or the teacher, as the case may be ;\nthe means he has used to attain that purpose, and the result ; that is : What is he seeking\nto accomplish ? Is there anything more worthy of accomplishment in this particular\ncase ? If there is, show why. What other means would lend themselves better to this\nend ? Wherein were the means used not economical, not most economical ? Are the\nresults commensurate with the time and the effort ? Wherein has skill been manifested ?\nDo you object to any of the devices employed, or approve any ? Give the principles\ninvolved. Show how they are involved. Anything in a recitation that is not capable of\nbeing based upon a pedagogical law, somewhat as a proposition in geometry may be\nreduced to its axioms, is not capable of proper defense. No criticism that is not capable\nof being so based can be either strong or helpful. In pointing out a fault in the solution\nof a problem in geometry, nothing but an unfortunate manner in the instructor could\nmake it anything but helpful. No man would think of basing his criticism there on personal opinion.\nIn this way the criticism avoids trivialities, and is given an inevitable and impersonal\ncharacter seeming to come from the very nature of things, and so is unlikely to give\noffense. The real freedom of the student is not touche I. The critic, pointing out a new\nand right way, appears as the friend in need. The child making the familiar sloyd model,\nthe oblong window-stick, sees no necessity for making the edges straight and the angles\nright angles, except that the instructor requires it, whereas, in the construction of a simple\npencil box, without murmuring he will make six window-sticks (modified) with limitless\npains as to the edges and the angles, for it is the box itself that makes the demands.\nThere is no resentment here against the teacher.\nSumming up : In the practice school, then, the student has actual teaching. He makes\nconscious and directed efforts to realize the laws to which he is subject in actual recitations. He has the freedom of infinite variety under these laws. He goes out into the\nworld a self-critic, with the enthusiasm of intelligent insight, the possibility of infinite\ngrowth, and not blinded by a host of superficial devices.\nThesis XXVIH.\n\nThe training school should be the correlating center of the normal school.\n\nDr. Lucy L. W. Wilson, department of biology, Philadelphia Normal School. — A\nspecialist in normal schools is a product of recent conditions. In those happy days when\none fairly clever man could possess in a general, yet in a sufficiently thoro, way many\nbranches of knowledge, the head of a school could easily keep abreast of the times even\nin details. He could digest pedagogical pabulum rapidly enough for his teachers, and yet\nhave time for his executive work. Nowadays the former duty is more efficiently performed bythe trained specialists to be found in most normal-school faculties, and, in con\nsequence, anew task has fallen upon the principal, viz., to put on the brakes so that the\nengine be not driven off the track by a specialist who can see nothing in education except\nin or thru his particular line. For this work more than mere knowledge of various\nsubject-matters -is required. Heavenly grace and worldly wisdom combined are a deal\nmore necessary. Even with these it is a difficult problem to get from each department of\nthe normal school proper the most efficient aid for the training school.\nTwo difficulties stand in the way :\n\n"}
{"page": 908, "printed_page": null, "text": "900\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n. LNonnal]\n\n1. The normal-school teacher too often lacks recent experience with little childrei\nin the later developments of her own subject-matter.\n2. The grade teacher too often is either openly or secretly opposed to the introduc-|\ntion of all such later developments.\nThe average teacher has an immense reserve fund of inertia, and is ever ready to cr\n\"wolf,\" by saying to the specialist in that emphatic way of hers : \" It can't be done; thel\ncourse is already overloaded ; it is all yery nice, but it is not practical, for we have not]\nthe time.\" And then aside to her colleagues she utters that fatal phrase, \" the newest fad ! 'J\nYet there is much truth in all that she says, and unless one can put his finger on tha\ntruth, separating it from exaggeration, natural enough after all, he will be unable to make\nany headway against her opposition, and in fact he will be unworthy of success, since hiij\nfailure to recognize this modicum of truth shows that he has not thoroly studied the conditions.\nHow may the specialist conquer these obstacles ?\nHe must first train himself, and then train the others.\nHe may train himself (i) by teaching in the training school himself ; (2) by studying\nthe grade work as a whole, thus not only obtaining the knowledge that will enable him\nmake his subject-matter help and be helped by the other work, but also getting a sens\nof proportion that will keep him somewhat within bounds in his demands on the time both'\nof the children and of the grade teacher.\nIn teaching himself in the school of practice he\nhas begun to train the grade teacher.\nHe has learned the limitations, and she is learning\nthe possibilities.\nIn addition to this, the specialist should further help the grade teachers by holding\nrather frequent and wholly meaty faculty meetings — meetings dealing with facts and their\nmanagement, rather than with the aimless discussions of questionsof discipline, with which\nteachers are too often bored, not helped.\nTwo things else are essential to an intimate, helpful connection between the normal\nand the training school :\n1. That the specialist really prepared for the work in the ways indicated above should\noutline the courses of study in all the grades.\n2. That he should supervise the teaching both of the grade teacher and the pupil\nteacher, helping both by every means in his power, leading each to stand on her own feet\nin the end.\nThis, indeed, is the test of the normal-school specialist's efficiency. If he makes the\nteachers eager to do his special work with the children, then, and then only, has he succeeded in what should be his aim.\n/Esop's fable of the \" Belly and its Members \" has been quoted in other halls than this\nwhen questions of administration have been discussed. The truth that it embodies is so\nfundamental that its application is world-wide. It may be as clinching an illustration in\neducational congresses as it was in the Roman senate.\nMy own experience has proved to me that the period of standing apart in stubborn\nopposition and adverse criticism is passing away. Teachers are now hungry to be fed,\ngrateful for what is given them, eager and able to use it for their own upbuilding. And\nif we specialists would only remember, what we are apt to forget, that the training school\n\\^\\i\\x^ true center of the normal school, that our specialty must be subservient to its good,\nthen, indeed, will come the golden age of usefulness to all our normal schools.\nThesis XXV. The idea that a normal school should be provided with a training school and a mode!\nschool besides is hardly feasible.\n\nPresiue.nt W. E. Wilson, State Normal School, Ellensburg, Wash. — The thesis\nseems to assume that separate schools for observation and practice would be desirable.\nWe are to inquire into the feasibility of a desirable policy. But is not feasibility here a\nlocal question?\nWhy not feasible ? The hindrances seem to be (i) the cost, (2) the lack\n\n"}
{"page": 909, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nREPORT\n\nON\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n901\n\nof pupils perhaps ; (3) adverse sentiment, and (4) increased difficulties of administration.\nThese are surely not insurmountable hindrances everywhere. How far they are is a\nlocal question.\nThe vital question involved in this consideration of the general policy of normal\nschools is not what is feasible, but what is desirable — what is necessary for the highest\nefficiency of the schools.\nIt may safely be predicted that if it were deemed very important — even necessary to\nthe full success of a normal school — that separate schools for observation and practice be\nprovided, their maintenance would be found to be feasible at once in the normal schools\nthat are most liberally supported, and very quickly afterward such dual training schools\nwould become common, just as training schools and kindergartens were established everywhere as soon as their necessity came to be generally accepted.\nWe are discussing feasibility, the assertion of our thesis, but it is the assumption that\nought to have our attention. This seems to me the more important because behind the\nassumption that separate schools are desirable seems to be another, viz., that, after all,\nseparation is not necessary or very important. How important is it that a school for observation distinct from the school of practice be provided ? If, as some believe, the separation of practice schools from those for study and observation is necessary in order that\nthe art of teaching may be most advantageously studied, that is one of the most important\nadvances in normal-school policy that should immediately be made.\nIn discussing this question we should consider :\n1. Whether training schools, as departments of normal schools, need be made better\nschools for the children who compose them. It is widely thought that a training school\ncannot be as good a school for the children as one wholly under a regular teacher. There\nis a presumption against the training school as a good place for children, whether or not\nthis is well founded. Is it not worth while to inquire whether the dual training school\nmight not improve substantially the conditions for making the normal training school the\nbest kind of a school for children ? A school that is not a very good school for its pupils\ncannot be a very good school for the students who are learning to teach in it.\n2. Whether the single training school used \"for practice can also afford the necessary means of study, by observation of children, of the organization and management of\nschools and of teaching. The wisdom of founding the study of teaching upon concrete\nfacts, upon observation of schools and children and the work of teaching, is bound to get\nrecognition soon. The normal school must provide opportunity for its students, not merely\ncasually to observe, but systematically to study schools in operation. It will not be a\nquestion whether these schools for study should be in the hands of beginners or expert\nteachers, whether under continuous instruction and government or constantly changing\nteachers.\n3. Must not the normal school provide ample opportunity for practice and for progressive steps in practice, the last step being independent practice, the student being in\ncharge of the school thruout the day and for a period of some weeks ?\nIs it feasible to make the same school serve these several purposes well and answer\nthe demands that progress in teaching the art of teaching is making upon the training\nschool ? Can it be a practice school for students at all stages of their progress, and yet a\nfavorable place to form ideals and get the inspiration and suggestions which a student of\nany art finds in studying the work of a master ?\nThe question of feasibility cannot be answered by an expression of opinion or by discus ion. Itwill take a period of twentieth-century history to dispose of it. But what if\nit should be found upon trial that a system of training schools can be maintained in which\nmodel schools representing all the grades, taught by teachers of superior ability, are conducted separately from the schools in which practice is carried on in two or three stages ;\nand what if it were found that this system not only answered well each of the demands\n\n"}
{"page": 910, "printed_page": null, "text": "902\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal]\n\nmade upon it, but that its cost were only 25 per cent, to 50 per cent, more than the costj\nof schools necessary for practice alone ?\nI think it can be shown that a training school with 400 to 600 pupils can be con*|\nducted successfully upon the plan of separate schools at a cost not more than 25 per cent,\ngreater than proper provision for sufficient practice would require.\nWith 200 to 400 pupils the cost would be greater proportionally, and with fewer than!\n200 a complete system would hardly be feasible.\nThesis XXIV,\nUutil a high degree of independence and skill in planning and conducting recitations!\nhas been attained, the written plan of each recitation, after having been accepted by the critic teacher, shoub\nlie upon the table in the room during the period of instruction, subject to general inspection.\n\nMiss Marion Brown, principal of the New Orleans Normal School. — The aim of J\nnormal-school training is to ground students thoroly in the prmciples of education and!\ntheir application to the various branches now in our common-school curriculum, and to]\ntrain students to put theory into successful practice in actual schoolroom work, thereby]\ndeveloping and testing the student's teaching power.\nThe student, ready to begin practice teaching, is at least eighteen years of age, usually]\nsomewhat older, has had a high-school education or its equivalent, a review of the common-school branches with a view of teaching them, considerable practice in making]\nlesson plans, observations of model lessons given by teachers and fellow-students, and!\nconsiderable theoretical knowledge of the principles of teaching and governing.\nPractice teaching is intended to give students an insight into and a measure of control over the details of teaching and managing an ordinary schoolroom ; to develop the\nstudent's power by making him work out his own salvation in the light of previous\npreparation, with assistance and suggestions from the critic teacher.\nIn the ordinary public-school room a teacher has charge of from thirty to fifty children at least. She must plan for the eight or ten subjects now in our elementary-school\n(furriculum, for their correlation with each other and with the seat work, for the relation\nof the day's work to the week's work and to the year's work, for the many minor details\nof merely mechanical work, and for the equally as important relations of the children to\nthe teacher and to each other.\nThat t.ie teacher successfully to meet these varied demands on time and strength,\nmental and physical, needs a special training goes without sa)'ing.\n\" Events never disclose a plan to a planless man ; \" therefore the normal school must\nexact plans frequent and varied. The student must be able to plan elaborately, taking\nnote of many details ; also to make effective brief working plans, fitted for the crowded\nday and heavily taxed strength of the ordinary grade teacher.\nIf students are kept too long on making elaborate plans, there is danger that they\nmay come to regard the children as made for the plan and not the plan for the children;\nthey will incline to adhere too closely to the plan approved by the critic teacher.\nStudents must be trained to plan carefully and thoughtfully, and to be critical of\ntheir own plans and work. They must also be trained to plan the day's work without\ntoo much labor; hence as soon as possible, when doing practice teaching, students should\nassume the responsibility of making their own plans ; the critic teacher should then\nrequire a sort of skeleton plan according to a definite order, including a memorandum of\nwork accomplished and a sketch or outline of the proposed work.\nStudents failing to plan successfully should be required to make plans, detailed and\nskeleton, for designated work, until defects have been remedied.\nIn our desire to require of students the skill and finish of experienced teachers, and\nin the desire of heads of departments to make the work of their departments the work\npar excellence of the training school, we are beginning to lose sight of the students themselves.\nThe merely mechanical work of the daily writing out of elaborate plans with sufficient neatness to escape the censure of the critic teacher is quite a tax on time and\n\n"}
{"page": 911, "printed_page": null, "text": "'Department]\n\nREPORT\n\nON\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nyC3\n\nstrength ; students soon come to see that elaborate planning is impossible when their\npresent teaching time shall be multiplied by four or five in their own schoolrooms, and,\nunless they be taught some form of plan more suited to the exactions of an ordinary\nteacher's time, they will encounter the Scylla of overtaxing themselves by too conscientious effort to follow training, or fall into the Charybdis of letting luck replace continuous\neffort.\nWe can foretell the result in both cases.\nThesis X. Next to a wholesome personality, the special feature of a critic teacher should be the ability\nto show particularly the merits, as well as the defects, of instruction, basing criticisms plainly upon accepted\nprinciples of teaching.\n\nMiss Harriet\n\nM. Scott, Normal\n\nTraining School, Detroit, Mich. — A wholesome\n\npersonality is desirable. A teacher's influence depends more upon what she is than upon\nwhat she says.\nWhat she is depends upon her philosophy of life.\nThis time of rapid development, when old landmarks are disappearing, demands for\na teacher one who is well-poised, one who has a positive rational and ideal outlook upon\nlife. Any other attitude fails to provide healthful stimulus, and to communicate the\nsteadiness and serenity essential to the best work.\nThe critic teacher needs to study students as individuals. She will thus know the\ntalents, deficiencies, and needs of each student. The teacher's efforts after such study\nwould be directed toward the highest advancement of those showing fitness for the work.\nThe greatest advancement is promoted thru the positive course (showing the merits).\nThe negative course (showing defects) without, the positive is of no value. The\nnegative can be used temporarily as a spur or warning, but the positive gives a standard\nor ideal toward which to work. Prolonged consciousness of defects produces discouragement and depression. The student needs the highest vitality for the work; discouragement and depression lower vitality.\nA good critic teacher requires general culture, professional knowledge, and skill in\nteaching. Otherwise criticisms are more or less matters of opinion rather than knowledge, and hence cannot be vital. The acceptance of criticism or ability to defend one's\nposition is quite as necessary as that criticism should be given ; hence there should be\nsome common ground for argument. This can be found only in accepted principles of\nteaching. Criticism based upon principles prevents off-hand judgments, inspires confidence, and forms the basis for future progress.\n\n"}
{"page": 912, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF MANUAL\n\nSECRETARY'S\nFIRST\n\nTRAINING\n\nMINUTES\n\nSESSION.— Wednesday,\n\nJuly 12, 1899\n\nThe first session of the department was opened in Elk's Hall, 231 South Spring\nstreet. Jn the absence of the president, Judson E. Hoyt, Menomonie, Wis., and the\nsecretary, Charles A. Bennett, Peoria, 111., Principal Charles H. Keyes, Holyoke, Mass.,\nacted as president, and James E. Addicott, of San Jos^ Normal School, California, as\nsecretary.\nThe first paper read before the department was entitled \" The Teacher in the ManualTraining School,\" by W. A. Edwards, president of Throop Polytechnic Institute, Pasadena, Cal.\nThe second paper was read by Vinton S. Paessler, principal of Barlow School of\nIndustrial Arts, Binghamton, N. Y.; subject, \" The Educational Value of MetalW^orking.\"\nDiscussion of the two papers read by William F. Ringnaldo, of California ; Frank\nH. Hall, Chicago, 111. ; C. A. Kunou, Los Angeles, Cal., and Principal C. H. Keyes>\nHolyoke, Mass.\nThe department voted to recommend\n\nto the Board of Directors a change of the\n\nname \" Manual and Industrial Department \" to the \" Department of Manual Training,\"\nand the secretary was asked to communicate this action to that body.\nActing-President C. H. Keyes then appointed the following nominating committee :\nC. A. Kunou, Los Angeles, Cal.\nV. S. Paessler, of New York.\nFrank H. Hall, of Illinois.\n\nThe meeting was adjourned to meet the following day at 2 : 30.\nSECOND\n\nSESSION.— Thursday,\n\nJuly 13\n\nThe department was called to order at 3 p. M. by Acting-President Keyes.\nThe Committee on Nominations reported the following nominees :\nVox President — Charles H. Keyes, of Massachusetts.\nFor Vice-President — Charles A. Bennett, of Illinois.\nFor Secretary — L. A. Buchanan, of California.\n\nOn motion, the report of the nominating committee was received, and the secretary\nwas instructed by a unanimous vote of the department to cast the ballot for the nominees.\nThe first paper on the program was read by Miss Gertrude E. English, principal of\nFarren School, Chicago, 111., on \" Constructive Work in the Elementary Schools.\" The\npaper was discussed by Mrs. C. L. Place, of the State Normal School, San Jose, Cal.\nThe second paper was read by James E. Addicott, State Normal\n\nSchool, San Jose,\n\nCal., the subject being \" Correlation of Manual Training with Other School Subjects.\" The\npaper was discussed by P. M. Fisher, Oakland, Cal., and F. H. Meyer, Stockton, Cal.\nThe next paper was read by Miss Annette Johnson, Los Angeles, Cal., on \"The\nManual-Training System of Los Angeles.\"\nIn the general discussion which followed the following members took part : C. A.\nKunou, Los Angeles, Cal.; Miss Perla G. Bowman, of Ohio; Miss Edna Rich, Santa\n904\n\n"}
{"page": 913, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department] THE\n\nTEACHER\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nMANUAL-TRAINING\n\nSCHOOL\n\n905\n\nBarbara, Cal.; Miss Mertice MacCrea Buck, New York city; President C. H. Keyes,\nHolyoke, Mass.; P. M. Fisher, Oakland, Cal.; C. M. Miller, Los Angeles, Cal.; Charles\nH. Wright, Pasadena, Cal.; L. W. Buchholz, Tempe, Fla.\nJames E. Addicott,\nSecretary.\n\nPAPERS\nTHE\nBY\n\nWALTER\n\nTEACHER\nA.\n\nIN\n\nEDWARDS,\n\nAND\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nTHE\n\nMANUAL-TRAINING\n\nPRESIDENT\nPASADENA,\n\nTHROOP\n\nPOLYTECHNIC\n\nSCHOOL\nINSTITUTE,\n\nCAL.\n\nCharles Lamb, speaking of his sister Mary, tells us that her education was not much attended to, but that \"she was tumbled early, by\naccident or design, into a spacious closet of good old English reading,\nwithout much sele,:tion or prohibition, and browsed at will upon that fair\nand wholesome pasturage.\" And he adds : \" Had I twenty girls, they\nshould be brought up in exactly this fashion.\" However highly we may\nvalue the study of English literature as a means of education, I suppose\nnone of us would be ready to adopt the whimsical educational scheme\nhere outlined. Its one great defect is the omission, not of certain essentials of the modern curriculum — number work, nature study, or even sloyd\n— but the lack of an intelligent, sympathetic, living teacher. Not books,\napparatus, method, but teachers make a school. President Harper has\ntruly said that the old definition of a university — a saw-log with Mark\nHopkins and a student sitting on it — is entirely inadequate in view of the\nelaborate equipment now demanded in universities. But it still remains\ntrue that the saw-log with Mark Hopkins comes much nearer the ideal\nuniversity than all the material equipment of Williams College without\nhim and his fellow-teachers. '^I'he soul of the child is akin, not to the\nlifeless matter about him, but to the soul of his teacher. And he recognizes and responds to this relationship. \" Iron sharpeneth iron : so a\nman sharpeneth the countenance of his friend.\"\nBut it is surely unnecessary for me to urge upon the consideration of\nthis audience arguments to establish the importance of the teacher.\nAccepting this without further discussion, we may well ask where we are\nto get the best teachers as we need them. What training ought they to\nhave had, and what kind of an institution will best give that training?\nOne of our important industries in this and other parts of the country is\nthe manufacture of sugar from the sugar-beet. Now, I understand that\nthe managers of beet-sugar factories, knowing just how many beets they\ncan use in a season, are not content to trust to chance for their annual\nsupply, but make long-time\n\ncontracts with the farmers\n\nround\n\nabout, the\n\n"}
{"page": 914, "printed_page": null, "text": "9o6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nfarmers agreeing to plant yearly a certain acreage with beets, and the factory covenanting to buy the product. Let us be not less wise in our day\nand generation, but, knowing something of the qualifications needed in a\nteacher in a manual-training school, let us do what we can to insure\nproper and adequate training for those who are to teach.\nWhere may one best make his preparation for the teaching of sloyd ?\nShall he be content with the sloyd training given in such of our standard normal schools as include this subject in their curriculum, or shall he\nseek, the opportunities of such special schools as the Sloyd Training\nSchool of Boston ? Shall he take a general teacher's training course of\nthree or four years, making a more or less thoro study of all the subjects\nof the curriculum — and incidentally of sloyd — exploring their varying\neducational values, learning how they may be best used for the education\nof the young, studying the psychology of the child and the laws of his\ndevelopment, trying to solve the larger educational problem, and incidentally the problem of sloyd education therein contained ? Or shall he,\nhaving secured a fair general education, with some knowledge of pedagogical theory and the work of the teacher — shall he give a year or two\nof intensive study to the special problems of sloyd in a school where\nsloyd is the dominant interest, and where it may be studied with the\nthoroness and single-mindedness which the enthusiast demands ? These\n.questions are not applicable to sloyd alone. They may be asked with\nregard to other so-called \"special\" subjects — music, drawing, gymnastics,\netc. And perhaps in the case of each of these special subjects, certainly\nin the case of sloyd, considerations on each side are severally so strong\nthat it is not easy, probably as yet not possible, to give a categorical\nanswer. Permit me to indicate the points of departure of the argument\nand some modifying considerations which we must bear in mind.\nWe must begin with the child and his needs, as indeed the pedagogy\nof the day rests primarily upon a study of the child. What light does a\nconsideration of his needs in the school shed on the question ? It tells\nus, for one thing, that there should be a unity in his program of daily\nwork. He divides his time between reading, number work, science study,\nand what not, but these must not be utterly disconnected with one another\nand his day's work disjointed. He should study, not half a dozen isolated\nsubjects, each stealing interest and attention from the others, resulting in\na distraction of effort and dissipation of strength, but a series of topics\nvarying greatly, but having real and significant relations with one another —\nrelations which the child himself in some measure appreciates — so that one\nstudy lends aid to another. This essential and pervading unity in diversity must exist in the mind of the teacher, else it cannot exist for the\npupil. The connections between the different subjects are not so obvious\nthat he who runs may read. They are oftenest not superficial, but\ndeeper-lying, and are appreciated, not so much when mentioned only or\n\n"}
{"page": 915, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nTEACHER\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nMANUAL-TRAINING\n\nSCHOOL\n\n907\n\npointed out, but when made vital and real by habitual recognition in the\ndaily work. The teacher of any subject, then, must have been thoroly\ninstructed in all the subjects of the curriculum and in their interrelations.\nAnd to this end he must have studied them as parts of a harmonious\nwhole, not as isolated topics. There is, then, a marked advantage if the\nsloyd teacher has made his professional preparation in a school with a\ncomplete curriculum, in which sloyd occupies its normal place and sustains its normal relations with the other subjects.\nWe cannot, however, leave the subject here. It does not necessarily\nfollow that sloyd teachers should make their preparation in the regular\nnormal schools. In the first place, not many of our normal schools are\nnow giving sloyd instruction, and other facilities for such teaching are\nstill needed. But more than this is true. Special schools for the training of sloyd teachers are not only a necessity until the work is taken up\nby enough normal schools to satisfy the demand, but they must do a\nwork which the normal schools cannot do. For the present sloyd is\ncomparatively a new subject. Those who wish to teach it have themselves had no sloyd instruction as children. The subject is entirely\nstrange to them. They need a longer course in sloyd and a fuller exploration in this field than in the other subjects of the curriculum. With\nthese they have already made acquaintance, and in them they have\nalready attained proficiency. The would-be teacher needs to study such\nsubjects, for the most part only professionally, in order to learn what their\npedagogical value is and to study methods of teaching them. Sloyd he\nmust learn practically as well as professionally. He must master it as a\nnew subject, must himself acquire skill in it, must begin as a tyro and cover\nthe whole course, and at the same time he must study it as one who is to\nteach it. Either a disproportionate prominence must be given to sloyd\namong the usual normal-school subjects, or we must have schools in which\nthis may be done. The former alternative — giving special time and attention to sloyd in the regular courses — is undesirable as destroying the balance of topics and time in the curriculum. Not many of our normal pupils\ndesire to become special teachers of sloyd, and it would be unwise to construct our normal courses to meet the needs of the few. The alternative\nis to provide those who intend to teach sloyd with the opportunities\navailable in a special school.\nMoreover, the subject itself needs the special study which is possible\nonly in a special school. There remains still much to be done in mastering\nand applying its principles, in further adapting the system as we now have\nit to the conditions of today's schools. There are needed the special\nlaboratory and library facilities, the larger opportunity of time and interest, the greater concentration of thought and effort, undisturbed by other\ninterests, which are the strength and the raison d'etre of the special school.\nThe still unsolved problems of sloyd and manual training must be largely\nworked out in these special schools.\n\n"}
{"page": 916, "printed_page": null, "text": "9o8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nWhat ideal of a manual-training teacher should these schools, and for\nthat matter all training schools, hold up ? Is special emphasis to be laid\nupon the mechanical or the pedagogical side of the work ? The old\nquestion, Do we want a mechanic or a teacher in the school shop? is now\nuniformly answered by saying that we want a teacher. We want a man\nwho understands how to teach. We want an educated man, who will.\ncommand the respect of his pupils for his refinement and culture, for his\nhabitual use of correct English, for his interest in things intellectual, for\nhis unfailing courtesy, for his loyalty to principle, and for his nobility of\ncharacter. Yes, he must be a teacher — everything in education and\nculture and character which we would have any teacher be. But this\nanswer, while good, is not complete. We do, indeed, want a teacher, but\na teacher who is also a mechanic. He must be a master of the mechanical work in which he seeks to give instruction. We never think of tolerating any deficiency on the part of the teacher in any other subject.\nImagine a \"good teacher\" trying to teach arithmetic and blundering in\nhis figures, or taking a class in Latin and constantly getting his forms\nwrong ! Educational mechanics must be workmanlike in order to be\neducational. The boys must thoroly and spontaneously respect the\nworkmanship of their teacher. He must be a good cabinet-maker if, as\na teacher, he is to be a good character-maker. If his work in the shop\ndoes not command their respect and admiration, if it is amateurish, if\nit is inaccurate and shackly, no amount or variety of attainment on his\npart in other lines can avail to command and hold their respect. His\nwork must be good, and he must exact good work of them, teaching them\non their part to be content with nothing less. Bungling, careless work\nis neither educationally nor commercially worth the material wasted on\nit. Here we want nothing less than the best. The following suggestive\nsign was once displayed before a grocery store : \" Absolutely fresh eggs,\n25 cents a dozen; fresh eggs, 20 cents; eggs, 15 cents.\" It is recorded\nthat the grocer readily sold out his twenty-five cent stock, but at the end\nof the day had his \"fresh eggs\" and \"eggs\" still on hand.\nThe preparation of teachers for our more advanced shop-work — the\nmore difficult wood-work, the work of the forging-room, and of the\nmachine shop — must doubtless be made either in schools of technology\nor in such training schools — like Teachers' College of Columbia University— as offer sufficient accommodation for the mastery of this work. Both\nkinds of schools have their peculiar advantages. In the training school\nattention is directed largely to the educational value of the various exercises, and a study is made of the pedagogical principles on which a manualtraining course must be constructed. In the technical school the door is\nopen to a wider view of the mechanical principles practiced in the shop.\nThe student is alive to the tremendous importance, in civilization and\nindustry, of the practical arts whose elements he is acquiring.\nThe\n\n"}
{"page": 917, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nTEACHER\n\nIN THE\n\nMANUAL-TRAINING\n\nSCHOOL\n\ngag\n\npolytechnic student, gathering his shells upon the beach, is conscious of\nthe mighty ocean of industrial enterprise which rolls before him, as the\nstudent in the training school cannot be. The former appreciates, as the\nlatter cannot, both the comparative inadequacy of his own school attainments in handicraft and also the transcendent significance of these few\nelementary processes as the foundation of the mighty structure of\nmechanical achievement. His outlook into the industrial world makes\nhim truly wise and truly humble.\nMy subject is \"The Teacher in the Manual-Training School,\" and so\nfar I have spoken only of the manual-training teacher. He is usually\nthought of as the characteristic feature of the manual-training school.\nThe public is, indeed, vaguely conscious that there are other teachers in\nthe school, but when the words \"manual training\" are heard, the average\ncitizen thinks of carpenter's bench and blacksmith's forge. Let me, then,\nsay plainly that in a manual-training school there are also teachers of his\ntory and mathematics, German and science. And we may well pause a\nmoment upon the function of these teachers, for their work is not, in all\npoints, identical with that of teachers in schools without manual training.\nThey must deal with a larger variety of interests. They must recognize ambitions and life-plans different from those they have been familiar\nwith. The problem of discipline is doubtless nmch easier for them, but\nthey have fewer idlers and triflers to deal with. Among the larger proportion of serious-minded boys and girls that fall to their charge there are\nnecessarily many whose views are narrow, and whose aspirations, while\nnot unworthy, need clarifying and ennobling. This is both the divine\nprivilege and the difficult task of the teacher in the manual-training\nschool. For one of the glories of manual training is that it often awakens\notherwise unresponsive souls, and wisely to direct a wide-awake soul is a\nharder task than to watch over a sleeping one. But, if harder, how much\nmore inspiring, and with how much greater reward ! All the tact and\nsympathy and wisdom in the world are needed, not to check the abounding activity and ambition of the boy, but to chasten them, to direct them\nin right channels, to detach them gently from lower, ignoble things, and\nto fix them on things above. The fact is that in a manual-training\nschool the teacher of academic subjects is simply compelled to keep the\ninterest and profitableness of his work up to high-water mark. The\nstudent has a keener zest in all his work, and every teacher must meet\nand satisfy this awakened interest. Greater activity on the part of the\nteacher, a firmer grip on the subject-matter of the lesson and on the\ncourse of the recitation, a more alert watchfulness to guide and direct —\nthes^ are necessary, if the restless mental activity of the class is to be\nprofitably employed.\nA greater intellectual catholicity is demanded of the teacher in the\nmanual-training school — a truer understanding of the other branches,\n\n"}
{"page": 918, "printed_page": null, "text": "9 16\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEbUCAttON A L ASSOCtA'TtOM\n\n[Manual Training\n\nmental and manual, of the curriculum, and of the relations between them\nand his own. The instructor in book subjects must know something of\nthe aims, methods, and attainments in shop-work in order to be able to\navail himself more fully of such shop material as can be used in his\nrecitation. He cannot deal intelligently with the boys and girls before\nhim unless he has some intelligent and sympathetic comprehension of\ntheir work in the shop, which occupies so large a part of their day and\ninterest.\nWhy not make my statement more comprehensive, and gather under\nthis responsibility all the teachers in the manual-training school — for in\nno other school is conscious effort for co-operation more needed? Of\ncourse, no company of teachers working with the same body of students\ncan accomplish much of good without a large degree of co-operation. But\nin the case of the usual academic subjects much of fhis takes care of itself,\nbecause of the already recognized relationship between these subjects.\nThe most isolated teaching does not prevent history and science from helping English, and English and Latin from helping each other. But the\nsubjects and activities of a manual-training school are superficially so\ndiverse, their relations (to many of us at least) so unfamiliar, that a more\nconscious and more sustained purpose is needed on the part of all to\nhold them together and secure unified action. Here, then, most of all,\nis a full understanding among all teachers of the school necessary. Look\nnot every man on his own things, but every man also on the things of\nothers.\nThe manual-training school asks much of teachers. It does not\nbreak them down with heavy burdens, nor weary them with a dull round\nof daily drudgery. But it gives them tasks demanding wisdom, tact,\nalertness, breadth of view and sympathy, readiness in dealing with life.\nIn such a school, rather more, I think, than in most schools without\nmanual work, the teacher must prove himself master of vigorous and\ngrowing life-forces. Higher generalship is needed. The teacher must\ndo more of what is, I believe, called team-work. School problems here\nare rather more complicated than in other schools, and are attacked from\nmore directions. But the teacher's reward is proportionately greater.\nHe has the satisfaction of knowing that the boys and girls before him\nare in earnest ; that his relation to them is vital ; that they come to him\nbecause not only their parents, but they themselves, want what he can give.\nWhat they get from him they expect to keep. They expect to \"use it in\ntheir business.\" I do not mean to imply that these rewards are not for\nall teachers as well. But I do believe that to the teacher in the manualtraining school, above his brethren in other institutions, is given the\nreward of greater present recognition and gratitude, and a larger permanent influence over the characters and the lives of his pupils.\n\n"}
{"page": 919, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nBY\n\nTHE\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nTHE\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nVINTON\n\nS.\n\nPAESSLER,\n\nVALUE\n\nOF METAL-WORKING\n\nVALUE\n\nPRINCIPAL\n\nOF\n\n911\n\nOF METAL-WORKING\n\nBARLOW\n\nARTS, BINGHAMTON,\n\nSCHOOL\n\nOF\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nN. Y.\n\nThis world has been most wonderfully furnished with every good\nthing. The only bar to its fullest enjoyment is our lack of that inexpressible exaltation of mind which we call appreciation. President\nRaymond of Union College says : \"Education is the development of the\nability to appreciate and choose the best things.\" The end of education\nalways remains the same. The means of attaining this end are not so\nclearly defined. There is nothing constant but change, in environment\nas well as in our knowledge of the development of the mind. Invention\nand discovery crowd each other. Each new day sees the problem of\ncivilization growing more complex.\nIn the midst of all these perplexing scenes stands the alma mater\nlooking kindly down upon her children. Her first duty to them is to\nhelp them to help themselves, building carefully \" precept upon precept,\nprecept upon precept, line upon line, line upon line, here a little and\nthere a little,\" carefully adapting the subject to the capacity of the pupil\ntaught.\nWhen the educational mind is able to assimilate every new discovery\nand make the proper co-ordination or subordination for every new invention, choosing with intelligent discrimination that which is best suited\nto the educational end, thus reflecting the best and most important thought\nalong every line, then shall we have an educational system subservient to\nthe highest weal.\nThe world today wants men. They are wanted to do something.\nEducation must contain an element of severe personal conflict and\nvictory, patiently asking, seeking, knocking. Let education cost as much\nas it will, it cannot cost as much as illiteracy or ignorance. Today in\nfree America ignorance is a crime.\nLast year, at Washington, President J. M. Greenwood, in the early\npart of his address, asked the question : \" Have we not done wonderful\nthings with coal, iron, the vapor of water — with chemistry to paint our\npictures and electricity to talk for us ?\" This afternoon we can ask the\nquestion this way : Have we not done wonderful things with metal, and\nhas it not done wonderful things for us ?\nWithout metal, and with nothing to take its* place, we should be in\na more pitiable condition than were the aborigines without a piece of\nsteel to strike a fire. What has happened is this : metal has conquered\nthe proud forests and turned the timber into lumber.\nThe lumber has\n\n"}
{"page": 920, "printed_page": null, "text": "912\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nI\n\nbecome furniture, houses, barns, fences, wagons, bridges, etc., and without the aid of saw, ax, and chisel, brace, bit, and plane, all tools of iron,\n\" was not anything made that was made.\" But for the keen edge of steel\nand strong fingers of metal, nations would perish for want of food. Metal\nis the conveyance by which science most largely travels on expeditions\nof investigation and discovery. Eliminate the metal in inorganic chemistry, and two-thirds of it is gone. Without its aid in physics nothing\ncould be done. Electricity would not talk for us, nor give us light and\nheat. The schoolhouse itself would fail, the industry of the world would\nperish for lack of tools with which to do her work. Without metal the\nwheel of progress would cease to turn. In all lines of work in this physical world we, like the spokes in the hub, are held in our place in civilization by a band of iron, and revolve about a shaft of polished metal. Our\ncities are a perfect network of water-, gas-, and sewer-piping ; telegraph,\ntelephone, and electric-light wires ; street railroads and trolley lines ;\nwhile the ocean cable and the ocean steamer make of the nations of the -l\nearth one grand family. The fine adjustment of the little microscope\nmakes possible the revelation of our tiny friends and minute enemies.\nThe great telescope, operated by its finely adjusted driving-clock, permits\nus to visit our big neighbors far and near.\nMetal-working is the parent industry to which every other industry\nprimarily owes its existence. It is the one industry that makes America\ngreat in the eyes of the world today. It is the bone and sinew of our\ncivilization. Old England admits that her Yankee cousins are ahead of\nher in railroad locomotive science, and our shipbuilding is not far behind\nthat of the mother country.\nIn metal-working, as in every other profession, the increasing demand\nof the age requires wide study and incessant toil. The corrosion of\nignorance in any vocation causes a blight. Today we are expected to know\nand appreciate much that is outside of our immediate fields of action.\nThis is necessary to the stability of our social organism and that selfrespect which is the noblest garment with which a man may clothe himself. Helpless dependence has always lived in gloom and traveled on\na rough road. \" Eyes they have and see not, ears and hear not ; \" with\nclumsy fingers and stumbling feet life is a burden and its just reward\ndefeat. Mother Nature successfully reveals her secrets not to these. They\nare given to those who can appreciate and develop them. Metal-working\nis necessary to an appreciation of the wonderful furnishings of this world\nand the growth of our civilization. Skill and art in metal-working have\nalways been so necessary to human existence that it is impossible to\ndiscover when the metallic thread began to be woven into the web of\nprogress. In Gen. 4 : 22, 4,000 years B. C, we read that Tubal-cain was\nan instructor of every artificer in brass and iron, thus giving metal-working\n\n"}
{"page": 921, "printed_page": null, "text": "DepartmentJ\n\nTHE\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nVALUE\n\nOF METAL-WORKING\n\ncredit of having the first recorded teacher.\n\n913\n\nIn 1500 B. C. civilization\n\nhad so far advanced that the barber's razor was used.\nJohn Fiske in his Discovery of America says :\nIn the period of savagery hatchets and spear-heads were made of rudely chipped\nstones. In the lower period of barbarism the chipping became more and more skillful,\nuntil it gave place to polishing. In the middle period tools were greatly multiplied,\nimproved polishing gave sharp and accurate points and edges, and at last metals began\nto be used as materials preferable to stone\nToward the close of the middle period\nof barbarism the working of metal became the most important element of progress, and\nthe period may be regarded as ending with the invention of the process of smelting iron\nore\nThe upper status of barbarism, in so far as it implies a knowledge of smelting\niron, was never reached in aboriginal America. In the Old World it is the stage which\nhad been reached by the Greeks of the Homeric ppems and the Germans in the time of\nCiEsar. The end of this period and the beginning of the true civilization is marked by\nthe invention of the phonetic alphabet and the production of written records. This brings\nwithin the pale of civilization such people as the ancient Ph(«nicians, the Hebrews after\nthe exodus, the ruling classes at Nineveh and Babylon, the Aryans of Persia and India,\nand the Japanese. But clearly it will not do to insist too narrowly upon the phonetic\ncharacter of the alphabet ; where people acquainted with iron have enshrined in hieroglyphics so much matter of historic record and literary interest as the Chinese and the\nancient Egyptians, they too must be classed as civilized.\n\nThis very brilliant classification, from a purely historic point of view,\nshowing the stages of progress keeping company with metal-working,\nsurely fits our subject very closely by showing the educational value of\nmetal-working.\nIf we compare the nations of the world today, we shall have little difficulty in discovering that the nation having the highest degree of civilization leads in invention, discovery, and commercial prosperity. But is\ncommercial prosperity necessary to the ideal civilization, or does it only\nindicate it ? What has industrial success or depression to do with what\nstands for weal or woe ? Are all of these great interests in their various\nforms independent of each other, or do they combine to make a nation\nstrong or weak ? If they do make a nation what it is — and I believe they\ndo — what should be the points of contact between the life within the\nschool and the life after leaving school ? In other words, does education\ntoday successfully prepare for the voyage of life ? Does it study the map\nof progress, and is the pupil brought closely in touch with the large possibilities and opportunities of successful living ?\nThe educational value of metal-working is the impression received\nand the developed appreciation of power to control matter. It is positively asserted that boys make better business-men in consequence of\nhaving their quickness of practical perception and ability to do developed.\nThis is not to be considered utilitarian in any sense. Each individual\nshould become his own great opportunity by studying to show himself\napproved, \"a workman that needeth not to be ashamed.\" An education\nfor the sole purpose of inaking a living is like the cry, \"Rags!\nAny\n\n"}
{"page": 922, "printed_page": null, "text": "914\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nold rags or bottles ! \" while an education to live reaches out to a soul's\nbright home.\nIn 1894 Dr. G. Stanley Hall said that as a boy he was brought up on\na farm among old-fashioned industries, and he was justly proud of the\nmany things he learned and could do.\nHe said :\nI can mow ; I can milk a cow, and know the right side, which many an artist does\nnot ; I can whet my own scythe ; I know how to make a garden ; I have woven a piece\nof cloth, or helped to do it, all myself\nI can plant, chop, butcher, team it, cut ice,\netc., make cider, maple sugar, fences, and stone walls ; and all these things have stood me\nin useful stead in the laboratory, where a man must know how to do a little of everything.\n\nLater, in Germany, he took a dozen lessons in bookbinding and a\nhalf dozen more in glass-blowing, and in 1891 or 1892 he found a goldbeater in Boston who gave him some lessons in the fine points of goldbeating.\nThis is only a little patch in the life-progress of one man. We will\ncall it uncultivated nature study extended to a study of metal. But just\nhere apply some good educational-efficiency-recording device and see\nhow much soul-expanding, how much thoughtful appreciation, how much\npower of adaptation has taken place in the evolving life-process ! Now,\nyou cannot teach a boy how to drive a nail by placing him in a chair and\nlecturing him. He must have the hammer and the nails. Then he is\nhappy. He wants to drive nails everywhere. He wants to know why\nthey go in. He wants to have you see him do it. \" Did God make the\nnails ? Where did the hammer come from ? \" Then he wants some big\nnails and a few more little ones; he needs them for so many things. Let\nme tell you a secret. I believe he does need them that certain brain\ncells which otherwise would not be developed may be developed. Tell\nhim about screws and give him some, and a screw-driver. You cannot\nbegin to answer all his questions. Again, let him see you file a piece of\nlead, a piece of brass, a piece of iron, a piece of steel ; let him do it for\nhimself; then listen to his questions : \"Why is the lead so soft ? Why is\nthe steel so hard ? Will the file cut my knife, or will my knife cut the\nfile ? If the file will not cut* my knife, how and why does the whetstone\nsharpen it ? Is the whetstone stronger and sharper than the file ? \" A\ncouple of months ago a large kindergarten class came into our forge\nshop. They looked at everything, they wanted to know everything.\nSome of them tried to bend a piece of iron, and did bend it when it was\nheated in the center. Then when it had cooled they tried to bend it\nback, but could not until it was heated again. \"What have the children\nlearned?\" do you say. Very surely nothing that they will be compelled\nto unlearn, and their souls have been helped to expand as surely as the\nsparks fly upward. Again, let the children see how smooth a sharp, thin\nknife will cut soft pine; then heat it red-hot, and when it has cooled\nslowly try to cut another piece of pine, and compare the pieces so cut;\n\n"}
{"page": 923, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nVALUE\n\nOF METAL-WORKING\n\n915\n\nthen show them the knife with its bent and ruined edge. They will\nrecognize the injury the knife has sustained, tho they do not understand it. At this time that is unnecessary. Why, someone a short time\nago asked Mr. Edison, \"What is electricity?\" and the great electrician\nanswered, \"I don't know.\"\nA little knowledge of metal-working is necessary to successful woodworking. The pupils in the joinery class should know how to sharpen\nand keep in order every one of their cutting tools. If the condition of\na tool specially adapted by its form to do a certain class of work is not\nappreciated by the pupil, the work done by the aid of the tool will be of\nlittle educational value. We must have appreciative ////pression before\nwe can get good ^.xrpression. This thought should extend to every class\nfor boys or girls where tools or instruments are used.\nSome will no doubt say that care for tools is not metal-working, just\nas it is said that wire-work, bent-iron work, sheet-lead development, etc.,\nare simply bending and forming material, and are thus exceptions rather\nthan types of metal-working. Let this be as it may ; I believe that care\nfor tools and instruments is valuable, and is as much metal-working as\n\"a penny saved is money earned.\"\nMetal-spinning involves a knowledge of wood-turning where metal\nforms are not used. It can be successfully done on the ordinary woodturning lathe, at very little expense; Nos. 24, 25, and 26 sheet brass,\ncopper, and aluminum being good for the purpose. The brass and\ncopper demand frequent annealing. This work cultivates the aesthetic\ntaste and demonstrates the flowing property of metal.\nSheet-metal work opens up a large field for many metals — iron, copper,\nbrass, zinc, tin, etc. — and is valuable for its wealth of development and\nthe skill required in forming, raising, joining, riveting, etc., and involves\na good knowledge of drawing and descriptive geometry.\nChipping and filing are valuable, as they prepare the way to a proper\nunderstanding of the form — quality necessary to metal-cutting tools,\nbesides giving training in that skill so necessary to a correct and easy\nposition when using hammer or chisel, file or scraper. Only those who\nhave experienced the exacting demands of die-sinking can fully appreciate\nthis work.\nIn machine-tool work the boy who successfully makes a dynamo,\nwrapping the armature and magnets, building the commutator, and adjusting the brushes, has a greater sense and appreciation of power than the\nboy who, like a machine, must be operated. The same excellent and\nvaluable results may follow the careful construction of any one of a multitude of small machines or mechanical appliances, illustrating broad principles of mechanical construction and engineering practice.\nWhen we come to hot working, we at once recognize an old friend in\n•the blacksmith who, being a man like Elihu Burritt, has become an actual\n\n"}
{"page": 924, "printed_page": null, "text": "9 16\n\n}7A TIONAL\n\nMDUCA\n\nTIONAL\n\nASSOCIA\n\nTtON\n\n[Manual Training_\n\nteacher of large value. When once a boy catches the spirit of this work,\ncarefully solving each problem, taking account of each necessary operation and the best way to accomplish it, then striking intelligently, and at\nthe right time and in the right place, while the iron is hot, he has learned\none of the foundation principles of the secret of success in every lifework.\nPattern-making involves a knowledge of foundry practice, not only in\ndrawing the pattern from the sand and of the position the same should\noccupy when being poured, but also of the possible warping and positive\nshrinking, with due allowance for finishing certain parts in the machine\nshop. Every pattern is a problem peculiar to itself, and is valuable as it\ninvites a careful solution of all these perplexing details, which find\nanalogy in every walk of our civilization.\nTo the founder and metallurgist belong some of the greatest triumphs\nof the metal-worker. \" Metallurgy is the glory of chemistry.\" Today\nengineering science is the economic application of matter, force, time,\nspace, and motion. In this work mathematical computation occupies so\nlarge a place in determining details of complex construction, and gives\nso perfect a method for recording observations and getting at results for\nefficiency, that it at once becomes the most powerful and necessary adjunct\nto the mental machinery of the metal-worker.\n\"The Use, Design, and Manufacture of Iron in Ornament,\" beautifully\nillustrated, showing the early methods of working the iron, also showing\nthe Austrian, German, Italian, French, colonial, and other styles of\nornament, each nation stamping its work with its own individuality, may\nbe found in The Iron Age of April 27, 1899.\nWhen it comes to a carefully graded course in metal-working suited\nto the just need of our schools, showing the steps and value of each, we\nwill expect large things from the New England Association of the\nTeachers of Metal Working, lately organized.\nI confess I like to see young men growing enthusiastic over their\npower to work metal into forms of beauty, grace, and strength; to appreciate\ngood tools and their use ; and the ability to choose and do those things\nwhich make a man a man. A good course in metal working, worth much\nfor the knowledge it promotes and more for the broad-minded, wellestablished, independent manhood it makes possible, is today almost a\ndemand.\n•\n\n"}
{"page": 925, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCONSTRUCTIVE\n\nWORK\n\nCONSTRUCTIVE\n\nWORK\n\nBY\n\nE.\n\nMISS\n\nGERTRUDE\n\nIN\n\nENGLISH,\n\nIN ELEMENTARY\n\nTHE\n\nEIEMENTARY\n\nPRINCIPAL\n\nCHICAGO,\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nFARREN\n\n917\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nILL.\n\nThe average child suffers from some form of repression. The selfcontrol which regards the rights of his fellow-beings can never be acquired\nby the child thru the exercise of the will of another individual. Even\ntho the little one needs guidance that his development mav be complete,\nthe direction must be intelligent. The necessity for foot-covering does\nnot excuse the torture inflicted upon the Chinese girl ; this accepted plan\nfor keeping her in her proper sphere will not continue to be effective if\nthe repressive measure continues to be the sole reliance of her directors.\nThe child who has some of the joys for which his soul longs, offends less\nfrequently than he who is constantly denied. Forbidden fruit looks ripe\nand sweet ; forbidden paths look cool and shady. The child who is permitted to taste some of the fruit, to test some of the inviting walks, learns\nto discriminate to his own satisfaction ; he does not harbor the unspoken\nresolution which frequently causes a volcanic eruption in the family, in\nsociety — the resolution that he will try^the forbidden experiment when- he\nsees the opportunity. If a strong child is denied motor outlet, the results\nare serious either to his neighbors or to himself. The weak brother always\nsuffers thru repression.\nIn the schoolroom some children find a means of expression in\ndrawing. Especially is this true since color has been used so freely in the\nelementary schools. Dramatic representation is an outlet which appeals\nto a large number. Much might be said in regard' to improvement in\noral and written language, our main dependence for expression ; music\nmay be made an ideal channel from the heart to the listener. But handwork, begun in the kindergarten with so much joy, and resumed in the\nmanual-training classes, is frequently neglected in the elementary schools,\nthe teachers in which cannot afford to miss so potent an aid. The image\nsecured by the pupil must be objectified for comparison, and correction\nif necessary. Objectification in words only creates a habit of adopting\nthe teacher's expression, which screens the poverty of the image and\nprecludes the possibility of gyiuine criticism and consequent growth.\nTeachers who secure genuine expression in the composition class are the\nfirst to welcome handwork. 'J'hey realize that one cannot unwittingly\ndeceive himself when the image, true or faulty, stands before the class,\nas may occur when the child is glib in repeating set phrases. Moreover,\ncontact with materials develops nerves and muscles ; it stimulates the\nworker to his utmost exertion ; it produces in him a satisfaction that\n\n"}
{"page": 926, "printed_page": null, "text": "91 8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nleads to a charming unrest. The resultant paths, being added to the\nordinary ones, must give the organism a firmer grasp of its material and\nresult in a more certain recall of the image.\nSociety, in a blind way, demands some hand-training for our youth.\nWith the rise of modern conditions in the industrial world, the opportunities for hand-training which were enjoyed by the forefathers have\nreceded beyond our grasp. Still, the specialist and the inventor occupy\nhigh places among us. How shall we put such of our children as have\nthe ability in the way of occupying these places ? Surel}' not by permitting adormant stage to intervene between the kindergarten and the\nmanual-training or technical school age. The elementary school can\noffer no adequate excuse for neglecting the opportunity to direct a part\nof the abundant physical ability into the line of free manual training.\nThis free work should follow closely upon the steps of the work encouraged in the kindergarten ; it should reach out into all the lines beneficial\nto the middle-grade children; it should overflow into the grammar grades,\nand gradually diminish as the muscles grow sufficiently strong and the\nnerves sufficiently steady to permit the pupil to undertake the more\nclosely directed work of the manual-training department. It should\ngive the kindergarten a note of freedom by discouraging set patterns\nmarked by fine stencil outline; it should inspire the manual -training\npeople to leave something to the individuality of each member of a class.\nMany a child fails in manual training because he is not ready for the\nnecessary analysis ; he has no idea of accuracy of measurement, nor of the\nnecessity for such accuracy. The impulsive movements toward making,\nthe failures, the renewed efforts, should not be forbidden when the age of\nsix years has been attained ; they should be encouraged to grow more\ndefinite as the child's development demands definiteness. The abject\nhelplessness of the average child in the presence of new conditions is\npitiable. The boy who has been obliged to make things for himself is a\nmonarch\n\nbeside the one for whom the finished product is always provided. The latter resents any suggestion in regard to self-exertion, and\npractices destruction rather than construction-.\nIn this free constructive work the teacher should present wholes rather\nthan parts. After the object has been presented and its uses pictured\nout, the class should be left to develop its own expressions, which\nshould not be expected to conform to a model. The faulty expressions\nare frequently of greatest value. Thru ,them the young unconsciously\ngive us the true state of mind in which they exist; happy the teacher who\ncan suggest the correction without wounding or causing self-consciousness. The true measure of a teacher's ability is the power to promote\ngrowth, to give to the hungry little ones the food that they can digest.\nThe realization that this is the standard will free the teachers from the\nfear of permitting a mistake to appear in public.\n\n"}
{"page": 927, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCONSTRUCTIVE\n\nWORK\n\nIN ELEMENTARY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n919\n\nAs in all school work, so in constructive work, the interests of the\nchild should be consulted. Strict formulation into a course of study will\nkill it. It must be free, as must be the child's hands; it must shift with\nhis changing interests ; it cannot be the same in all cities, nor in all\nquarters of one great city. The inventive and original teacher can here\nfind scope for her talents, for the heavy hand of over-direction must not\nbe laid upon her. Its spirit of freedom, its sympathetic relations with\nthe child, its illumination of all school work place construction in an\nimportant position. A class reading of primitive man may wish to conamong\n\nstruct a cave, stone implements, a mill. Hiawatha's admirers run riot\nwigwams, canoes, moccasins, deerskin coats, bows and arrows.\n\n'Children interested in Greek myths love to dramatize the stories. Classes\nin geography interest themselves in a knowledge of the textiles of a\n■ country to the extent of spinning and weaving. A loom is readily constructed, warp and woof distinguished, plaids, stripes, and twilled effects\nproduced. A rug after the pattern of our grandmothers' rag carpets, and\ncomposed of contributions from all the members of the class, fits the floor\nof the log hut made of twigs as an illustration of the habitations of the\nearly settlers. Sod houses, dugouts, and adobe habitations would interest\nmany children whom I know. Carpenter's Asia gave one class the\nimpetus to make the jinricksha, the Chinese wheelbarrow, the street\nlamp, the counting machine. The appearance of a pretty white flag\nbearing upon its face a scarlet circle led to the revelation that some of\nour enterprising children had been calling upon one of the foreign consuls. The algebraic theorems bring objective work in both two and three\ndimensions.\nFrequently an occasion or a holiday gives the note for the work.\nThe presentation of Ivanhoe or The Merchant of Venice creates a\ndemand for costumes, scenery, and accessories, the meeting of which furnishes scope for research and invention. A patriotic celebration may\nlead the older children to make ten- or twelve-foot flags of good bunting,\nthe younger ones to make small flags or paper frames for the pictures of\nthe heroes. Magazine pictures make dainty passe-partouts for Christmas or birthday gifts ; a turkey cover for the Thanksgiving composition\nvies for favor with the cover made to represent a pumpkin ; hearts come\nout for valentines and curious calendars for New Year's Day. The sight\nof a set of books whose dresses were worn out made one class hasten to\ncover them in a substantial board covered with attractive paper. After\ngood magazine pictures had been mounted, a portfolio was made for\ntheir protection. When the children desired to preserve their compositions and the accompanying reproductions from the masters, they made\ntheir books. Linen covers, daintily ornamented, add to the value and\nlead to the preservation and subsequent re-reading of the cheap pamphlets in which so much good literature is now available.\nIllustrations\n\n"}
{"page": 928, "printed_page": null, "text": "920\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\npasted in do much to help this interest. A small paper pocket pasted\non the inner side of any book cover reminds the reader to collect scraps\nof information bearing on the subject of which the book treats.\nAt the risk of being monotonous I repeat : No perfect, finished product should be expected ; two schools, nay, two rooms, two individuals,\nshould not be required to make the same object in exactly the same way;\na teacher should not settle upon doing the same work with the same\ngrade for two successive years. Accuracy should be approximated as the\nchildren grow older ; use and interest should be the twin guiding stars\nin selecting from so rich a field.\nTeachers frequently feel that the large number of pupils assigned to\na room, together with the difficulty in securing implements and materials,-^\nstands in the way of such work as I advocate. I am convinced that the\nintroduction of material into the schoolroom will operate to the advantage of both child and teacher in reducing the number assigned to each\nteacher. Neither kindergartner nor manual-training teacher will attempt\nto direct sixty children at one time. Why should the grade teacher be\ncompelled to crush out all individuality by attempting what the specialists\nare wise enough to declare impossible ? Some expenditure for tools is\ninevitable, but the money is well spent. The children should be encouraged to bring some implements from home, and to utilize material often\nthrown away. Some geography classes have macerated refuse paper and\nproduced a creditable array of papier-mache maps. Old magazines furnish the material thru which the little folks gain control over the blunt\nscissors. After this they may cut animals, people, Hiawatha with all his\ntrappings, from brown paper upon which lessons have already appeared.\nNeatness should be inculcated by requiring each child to care for his own\nscraps. Small children love to model in clay, and some of them bake\nthe products and even ornament them in color. Most of the work should\nbecome the property of the child who made the articles. His envelope is\nneeded for his pictures ; his fiber or paper basket holds his pebbles; his\nbag holds his marbles ; his purely imaginative work may occupy the place\nof honor in the home, and bind the hearts of his parents to the teacher\nwho has taken such interest in the child. In the upper grades wonderful stained-glass effects are produced by pasting bits of colored tissue\npaper over a cardboard framework cut out to resemble a cathedral window. In connection with English history some classes have produced\nmodels of the great English minsters.\nAfter the little child has learned to handle the scissors, a box is a\ngood object for him to make ; he marks off and cuts out a square inch\nfrom each corner of an oblong piece of cardboard, turns the projecting\npieces up, and pastes them together. This foundation, varied in size and\nshape, and covered with suitable paper, forms tray, box, or cover. The\nmaking of the clock face is a valuable exercise.\nThe child attempts to\n\n"}
{"page": 929, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCONSTRUCTIVE\n\nWORK\n\nIN ELEMENTARY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n921\n\ncut the circle and finds the resulting form not round. Show him how to\nmake a circle-marker, and let him make circles two inches in diameter,\nfour inches in diameter, and one- and three-inch circles. After marking\nhis clock face and contriving hands, he can practice all the arithmetic\nwhich can be expressed with numbers to sixty. The ambitious may make\nan ornamental mounting for the clock face.\nThe danger in grading the constructive work rigidly is great. Several\ngrades may be interested in a line of work at the same time, the older\nchildren making looms and the younger ones using them. Frequent\nreadjustments and wise correlation are necessary. A triple alliance with\nthe kindergarten and the manual-training department should be the aim\nof those interested in the promotion of handwork. In comparatively few\nschools is there an equipment for sloyd ; the older children are favored\nmore generally by arrangements for manual training. 1 would appeal to\nall teachers of handwork to keep in mind the great gulf which yawns in\nmany communities after the child leaves the kindergarten and before he\nreaches the manual-training grades, and to join with the grade teachers\nin bridging it. Willing as may be the individual teacher of handwork to\nmeet the grade teacher and give the pupils what they really need, the\nmanual-training course 'often widens the gulf. I would suggest that a\nmore careful consideration of the physical condition of the pupil, insight\ninto his mental advancement, and an infusion of the spirit of freedom into\nthe aforesaid manual-training course will build a goodly share of the\nspans. Many of the teachers in the seventh and eighth grades realize\nthat a knowledge of elementary physics and a few facts of chemistry\nwould be valuable to their pupils. The lack of apparatus is deplored,\nwhen all the materials for the construction of the apparatus can be\nsecured at small expense or rescued from the junk pile. After the pupils\nlearn how to cut lamp chimneys and glass tubing, these cheap materials\nmay be utilized in many experiments. I have seen several good barometers made by children, and the work in heat, light, and electricity is positively charming to a majority of them. I have yet to meet the boy who\nis too dull to appreciate the lever, the wheel and axle, or the pulley.\nWith the working out of such apparatus many a boy will occupy leisure\nwhich, especially in large cities, might prove to be Satan's opportunity.\nIn many cases the fathers have been proud to assist in a work which they\nfully respect and into which they can enter with zeal. In response .to\nrequests some schools have been supplied by the patrons with small\nprinting presses, and the boys give liberally of their spare time in order\nto keep all copy cleaned up.\nThru handwork the senses are trained by contact with materials which\nare being used for a definite purpose. We do not consciously use the\nsenses as ends in themselves; we delight in sight because we see the\nbeautiful and kindly surroundings; touch for the sake of touch, hearing\n\n"}
{"page": 930, "printed_page": null, "text": "922\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nLManual Training '\n\nfor the mere purpose of assuring ourselves that we can hear, are tiresome\nand nerve-racking ; but the texture of fine materials suggests their uses,\nthe comfort and pleasure conveyed by them ; the sound of magnificent .\nharmonies uplifts us, the cathedral bell calls us to worship.\nThe child\nshows his kinship to the man by resenting the exhibition of his sense i\nacuteness.\nBut his interest in such training may be maintained if the\nobjects upon which his senses react are genuine.\nUnconsciously he gains I\nfamiliarity with the form, size, and color of objects — a knowledge of the!\nutmost value to man, indispensable if he is to enter the arena of commerce, manufacturing, or transportation.\nThe bond of sympathy formed\nbetween home and school by interesting the parents in articles made and\ntaken home repays the teacher for all her efforts.\nFrom construction work the child gains many facts of number which;\nmight otherwise be merely forced upon him. Few boys fail to realize]\nthat a flock of pigeons has been invaded or the marble bag looted. A]\nboy who failed utterly to grasp the number work according to the Grube\nmethod learned the money of England, France, and Germany in a few\nmonths. Personal interest in the problem results in the eradication of\nfhe number struggle. Better than the number ideas are the ideas of concrete geometry secured thru judicious constructive work. The circle, the\nsquare, the parallelogram, the triangle, the pentagon and hexagon ; the\nrelation of triangle to square or parallelogram, of equilateral triangle to\nhexagon, of the side of the latter to the radius of the circle; the surfaces\nand edges of solids; all these and many other ideas may be gained while\nthe useful and interesting article is being constructed.\nConstructive work may be used to preserve the children from a dull\ninertia and keep alive in them the desire to do which is characteristic of\nthe little child. Manual- training teachers, grade teachers, is the work\nnot worth the effort ?\n\nDISCUSSION\nMrs. C. L. Place, principal of the training department, State Normal School, San\nJosd, Cal. — I wish to express my hearty concurrence in the ideas and principles of Miss\nEnglish's paper, and to express myself with reference, to what seems to me the next step\nbefore the manual-training people.\nWe who are looking about for the best things for the child's development along\nconstructive lines are confronted by many systems, the advocate of each being sure that\nhis is altogether right educationally.\nWe have been told from time to time that the child is the center of our interest, that\na study of his needs will answer our questions ; but it is only within a few years that this\nstudy has been placed on a scientific basis ; and already in several lines of the child's\ndevelopment we have some laws on which to base our work. This investigation has\nproved the necessity of constructive work ; has, in a broad way, indicated the character of\n\n"}
{"page": 931, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCORRELATION\n\nIN MANUAL\n\nTRAINING\n\n923\n\nsuch work ; but the field has hardly been entered. Inductive studies by questionnaires\nand by experiments scientifically conducted must be made to determine the reaction of\nchildren on their environment along constructive line*. Studies of race development and\nstudies of individual children give us hints which must be supplemented by thoro\nscientific work. We must ascertain whether the logical order of procedure, as laid out by\nthe manual-training scientist, is the pedagogical order of the child's development. This\nhas been shown not to be true in many lines of school work. We must strive to ascertain\nthe periods during which the child works most profitably with the different materials and\ntoofs ; when he prefers toy-making to articles of larger scope and general use. We must\nfind the ratio between imitation and original work that will best advance the child's\nnormal growth.\nUntil this broader pedagogical\nbasis is taken, constructive work must remain\nimperfect and empirical, instead of being an integral element of the child's development.\n\nCORRELATION\n\nBY JAMES\n\nOF\nMANUAL\nBRANCHES\n\nE. ADDICOTT,\nSTATE\n\nDIRECTOR\nNORMAL\n\nTRALNING\nOF STUDY\n\nWITH\n\nOF MANUAL-TRAINING\nSCHOOL, SAN JOSE, CAL.\n\nOTHER\n\nDEPARTMENT\n\nOF\n\nManual training, as treated in this article, is recognized as a fifth\nbranch of study, which, if properly adapted to the teaching of the other\nfour great branches — language, science, history, and mathematics — is\ndestined to become one of the greatest educational factors in correlating\nall lines of school work. To this end we advocate the training of the\nbodily powers as well as the mental ; not only that the student may have\nthe opportunity to do something better, but that he may thereby think\nsomething better.\nThe physical activities involved in the making of a series of manual\nexercises, pedagogically arranged, may be highly educational by bringing\nabout decidedly strong mental reactions.\nAltho manual training has proved its educational, industrial, and\nmoral value, there are still great obstacles; for this subject is applying for\na place in all departments of our overcrowded course of study. We are\ntold that this ponderous public-school system, assisted by poor light,\nvitiated air, heavy tasks, and long lessons, is subtly causing the physical,\nand consequently the mental and moral, degeneracy of our American\nyouths. Why, then, increase the burden ? Now, manual training does\nnot mean longer hours, more nervous students with weaker eyes, curvature\nof the spine, etc. ; but it is intended to obviate these tendencies by allowing the student to learn thru healthful manual exercises many of the\nlessons which he ordinarily tries to learn in that silent, motionless schoolroom style of book studying.\nAs an educational factor manual training means that the abstract\n\n"}
{"page": 932, "printed_page": null, "text": "924\n\nl^ATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nthoughts of other branches may be made clear and comprehensible by\nsupplying concrete work. At a recent meeting of the National Educational Association this department defined manual training as \"the transforming of materials by working with tools, in accordance with principles\nfundamental in the industrial arts.\" This definition is narrow and inadequate, as it recognizes only that line of handwork which involves the use\nof tools. Manual training has a broader significance, including many of\nthe theories of Froebel, the teachings of Comenius, the principles of\nLocke, and the methods of Agassiz : it includes all lines of school work\nwherein the hand is a necessary factor in the acquisition of knowledge.\nIt is a method rather than a subject; that is, its methods do not belong\nto a series of hand exercises only, but should influence the whole school\ncurriculum. In elementary schools especially manual training should be\ncorrelated with as many subjects as possible, by giving the student a\nphysical experience as a foundation for his mental concepts; thus affording a better opportunity for /wpression, which is certainly more desirable\nthan the student's usual delusive expression. Let us illustrate by the two\nmethods of finding the areas of circles. The shorter and easier way is\nto use the formula: radius squared multiplied by tt equals area; then\nsubstitute the dimensions of the circle, and multiply. The answer\nobtained is the area. This traditional method illustrates an <fxpression\nwhich is usually minus the /Vwpression.\nHigh-school graduates who have finished arithmetic, algebra, and\ngeometry have been known to fail utterly when asked to measure a' cylinder and find its volume. Having had no experience in measuring or\ncomparing parts of circles, they do not always know the meaning of ir,\nto say nothing of understanding the formula, radius squared times tt.\nManual training rebels against such methods, which give no opportunity for investigating, judging, or reasoning. According to Locke, such\nwork should be ruled out of the schools as not being educative. The\ngreat philosopher defines education as \"a just and legitimate familiarity\nbetwixt the mind and things.\"\nThe student should be led to understand the relation existing between\ndiameter and circumference, by measuring around and across a number\nof familiar cylinders, before either the name or the definition of jt is\ngiven. He should also convert a circle of cardboard or thin wood into\nan approximate rectangle; then measure the rectangle in terms of the\ncircle, and deduce the formula.\nIn the mind of one who has gone thru this process there is no\nquestion as to the meaning of the formula, as its relation to the real circle\nhas been gotten thru personal experience. In this way the rule, the\nformula, and the theorem are all made the result of thought rather than\nthe subject of thought.\nAllow me to illustrate more fully by the use of these charts how\n\n"}
{"page": 933, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCORRELATION\n\nIN\n\nMANUAL\n\nTRAINIMG\n\n925\n\nmanual training may profitably be substituted for book-work. They represent a course in cardboard mensuration wherein manual exercises combine arithmetic, concrete geometry, and drawing.' This work is manual\ntraining in its truest sense, affording the student an opportunity to ascertain thru his own experiences the meaning of the rules which are\ndeducted from real things of his own making.\nWe are told that education consists, not in learning isolated facts, but\nin thoroly understanding relations. No fact or principle is really learned\nuntil its relation to other, more firmly established truths is clearly and\nforcibly maintained. Now, education in the grades consists mainly in\nlearning valuable truths, but these truths are mere abstractions to one\nwho has not interpreted them in terms of his own experience.\nManual training means the utilization of the physical activities of the\nstudent in getting experiences necessary to the acquisition of knowledge.\nThe time has come when intelligent handwork is recognized as contributing to moral and intellectual development, as fully as the older\nplan of studying books.\nWith advancing civilization comes a new environment; with this new\nenvironment come new necessities ; with new necessities should come\nnot only a course of study that will enable the student to adjust himself\nto his changed environment, but also a corps erf specially trained teachers\nfully capable of selecting the wheat from the chaff, and of correlating\nimportant facts and principles thru inductive processes. But where may\nthe prospective manual-training teacher prepare for this important work,\nwhich requires the highest professional spirit, as well as special technical\nskill ?\nWe are told by some that the best manual-training teachers of today\nhave taken their work under Dr. Salomon, of Naas, Sweden ; or under\nMr. Larsson, his worthy American co-worker in Boston ; by others we\nare informed that the true manual-training teacher has received his\ninstructions in the cities of Germany ; and by still others, that all the\nvaluable principles of manual training are to be found in the schools\nwhich have adopted the Russian system. Of course, each system has its\ngood points. The Russian system gives the strongest mental training\nand discipline ; the Swedish system emphasizes those rare principles of\naltruism and utility ; while both possess a remarkable scientific sequence\nregarding both mechanics and mathematics. Of the three, however, the\nGerman is probably the most attractive and interesting. Besides these,\nMr. Mickelsen, of Copenhagen, and J. Liberty Tadd, of Philadelphia,\nhave developed systems which arrange the exercises according to the\nmuscular development of the student ; while Mr. Barter, of England, has\n\"a system which is noted for its lack of system.\"\n'The speaker exhibited aiid explained a series of charts illustrating this phase of\nmanual training.\n\n"}
{"page": 934, "printed_page": null, "text": "926\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nWhere, then, may the prospective manual-training teacher find the\nmost desirable and complete preparation ? The fact is that there are few\nmanual-training schools at present affording teachers* courses, for pro- 1\nfessional work is not a factor in technical manual-training schools.\nThe]\nfuture teacher should first acquire his professional training in some normal school or university ; then choose a technical course that offers thej\nclass of work he anticipates teaching.\nThe Teachers' College of Ne^\nYork city is doing a good work in this direction.\nIt is well for thej\nspecial teacher to study a particular system ; but the regular teacher]\ncannot find in a special system (which gives prominence to technical!\nskill) the specific exercises which are required in the grades.\nRight here\nlet it be said that we cannot expect efficient manual training thruout our\ngrammar grades until we have outlined a course which can be followed]\nat the ordinary school desk and can be conducted by the regular classj\nteacher.\nIn outlining this course care must be taken not to prescribe foi\na lower grade what has been specially prepared to meet the needs of^\nsome higher grade.\nIn some schools the wood-work of the Russian system has been adopted in the intermediate grades with little success ;\nlikewise Mr. Larsson's sloyd has been introduced into the fourth and\nfifth grades with comparatively poor results.\nThe Russian system furnishes the best course for high schools ; the Swedish sloyd affords an\nexcellent training for the grammar grades, altho some of the exercises\nare by far too difficult ; while the German cardboard course furnishes\nmany practical exercises that may be adapted to intermediate grades.\nThere are few exercises which the grade teacher can safely adopt in his\nparticular grade just as they are ; consequently he must learn to adapt\nsuch work as will meet his students' needs and insure their interest.\nHe\nshould adopt little, adapt much, and correlate most.\nThere is too much\nhaphazard work : allowing students to make anything they wish ; withdrawing an exercise merely because students are not interested, and substituting another regardless of the students' needs.\nThese mistakes are\ncommon in our schools today where \" a start \" is being made.\nAll praise and honor are due to those who, against great odds, have\nthus made \" a start ; \" to the pioneers who have made the way to present\nattainments.\nWe cannot, however, condemn too strongly the tendency in some\ncities to intrust this important educational work to practical mechanics,\ngood cooks, and seamstresses. Censure is likewise due that class of\ninstructors who think a particular system contains all the good, and who\nsee only the bad in other systems.\nLet us be progressive without being radical. Let us try to use the\ngood, and only the good, in every system. Let us look at manual training in a broader sense : manual training which not only emphasizes\nsuch activities as express thought, but also emphasizes to a far greater\n\n"}
{"page": 935, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nC0RRELA7I0N\n\nIN MANUAL\n\nT RAINING\n\n9^7\n\nextent those activities and experiences thru which knowledge may be most\neasily gained. Let us, with a common purpose, work along a line of the\nincreasing variable whose limit is the perfect man. Let us secure the\nhighest attainments for our American youths. The key which opens the\ndoor to this broader vision of education is correlation. But the one who\nturns the key must possess tact, keen insight, industry, and the highest\nprofessional spirit; for he must take into consideration, first, the principles of pedagogy; second, the average capability of students from both\npsychological and experimental standpoints; third, the auxiliary influence\nof handwork in science, language, and mathematics ; fourth, the aesthetic\nside; and fifth, the cost of material and equipment.\nIf viewed from the above standpoint, manual training is destined tO'\nbecome an essential, organic part of education. If it is presented as a\ndistinct and new line of school work, it must necessarily take that time\nwhich heretofore has been given to other subjects. Altho in many schools\ndefinite periods may be assigned for recitations in manual training, still\nwe would recommend that manual exercises have immediate relation to\nacademic work. In the grammar grades, however, where sloyd, sewing,\nand joinery are taught, it is hot essential.\nIn time we may expect a definite course suited to the work of each\ngrade, but for the present we must be content to select and adapt the\nbest exercises from the various so-called \" systems.\" Experience and\neducational research, in connection with the growing powers of the student, should determine very largely the various steps in the work of any\none grade. The whole course should be systematic and progressive. It\nis well to have each lesson applied to some object that may be of service\nin. school or at home, provided educational development is not sacrificed.\nIn the higher grades, working drawings should precede each exercise ;\nthey should be used below the sixth grade, if the students are prepared\nto construct and comprehend them. The work of the sixth, seventh, and\neighth grades should include sloyd, joinery, and making apparatus to\nillustrate principles of mathematics and physics.\nDrawing with straight edge and compasses should be a specialty in\nthe intermediate grades, where also constructions in cardboard and thin\nwood involving but two dimensions should be introduced as a preparation for the more difficult exercises of the higher grades. In the primary\ngrades clay-modeling, coloring, paper-folding, etc., should be taught in\nrelation to number and science work.\nIn selecting material the expense must be considered. Cardboard\ncosts less than wood, and may be used in the third, fourth, fifth, and even\nin the sixth grade. Clay, sand, paper, cardboard, and wood are the\ncheapest and best materials. For practical and educational reasons a\ngreater variety is desirable, as by this means the student is made acquainted\nwith the properties of matter and, as President Draper says in his Cleveland report, \"the possibilities of a variety of materials.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 936, "printed_page": null, "text": "928\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nAs a rule, boys and girls should follow the same program ; but when the\npurpose of the course is to prepare for life-work, a distinction should be^\nmade in the higher grades.\nIn the Cleveland schools the program is differ- j\nent for boys and girls in all grades above the fourth.\nIn New York schools\nthe girls of the sixth, seventh, eight, and ninth grades are taught sewing\nand cooking, while the boys take sloyd, joinery, and apparatus-making.\nCooking and sewing have long been considered domestic arts; they'\nare so obviously utilitarian in character tha~t we often lose sight of their j\neducational value. Cooking promises to be a science, and as such could\nbe taught in connection with physiology and hygiene. The practical\nvalue of sewing in the home deserves special recognition; its educational\nside, however, can be carefully developed under the supervision of competent teachers.\nIn answer to the three questions propounded by Dr. Harris in his circu- 1\nlar letter : first, the central thought in manual training is education ; second,]\nas far as possible it should train with a direct view to actual work; third/\npreparation for higher technical study should in all grades be incidental.\nAny earnest student of the times miist see the necessity for wider,\nknowledge, for a more varied education, for stronger self-reliance, and\nfor far greater determination and power of self-help than have been given\nby the old methods of education. The population of the civilized world\nis increasing rapidly ; competition is becoming keener and closer. There\nis a demand for an education that not only gives scholarship, but prepares\nfor citizenship in relation to life-work. We have had much trouble\nbecause of workers who will not think ; we may have more serious difficulty with the thinkers who will not work. The dignity of intelligent handwork should be appreciated by parents and teachers. We believe manual\ntraining in the elementary schools will largely accomplish this end. If\nthe educators of this great republic refuse to acknowledge industry as in\nevery way honorable, and continue to idealize scholarship as the only\nattribute of mankind worth striving for, we may never hope for that sympathy, that mutual respect, that good fellowship and brotherly love which\nshould characterize Americans.\n\nTHE\nBY\n\nMANUAL-TRAINING\nMISS\n\nANNETTE\n\nJOHNSON,\n\nSYSTEM\nSENTOUS\n\nANGELES,\n\nSTREET\n\nOF LOS ANGELES\nSLOYD\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nLOS\n\nCAL.\n\nThe history of manual training in this city can be told in few words.\nThe Stimson-Lafayette Industrial School, a charitable institution in\nwhich young girls are taught the various branches of domestic science,\nhas been in successful operation for some years.\n\n"}
{"page": 937, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMANUAL-TRAINING\n\nSYSTEM\n\nOF LOS\n\nANGELES\n\n^\n\n929\n\nIn the winter of i 894 sloyd was introduced into the normal school here,\nand instruction has been given in wood-work in several of our private\nschools in recent years; but it was not until September, 1896, that manual\ntraining became a part of the course of study in the public schools of this\ncity.\nAs an experiment, four sloyd rooms were fitted with from twenty-two\nto twenty-five benches each, and supplied with all necessary tools, at a\ncost of about $350 a room.\nInstruction was given in each sloyd school six hours a day, the time\ntoeing divided among four classes. Each class received one lesson a\nweek. This arrangement accommodated all the boys of the sixth, seventh,, eighth, and ninth grades, and a few girls — nearly two thousand\npupils altogether. It has been found necessary to establish new sloyd\nschools each year, until now we have nine — one in each ward. One\nmore school is needed in the southwest part of the city, in order properly\nto accommodate all now taking sloyd work.\nAs yet manual training has not been extended to other grades, nor\nhas the work been given to girls, except to a very limited number. We\nhope, however, for the extension of sloyd and for the introduction of\ncooking and sewing.\nIt did not take long to learn that our classes were too large for the\nmost successful individual teaching, that too much work was being crowded\ninto one day, and that many of the boys had too far to go to attend the\nsloyd school. Accordingly, when the new sloyd rooms were opened,\nthey were provided with only sixteen benches each, just one more than\nthe ideal number. The time for each teacher has been much reduced,\nwhile the time given to each class remains the same — ^that is, from an\nhour and fifteen minutes to an hour and thirty minutes per week.\nDuring the first year of sloyd work we used the set of models that\nhad formerly been in use in Throop Polytechnic Institute, in which\nschool children are given daily lessons. No attempt was made to cover\nall the ground, but rather to learn how much the average boy could\naccomplish in the allotted time.\nIn the light of this experience certain changes have been made from\ntime to time in an effort to hit upon a set of models which should embody\nall the virtues of the old in a more condensed form.\nWe now have, for the sixth grade, Course I, containing eight models,\nin which are taught length, cross, and oblique sawing; turning; length,\nend, a'nd surface planing ; horizontal boring, filing, use of spokeshave,\nnailing, modeling edges, etc.\nIn this grade the drawings have but one view. They are made from\ndictation and from blackboard drawings, which are, of course, on a much\nlarger scale. This thoroly familiarizes the pupil with the use of the\nruler, and exercises his knowledge of mathematics.\nIf, for instance, a\n\n"}
{"page": 938, "printed_page": null, "text": "93°\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nboy IS told to draw a circle five and three-eighths inches in diameter, he\nmust do some thinking to determine the radius, find that measurement\non the ruler, set his compasses, draw the circle, and then verify his works\nIf he has measured carelessly, or used a dull lead, the chances are ths\nthe circle is wrong and must be made over, and that the boy will discovei\nthis for himself. He soon learns to exercise care at every step. A sixteenth of an inch means more to a boy who has had a few lessons in sloyc\nthan to the average adult. If the blue print were before him at this stagi\nof his development, he would stand his compasses on that to take th<\nmeasurement, and draw without giving much thought to it.\nCourse II, for the seventh grade, contains six models. In addition tc\nthe exercises given in the first course, we here have gauging, squaring^\nwhittling, vertical boring, nail-setting, gouging, and modeling with spokeshave and block-plane.\nThe drawings in this course have two views, and are made from th«\nmodel in connection with the blue print.\nCourse III, for eighth-grade pupils, consists of four models — the nai|\nbox, mitered frame, towel -roller, and half-lapping frame. -Here ar«\nlearned the halving, half-lapping, and mitered joints, rabbet-planing, screw'j\ning, chiseling, and simple carving. The drawings have three views. Thfl\npupils draw from the blue print, using the model when necessary to ai\nunderstanding of the blue print. The time comes when the pupil shoulc\nbe able to make the model from the drawing alone, as a carpenter buik\na house from the plan, never having seen a house like it.\nCourse IV is designed for boys of the ninth grade.\nHere are taught\ndovetailing, and the making of other difficult joints, such as open mortise\nand tenon, double mortise and tenon with miter, half-blind mortise andj\ntenon with haunch, and many others ; and the work in carving is continued.\nThese four courses are found to be sufficient for the boy of average\nability, who receives promotion each term. For the fast workers, and for\nsuch as remain two terms in the same grade, other work must be provided.\nSome boys who come to us have been accustomed to the use of tools at\nhome, and have already acquired considerable skill. For these Exceptional\ncases we have many supplementary models. This supplementary work,\nby the way, should be selected with care. If left too much to. the choice\nof the pupil, there is danger of his selecting models too far in advance\nof his work, or so simple as to have for him no educational value.\nThe boys of Los Angeles, almost without exception, have taken kindly\nto sloyd work from the first.\n. Not long ago about 280 boys of the sixth, seventh, and eighth grades\nwere asked to write answers to a set of questions prepared with a view of\nfinding out more definitely their attitude toward manual training. Making all due allowance for the borrowed opinions so often apparent in children's answers, and for the pious little frauds who try to say something to\nplease the teacher, I think we may still learn something from their answers.\n\n"}
{"page": 939, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMANUAL-TRAINING\n\nSYSTEM\n\nOF\n\nLOS\n\nANGELES\n\n931\n\nNearly all wanted more sloyd work, but many failed to state how\nmuch. A majority thought two lessons a week of an hour and a half\neach would be about right. Some wanted one hour every day. Several\nspoke for two whole days each week. A few were satisfied with the present amount. Two boys alone wanted none at all. I wonder if that\nmany boys could be found who would be willing to give up grammar.\nOne of the questions was : \" What is your favorite model ? \" Here are\na few of the answers :\n\"I like the towel-roller best, because it is most useful.\"\n\"I prefer the lemon-squeezer, because I took more pains with it.\"\n\"I like the fishline winder, because I can use it when I go to the\nbeach this summer.\"\n\"The hammer handle is my favorite model, because I am going to\nsell it.\"\n\"I like the shelf best, because my mother likes it.\"\n\"I like all my models, because they will come handy when I get married and go to keeping house.\" This was from an eleven-year-old youngster in the sixth grade.\nSome expressed a preference for certain models because they were\npretty ; others because they were hardest to make or easiest to make.\nSeveral liked certain models because they had sold them to their mothers.\nThe reason most frequently given, however, was \"because it is useful.\"\nIt was gratifying to note that the number of boys who liked best those\nmodels which were useful in the home far exceeded the number who preferred such models as were useful to themselves alone.\nTheir answers to the question as to what good, if any, they expected\nto derive from the work showed a great diversity of opinions. A few\nseemed to look upon it merely as a means of recreation. Many said it\nhelped them in arithmetic and in drawing. One little fellow said : \" It\ngives me more ' ackery.' \" His accuracy did not extend to spelling, evidently. One boy said : \"If it had not been for my taking sloyd work, I\nshould never have thought of going into an architect's ofifice to learn the\nbusiness.\"\nAlmost all seemed to believe that skill in the use of tools, and the ability to make things needed at home, is the chief good to be derived from\nthe study.\nTheir answers to the question as to what they have done with the\nmodels they have taken home show that they place a high value on their\nwork. They have shellacked them, sent them to Germany, to Japan, to\nSouth America, back east to grandma, to uncles, aunts, and cousins all\nover the known world. They have salted them down in their trunks, put\nthem in their big sisters' bedrooms, given them away as Christmas or\nbirthday presents, and hung them up in the parlor for company to see.\nThey have done everything on earth with their models except to lose them.\n\n"}
{"page": 940, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF ART EDUCATION\n\nSECRETARY'S\nFIRST\n\nMINUTES\n\nSESSION.— WedneTsday, July 12, 1899\n\nThe session was opened at 2 : 30 P. M. in the Jewish Synagogue, with the president,]\nWilham A. Mason, Philadelphia, Pa., in the chair.\nAfter the president's address, a paper, \" Decorative Composition : Its Educationa.\nValue,\" was read by Henry Talbot, special teacher of manual training. New York ,\ncity, which was discussed by Miss Mertice MacCrea Buck, Dearborn-Morgan School,!\nOrange, N. J.\nMiss Katherine M. Ball, supervisor of drawing, San Francisco, Cal., read a paper,\n\" Problems in Artistic Rendering.\"\nDiscussion by Walter A. Tenney, supervisor of .\ndrawing, Fresno, Cal., and Miss Eda Parrish, supervisor of drawing, San Bernardino, Call\nThe following committees were appointed :\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nRESOLUTIONS\n\nD. R. Augsburg, Oakland, Cal.\nMiss Frances E. Ransom, New York city.\nWalter A. Tenney, Fresno, Cal.\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nNOMINATIONS\n\nLangdon S. Thompson, Jersey City, N. J.\nMiss Josephine A. Greene, Plattsburg, N. Y.\nMiss Katherine M. Ball, San Francisco, Cal.\nMiss Emma Banister.\nHenry Talbot, New York city.\n\nThe meeting was then adjourned until 2 : 30 p. M., Thursday.\nSECOND\n\nSESSION.— Thursday, July 13\n\nThe meeting was called to order at 2 : 30 P. M. by the president.\nThe first speaker. Dr. Herman T. Lukens, State Normal School, California, Pa., read\na paper on \" Drawing in the Early Years,\" which was discussed by Miss Ada M. Laughlin,\nState Normal School, Los Angeles, Cal., and Miss Esther M. Wilson, State Normal\nSchool, Chico, Cal.\nThen followed papers, \"Art Instruction in High and Normal School,\" by Miss\nJosephine A. Greene, State Normal School, Plattsburg, N. Y., and \"Art Instruction in\nthe University,\" by Professor Henry T. Ardley, University of California, Berkeley, Cal.\nThese papers were discussed by Miss Frances E. Ransom, Training School for Teachers,\nNew York city ; and Miss Gratia L. Rice, state director of drawing, New York.\nDr. Langdon S. Thompson, supervisor of drawing, Jersey City, N. J., presented the\npreliminary report of the Committee on a Course of Study in Elementary Art Education.\nIt was read and adopted.\nThe report of the Committee on Resolutions was then read and adopted :\nThe Committee on Resolutions begs leave to offer the following :\n. It is the sense of your Committee on Resolutions that we convey to the rabbi and the board of trustees\nof this beautiful synagogue our thanks for their courtesy and generosity in giving to us so appropriate a place\nof meeting.\nTo the Committee on Arrangements, Miss M. Louise Hutchinson, Mrs. C. P. Bradfield, Miss Ada M.\nLaughlin, and Miss Frances Sterrit, we extend our thanks for the complete arrangements that their forethought\nand industry have provided.\n\n"}
{"page": 941, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPRESIDENTS\n\nADDRESS\n\n933\n\nTo the officers of this department for their uniform courtesy, and fair conduct of its program and meetings,\nwe extend a hearty \" thank you.\"\nTo the officers and people of this city and this state, for the royal greeting, the generous hospitality, and\nthe many evidences of their kindness, and thoughtful provision for our comfort and happiness, we say\". \" You\nhave won our hearts, and our capitulation to you is unconditional.\"\nD. R. Augsburg, Chairman.\nFrances E. Ransom.\nWalter A. Tennev.\n\nThe report of the Committee on Nominations was then called for. The report was\nas follows :\nFor President — Miss Frances E. Ransom, New York city.\nFor Vice-President — Professor Henry T. Ardley, Berkeley, Cal.\nFor Secretary — Miss Mary A, Woodmansee, Dayton, O.\nExecutive Committee — William A. Mason, Philadelphia, Pa.\n\nThe report having been duly adopted, and the nominees declared elected for the\nensuing year, the department adjourned.\nMary A. Woodmansee,\nSecretary.\n\nPAPERS\n\nAND\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nPRESIDENTS\n\nBY\n\nWILLIAM\n\nA.\n\nMASON,\n\nDIRECTOR\n\nADDRESS\n\nOF\n\nPHILADELPHIA,\n\nDRAWING\n\nIN\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nPA.\n\nIf it were not for the flexible nature of the subject of art education,\nthe amount of experimentation which it has undergone would not have\nbeen tolerated.\nIn art education we have passed thru the stage of uniform development for purely utilitarian ends, to the stage of individual development\nfor creative ability and self-expression. We began some twenty years\nago in the purely industrial, or commercial, spirit, basing our work, along\nwith the three R's of the old curriculum, on the belief that the child\nmust be fitted for an occupation ; and that in drawing his hand simply\nrequired to be trained in exercises developing only manual skill along the\nlines of so-called industrial art.\nHe was therefore given a purely automatic drill, chiefly in geometric\nor conventional forms, resulting in making his hand very skillful in\nimitating, but leaving the mind barren of real creative activities.\nLater, however, under the impulse of modern psychology and child\nstudy, we saw the study of drawing widening out into art education. Then\nfor the first time we began to see the full value of the subject in awakening the perceptive, creative, and expressive faculties of the child. But\nfor a long period these vital functions of thought were circumscribed\nin\n\n"}
{"page": 942, "printed_page": null, "text": "934\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Art\n\ntheir activities, while the great original fountains of inspiration, from\nwhich all art impulses have always sprung, were almost wholly ignored.\nSlow, indeed, has been our emancipation from the traditions' of the\npast ; and long, indeed, have we been in discovering the natural child\nand his simple needs. However, we were on the right track, for we were\nbeginning to perceive that all expression — whether literary or graphic —\nto be genuinely educational must grow out of the child's own experience.\nMoreover, we have discovered that, properly to stimulate and enrich\nhis mind, we must approach the child on the side of feeling and enter\nhis thought thru the channels of interest. Any scheme of education,\nmore especially in drawing, that emphasizes the disciplinary side, to the\n•sacrifice of the interest and the feelings of the child, will lead away from\nthe true approach to his intelligence — the emotional or aesthetic door.\nConsider for a moment the unnatural conditions that surround the\ncity child. Where he requires activity we exact inactivity and unthinking compliance; where he needs initiative we compel imitation; and\nwhere he demands the things of nature we give him the things of man.\nI believe it is our mission, as teachers of the aesthetics, to ameliorate\nthese conditions, and to revert to simpler and more fundamental methods,\nat least in our own specialty.\nIt seems to me that the conflict is between the conventional and the\nnatural, and that the solution of the problem lies in the proper reconciliation, allalong the line of education, of these two factors. I will not\npresume, as a teacher of drawing, to trespass very far beyond the confines of my own subject; tho I feel that our work makes for general\nintelligence and culture quite as much as the other branches of study,\nand much more so than some. But I am convinced that there is\ndemanded\n\na more natural procedure in all subjects, a method more\n\nproperly related to the nascent periods of the child, and one that recognizes the aesthetic element to be as important as the intellectual, at least\nin the early years, where, indeed, it is undoubtedly more important.\nI believe that in the reverent, sympathetic study of nature and of the\nthings of nature we have a promoter of all those activities that are so\nindissolubly bound together in the effort of knowledge getting — the\nperceptive, conceptive, and imaginative faculties, which externalize\nknowledge thru creative expression in words and actions.\nNo one can have failed to observe the magical charm which poems\nand stories of nature exert over the minds and hearts of children, to a\ndegree possessed by no other kind of literature. \" Hiawatha,\" \" 'I'he Barefoot Boy,\" Robinson Crusoe, Swiss Family Robinson — these are the children's epics. The spirit of nature breathes thru these works. The\ngreen, sloping fields, the wooded uplands, the sparkling meadows with\nthe sleeping ponds reflecting the blue vault above, and over all the joyous\nsky bearing its rich argosies of fleecy sails — all such picturse of outdoor\n\n"}
{"page": 943, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department J\n\nPRESIDENTS\n\nADDRESS\n\n93^\n\nlife electrify and animate the child. The free, natural, wholesome\nlife which they portray imbue him with an exhilarating love for natural\nthings and natural phenomena — the \"knowledge\nschools.\"\n\nnever learned of\n\nFor, eschewing books and tasks,\nNature answers all he asks.\nHand in hand with her he walks.\nFace to face with her he talks.\n\nThis sympathetic study of nature excites the wonder of the child;\nwonder leads to admiration ; admiration to a desire to know and understand ;and these are the beginnings of knowledge.\nIf it is true — as I begin to believe it may be — that all the acquired\nknowledge necessary for a young child to learn in the first few years may\nbe imparted with nature as a text-book and an inspiring teacher for a\nguide, it is doubly true of art education. Art has sprung from nature.\nNature is its original and constant source of inspiration ; and there can\nbe no true art that is not based on her everlasting principles. Two-thirds\nof all pictorial art is simply nature herself — pictures of the landscape or\nof the sea, with no particular story except the \"wondrous tale\" of\nearth, sky, and water. Children are perennially interested in such pictures ;and their interest is heightened if there is in the picture some\nobject or objects that touch their own experience, whereby they may transport themselves thru the action of the picture into the fascinating life of\nnature, which is the natural life. Such is the inspiration of nature study,\nI believe it should be the groundwork of our studies in art education in\nthe elementary schools.\nIt may be contended that natural forms are too complex and too difficult; and that the child should first learn the \"alphabet of drawing\"\nbefore essaying the. drawing of concrete objects. But not all natural\nforms are complex. Nature affords an infinite variety of forms for all\nstages of progress ; and the wise teacher will grade her exercises to suit\nthe capacity of her pupils. We no longer teach grammatical construction\nbefore reading or composition is begun, but long after the child has\nlearned to express himself fluently in his mother-tongue, both orally and\nby writing.\nWe do not even teach the analysis of the word — the letters — until\nafter the child knows the word, or even the short sentence, as a concrete\nobject of thought.\nSo, also, in drawing we have given up the analytical method, and are\nbeginning to learn the desirability of the pupil drawing the concrete object\nat once, instead of halting and stumbling over the scientific construction of\nit. This latter study should be a later phase of the work, introduced after\nthe child has secured fluency in co-ordination of subjective and objective\nideation an4 motor action.\n\nSomeone has wittily said that \" nothing succeeds\n\n"}
{"page": 944, "printed_page": null, "text": "936\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Art\n\nlike success.\" Surely, *in drawing, nothing succeeds like drawing; not\nanalyzing nor dallying with the theory of drawing, but graphically\npicturing things as they are perceived by the eye or conceived by the\nmind. Nor do children require, as some people believe, a period of manual drill preliminary to, and apart from, their first efforts at pictorial representation. Drawing and thinking must be related. Technique must be\nsubordinated to thought-expression. Mechanical skill is gained at the cost\nof creative spontaneity. Linear execution from the very first is infinitely\nin advance of a child's conception of form and of its relations. Consequently emphasis should be placed on those exercises which will tend to\ndevelop and strengthen these important faculties.\nManual dexterity will be the by-product of genuine object-drawing;*\na means, not an end.\nHappily, the advocates of the \" point, line, and\nplane \" theory are rapidly becoming gray ; and the dangers\nof this\nmethod are disappearing.\nThere is, however, a subject which in all of its bearings is as yet in the\npolemic stage. Man's application of nature in the manifold embellishment of his handiwork has compelled certain processes and procedures,\nmore or less mechanical, and based on conventional usages.\nMechanical processes of reduplication, which cheapen and popularize\nobjects and the decoration of objects, have imposed a certain style of art\nwhich we denominate conventional.\nIt is the obeisance that nature has to pay to this branch of art — a kind\nof mincing minuet of regular steps and formal attitudes, a method of\nbehavior, as it were, very necessary in certain places and on occasions, but\nwithal a final polish or veneer over the more substantial and sincere\nnatural qualities. This conventional drawing, being a phase and an\nadaptation of natural forms, would seem to demand a sparing use in the\nearly years, notwithstanding the simplicity of its elements, and to be\nintroduced systematically only late in the course. This seems wise, both\nbecause this logically appears to be the proper order for it, and because\nits practice is prejudicial to the young pupil's correct observation of the\nindividual characteristics and of the infinite variety of natural forms.\nIt is well recognized, however, that children's early drawings are\nlargely imaginative, even when they draw from the objects before them.\nThis is unfortunate in the interest of truthful representation. But, inasmuch as it seems to be the natural mode of graphic expression of the\nvery young child, and corresponds with his naive romancing in language,\nwe should cultivate his spontaneity of expression rather than check it\neither by requiring him to draw conventional forms too early or yet by a\nrigid insistence upon perspective appearances.\nThe perspective difficulties of objective representation of solid objects\nshould be introduced only gradually, by easy exercises, so that they may\nreact upon, but not replace, subjective expression.\nJust here lies the\n\n"}
{"page": 945, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPRESIDENTS\n\nADDRESS\n\n937\n\ndelicacy of the problem : to conserve creativeness and spontaneity of\nexpression without checking the current of the imagination by either\nmechanicalness or the consciousness of error. Error creeps in just as\nsoon as the child attempts to draw objects that have apparent, visual\nproperties of form that are different from their actual or fact properties.\nOf course, we all know that the confusion of these perceptions in the\nmind of the beginner is due to the variety of associated knowledges which\nthe eye unconsciously calls up. But we shall leave the psychological\ndiscussion of the causation of these errors to our co-laborer, the psychologist, while we labor with schemes for the gradual elimination of these\nerrors. Correct perspective drawing is difficult for the beginner. All\nagree upon this. But experience has led me to discover that theoretical\ndeliverances in regard to the age when children can best take up this\nkind of drawing favor the later age of the pupil directly as to the age\nand inversely as to the art experience of the teacher. That is, the less\nexperience one has in teaching drawing to young beginners, the later he\nwill defer perspective drawing. The converse of this is almost equally as\ntrue. Undoubtedly, it is better to postpone the perspective drawing of\nthe type solids to about the third school year. What with modeling,\npaper-work, color, and the endless resources of nature-drawing — plants,\nsprays, leaves, groups of fruits and vegetables, and so on — ^ there is good\nwork enough to do, and this more abstract exercise may well be postponed.\nOne thing seems conclusive : children love best to draw things in\ntheir relations with other things. Their powers of analysis are immature.\nThey see and draw things en bloc. The relationship of objects is not\nalways correctly expressed ; but the universality of this attitude of mind\nmust guide us in the exercises which we provide for their advancement in\nthe graphic arts.\nThere should be ample opportunity offered for free, spontaneous picturing of action stories, introducing features of the landscape, domestic\nobjects, man, and the animals. This kind of drawing should be of the\nnature of busy-work, and should be given more for the cultivation of\nideas and of versatility than for developing manual skill. We have\nadopted this freer method of drawing from the kindergarten, to which\nwe are indebted for much of the improvement in our present methods of\nelementary instruction. Much adverse comment has been visited upon\nthe kindergarten, and upon its methods in education, for the apparent\nsuperficiality of study which it seems to encourage, and for the wide\nrange of subjects which it attempts to embrace.\nPossibly too much is attempted, but probably not. The animating\nspirit of the kindergarten is the stimulus which it gives to the activities o£\nthe mind, along many avenues of thought, and the correlated motor\nactivities which they excite.\nIn drawing, this wider range of subjects\n\n"}
{"page": 946, "printed_page": null, "text": "938\n\nNATJONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Art\n\nand the freedom of choice allowed the pupil in graphic representation\nstimulate his originality of thought, and lead up to true creative expression.\nBut we should not lose sight of the disciplinary side of drawing,\nwhile we are providing an outlet for the play of fancy. Actual objectdrawing, in which the child is held closely to the true representation of\nvisual appearances, should be a prominent exercise from the very first\nyear in school. It is wiser to avoid the perspective element of foreshortening at first, and to select chiefly from that limitless variety of natural\nforms — grasses, plants, leaves, etc. — which are linear in general characteristics, and which give such excellent exercise in training the child's\nsense of proportion and relationship.\nIn this more exact kind of representation, or, indeed, in any kind of\ngraphic representation, imitation of copies has very little value, as there\nis little or no connection between the motor centers and the visual centers. Seeing the form correctly drawn on the blackboard by the teacher\nis helpful in correcting errors of visualizing, but the major part of the\nchild's drawing should ,be from the real objects before him\". In no other\nway can true observation be cultivated. It must be recognized that\nability to draw means primarily ability to see, and that mere skill of\nhand is only the means — more or less perfect according to the amount\nof practice — by which the mind expresses itself. The determining\nthought must be developed first-hand from the observation of actual\nobjects.\nAs intimated before, I have discovered that in the drawing of natural\nobjects children are generally more successful in drawing things in relation than in drawing isolated things. They will draw a simple spray\nbetter than a single leaf ; that is, if the latter is at all complex ; and they\nwill draw groups of natural objects as well as, if not better than, the single\nobjects themselves. And, after the first or the second year in school,\nwhen these groups may with profit be begun, they will make few errors\nin relative pictorial position. Second year pupils will make extremely\ncreditable drawings of sprays and plants, even the most complicated, as\nthe daisy and buttercup ; but who can get even passably good drawings\nof natural oak, ivy, or maple leav.es short of the fourth school year ?\nThe delight which the pupils take in this kind of nature work is an inspiration ;especially if they are permitted to draw with colored pencils or\ncrayons, or to paint with water-colors. No other objects excel natural\nobjects in point of interest to the child, and none possess such a variety\nof forms suitable for every stage of progress.\nSubsequently a knowledge of the facts of the systematic science of\nbotany may gradually be built upon the perceptional knowledge which\nthe child had gained thru his own graphic study of the plant. Thus may\nart be made the hand-maid of science.\n\n"}
{"page": 947, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPRESIDENT'S\n\nADDRESS\n\n939\n\nThis procedure is not only scientific, in that original observation precedes the study of the classifications of science, so that the pupil is able\nto understand and properly assimilate these classifications; but the -work\nis essentially artistic, and appeals at every stage to the aesthetic faculties,\nmaking a bond of associated thoughts in the mind, ready and abiding.\nThe visual forms of natural objects, being in a measure indistinguishable from their geometric aspects — if, indeed, they can be said to possess\nthe latter — render them easier of representation than artificial objects,\nwhich have pictorial aspects widely different in form from the known\nshape of these objects. Everyone recognizes the very great disciplinary\nvalue which the pictorial drawing of the exact geometric solids has, and\nfew teachers of drawing ignore them. But I believe their place in the\ncourse is not a principal one, but a very subordinate one; and, in point\nof time, late and not early. Their elements are simple, it is true ; but for\nthis very reason they are discouraging forms for beginners, as the slightest\ndeparture from the truth ruins the result. Moreover, their forms are too\nsevere to be beautiful, unless one wishes to go into a rapture over the\n\"ideal\" beauty of a type form. I confess I am too materialistic ever to\nhave been touched by it. On the other hand, one can hardly arrange\ntwo natural objects together without making an interesting and artistic\ngroup.\nAnd, after all, it is one of our primary aims to seek out the beautiful\nin nature and in life. There is too much \" humdrum \" in the world,\nand not enough of beauty ; and it is for us as teachers of art to introduce\nbeauty into the class-room, that the pupils may be accustomed to it, and\nmay themselves learn to select that which is beautiful in form and in\ncolor. Too much attention cannot be paid to the proper selection of\nbeautiful objects for the groups, graceful plant forms, simple and chaste\nforms for the exercises in decorative design, and appropriate pictures for\nthe schoolroom walls. These are agencies in the comprehensive study of\nart education.\nGenerally, then, the tendency in all directions in drawing is to revert\nto the simple study of nature and the things of nature. The book of\nnature is opened for the child that he may himself discover her secrets;\nthat he may discover her truth in the infinite variety of her forms, her\nbeauty in the regnant gracefulness of spray and bloom, and her good to\nman in the application of her forms to the objects of his construction.\nSurely, then, we have in nature study a sufficient basis for a course in\ndrawing, from which may be evolved the simple art processes which it is\nnecessary to introduce into our elementary schools.\n\n"}
{"page": 948, "printed_page": null, "text": "94°\n\nNATIONAL\n\nPROBLEMS\nBY\n\nKATHERINE\n\nM.\n\nBALL,\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nIN ARTISTIC\nDIRECTOR\n\nOF\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Art\n\nRENDERING\n\nDRAWING,\n\nSAN\n\nFRANCISCO\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nArtistic rendering that applies to such elementary drawing as is taught\nin our public schools can be reduced to rule and principle, so that by\nprescriptive methods it can be taught successfully to classes of children\nof all degrees of ability.\nAs all great achievements are the result of education — genius only\nrepresenting training thru heredity — it naturally follows that a nation\nexcels in the direction of its dominating thought and Zeitgeist. Therefore,\nwhere education has been largely scientific we can easily understand why\nsuch qualities as mechanical accuracy and positive definition take precedence over poetic suggestiveness in consideration of standards of excellence, and why so much of our public-school work has been so mechanical\nand uninteresting. But within the past few years the attention of educators has been directed along new lines of thought, and we find the art\nidea, with its perception of beauty, its recognition of the utility and\nfitness of things, now receiving equal attention with scientific training,\nand the children's work beginning to assume a more hopeful aspect.\nBeautiful art forms, such as casts, porcelains, bits of pottery, lanterns,\netc., that have taken the place of the unsightly, common, useful objects as\nmodels for drawings, have inspired a new feeling in the modes of expression, and we find a new technique supplanting the inartistic methods of\nworking that formerly prevailed.\nThe present appreciators of children's drawings will apprehend the\nsimple conception, the free expression, the loose handling, the poetic\nfeeling, and the significant values of lines and color that may be found in\nthese products, instead of passing judgment upon the qualifications that\nmechanical accuracy demands.\nAccuracy is scientific, and as such it is valuable. It should be the\naim of every student to attain to it ultimately, but not immediately. It\ntells the truth, but it tells all of it ; it leaves nothing to the imagination;\nwhile the greatest charm of an art form is its suggestiveness, its power to\ncarry thought beyond its own expression.\nIn all early work the most important factors are a desirable impulse,\nconfidence, facility in execution, with just enough of accuracy to make\neffort conscientious and thoughtful. On the other hand, where accuracy\nis made the principal motive for training, pupils become full of fear; they\nlose all spontaneity, and their work is devoid of art qualities.\nRendering can never be wholly developed from the study of the\nobject, because pictorial representation is an illusion, a sort of subjective\n\n"}
{"page": 949, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPROBLEMS\n\nIN\n\nARTISTIC\n\nREl^DERING\n\n94 1\n\ncreation which aims to produce an effect on the eye similar to that produced by the object itself. The rendering is the art which has to be\nlearned, and imitation must form an important part in this instruction.\nNot only the teacher, consciously or unconsciously, impresses his style on\nhis pupils, but every art form that the student observes influences his\nexpression in some degree. For this reason it is very important that\nthe drawing-books used in our schools be supplied with artistic illustrations.\nImitation may, however, be used to the advantage or the detriment of\nthe student. It may act as a suggestion, stimulating thought and developing observation, so that it results in an original creation ; or it may be so\nused as to limit him to a fixed process of working that admits of no modification. Its principal value is in helping the student to do his work\ncorrectly, quickly, and easily, without being obliged to consume his time\nin useless experiments.\nThe influence of the study of pictures is more apt to be seen in the\nupper grades than elsewhere, for here the accumulated power acquired\nthru years of study first begins to be felt. Pupils then appreciate such\nqualities as conception of subjects, composition and handling of pigments ;but the younger children are generally only interested in the\nfunction of the picture or the story told. If, however, we can show them\ndrawings of masters that are similar in character to those they themselves\nare doing, they can easily comprehend excellences in structure, and are\nin turn influenced by them in their own productions.\nChildren's standards of excellence are generally regulated by what they\nhave seen or what they have heard. The art atmosphere and environment show themselves very quickly in any form of expression, whether it\nbe the furnishings of a room, the dress of a woman, or the rendering of a\ndrawing ; and where the thin and sharp or the ruled line, and the overfinished, highly wrought, and inartistic drawing prevail, it is a positive\nindication of the lack of training of the imaginative or poetic sense ; for\nfreedom of movement, softness of line, facility of execution, and simplicity in handling are the spontaneous expressions of artistic feeling\ninspired by the imagination.\nLittle children who have had no training will work with great freedom, using the direct and continuous stroke, and it is only when they are\ntaught to place special emphasis on accuracy that they become over-careful, full of anxiety, and piece and patch their lines. As to simplicity of\nrendering, it is common for the young child to make a vertical line do\nduty for the representation of a man, and a horizontal line for a horse,\nand it is not until he has been systematically trained in the analysis of\nobjects that he emphasizes details, making a leaf look like a network of\nveins and a potato like a collection of eyes.\nAccentuation is rarely spontaneously expressed by children, but they\n\n"}
{"page": 950, "printed_page": null, "text": "942\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[aH\n\nall, no matter what their age or grade, want to shade, and will do so if\nnot forbidden.\nBefore we can arrive at any conclusions concerning the best methods\nof instruction by which results in rendering can be obtained, it may be\nwell to consider what we mean by such terms as *' free,\" \"spontaneous,\"\n^nd \" effective ;\" for words have such different meanings to different minds.\nFor this reason it is well to know that by free drawing we mean that\nwhich represents the self-activity, rather than the responsive activity, of\nthe child ; by spontaneous, that which flows from the pencil, pen, or\nbrush as the expression of a controlling and absorbing thought; by\nsimple, that which represents only such features as are sufficient to tell\nthe story, or convey the idea ; by effective, that which is forceful, definite,\nand vigorous, yet expressive of poetic feeling.\nHow are we to bring about such results ? There is no royal road to\nany kind of learning, and while sometimes we are led to believe that by\nsome sleight-of-hand we may acquire power, the experiment will soon\nprove that learning to draw is very serious business for both teacher and\npupil, requiring much patient and conscientious work.\nIf we would train our children to do acceptable work, we must teach\ndrawing as we teach other subjects : we must build thoughtfully, laying\nstone upon stone with the greatest care. It must be precept and example\nuntil habit is established and action becomes automatic, beginning early\nand continuing thru the entire school life.\nTeachers of experience generally recommend and use prescriptive\nmethods of working, because they know that until fundamental principles\nare understood and elementary features are mastered there can be no\nintelligent comprehension of the thing to be accomplished.\nWe can no more attain to freedom in drawing until the technicalities\nare mastered than we can get fluent expression in a foreign language\nuntil its structure and elements are learned.\nWe can only learn to draw by drawing; but in so doing we can\nacquire bad habits which subsequently will have to be unlearned, or we\ncan proceed in a systematic fashion that makes for success.\nThere is a great deal of nonsense about developing ideas and letting\nchildren do as they please. Real spontaneous drawings are of very little\nconsequence. It is only when the childish expressions of an idea,\nimplanted by the teacher, are skillfully guided and guarded against\nobjectionable qualities that they have any value or possess possibilities for\ngrowth toward real power.\nDrawing is a language at best. The expression of an idea is its ultimate aim, but the definition of the conception is generally in proportion\nto the knowledge of technique ; and it is also a fact that in proportion as\none is able to express will he get thoughts to express.\nThe study of technique involves both eye- and hand-training.\n\nThe\n\n"}
{"page": 951, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPROBLEMS\n\nIN ARTISTIC\n\nRENDERING\n\n94,3\n\nformer must be attained by studying examples of good rendering, whether\nin outline, light and shade, or color; and the latter by good hard practice\nof the elements of which drawings are made. The two kinds of work\nshould be carried along in parallel lines, and made to act and react upon\neach other ; for in the study of good drawings we seek to find how the\nelement of beauty is represented, and in our own products we aim to\napply the knowledge acquired.\nTo analyze a work of art is a literary proceeding. It is an effort to\nreduce feeling to reason, and where there is no art feeling this is very\nnecessary, for it is often the case that a literary or intellectual conception is the means of awakening an art appreciation.\nWhen studying a picture we consider its truthfulness, whether or not\nthe drawing is sufficiently scientific to convey the idea; its simplicity, by\nwhich only essentials are treated, so that the eye and mind may grasp the\nthought at once and make us feel that in some way the idea is not new,\nbut originated with ourselves ; its suggestiveness, whereby it represents\nmainly the type, rather than a special thing, which thru the association\nof ideas sets the memory and the imagination to work recalling objects of\na similar kind or modifying them into new creations; its composition, by\nwhich we are able to detect an organic structure whose rhythmic lines\nexpress the principles of unity and balance ; its projection, which represents solidity and makes it appear as standing out and being relieved\nfrom the space which it occupies ; its values, by which its principal parts\nare given prominence and its subordinate features are made subservient ;\nits atmosphere, by which the whole effect is softened as if veiled, as is the\nlandscape on an Indian summer's day; all of which, united and combined, tend to produce that greatest of charms in art — poetic feeling.\nWith a correct idea of what constitutes good expression, we can give\nour attention to the practice of what we consider necessary for its accomplishment. Then, as all drawing begins with the stroke of pencil, pen,\nbrush, or chalk, whether the work is to be in mass, outline, or light\nand shade, we have to consider methods of handling these tools and the\nquality of the stroke or line which they produce.\nMuch\n\nhas been said for and against prescribed position and pencil-\n\nholding, but here again it is a question of use or misuse. For economy's\nsake it is wise to prescribe carefully every movenient of the pupils in the\nfirst lessons, in order to show what is wanted, to secure the children's\nattention and confidence, and to enlist their interest ; but the discriminating teacher will soon discern the easy and natural way of working\nassumed by some children, and devote her time to the correction of that\nwhich is forced, constrained, or unnatural ; for the manner of working\ndetermines the quality of line.\nDelicacy of touch and freedom of movement are impossibilities where\nhands and arms are rigid and pencils are held tight and close to the point.\n\n"}
{"page": 952, "printed_page": null, "text": "944\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Art\n\nDrill on lines must be given until children have some idea of what is\nexpected of them, but not until they have become tired and lost interest.\nThen, whatever is emphasized in the drill work should be consistently\napplied in all subsequent exercises, for the soft sweeping lines must be\nconstantly used. Every drawing lesson, whether it be the study of a\ngeometric shape, a decorative pattern, or a pictorial representation, should\nbe considered as much of a drill on movement and lines as any exercise\nin which the time is entirely given to unrelated lines.\nThe blackboard may be profitably used for all such work, and after\npupils have learned to make light and heavy lines, graduated lines from\nlight to dark and dark to light, their application will naturally follow.\nWhether a drawing should be strengthened in a line of uniform color or\nvary with accentuation is a matter of artistic feeling, and one that requires\nconsiderable practice and experiment before satisfactory results can be\nobtained.\nWhether we should begin our work with the pencil, charcoal, or the\nbrush, or whether it should be outline or mass drawing, or both, are' questions which we are not prepared to answer, since it is very evident that\nthese are matters that are in their experimental stage. But this thing is\ncertain, that the art movement which is sweeping our country, which has\ndone so much in different localities for schoolroom decoration, and\nwhich is responsible'for the introduction of the penny pictures, as well as\nfor the supply of inexpensive art works, is awakening a general art\ninterest that will, in time, effect a most desirable change in the' technique\nof our public-school work.\n\nniscussroN\nWalter A. Tennev, supervisor of drawing, Fresno, Cal. — If we look at this subject of rendering in the light of what is done by those who have attained success, we\nshall doubtless find an answer to the first question : \" Can artistic rendering be reduced\nto principle and rule?\" No two artists will treat any subject in the same way. One sees\nand feels certain truths, another is influenced by other truths, and each one renders\naccording to the truths that- impress him most. Again, no two artists will render the\nsame truths concerning the same subject in precisely the same way. For instance, one\nartist wishes to express the appearance of sunlight, or of trees, or of flesh ; he uses his\nmedium in a certain way which seems good to him ; another expresses the same things in\nan entirely different way. Take, for example, the picture of Francesca da Rimini by\nCount de Marini. The beautiful flesh tones in this painting were obtained by using only\nthe three primary colors, unmixed, but stippled in a manner which produced a most\nwonderful effect. At a distance of a few feet one can hardly believe it to be a flat painting ;it has all the appearance of texture and color, of roundness and solidity of life. Ary\nScheffer treated his painting of the same subject in an altogether different manner, yet\neach has told the same truths in a pleasing and effective way.\nIf time allowed us to\n\n"}
{"page": 953, "printed_page": null, "text": "DepartmentJ\n\nPROBLEMS\n\nIN\n\nARTISTIC\n\nRENDERING\n\n945\n\ncite other examples, they would only lead us to one conclusion, viz., that artists do not\nwork by rule. And I believe that from pupils in the public schools we can never hope\nto obtain artistic work by rule.\nThe terms are inconsistent and opposed to each other. A rule implies limitationsThe only legitimate limita for art ^re the possibility of the mind to conceive and of the\nhand to execute. A rule implies uniformity. Uniformity and art are directly ojjpos-ed,\nfor art is individuality. I should say, then, that a few general principles may be given the\npupil for his guidance, but that more than this would be unsafe.\nOn the other hand, if we say that artistic rendering is the result of genius only — as\nthe term \"genius \" is so often understood — we are too near the other extreme. To say this\nwould be to render impossible the ideal which has been raised in this country, viz., \" an\nart education for the entire people.\" I believe that between these two extremes there is a\nmiddle ground, which is our best position, and that, while the great things, the high\nconceptions, in art are reserved for the few great souls who see with clearer vision, yet\nthere is for the commonplace child in the commonplace environment a rich inheritance\nof the world beautiful.\nArtistic rendering implies two things : first, a clear, definite mental image, a vivid\nconception of the thing to be portrayed ; second, sufficient muscular control to enable the\nhand to execute what the mind wills. Any normal child may acquire the latter with a\nreasonable amount of practice. And any normal child may acquire the former, not by\nfollowing rules, but by studying beautiful objects and works of art, till it becomes habitual\nto entertain beautiful ideas. To a great extent every object suggests its own rendering,\nand if the pupil be uninfluenced, he will render according to the truths which impress him.\nTake the child's drawing of a spray. It looks like a drawing of pressed leaves. No\nlife, no beauty in it. How shall the fault be corrected ? Shall we say : \" Draw this line so\nor that tint so\" ? No ; the trouble is he has not seen the object. I speak of seeing as a\nmental, not a physical, action. In other words, he has not felt that his plant was a living,\nsensitive, growing being, drawing its little life from the same source as his own. The\nteacher may lead him to feel something of this, and only then will his drawing show these\nqualities. Call it sentiment, or whatever name you will ; it is the surest and- — T was about\nto say — the only way. For if art is the outward expression of inward spirit, how can we\nlook for artistic expression without the indwelling of the spirit of beauty ? I find that\nwhenever a pupil is unable to do artistic work it is not on account of inability to draw\ncertain lines in a certain way, but because he has no mental conception of what is to be\ndone; and that wherever there is a clear, mental picture, wherever there is a definite,\nstrong mental mpression, it will invariably find adequate ^.rpression.\nOur first object, then, should be to induce in the pupil the desired mental state, and\nif we would respect his individuality, this is about all we can safely do.\nI do not say that ability to render artistically can be successfully taught from the\nobject alone ; nor do I mean to imply that the teacher should not show the pupils how to\nhandle the different media or how he would render different subjects by doing the work\nbefore them. This should by all means be done. There is no better means of inspiring\nconfidence and respect, and even something more, in the pupils than by masterful execution\non the part of the teacher. But there should be no slavish imitation of the teacher's\ntechnique.\nIn this connection should come\n\nthe study of pictures. Should good drawings be\n\ncopied ? I do not say, \" Never.\" But there is a better way. Let the pupil make his drawing,\nexpressing his thought in his way, as best he can ; then let him compare his work with\ndrawings of similar subjects by good artists. 1 would not have him imitate the style of\nany of these, but study them for suggestions by which to increase his own powers of\nexpression. The influence of good pictures thus used is very great. Our magazines\nfurnish many examples of good work which can be used in this way, and they will be found\n\n"}
{"page": 954, "printed_page": null, "text": "946\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Art\n\na source, not only of profit, but of much enjoyment. Next to the work of the teacher himself there is nothing that will do more to correct faulty technique, to help in overcoming\nthe difficulties which the pupil'encounters, and even in developing a good style of his own,\nthan the careful study of good pictures.\n\" How shall we obtain free, spontaneous, simple, and effective drawings ? \" The\ngeneral principles of the method of teaching which will secure these results have already\nbeen suggested, and if we are to do the best work, the details of their application must\nbe determined by each one for himself ; therefore it would profit little to discuss them at\nany length now. I will, however, state a few more points which seem to me important :\nFirst, we can never hope to obtain free, spontaneous drawings while we place before the\npupil, to draw, objects which in themselves contain nothing of interest to the child, which\nnever have attracted his attention, and never will again ; not while we expect him to find\nmore beauty in a painted wooden sphere than in a blushing, luscious peach. No ! we\nmust futnish him objects in which he is interested and which he would naturally choose\nto draw — objects connected with his play ; objects which are really beautiful, and whose\nbeauty appeals to the child ; objects having color. Children love color, and an immense\namount of it. Second, do not burden the child with too many rules — rules for sitting at\nthe desk, rules for holding the pencil, etc. Do not begin with rules of perspective. I\nwould teach the grammar of drawing, but I would not begin with it. The pupils in the\nfourth or fifth grade should be led to discover the phenomena of foreshortening and\nconvergence, and to formulate their own rules ; but these things should be understood rather\nthan memorized from rules. Third, hold class criticisms. Ordinarily (at least in the\nlower grades), when the pupil begins his drawing let him work undisturbed till he has\nfinished. Then collect the drawings, place them where they can be seen, and let the class\ncriticise. The pupils will often do this as well as, or better than, the teacher. If any\nfurther criticism is necessary, tiie teacher can then make it. Then, perhaps, at another\nlesson let the pupils compare their drawings with those of some a'rtist of recognized ability.\nSimplicity in a drawing is a much desired quality. It can only come thru ability to\nsee and express the broad, simple masses to the exclusion of minute detail.\nThe question we should ask is not, \" Has the pupil drawn his lines in any particular\nmanner ? \" but, \" Has he given a true representation of nature ? \" The method of doing this\nshould be his own. not ours. A well-known artist remarked not long ago : \" It matters not\nso much how the medium is used, if we have a good picture here.\" The pupil's method of\nwork will be his own individual method, if without undue influence we have led him to\nopen his eyes to see and his mind to think ; and if we have not done this, we have done\nnothing worth while.\n\nDRAWING\nBY\n\nDR.\n\nHERMAN\n\nT.\n\nIN J HE\n\nLUKENS,\n\nSTATE\n\nA.\n\nSTEPS\n\nTHE\n\nEARLY\nNORMAL\n\nIN\n\nYEARS\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nCALIFORNIA,\n\nPA.\n\nDEVELOPMENT\n\nA Study of Dr. William L. Bryan's investigation into the learning\nof telegraphy suggested to the writer the probability of a similar analysis\nof the psychological factors in learning art and music. It was found, for\nexample, that the curve representing the growth of skill in the rate of\nsending messages differed widely from that representing the developing\ncapacity to receive messages.\nThe shape of the two curves was quite\n\n"}
{"page": 955, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nDRAWING\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nEARLY\n\nYEARS\n\n947\n\nunlike. Again, both in this study of telegraphy and in a subsequent one\nin reading it was found that the curve representing progress in execution\nshowed an alternation of sudden rises with periods of little or no increase\nin skill. Further investigation revealed the extremely interesting fact\nthat each of these rapid increases in ability corresponded with the mastering of some particular factor in the work. When some new combination of ideas had been learned, or some new co-ordination of muscles\nhad been fixed in habit, thus relieving the strain of voluntary attention\nby being turned over to the control of the lower automatic brain centers,\nthe voluntary attention and strength were thus set free to master additional elements in the process in hand. Thus the process of learning\nresembles in a literal way that of crawling up stairs. Occasionally, however, landings are reached, and then for a long period no upward progress\nis made. Some get discouraged here, say they cannot climb farther, and\nwander off in the lower stories ; others conclude there is no stairway any\nhigher, and that those who are in the upper stories reached there by the\nelevator of genius, without having to crawl on all fours.\nThere is an interest in drawing and an interest in drawings, an\ninterest in the technique of painting and an interest in great pictures.\nOn the one side we have interest in the productive activity, in the creative\npower of the hand as well as of the imagination ; while on the other\nside we have appreciation of the product, not only thru the senses, but\nalso thru the understanding and the feelings. In the school we teach\nchildren to draw, paint, design, and decorate, and also surround them\nwith art products, and teach them to love and appreciate beauty in nature\nand in art. But do we consider the interrelation of these two sides of\nour nature ? The key to the understanding of the child's development\nin drawing is to be found right here. Let us consider the chief stages of\nthis development.\n• First period. — Until about the fourth or fifth year the child's interest\nis greatest in the objects themselves, or in finished drawings by others.\nFor he can produce nothing himself but scribble. Gradually, however,\nthe scribble is eliminated, the drawing reduced to its lowest terms, and\nthen feature after feature added — first eyebrows, hair, ears; then buttons,\nflounces, feathers, shoes, parasol, etc. As soon, now, as the child begins\nto care more for the delight of drawing than for the picture afterward, he\nhas reached the\nSecond period, during which time the imagination develops. The\nchild now not merely sees the crude lines on the paper, but rather his\nmind's eye pictures the scene beyond, that is suggested by the lines\ndrawn, but not represented by them. He is under the influence of what\nLange calls \"artistic illusion.\" This is the golden age of drawing\ndevelopment, and should be prolonged as much as possible. The child\nsays : \" See me make a tree.\n\nHere\n\ngoes a branch, and here are other\n\n"}
{"page": 956, "printed_page": null, "text": "948\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Art\n\nbranches \" (meanwhile drawing lines to stand for the parts he names).\n\"And here comes a bird flying to its nest in the tree\" (as he speaks he\nmakes the lines that show the bird and its flight). Story and picture\nblend in one. Fancy creates a world in which the little artist lives, moves*\nplays, and draws. The child delights to draw \"out of his own head.\"\nWhy ? Because in his own head are the pictures \" fancy paints on\nmemory's wall.\" Why should he want to draw what is actually before his\neyes ? Why represent what is already present ? The little child feels no\ninner need to draw from nature. The picture shall stand for the absent\nobject, person, animal, or plaything. It shall represent the imaginary, the\nobjects of dreamland and fancy, and, as such, meet an inner craving of\nevery boy and girl.\nIt is a fundamental fault of the drawing course that it ignores this\nperiod of development and destroys the golden age by leading the pupil\ninto temptation. The drawing teacher admonishes him : \" Open your\neyes and see the tree and the fruit thereof, as they really are. Draw the\napple exactly as you see it.\" The pupil does so, and his eyes are opened,\nand he sees his nakedness, and is filled with shame. The divine gift -of\nartistic illusion vanishes ; he awakes to find that he cannot draw. Then\nfollows the curse all his life long. In sorrow he must draw from the\nobject all the days of his life. Painful copying, spiritless imitation is the\nstart, and unto the same the pupil ever returns.\nThe sensory side of his nature is appealed to by all the objects of\nculture and of art with which we surround the pupil. He is in the midst\nof an environment much older and more highly developed than he is.\nDo what we can to counteract this condition, we can never provide an\nequally stimulating condition for the motor side of the child's nature.\nWe can, however, give the motor reaction, the restless activity, of the little\nones free play. This we are bound to do all the more if we stimulate\ntheir senses. The child on the farm is healthier than the city child,\nbecause he is surrounded by a less artificial and less highly developed\nenvironment ; but secondly, also, because he suffers under less repression\nof his activities.\nFor healthy development the drawing pupil needs during this period\nnothing else so much as an opportunity and encouragement to draw. Some\ntime ago I examined a pile of over two hundred and fifty drawings by a\nBuffalo boy, Tom J., between five and six years of age. These were all\nstruck off within a little over a year, and included such scenes as the\nfollowing :\nEskimo ; fort; steam engine ; man stealing an arrow; going to set fire\nto an Indian wigwam ; pilgrim boy crying because his gun burst ; the\nfirst fight between the Indians and pilgrims; tomahawks, hatchets, guns,\nand swords ; animal shows, including elephants, giraffe, yak, bear, skunk,\netc.;\n\n\"going to heaven;\" red\n\nIndian\n\nin full dress and\n\nfeathers, with\n\n"}
{"page": 957, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nDRAWING\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nEARLY\n\nYEARS\n\n949\n\ntomahawk and scalping knife ; George Washington and the Indians ;\nseveral houses on fire, with firemen, engines, hook and ladders; street\nparade ; railroad train, etc.; the list ending with a great variety of Brownie\npictures.\nThis drawing activity gave Tom considerable skill in handling the\npencil and expressing himself in lines. It served him for companionship, broadened his interests and sympathies, and perhaps, in part, took\nthe place of doll play with other children. \" The fights, burnings, shootings, Indians, collisions, and other terrible scenes probably performed\nthe same office for him, in respect of later wild escapades, that vaccination\nserves in preventing small-pox. He passed through the mild form on\npaper harmlessly, and the infection will not take as severely if a second\nattack comes.\"\n[Pedagogical Seminary, Vol. IV, No. i.)\nThus drawing should be a usual form of expression, just the same as\nlanguage. The one is no more a special talent than the other. Both\nneed continual practice. If our pupils had to draw as much as they have\nto talk, read, and write, they would all be expert draftsmen.\nThe great danger in allowing children to draw so much \"out of their\nheads\" is that they will fall into the use of fixed conventional forms.\nFor such, perhaps, the best cure is drawing from nature, for they have\nalready lost the power of artistic illusion when they descend into conventional forms.\nThe zest in drawing is gone because the pupil has been taught to\ngrasp the picture objectively as a material thing to be compared with the\nreal object, instead of looking thru it to see in imagination the picture beyond suggested by the drawing.\nThird period. — Pestalozzi tells us that the pupil should not be critical ;\nlearning comes before judgment. The rousing of the critical faculty too\nearly brings on the stagnation of the third period, for the zest in the\ncrude children's drawings is destroyed without the pupil being able to\ndraw well enough to care to practice any more. He concludes he has\nnot talent, and henceforth never draws except when forced to. Most\npeople remain so all life thru, unable to draw any better than, or scarcely\nas well as, children of ten years of age. The other day I asked the graduating class in one of the Pennsylvania normal schools to draw a few\nsimple objects, as a tree, bird, and hills with a house in the foreground.\nMost could not or were ashamed to show their drawings. Is it any\nwonder that they make no progress ? According to the study of children's drawings made by Earl Barnes in California, the desire to draw\ndecreases more and more after the age of thirteen or fourteen. All the\ndrawing teachers I have asked have agreed that the children make the\nleast progress about the age of twelve. After that they learn to work\nmore neatly, it is true, and acquire greater mastery of their hand and\narm muscles,.but no greater skill in depicting expression or characterizing\nthe human form.\n\n"}
{"page": 958, "printed_page": null, "text": "95°\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Art\n\nTheir appreciation of art objects goes on increasing, and is trained by\nstudy of pictures, paintings, and statuary all life long ; but that is only\none side of art education. The misfit relation between production and\nappreciation continues to grow worse. The development is one-sided,\nand is arrested.\nFourth period. — In some more fortunate people, who during adolescence experience a rebirth of creative power, the artistic development is\ncontinued, and many such become artists by profession. For thru this\nrenewal of their art power their delight in producing again becomes\nstrong, and thus it often happens that artists feel the divine zest in creation as a far stronger incentive to work than any pleasure or profit to be\nderived from the finished product. In this way are repeated those propitious conditions of the first golden age of childhood, and the artist\nagain finds his deepest satisfaction in the work itself, and, no longer aiming at copying, he catches visions of the picture beyond the canvas.\nThe transition periods from one condition to another (about the age\nof four, eight to ten, and then, later, about fourteen or fifteen years of age)\nare of the greatest pedagogical importance. Perhaps they represent the\nnascent periods for some dominant factors in artistic development. The\ndiscouraging plateau level after the age of ten or twelve is due, in large\nmeasure, to false methods of teaching drawing, and can be largely remedied by natural methods and abundant practice in drawing all sorts of\nobjects in which the children are interested. There certainly should be\nno sharp dualism between the mental and manual development.\nB.\n\nTHE\n\nCOURSE\n\nIN\n\nDRAWING\n\n1. It is a remarkable fact, attested by all observation of children's\ndrawings, that at first they never draw from the object even when it is\nbefore their eyes, but always \"out of their heads.\" In forcing early drawing from the object we are really making it harder for the child to arrive\nat the necessary preliminary stage of simplicity in outlining. We can\nwell understand that it is easier to draw in a few bold strokes a characteristic sketch \" from memory \" (for only striking features are remembered) than to do it with all the bewildering details of the real object to\nlook at. The memory performs the work of selection involuntarily.\n2. Drawing from memory differs from drawing from the object only\nin the longer or shorter interval between the sense-impression and its\nmotor expression. If the sense-impression is stored up in the memory,\nto be used later in re-presenting the object on paper when that object is\nno longer present, it is called drawing from memory. If, on the contrary, the hand at once tries to reproduce what the eye sees, the memory\ncarries the sense-impression a very short interval before expressing it in\nlines on paper, and we call it drawing from the object. The latter is\nslavish, and is enfeebling if exclusively pursued.\nOne glorious attraction\n\n"}
{"page": 959, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nDRAWING\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nEARLY\n\nYEARS\n\n95 1\n\nof landscape painting and sketching living creatures is that they are constantly changing, thus forcing drawing from nature to be more or less\nmemory drawing. No one has mastered a form until he can draw it in\nany position from memory. Drawing from the object is a drill exercise\nin learning to draw that object, but it is not the aim of drawing.\nIf the early drawing \"out of the head\" degenerates into the stereotyped, conventional form for human figures, trees, houses, etc., it may be\nbest to correct this by going at once to drawing from the object; but this\nwill arrest further progress unless combined with much memory drawing.\n3. Grace, balance, and facility in drawing can be acquired only thru\nmuscle-training in those co-ordinations necessary for making such movements. Such exercises for muscle-training have been called, appropriately,\nmanual-training drawing. While any muscles are untrained, the will has\nincomplete control of them, and only awkward lines can result. This\nmanual training should begin with the movements of the large muscles,\nand can then properly be given to the children in the lowest primary\ngrades. Pestalozzi laid great stress on this point, urging the priority of\ndrawing to writing. Drawing requires and develops a universal flexibility\nof the hand, which, however, is ruined by the stiffening of it in particular\ndirections by the uniformly up-and-down movements of writing. Drawing favors the fundamental, free, whole-arm movements, necessary in\nmaking long, continuous lines with large and variable sweep ; writing\nleads almost necessarily to little, cramped, accessory finger movements of\nnarrow range and uniform in direction and height. To convince oneself of this, one has only to attempt to draw free-hand any symmetrical\ndesign based on the loop. The awkwardness of the unbalanced figure that\nresults is due to the one sided training of the pen-wagging muscles.\n4. Ruskin's words in the opening pages of The Laws of Fiesole should\nsink deep into the heart of every teacher: \"The guiding principle of all\nright, practical labor, and the source of all healthful life energy, is that\nyour art is to be the place of something that you love.'' \" It matters not,\"\n. says Comenius, \"whether the objects be correctly drawn or otherwise,\nprovided that they afford delight to the mind.\" Consider now that, when\nleftto themselves, three-fourths of all children's drawings are human figures,\nwith human interests linked with them, and we are forced to conclude\nthat the object par excellence for drawing in the lower grades and the\nkindergarten is the human figure, and after that animal forms.\n5. The only way to learn to draw is to draw. We provide far too little\npractice in drawing. All the required work in an ordinary \"course in\ndrawing \" for a year could be gone thru with in an afternoon. No such\nsubjects as drawing, reading, writing, etc., are properly taught in school\nunless the school work leads to a great deal of voluntary out-of-school\npractice. \"I do not think it advisable,\" says Ruskin, \" to engage a child\nin any but the most voluntary practice of art.\"\nDo our pupils fall in love\n\n"}
{"page": 960, "printed_page": null, "text": "952\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Art\n\nwith drawing, and are they given free opportunity and encouragement to\ndraw outside of the drawing period ? There is no other way to learn to\ndraw. It is not some knack that can be acquired by word of mouth, nor\nis it mainly eye-training in seeing, but, to a much greater extent, it is\nmuscle-training in execution. Now, all muscle-training succeeds best\nwhen it is continuous, allowing only for the needful rest intervals. The\npractice effect gradually vanishes, and more is lost, of course, if the time\nfor training is spread thinly over a long period than if well concentrated.\nThe poorest writer I ever knew in one year became one. of the best writers\nand took the prize in school in penmanship by practicing two or three\nhours a day during that one year. Writing is only a special sort of drawing. Success depends upon having the practice in a concentrated form.\nThe most appropriate. time for the drill work in object-drawing is, I\nbelieve, the last two years of the grammar course. Before that time the\nwork should be more varied, less technical, more manual training for a\nco-ordination, and with a predominance of illustrative memory work.\nThe latter stores the memory with visual images and trains to close observation. It bears a part in learning to draw similar to the committing of\nselections by heart in learning language, or to the school exercise known\nas the \"giving of the substance\" of a part previously read. Such exercises are, of course, based on the closest observation of the object, and\npresuppose some object-drawing as practice work, but the latter should\nnever be held up as the end and aim, but only as means of training for\nmemory drawing.\n6. The work in \" concrete geometry \" that is usually put into the\ndrawing course is a burden that does not belong there. Its proper place\nis in arithmetic, because the lines are not for depicting appearances, but\nfor making and representing measurements. The distinction between\nfree-hand drawing and mechanical drawing to a scale should be clearly\nmarked ; the latter is dominated by the idea of exact measurement, which,\ntherefore, relates it more nearly with mathematics.\n7. The course in drawing, finally, should be a series of graded steps\nin method of drawing, not a series of progressive lessons on graded\nobjects beginning with the type forms. I do not know of any object\ninappropriate for a child of five or six to attempt to draw, if he feels any\ninner need to draw it. We saw, a few minutes ago, how wide a range of\nobjects our five-year-old Tom exploited his skill on. That, it seems to\nme, is the healthy condition, and should be kept up thru all the subsequent years. The work in drawing is suffering from an over-systematization that limits the child and represses his efforts instead of providing\nopportunity for abundant free expression in all years.\nThese graded steps in method of drawing would yet have to be worked\nout on the basis of the study of children's drawings in different years.\nWhat we seem to see clearly already is that the early work should consist\n\n"}
{"page": 961, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nART\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN HIGH\n\nAND\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n953\n\nof an abundance of crude childish sketches drawn out of their heads.\nThese gradually lose their unmeaning scribble, and gain in strength by\nclear, strong, characteristic outlines. Then follows a course in which new\nfeature after feature is added, and the general effect is in danger of being\nlost sight of. This growth in details continues uninterruptedly. At the\ntime when muscle co-ordinations are becoming habitual, from about twelve\nto fourteen, the drill in object-drawing would seem to be most in place,\nand certainly it is then first duly appreciated by the pupils.\n\nAR TEDUCA\n\nTION\n\nIN HIGH\n\nBY MISS J. A. GREENE,\n\nSTATE\n\nSCHOOIS\n\nNORMAL\n\nAND\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nNORMA\n\nL SCHOOLS\n\nPLATTSBURG,\n\nN. Y.\n\nIn treating the subject of art education in institutions so widely different in their aims as the high schools and normal schools of the\ncountry, it is necessary to view two entirely distinct fields of work; the\none dealing with the acquirement of technical knowledge along various\nlines of artistic work ; the other with the additional acquirement of the\npower to fit such technical knowledge to the needs of children of varying\nage and ability. In an ideal state of education the high schools and\nthe normal schools would occupy these two entirely distinct fields, the\nwork of the high schools being purely technical, that of the normal\nschools being entirely professional. But at present, because of the varying abilities and previous training of those entering normal schools,\nthese schools must supplement their professional training with much\nwork in subject-matter. Thus we' find that normal schools provide, in\naddition to a study of methods of teaching, technical work closely corresponding to that of the high schools.\nSo the art instruction along technical lines given in high schools and\nnormal schools may be considered as one field of work, both as to scope\nand character, the additional normal-school work in methods being a\nwork entirely distinct from this.\nThe course of study in drawing, manual training, or whatever definite\nname may be given to art instruction in these schools, usually covers the\nwhole field of the arts, being divided into the three departments : (i)\nmechanical and constructive work, (2) pictorial or illustrative work, and\n(3) decorative work. This work in the schools varies with the character\nof the pupils, the equipment of the school, and the individuality of the\nteacher; but the general courses of study must be somewhat the same.\nMechanical work in these schools usually includes a study of ortho\ngraphic projection, working drawings of somewhat elaborate objects, and\nsimple machine drawings.\nThis work is supplemented and completed by\n\n"}
{"page": 962, "printed_page": null, "text": "954\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Art\n\nconstructive work in paper, clay, or wood. Schools having an equipment\nfor manual training can carry out this constructive work most practically\nin shop work.\nThe second department of work, drawing from models and objects,\nincludes the usu^il still-life studies of objects. In a few schools, drawing\nfrom the living model, composition, and sketching out of doors are\npracticed ; but these schools are few compared with the whole number of\nhigh and normal schools.\nThe third department, decorative work, includes a study of the principles of design, the making of original designs, and a study of historic\nornament. In a comparatively few cases this study of design is accompanied by an intelligent study of color and color combinations with\npigments. In a few schools, also, the study of historic ornament develops\ninto a study of the history of art.\nThe question arises : Are these lines of work laid out in present normaland high-school courses in drawing best adapted to the needs of pupils\nin these schools, both for their own mental and physical development\nand for their future practical use ? Everyone is surely agreed that that\nplan of education is best which develops the mental and physical powers\nof the student, while at the same time giving practical and useful knowledge ;and we are becoming more and more convinced that it is possible\nfully to develop the faculties of a child by presenting only such material\nas will be of practical benefit or pleasure to him in his future daily life.\nIn order to determine that material along artistic lines which will be\nof practical benefit and use to high- and normal-school students, it is\nnecessary to know something of the future life of such students. The\npurpose of normal students is avowed by the fact that they are registered\nas members of a normal school. It is not so easy to determine the future\nof high-school students. It is a notable fact, and one with which we are\nall familiar, that only a very small proportion of the pupils in our public\nschools enter the high-school grades. Most of those who drop out of\nschool before reaching these highest grades are compelled, by the necessity of earning a livelihood, to enter some of the many industrial occupations at the earliest possible age, and make up the great body of laborers\nupon whom our industrial system depends.\nMost of the boys who are graduated from the high schools enter a\nbusiness career on the completion of their work there, while a small percentage go to college and from there enter professional life. The\nmajority of the girls marry and enter upon what should be the profession\nof home-makers and mothers. Most of those who do not marry become\nteachers, receiving their advanced training in normal schools or colleges,\nwhile a small proportion enter other professions open to women. Thus\nour mercantile and professional classes are recruited from the ranks of\nhigh-school students.\n\n"}
{"page": 963, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nART\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN HIGH\n\nAND\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n955\n\nLet us examine the three lines of artistic work above indicated, and\ntry to determine what work, if any, is not practical, and what, if any, may\nbe developed to be a more important feature than it is at present.\nWhat is the value of mechanical and constructive work in these\nadvanced grades ? First, is it of value in developing the mental and\nphysical faculties of the student ? Second, is it of practical value to\nhim after leaving school? This work is certainly of value in developing\nan appreciation of the true form, volume, and relation of parts of objects,\nbut this appreciation should have been gained in the early years of school\nwork, and should have formed the basis of work in numbers and elementary mathematics. Constructive work, the making of things, with\nattendant processes of drawing, etc., is especially adapted to the capacity\nof children in the earlier years of school life. There is ample opportunity during the elementary and grammar grades to give all the mechanical\nand constructive work necessary to a general knowledge of this part of\nour subject, and to the development of the faculties trained by this kind\nof work.\nIt may be argued that advanced work in orthographic projections,\nsections, and the intersection of solids offers material too difficult for\nchildren to understand, but which is necessary for a perfect comprehension of the principles of constructive drawing. I have yet to find any\nwork in ordinary constructive drawing which cannot be perfectly understood in the grades of the elementary schools with the making of working\ndrawings from objects, the making of objects from simple working drawings, and a study of the simplest principles of projection which children\nin these grades can understand.\nThis work in advanced mechanical drawing does cultivate accuracy of\nthought and expression, and the reasoning powers of the student, but we\nhave in the mathematical work of algebra, and plane and solid geometry,\nstudies which have this end avowedly in view, and which should be sufficient to this end. Will the average student use the ability acquired in\nthis mechanical work in his future daily life ? From what has been said\nas to the future of high-school students, I should say that he would not.\nIn the country, those students who follow the various trades where\nthis work would be of practical use leave school before reaching the high\nschool. In the cities, such students, if possible, enter some technical\nschool, where this work properly takes an important place in the curriculum. It seems, then, that much mechanical drawing and construction\nis out of place in high-school work.\nThis work should be taught simply, and take its proper place in the\nearlier years of school life, and the time now devoted to such work should\nbe given to work which will be of practical value to these students in\ntheir after-life.\nI have\n\nhad\n\nthe\n\ngood\n\nfortune\n\nto\n\nbe\n\nable\n\nto\n\nfollow\n\nthe\n\nnatural\n\n"}
{"page": 964, "printed_page": null, "text": "956\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Art\n\ndevelopment of two unusually gifted artistic natures, and I have found,\nwhat other investigators have also found to be true, that the ideal and\nimaginative work of early years naturally develops into a careful and\nvigorous study of natural forms and their appearance, at the age of from\nten to fourteen years.\nThe upper grades of the elementary school and the high school, then,\nare the places for the development of that technical ability and power of\ndiscrimination which will be of practical value to all high-school students\nin their after-life, in enabling them to discriminate between what is good\nand bad in artistic things. It is in this department of the work that\nthe individuality of the teacher most thoroly asserts itself.\nWe find in the inartistic drawings of most schools a proof of the\nlamentable fact that most teachers of drawing are not themselves artists.\nIt is an astonishing fact that most of those employing drawing teachers\ndo not deem the first and most essential qualification of such a teacher\nto be the ability to draw. It is because of this fact that this department\nof art instruction has been by some considered a failure, and pupils fail\nto achieve the results which they attain in other subjects. Every student\ncan learn to draw from models, to cultivate that power of observation\nwhich can only come by practice in this kind of work, provided that he\nis taught by those who can themselves draw easily and artistically. The\nonly successful teacher of drawing is the one who can inspire, by her own\nwork, an enthusiasm and love for such work on the part of her pupils.\nHappily there is at present, among progressive and intelligent teachers,\na strong effort to achieve in advanced work an artistic technique, and to\ndo away with that hard and false method of drawing which has for years\nmade public-school work in drawing the laughing stock of professional\nartists. This is right, but there is a danger that it may be carried too far\nif the cultivation of technique becomes the only aim of teachers.\nWe must not lose sight of the fact that the highest aim of this work\nis not to make artists of average students, but to give such a cultivation of the powers of observation as will make the life of each boy and\ngirl fuller and richer for all time. They should be led to see the beauty\nand wonderful structure of bud and flower, of butterfly and bird, as well\nas the charm of great sky spaces, or stretches of sunlit wood and meadow.\nWhat a powerful adjunct, then, this work might become in the advanced\nstudy of natural science ! And it should be used, and used freely, in\ncorrelation with such work.\nArtistic rendering of objects should be taught thoroly and systematically. Composition and color should receive all the attention we are\nbestowing upon them, but we should not forget that we are to use the\nmeans of expression thus acquired in every possible way, and in all\npossible studies. The upper grades of the elementary school and of the\nhigh school seem the proper places for this work, the crude work in\n\n"}
{"page": 965, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nART\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN HIGH\n\nAND\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n957\n\nconnection with nature study in the lower grades being a proper preparation for it.\nBut it is the third department of the arts, decorative work, which is\nespecially adapted to advanced, rather than elementary, grades, as it\ninvolves the exercise of those critical faculties only to be found in students\nof advanced age and with a fairly varied experience and knowledge.\nChildren in the lower grades may become familiar with the beautiful\nornamental forms of the past, they may learn to combine these forms in\na pleasing manner with simple scrolls, and they may make other original\narrangements of simple forms given them ; but the necessary material of\nremembered images, and the concentration of thought required to make\na truly original design, can only be expected from students of experience.\nSo, also, the history of art in its broadest sense is a study of great\nvalue in advanced grades, because it develops the critical faculties by\nmaking students acquainted with the best in art, and so giving them a\nstandard by which to judge of things artistic. Many schools take up\nonly the most limited part of this work, confining themselves to the study\nof historic ornament alone. There are, however, hopeful indications in\nthe increased demand and supply of casts, pictures, and books, dealing\nwith great works of architecture, sculpture, and painting. It must\npresage the growth of the proper idea of the value and scope of a study\nof the history of art. The greatest difficulty to overcome in connection\nwith this study is the present lack of such material as casts, pictures, and\nbooks on art, not only in our high schools, but in our normal schools\nas well.\nIt is utterly impossible for students to develop along lines of artistic\nand manual work, or to grow into any appreciation of things artistic,\nwithout passing the formative period of their lives in an artistic environment. Almost without exception the pupil's in our public schools come\nfrom homes whose furnishings are utterly bad from an artistic point of\nview. They do not know the difference between good and bad pictures,\ngood and bad wall-papers, carpets, furnishings, etc., because they have\nnever seen anything good.\nIt is in the province of the schools to supply this deficiency, and to\ndevelop good taste in students, not alone by a study of the dates of\ncertain schools, the lives of great masters, or the memorizing and adapting of characteristic ornamental forms, but by surrounding them thruout their school life with casts and pictures of the greatest works of\narchitecture, sculpture, and painting.\nThis artistic environment is as necessary to the development of good\ntaste in art as a library is to the development of good taste in reading ;\nand who shall say that the one is not as practical and beneficial in the\nfull development of the student as the other ? This development of taste\nshould, however, not stop here.\n\n"}
{"page": 966, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n958\nIt has been a generally accepted idea that if one could become familiar\nwith and appreciate great works of art, a correct taste in the ordinary\n[Art\naesthetic questions of daily life would be formed. We all know what\n\nthese problems are.: the selection of proper wall-paper and carpets, under\ncertain conditions of light, size of room, etc. ; the buying of furniture\nand uTiensils for ordinary use ; the choice of colors in dress ; the painting,\nalas 1 of the outside of our houses ; in short, the thousand and one practical questions which arise daily with everyone.\nCould there be a more practical subject in the curriculum of our common schools than one which would lead to the formation of a correct\ntaste in these matters of daily life ? From what I have seen, however,\nof the surroundings of people apparently familiar with great works of art,\n1 have been forced to conclude that a study of these is not alone sufficient\nto form this taste.\nI have seen, in the homes of some people actively engaged in the\nbusiness of art teaching, the Venus di Milo and the Sistine Madonna in\ncompany with wall-paper which simply \"howled\"\nadded to the general uproar.\n\nand carpets which\n\nIt seems necessary, then, to supplement the study of design and historic art with exercises dealing with these simple, practical questions.\nLet pupils have problems in the selection of ordinary furnishings — colors\nfor dress, combinations for the exterior of houses, etc. — and we shall be\ndoing an eminently useful and practical work, and one which, if carried\non intelligently and systematically in all our schools, would change the\nappearance of our homes and of our entire country.\nIt is to the normal schools that we must look for the culture of the\nregular grade teacher, who evidently must do much of this work. Here,\nagain, occurs the question of the ability of teachers along this line. It is\ntrite to say that art instruction in any school should be in the hands of\nspecially trained and talented teachers. Far better would it be to have\nno attempt at art education than to have this training in the hands of\nignorant persons. But, as it is true that most teachers cannot do artistic\nwork in drawing, so it is also true that those who should educate the taste\nof the coming generation have themselves bad taste in artistic things.\nEven in the best schools, where the supervision of this work is in the\nhands of a competent teacher, most of the actual teaching is done by\nregular grade teachers. These are the teachers our normal schools must\nreach. At present most normal schools make no pretense of educating\nspecial teachers of drawing, but they do pretend to give to grade\nteachers such a knowledge of the various branches of art and manual work\nthat they may intelligently carry out the work of a special supervisor.\nWe should have in our normal schools, then, two things : an artistic\nenvironment which would be a sufficient means of developing good taste\n1n our teachers, and time enough\ndevoted to drawing and kindred\n\n"}
{"page": 967, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nAR7\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN HIGH\n\nAND\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n959\n\nsubjects to make a lasting impression upon them, and leave them with\nsome ability to do the things they are expected to teach children to do.\nBut how few of our training schools have anything approaching an\nartistic equipment ! We find libraries, laboratories, pianos, and musical\nequipment considered absolutely necessary, but beautiful surroundings\nalmost entirely lacking. As to the time devoted to this subject, at present\nwe are expected in one year to give to students, many of whom have had\nno previous training along this line, the ability not only to draw, but to\ndraw well enough to teach others. Let the normal schools furnish the\nproper artistic environment and give to the subject of art study sufficient\ntime for the development of some ability on the part of students, and the\nteaching of art and manual work in our public schools will begin to compare in efficiency and results with the teaching of other branches.\n\nDISCUSSION\n\nMiss Frances E. Ransom, Training School for Teachers, New York city. — It is\nthe business of the normal schools to train teachers to know and to do, to develop the consciousnes ofpower. It is not enough that they have the power, but in order that the\ngreatest good may come, they must know that they have it.\nSomeone has said that the greatest individual joy is the knowledge of power. Who\nhas not experienced the pleasure at some time of doing that which he felt he knew how\nto do ?\nIt is the difference in this state of consciousness that makes the good or the poor\nteacher. If she feels that she knows some one subject better than another, then her\ngreatest pleasure is in teaching that subject.\nThe greatest hindrance to the success of art instruction in our country today is that\nthe teachers are more deficient in preparation for art instruction than for instruction in\nother subjects. \" I can teach anything but drawing, for that is a subject I know nothing\nabout. I cannot even draw a straight line,\" is what we commonly hear them say. They\ndo know quite a good deal about the subject, and could, if they would, draw well.\nIt is the duty of the normal school to give the' teacher this power of doing and of\nknowing. If the art department of the normal school can accomplish this, it will have\nfulfilled its greatest mission, for the country is rightfully looking to these schools for the\nultimate solution of this problem.\nThere are hard conditions to be met. First, the students come to the school with all\ngrades of preparation and non-preparation. Generally there is no common branch in\nwhich they show more weakness of preparation than in drawing. This is a natural outgrowth of the conditions which have determined the status of the subject in different\ncommunities. Some come without any previous instruction whatever, tho these cases\nare now rare. Most have received some instruction, but it is of such a disjointed and\nunsymmetrical character that the foundation work must be laid anew from the very\nbeginning.\nThe subject has experienced so many upheavals because the school authorities in\nmany places have taken it out of the course entirely, or in part, and then restored it again\nto its place, just as the spirit moved them.\nAgain, the demands of the public have kept\n\n"}
{"page": 968, "printed_page": null, "text": "960\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Art\n\nup such a turmoil, by first demanding a course requiring mechanical accuracy, then\none requiring results for industrial art, then one for pictorial work, discarding all\nmechanical accuracy, that she must have been a level-headed teacher who could keep her\ncompass points steady and steer her craft away from the rocks and shoals of f add ism, and\nhold fast to all that was good in the old courses of study, and yet have a course broad\nenough to meet the demands of modern life. The work is often made optional in the\nhigh schools. This has resulted in only those taking the course who were particularly\nin terested or talented, and the many dropped it. These pupils come to the norma\nschool.\nThe child in the grades who does not enjoy drawing is the exception ; all are delighted\nto exercise their self-activity. But the average student comes to the drawing class\nin the normal school feeling that, because of her poor preparation, she is now to meet her\nWaterloo. She can accomplish the work in all other classes where purely mental effort\nis required, but this, which calls for the thought expressed in material form, makes her\ndoubt her ability and long for a way of escape. This lack of confidence and the breadth\nof the subject make it one of the most difficult, if not the most difficult, subject in our\nnormal schools from which good results may be obtained.\nAt the present time drawing is taught in all the progressive schools of our land, and\nall state and city examinations of. teachers require this subject as much as arithmetic.\nWhat can be done to help her meet this question of drawing with as much confidence as\nshe does the teaching or examination in the three R's ? What kind of training, and how\nmuch, can the normal school give her ?\nThe special drawing teacher has been trained in an art school and has special talent\nfor her work, yet she feels that it is hard for her to keep up with the demands of the\ntimes. Can the grade teacher accomplish such work as the special teacher when she has\nin addition all the other subjects to teach ? Certainly not ; but the results of the past\nshow that when teachers have been trained in a broad way to do some of the work themselves, and to understand its object, they enjoy teaching it and obtain good results.\nThe quickest way to dispel the mysteries surrounding the subject, and to overcome\nthe lack of confidence in the minds of students, is to put them to work immediately at\ndrawing, painting, and modeling, and prove to them, first, that they have some ability.\nThe talented ones will work out their own salvation, with some suggestions. Every bit\nof genius should be treasured as so much wealth to the nation ; but it is the poor and\nmediocre students who demand the best teaching ability that can be provided for them.\nConstant encouragement and tact in criticism are needed here to a degree not necessary with children's classes, for children are always willing and anxious to make an\nattempt.\nThe work at first should be large and loose, and stand for the liberating of large\nideas rather than for accuracy. As confidence and freedom are gained, more criticism\nand more exactness will lead to better drawing and close attention to details. Sketching\nrapidly and intelligently with chalk, charcoal, brush, and pencil should become so easy\nfrom practice that the student soon finds herself using it as a shorthand means of expression in other studies. By it she expresses with a few strokes what is meant by erosion of\nrock, eruption of volcanoes, the course of a river, or a thousand other everyday questions\nof geography or science, which language would in comparison convey but faintly. By\nthis new method of expression the mental powers are strengthened, for every new way of\nexpressing thought broadens the horizon of the mind.\n■ Linear perspective, still-life drawing, and drawing from nature and from life can be\nsimplified by paying direct attention to proportion and direction of lines, and remembering what Ruskin says, that \" nothing distinguishes great men from inferior men more\nthan their always, whether in life or in art, knowing the way things are going. Your\ndunce thinks they are standing still, and draws them all fixed ; your wise man sees the\n\n"}
{"page": 969, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nART\n\nINSTRUCTION\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\n961\n\nchange or changing in them, and draws them so — the animal in its motion, the tree in its\ngrowth, the cloud in its course, the mountain in its wearing away. Try always, whenever\nyou look at a form, to see the lines in it which have had power over its past fate, and will\nhave power over its futurity.\"\nIt is not enough for her to recognize an Egyptian lotus, a Greek anthemion, or the\nSistine Madonna. She must also know why they are standard — -what elements enter into\na good ornament, or a good picture, so that the enjoyment of all pictures, architecture,\nand ornament will open up a new world to her. If this work had no other value than its\nculture value, it would yield a rich return. But it must do more than that : it must have an\nactual result in the improvement of taste and observance of things in everyday life ; in\nother words, it must develop that rare, valuable quality of common-sense.\nWe are completely surrounded by the products of design from the knob on the door\nto the triumphs of American architecture in our public buildings. Some designs are poor\nand ill-adapted to the purpose for which they were intended, and the student finds out as\nshe works that in addition to this fitness to purpose the principles of unity, variety, and\nsimplicity must be obeyed.\nShe finds that modeling will express ideas of form most completely, that water-color\ngives her a freedom and a knowledge of color that becomes a fascination. In a word,\nshe does these things ; the clouds lift ; she is a new creature in the joy of discovering her\nlatent powers.\nHaving the power to do these things, and ordinary teaching ability, she can get it\nout of others, for the principles of good teaching apply to one subject as well as another.\nShe will develop her own methods when she knows the capabilities of children at different\nages, and what phases of the work are best adapted to these ages.\nShe must know, too, what the value of water-color. is as compared with clay; what\nmechanical drawing does for the child that free-hand drawing does not do. These and\nmany other questions regarding the comparative value of different materials to express\ndifferent phases of the work are necessary to the successful teacher. But imparting\nknowledge of this kind is secondary. The prime object in normal training is to have her\nfeel her ability to draw.\nShe will gain the other by experience.\nThe function of the normal school is not to teach any one system of drawing, but its\ncourse should include the best of all systems covering the principles of representation,\ndecoration, and construction, so that when the student goes out to her school she can\ndraw, and she knows the principles underlying the work. She can then adjust her\nteaching to surrounding conditions.\nGoing out with her portfolio full of drawings, and with the right discipline of head,\nhand, and heart, the young teacher will find herself well equipped to deal with the problem\nof drawing in elementary schools, and she will be a fitting example of the fulfillment of\nthe mission of the training-school in adding to the sum of human power and happiness.\n\nART INSTRUCTION\nBY PROFESSOR\n\nHENRY\n\nT. ARDLEY,\n\nIN THE\nOF THE\n\nUNIVERSITY\nUNIVERSITY\n\nOF CALIFORNIA\n\nIn speaking upon the subject of art in the university I take the stand\nthat courses in art and its history should be given in every university in\nthe world, that no university curriculum is complete without such\ncourses, and that no, so-called, \"liberal\" education can be satisfactory\nwithout some knowledge of art or its history.\n\n"}
{"page": 970, "printed_page": null, "text": "962\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Art'\n\nIt should be needless to say this, but unfortunately it is not only necessary to say it, but to emphasize the fact, even among some educators who\nseem to think that a \"liberal\" education consists in \"cramming\" the\nstudent with their own subjects, however narrow in range, vague in theory,\nor useless in practice.\nIts great educational value is appreciated in some of our leading\nuniversities, but it has a hard struggle for fair recognition in our secondary or smaller ones, where its short-sighted and narrow-minded opponents\njealously guard the fossilized traditions of inanimate education, and while\npraising art from the housetops in daylight undermine its value in the\ndark, as some of the antiquated, subjects of the mediaeval ages need protection from anything progressive. And where the study of art has been\ndeprecated in any university it has been by those who either knew nothing of the subject or were jealous of its increasing popularity.\nBut education in our universities should be broad, far-reaching, and\nliberal, embracing the highest ideals of universal knowledge; and what\nsubject can be more universal in its application than art?\nLet us for a moment consider the usefulness of art in relation to other\nuniversity subjects, and we find that to one of its most elementary features\n— that of drawing — science owes its greatest debt of gratitude ; for how\ncould the scientist describe his discoveries, or the student understand\nthem, without the medium of drawings ?\nHuxley called drawing \" the hand-maid of science,\" and Professor\nTyndall has said that \"one well-illustrated page conveys more knowledge\nto the mind of the student than ten pages of reading matter.\" But\nbesides making us observant of what is within our reach, the graphic arts\ngive us a clear conception of what lies beyond it ; past history, distant\ncountries, and great discoveries by the aid of art are made visible to us,\nand intricate details of construction, which could not be understood by\nverbal description, are made perfectly clear by illustration. If all the\ngreat works on engineering, botany, zoology, travel, biology, anatomy,\netc., were stripped of their illustrations, what would they be worth to the\nuniversity student ?\nNow, as to the history of art. When a student graduates from\nour universities he should certainly be familiar with the great works\naccomplished by man of the past ages, in shaping the crude raw material of the world to his highest ideals of use and beauty, from the Egyptian and classic arts to the Gothic and Renaissance ; and he should be able\nto divide the past into the great art epochs of advancing civilization, as\nwell as by the narrow political divisions of conquest. \" To know history\nis not simply to be familiar with what men of the past have said, but to\nsee what they have done,\" and the character of every nation and epoch\nmay be read in the character of its arts.\nAs to the kind of art work best adapted to our universities, there may\n\n"}
{"page": 971, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nART\n\nINSTRUCTION\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\n963\n\nbe differences of opinion ; but I hold that it should be of an industrial\nand historical character. All the great art epochs of the world's history\nwere industrial and decorative— not pictorial. That is to say, their art\nwas adapted to use as well as beauty — to purpose, place, and material, in\nstone, wood, metal, glass, clay, mosaics, fabrics, etc. — thus lifting whole\nnations to a higher plane of civilization and prosperity. Even Raphael\nand Michael Angelo made designs for the potters and the weavers, the\nsilversmiths and carvers, and the work of these artist-artisans is .so\nhighly prized that they are exhibited toda}' in our great museums and\ntreasured in the palaces of kings. And the study of the industrial arts\nteaches our young people not to be ashamed of using their hands in producing something. Is it not too true that today many of our university\ngraduates are educated away from all industrial art pursuits, rather than\nto them ? And yet we are sending millions of dollars to Europe every\nyear to buy almost everything we use in that line, even tho the raw\nmaterial lies at our very doors awaiting development thru a higher education of the hand and mind than the mechanic or the pictorial artist can\ngive ; and our universities should be prepared to meet this important\ndemand.\nWe already have enough \" picture painters \" for a new and undeveloped country, but we need, above all things, knowledge to develop our\nraw material to the highest standards of use and beauty, so that we may\ncompete with the rest of the world in the industrial arts. It has often\nbeen said that all our best pictorial artists must stay in Europe to make a\nlivelihood, while we have to send to Europe for artist-artisans to do our\nwork in nearly every branch of art industry. We lead the world in some\nmachine-made goods, but are woefully behind in art as applied to our\nindustries, the most and best of which is done by foreigners.\nArt courses in our universities should embrace both the technical and\nhistorical sides of art, so arranged that they may be taken together or\nseparately to meet the demands of those who desire either a practical or\ntheoretical knowledge of art. Those desiring only a theoretical knowledge could attend the lecture courses upon art and its history that every\nuniversity should give, with only academic requirements as preparation ;\nbut the groundwork of all the technical courses in art should embrace\ngood, strong outline drawing, correct details, and true perspective from\nthe object.\nThose teachers of pictorial art in our universities who are not university men always dwell too much upon the grouping of masses, pictorial\neffects, impressionism, and fads of technique, thus disconnecting the\nwork of the art department from that of other university departments, as\nthis is not the kind of work needed or expected of them by other departments. A student of industrial art, for instance, must think of careful\noutline and\n\ncorrect\n\ndetail, instead of \" impressionism,\"\n\nA student of\n\n"}
{"page": 972, "printed_page": null, "text": "964\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nbotany or biology must draw his microscopical discoveries in correct\ndetail, instead of considering \"pictorial effect.\" A student of engineering\n[Art\nwho has to sketch bridges, viaducts, or machinery does not have to consider the \"grouping of masses.\" The pictorial artist of the \"downtown\" studio cries, \"Too much detail,\" or, \"Consider your masses;\" but\nin university work we must have careful detail, and it cannot be too careful\nfor scientific and industrial art purposes.\nAn art department in the university must consider its relation to and\nconnection with other departments, instead of striving independently\nfor pictorial \"effect\" and \"show.\" It should form one link of a great\nchain composed of all the departments, and be prepared to offer the exact,\ncareful detail work to students required by them in their scientific and\nother studies, as well as supplying the more advanced courses needed by\nits own special students in the industrial arts.\nIn order to accomplish this, our university students must thoroly\nunderstand the chief characteristics of the main art periods — Egyptian,\nAssyrian, Greek, Roman, Byzantine, Romanesque, Moresque, Gothic, and\nRenaissance — and learn to translate these into practical working designs,\nadapted to all purposes in every kind of material, with a full understanding of its limitations, so that the design may be reproduced in wood,\nstone, glass, iron, or any of the hundreds of different kinds of material\nit may be intended for ; in other words, the application of irt to industrial purposes, with a clear understanding of what others have done thru\nthe various historic periods of art.\nOf course, a knowledge of drawing and perspective, and ability to\ndraw well in various mediums, is indispensable for such work, and should\nbe of the practical kind before referred to ; and when based upon historic\nornament and the antique figure is more especially useful to the designer,\nas he is unconsciously absorbing the main features of various periods of\nart while gaining power in drawing, and the bold character of historic\nornament gives greater strength and power thaA could be gained from\nother sources aside from the human figure, which should be studied in\nthe semi-nude or very lightly draped.\nThe study of elementary art in our secondary schools in preparation\nfor the university should embrace the careful study of light and shade\nand linear perspective in drawing from objects of strong, bold, and graceful outline; not in copying from \"the flat,\" where light and shade and\nperspective are ready-made — such work is mechanical; but the student\nmust produce these from the original model, and models that are bi -symmetrical are especially good subjects for representation, as every inaccuracy stands out with persistent prominence.\nToo much of our school drawing is superficial, scattered, and misleading, and young children are led to believe that they can draw, paint, and\ndesign when they can do no one of these correctly.\nThey are allowed\n\n"}
{"page": 973, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nAR7\n\nINSTRUCTION\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\n9^5\n\nto play with paint before they can draw a place to put the paint, and\nto draw from imagination before they can draw from the object imagined.\nThey are supposed to \" design \" before they can invent, and to adapt\ndesigns to art periods and materials of which they know nothing.\nOne pupil from a high scho.ol told me that he could design stainedglass windows, but I found that he had no idea of the kind of glass or\n\"jewels\" kept in stock, how the window was \"leaded up,\" or what\n\"scale\" should be used in the design; another said she could make\ndesigns for wall-paper and carpets. I was very much astonished, but\nupon investigation discovered that she did not even know the limitations of\neither the printing press or the loom, or how many colors she could use,\nor how they were blended in application.\nNow, what is the use of deceiving pupils in this way and letting them\nwaste time that should have been used in getting good solid drawing and\nperspective ? What would we say of a musician who ignores the \"fivefinger exercises\" and starts a beginner upon the execution of a very difficult composition ?\nThese so-called \"designs\" are neither original nor practical, and the\nforeman of a factory would laugh at such crude efforts ; but the parents\nthink they are \"real cute\" and \"wonderful.\"\nderful !\n\nThey certainly ar^ won-\n\nIf the pupils in our secondary schools become so conversant with\ndrawing as to be able to render correctly and freely in \"black and white\"\nany familiar object in any position from any given position, they are doing\nwell and are on the right road to more advanced work. The highest art\nis not possible until a pupil can master the simple art of representation\nof common objects, and such study is much more useful than a vague\nstriving after less serious work for pictorial \"effect\" and \"show.\"\nWe should try to cultivate a taste for the beautiful in our schools by\ncheerful and artistic surroundings, and by drawing from beautiful objects\ninstead of ugly ones. Of course, we must use geometric models and\nobjects related to them in order to teach perspective, but a Greek vase\ncultivates the taste more than a coffee-pot, or a Roman scroll than a potato.\nOf course, you might argue that a potato is beautiful, but there are degrees\nof beauty. Good technique was shown in paintings of morgues and\nbutcher-shops in the French gallery of the world's fair in Chicago, but I\nturned with pleasant relief to the beauties of nature represented elsewhere\nand with still better technique. There is a great deal in the selection of\nart subjects, and the youthful mind should be trained to beautiful thoughts\nand impressions by careful selections for study.\nOne of the great hindrances to uniform and useful art work in our\nschools is the experimental \"fads\" of inexperience claiming to be related\nin some dim way to psychology and pedagogy ; and another is the diversity of opinion caused by everyone posing as a critic and giving advice\n\n"}
{"page": 974, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n966\n\nupon \"art in education \" without any practical knowledge of the subject.\nIt appears that anyone having the power to talk thinks he can talk upon\n[Art\nart. Why not branch off into surgery or astronomy ? It would be just\nas reasonable, for art requires just as much study and experience. But\nart critics are as numerous as flies in August, and sometimes know as\nmuch; but let us remember that \"the value of a verdict depends upon\nthe knowledge of the judge,\" and is a matter of experience and training,\nnot experiment or \"taste;\" for taste without training generally means bad\ntaste.\nOur universities should encourage the study of art by offering degrees,\nas they do in almost everything else, from philosophy to engineering.\nThis discrimination is very unjust, as we need able men in this subject\nmore than in any other.\nIt is said that there are not more than half a dozen men in America,\nwith a practical understanding of the industrial arts, who have at the same\ntime academic training enough to be cultivated instructors of advanced\nstudents, and even these meet with opposition from those who are determined to keep everything useful or utilitarian out of education ; but if we\nare to keep equal rank with the leading nations of the world, a lorve of art\nand a knowledge of its true principles, with skill to apply them to our\nindustries, must be more universal, and our educated men and women must\nbe taught, by precept and example, that it is no disgrace to have trained\nhands and eyes as well as trained minds ; for the hand and eye, when\nunited, are \"the factors of everything useful and beautiful that we enjoy,\"\nand should certainly be educated together.\n\nPRELIMINARY REPORT\nOF\nON ELEMENTARY\nMADE\n\nTO\n\nTHE\n\nART\n\nDEPARTMENT\n\nASSOCIATION,\n\nPRESENTED\n\nBY\n\nAT\n\nTHE\nS.\n\nLOS\n\nOF\n\nANGELES,\n\nCHAIRMAN\nTHOMPSON,\n\nTHE\nCOMMITTEE\nART EDUCATION\n\nOF\nJERSEY\n\nTHE\n\nNATIONAL\n\nCAL.,\n\nTHE\n\nJULY\n\nTEN\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n13,\n\nCOMMITTEE,\nCITY,\n\nOF\n\n1899\n\nLANGDON\n\nN. J.\n\nThe following resolution was passed by the Art Department of the National Educational Association, July 8, 1898, at Washington, D. C. :\nResolved, That a committee of ten shall be appointed by the president of the Art\nDepartment of the National Educational Association, and that the president shall be one\nmember thereof, for two purposes :\n1. To determine, in the light of psychology, environment, and experience, a proper\nbasis or bases for a course of study in elementary art education, including form study,\nmanual training, drawing, and the study of art works.\n2. To outline, in a general way, such a course of study for the common schools.\n\n"}
{"page": 975, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nPRELIMINARY\n\nREPORT\n\nON\n\nART\n\nEDUCATION\n\n967\n\nEveryone who follows the vocation of a teacher of any subject for any considerable\nlength of time consciously or unconsciously follows principles. Man as a rational being\nmust think and reason concerning that which he does. Thinkers demand definitions,\nclear statements ; and hence reasoning and thinking must result in the discovery of more\nor less truth, which, when stated in language, we call principles. The resolution above\nquoted assumes that there are principles to be observed in elementary art education which\nmay be determined. It is the business of your committee to determine and state such\nprinciples.\nAIM\n\nOR\n\nPURPOSE\n\nHere, as in all courses of study, purpose or aim must be the organizing element. It\ndetermines principles, methods, and devices. Dr. Thomas Davidson says: \"The end\nof all education, as of all life, is the evolution of the social individual in knowledge,\nsympathy, and will.\" It is thus seen that the aim is not a simple one, but complex. The\nwhole being of the child is to be reached. The child is to be brought into right relation\nwith three environments : (l) the so-called physical nature that surrounds him; (2) spiritual beings of his own order ; and (3) the absolute power which determines all being.\nEspecially is the child to be trained to accurate and sympathetic use of his powers of\nobservation, and given sufficient practice in graphic and plastic representation of these\nperceptions to fix them in memory. Also, the child is to be trained to discover and appreciate the beauty in nature and in art, with sufficient practice in .reproducing or re-creating\nbeauty to fix general principles in mind.\nThe aim, as stated above, precludes the idea of attempting to train artists in the public\nschools, or mechanical draftsmen, or professional designers in any field of decorative\ndesign. To set \"the early impulse in the right direction \" is all that can be expected, but\nto do this is worth infinite pains.\nBesides the above statements as to the aim of elementary art education, your committee has only attempted at this time to find a basis for the analysis of the space arts\ninto their four fundamental departments, as follows :\nFUNDAMENTAL\n\nDEPARTMENTS\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nSPACE\n\nARTS\n\nAll space-art study and all drawing and painting (which is only drawing with color)\nmust concern themselves about the form or the shape of an object. But these words\n\"form\" and \"shape\" have several meanings when applied to actually or potentially\nvisible objects. There are two of these meanings, however, that must be clearly understood, defined, and distinguished, if we would avoid interminable confusion. The first\nmeaning of \"form\" or \"shape\" referred to may be stated as follows: Every visible\nobject, or potentially visible one, has, or may have :\n1. An infinite number of apparent or accidental forms.\nThese apparent forms or appearances can be known or recognized only thru\nsight. They are visual percepts pure and simple, created by the self-activity of the\nobserver.\n2. Only one real tangible or potentially tangible form.\nThis tangible or individual shape of an object is the result of its extension in space,\nand is never seen thru the physical eye. It is for the mind, merely a mental concept.\nThese two meanings are entirely different, and the failure to discriminate these\nmeanings and to keep them separate in the mind has caused the teachings of many\nwriters to be a mere play upon words. These writers frequently use the same unqualified\nword \" form \" in both senses, perhaps in a single paragraph, or even in the same sentence.\nNote the distinctions : The first is a visual percept ; the second is a tactual concept.\nThe first shape can only be seen ; the second can never be seen. The first, by the\nobserver's long^experience, has taken on the quality of suggesting the second to the\n\n"}
{"page": 976, "printed_page": null, "text": "968\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Art\n\nmind ; but the second, in everyday experience, never intimates any one of the innumerable aspects of the first. The first pertains only to line and surface ; the second to line,\nsurface, and solidity. The first gives us the beauties and the pictures of vision ; the second\ngives us making, modeling, and manufacturing in real materials. The first can have but\none or two dimensions ; while the second may have one, two, or three dimensions. Hereafter we shall call the first apparent form or shape, or simply appearance, and the second\nreal form or shape.\nTWO\n\nPHASES\n\nOF\n\nAPPEARANCES\n\nArt recognizes two phases of appearances in objects, as the aesthetic results of vision,\nand the images or appearances themselves as such.\nThe first phase may be stated thus:\nA. The aesthetic appearance, or the beauty, of an object. Under A we may say\nthat visual beauty (and we are talking of no other kind at present, such as aural beauty,\nor tactual beauty, etc.) is a matter of appearance ; something only to be seen; something\npertaining to visible outline and surface, but not to solidity as such.\nObjects of beautiful appearance may be (i) natural or (2) artificial. If natural, they\nmay be (a) mineral, {b') vegetable, or (f) animal. Their beauty may consist in their (a)\ncolor (analogy, contrast, harmony) ; {b) light and dark (outline, proportion, space division) ;and {c) composition (regularity, variety, unity).\nIn general these ideas may have their outward expression in the pleasing arrangements of natural objects in given spaces, and the division of surfaces into pleasing proportions for ornamental purposes. As the practical, concrete expression of the ideas thus\ngained, we have the historical ornament of all ages and countries of the world and\nmodem decorative design. The scientific outcome of this study should give us the\nscience of aesthetics, or the science of beauty.\nHow expressed. — Visual beauty is its own most complete expression. It exists for\nitself; that is, it does not depend on something else for its value or its expression.\nThe_ second phase of appearances may be stated thus :\nB. The pictorial appearance, or the picture, of an object. Under B we must remember that the graphic representation of a visual percept of an object gives us a picture, an\nappearance ; not the object as it is in space, only one of its innumerable visual aspects.\nObjects having possible appearances may be considered as (l) natural or (2) artificial. If\nnatural, they may be (a) mineral, (^) vegetable, or {c) animal. The study and the record\nby drawing of our visual percepts of objects, if done to illustrate general school work,\nmay be called illustrative drawing; if done for the purpose of learning the principles of\ndrawing appearances, we call it model- and object-drawing, pictorial drawing, or freehand perspective. The scientific study and representation of appearances yield us the\nscience of perspective, both linear and aerial. There may be three stages of pictorial\ndrawing : (a) outline, (<>) light and dark, and (^) color.\nHow expressed. — The picture is the only complete and perfect expression, or outward realization, of a visual percept. (Oral or written language, modeling, making, or\nworking drawings have no place here, and they can give no direct help.)\nTWO\n\nPHASES\n\nOF\n\nREAL\n\nSHAPE\n\nOR\n\nFORM\n\nWe may recognize two phases of real shape or form, as we direct our attention to the\nreal shape of an object as a whole, or as a solid, or to the real shape of its various planes,\nsections, and edges, and their relations to one another. The first phase may be stated as\nfollows :\nC. The real shape in space of an object having three dimensions. Under C we\nmay say that these three-dimension objects may be (i) natural or (2) artificial. If\nnatural, they may be (a) mineral, (b) vegetable, or (tr) animal. If mineral, the study of\ntheir real shapes leads us to the science of crystallography. If vegetable or animal, their\nstudy as to real shapes will give us the science of promorphology.\n\n"}
{"page": 977, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPRELIMINARY\n\nREPORT\n\nON\n\nART\n\nEDUCATION\n\n969\n\nThe study and the analysis of the real shapes of objects may also reveal to us certain fundamental, ideal, or type solids which are useful as units of comparison in dealing\nwith the concrete forms of all objects. The following is a convenient classification of\nartificial objects :\n(i) Regular geometrical solids, or type solids ; (2) objects of ordinary manufacture\nand building construction ; and (3) objects of art. The study of the first group gives us\nthe science of geometry ; of the second, the principle of building construction ; of the\nthird, ceramics, architecture, sculpture, and all plastic art in general.\nHow expressed. — The only really complete and logical expression for the real\ntangible forms of these three-dimension objects is in solidity, in some material having\nthree dimensions. (No vocal or written language can portray solidity directly. No pictorial, conventional, mechanical, or other kind of drawing can do it.) Remember that\npictorial drawing and pictorial painting of any kind can only show us appearances, not\nreal three-dimension forms.\nThe second phase of real shape or form may be stated as follows :\nD. The real shape in space of the planes, sections, or edges of an object having one\nor two dimensions. Under D the objects to be considered are mostly artificial, and their\nplanes may be classified as follows :\n(i) Faces, horizontal or vertical; (2) sections, cross and longitudinal; and (3)\ntheir faces arranged in single planes, called developments. These planes with their\nedges may be studied as judgment concepts. When we study the edges^ faces, sections,\nor surfaces of type solids and other regular objects, as buildings, furniture, machines, etc.,\nand record our judgment concepts (in conventional drawing) of their real one- or twodimension forms (not our visual percepts), we call the results : {a) plans or elevations ; {b^\nsections; {c) developments or patterns.\nHow expressed. — It will thus be seen that the only adequate expression for our\njudgment concepts of edges, faces, sections, and developments is in mechanical drawing,\nor working drawing. Such drawings do not show us objects as they really are ; they are\nonly conventional representations of the separate and detached edges or faces, with their\nrelations conventionally indicated. The synthesis of these separate concepts (they are\nnot visual percepts) forms in the mind a whole, or a concept which may be realized only\nby a constructed object in space.\nThe basis for the conventional representations of these mental conceptions in the\nmind, or of the corresponding objects in space, is orthographic projections, a branch of\ndescriptive geometry, with its practical departments of architectural, machine, and engineering drawing.\n\n"}
{"page": 978, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF MUSIC EDUCATION\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nMINUTES\n\nFIRST SESSION.— Wednesday, July 12, 1899\nThe session was called to order at 2 : 30 P. M. by Mrs. Gertrude B. Parsons, of Los\nAngeles, Cal., who introduced the president, P. C. Hayden, of Quincy, 111.\nThe president read a paper on \" The Ultimate Object of Music Study in the Public\nSchools.\"\nHerbert Griggs, of Denver, Colo., read a paper entitled \" The Content and Extent of\na Course in School Music.\"\nThe paper was discussed by Miss Alice Lj'on, Whittier, Cal.; P. C. Hayden, Quincy,\n111., and Mrs. Gaston Boyd, Newton, Kan.\nMrs. Grace Miltimore Stivers sang \" Parla,\" Arditi, very pleasingly.\nThomas Tapper, of Boston, Mass., read a paper entitled, \" What Power does the\nChild Gain thru Music Study ?\"\nThe president announced changes in the program as first printed, and read the\nfollowing communication :\nTo the Music Section of the National Educational\nCal. :\nGreeting !\n\nSanta Barbara, Cal., July 11, 1899.\nAssociation, in convention assembled, Los Angeles,\n\nPrevented by sickness from meeting with you, will be glad to entertain all musical pedagogs in Santa\nBarbara.\nJouet Powell Rice,\nChairman\n\nMusic Section, State Teachers' Association.\n\nAn invitation to join the National Federation of Music Teachers was cordially\nextended by the president.\nUnder the direction of Mrs. Gertrude B. Parsons, supervisor of music, Los Angeles,\nCal., a class of fifty-five pupils gave four class songs, and did some very creditable sight\nreading.\nUpon conclusion of the exercise, Herbert Griggs, of Denver, Col., offered the\nfollowing resolution, which was unanimously adopted :\nResolved, That the Music Department thank Mrs. Parsons and the children for the excellent class work\nexhibited p and, furthermore, that the grade teachers who, thru their wise supervision of their pupils and\ntheir hearty co-operation, have aided Mrs. Parsons in bringing the children to such a state of excellence,\nshould receive due recognition and thanks.\n\n■ The chair announced the appointment of the following Committee on Nominations :\nHerbert Griggs, Denver, Col.\nMrs. Gertrude B, Parsons, Los Angeles, Cal.\nMrs. Frances M. Clark, Ottumwa, la.\n\nSECOND\n\nSESSION.— Thursday, July 13\n\nThe afternoon's program opened with \" An Overture in Hungarian Style,\" by the\nWomen's Orchestra, conducted by Harley Hamilton. In response to an enthusiastic\nencore they gave Rubinstein's \" Melody in F.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 979, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nMINUTES\n\n971\n\nMrs. Constance B. Smith, of Jackson.ville, 111., read a paper on \"The Necessary\nEducation of the Supervisor.\"\nThe paper was discussed by Mrs. Gaston Boyd, of Newton, Kan.\nMiss Abbie Oilman rendered effectively a contralto solo, \" The Autumnal Gale,\"\nGrieg.\nMiss Kathryn Stone, of Alameda, Cal., read a paper entitled, \" What should Constitute aCourse of Study for County Institutes ?\"\nMrs. Constance B. Smith, of Jacksonville, 111., and Mrs. Frances M. Clark, of\nOttumwa, 111., discussed the paper.\nA quartet of young ladies from the High School of Pasadena, Cal., sang two\nselections.\nThe president then suggested that the following committees should be appointed to\nassist the president in broadening the work of the Music Department of the National\nEducational Association :\n1. Committee on Literature.\n\n2. Committee on Federation.\n3. Committee on Condition of Music in the States,\n4. Committee on Model Course of Music Study.\n\n'\n\nA. D. Hunter, of Pomona, Cal., moved that the incoming president of the department be authorized to appoint committees on these topics at some time during the year.\nThe motion was carried.\nIt was also moved and carried that the report of the secretary include a list of the\nmembers of the National Federation of Music Teachers for the current year, and of the\nspecial music teachers attending this meeting of the Department of Music Education.\nThe following resolution was presented by Mrs. Constance B. Smith, of\nJacksonville, 111.:\nResolved, That the Music Department of the National Educational Association extend its thanks to the\nLocal Committee, composed of Mrs. Gertrude B. Parsons, Mrs. Laura V. Sweezy, and Miss Jennie Hagan, for\nits thoro arrangements; to Mrs. Juliet Powell Rice, of Santa Barbara, Cal., for her proffered hospitality;\nand to the artists and musicians who have contributed to the success and pleasure of the sessions.\n\nThe resolution was unanimously adopted.\nAn invitation to visit the Whittier State School was read.\nW. B. Powell, superintendent of schools, Washington, D.C., gave an informal address\non \" Tne Value of Music in the Schoolroom.\"\nHerbert Griggs, Denver, Colo.; Mrs. Gaston Boyd, Newton, Kan.; Geo. H. Taylor,\nBakersfield, Cal.; Mrs. Constance B. Smith, Jacksonville, 111.; P. C. Hayden, Quincy, 111.;\nMrs. Frances M. Clark, Ottumwa, la.; A. S. McPherron, Redlands, Cal., and G. M. Cole,\nPasadena, Cal., discussed Superintendent Powell's address.\nThe nominating committee presented the following report :\nFor President — Herbert Griggs, Denver, Col.\n'Vox Vice-President — Mrs. Gertrude B. Parsons, Los Angeles, Cal.\nFor Secretary — Mrs. Constance B. Smith, Jacksonville, III.\n\nThe report was unanimously adopted, and the persons named were declared elected\nas officers for the ensuing year.\nThe meeting was then adjourned.\nEleanor M, Joy,\nSecretary.\n\n"}
{"page": 980, "printed_page": null, "text": "972\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nPAPERS\n\nAND\n\nPRESIDENT'S\nTHE\n\nULTIMATE\n\nBY\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nDISCUSSIONS\nADDRESS\n\nOBJECT OF MUSIC\nSCHOOLS\n\nP.\n\nThe value of education\n\nC.\n\nHAYDEN,\n\n[Music\n\nQUINCY,\n\nSTUDY\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nILL.\n\nto the individual must be found in its effect 1\n\non the soul ; in its influence as an element in character-forming.\nNoj\nconsideration of ultimate values is adequate unless it weighs the wellbeing of the immortal part of man.\nAs educators we assume that the\nformation of worthy character is the ultimate object of all education.\nSome good men say that the public schools do not recognize this\ngreat truth, and are opposed to them on this account ; but it is safe to say\nthat most teachers work to build up good characters as well as to develop\naccurate scholarship.\nIt is hard to estimate how great is the value, in this character-building,\nof a true love for nature and God's handiwork in creation. That this\nlove for nature is an important element in noble character has been\nrecognized by the poets and seers of all ages.\n\" My heart leaps up when I behold\nA rainbow in the sky ;\nSo was it when my life began ;\nSo is it now I am a man ;\nSo be it when I shall grow old,\nOr let me die !\nThe child is father to the man ;\nAnd I could wish my days to be\nBound each to each by natural piety.\"\n\nThis love for nature has stirred the hearts of all the world's great\nones, and makes all feel the brotherhood of a common origin.\n•Three years ago, when in attendance at the National Educational\nAssociation at Buffalo, it was my pleasure to hear three representative\neducators make addresses before this Department of Music Education on\nthe subject of \"Music in the Public Schools.\" You will all recognize the\nnames, and you all know the reputations borne by these men of national\nfame.\nThe official branch of the school system was represented by Dr. W. T.\nHarris, United States Commissioner of Education ; the collegiate branch\nby Dr. G. Stanley Hall, president of Clark University, Worcester, Mass.;\n\n"}
{"page": 981, "printed_page": null, "text": "tiepartment]\n\nVLTIMAT E OBJECT\n\nOF MUSIC\n\nSTtjb\\\n\n973\n\nthe normal branch by Colonel F. W. Parker, of the Cook County Normal\nSchool, Chicago.\nThese three men appeared at different hours and sessions, and each\ndid not hear the others speak. They were, however, a unit in their\nestimate of the place of music in school life. They each said that music\nwas the most important study in the school course.\nPresident Hall spoke first. I suspected that, to make his remarks\npleasant to the audience of school music teachers to whom he was talking,\nhe had made statements he would hardly care to maintain in a coldblooded argument. When Colonel Parker followed, he took even stronger\nground in stating the importance of music in education. I mentally put\nhim in the suspected class with Dr. Hall.\nTo make the very last talk in our department came the venerable Dr.\nHarris, and when he took the same extreme view, I was forced to doubt\nmy suspicion. I could not entertain the belief that these three men,\nrepresentative in a national sense, would all say what they did not\nbelieve to be true.\nEver since that time I have been trying to get to a standpoint where\nI could say the same thing and give reasons for my belief, for 1 became\nconvinced that these men spoke from a deeper insight into the human\nsoul, and with a more just appreciation of the real values in life, than I\ncould claim.\nIn Springfield, 111., at the last meeting of the Illinois Teachers'\nAssociation, Superintendent E. A. Gastman, of Decatur, the nestor of\nthe Illinois school superintendents, added the testimony of an active and\nexperienced superintendent, and took the same position, stating, in an\naddress before the music section of the association, that some time ago\nhe had told his school board that music was the most important study\nin the Decatur schools.\nThis brief paper leaves me a very short time in which to attempt to tell\nwhy these representative schoolmen place so high a value on music in education, and I can say only a part of what I have in mind. I must ask you\nto let your imaginations carry out to completion the line of reasoning\nwhich I have time only to suggest.\nI am coming more and more to the belief that these four men of\nlearning, of training, and of practical experience were right, and I think I\nhave in mind a suggestion of a demonstration of the correctness of their\nconvictions, tho I know I shall fall far short of a demonstration in my\nremarks to you today.\nI shall attempt to show that. music holds a very important place in\nthe development of the emotional, mental, and moral qualities of mankind. I would add, especially in the development of the higher*\nnobler attributes in childhood. It is with the child we deal in the schools,\nand\n\nmy\n\naddress\n\ntoday\n\nis written\n\nwith\n\nthe\n\nchild\n\nin\n\nview,\n\nand\n\nthe\n\n"}
{"page": 982, "printed_page": null, "text": "974\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\narguments I advance are especially intended to show the influence of\nmusic on the nature of the young.\nI believe that, to improve the life of the individual in any broad and\ngeneral sense, we must teach a just estimate of life-values ; of the superiority of the Creator over the created ; that the man is more valuable than\nwhat he earns; that the pleasurable activity and enjoyments of the mental,\nemotional, and aesthetic faculties are more to be desired than the satiety\nof the appetites, or than the pleasure of personal adornment ; and I\nbelieve that these things must be taught at the receptive period of life, in\nchildhood and youth. Modern psychology informs us that the foundation for all future achievements is laid at this early period ; that after\nthirty no entirely new thought germs are planted and brought to fruition.\nTo gain maturity in middle age they must have been planted in childhood.\nWe certainly agree in believing that the proper training of a child\nbrings into healthful activity his mental, his emotional, and his moral faculties. These faculties are not easy to reach thru number work or spelling.\nMusic is the study that appeals most directly and most forcibly to this\npart of the child's nature. We do not wish to assume an extreme position in placing a very high value on music in the nurture and development of this divine part of man. Each attribute of human nature has its\nproper function and its proper place in education. We must, then, realize\nthat the only adequate education is a training that reaches the heart\nand the soul as well as the intellect; a training that will fit one for the\nenjoyment of life as well as for its maintenance. In the long run this is the\nmost practical education, too ; for the happy, contented man or woman\ndoes more work successfully, and bears more burdens without breaking,\nthan the poor soul who knows no pleasures but those of the body and of\ncold intellect.\nMusic is of the highest value in education, because it supplies in an\nattractive and effective manner the very elements that are so often wanting in modern life. The average American boy is born with the notion\nthat the most important thing in the world is to make some money; that\nall his time should be given to preparing himself to work for wages; and\nthat, if he does prepare himself to fill a position that will bring him a\nlivelihood, he is doing all that should be expected of him. In other words,\nhe places the skill of his eye or his hand above his own worth, and makes\nwhat he can do of more importance than what he is. No philosopher, no\ncollege president, no great preacher, no educated man would contend for\nan instant that it adds more to a man's worth in a community that he\ncould shoe a horse well than that he was kind-hearted, patriotic, and welleducated. I take the position that music educates the child, not to make\nhim bring a higher price in the labor market, but to make him a broader,\nbetter man in mind and heart.\n\n"}
{"page": 983, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nULTIMATE\n\nOBJECT\n\nOF MUSIC\n\nSTUDY\n\n975\n\nIt would now be proper to ask how music adds a valuable element to\neducation which is not derived from arithmetic, geography, or spellingI would answer : Because music is nature's way, is God's way, of appealing\nto the deeper nature, to the finer feelings. Thru music creation speaks to\nthe individual and calls out a love for the race. The rhythm that controls the movement of music is the same that controls the movement of\nthe spheres, and it touches the youthful heart because it is a part of God's\ngreat plan. The things that really move and mold humanity are, after all,\nthe things that touch the common heart and lay hold of the great common feelings of mankind.\nNothing that is the common property of man does this so completely\nas music. The exact character of its influence and operation can be\nexplained no more than you can exactly explain the influence of a noble\npicture, of a garden of beautiful flowers, of a park of lofty forest trees, or\nof a grand outlook whence may be seen the glories of a lovely sunset, or of\na broad stretch of river and forest and landscape. We may say, however,\nthat music appeals to an appreciation and love of the beautiful which\nexists in every young heart, and which should be assiduously cultivated by\nthose who control child-training.\nFar, far too soon the majority of children leave the training of school\nto take up the long struggle for sustenance, and happy indeed is the one\nwho has in him the greatest capacity for loving and enjoying God's\nwonderful creation. All the lessons in all the books are not so important\nas to learn to live happily, drawing pleasure from the free gifts of the universe. Teach a child to love the sun and breeze of the day, the sunset\nand coming of the night bringing the moon and stars, all the beautiful\ngifts of God, and you make this world an abode of happiness and his life\na benefaction to himself and his fellows.\nIt is this element of nature, this message from the heart of God, that\nmusic puts into the school course, puts into the church service, and puts\ninto the home. You cannot tell what this element is nor describe its working, but we all feel it swaying our emotions, speaking for our heavengiven intuitions, appealing to the best that is in our beings.\nWhen I think of music in this way, as the voice of nature speaking to\nthe child heart and calling out the pure, innocent emotions of the being\nso lately part of God's own self; for, as Wordsworth says.\nOur birth is but a sleep and a forgetting,\nThe soul that rises with us, our life's star,\nHath elsewhere had its setting,\nAnd Cometh from afar.\nNot in entire forgetfulness.\nAnd not in utter nakedness,\nBut trailing clouds of glory do we come\nFrom God who is our home.\nHeaven lies about us in our infancy !\n\n"}
{"page": 984, "printed_page": null, "text": "976\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n[Music\n\n— I say, when I think of the vast importance of keeping in the closest\npossible relations with the invisible realities, and of sustaining the soul's\npurer and higher life, I can understand the extreme position taken by\nthose four notable men in speaking of music and its value in education\nand in life.\nIn a brief glance at history we may see in one nation the effect on\nnational character and achievement of an education founded on music.\nJust beside this nation we may see another that had no music in its\nsystem of education, and actively opposed the pursuit of music by -its\ncitizens.\nThese two nationalities struggled for supremacy in Greece thru centuries. Sparta excelled in producing fighting men, but dreaded with\nsuperstitious fear the supposed enervating influences of literature, poetry>\nart, and music. It even feared the influences of a mother's love, and\nthe state took the future warrior from his mother's arms almost in babyhood and trained him in brutality even as Rome trained her gladiators.\nAn instance recorded by Plutarch shows the extent to which the\nSpartans carried the fear of any assthetic influences. He writes that\n\"Timotheus, a Milesian, was a celebrated poet and musician. He added\na twelfth string to the harp, for which he was severely punished by the\nsage Spartans, who concluded that the luxury of sound would enervate\nthe people.\"\nAthens remains today the great fountain of art, poetry, sculpture, and\nmusic, and history tells us that music was part of all the study of poetry,\nliterature, and such sciences as were then known. They sang and chanted\nall the lessons in these departments. The great Aristotle advocated and\nperfected this system. I need not describe the results of this education\nin this presence.\nYou know the record.\nSparta I What is her record ? Her brute force died with the stalwart\nbodies of her sons, and she left no record in literature, art, poetry, or\nmusic. Two paragraphs from the encyclopaedia sum up the end of\nSpartan influence : \" The site of the city has not been thoroly investigated,\nand it is a question whether much remains worth bringing to life.\"\nThe second is : \" She sank finally, we know not how, under the\ndegrading dominion of a sort of robber chief (Nabis), who fastened his\ndominion upon her by the support of emancipated slaves and mercenaries\nof the lowest class. Her best citizens were put to death or banished, and\nshe was debased into a refuge of pirates and robbers.\"\nIt is not the province of this paper to discuss how music should be\ntaught in the schools to secure to the child the greatest good from its\nstudy. That is another question well worthy of discussion, for every\nearnest teacher will spare no pains to make his work of the highest possible\nvalue to the school and to each individual therein.\nIt is rather our\n\npurpose to maintain\n\nthat the development of the\n\n"}
{"page": 985, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department)\n\nMUSIC\n\nIN PUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n977\n\naesthetic nature and the formation of worthy character are the most\nimportant objects of education, and that music, more directly than any\nother study in the schools, assists in the accomplishment of this highest\naim of a broad education.\n\nCONTENT\n\nBY\n\nAND\n\nHERBERT\n\nEXTENT\n\nGRIGGS,\n\nOF MUSIC\n\nDIRECTOR\nDENVER,\n\nOF\n\nIN PUBIIC\n\nMUSIC,\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOIS\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nCOLO.\n\nMusic as taught in some schools is entirely mental, entirely musical,\nor entirely exhibitional.\nWhat should be the content or the extent of the study of music in our\nschools ? Do we wish to turn out of our eighth year or of the high school\nwell-equipped musicians ? Do we wish to study music for exhibition\npurposes only ? Do we have the music hour for the sake of recreation or\npleasure for the pupil or teacher ? Or do we wish a combination of all or\npart of the above ?\nOf course, the result to be obtained depends upon the point of view of\nthose in authority. Personally I believe the object of public education\nis to make good citizens, and I believe that the study of music should be\nan important part of that education.\nShould you ask me if I thought the acquisition of knowledge made\ngood citizens, I should certainly say no ; and as I believe the acquisition of\nknowledge is only a part of education, and it is that part which has nothing\nwhatever to do with morals any more than theology has to do with religion,\nso I do not believe that a good musician is necessarily a good man.\nThe standard I have of music in the public schools i^high, but no\nhigher than it should be to be fair to the teacher, the pupil, and the public ;\nbut it is as high as, if not higher than, that of any other study. If\npupils on leaving the eighth year or the high school have ability to sing\nintelligently music of ordinary difficulty at first sight — well enough to\nsing their part with good quality of tone in choir or chorus ; if they have\nlearned thru the practice of musical exercises to concentrate their thought,\nstrengthen their mental power, quicken their perception ; to appreciate the\ngood and beautiful in music, so that they would rather associate with those\nwho live better and purer lives than with the companions to be found on\nthe streets ; then I think that the object of music in the public schools is\nattained.\nMusic, when properly taught, should accomplish the following results :\nI. Mentally, a quickening of the perceptive faculties thru exercise in\nrapid discovery, recognition, and concentration.\n\n"}
{"page": 986, "printed_page": null, "text": "978\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Musfc\n\n2. Physically, thru exercise in breathing, tone production, correct\nposition of the body, and of the saturation of the body and mind with\nsonorous fluid.\n3. Disciplinary, thru doing the same thing, in the same way, at the\nsame time, and the effect of sustained tone and harmony on the mind,\nthus dissipating the spirit of contradiction.\n4. Morally, by creating a love for the good and beautiful in music,\nthereby causing in pupils, especially of older years, a desire to associate with\ncompany of refined and elevated tastes ; also to impress on the mind lessons of honesty, courage, cleanliness, truthfulness, patriotism, and respect\nfor parents and elders by the repetition of good words set to good music.\nIf the above results are obtained, good citizenship will take care of\nitself.\nTo what extent should the study of music be carried ? Shall it be\ncarried so far as to cause the pupils to be hypercritical ? Shall we carry\nit so far that they will become expert harmonists and adepts in musical\nhistory and musical form ? Shall they be such super-finished musical\ndissectors that all the life and soul is wrenched out of what they perforjn\nor hear, and they receive no pleasure or enjoyment thereby ? I think not.\nIt seems that with the multiplicity of systems (each one the best)\nwe are moving in the wrong direction ; we are teaching and talking thru\nour heads instead of our heads and hearts. There should be a limitation.\nWe have been too critical and analytical, and have not been paying enough\nattention to the gesthetical and emotional.\nThe analytical and critical should be carried only so far as it promotes\nappreciation and sympathy. When the two lines begin to diverge it is\ntime to stop. There is a certain mental work that must be done to enable\nthe pupil to appreciate the beauty of anything. A child must learn to\nread words and sentences to appreciate a poem. A child must learn to\nread music readily to take in the beauty of a composition ; but when the\nhead goes before the heart, we have as a product a set of pedantic critics ;\nand when the heart gets beyond the head, we have a lot of watery-minded\nsentimentalists. In the lower grades of the schools the technical and\nmental must be largely taught, but not to the entire exclusion of the\nemotional.\nIn the eighth year and high school the two should be joined.\nAs I understand it, public education is not for the individual exclusively, but for the mass. I do not suppose that the public cares whether\nJohn Jones, or even a whole class of John Joneses, when they leave school\nhave the abilitv to name technically every flower or plant, or their parts,\nor that they can transpose, harmonize, or sing at first sight any music set\nbefore them ; but the public does care that they leave school with minds\nbright and active ; that they take their places in business capable of\nearning a respectable livelihood ; and, as members of society, courteous,\nhonest, courageous, with respect for parents and elders ; and, as citizens,\n\n"}
{"page": 987, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMUSIC\n\nIN PUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n979\n\nwith love for their country, ready and willing to do their part toward the\nfurtherance of their country's good. This is what I think taxpayers are\npaying their money for, and it is what they should expect and should\nhave. This is public education; and, as I have said before, music is a\npart of it — and a most important part.\nUnfortunately, the average citizen is very shortsighted ; he does not\nknow, but the school board and the superintendent should know, that the\npeople of this country should have value received for the money they pay\nin the form of taxes — not here and there for an exceptionally proficient\nmusician; not for a song, however beautiful, sung on exhibition day; but\nrather for boys and girls with well-rounded characters, all the better for\nthe ability and desire to be useful to society, and to contribute their part\nto the pleasure and happiness of others.\nBut some would say that this would make the study of music dry and\nuninteresting, and that pupils would soon have a distaste for the study,\nand would drop it as soon as allowed. This brings me to another point,\nnamely, the teacher.\nWe all know that the success or failure of a study depends on the\nmanner in which it is presented. There are teachers who would make\nthe Mississippi river dry if they had to do with it. There are dry and ■\nuninteresting facts to be learned about music; and this is not peculiar\nto this branch of study. There are many characters, many technical terms,\nused, and many difficulties to be overcome; and, if all this were for the\nsake of music alone, I would say : Teach only that which is pleasant, easy,\nand the most quickly learned. It depends on the teacher to make a difficulty pleasant ; to make what is in itself dry, interesting ; to create a\ndesire to learn that which would be distasteful but for the manner in\nwhich it is presented.\nMen and women learn in their youth what they never will learn in\ntheir later years, viz., the rudimentary principles of anything; and music\nis no exception to the rule. Neither men nor women will be content to\napply themselves to that which they, feel is more appropriate to minds of\nyounger age.\nIf at the age of twenty-five one cannot read music readily at first sight,\nhowever much he may desire it, he will never learn. On the other hand,\none who at the same age can sing easily at first sight music of ordinary\ndifficulty will never leave it. How necessary, then, for the good and\nbenefit of those who hear and those who sing in later years that it\nshould be most thoroly taught, even if at the time it seems so dry and\nuniriteresting ; that the literature of music should be to them an open\nbook of delightful and easy perusal !\n•\nWhat should be the character of the music of our schools for the\nvarious occasions which so often occur ?\nI am quite sure that all will agree in\n\ndemanding\n\nmusic of a good,\n\n"}
{"page": 988, "printed_page": null, "text": "9^o\n\nNA710NAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nwholesome character. Trivial music, from the lowest grade to the fMusic\nhigh\nschool, should never be allowed. From out of the number of books published, and the large number of songs in them, a school is without excuse\nthat has not music and words of a suitable character for all occasions.\nMusic can be good and yet be cheerful and pleasant ; it may be classical\nand yet not be tedious or too difficult. Suitable songs appropriate to the\nage of the children and to the occasion, well sung, are a delight to'\nteachers, pupils, and listeners.\nFor morning exercises, especially in the high school, the music has\nmuch more effect than is generally supposed ; if it is of a quiet, forceful\ndignity, or of a healthful, manly, or cheerful character, it surely leaves an\nimpression on the minds of the pupils, whether they be conscious of it\nor not, that will effect their conduct ; and the use of such music, with\nproper words, from day to day and month to month cannot fail to affect\ntheir characters for good. The pupil may not know why, but he feels\nbetter, a little more manly ; perhaps a weak resolution is strengthened, or\nhe sees for the first time the meanness of some contemplated action, and\nit is dropped. Of course, boy-like he would not, if he knew, acknowledge\nthe reason, even to himself, but the effect is there just the same.\nI have tried in this paper to impress upon your minds the necessity of\na high standard of music, the importance af music as a study, the necessity of the use of the best methods of teaching, and some encouragement\nto those to whom the study has become tedious and irksome.\nIs it possible that you have no pleasure in your work, and such work ?\nYou come before your class with all conditions favorable in so far as yourself is concerned, prompt and regular attendance of your pupils, disciplinary power, authoritative right, mutual confidence. You have an aim,\nit is high ; you know what your object is, it is noble; with those pupils\nbefore you, is there no joy in creation ? no pleasure in discovery ? no\nsatisfaction in development ? It is for you in the study of music to create, discover, and develop in the mind of the child that which will make\nhis life brighter and better, and from, day to day, as he hears, reads, and\nthinks music, he comes to the lessons more and more prepared to receive\nnew thoughts and experience new pleasure in the consciousness of gaining\nmore power and control over faculties, the possession of which he had\nscarcely realized.\nAs he overcomes technical difficulties and learns to apply them in\nsong and chorus, he feels a satisfaction in the acquirement of such knowledge, and then he learns to appreciate the beauties of music for its own\nsake. He desires to associate with those who love the good in music for\nhis own sake, and he becomes a more manly and a purer-minded citizen\nfor his country's sake.\n\n"}
{"page": 989, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPOWER\n\nGAINED\n\nTHRU\n\nMUSIC\n\nSTUDY\n\n981\n\nDISCUSSION\n\nMiss Alice Lyon, Whittier, Cal. — Is it not quite as necessary to develop the\naesthetic and emotional nature in the early grades of school as in the later ?\nHerbert Griggs, Denver, Colo. — The emotional side of music should receive\nattention as well as the technical, but not to so great an extent, as there is not sufficient\ntime in the fifteen minutes a day devoted to it.\nP. C. Hayden, Qulncy, 111. — Practically, if the child has not learned the technics of\n\"music before the eighth year of school life, it will not be learned later. Ability to sing\nwell and give expression to what is sung should be the main feature in the eighth grade\nand the high school. The mere singing of the song in the grades below develops the\nemotions.\nMrs. Gaston Boyd, Newton, Kan. — Every grade teacher recognizes that to teach\ndry, technical facts in any subject there must be an excitement of the imagination of the\nchild in a pleasant direction. The teacher who can do this is the most successful in\nteaching any branch, not music alone.\n\nWHA2\n\nPOWER\n\nDOES\n\nBY\n\nTHOMAS\n\nTHE\nCHILD\nSTUDY?\n\nTAPPER,\n\nBOSTON,\n\nGAIN\n\nTHRU\n\nMUSIC\n\nMASS.\n\n1. I shall State my reply to this query at once, in order that I may use\nthe time at my disposal to suggest how the power may be gained ; for a\ncatalog of virtues must at all times prove less interesting than the process\nby which the virtues are acquired. If I were to state it in a word, I should\nsay that the child gains thru music study the power of entering more\nfully into the complete life. To amplify this simple statement and to\nspecify the lines of activity along which the child must travel will show\nhow valuable an investment his music activity is.\nPrimarily the child's gain is that he becomes attached by a strong tie\nto the complete life. Its inspirations and its possibilities are the\nmore open to him. He has gained another interest in life. Thru one\nmore powerful channel he may pass out into self-expression. Not only\nis he provided with a new form of mental activity, but he is permitted to\nenter another world of thought ; a world of thought that is as distinctive\nas that of the representative arts ; a world in which he shall be a delightful sojourner, finding on all sides the records of lofty men, of men whose\nthought is unsurpassed in any other realm of the intellectual or emotional.\nIn brief, his inheritance is greater, his interpretation deeper.\nWhat has education for its aim ? However we reply to this query,\n\n"}
{"page": 990, "printed_page": null, "text": "982\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\nwe cannot escape saying in one word or another that in education we\nstrive to discover the possibilities of the individual. Really, in our tentative, bungling way we are trying to ascertain whether the child is born, as\nProfessor Smith, of Peoria, has so aptly put it, long or short, to permit\nhim to ascertain himself — who he is, what he may do, and how it shall be\ndone.\nNow, music provides the child with another knowledge — as Bacon\nwould say — by which he can interpret life, more especially the creative\nlife within. Again, in music the child finds a means of becoming more\nof himself. It is an outlet for his spiritual activity ; a language permitting him to communicate closely with his fellow-men.\nEven if he be born deficient in musical gifts, he will gain from its\nelementary steps the power to do, the experience of being active along a\ndefinite line. Like mathematics and literature it will exercise his mind, for\nit is the poetry of mathematics and the poetry of literature combined. It\nwill occupy his thoughts, and it will confer pleasure upon himself and,\nperhaps upon others. In moments when his thoughts are his only\ncompanions he will find that music thoughts are the fairest and most\nsuggestive of any that hover about him. And, now and again, they will\ntell him, as if he were a lost child, many things which he seems only\ndimly to remember.\nII. When we have recognized what music can do for the child, we are\nstraightway interested to know how it can do it. By what process of\ntraining can we secure the greatest result with the least friction ?\nAll educational activity, past and present, has contributed this testimony :Training that makes for any degree of mastership worthy of the\nname must begin in early years as a daily effort. Here is the key to the\nsolution of the school music problem : Give it skilled guidance every day,\nand a favorable result at once issues. What I mean by a favorable result\nis this : The child shall study music from his entrance upon school life\nuntil his college graduation, and at the end of that time he must be able\nto take the score of the \"Messiah,\" or of \"St. Paul,\" or of the \"Christmas Oratorio,\" and get at its meaning by himself. Let me point out to you\nthat this is all he can do in the classics of Latin, Greek, French, German,\nand English. When he can work his way into the meanings of a language\n— whether the language be music or not — he is intelligent and selfreliant. Let us begin, therefore, with the child to make music in\nschool a daily effort. Who is to make that daily effort ? Not the supervisor. We may produce books, and charts, and devices without number ;\nwe may supervise the teacher once per month or once per week ; but what\nshe does every day, from her own knowledge and inspiration, is, in the\nlong run, to decide whether the music investment is a good one ; whether\nthe child shall in manhood secure a dividend on his efforts ; whether he\nshall conclude that the investment was made thru a fraudulent agent; or.\n\n"}
{"page": 991, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPOWER\n\nGAINED\n\n7 HRU\n\nMUSIC\n\nSTUDY\n\n983\n\nworst of all, whether he shall fail to recognize the fraudulent agent, and\nerroneously decide that music is a resourceless art.\nYou recognize the one to whom I refer. Public-school music is, and\nalways must be, the reflection of the habitual attitude held toward it bv\nthe grade teacher ; because her attitude creates the atmosphere of the\ndaily effort.\nThen, why not leave the whole subject to the grade teacher and be\ndone with it ? Tho music has had a place in our public instruction\nfor half a century here and there, it is in reality a new subject for two\nreasons : the first is that many towns and cities have not yet introduced\nmusic ; and the second is that only in recent years have we begun\nto teach it scientifically. Hence it is still a new subject. It is in behalf\nof new subjects that the specialist is employed. He has been described\nas one usually strong in his subject, but weak in pedagogics ; while the\ngrade teacher is ordinarily stronger in pedagogics than she is .in specialties. However, the result of the presence of the specialist is that little\nby little the grade teacher becomes acquainted with the process and tries\nher hand.\nIn time she becomes skillful.\n\"The true and worthy art specialist in schools hails with delight the\nincreased ability of the grade teacher and hastens to turn this ability to\ngood account. He encourages the efforts of the grade teacher to the\n\"Utmost ; and, with better art and greater skill, leads to the realization of\nthe highest aim of which his effort is capable.\"\nIII. I have said that what the grade teacher does every day out of her\nknowledge of music and out of the inspiration which music is to her\ndecides the ultimate benefit which the child is to realize from the study.\nManifestly no time should be lost in coming to a definite understanding with the grade teacher, making it clear what her knowledge must be\nand what the nature of her inspiration may be ; for we are proceeding on\nthe assumption that what the child gains as a power is apt to proceed\nfrom what the teacher does as a habit.\nThe grade teacher must possess two sets of qualifications. We find\nthat the child accretes power thru self-activity. By personal effort he\nmust sustain himself in the world of action, and he cannot sustain himself unless he desires action. . Mastership, however slight, has never been\nwon in any department of human activity unless desire inspired the labor\nthat proceeds toward it. Hence the grade teacher's fundamental qualification is to know how to create desire and how to inspire the labor it\ndemands.\nIf she has been an observant teacher, she will have discovered already\nthat education yields results as a consequence of systematic guidance on\nthe teacher's part, producing systematic labor on the part of the child.\nBut the labor must be there. The child must be busy, day after day,\nbanking unconscious power out of the proceeds of conscious application.\n\n"}
{"page": 992, "printed_page": null, "text": "984\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n'\n\n[Music\n\nHe may learn from memory all the choice bits of literature in existence,\nbut until he gets down to a, b, ab, and stays there until he understands it,\nhe is an illiterate child.\nI shall assume that the grade teacher holds this\nview so tenaciously that she never dreams of a child becoming musically]\nintelligent by any other process than that of systematic hard work in the '\ndetails of music.\nThe teacher's second qualification has to do with her perception of I\nmusic. She must see in it an expression of human emotion; it must be I\nto her a form of thought which manifests itself in tone only, because it J\ncannot manifest itself thru any other medium. If she once gains thisi\nthought, she will not misunderstand a few essentials that usually confuse!\nboth the idealist and the ultra-practical person. I refer to her compre-j\nhension, in the abstract, of printed music and of a composer.\nWhat is printed music? It is the servant of thought. It sounds!\nsimple enough, but in reality it is the most commonly and persistently I\nmisunderstood idea in all our profession. So much is it misunderstood\nthat not a few of us persist in erecting the temples of our effort, not to\nthe meaning of music, not to the thought of music, but to the representation of the meaning. Printed music is the servant of meaning. Of\nwhat meaning is it the servant ? Think for a moment of Beethoven. He\nis universally accepted as a great thinker. Hence his works are expressions of great thought. He was a man denied by the creative energy the\nability to express his thoughts in words, but he was given an abounding\ncapacity for expressing his thoughts in tones. Observe that the reality\nand substantiality of the thought remain intact, and we learn to know it,\nto comprehend it, to love it. Now, understand that to Beethoven tone is\nthe receptacle for all experience, for his supplication and his doubt, for his\nlove and his hope. Everything of his intellectuality and of his spirituality\nis poured out into the world thru tone as a channel. All he craves, all\nhe demands, all he says, all he learns, all he remembers, all he proclaims\nmust be contained in music, or it is insufficient and he will turn from it.\nBut we find that he enters it deeper and deeper. We turn to study his\nthought in all its phases. Can we afford to give ourselves up wholly and\nenthusiastically to the symbols of his expression, to the particular form\nof shorthand which he penned in a raging fever of excitement lest the\nglory of the thought pass from him ere he pictured it?\nWhen the grade teacher takes up music she obligates herself to get in\ntouch with this comprehension. It is not difficult ; without it failure is\nassured ; with it she is reliable. She recognizes meaning in symbols,\nand will never worship symbols for their own sake.\nThus far I have equipped the grade teacher with the primary qualifications :(i) an understanding of the child; (2) an understanding of effort;\n(3) necessity for desire toward effort; (4) an understanding of the\nmeaning of music ; (5) an understanding of the composer ; (6) an\n\ni\n\n"}
{"page": 993, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\n*\n\nPOWER\n\nGAINED\n\nTHRU\n\nMUSIC\n\nSTUD\\\n\n985\n\nunderstanding of printed music. Thus equipped, she is, to begin with, a\nwell-balanced success. She can now rely on her native common-sense to\ncare for details.\nIV. I now turn to the secondary qualifications — secondary, not because\nthey may be dispensed with, but because they act only out of the influence\nof the primary qualifications. They are four in number: (i) tact; (2)\nthe ability to follow simple directions exactly; (3) the tendency to continue to be a learner, constantly increasing her intellectual capital by\neffort ; (4) a little knowledge of music.\nI shall not speak of the first three, and only a word as to the last.\nThe actual details of her \"little knowledge of music\" will result from her\nown effort and the instruction she receives from her supervisor. There is\none task, however, she must not fail to perform ; she must master in every\ndetail the music material used in her grade. It must be as familiar to\nher as the common monosyllables of daily conversation. And she must\nhave the opportunity to become somewhat familiar with the music instruction in the grade above and the grade below her own. This makes her a\nchain instead of a detached link.\nV. Having stated at some length what a grade teacher ought to be, let\nus now give her an opportunity to make demands on her associates. Not\ninfrequently they constitute her an unlimited liability company, responsible\nto everybody for everything. If she is to teach school music daily and\nsecure results so excellent that her supervisor may continue her work into\nthe realm of the artistic, she is perfectly justified in demanding:\n1. Regular and systematic instruction from her supervisor in the music\nof her grade ; that is, if she is a third-grade teacher, there must be a\nclass for the study of third-grade music.\n2. There must be provided some instruction in the music of all the\ngrades, so that the teacher learns her third-grade work in its proper connection.\n3. There must be provided a simple working .scheme, so that the grade\nteacher can see that she is proceeding along a definite line. This will\nbenefit her largely, because she will learn to regard the music lessons, not as\ndetached units of effort, but as a line of effort making for a definite place.\n4. As a part of all class work in music the supervisor should set aside\nsome minutes for study of good music — say a simple chorus from an\noratorio. If in a whole year but one chorus is partly learned, he will find it\nan abundant opportunity to tell his teachers about the four-part structure,\nthe laws underlying the union of music and text, the general form\nstructure and its aesthetic elements, the music expression as suggested by\nthe words, the study of word and syllable accent, the relative value of\nparts; in fact, here is at hand a liberal musical education.\n5. Lastly, problems that arise in practice should be discussed in the\nsupervisor's\n\nclass, because problems\n\nthat spring\n\nfrom\n\ndaily work\n\nare\n\n"}
{"page": 994, "printed_page": null, "text": "986\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Music]\n\neducation at first hand.\nIn fact, efficient educators are those who are\nconstantly on the alert to discover what there is in their methods that\npupils cannot do.\nThus it is that children, in what appears to be their ,\nincapacity, dictate to us feasible ways and means of education.\nNow, our grade teacher will preside over the daily task in music and\nbring about abundant familiarity in the processes of music.\nThe daily\ndrill on the first steps must, by her tact, her knowledge, and her enthusiasm, :\nbe robbed of its mechanical aspects and clothed with interest.\nHow is\nshe to do this ? I do not know.\nIt should be a joy to her to realize]\nthat all that is true and lasting in her work is in its very nature so close i\nto the force of her rarer self that even a theorist has no theory to offer in\nregard to it. Her methods are her own.\nWe see now clearly that the supervisor will secure as much artistic\nperfection in school music as the grade teacher contributes skilled instruction. The two invariably balance each other, for art is knowledge lovingly directed toward the beautiful.\nVI. But will the grade teacher respond freely to all this ? Will she\naccept the responsibility and meet all the requirements ? It will depend\nsomewhat on the supervisor.\nBut let us return to our query about the grade teacher. She will\nnever accept music work except thru the law of human nature's interest in itself. She will rejoice in music work when she discovers how\nmuch it does for her personally. She will accept it when she finds that it\ndevelops her, increases her worth, lets her enter upon the complete life,\nand ties her to that life by a strong thread. She will love it because she\nwill find that it reveals her to herself ; because she sees herself in it ;\nbecause she gazes into it as into a magic mirror and sees herself, not as\nshe is, but as she may become. Day by day she will gain for it love and\nenthusiasm — the love will never be sentimental and the enthusiasm will\nnever be noisy.\nThis experience will teach her better than anything else that it is a\nworthy power to possess ; that it is a worthy power to confer upon a child,\nbecause it bestows upon him just what it bestows upon her: another\nopportunity for self-discovery; another opportunity for self-explanation;\nanother opportunity for the outflow of his divinity ; another opportunity\nfor knowing the rarer thoughts which the world possesses; another\nopportunity for understanding the higher language which, as he gropes\nin world-experience, whispers now and again, reminding him of things\nthat he seems but dimly to remember. And these, as we found in the\nbeginning, are some of the joys of the complete life.\n\n"}
{"page": 995, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMETHODS\n\nMETHODS\n\nBY\n\nW. B. POWELL,\n\nOF\n\nOF\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nTEACHING\n\nMUSIC\n\nTEACHING\n\nOF\n\nCITY\n\n987\n\nMUSIC\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nWASHINGTON,\n\nD. C.\n\nI am one of those who believe that music should constitute a part of\nevery course of instruction in every grade ; that it should be made a\n. requirement like spelling or writing. Nothing in the course of instruction, besides civics, takes a child into a mutuality with nature as music\ndoes. It leads him to see the dependence of man upon his fellow-man\nin society; it teaches him to realize himself as a part of a composite\nwhole, and leads him to understand and appreciate the value of others in\nsociety.\nThere should be no poor music allowed in the schoolroom, any more\nthan poor English should be allowed. I would proscribe music that is\nnot absolutely good. This means, then, that the director of music must\nunderstand what good music is. I believe that the chief work of the\nsupervisor is to train the teacher to know when music is good or when it\nis not good.\nThe music, to be good and profitable, must relate to all branches of\neducation ; music should come to enrich everything that is said and done\nin the schoolroom.\nMusic for the sake of learning to read is of little value to the pupil.\nWe worked and worked with the A B C's, and never learned to love and\nto read literature. When we began to teach from the standpoint of literature we began to read literature in the first grade ; in the second\ngrade, literature; in the third grade, literature ; and our children were\nreading and writing literature ; they spelled better than they ever spelled\nbefore, and they wrote as children never wrote before.\nI would have the children sing about everything. I would have them\nsing in the first grade, sing in the second grade, and sing in the third\ngrade ; then, later, I would teach them the forms of music until they are\nfull of song: until they can sing songs from the platform.\nFirst, in teaching how to read literature, let the child know by investigation, and then let him say what he knows until he is in the habit of\ntalking about things that he has found out. Finally the English idiom\nis put into his mouth. He is kept in school without ever learning a\nletter. All the time he is talking; he is not allowed to speak incorrectly.\nBy and by the teacher puts a sentence on the board that he has said himself; then it is erased; it is put there again; then erased, and put there\nagain; and finally it is lodged in the child's mind. It is then erased,\nand the child goes to the board and writes the entire sentence. He\nnever learned the A B C's, but he writes the entire sentence.\n\nI would\n\n"}
{"page": 996, "printed_page": null, "text": "08S\n\nMAlIONAL\n\nBDVCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Music]\n\nhave you teach music in that way. I would have these children sing\nin the third, second, and first years all the beautiful songs that can be;\nfound in all the branches of study. I would have them sing correctly,'\nnever incorrectly; then some day when they were singing a simple songi\nthat was very beautiful I would put that on the board, as we put the\nEnglish sentences on the board. In one year from the time you begin thei\nchildren will read anything. You do not need any drilling in reading\nexercises. Read only that which the child has sung well, and read it j\nfrom the blackboard. See that the child reads it from his inner consciousness, thru his eyes.\nThe work of the primary school in all branches is to fill the child's '\nsub-consciousness with richness. Take him into the fields ; take him to\nthe riverside; take him to the hillside, to the mountain top, to Ihe\nzoological park, to the museum, to the birds' nests, to the teakettle where\nthe vapor is, to the icehouse, to the cars, to the railroad station ; take\nhim out and let him fill himself with experience. Do that in everything\nyou teach, and do not fail to do that in music. Do not go to the music\nbook ; go instead to the child's knowledge of music, his own singing of\nthe beautiful songs he has learned to sing correctly. Then, in music as\nin literature, in the fourth and fifth grades of school you will have your\npupils singing music as now we have in the fourth and fifth grades our\nchildren reading literature.\n\nDISCUSSION\n\nHerbert Griggs, Denver, Colo. — I disapprove very heartily of the idea presented by\nSuperintendent Powell, that education in music, or, in fact, in any branch, can be gained\nby absorption. A difficulty put before a child does not hurt him ; it strengthens him. We\nall know that too many pupils enter the high school that are mentally incapable of doing\nthe work in the prescribed course of study, because they have not been made to confront\nand solve for themselves the problems that present themselves daily to a pupil thruout his\nschool life. No person can sing intelligently unless he studies music.\nMrs. Gaston Boyd, Newton, Kan. — -The etj-mological meaning of \"education\" is\na leading forth. The idea in education is for the teacher so to lead the child that he may\ndiscover and grasp new things for himself. The same method of progression, the same\nlines of thought, are used in teaching music as in any other branch.\nGeorge H. Taylor, Bakersfield, Cal. — The old masters had to work hard for what\nthey attained ; in no sense of the word may they be said to have absorbed that knowledge and power, the results of which in these days so charm and elevate humanity.\nPupils must be taught to be independent in thought and action in order to prepare them\nto cope with the world.\nMi^s. Constance B. Smith, Jacksonville, 111. — If teachers would present music to the\nlower-grade pupils according to kindergarten methods, the criticism that technical music\n\n"}
{"page": 997, "printed_page": null, "text": "DepartmentJ\n\nNECESSARY\n\nEDUCATION\n\nOF THE\n\nSUPERVISOR\n\nis taught too soon would not be heard, tho the same results would be attained.\nmusic teacher would find it helpful to understand kindergarten methods.\n\n989\nEvery\n\nP. C. Hayden, Quincy, 111. — The music we heard from a class in Superintendent\nPowell's city last year was certainly very beautiful. We were unable to judge of the\npower they had gained in technical music, however, as they did no reading. In the class\nwe heard yesterday attention was given to both technique and expression ; hence, educationally, the latter exercise was the more valuable of the two.\nMrs. Frances M. Clark, Ottumwa, 111. — The child should be led to master the real\nthought underlying the notation of music. If technical work be stopped, serious difficulties will soon be encountered. Hard study should take place all thru the grades. The\npupils should not read notes, notes, notes alone, but methods should be so combined as\nto give a pleasing variety of work.\nA. S. McPherron, Redlands, Cal. — I emphatically do not approve of discarding\nthe reading of music. I think some theory should be taught even in the first years of\nschool. I have never found it possible for pupils to gain musical knowledge by absorption— they must learn to sing by singing, and to read music by reading.\nG. M. Cole, Pasadena, Cal. — One object of teaching music is to teach pupils the\nfundamental principles of music — to make them musically intelligent. The child should\nlearn as much as two kinds of notes — the staff and the G-clef — during the first year of\nschool.\n\nTHE\n\nNECESSARY\n\nEDUCATION\n\nBY MRS. CONSTANCE\n\nBARLOW\n\nOF THE\n\nSUPERVISOR\n\nSMITH, JACKSONVILLE,\n\nILL.\n\nWebster says that education means \" the result of educating as determined by the knowledge, skill, or discipline of character acquired.\" The\nfirst qualification necessary to good supervision of music is a thoro musical\neducation. A knowledge of musical history, theory, composition, and\nreading is absolutely necessary. Musical history is intensely interesting\nto children, and a competent supervisor of music will consider it a duty\nto teach that the history of the Civilized world may be clearly read in the\nhistory of music. Without theory we are poor\" workmen, indeed, and\nmight liken ourselves unto carpenters without hammers. A knowledge\nof the standard compositions is essential, because one of our principal\nduties as supervisors is to teach and to conduct chorus. A very few\nmoments' conversation upon the subject of suitable material for highschool choruses will sufifice to enable a good musician to predict success\nor failure for a newly appointed supervisor of music.\nIf we teach the study of music reading, we must ourselves be readers.\nNothing injures our chances of success more surely than proof that we\nare not masters of the technical part of our profession. Music stands in\na reciprocal relation with nearly all other branches of study in the curriculum of cotfliDon schools.\nBy close observation in schools where sight\n\n"}
{"page": 998, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n99°\n\nsinging receives the same amount of attention that other studies do,[Musil\nwc\nnot only feel the moral power of music, but become conscious that the\nmusic also adds much to the grand scheme of education. \" Teaching, '\"j\nsays Professor Laurie, \" is a grave and serious business. You are engagec\nin forming the finest, most complex, most subtle thing known to manJ\nviz., a mind.\" Professor Laurie, therefore, concludes that every teachei\nought to study the general laws of mind, viz., psychology. The mind o|\nthe child is not that of the adult ; he has a psychology of his own. Hia\nmind certainly works differently. How ? is the question that a goo(\nteacher will try to answer. The study of music must be presented upoi\na psychological basis, carrying the aesthetic side by side with the technique. \"Mental science teaches us that all our knowledge is of resem*\nblances and differences;\" and I affirm that a good supervisor should kee|\nthis fact in mind. The success with which dull pupils are treated is one\nof the tests of a good teacher. An accurate conception of pitch relatioi\nis not confined to brilliant pupils ; in fact, a good ear for music is fre*\nquently characteristic of dull children. We commit mistakes in teaching\nall along the line, sometimes attempting too much and sometimes to(\nlittle ; we often teach the class as a whole and not the individual, or the\nindividual and not the class. We may use a method or scheme suitable\nat one stage of development in teaching children who are passing thru\nvery different stage. We must have a definite order of procedure. If we\nlook for a moment at the ordinary classification of our faculties, we find^\nthat attention is a condition of all mental processes; we cannot observe,\nrecall observations, analyze, classify, combine, or reason from them without attention. If our pupils are not attentive, then surely we and they\nare wasting time. A competent supervisor or special teacher of music\nshould be well-educated in the science of good government. \"A quiet,\nfirm decision, permeated by love and sustained by dignity, will win the\nhearts of the pupils and guide them safely. All disparity in commanding\nand forbidding, all hesitation in threatening and punishment, will\navenge itself bitterly and cause the teacher much sorrow and regret.\"\nTact is essential and experience valuable. The teacher must be^r.y/, and\nthe members of the class who are by nature more clamorous than others\nwill have to be supplied with emergency work. If we can govern as well\nas instruct, we will secure attention first. Observation follows attention,\nand if our supervisor understands her work and her material, it is possible for a little mouse to run across the floor without intimidating the\ngirls or making the boys wish to break the sixth commandment. We\nhave the power so to direct the attention and talents of our pupils that\nthey will discover the music of nature. \"Child study\" proves to us that\nnature's songs and rhythms are attractive to the average child. Thought\nis awakened and mental activity stimulated in the study of music just as\nmuch as in the study of reading.\nThe same mental process is required\n\n"}
{"page": 999, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nNECESSARY\n\nEDUCATION\n\nOF THE\n\nSUPERVISOR\n\n99 1\n\nfor both. After the grand old major scale has been developed by imitation and a symbol learned for each tone of the scale, in primary grades\nsome devices are necessary to make the work attractive, the same as in\nreading, number, and nature work. Therefore a supervisor should study\nkindergarten methods, so as to be able to teach the subject of music to\nlittle ones thru the medium of games. Right here let me say that,\nwhile music should be recreative, we are apt to admire little motion songs\nto such an extent that we may forget that children of tender years learn\neasily, and that the first principles of music can be made attractive to them ;\nwhereas, if left until the third or fourth year of school, when the children are\napproaching their restless age, they may think that the subject of music\nis less important than arithmetic. If the child can read easy exercises\nand songs, it gives him confidence and assists him to overcome difficulties in other branches of school work. The study of music correlates\nwith reading, in that the same mental process is required for both. When\na child sings an exercise, he simply affirms what his judgment is of relation. Let the supervisor be a good reader. Analysis follows perception.\nArithmetic develops the reasoning power, hence is a means of intellectual discipline; so, also, does the study of vocal music. The combined\nproblems of tune and time require strict application. Intense thought\naction is necessary for sight reading, as the tones must be heard mentally\nbefore they can be produced by the vocal organs. The power to focus\nthought is greatly strengthened by sight singing. The reciprocal relation between the study of mathematics and the study of music is the\nmethod of thought employed for both. Number is an invisible reality.\n\"Sound exists only as it is transmitted to the mind by the auditory\nnerve.\" In both cases we train the mind to deal with things unseen.\nNature's songs have become a necessity in our schools, and the supervisor must be a close student of nature. The sun shines brighter, the\nrain is more musical, the snow more beautiful, the flowers take on a\nbrighter hue, while the songbirds find their only rivals in the children of\nsong. Many beautiful and useful lessons are learned thru the medium\nof nature's songs.\n\nTake, for example, the \" Song of the Chrysalis\" :\nI\nUpon a maple branch it hung,\nA brown and shapeless thing,\nThrough sun and wind and rain it clung\nWhere all could see it swing.\nII\nAnd when an eager childish hand\nThe treasure brought away,\nIt must have been a fairy wand\nThat touched it where it lay.\n\n"}
{"page": 1000, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n992\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nIII\n\n[Music -j\n\nFor all at once a butterfly,\nIn purple and in gold,\nCame slowly from the shell so dry,\nIts prison dark and old.\nIV\nIt stood a moment, bright and fair.\nAnd waved its splendid wings.\nThen flew into the summer air,\nAmong the happy things.\n\nO blessed sign of joy to come\nWhen we with failing breath\nShall leave, to gain our heavenly home.\nThe chrysalis of death !\n\nThe wonderful lesson of the resurrection is taught by the words, but\nthe lesson is made more impressive and lasting by associating the words\nwith the music. Bible truths are felt and better understood by childrei\nwhen presented to them thru song. A conscientious supervisor of music\nwill study hymnology so that the regular teacher may be assisted ii\nselecting suitable hymns for opening exercises. Music is emotional. Wi\nshould beware lest we play upon the wrong heartstring. Music is educa^\ntional. If we cannot assist in developing the science of music, let us\nmake room for those who can. Music is inspirational. It is our duty to\ninspire the loftiest ambitions possible to man. Why not attempt social\nreform thru the medium of music in our public schools ? If, as one\nwriter says, \" Music not only rests and delights the mind, but refines,\npurifies, and ennobles the heart. Music sweetens the cup of bitterness,\nsoftens the hand of poverty, and lightens the heavy burdens of life,\" we,\nas supervisors, cannot afford to treat our responsibilities with indifference.\nIt is conceded that a vicious person never sings. Music is not an accomplishment of criminals. \"In England the musical societies aggregate\n68,000 members; in Germany the aggregate is 79,000 members. In\nneither country has the name of an anarchist ever been enrolled as a\nmember of a musical society.\" If we instill into the minds of youth a\ngenuine love of music, for its own sake, fruitful seed is sown from which\nto reap virtue, truth, patriotism, and a love for the beautiful. All that is\nBeautiful in nature is expressed thru music. Seek and ye shall find,\nand when ye have found, lead others to the fountain of knowledge, that\nthey also may drink and be refreshed. The sympathy and power of\nmusic were recently felt by the representatives of eleven states, when they\nassembled at the summit of Pike's Peak to celebrate the Fourth of July.\nThe song \"America\" touched all hearts with a sweet, new understanding\nof the third verse :\n\n"}
{"page": 1001, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nNECESSARY\n\nEDUCATION\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nSUPERVISOR\n\n993\n\nLet music swell the breeze,\nAnd ring from all the trees\nSweet freedom's song.\nLet mortal tongues awake,\nLet all that breathe partake,\nLet rocks their silence break,\nThe sound prolong.\n\nThe \"Star-Spangled Banner\" has a new significance for some of us\nsince hearing the melody of that song peal from the great organ of the\nMormon Tabernacle, skillfully played by the leader of the temple choir.\nIt is hardly necessary to say that for the moment we forgot our differences.\nIf music is to take its proper place in our schools, it is necessary for\nthe supervisor to have as broad an education as has the regular teacher,\nwhich, I regret to say, is not always the case. The supervisor in an\nAmerican school should speak good English, and should be well-informed\nupon musical literature, so as to be able to suggest suitable reading\nmatter to be placed in school and public libraries for the use of her\nschool pupils. It is essential that a supervisor of music keep abreast of\nthe times by reading current musical events, so that the children may be\ninformed of important issues. Music belongs to the masses. It is man's\nbirthright. History, experience, life itself shows that music, the most\nuniversal of all arts, is a necessity to every normal man, woman, and child.\nWhen America becomes a musical nation, the rich and the poor will sing\nfrom the same page, and the blind will realize that \" music is a prophecy\nof what life is to be, the rainbow of promise translated out of seeing into\nhearing.\" As our responsibilities are great, so also are our opportunities.\nShall we not educate ourselves that we may be able to contribute something toward the fulfillment of the prophecy ?\n\nDISCUSSION\n\nMrs. Gaston Boyd, Newton, Kan. — The supervisor of music should be broadly\neducated, not only in a musical line ; his education should be as broad as that of any\nother teacher. The successful supervisor must understand child nature and the principles\nof pedagogy. There are many reasons why one may be a fine teacher, but fail as a\nsupervisor. His position is a difficult one. Those interested in the public schools are not\nunanimous as to the advisability of introducing music in the curricula. Hence one\nnecessary qualification of the supervisor is the power to convince boards of education of\nthe necessity of having music taught in the public schools. Again, the supervisor must\nhave unlimited tact. Many grade teachers have not been well trained to teach the subject\nof music, and they hesitate to undertake to do so. It is the supervisor's duty to guide and\ngovern such.\n\n"}
{"page": 1002, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n994\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n[Music\n\nWHAT\n\nSHOULD\n\nBY\n\nMISS\n\nCONSTITUTE A COURSE\nCO UNTY INS TITUTES ?\n\nKATHRYN\n\nE.\n\nSTONE,\n\nALAMEDA,\n\nOF MUSIC\n\nEOR\n\nCAL.\n\nMusic, in the department of sight singing, is one of the late introductions into the school curriculum, and probably has not received the careful\nattention and preparation that some of the other studies have. We often\nhear of unsatisfactory results in music work thruout the whole country,\nand I believe the fault lies in the fact that teachers do not bring into\nplay the true philosophy of all teaching. To be effectual, music must be\npresented with the same broad-mindedness necessary to the successful\npresentation of any branch of study. Music is in the child, but needs\nawakening. Remember, we are simply to draw out that which lies within ;\nthe fire is there, we simply fan it into a flame.\nThe county institute offers a fine opportunity to stimulate and excite\nfresh interest in this important subject. In giving a course of instruction\nfor county institutes there is much to be .considered. No prescribed\ncourse could fit the needs of every institute. For instance, a course\nwhich I would plan for an intellectual center would be entirely different\nfrom one planned for an ungraded school on the plains. The conditions\nand advantages differ widely, and bring forth different requirements.\nOne point is absolutely sure and applies to any locality, and that is that\nthe more practical a course can be made, the greater the benefit derived\nfrom it. I should arrange to have teachers do actual schoolroom work,\nwhen it is possible, and thus have theory and practice go hand in hand.\nThere is a difference between understanding good methods and having a\nworking knowledge of them. We, as teachers, must have working knowledge— that is power.\nGenerally, the first thing to be considered is the care of the child's\nvoice. In our schools we are working with weak, growing organs, and we\ncannot be too careful to protect them in every possible way. The following suggestions I believe to be of very great importance, and are indispensable in securing a good quality of voice. Have children sing very\nsoftly, and restrict them in compass. If these two rules are applied in\neach grade, if pupils sing softly enough, and carry their tones neither too\nhigh nor too low, then the voice will only be used in the thin or head\nregister, and the tones of the thick or chest register, which I would avoid\nusing with young children, will not be heard. These two rules must act\nas one and must be enforced. We shall soon find that we are not only\nprotecting the young, tender voices, but are securing pure tones of beautiful quality, and musical singing will be the result.\nLet us melt all\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 1003, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nA COURSE\n\nOF MUSIC\n\nFOR\n\nCOUNTY\n\nINSTITUTES\n\n~\n\n995\n\nvoices into one, and always secure quality of tone and not quantity.\nNever allow one tone to be forced, and remember voice production,\nwhether good or poor, is largely the result of habit. Nature will attend\nto the development, if we will but protect the voices. Bear in mind that\nthe child voice is physiologically incapable of producing tones that are\nboth powerful and sweet. Keep the voices within the staff, and never\ndwell on a very high or a very low tone. Approach these seldom, and\nthen just touch them lightly. Be sure no changed or changing voices\nare strained in any way. Sing often the word \"loo,\" for \"loo\" is conducive of a beautiful mellow quality. Insist at all times on the correct\nposition of the mouth : heads up, chin down, and lips extended.\nNext let me refer to articulation ; for distinct articulation produces\nclear intonation. Train the lips to flexibility. Urge the child to feel\nthat the jaw moves on loose hinges. Bring the thought to his mind\nthat he is singing with his lips and not his throat. The use of the syllables isa help in securing correct articulation. The study and practice of\nphonics, so generally used in reading, are valuable. The occasional\n\" monotoning \" of a poem is an excellent exercise. The methods for\nsecuring good articulation in reading will be found helpful in singing.\nSpeak consonants in a bright, crisp manner, and vowels will take care of\nthemselves.\nI do not advocate a great number of breathing exercises, for children\nnaturally breathe correctly, and if their attention is drawn to the breath,\nthey are apt to exaggerate the effort and form bad habits. I would give\nteachers only a few general rules, and dispense with the breathing exercises so often given.\nRote singing is an important branch in primary work. I believe rote\nsinging should be used the first three years of school life, or until children\nhave acquired the ability to learn songs by note. Teachers should sing\nfor the children, but not with them. Train them to listen correctly as\nwell as to sing correctly. When giving an example in song, in one's own\nvoice, be sure to give the best tone quality, correct articulation, and artistic expression. Select songs with the greatest care, and bear in niind\nthat we want to cultivate a high musical taste. We can lay the foundation\nat once by teaching only the best. Be sure and put into the child's soul\nsomething of the soul of music. If songs are written too high or loo low,\nchange the key in order to keep voices within the staff. Don't allow\nchildren to drag; keep them up to time. Be very careful in the use of the\nportamento ; never allow one careless tone either in the singing voice or\nthe speaking voice.\nIn sight singing the two units to be considered are tune and time. I\nshould take up these subjects separately and have the institute do the\nactual schoolroom work. Let me bring before your minds four educational principles which are very valuable in the teaching of all music:\n\n"}
{"page": 1004, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n996\n[Music\nfirst, present the real thing to the child's mind, as an object of thought ;\nsecond, name it; third, represent it; and fourth, develop it. Teach the\nscale first by imitation, and remember it cannot be grounded too well ;\nsecond, name it ; third, represent it ; and fourth, develop as a whole, and\nlater the relation of its parts. Stimulate thought work, and never allow\nchildren to anticipate, but surprise them often. Encourage individual\neffort from the beginning.\nIn the teaching of time I advocate most emphatically the use of a\nmetronome, or a swinging pendulum, and believe in beginning the teaching of time early in the first year. We must secure accurate time before\nwe can get artistic time. First establish the mental image of a two-part\nmeasure, name it, then represent it, and later develop it with a metronome.\nThen proceed in the same way with all the simple forms of a two-part\nmeasure. Bring out accent with the words strong and weak, and make\nchildren feel the accent. Then give tests in time as in tune. I would\nhave the institute actually do this work.\nNext combine tune and time in a simple exercise in this manner :\nfirst, esftablish time with metronome; second, sing syllables; third, combine tune and time ; fourth, vocalize with a word. After taking up all\nthe simple measures of two-four time, and combining tune and time, I\nwould follow the same plan with four-four time, three-four time, etc.\nDevelop all difficulties either in tune or time by dictation or by a\nsimple illustration on the board, before taking up the given exercise, and\nremember to lead from the child's former knowledge. Be sure to bring\nout accent ; for what is rhythm but the regular recurrence of accent ?\nImpress children that the tones are from their voices and the notes are\nsimple representations.\nKnowledge of chromatic and minor scales, if followed in this simple\nmanner, leading from the known to the unknown, can very easily be\ndeveloped. Be sure to direct the pupils in right thinking and practice,\nand their musical faculties will show surprising development. Lead\nchildren to become independent thinkers in music. Half our work\nshould be spent in exciting the minds of the pupils to action.\nI have dealt principally with the mere mechanics of music, because\nthis groundwork must be firmly established before we can take up the\nintellectual side. By a thoro, systematic drill in the two units, as I\nspeak of them, our classes can soon approach the higher plane. Sight\nreading is merely a means to an end, a stepping-stone to the right musical\nrendering.\nDo not ever teach sight singing with an instrument, for mental\ndevelopment and independence would thereby suffer. Use a pitch pipe\nvery frequently with each practice, and thus keep voices up to correct\npitch. Teach all musical characters incidentally up to the fifth grade.\nExamine voices carefully for part singing, considering range, quality, and\n\ni\n\n"}
{"page": 1005, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nJ COUkSlL OF MtlStC POk\n\nCOUNTY' INSTlTUi PS\n\n997\n\nage. Give special care to signs of expression, for singing without expression is like a painting without a shadow. Be sure to plant in the child's\nsoul something of the soul of music. To acquire the unity of song\nsinging, of course the teacher must beat the time. If children have\ngained the comprehension of absolute, accurate time, they will readily\nfollow the baton.\nA few general hints and I will conclude. Have a method and an aim,\nand see the end at the beginning. Arrange a systematic course of study,\nand follow it day by day; for, remember, regular work builds up and\nirregular tears down. Have short, daily lessons, and keep at a principle\nuntil it is thoroly understood. Lay your firm foundation in music, as in\nall else, at the threshold of school life.\nIt is related of Michael Angelo, the great sculptor, that \"while at\nwork he wore fastened on his artist's cap a lighted candle, that no shadow\nof himself might fall upon his work.\" It was a beautiful custom and\nspoke a more eloquent lesson than he realized. How often our shadows\nfall upon our work !\n\nDISCUSSION\n\nMrs. Constance B. Smith, Jacksonville, 111. — The subject of county institutes is a\nvery important one. The plan which works successfully in my county is very briefly this :\nA course in music has been adopted in the country schools thruout the county. The\nteachers come to me for guidance, and to have their lessons marked out, with definite\ninstructions as to what to teach and the best ways of arriving at desired results. In this\nway a certain uniformity of work is brought about, and better work is done than if\nthere was no definite aim.\nMrs. Frances M. Clark, Ottumwa, la. — I commend what has been said. The\nfault of poor articulation seems a very grave one. I have used very satisfactorily a device\nof Frederick Root — taking the alphabet in pantomime to loosen the vocal organs. I\nhave selected some familiar poem, as \" The Psalm of Life,\" and had the pupils pantomime the words. Sometimes 1 allow them to select some stanza for themselves, and let\nme see if they can pantomime the recital of the words so well that I can tell what they\nare repeating. The country teachers fail mainly in securing thought, and hence expression, from their pupils. To secure this end I have often taught familiar songs, as \" The\nStar-Spangled Banner,\" or Longfellow's \" The Rainy Day,\" taking as preliminary work\nthe analysis of the meaning and thought so fully as to cause the children to see the picture\nin the song.\nGet the thought, and the expression will come — from within.\n\n"}
{"page": 1006, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF BUSINESS EDUCATION\n\nSECRETARY'S\nFIRST\n\nMINUTES\n\nSESSION.— Wednesday, July 12, 1899\n\nThe meeting of the department was called to order in the Young Men's Christian\nAssociation Building at 3 p. M. by the president, Allan Davis, Washington, D. C.\nThe program was opened by a piano solo by Miss Myra Shearer, Los Angeles, Cal.\nPresident Davis gave the annual address, taking as his subject \"The BusinessCourse Problem.\"\nL. E. Eggertsen, Provo City, Utah, presented a paper on the subject, \" Necessity\nfor Moral Training in Commercial Colleges.\" W. H. Sadler, Baltimore. Md., discussed\nthe paper.\n\"Is English Neglected in the Commercial Schools?\" was the subject of a paper\npresented by W. C. Ramsej', Stockton, Cal. The discussion following was participated\nin by C. E. Howard, San Francisco, Cal.; W. C. Stevenson, Emporia, Kan., and I. OCrissy, Albany, N. Y.\nC. E. Howard, president of the San Francisco Business College, presented a paper\non \" How I Conduct a Business-Community School.\" D. W. Springer, Ann Arbor,\nMich., and J. H. Francis, Los Angeles, Cal., participated in the discussion.\nThe department adjourned to meet July 13.\nSECOND\n\nSESSION.— Thursday, July 13\n\nThe second session. of the department convened at 3 p. M., and the program was\nopened with music by the California-Oregon Quartette, composed of members of the department.\nA paper by J. M. Mehan, Des Moines, la., on \"An Adequate Course of Study for the\nBusiness Colleges \" was read, in the absence of the author, by D. W. Springer. The\ndepartment voted to request the United States Commissioner of Education to publish the\npaper and give it general circulation. Messrs. Davis, Springer, and Crissy were appointed\nas a committee to make the request for the department.\nThe question, \" What Foreign Languages, if Any, should be Taught in the Commercial Schools ? \" was freely discussed by the department.\nW. H. Sadler, Baltimore, Md., conducted a question box to the edification and enjoyment of all.\nThe election of officers for the ensuing year resiilted as follows :\nPresident — Carl C. Marshall, Battle Creek, Mich.\nVice-President— \"iA. B. Wicks, Philadelphia, Pa.\nSecretary — I. O. Crissy, Albany, N. Y.\nChairman, Executiz'e Committee — W. C. Stevenson, Emporia, Kan.\n\nAdjourned to meet July 14.\nTHIRD\n\nSESSION.— Friday, July 14\n\nThe session was called to order at 3 P. M. by President Davis.\nThe orchestra of the business department of the Los Angeles High School rendered\nmost pleasing selections.\n\n"}
{"page": 1007, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nBUSINESS-COURSE\n\nPROBLEM\n\n999\n\nW. C. Stevenson, department of bookkeeping and penmanship, Kansas State Normal\nSchool, read a paper on \" The Advent of the Commercial High School.\" The paper\nwas discussed by D. W. Springer, of the Ann Arbor (Mich.) High School.\nA paper on \"Claims of Commercial Education to a Place in Our Public-School\nSystem \" was presented by J. H. Francis, of the commercial department of the Los\nAngeles High School.\nCarl C. Marshall, Battle Creek, Mich., discussed the paper.\nI. O. Crissy, of the board of regents of the University of New York, presented a\npaper on \" Evolution of Business Education.\" The paper was discussed by D. T. Ames\nand E. R. Shrader.\n\" The Future of the Business College \" was the subject of a paper by George E.\nMorrill, Watsonville, Cal.\nA vote of thanks was extended to the local executive committee and citizens of Los\nAngeles for hospitality extended to the department.\nThe president-elect spoke of the next meeting, and expressed his thanks for the\nhonor conferred upon him.\nAdjourned.\nW. C. Stevenson,\nSecretary.\n\nPAPERS\nTHE\n\nBY ALLAN\n\nDAVIS,\n\nAND\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nBUSINESS-COURSE\n\nPRINCIPAL\n\nOF BUSINESS\n\nHIGH\n\nPROBLEM\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nWASHINGTON,\n\nD. C.\n\nWith the growth in complexity of modern business methods, with the\nnatural trade extension which comes to a country that is more than able\nto supply the home demand for products of many kinds, with the territorial growth consequent upon our late war, has come a demand for\nAmerican business agents and managers of a higher order of general\neducation and a more special knowledge of industrial and commercial\nconditions. To meet this demand the leading- universities of our two\nlargest cities have just inserted commercial courses into their curricula ;\nthe school boards in many cities have taken the question under consideration, and in a few instances have established high-school courses of more\nor less thoroness. Indeed, the chief problem in high-school organization today is that of the coming commercial course. Courses in literature, the classics, the sciences, and even in manual training, have been at\nleast provisionally determined, but the business course is in most cities\nstill merely a product of the imagination.\nForeign courses which might be chosen as models for American business schools seem to have two defects : they are professional rather than\neducational, and their studies are not unified so as to serve as a guide in the\nestablishment of high-school courses. The course of the average American business college is also objectionable as a model, for it is not, and\n\n"}
{"page": 1008, "printed_page": null, "text": "lOOO\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATIOA\n\n[Business\n\ndoes not pretend tp be, more than an adjunct to a general education.\nHence the formulation of a full high-school commercial course is almost\nentirely a labor of creation.\n*\nIt has often been charged that a commercial course is a professional\ncourse which has no place in a public-school system. If this charge of\nprofessionalism be true, I believe that the conclusion is just ; but it seems\nto me that the premises are false. The high -school pupil who studies\ngeometry, physics, and Latin, and who, upon leaving school, decides\nto pursue medicine as a profession, has not been professionally or specially educated by the state. Neither has the boy who obtains at school\na knowledge of bookkeeping, commercial law, and business arithmetic,\nand who, after an apprenticeship as clerk or assistant, becomes a hardware\nmerchant. Neither geometry nor arithmetic, physics nor business law,\nbookkeeping nor Latin, is necessarily a professional or special study.\nThis important distinction between professional or special and general\ntraining is perfectly obvious: the one is intended to fit for special occupations only ; the other is designed to be useful to all, whatever their\nfuture occupations. Judged by this standard, a business training is a\ntypical illustration of general education, as division of labor has made\neach member of society a business-man to a greater or less degree.\nThe technical training appropriate to varying trades or professions\nbeing omitted, then, as without the scope of the public secondary school,\nthe first essential of a business course is \" business training,\" using the\nterm in its ordinary signification to include business records, forms, customs, calculations, and correspondence. Today shorthand and typewriting may, perhaps, also justly claim a place in a business course, for,\naltho not a necessary part of a business-man's education, familiarity with\nthem is frequently valuable, notwithstanding that twenty years ago these\nsubjects were so little employed in business that it would have been\npremature to teach them. This group of studies, which is simple and\nimmediately useful, is, in fact, the curriculum of the ordinary business\ncollege.\nA complete business course may be briefly described as giving a\nknowledge of (i) men, (2) things, (3) language, and (4) business: of\nhuman history and institutions, of nature, of means of expressing thought,\nand of business laws and methods.\nA historical course which exhibits the general history-of the race, its\ncommercial history, the geography of commerce, and the simpler laws of\npolitical economy will, perhaps, include all that should be expected of\nhistorical training in a high school.\nMathematics and the sciences are so clearly defined in most highschool programs that no explanation is necessary here.\nIn determining how much language should be taught, attention must\nbe paid to the fact that the course does not specially prepare for college\n\nm\n\n"}
{"page": 1009, "printed_page": null, "text": "DepartmentJ\n\nTHE\n\nBUSINESS-COURSE\n\nPROBLEM\n\nlOOX\n\nor the learned professions. English should be emphasized ; Latin should,\nperhaps, be taught for one year as an aid to English, especially in the\nderivation of words ; and Spanish, German, or French for perhaps two\nyears. Aside from its commercial value, which is far less in the United\nStates than in Europe, and which of itself would not justify retention\namong high-school studies, the chief use of a foreign language seems to\nlie in giving a better understanding of English by furnishing the student\nwith material for comparison. In this connection the following quotation from Macaulay seems especially appropriate : \" If a man must terminate his studies at one-and-twenty, we should in general advise him to be\nsatisfied with the modern languages. If he is forced to enter active life\nat fifteen or sixteen, we should think it best that he should confine himself almost entirely to his native tongue.\" Equally instructive is the\nstatement of the chief reporter of the United States House of Representatives, who, after years of experience in recording the language of\nmen of varying degrees of education, says in an article on the qualifications of the congressional reporter: \"Some acquaintance, not necessarily\nprofound, with other languages, especially Latin and French, can hardly\nbe dispensed with.\"\nIt is also worthy of note that drawing, the language of mechanical\nrepresentation, is perhaps generally enough employed to warrant its introduction.\nSeveral essential subjects which are usually included in a high-school\ncourse are nominally omitted from the foregoing sketch, altho in reality\nimplied. Thus manual training, altho subordinated to business training\nand to science, is almost as fully included as in a manual-training course ;\nthe bookkeeping, penmanship, drawing, shorthand, and typewriting of\nthe business group, and the more original manipulations required for the\nexperiments and comparisons of science, representing fully the manual\nphase of education. Logic, rhetoric, and moral training are implicit in\nalmost every subject, and are best taught in connection with the things\nor relations to which they pertain — are, in fact, quite likely to be poorly\ntaught to the ordinary student when separated from the concrete and\ntaught abstractly.\nAs a provisional course of four years, embodying the foregoing subjects, the following is suggested :\n\n"}
{"page": 1010, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nI002\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n[Business\n\nI\nBusiness\nTraining\n\nFirst Year\n\nSecond Year\n\nThird Year\n\nBookkeeping,\narithmetic,\nand\ncorrespondence\n\nBookkeeping,\narithmetic,\nand\ncorrespondence\n\nBookkeeping,\n*\"\narithmetic.\nand\ncorrespondence\n\nShorthand\nand\n\nShorthand\nor\nand\n\ntypewriting\n(optional)\n\ntypewriting\n\nEnglish\n\nIII\nHistory\n\nGeneral\nhistory\n\nAND\n\nTechnical\nbusiness\nlaw\n\n(optional)\n\nII\nLanguage\n\nIV\nMathematics\n\nFourth Year\n\nLatin\n\nShorthand\nand\ntypewriting\n(optional)\nSpanish,\nEnglish\n\nhistory\nCommercial\n\nCommercial\ngeography\n\nGeometry,\n\nChemistry\n\ndrawing\nSpanish,\neconomy\nPolitical\nBiology\n\nAlgebra\n\nScience\nphysics\n\nBY\n\nHOW\n\nI CONDUCT\n\nC.\n\nHOWARD,\n\nE,\n\nA\n\nPRESIDENT\n\nBUSINESS- COMMUNITY\n\nSAN\n\nFRANCISCO\n\nFRANCISCO,\n\nBUSINESS\n\nSCHOOL\n\nCOLLEGE,\n\nSAN\n\nCAL.\n\nI shall not attempt this afternoon to tell you how an ideal businesscommunity school should be conducted, but I shall confine myself, as\nindicated by the title of this paper, to telling you how I actually conduct\none.\nOur school, as far as bookkeeping is concerned, consists solely of the\nbusiness community, or actual business department, without any preliminary work in a theory department ; for I belong to a class of those who\nthink that the sooner the student gets to doing what you expect him\nto do, the sooner will he learn to do it.\nWhen the student enters the school the first morning, we give him his\noutfit of stationery, with a list of the articles, and instruct him to examine\nthe bill and check up the items to see if all the articles are there, and to\nadd the bill in order to see that it is correct. After this is done the\nstudent is given a form for an opening entry, which he is instructed to\nwrite in his journal, substituting name and address for those given in the\nform.\nAs soon as he has finished this he is given a capital of $5,000 of\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 1011, "printed_page": null, "text": "DepartmentI\n\nHOW\n\nTO CONDUCT\n\nA BUSINESS-COMMUNITY\n\nSCHOOL\n\n1003\n\ncollege money, and is shown how to make out a deposit slip for the use\nof the bank. He is taken to the bank and initiated into the process of\nmaking a cash deposit. He is required to take every step, and to sign\nevery book, and to answer such questions as are propounded to the business-man at the regular commercial banks. Having returned to his desk,\nhe is instructed to pay his first month's rent, which he does by drawing a\ncheck in favor of the real-estate agent. The principle underlying the\nuse of the check is explained to him, and, having actually placed the\nmoney in the bank and received the credit for it, he needs but a few\nwords of explanation in regard to his check, and the manner of accounting for the withdrawal of this amount of money. This is the great secret\nwhich underlies this plan of teaching — that the student actually performs\neach transaction in its proper order, and sees the relation of each part of\nthe transaction and of each separate transaction to all the others.\nHe is next instructed to buy a bill of merchandise for cash. In order\nthat we may have a check upon the student's- work during the first two or\nthree days, his first fifteen bills of merchandise are bought by the means\nof printed order sheets, which are supplied to him, and by means of\nwhich we know just what he ought to get. Upon receiving his bill of\nmerchandise, he is shown how to check up the cards belonging to it, and\nto verify the extensions, footings, and discounts, and how to \" O K\" and\nfile the invoice. With this in his mind he is shown the proper entries to\nmake on his books, with an explanation of the principles of debit and\ncredit, as applied to the two accounts, cash and merchandise, which are\ninvolved in this transaction. The merchandise bought on the first bill is\nsold for cash on two separate bills to different students, and, on issuing\nthe bill and receiving the check or currency in payment therefor, he is\nshown how to receipt the bill, and his attention is called to the importance of doing this work properly in the case of all cash transactions.\nWhen he has bought six bills and sold the merchandise so received,\nhe discontinues further transactions until after posting and taking a trial\nbalance. We find that even with the exceedingly brief explanation of\nthe principles of debit and credit, involving the two accounts given the\nstudent, he acquires the ability to journalize correctly any transaction\ninvolving these two accounts. He has not worried his head about\nacquiring any part of the \"science of accounts,\" but he has learned, what\nis of vastly more importance to him, how to perform and record the\ntransactions.\nIn posting from the journal, we find that the students are able to do\nthe work with very little liability to error, by posting the succeeding\ndebits in order, then returning and taking all the credits in like manner.\nWhile this method is not new, and is not followed by all, we think it is\ndeparted from to the student's detriment every time. I doubt if there is\na teacher in the house who has not had his soul harried time after time\n\n"}
{"page": 1012, "printed_page": null, "text": "1004\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n[Business\n\nby misfit trial balances, caused by the student's having posted an item to\nthe wrong side.\nThis does not occur once a month with us.\nAfter the posting has been completed, after completing his trial balance and recording in the balance-book, the cash is compared with the\nbank account, balanced and ruled, and the student returns to his transactions. In this section of the work the bills-payable account is introduced by having the student buy a portion of his merchandise for notes\non demand. The subject is discussed with him after he has bought the\nfirst bill in this way; his attention is called to the principle of debit and\ncredit applying to the new account. Its identity with the principle as\napplied to the cash and merchandise is pointed out, and the use of the\nbill-book explained. A small number of transactions are made, the\naccounts are again posted, the cash account is balanced and ruled as\nbefore, and a new set of transactions is entered upon. Personal accounts\nreceivable are introduced thru the means of bill^ sold on credit. At the\nend of this set he will have exhausted his fifteen order sheets. After a\ntrial balance is taken, a statement or balance sheet is made, and the books\nare closed. In the fourth set the only new subjects are personal accounts\npayable, and the use of drafts drawn on the accounts receivable.\nAll of our first sets are short, so that the student will not lose sight of\nthe work as a whole during the entire set. Each succeeding set becomes\na little longer, and each set contains one or two new principles, with a\nlarge amount of practice, of those already known. My ideas of correct\ngrading, as applied to school studies, is that the student should never\nrealize he has come to anything hard. I presume that this opinion will be\ndissented from by those who believe that the greatest mental discipline is\nsecured by giving the students hard nuts to crack. This may be true in\nregard to some studies, but I do not believe that in bookkeeping and its\nallied studies it is so. I believe that if a student's work is properly\ngraded he will rise step by step from known facts to the unknown, in\nsuch a manner as to teach him to reason a priori in regard to any transaction with which he may be confronted. It is our desire that the student\nshall acquire a symmetrical and integral knowledge of the subject, and\nwe fail to see that this end is secured by placing arduous difficulties in\nthe way, for the purpose of mental discipline. We insure proper grading\nof the subject by preparing the transactions that form the basis of the\ncourse in such a way that the student is forced to take them in the order\nin which we have laid them down. If, in teaching a given subject, we\ncan lay down the principles plainly in the correct order, and insure the\nstudent's following them in that order, he cannot, if possessed of common\nobservation and reason, avoid the conclusion we wish him to reach. We\nattain this end in our course by arranging the basic transactions on a roll\nof paper, which is contained in a pasteboard case with an opening in one\nside, covered with glass.\nThis roll is provided with a turn-screw at one\n\n"}
{"page": 1013, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nffOPt^ TO CONDVCl\n\nA ^USINESS-COMMVNITY\n\nSCHOOL\n\n1 60S\n\nside, which turns the roll forward, but cannot be turned backward. This\nappliance is the cabinet which has been the innocent cause of so much\nhilarity on the part of those who have appliances to sell which are a little\ndifferent. This is \"making bookkeepers by turning a crank,\" which has\nbeen so derided by some of the venerable advocates of some other system\nof teaching. It simply resolves itself into this : the student is, by means\nof this appliance, given a set of business transactions to be followed ; the\ntransactions are arranged in the order in which we wish them taken ; and,\nas he must take them in the order in which they are given, he cannot, as\nI have said before, if possessed of ordinary intelligence, avoid the conclusion we wish him to reach.\nAt this point I should like to call your attention to what I consider one\nof the most important features of the business-community, or, as we have\ncalled it, for the want of a better name, the \"actual-business\" plan of\nteaching. It is this : the transactions laid down in the cabinet furnish\nonly about one-third of the material that is written in the books of the\nstudent. The plan of actual face-to-face transaction from the very beginning causes a large number of transactions to arise which are entirely\nindependent of the cabinet, and which differ on the books of all the different students. For instance, A may give B a note, as instructed by the\ncabinet. B is instructed by the cabinet to sell the note to a third party,\nwhich he does ; that party is instructed to secure the payment of the interest from the drawer, or to secure a partial payment of the principal, or\nperhaps to discount the note in the bank, and the interest may be demanded\nby the bank ; any of which will call for an entry on A's books which is not\ndemanded by the cabinet. A sells to B on account. B is instructed to\nmake a partial payment on the account by means of a note, or to pay the\naccount by a draft on a third party. Transactions may be cited, none of\nwhich appear on the cabinet of A, except the original instruction. As a\nconsequence he must be ready at all times to take care of any kind of\ntransaction that may be brought to him, and thus receives a continual\nreview of everything he has gone over. This is an advantage that can be\nsecured in no plan of teaching except the business-community or actualbusiness plan. No student knows the course that his business is going to\ntake, neither does the teacher. There are certain transactions involving\nthe use of the various principles and accounts which are common to the\ncourse of all the students, but this common course forms only in all 30\nper cent, of the entire material written during the course.\nWe use but two separate offices, the bank and wholesale house ; commission, forwarding, and such work as is taken up in some schools in separate offices are carried on at the desk of the individual student whenever\nhe has reached a point calling for these stibjects. This, perhaps, does not\nmake as imposing a show to the prospective student, when he enters the\nschoolroom, as a large number of finely appointed offices with plenty of\n\n"}
{"page": 1014, "printed_page": null, "text": "1006\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\nplate glass and brass rails, but it suits our purpose of conducting a plain,\nmatter-of-fact, straight business-training school, with no frills or fripperies.\nWe require all bills sold on account to be sold subject to draft, unless\nthe instructions specially provide otherwise. All bills on account are to\nbe settled every second Friday. This is called \"collection day.\" Each\nstudent is required on this day to see that his books are posted, and to\nmake out and send to each debtor a statement of account to date. In this\nway all open accounts are closed at the end of two weeks. In thus adopting two collection days each month we follow an old California custom of\nearly days, when steamers were the only regular means of communication\nwith this state ; all accounts were made up so as to send remittances on\nthe steamers, which sailed semimonthly. These dates of sailing came to\nbe known as \"steamer days,\" or \"collection days,\" and, altho the\nreason for it has long since passed away, the custom still continues in San\nFrancisco among a large class of merchants. The dates have now been\nsettled as the thirteenth and twenty-eighth, unless these dates occur on\nSaturday or Sunday, when collections are made the following Monday.\nThis plan of semimonthly collections prevents errors in books from\nbecoming buried under a mass of work. An error in a personal account\nis bound to appear at this time, unless each party has made an exactly\nopposite error, which is very rarely, if ever, done.\nThis brings up a point which is always a question in the minds of\nthose who are not familiar with the actual-business plan of teaching.\nThey invariably ask : \" What check do you have on your students ? How\ndo you know they are doing their work correctly ?\" An error in the personal account is sure to be discovered on settling day, as shown before.\nThe work is so carried out in the room that each student is always ready\nto prove his work correct, and in case of a dispute each will immediately\nproduce his vouchers, and the one who is wrong cannot help acknowledging the error. This point — that of the natural discovery of errors, the\nproof of the account by the vouchers, and the means of checking vouchers and accounts together to detect the discrepancy — cannot be reached\nby any other plan of teaching.\nEvery account on the books representing a resource or a liability can\nbe proved in a similar way. There is but one class of errors that can pass\nundetected, and that is where an error of computation in an invoice is\nunnoticed. This mistake is not, however, an error in the accounts, and\ncould pass thru any house in the business world in the same way. It is\npossible for an error to be made by posting to one lossand-gain account\ninstead of another, which might remain undetected, but this would have\nabsolutely no effect on the finan'cial results of the business.\nIt is a pleasure to see students of this kind of work promptly prbduce\ntheir vouchers in settlement of questions which frequently arise.\nWe\n\n"}
{"page": 1015, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nHOW\n\nTO CONDUCT\n\nA BUSINESS-COMMUNITY\n\nSCHOOL\n\n1007\n\nrequire all advanced students, at some time in the course, to take the books\nof five other students and give a complete audit of them, verifying every\naccount for a period of three months. In joint-stock and corporation\nwork the corporations are made up among the students who subscribe for\nthe stock, and at closings of the books an auditing committee is appointed\nand required to audit the books of the corporation.\nA rigid inspection of books is carried out, and a strict compliance with\nthe laws and customs of business is insisted on. No allowance is made\nfor the fact that it is only school work. Everything undertaken by the\nstudent must be done to the best of his ability.\nWe eliminate, as far as possible, the schoolroom atmosphere, and substitute for it the customs of the office. It becomes with us a workroom\nmore than a schoolroom.\n\nThere is a point I should like to mention here,\n\nand it is a very important one in connection with business-community,\nor actual-business, teaching, and that is the question of personal order in\nthe schoolroom. It is very gratifying to us that every visitor who is himself\na business teacher or a public-school teacher, or who is familiar with schoolroom work, commends us for the order displayed in our schoolrooms.\nIt is the more gratifying, and the more a cause of self-congratulation,\nbecause it is secured at the expense of a small amount of special effort.\nThis is a point of the greatest importance with this kind of work. Order,\nif not, as has been said before, \" heaven's first law,\" is at least the first law\nof business; and without order in the schoolroom the business college\nfails in its first requirement. We find that the greatest factor in the question is to give the students something to do, to make it practical — something that teaches them what they want to learn ; present it to them as one\nman would present a thing to another, and carry the idea thru all our\nwork that the relation of teacher to student is simply the relation of one\nbusiness-man to another; and you have reached the goal.\nThis is the attitude which we take with our students from the start,\nand the collisions between the teachers and the students are exceedingly\nrare. Not infrequently weeks pass without a single word from the teacher\nto the students, except in the regular routine of instruction. The students\nimbibe in the very first day's experience in the schoolroom the idea that it is\na place for work, and that they are on their honor to do their best ; and the\ntrust is seldom violated. When, in rare instances, we find a student that\nis not amenable to this kind of treatment, we regulate the difficulty by\nremoving the offender.\n\n"}
{"page": 1016, "printed_page": null, "text": "Ioo8\n\nTHE\n\nNATIONAL\n\nCLAIMS\n\nOF\n\nBY J. H. FRANCIS,\n\nHEAD\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nBUSINESS EDUCATION\nOUR PUBLIC SCHOOLS\n\nOF COMMERCIAL\nSCHOOL,\n\nDEPARTMENT,\n\nLOS ANGELES,\n\n[Busines\n\nTO A PLACE\n\nIN\n\nLOS ANGELES\n\nHIGH\n\nCAL.\n\nSome years ago those who felt that the responsibility for the world's\neducation rested on them looked with dignified disfavor, if not with disdain, on the claims mathematics were making for recognition in the\ncourses of study. Such an innovation would lessen the time and dissipate the efforts given to the only studies which could properly give to\none a liberal education and entitle him to a place among the learned men\nof the world. Newton emerged one day from the recesses of his study\nwith a table of figures that made of astrology the science of astronomy,\nand the impetus given to the mathematical branch of learning carried it\nwith a triumphant sweep into the courses of study, where it has since been\ndeveloped to an almost abnormal extent.\nA few years later the social and industrial evolution that grew into\nrevolution brought forward some problems the solution of which could\nnot be found in the languages, nor yet in abstract mathematics, but lay\nwithin the fields x)f what we designate science. This new subject was\ngiven the same cold and hostile reception from those who stood guard\nover treasuries of knowledge, and was denied a seat among the respectable\nbranches of learning; but since, despite the fact that some people will to\nthe contrary, the world moves onward, the subject of science would not be\nput aside until duly recognized and accorded a place. A glance at the\npresent courses of study, with statistics of enrollment, will answer the\nquestion of the need for such work in our public schools.\nEducators, like other men, change their habits and thoughts slowly.\nBelieving it safer to work with the known and established than experiment with the unknown, they have followed the ways marked out for\nthem by generations of ancestry until, rudely disturbed by the jostling\nevents of a progressing world, they have frowned upon, opposed, studied,\nand then adopted those things that conditions forced upon them.\nThere is today, standing at the door of learning, what is called commercial education, asking in no unmistakable tones for a place in the\nalready overcrowded and heavily burdened curricula of public schools.\nIts reception has been much the same as that accorded to all new departures in educational lines. Probably in this case, however, more consideration has been shown to it from the start than to other intruders, due to\nthe fact that business colleges have paved the way for its introduction, and\nintensified conditions in the commercial world have made it imperative.\n\n"}
{"page": 1017, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nBUSINESS\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN OUR\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n1 009\n\nWe might almost say at this time that this new line of educational\nwork has secured its place, and the only question profitable for discussion\nwould be how best to strengthen and perfect it.\nI thought it not unwise, however, despite the progress already made\nin the introduction of such work into the schools of our land, to emphasize\nsome of the fundamental reasons for its growth, which is certainly descined\nto be steady and swift in the near future.\nIt will be understood that I have in mind the introduction of commercial work not earlier than the ninth year. There may be grounds for\ngood discussion on the beginning of specialization earlier than this.\nProbably experience and study will lead to specialization early in the\nschool life of pupils. It began beyond the university course, moved down\nto it, and from there to secondary education, or into the high schools.\nJust why it should stop here is probably not definitely known, altho\nthere may be some good reasons for it based on expediency, and possibly\non educational grounds.\nGranting that specialization in the high schools needs no defense, and\nthat it is educationally correct to offer to high-school pupils the option\nof as many courses as possible, the question whether the commercial\nshould form one of such courses would depend upon the answer given to\nthe following questions:\n1. Should courses of study be influenced by dominant characteristics\nor forces in the civilization of the people educated ?\n2. Is commercialism one of the dominant characteristics or forces of\nour civilization ?\n3. What is put into a commercial course, and what is sought to be\naccomplished in such a course ?\nThere are two things to be considered in all education : first, society\nin general, and, second, the individual in particular.\nIn the general sense it is true that what is good for society is good\nfor the individuals composing that society, and the reverse ; but it is not\nalways specifically so. It may be an excellent thing for the individual to\npossess a technical knowledge in certain industrial pursuits, and the good\nof such training would be partly contributed to society, but it would be a\nquestion raised by the public whether the good derived by it from a technical training of certain of its members would recompense for the outlay\nnecessary to such a training.\nEducation is socialistic. It is paid for by the social unit, whatever\nthat may be, and to this unit is due the benefits to be derived from such\nexpenditure. If society is economical in its expenditures, it will demand,\nnot only some returns, but the highest returns for its expenditure of\nmoney and effort.\nIn this connection the word \" practical,\" so often used, and too\nfrequently ignorantly used, by advocates of commercial education, is\n\n"}
{"page": 1018, "printed_page": null, "text": "lOIO\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\nworth noting. Because a commercial education fitting young men or\nwomen to go from school into a store or an office may make it practical\nor may not, it does not necessarily follow that it is practical. It may be\npractical, in a limited sense, for the young student without being so for\nthe society that educates him. It may be quite the opposite for both. I\nhave known those who possessed, or thought they possessed, a business\neducation, and the possession, or delusion, was most unfortunate for them\nand for society. It made of what might have been an intelligent and\nvaluable citizen a very poor clerk or amanuensis.\nFrom the society standpoint, then, are we justified in asking that\na commercial course form a part of our public-school work ? I should\nanswer the question in the affirmative. In doing this we should not\nbe ignorant of the gravity of the fact that our public schools are\nalready badly crowded with studies, all of them possessing merits, and\nmany of them dignified with years of experience and age. All new\ndepartures must prove themselves more advantageous to society than the\nestablished studies and courses, and to do this requires no little courage\nin the face of the great and rapid progress the world has made, due not\na little to the educational systems of civilization.\nIt is not a display of wide educational attainments nor of good educational discernment to anathematize present courses of study as being\nimpractical because they fail to fit their recipients to earn bread and\nbutter. All studies are bread-and-butter studies — some more than others,\nto be sure, but all helpful in the struggle of life. Commercial education, ifit is to make and hold for itself a permanent place in our educational systems, must accomplish more than to enable its few pupils to\nmake immediate application of their knowledge and receive remuneration for such ability. It must fill a place in the economic organization\nof society by producing those who can become society leaders in commercial lines.\nCommercial education is needed in the public schools of this country\nbecause we as a nation are already one of the greatest commercial peoples\nin the world. This is due to our natural resources, our climate, location,\nand to the energy of our people. Commerce has assumed such dimensions\nthat it has outrun the comprehension of casual students, and requires a\nmost careful and systematic study of the fundamental principles and their\nmodifications underlying the great structure of exchange. We all believe\nthat this commercial tendency is destined to continue its marvelous growth\nin the future. It will be of invaluable service to this nation to have those\nwho have been especially trained along these lines.\nA good illustration of what those educated in special lines can do for\nthe country that educates them can be seen in the prestige Germany has\nwon in the last few years in the commercial world. This is due in large\npart to the systematic study she has made of the questions of commerce.\n\ni\n\n"}
{"page": 1019, "printed_page": null, "text": "Departmentl\n\nBUSINESS\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN OUR PUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nloi I\n\nThe commercial high schools established by her people are conclusive\nproof that she appreciates the importance of the hour and is determined\nto hold her place in the fierce struggle the nations are making for the\nmarkets of the world.\nAt no other time in our history has this country stood in so great a\nneed of men who from training and study were prepared to be leaders in\nquestions of commerce.\nThe new possessions that have fallen to us ; the opening up of new\nworld markets such as South America, Africa, and the Orient ; the\nremarkable industrial evolution in our own country that has placed us in\ntlie very fore rank of commercial nations — these have all raised questions\nthe solution of which will require intellects especially trained for the\npurpose.\nThere has been some sentiment against commercial education, because\nit has been held that the very best education for business is the one\nacquired in the store or office. If it be true that for any specific work the\nbest preparation is the one secured in the business itself, from a sociological\nstandpoint it would still be a very imperative necessity to educate a class\nof our citizens along the lines of commerce. Fortunately, however, the\nsentiment against commercial education, on the ground that it fails to fit\nas well for business as experience in the store, is disappearing. Men must\nrealize thai, while such an education cannot make business-men of all who\ntake it, either the course of study or the teaching of it must be radically wrong if it does not make a better business-man of him who takes it\nthan he otherwise would have been.\nIt would hardly be questioned, by those conversant with the facts, that\nour foreign commerce receives a consideration in the press, in legislation,\nand in study out of proportion to its importance, but the problems of\nforeign commerce are nevertheless of the greatest importance, and were\nnever so important as at present. France and Germany select commissions\nof trained, capable men, send them to the Orient for a three-years' study of\nthese markets, and keep secret their reports save to their citizens who can\nprofit by this valuable information. The consular service of the European\ncommercial nations is composed of men fitted by study for their positions.\nOur own country must give much more intelligent thought to these things\nin the future, and if we are to have young men who can do this work, we\nmust educate them for it. The boundless wealth, marvelous growth, and\ntireless energy of the people of this nation have elicited the admiration\nand wonder of the world, but we cannot afford to depend too largely on\nthese advantages to secure and hold a place among the nations of the\nworld. Lines of competition are drawn more closely between nations.\nThe struggle of the future will not be on the battlefields, but in the arena\nof trades, markets, and exchanges. The victory will belong to the nations\nthat make the most careful study of the conditions.\nThis means that\n\n"}
{"page": 1020, "printed_page": null, "text": "10I2\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\nopportunity must be given to the American youth to study these questions\nin our universities, colleges, and high schools.\nWhen we look at our domestic commerce, the questions raised are of\ntenfold importance, and the need for men who can intelligently handle\nthem becomes of gravest moment to the country. The most daring\nbusiness-men' of the seventeenth century would stand appalled at the\nbusiness ventures of today. We are utterly unable to grasp the full,\nsignificance of some of the recent developments in business lines. Concentration, corporations, trusts, and monopolies are sweeping our businessmen off their feet, and confusing and troubling the entire business world.\nThese questions will not be understood by the majority of business-men\nwho have had training in one line only. It will require a broader and\nmore liberal study of the questions of commerce than can be secured\nwhile meeting the demands of an active business life. This training must\nbe secured in our schools. Society will be compelled, from the very\nconditions that surround her, to educate some of her citizens to deal\nwith exchange, one of the greatest divisions of human endeavor, one that\nvitally touches every other, upon which every other is largely dependent.\nProbably in no other of the fundamental divisions of human activity\nare there such foolish methods employed, entailing such reckless waste, as\nin that of exchange. The tribute society pays every year to this reckless\nwaste, if properly conserved, would cover the field of industry with a\nsmile of prosperity that would discount those promised by the most\npartisan press on a partisan victory. This condition results, without a\ndoubt, from the lack of study of commerce, and will be corrected only\nby such study.\nThe legislation touching exchange is a mass of unclassified stuff,\ngood, bad, and indifferent. This legislation was passed by men who did\nnot understand the problems of commerce, men whose lives have been\ngiven to the mastery of another profession. It is not much wonder, then,\nat the viciousness of some of our legislation and the utter worthlessness\nof more touching exchange. Men who do not themselves understand the\nproblems upon which they legislate are more than prone to be influenced\nby others. The influence exerted here has not been wholesome for the\nbusiness-man at large. Society owes it to herself to educate men who\ncan take their places in our legislative halls, and pass laws that will, in\nthe broadest sense, be for the good of business ; and society will not have\nmet such an obligation to herself until she sees to it that such men are\nput in these places and meet these obligations in a candid, straightforward,\nand intelligent manner.\nSome good people regret the commercialism of this age and this\nnation. Educators stoutly maintain that we must educate away from the\ncontrolling forces of society, on the ground that those forces and conditions are not ideal, and it is the business of education to strive for the\n\nM\n\n"}
{"page": 1021, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nBUSINESS\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN OUR\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n1013\n\nideal. Culture has been the keyword to their system, and they yield to\nthe material only with reluctance. The contention of this class of educators is not without weight, partly because of the very excellent men and\nwomen who advocate the idea, and partly because of the idea itself. But\nwhether we rejoice in or regret the almost superhuman efforts today being\nexpended in the business world, we must all realize their force and significance. To undertake to educate the youth of this land away from these\nforces and environments is hopeless, if not foolish. The most brilliant\nintellects are found struggling for supremacy and mastery here. So long\nas the business world offers such tempting prizes, such great power, such\nintense excitement, young men of ambition will refuse an education that\naims to be so ethical as to lift their minds into realms above and beyond\nthe material things of life. Law, medicine, and theology, the once\nhonored professions, have yielded much of their honor to the profession\nof business, and this has come about naturally, since in the fields of business lies the most promising future, viewed from almost any standpoint.\nUnder present conditions and environments the only efficientj and hence\nthe only sensible, way to correct any evil tendencies toward over-commercialism, isto educate young men and women in the fundamentals of commerce, depending on the good sense and sterling American manhood\nto correct such evils when once thoroly understood.\nAdded to the above society reasons for the permanency of commercial\neducation as a part of our public-school work is the tremendous fact that\ncommerce or business touches vitally every individual within the pale of\ncivilization; and this is the most potent reason for such a course of study.\nIt is a serious question if our public schools can afford to allow our young\npeople to go into the active duties of life with no knowledge of business\nmethods or business principles. It makes no difference what is to be\none's vocation; a business education will be of great value; hence the time\nspent in a commercial course, if a good one, and if the time be well spent,\ncannot be time lost. In fact, it could hardly be better spent. It is this\nfeature of the work that must secure for it a place in our public schools.\nFrom the standpoint of society I have no doubt that the introduction\nof commercial education is thoroly justified, and that it has come to stay.\nThe forces that are most dominant in the life of man must be studied to\nbe understood. A failure to understand them means a destruction of our\ncivic and economic life. The study of the arts no doubt has its merits\nin the ethical training of the race, and the languages are keys that will\nunlock vast storehouses of valuable information ; but what this present\nage most stands in need of is men and women who can intelligently\nunderstand the mighty forces that are driving it so rapidly onward. The\npast has its lessons, the present its problems. To study the past for its\nlessons in order that the problems of the present may more wisely be\nsolved is profitable, but unfortunately the pursuit of present courses of\n\n"}
{"page": 1022, "printed_page": null, "text": "IOI4\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\nstudy is not calculated to find the lessons of the past as applied to the\ncivic and economic life of man. The solution of the present problems is\nimperative, and hence a direct study of them must become a part of our\npublic-school work.\nI have already dwelt so long on the sociological side of the question\nthat the individual side can only be mentioned. After all, however, commercial work will or will not form a part of public-school work according\nto whether it does or does not answer a need of society.\nMuch of what has been said in favor of such an education from the\nstandpoint of society will apply to the individual. If one has ambitions\nto engage in the busy, intense, struggling world of business under present\nconditions, he certainly needs as much preparation as possible. Ninetyfive per cent, of the men who venture into this field of activity are said to\nbe swept aside by the surging forces that rage in the %vorld of business.\nThere is hardly any doubt that much of this failure is due to an imperfect\nunderstanding of business principles. A commercial education ought to\ndo much toward giving young men and women a comprehensive view of\nthe field and instilling principles that will be of much value to them in\ntheir future business lives.\nFor the student in general, who is not determined as to what his future\nwork shall be, I am persuaded that he cannot spend time and effort in a\nmore profitable way than in the pursuit of a commercial education.\nThe second question raised in this paper, that of whether commercialism is a part of our present civilization and one of the dominant\nforces of our national life, answers itself, and needs no discussion before\nthis body of business educators. A little over a century ago we were a\nnation of three millions who loved liberty ; today we are seventy millions\nwho love money. We have given up the worship of Almighty God for\nthe worship of the almighty dollar, and the historian of future years will\nwrite us down as belonging to the dollar age.\nThe third and final question raised, that of the objects sought and\nstudies to be followed in a commercial course, is of the greatest importance, and while I should like very much to hear it discussed, it does not\nfall properly within the province of this paper, even if there was time left\nfor its discussion.\nI desire to say, however, that if commercial education limits the scope\nof its ambition to turning out clerks and office boys, in my opinion it\nshould be ruled out of every public school in the land. The work should\nbe sufficiently thoro and technical to enable the pupils to make immediateapplication\n.\nof it in keeping books or doing work-in shorthand and\ntypewriting, but such an education must aim at something far more\nsignificant than this, if it is to be paid for by the public and to return\nto the public value received. It must put the boy and girl into intelligent sympathy with the vast business world around them.\nIt must be\n\n"}
{"page": 1023, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nBUSINESS\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN\n\nOUR\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n1015\n\nliberalizing, educational, and calculated to call out of the student his best\nmental powers. It must never lose sight of pedagogical principles, nor\nbe unmindful that the first duty of any educational system or course of\nstudy should be the unfolding of the mental powers of the child. It\nmust produce intelligent citizens who can deal with the problems that\nface this nation, and hence must contain those studies, and follow methods\nthat will appeal to the citizen side of the pupil. It must develop businessmen rather than office boys and clerks.\nWhat studies and methods are best calculated to accomplish these\nresults is a question that is today receiving the earnest thought of those\ninterested in a commercial education. Fortunately, the subject is begining to challenge the interest and thought of able men. On our own great\nwestern coast commercial education has received an impetus, by the establishment of a college of commerce at our state university, that will carry\nit rapidly toward a more perfect organization, and give it greater credit\nwith educators. Here, again, the West has given to the East a lesson in\nprogressiveness.\nWe are today in the experimental stage, but the next few years will\nsee a remarkable development in this line of educational work. Our\ngreat universities are already turning their attention to the work. Conditions demand it. Young men and women of ambition who desire to\nteach will find a most promising and delightful field of work here.\n\nDISCUSSION\n\nCarl C. Marshall, editor of Learning by Doing, Battle Creek, Mich. — All right\neducation comprehends one or both of two fundamental purposes, culture and capability.\nWhatsoever is not of these is not education. Culture is the degree of approach physically, mentally, and morally to the ideal human being. Capability is the power to perform\nuseful service.\nIn considering anything that it is proposed to have taught in the public schools, there\nare two questions to be asked : (i) Does the pursuit of this branch add to the student's\nintelligence, refinement, and nobility of character ? (2) Will it increase his efficiency as a\nself-supporting member of society ? If it does either of these to any considerable degree,\nit is worthy of a place in the public-school curriculum. If it tends to confer both culture\nand cppability, its value and importance are all the greater.\nThe existing school curriculum is mainly the product of tradition. It has come down\nto us from an age when education was merely a matter of selecting accomplishments for\nthe wealthy or the aristocratic. The educated man was not expected to work. He did\nnot need to. He was a \" gentleman,\" which meant — and still means in a considerable\nregion of the world — a man who is supported by an inherited income or other special\nprivilege. For such, education was merely a caste distinction, something to mark its\nfortunate possessor as being above the vulgar herd. Hence the old schools were given\nover to teaching accomplishments mainly, as literature, the languages, history, poetry,\n\n"}
{"page": 1024, "printed_page": null, "text": "loi6\n\nMATIOMAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATIOA\n\n[Business\n\nmusic, dancing, fencing, chess play, and the like. Mathematics, sciences, the mechanic\narts, and most other branches of knowledge that had to do with the useful trades and\nprofessions had small place in the educational scheme, being considered plebeian and\nunworthy the attention of the sons and daughters of gentlemen. Hence the cultivated\nman of the centuries that are past was accomplished but ignorant. He could strum a\nharp, discourse in bad Latin, or compose a sonnet to his mistress' eyebrow, but he did\nnot know his multiplication table, could hardly write his own name, and his orthography\nwas even more picturesque than that of the deformed spelling recommended by the\nNational Educational Association committee.\nThe coming of the democratic age brought a demand that education should no longer\nbe the exclusive privilege of the rich or the aristocratic, and the free school was born.\nBut only by slow degrees did it occur to educators that the new regime required a change\nin the forms and purposes of education. Stubbornly the college maintained the all-sufficiency of the old classical training, and resisted the encroachment and growing popularity\nof the scientific and technical branches. The limitations of the common schools precluded Latin and philosophy, but the educational purveyors found in Lindlay Murray's\ngrammar scheme and the old elementary spelling book substitutes equally scholastic and\nuseless. These were reinforced by bulky compendiums of arithmetic and geography,\nand finally by text-books in all kinds of ologies, the name and number of which were\ndetermined soley by the whims of local school boards or of state legislatures. In all of\nthis knowledge-cramming and the exploitation of ornamental learning were as of old the\nchief processes. In few places have we had a calm, judicious selection of these branches\nof study that help people to live.\nIndeed, we have had a steadily pressed contention that direct preparation for usefulness is no part of the proper purpose of public education. It has been constantly\ndinned into our ears that education is a means of mental and spiritual development, and\nthat it suffers degradation by association with any question as to how men shall be fed\nor wherewithal shall they be clothed.\nNot long since I heard an eminent educator sneer at the idea of adding stenography\nand business training to the school curriculum, because these branches, as he phrased it,\nbelong to \"a bread-and-butter education.\"\nThis prejudice against the practical still persists with many of our educators, who\nconcede no educative value to work, as distinguished from learning. To give precision\nand effectiveness to a boy's muscles they recommend the gymnasium instead of the workshop, and prefer to train his sense of the mathematical equities thru algebra rather than\naccounting.\nThey can see fine discipline in writing out Greek verbs or difficult chemical reactions,\nin scheduling the Merovingian dynasty or in working out the complex riddles of algebra\nor geometry ; but see nothing educational in the preparation of balance sheets or financial\nstatements, the analysis of the elements of valid contracts, or the painstaking mastery of\nthe accurate and beautiful art of stenography.\nCommercial teachers know the educational value of the so-called commercial\nbranches, and can afford to smile at the scholastic ignoramuses who sneer at \"bread-andbutter education.\" No one, of course, assumes that these branches afford in themselves a\ncomplete education, but that all of them are educative in the best sense none who know\nthem will deny.\nThe English training given in our best commercial schools may not fit students for\nturning out heavy essays on profound philosophic, sociological, or political topics, but it\ntrains them to spell, to punctuate, to write plain, direct, well-composed letters, and, in\nshort, to use the language -in the way they will need to use it in real life. There is fine\nthought-training in the study of business law and usage, as well as valuable knowledge.\nCommercial mathematics may not be so intricate as the unapplied abstractions of algebra\nor geometry, but it calls for equal concentration of mind and accuracy of calculation. Those\n\n"}
{"page": 1025, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nBUSINESS\n\nEDUCATION\n\nlA\n\nOUR\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n1017\n\nwho have adjusted a complicated account-current or found the amount due on a note with\npartial payments can understand this. So with commercial and time discounts, the arbitrament of exchanges, partnership settlements, and many other matters of commercial\narithmetic and accountancy. I have known students to \"fall down\" before them who\nhad won college honors in the so-called \" higher mathematics.\"\nIt is not contended, of course, that the commercial branches yield much of what the\neducational technologists call culture, but in the development of judgment in practical\naffairs, the logical faculty, and prompt acting capability in the everyday exigencies of\nlife their value is unsurpassed.\nA commonly urged objection to public business education is that it is in the nature of\nspecial education, and that it is no more the province of the public schools to turn out\ntrained bookkeepers or stenographers than it is to supply dentists, or jewelers, or photographers, or apothecaries. This objection would hold good if business training were of\nno use to any but bookkeepers or stenographers ; but, as a matter of fact, there is no kind\nof knowledge or training that is of broader application. There is hardly a calling in life\nwhere familiarity with and facility in business methods and affairs are not of the utmost\nservice. Even stenography — which comes nearer to being a specially than anything\nelse included in a commercial course — has a wide range of useful applications outside\nthe business office. As a useful accomplishment it is certainly worth vastly more than\nany branch of science or foreign language, modern or ancient.\nWe therefore emphatically demur to the contention that the commercial branches\ncome under the head of class or special education. They are beyond comparison clearer\nof this charge than are many of the branches'which from time immemorial have made up\nthe bulk of our high-school and college curriculum. How many people have a use for\nbookkeeping as compared to those who need Greek or Latin ? Which is most serviceable\nto the mass of men, a knowledge of contracts or of logarithms, familiarity' with modern\nindustries, commerce, and methods of transportation, or information about Grecian\nmythology, the Athenian legends, or the Saracenic wars ? Mind you, I urge naught\nagainst the learning of the historian and the litlerateur. Neither would I bar this learning\nfrom the public schools. I want them broad enough for everybody, and to include not\nonly the best training for the scholar, but for the man of practical affairs as well.\nIn my opinion, the custodians of our public-school system have erred in promulgating\nand conserving the one form of education to the neglect of the other. Man has a body as\nwell as a soul ; his eyes may be on the stars, but his feet are in the dust. He is bound\nduring this life to physical necessity. He needs poetry and music and philosophy ; he\nalso needs bread and beefsteaks and warm flannels. Of the two classes of wants the\nphysical is the more urgent. Maintenance is the first necessity. Unless a man have\nwealth, no amount of culture will compensate for his inability to make a living. As\nwealth is for the few, the many must work ; and the better their work, the more successful\ntheir lives.\nA scheme of schooling for the masses of men must, therefore, include training for selfmaintenance as a prime educational necessity. The most foreboding thing about our\npresent social condition is the vast number of young men and women who, after going to\nschool for ten or twelve years, are still unable to earn a living Unrestricted foreign\nimmigration has killed off the old apprentice system of our fathers, and today the American boy seldom has a chance to learn a good trade. The business office presents the best\nopening, but seldom is he fitted for its daties ; he can neither write nor spell nor add, and\ndoes not know an invoice from a bill of lading. The little street gamin who has sold\nnewspapers and -blacked shoes instead of going to school has a better chance than the\nboy from the schools when it comes to getting work. Under these conditions the practical value of our advanced graded schools and high schools would be greatly enhanced\nby the addition of certain of the commercial branches, even if it were necessary to drop\nsome of the ornate fads.\n\n"}
{"page": 1026, "printed_page": null, "text": "loi8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\nThe United States is already the first commercial country of the globe. Our industrial products are making undreamed-of conquests in foreign markets. We are selling\nlocomotives and steel rails to England and watches to Switzerland. We are rapidly\nbecoming the granary and food storehouse of the world. There are a half dozen countries of Europe whose populations would in less than three months be at the starving\npoint if cut off from the food supply of America.\nOur domestic commerce defies all computation. Within a decade or so our population will pass the hundred-million mark, and we shall attain among the nations a commercial and industrial supremacy unexampled in all history.\nThis outlook shows infallibly the direction which our lines of popular education\nshould take. This is to be a commercial and industrial nation, and without subtracting\nfrom their offered opportunites for the broadest culture, our schools should fit the coming\ncitizen for his work and his heritage.\n\nBY\n\nTHE\n\nEVOLUTION\n\nI. O. CRISSY,\n\nINSPECTOR\n\nOF BUSINESS\n\nOF\n\nBUSINESS\nEDUCATION\nNEW\nYORK\n\nEDUCATION\n\nFOR\n\nTHE\n\nSTATE\n\nOF\n\nIt is difficult to fix a place or date for the beginning of business education. In a sense its beginning may be regarded as coeval with that of\ncommerce itself; but in the sense in which I shall speak of it, I would\nplace the beginning of business education in the fifteenth century, and\nin the city of Florence. I place it there because it was there that the\nearliest known text-books on commercial subjects were written, and\nbecause to Florence we. owe the science of double-entry bookkeeping.\nYet, while these facts indicate a demand for information on business sub\njects, there is no evidence of any attempt at systematic instruction in\nbusiness outside the counting-house, in Florence or elsewhere, until we\nreach the latter half of the eighteenth century.\nThe first movement in the direction of systematic business education\nin schools seems to have been made in Austria. As early as 1762 a few\ncourses of lectures on business subjects were opened in high schools ;\nand a year later the Vienna university offered a course in financial science.\nBut as all these courses were avowedly for the preparation of civil officers\nfor financial and administrative positions, the merchants were not satisfied; and in 1769 the Vienna board of trade declared that the education\nof men for mercantile pursuits was being neglected. This movement\nresulted in the founding of the Commercial Academy, a subsidized state\nschool for training merchants, which continued, with various changes,\ndown to 1865, when it was superseded by the Vienna City Commercial\nAcademy, now one 6f the leading commercial schools of the world. But\nmeantime, in 1840, Johann Geyer had opened a private business school,\nwhich was imitated in the principal cities of the empire; while other\n\n"}
{"page": 1027, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\n7 HE\n\nEVOLUTIOM\n\nOF BUSINESS\n\nEDUCATtOl^\n\n.1019\n\nprivately founded schools of a lower order came into existence, and, encouraged by state aid, have proved an important factor in the general educational system.\nIn Germany the first business school seems to have been opened by a\ncitizen named Busch, who, near the end of the eighteenth century, established in Hamburg, at his own expense, the Academy of Commerce, which\nbecame quite prosperous, and was followed by similar schools in other\nGerman cities.\nThe Public Commercial Institute at Leipzig is specially interesting as\nbeing the oldest existing business school of Germany, and probably the\nbest. It owed its organization and early maintenance to the Leipzig merchant guild, which placed it, with an endowment, in charge of the chamber\nof commerce in 1831. It is subsidized by the chamber and by the state.\nThe institute has three departments. The first is for apprentices of\nLeipzig commercial houses who show fitness to take up the work; and the\nsecond for other students, who must be fourteen years old and pass\nentrance examinations in German, French, geography, history, and arithmetic. The course in each of these departments covers three years. The\nthird department, also called the professional department, has a course of\none year. The subjects taught are : German, English, French, arithmetic,\nbookkeeping and olifice work, geography, correspondence, and penmanship, in the first department; to which are added, for the second department, physics, mechanical technology, chemistry, study of products,\nhistory, commercial law, economics, drawing, and arithmetic, with Italian,\nSpanish, and stenography as electives; while in the third department\nEnglish, French, Spanish, commercial arithmetic, commercial legislation,\nbookkeeping, correspondence (in different languages), political economy,\ncommercial history, and study of products are subjects for intensive work.\nIt is worthy of note that in February of last year the University of\nLeipzig announced the opening of a college of commerce.\nThe beginning and growth of business schools in France are very\nsimilar to those of Germany. There are now in France seven higher and\nfour secondary schools of commerce, besides numerous schools of an elementary character. The better schools receive subsidies, and their courses\nof study, which are practically the same as those of the Leipzig institute,\nare mostly for three years, the minimum age of entrance being fifteen.\nStudents, led by instructors, make excursions to places of commercial\ninterest and make written reports thereon, the best reports being awarded\ntraveling scholarships.\nWe must now give a moment to Belgium, where was established, in Antwerp, in 1852, the Higher Institute, or university of commerce, claimed to\nbe the first, in order of time, among the schools of university grade. It is\nmanaged and maintained by the city council, the government paying onethird of the expense.\nA letter and accompanying prospectus received\n\n"}
{"page": 1028, "printed_page": null, "text": "1626\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business,\n\nlast month from Director Grandgaignage show that the greatest stress is\ngiven to what we would call business practice, fifteen hours a week being\ndevoted to it thru the entire two years of the regular course, out of the\nthirty-five hours (average) devoted to all subjects. In other respects the\ncourse is quite similar to that of the Leipzig institute. Altho the regular\ncourse at Antwerp is nominally two years, there is a preparatory course ;\nand quite recently a third year has been added for higher commercial\nscience, and specially for preparing young men for consular positions.\nA considerable number of native graduates receive traveling stipends of\n$i,ooo to $1,500 a year, in consideration of a three-years' residence\nabroad.\nIn Italy the public-school law of 1859 provided for commercial\neducation in the public technical schools, of which there are about sixty.\nIn 1 87 1 was opened, in Venice, the Royal Higher School of Commerce, which holds the rank of a university. Many other Italian cities\nnow have higher schools of commerce. The school at Turin is eighteen\nyears old, has sixty classes, and sixty-four teachers. In 1895 it graduated\n1,300 students, men and women. Switzerland, Holland, Russia, and\nJapan have also some good business schools.\nIt is only within the last decade that any serious attention has been\ngiven to business education in England. The inroads recently made\nby continental countries in markets which the English had monopolized,\nand the fact that German clerks are occupying important places in London commercial houses, have at last caused an awakening.\nThe total number of business schools in the United States, as reported\nto the National Bureau of Education in 1872, was sixty-seven, which number is exceeded at the present time by New York alone. Mr. Packard\nestimated the number of students then in the business schools thruout\nthe country at 20,000. The number of schools reported in 1896 was\n398; number of students, 80,662. The report for 1897, the last available,\nshows a slight falling off, both in attendance and number of schools.\nBut not all of the schools report ; and the estimate made last year by\nPresident Springer, that there are 100,000 students attending the private\nbusiness schools, is probably near the fact.\nFrom records of the national bureau it appears that Dolbear's Commercial College, organized in the city of New York in 1835, was the\nfirst institution in this country devoted exclusively to business education.\nAt first prevailing public sentiment did not favor such a school. Business-men scouted the idea that boys could get any knowledge of business\nin a school. But, chiefly thru penmanship I think, these schools obtained\nsome patronage, and eventually it was rather grudgingly admitted that\nthey could teach bookkeeping. When it came to be generally believed\nthat there was \"money in it,\" there soon grew up an unprincipled\nexploitation of the field of business education which has left a lasting\n\n"}
{"page": 1029, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nEVOLUTION\n\nOF\n\nBUSINESS\n\nEDUCATIOA\n\n1 02 1\n\nstigma on the name \" business college,\" and done much to disgrace and\ndiscredit an honorable profession. In New York that title, which the\n\"faker\" has made obnoxious, is being quietly dropped, and the less\npretentious, but more dignified and appropriate names, institute, academy,\nand school, are taking its place.\nI said a moment ago I would speak further of England. I take my\ntext from an article by Rt. Hon. James Bryce, M.P., published in the\nJune issue of the North American Review. I have not the time to make\nany extended quotations ; but will simply glance at the course of study\nwhich the author suggests for a boy leaving the common schools at\nthirteen or fourteen, and desiring to enter an office or warehouse at the\nearliest possible moment. The subjects given are : (i) practical mastery\nof commercial arithmetic, with special training in mental calculation ;\n(2) the elements of commercial geography ; (3) a modern language,\nFrench, German, or Spanish ; (4) shorthand and bookkeeping : (5) English composition. No time is fixed for the completion of this course.\nThe author simply recommends that instruction be given in \"one or\nmore of the subjects mentioned.\"\nAs a course of study this is certainly a curiosity ; but it seems to me\nchiefly valuable as showing what must be the condition of business education in England, in view of the fact that the suggested \"course\" comes\nfrom the pen of a distinguished writer, member of Parliament, and eminent man of affairs, and, above all, a close observer and investigator.\nCommenting on No. 4 of the course, he says : \" Some high authorities\ndoubt whether bookkeeping can be profitably taught before the boy has\nentered an office and seen what books are for.\" This statement and the\ncourse of study suggested naturally incline the American reader to resent\nthe author's remark, earlier in his paper, that business education in England and America is, broadly speaking, on the same plane.\nI wish Mr. Bryce might spend a day in an up-to-date American business school. A visit to the banks, the commercial emporium, the commission house, the shipping office, the insurance and real-estate agencies,\nthe jobbing house, and the post-office of such a school would convince\nhim that its students have ample opportunity, not only to see \" what\nbooks are for,\" but to use them in recording transactions as tangible and\nreal as any in the business life of the outside world. I admit that we are\nyet only in the development stage as to higher business education, but\nwe are a long way in advance of those \"high authorities\" who \"doubt\nwhether bookkeeping can be profitably taught before the boy has entered\nan office.\"\nBut, while making these criticisms, I have only praise for the pervading spirit of Mr. Bryce's paper. He vindicates the honor and emphasizes\nthe importance of the commercial calling, and shows a thoro appreciation of the value of sound business education.\n\n"}
{"page": 1030, "printed_page": null, "text": "I02 2\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\nIn making comparisons between American business schools and those\nof continental Europe — particularly those of Germany — the fact should\nbe kept in mind that Germany has been working in recent years toward\none definite and clearly defined object, viz., to enlarge the market for her\nproducts. A great impulse was given to German industries by the large\nindemnity paid by France in consequence of the war of 1870; but the\nactual forward movement began directly after our Centennial Exposition\nat Philadelphia, where Germany learned that her products were shamefully inferior to exhibits of other countries. Bismarck knew thai if Germany would find good markets she must produce good wares. So, just\nas Prussia, after her crushing defeat by Napoleon I., had begun to prepare\nfor the inevitable recoupment by educating her people, the empire now\nbegan to prepare in the same way for the coming commercial war. The\nresult was, thruout the twenty-six German states, the most elaborate system of industrial schools ever seen in any country. It is the outcome\nof that educational campaign that has awakened England. Furthermore,\nGermany, when she had thus paved the way to insure the quality of her\nproducts, set about increasing the number and raising the quality of her\nbusiness schools, so that she might have an army of educated and technically trained men to make a market for those products. Thus it has\nhappened that, while we have been training bookkeepers and stenographers and clerks, speaking one language, Germany and her continental\nneighbors have been training also consuls and traveling agents able to\nspeak fluently the language and to understand completely the trade customs of the country to which they are sent.\nUntil recently these things have not greatly interested England and\nthe United States. England felt secure as the mistress of the world's\ncommerce, and we rested quite content with the vastness of our home\nmarket. Now a great change is taking place. England must put forth\nsupreme efforts to retain what she has enjoyed ; and we can scarcely\ndoubt, in the light of recent developments, that we shall soon be struggling fiercely for an outlet for our ever-increasing products.\nThese conditions demand that we should not be handicapped at the\noutset by lack of preparation. Given an equal chance in linguistic and\ntechnical training, the quick-witted and alert American will hold his own,\nand a little more, in any market under the sun.\nAlready we have made a good beginning for higher business education. The Wharton School has been at work for years; Chicago University and California University have each a college of commerce ; and\nnow, under the auspices of the New York chamber of commerce,\nColumbia opens her doors for the same purpose.\nIn tracing the evolution of business education, we have seen that in\nall countries it has usually found its first expression in private enterprise.\nSubsidies by commercial associations and by the state have followed, and,\n\n"}
{"page": 1031, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nE VOL\n\nUTION\n\nOF\n\nB USINESS\n\nED\n\nUCA\n\nTION\n\niO 2 3\n\nfinally, the state has made commercial schools a part of its general educational system. What has occurred in other and older countries is now\ntaking place in America. Bookkeeping has been taught in our academies\nand high schools, and, to some extent, in public elementary schools for\nyears ; and now commercial courses in public high schools are becoming\ncommon in most of the states. Nor is this all. Separate high schools\ndevoted entirely to commercial education are being established. Just\nnow, while I am preparing this paper, I have been advised that the\npublic-school authorities of New York city, not content with commercial\ncourses in the three high schools, have determined to establish, in a large\nnew building, a separate commercial high school, with a course of four\nyears; and a similar project is under discussion for the borough of\nBrooklyn.\nThe time at my disposal will not permit me to discuss the question of\nbusiness education in public tax-supported schools. I may say, however,\nthat I recognize that there is a demand in this country for free business\neducation. Whether right or wrong, the demand is here, and it has\nevidently come to stay. I will also say, in this connection, that a technical business education alone is not a sufficient education. Our foremost\n. object must be to make strong and well-balanced men and women, and\ngood citizens ; the making of good merchants and trained commercial\nleaders must always remain subordinate to this, unless it can be co-ordinate with it ; and this consideration must be reckoned with in any course\nof study. Perhaps the strongest argument for a commercial course in\nthe high school is the apparent fact that there is a considerable class of\nstudents that cannot be held there without it.\nThen, must the proprietary business school go ? Has it become\nfunctus officio ? By no means ; there will be work enough left for all the\nhonest and efficient schools. To these schools naturally belongs the\ninstruction of a large class of persons who for any reason think themselves shut out from all other sources of instruction ; and the night sessions, which most of the private business schools maintain, are a distinct\ngood to the community. The other and higher line of work is to give to\nthe high-school student, graduated in the usual course, a thoro technical\nbusiness education. The increasing demand for business education will\nrequire vastly increased facilities.\nIn New York we are working out the problem, as we believe, to the\nmutual advantage of the student and the school. The university of the\nstate, better known, perhaps, as the State Board of Regents, offers, as an\nincentive to more thoro business education, a credential known as the\nstate business diploma, which may be obtained by high-school graduates\n(or others having an equivalent education) after spending a year in a\nregistered business school and passing examinations conducted by the\nuniversity. These tests cover advanced bookkeeping, business arithmetic,\n\n"}
{"page": 1032, "printed_page": null, "text": "A\n\nT024\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\nbusiness practice, and office methods ; commercial law, commercial\ngeography, and history of commerce ; and business English ; and cover\nthem in a very thoro way.\nThe business diploma, earned in the way I have outlined, is of great\nvalue. Given under the seal of the university, which is honored in every =\ncivilized country, it bears evidence that the person whose name it certifies has received a sound general education, and has added thereto a\nthoro technical business training. A state stenographer's diploma is also\ngranted to high-school graduates passing the i25-^vord test in stenography, and the tests in typewriting and business English ; and furthermore, in order that proved ability may receive recognition irrespective of\nconditions, the university will grant certificates, either in business or\nstenography, to candidates who simply pass the diploma examinations.\nThe university registers such reputable business schools as are found\non inspection to have the necessary equipment and teaching force to\nmaintain courses for the state diploma, and issues to these schools formal\ncertificates of registration. By this means any person may be informed\nas to what schools have been officially approved. Registration certificates\nremain in force for one year, unless sooner canceled for cause, and are\nrenewed only on inspection. Of the seventy-three proprietary business\nschools in the state, twenty-six have been granted registration.\nThe first examinations under the new rules were offered a year ago ;\nbut as the time had not been sufficient-to prepare for the diploma, only a\nsmall number of candidates for the certificates appeared, and none of\nthese obtained credentials. In the examinations for the present year,\nJune 13-15, candidates were more numerous, the largest number from any\none school for the business credentials being twenty, from the Heffley\nSchool in Brooklyn, while the Henley, of Syracuse, entered forty-five for\nthe stenographers' credentials. Only a small part of the answer papers\nsent up have yet been examined, but enough has been ascertained to\nmake it certain that a considerable number of state credentials have been\nearned this year.\nI may say in this connection that expressions of satisfaction have been\nreceived from many of the registered schools. Their proprietors say that\nregistration has given them a dignity and standing that has been distinctly beneficial, while their students are inspired by the offer of state\ncredentials to work harder and to reach better results. The fact that\ntheir work is subjected to a uniform test from a source entirely apart from\nthose who give the instruction, and yet along lines clearly defined by the\npublished syllabus, has greatly enlarged the confidence of the public in\nthese schools. It is realized that at last there is an authoritative standard\nfor business education, and that a diploma from the state has a higher\nsignificance than any school credential. Some of the managers say that\nthe standards have been so high that they have been unable to offer\n\n"}
{"page": 1033, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nADVENT\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nCOMMERCIAL\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\n1025\n\ncandidates for the state credentials; yet there is scarcely a suggestion\nthat these standards should be lowered, and the practically unanimous\nexpression is that there will be stronger work done next year. I feel\nassured that our plan has now passed beyond the experimental stage, and\nthat a full measure of success awaits it.\n\nBY\n\nTHE\n\nADVENT\n\nOF\n\nW.\n\nSTEVENSON,\n\nDEPARTMENT\n\nC.\n\nSTATE\n\nTHE\n\nNORMAL\n\nCOMMERCIAL\n\nOF\nSCHOOL,\n\nBOOKKEEPING\nEMPORIA,\n\nHIGH\n\nAND\n\nSCHOOL\n\nPENMANSHIP,\n\nKAN.\n\nPublic sentiment, the mind universal, when once awakened to a public\nneed, is as irresistible as the current of Niagara, and a free people moving\nalong the line of thoughtful conviction makes no mistake. From the\nrudest of beginnings in colonial times has grown our splendid educational system of today. The universities, colleges, high schools, industrial schools, normal schools, agricultural colleges, professional schools,\nand the United States naval and military academies, are all the growth of\nthe impulses which prompted our forefathers to establish schools for the\ndevelopment and perpetuity of the principles of liberty. Who today can\nquestion the wisdom of any of these great educational departments ?\nWho can say that the graduate of West Point, or Annapolis, or of a firstclass agricultural college or industrial school, possesses less of true culture\nor world-knowledge, or is less prepared for his work in life, or is less\ntruly educated, in all that the term implies, or is less prepared to benefit\nmankind or himself, than the graduate of the time-honored classical\ncourses ? Hail to the courses in manual training, business training,\ndomestic science, agriculture, mining, and polytechnics, which give to\nour educational system elasticity, utility, and congruity!\nWith the recognition of equal value accorded to various kinds of\nschools has come the recognition of various types of mind, and the necessity for a selection of studies which will develop latent possibilities and\ncontribute to the highest success of the individual. In higher institutions of learning the principle of electives is w^ll established. It takes\nover forty years to complete all the courses offered by Harvard. The\narguments for the principle of electives in higher education apply as well\nto secondary education, and the time has come when public sentiment is\nin revolt against high-school courses that are prepared solely with a view\nof admission to the classical courses of the college or university, and\nwhich all students are required to follow, irrespective of their present\nenvironments or their probable future.\nThe spontaneous sentiment in favor of the commercial high school\n\n"}
{"page": 1034, "printed_page": null, "text": "I026'\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\nwhich has found expression in all parts of our country within the past two\nyears reveals the strength and universality of the feeling that the schools\nare not meeting the demands of the times, and must be made to impart\nsomething of direct value to the ninety-and-nine who go into business pursuits, as well as to the one who goes into the profession of law, medicine,\nteaching, or the ministry. The main strength of the movement for the\ncommercial high school is not in the teachers who advocate it, nor in the\nprofessional men who have received a splendid special training for their\nwork in the schools already established, but it comes from the young,\nvigorous American business-man, who is not so far removed from his\nschooling in the secondary school as to have forgotten what it failed to\ngive him. In evidence of this demand I quote the expressions of the New\nYork chamber of commerce and others, which show the extent and\nstrength of the movement, and should convince the most skeptical of the\ninevitable establishment and growth of commercial education in this\ncountry.\nThe New York chamber of commerce recently adopted the following\nresolutions :\nWhereas, The modern conditions of commerce and industry require wider know)\nedge and higher education on the part of business-men ;\nWhereas, The present educational facilities offered to business-men are inadequate\nand fail to equip them for competition in the world's commerce ;\nResolved, That the chamber of commerce of the state of New York earnestly\nfavors the establishment and development of sounder commercial education, both in\nsecondary schools and higher institutions of learning.\n\nSuperintendent W. H. Maxwell, of Greater New York, in advocating\nthe establishment of commercial high schools before the chamber of commerce said :\nI cannot refrain from expressing the hope that the University of Columbia, whose\ndistinguished president is a member of the chamber of commerce, will at no distant day\nestablish, side by side with its school of arts, side by side with its school of applied\nsciences, a great commercial school that will open its doors to those who have completed\na secondary education. Such a school would undoubtedly be largely patronized, and\nwould wield a tremendous influence, not only in promoting the interests of commerce\nitself, but in promoting commercial education in schools of lower rank.\n\nSuperintendent Smith, of St. Paul, in a recent communication\nschool board says :\n\nto his\n\nMany cities are seriously considering radical changes in their courses of study, and\na strong influence is working in favor of the introduction of business instruction. The\ntime has come when a demand of this kind can be no longer ignored. When we consider that nine-tenths of the boys attending school must enter upon some kind of industrial\nor commercial undertaking, we may reasonably conclude that the recognition of this fact,\nand a course of instruction in accordance with it, are in no wise special, but, on the contrary, must be regarded as general.\n\nThe\n\nEducational\n\nCommission\n\nof the city of Chicago, appointed by\n\n"}
{"page": 1035, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nADVENT\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nCOMMERCIAL\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\n1027\n\nMayor Harrison, and of which President Harper of the University of Chicago is chairman, in a recent report said :\nThe need of a commercial high school may be seen in the decreasing proportion of\nboys in the secondary schools, a fact due in part to a failure to furnish the kind of instruction adapted to them. Your commission is so fully persuaded of the importance of this\naction that we recommend that the first expansion of the school system take this form,\nand that, at the earliest possible date, a public high school be established, with a course\nof study extending through at least four years, planned to afford a liberal training, and at\nthe same time to prepare its pupils for the various kinds of business activity, and to qualify\nthem for the highest positions in the commercial world.\n\nSays Edward Brooks, supe'rintendant of schools of Philadelphia :\n\" We organized a fcommercial high school last year, and look with favor\nupon it, because it is the form of education demanded by the times.\"\nSimilar reports come from Cleveland, O., and other cities of progressive tendencies. A few announce the intention of meeting the demand\nby enlarging the makeshift commercial course which now exists in nearly\nevery high school, and which, under the shadow of other courses,\nwith little or no encouragement from the \"powers that be,\" with the\ncheapest teachers and the poorest rooms, has done little more than demonstrate its right to exist. The Washington, D. C, Business High School,\nwith its separate building, a progressive faculty, and an independent\ncourse, affords us a splendid example of the possibilities of business\ntraining under favorable conditions.\nPerhaps the most encouraging feature of the agitation for the commercial high school is the changing attitude of the teachers of the older\ncourses in higher institutions of learning. Professor E. J. James, of the\nUniversity of Chicago, who, by his writings and study of the great commercial systems of Europe, has done more for business education than any\nscore of men that could be named, voiced the sentiment of intelligent\ncollegians generally when he said :\nWe can conquer the educated and half-educated people of this country for secondary and higher education only by offering them courses of study which, while they are\nof a strictly educational character in the best sense of the word, shall also have some\nbearing on their future everyday life, shall have some direct relation to the work they\nare called upon to do in the world.\n\nA professor of Latin in a state institution of learning said to me\nrecently :\nI favor commercial high schools and commercial courses in higher institutions of\nlearning, not only because I think they are needed, but because their establishment will\ndirectly and indirectly help the classical courses.\n\nThe platitudes, \" Education is for life,\" \" Education must shun materialism,\" \"The shop is early at war with the school,\" are not so frequent\nin educational literature as formerly. Yet there is a large class of educationists who agree with the following gem from the writings of a note\nprofessor :\n\n"}
{"page": 1036, "printed_page": null, "text": "1028\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\nMental muscle, discipline, may be developed without a single item of information\nbeing obtained as such, and it may be cultivated in a more pleasant and scientific way, if\nthe utilitarian idea of obtaining information be not present.\n\nContrast that with the words of John Ruskin :\nI believe that which is most profitable to know, it is also most profitable to learn,\nand the science which it is the highest power to possess it is also the best exercise to\nacquire.\n\nI hold it to be self-evident that it is the duty of the nation to give\nevery citizen an education that will not only make him a better citizen,\nbut will assist him to achieve the highest possible success ; and, while it\nis true that success is due to natural ability and circumstances as well as\nto education, yet the turning-point between success and failure is so\nsmall that, in these days of intense competition, nations must equip for\nlife by giving a training in the schools that will have a direct as well as a\ndisciplinary bearing on life's problems.\nThe aphorism, \"Our nation needs trained leadership,\" is a current\nphrase heard from pulpit and rostrum, and re-echoed by teachers everywhere, but the interpretation of the same seems to be, leadership in public\npolicy or the professions only. We need leadership as fully trained for\ncommerce and finance as in letters and politics. There is certainly an\nincongruity in teaching civil law and international law, which cannot be\nof direct use to -^-^-^^ per cent, of the population, and ignoring commercial law and the science of domestic and international commerce, that\nwould be of direct and permanent value to almost every student in the\nschools.\nThe average high-school teacher, principal, or superintendent has no\nliking for the commercial branches. His thought Is principally on the\nbeauties of literature, the profundity of philosophy, the science of pedagogy, or the redemption of the world. When asked about the value or\nadvisability of introducing a commercial course, he usually approves with\nan air of condescension. He has persistently disregarded the expressed\nwishes of school boards with respect to commercial work, because, if the\npupils were to be prepared for admission to the university, there was no\ntime for other work \\ and, with the entire machinery of the school\ndirected toward preparing for courses in higher institutions, is it to be\nwondered at that young business departments in such surroundings\nshould fail to grow? Yet, with shorter courses and weaker equipment in\nmany respects, the business college, standing alone, has grown until it\nhas been recognized as a most important element in our great educational\nsystem. The work of the business colleges and their large fee-paying\nconstituency, together with the reports from the great commercial schools\nof France and Germany, and the phenomenal success of those countries\nin international trade, have awakened the great cities of our country to the\nfact that our high schools are not giving any real business training.\nThe\n\n"}
{"page": 1037, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nADVENT\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nCOMMERCIAL\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\n102 9\n\nboy who graduates from the average high school lacks in essential business qualifications. He is not methodical, nor accurate, nor observant of\ndetails, and he cannot solve the simplest problem in bookkeeping.\nIndeed, few of the teachers are able to discount a note drawing interest.\nThey are helpless before the most common business transactions, and\nexcuse themselves by calling them \"puzzles.\" Teachers of reputation\nargue in support of the fallacy that \" interest is money paid for the use of\nmoney,\" and a superintendent of high rank was unable to explain a partnership settlement involving a reappraisement of property, altho capable\nof winning the applause of assembled pedagogs with profound dissertations on \"the cuteness of children,\" \"tabulated results of examination of\nthe eyesight of two thousand children,\" or \"tabulated results of the\neffects on the race of the children's tendency to suck their big toes,\" etc.\nThe teachers in commercial high schools should be men of affairs,\nactive business-men, with all the qualifications of teachers in other\ndepartments in addition, if possible. The practicing lawyer and physician are the best teachers in their respective schools. As well place a bull\nin a china shop as a classical graduate, with a penchant for poetry and\nthe higher criticism, and with no practical experience or inclination\ntoward business affairs, in the commercial department. Some attempts\nin the line of establishing such departments have been especially ridiculous for this reason. The spirit of the teacher of the business high school\nshould incline toward business affairs rather than toward scholasticism.\nWhen he attends the National Educational Association with his friend,\nthe teacher of sciences or the classics, he prefers to visit the factories, the\nadministrative offices, and note the pulse of trade, while his friend properly visits the museums and art galleries. Find me a teacher in a business school who has never visited a factorv nor examined its methods, who\nhas never visited a real bank or a real business house, nor looked into\ntheir books, makes no investments nor looks for any, and I will show you\na theorist and a fraud. The teacher of science who teaches from books\nalone is a poor teacher, and the same is doubly true of the teacher of\nbusiness.\nPassing over the current arguments for the commercial high school,\nrelating to justice from the taxpayer's point of view, the state's need of\ntrained men for foreign commerce, the need of the individuals themselves, the need of something to induce the young men to go to school,\netc., I will say that to my mind the strongest argument in favor of\nbusiness training is its moral effect. What, commercial education a\nmoral training ? Yes, my friend of \" higher motive \" reasoning, it will\ndo for the nine boys what your teaching has done for one. It will, by\nappealing to the lower motives of securing business prosperity thru\neconomy, thrift, and health, do more to root out tobacco using, gambling, idleness, and spendthrift habits than all your preaching, however\n\n"}
{"page": 1038, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 030\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\neloquent. Time will not permit an enlargement of this thought. Reflect\non it, however, and look for the boys of your acquaintance who are\nshowing ideal results from their high-school training. Search among the\nclasses of society that stand highest in the public esteem as exemplars of\nthe moral virtues, for examples of unconscious business laxity — and\nreflect, reflect !\nThe commercial life will absorb the great majority of the pupils who\nenter the high school. Then the commercial high school is needed.\nThe course of study will not differ materially from that now in the high\nschools, but its purpose and thoroness will be much different. Reading,\nspelling, writing, arithmetic, English, composition, correspondence, and\nbookkeeping will be taught for use. Then, when the students can be\nencouraged to build upon this foundation, give them the studies that are\nboth utilitarian and culture-giving — industrial geography, study of the\nproducts of commerce, commercial law, history of transportation, banking, and trade, shorthand and typewriting, civil government, elements of\npolitical economy, American literature, general history, one or two modern\nlanguages/^/- use, natural philosophy, chemistry as used in the industrial\narts, and United States and English history. Students trained in such a\ncourse will go forth from the schoolrooms without dread of the \"cold,\ncold world.\" They will know and understand their limitations, and their\nhopes and ambitions will lead them to \" do great things, not dream them\nall day long.\"\nThe commercial high school is here. It is based on principles eternal,\nand is a product of the heart universal. Business is becoming recognized\nas more than secularity. Its mission is no less divine than teaching or\npreaching. It may be above and beyond the realm of mere materialism.\nThe study of it, giving power to earn a living, and advancing our national\ncommercial prosperity, may also develop character and become a means\nof grace; and so long as ambition lives in the hearts of men, or a government exists by the people and for the people, so long will the light of\neducation /<?r use, falling upon the fields of human toil and the pathway\nof human sorrow, help to transform earth into a suburb of the New\nJerusalem.\n\n"}
{"page": 1039, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF CHILD STUDY\n\nSECRETARY'S\nFIRST\n\nSESSION.-\n\nMINUTES\n\nWednesday,\n\nJuly\n\n12, 1899\n\nThe department met in the First Congregational Church, with the president, Will S.\nMonroe, of Massachusetts,* in the chair.\nAfter briefly welcoming the audience, the president read the following notice :\nA reception will be tendered to the members and friends of the Child Study Department at the State\nNormal School on Thursday evening, July 13, from 7: 30 to 10 o'clock.\n\nIn the absence of the secretary, Mrs. Alice W. Cooley, Miss Mary L. Oilman,\nMinneapolis, Minn., acted as secretary.\nDuring the session a telegram was received from the vice-president. Professor\nReuben Post Halleck, of Kentucky, regretting the necessity of his absence, and sending\ncordial greetings to the department.\nThe president appointed E. G. Lancaster, Colorado Springs, Colo., vice-president.\nA letter received from Miss Kate Stevens, secretary of the London branch of the\nBritish Child Study Association, conveyed words of greeting to the department.\nA telegram from the New York Child Study Society, in session, expressed cordial\ngreetings.\nThe president appointed the following nominating committee :\nG. W. A. Luckey, of Nebraska.\nHerman T. Lukens, of Pennsylvania.\nE. G. Lancaster, of Colorado.\n\nThe following program was presented :\n\" Status of Child Study in Europe,\" by Will S. Monroe, State Normal School, Westfield, Mass.\n\" Child Study in Normal and Training Schools,\" by Miss Gertrude Edmund, principal of Training School, Lowell, Mass.\n\" The Adolescent at Home and in School,\" by E. O. Lancaster, Colorado College,\nColorado Springs, Colo.\n\" Child Study: The Missing Link between the Home and the School,\" by Miss Anna\nB. Thomas, State Normal School, California, Pa.\nSECOND\n\nSESSION.— Thursday, July 13\n\nThe department was called to order by the president at 3 P. M., and the following\nprogram presented :\n\" Children's Interest in Literature,\" by Miss Isabel Lawrence, State Normal School,\nSt. Cloud, Minn.\n\" Children's Drawings,\" by Mrs. Louise Maitland, State Normal School, San\nJos^, Cal.\n\" A Curriculum of Applied Child Study for the Kindergarten and the Primary\nSchool,\" by Mr. Frederic Burk, superintendent of schools, Santa Barbara, Cal.\n\" Racial Traits in the Group Activity of Children,\" by Mr. C. C. Van Liew, State\nNormal School, Los Angeles, Cal.\n1031\n\n"}
{"page": 1040, "printed_page": null, "text": "I032\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Child Study\n\nThe report of the Committee on Nominations was as follows :\nFor Prest'dent—Yx^Aerlc Burk, president State Normal School, San Francisco. Cal.\nFor Vice-President— Lovi'ii H. Galbreath, Charleston, 111.\nFor Secretary — Miss Celestia S. Parrish, Lynchburg, Va.\nG. W. A. LUCKEY,\nH. T. LUKENS,\nSigned •< E. G. Lancaster,\nCom mittee.\n\nThe officers named were duly elected by the department.\nMeeting adjourned.\n\nPAPERS\n\nAND\n\nMary L.\n\nOilman,\nSecretary.\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nPRESIDENT'S\n\nADDRESS'\n\nWill S. Monroe, of the State Normal School, Westfield, Mass., look as the thesis of\nhis presidential address the \" Status of Child Study in Europe.\" Communications were read\nfrom Miss Kate Stevens, of London, England ; M. Gabriel Compayr^, of Lyons, France ;\nand Dr. Joseph Stimpfl, of Bamberg, Germany. These communications outlined clearly\nthe activity in child study in these countries of Europe. An extended account was also\ngiven of the child-study movement in Italy, together with brief summaries of the recent\nItalian literature on the subject. This address on the status of child study in Europe is\npublished entire in the Pedagogical Seminary, ?,&^\\.tmher, 1899, Vol. VI, pp. 372-81.\n\nCHILD\n\nBY\n\nGERTRUDE\n\nSTUDY\n\nIN NORMAL\n\nEDMUND,\n\nPRINCIPAL\n\nAND\n\nOF\n\nTRAINING\n\nTRAINING\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nLOWELL,\n\nMASS.\n\nIt is encouraging to note that many of the newer, as well as several of\nthe older, professional schools have called to their chairs of psychology\nand pedagogy men and women of college training who are not\nunfamiliar with biology or the history of philosophy and religion ; who\nknow something of savage myth, custom, and belief ; the instinct of the\nanimals; the psychology of the deaf, blind, idiotic, insane, and criminal\nclasses, as well as of the normal adult — men and women especially prepared because of their earnest, sympathetic love for childhood and youth.\nThe child is not apt to suffer materially when doctors of philosophy tell us\nthat they have \" fallen in love \" with the children whom\n\nthey are study-\n\ning, with the \" naive, artless, fresh faith and willingness of childhood ;\"\nI [It is a matter of regret that the large number and the unusual length of papers submitted in this\ndepartment has made necessary the omission of the president's address, and the abridgment and omission of several others. — Editor.]\n\n"}
{"page": 1041, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCHILD\n\nSTUDY\n\nIN NORMAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n1033\n\nwhen teachers are taught to revere the spontaneity, rhythm, poetry, and\noriginality of the little child, and to appeal to his feelings, his interests,\nhis loves.\n,\nAs New Englanders we take pride in pointing to Massachusetts as the\noriginal home of child study, and in telling our good friends of the West\nthat a large number of their child-study leaders passed thru the\nportals of Clark University ; but we have to acknowledge that the new\nmovement has taken root more vigorously in the virgin soil of the West,\nand it is a significant fact that many of our eastern workers have been\ntouched by the spirit of western push and enterprise. Outside of Clark\nUniversity and its summer school, I know of nothing in the East to compare with the child-study congresses of Chicago — with the work of\nColonel Parker as president of the Illinois Child Study Society, or with\nthat of Professor Barnes, of the Pacific coast.\nJudging from letters, pamphlets, articles in magazines, and visits to\nvarious schools, there is a wholesome interest in child study from the\npine trees of Maine to the peaceful waters of the Pacific. From Farmington. Principal Purington writes : \" All of our psychology is taught\nwith reference to the child, and opinions advanced in those classes are\nverified or contradicted as far as may be by observation of the children.\"\n\"So far as I can claim any philosophy of education, it is based on child\ndevelopment,\" says Dr. Van Liew, of Los Angeles. Fifteen leading\ngraduates of the. Worcester Normal, the first professional school to introduce child study, have told me that the work they did in child study,\nmore than anything else, helped toward making them unconscious of\nthemselves, leading them into all-round observation of childhood, and\ndesirous of helping humanity.\nThe Trenton State Normal has molded, to a large extent, the schools\nof New Jersey, and out of nearly two score graduates, now teachers in\ngood standing, with whom I have personal acquaintance, I have never\nmet one who did not speak with enthusiasm of the work of Miss Williams\nin collecting returns for Dr. Hall's questionnaire. Said a prominent\nprincipal : \"Even if these returns proved of no value for scientific purposes, they served their primary purpose in turning our minds to the\nhearts of childhood.\"\nDr. Jenny B. Merrill, superintendent of kindergartens, New York city,\nformerly instructor of pedagogy in the Normal College, and Dr. Emily\nConant, of the psychological department, were among the first to make\nuse of child study in the training of teachers, and today are among the\nfirmest advocates of such training. Several normal principals used these\nwords in speaking of the benefits from child study in their schools : \"It\nhas helped to put students in sympathy with children ; has enabled them\nto see mind unity as unfolded in childhood ; to make psychology a living\nsubject.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 1042, "printed_page": null, "text": "I o 34\n\nNA TIONAL\n\nEDVCA\n\nTIONAL\n\nASSOCIA TION\n\nfchild Study\n\nThe methods are many and varied, ranging from the miscellaneous\nwritten collections without any hypothesis to investigation along definite\nlines. Methods, however, are always of less importance than the interest,\nsympathy, intelligence, persistence, which the teacher brings to the work.\nMiss Sutherland, of the Columbus Normal, sums up her work in these\nwords : \" My plan is rather to create a living interest in the individual\nchild than to lead any young people to imagine they are doing 'original\nwork,' or making any very valuable scientific generalizations.\" President\nSeerley, of Cedar Falls, is evidently of the same mind : \"Our purpose is\nmore to interest teachers in children than to make any contributions to\nchild-study literature.\"\nThe child-study work carried on in thirteen different institutions is in\naccord with these lines marked out by Dr. Boyden, of Bridgewater :\n\" Our course includes the usual lines of physical, intellectual, and moral\nphases of child life; tests for physical characteristics and weaknesses;\nmeans of correcting evils so far as they lie within the teacher's control ;\nstudies of peculiar children and means employed in teaching them ; the\nstudy of a class of children as a preparation for teaching them ; studies of\nstages of child development from the kindergarten upward ; study of the\nliterature of the subject, and investigation along certain practical lines.\"\nIn the Providence, Fitchburg, and Westfield normal schools each\nstudent in the normal department and each pupil in the practice school\nundergoes an examination in the psychological laboratory in reference to\nhis sense organs and motor powers ; and all serious defects observed in\nregard to children are reported to the parents. During the past year\nMiss Hunt, of Providence, Mr. Kirkpatrick, of Fitchburg, and Mr.\nMonroe, of Westfield, have issued various studies along the lines of the\nchild's physical and mental development which have formed the basis for\nmuch of their work in child study.\nOur own practice school being located in a manufacturing city, we\nfind that in many homes both father and mother begin work in the mills\nat 6 o'clock in the morning, and do not return until 6 at night.\nSeventy per cent, of the children in the grammar school must be excused\nat 11:15 to prepare and carry dinners to their parents and other relatives.\nFifty per cent, of our entire number are orphans or half-orphans. Many\ngirls of twelve and thirteen have the entire responsibility of preparing\nfood for, and taking care of, a family of small children. Several of our\ntraining teachers, especially fitted for this work, have been of real service\nto these little mothers, and even to mothers of older years, by teaching\nthem the principles of cleanliness and of ventilation, how to wash garments\nwith the least expenditure of time and energy, how to bake bread, how to\ncut out and make clothing. \" Man is what he eats and what he does with\nit,\" says Dr. Hall. I am convinced that six cases of poor eyesight in our\npractice school were brought on by lack of proper food.\nDr. Fitz, ot\n\n"}
{"page": 1043, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCHILD\n\nSTUDY\n\nIN\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n1035\n\nHarvard, tells us that defective hearing may often be traced to defective\nsight, and defective sight back to malnutrition.\nMay I say here that the tests we have made for sight and hearing, and\nexaminations made of teeth and, in several cases, throat, nostrils, skin, and\nscalp, and measurements of chest expansion, have been of much practical\nvalue ? It is of little use for teachers to diagnose children, unless\nremedies can be applied for defects ; and I hesitate to say to a boy, \" It\nis wrong for you to go into the saloons, to sell papers, to black boots, to\nclean up the floor at 12 o'clock at night,\" unless I can tell him where\nto go and what to do to earn money to buy his breakfast. We have tried\nto ascertain the line of the children's interest in reading, to direct such\ninterests along safe lines, to find out their sources of amusement, and to\nprovide innocent recreation and good companions ; and, above everything else, to learn at what shrine of human character our boys and girls\nare worshiping.\nThe chief business of the professional school is to train the student\nto translate herself into her pupil's environment; to put herself at his\nexact stage of jdevelopment, so that she may be able to think with his\nmind and experience the embarrassments under which his struggling\nbrain labors, and view her own tuitional approaches to him thru his eyes.\nBut to put yourself in his place, scientifically, sympathetically, and habitually, is the simplest, hardest, and most important lesson that a professional\nschool has to teach or an intending teacher to learn.\nI have found that actual experience in organizing, teaching, and\ngoverning a room of children, and child study, as we understand it today,\nhave contributed more than anything else toward this end. It is during\nthe period when they are in charge of a room that our teachers become\nvitally interested in the ambitions and interests of children. The final\ntest of a teacher's power is her ability to govern a school, to get into sympathy with the children, to get a strong hold of their inner life, and to\nstrengthen their moral character.\nThe power in the actor or public speaker which holds his audience is\nthe power used by the teacher in controlling a class of children thru the\nforce of her personality, and I have never yet had a pupil who could read\nor recite with dramatic effect who failed to govern children easily and\nwell. The public speaker must train himself to judge of the feelings of\nhis audience by the attitude and varying emotions depicted on the faces\nof the people who are before him. The teacher should also be able to\njudge emotion thru expression.\nA short time ago I gave the pupils of our training school a character\nsketch — the story of a little newsboy's love and care for a younger\nbrother. For one month they studied the newsboys in our practice\nschool, their life on the street, the advantages and disadvantages of their\nhome life, their facial expression, intonation of voice, mental and moral\n\n"}
{"page": 1044, "printed_page": null, "text": "1036\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Child Study\n\ncharacteristics, honesty of purpose. They also studied a boy of fourteen\nwho helped support an invalid mother and a little sister. ^This increased\ninterest in the poor little fellows bound them more closely to the\nschool ; it awakened the teachers' sympathy, and their impersonation of\nthe character served ever afterward to guide them in their understanding\nof child nature.\nWhenever it is practicable in our school work, expression should\nalways follow impression, and the above method of child study tends to\ndevelop the motor, as well as the sensory, side of the human being. The\ntraining which comes from the impersonation of various characters is of\nimmense advantage to the teacher, who must live, to some extent, the life\nof some thirty or forty children every day she is in the schoolroom. Mr.\nStreet, of Clark University, in his valuable paper on \" Suggestion \" tells\nus that there is much ground for urging a fuller and higher use of the\ndramatic instinct in teaching. In the studies made of the spontaneous\nschool-yard plays of young children we find that the dramatic and representative plays — those having the greatest physical action — are predominant.\nTwenty-two professional schools are making investigations along lines\nof various methods of rest and recuperation ; proper use of play instinct\nand motor activity ; children's interests ; proper arrangement of program\nand courses of study. Child study, physiology, biology, and physiological psychology have contributed more new truths bearing directly on\neducation during the last twenty-five years than were discovered during\nthe preceding two hundred. I quote from Dr. Minot, of Harvard: \"Certain it is that the idea of the difference between the brain of the child and\nthat of the adult is steadily spreading, and this appreciation of the difference is growing, not alone year by year, but month by month.\" We have\nlearned that each organ has its nascent period, and when these periods are\ndefinitely settled we shall have some basis for our work in physical and\nmanual training. We have learned something of the nascent periods of\nmental processes, enough to give us reason to believe that their final discovery will be a great step in school economy; for we shall then know\nwhen to teach certain subjects and methods. We have learned that the\nbrain acts not as a whole, but that different portions have different functions:that we have not \"a memory,\" but ''memories ; \" not \"an imagination,\" but \" imaginations ; \" that each memory and each imagination, as\neach sense, must be trained by specific means, and that there is no one\nstudy whose main function it is to train the memory or imagination. We\nhave learned that some children are eye-minded, some ear-minded, some\nmotor-minded, and that all children should be approached thru the lines\nof the least resistance.\nThe truth has been brought home to us as never before that obstinacy\nand dullness are often due to physical, rather than to mental or moral,\n\n"}
{"page": 1045, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCHILD\n\nSTUDY\n\nIN\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n1037\n\ndefects ; that the child needs strong nerves, tough muscles, good motor\ncenters, good eyes ; that there should be a weeding of certain defectives\nwho aspire to be teachers ; that the teacher who lacks health lacks vigor,\nand consequently lowers the vitality of every pupil in the school ; that\nwhat a teacher is rather than what she says leaves a permanent influence\nupon the children.\nMany of our erroneous notions in regard to children have been due\nto the old idea of a world finished in six days, not to the newer idea of a\nworld still in the process of creation — going to be created as was Adam\nin the old mediaeval play. One of our chief reasons for not understanding children is doubtless due to the fact that our experiences of impulses,\nfears, likes, dislikes, inherited from an animal and savage ancestry, pass\nout of clear consciousness so early that we forget that we ever had them.\nWe are beginning to understand that in every mind there are unknown\npossibilities, and that it is our duty to find out and develop what lies in\nembryo.\nAll the more scientific study of children serves to impress strongly the\ntruth that the human mind is not a symmetrical thing ; that even\nsuperior minds are poorly endowed in some respects while richly endowed\nin others. The traditional theory of education which aims at \"harmonious development\" is one which must be materially modified, if harmonious development means symmetrical development. In the future we\nshall aim rather to educate children along the lines of their greatest\nstrength in a broad way. As teachers in professional schools we should\nknow of the latest researches, and the work in the practice school should\nkeep in touch with these investigations. Dr. Bolton, of the Milwaukee\nNormal School, seems to be particularly successful in joining the new to\nthe old. Dr. Snyder, of the Colorado Normal, writes : \" We have been\ndoing considerable along the line of physical stress at certain periods in\nthe child's development. The practical outcome of this study is the letting up on mental requirements when the powers of life were going to\ndevelop some particular physical center. The adolescent is one of these.\nAs the periods correspond to the seasons, these are shorter, but are recurrent. Another practical outcome is the belief that the school day at certain\ntimes of the year should be longer, and the school year also longer.\"\nI often wish we might go back to the days of the old Greeks, when\nthe scholar was, an idler, one who had leisure to walk among the olive\ngroves, to let his eye rest upon the purple hills and the blue sea sprinkled\nwith green isles, to read the lesson the fair earth teaches more than that\nimpressed on parchment. The eyes of the teacher as well as those of the\npupil need to be opened to the near marvel and the besetting glory, even\nas were Henry Thoreau's when God met him on Waldon Pond, and his\neye discovered more of the divine and beautiful in the woods of Concord,\nalong the banks of Cape Cod, in the Maine forests, than most travelers\n\n"}
{"page": 1046, "printed_page": null, "text": "1038\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n.\n\n[Child Study\n\nsee on the Rhine or amid the Alps. All children have a right to pure air,\nto sunshine ; and if they must be sent to school while they are yet babes,\nthey should spend the spring and autumn months in the open air in direct\ncontact with nature.\nWhen I hear lisping toddlers questioning, \" Mamma, will I pass ? \"\nand see the early rush of children into so-called \" society ways,\" the\nformal parties, the late hours, the premature accomplishments, so desirable at thirty, so alarming at thirteen, I tremble sometimes lest childhood\nbecome a lost art, and babes be robbed of the most important period of\ndevelopment — the productive, unconscious growth of earlier years.\nJohn Fiske has shown that the higher development of man and society\ndepends on the prolongation of infancy. Multiply the years of receptivity,\nincrease the period of plasticity, and you enlarge the outcome of that\nlife; you increase the variations from the original type; you emphasize\nits individuality. Professor Minot, of Harvard, states that the main\ntrouble with the students who come to him year after year from the schools\nis that most of them lack all training in the power of personal observation\nand deduction. Professor Tyler, of Amherst, when asked what he found\nto be the greatest lack in students at college, replied : \"They are as blind\nas bats, and have no imagination.\"\nThere can be no doubt that child study is slowly opening the eyes of\nmany teachers. It is to be hoped that it will stimulate originality of\nthought and enable pupil teachers to become real student teachers ; that\nit will put their minds into a condition to act independently, so that they\nwill become authorities, not echoes. True scientific study inspires\nhumility, a sympathetic spirit of open-mindedness and investigation ; and\nsurely no other body of people has greater need of liberality in thought\nthan we who are teachers. I welcome anything which will assist in training my students to do independent work. Nine-tenths of the pupils in\nour New England professional schools for teachers are women, and\nheredity has so closely tied us down to allowing others to think for us\nand direct our lives that we need to be set adrift, with now and then a\nword to strengthen and encourage. Dr. Hughes has well said: \"The\nbest work one soul can do for another is to make it conscious of new and\ngreater power. Lack of true consciousness of power is the greatest cause\nof human weakness. More failures to accomplish the grandest results in\nlife come from a depressing lack of self-faith than from any other cause.\"\nThere is something wrong in youth when it does not want to strike\nout in new lines, and woe unto those people of older years who are forever crying, \" Halt ! \"\n\n"}
{"page": 1047, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nTHE\n\nADOLESCENT\n\nADOLESCENT\n\nBY E. G. LANCASTER,\n\nA7\n\nHOME\n\nAT\n\nHOME\n\nCOLORADO\n\nAND\n\nIN\n\nAND\n\nSPRINGS\n\nSCHOOL\n\n1039\n\nIN SCHOOL\n\nCOLLEGE,\n\nCOLORADO\n\nThe mental life of the adolescent is as distinct from the mental life of\nthe child or adult as botany is distinct from chemistry or geology.\nThis paper must assume that the recent studies of the adolescent\nperiod have been read by this audience.\nAdolescence begins when the primary, unthinking life of the senses\nof the child opens up into the broad, secondary mental life of meditation,\nreflection, and construction. Neurologically adolescence means the maturing of the intermediary nerve centers, in distinction from the primary\nmotor-sensory areas. Objects and events are seen in their intimate relations for the first time. The one feature, however, which I wish to\nemphasize is the emotional enthusiasm of the period. For the home\nand school this feature must be understood, or the life will be injured.\nEmotion seems to spring forth full-armed. Individuality is felt in its\nfullness for the first time. Personality enlarges. The child rapidly comes\ninto the full human inheritance.\nIn ideals the child lives the life of a great poet, artist, scholar, or\nstatesman. I'he grandest levels of life are reached. Time and all\nobstacles are overcome while the ideal life is made a real experience.\nSaid an ox-eyed, cherubic little academy girl of fifteen to me recently as we\nwheeled along the busy street: \"Oh, my music is the one thing I enjoy.\nI am a dull scholar, but I have one thing I want to do in life. Before\nmy life ends I mean to compose one piece which shall make life richer\nfor all time. It must begin, oh, so — \" (and she raised one hand as if to\ntouch the keys very softly), \"and end in one grand, triumphant chord.\"\nAdolescence is the critical, the tragic age. The family life may be\ndestroyed or the child ruined by failure to understand the stirrings of the\nnew life now forced upon the child by the rapidly increasing blood\npressure and the maturing brain centers and the development of sex.\nAdolescent psychology does not depend upon sex development, however. It may precede or follow puberty by ten years or more. Critical\ncircumstances may mature the brain centers at a very early age, or their\ndevelopment may be delayed for some cause till twenty-five, while the sex\nfunctions, which are controlled more by the spinal cord, may develop even\nwhen the brain is dwarfed. This fact is well substantiated by the study of\nidiots.\nEvery boy or girl passes thru these adolescent stages. Unless the\nvitality is sapped by overwork or bad habits, or unless the brain potentiality is very low, the distinct adolescent mental traits are prominent.\nFrom one case we may learn all.\n\n"}
{"page": 1048, "printed_page": null, "text": "I040\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nLChild Study\n\nHere is a condensed letter from a prominent educator :\nM)\" adolescent period shows distinct phases. First came love of emotion. I read\nthe New York Ledger on the sly. Sylvanus Cobb was my ideal. My mind was full of\nadventure and excitement. Dreamed of innumerable underground passages and\nimprisoned beauties, whom I released. Was a great rescuer. The wildest kind of\nromance filled my mind. I wrote a story in red ink, which I never read. A girl read it\nand called it magnificent. After that I wrote for her many bits of romance. The fever\nfor that thing was very intense. I idealized several girls at my school, and in my\nimagination was very gallant, but all the time was so bashful that I never dared to speak\nto one of them.\nSecond phase was my hunting and fishing craze. After much pleading, father\nbought a gun. Spent every minute I could get with it. Would get a stent on the farm\nand hurry through it and hunt. Blazed away at everj'thing. Was going to kill everything alive. Would snap at a hawk a mile off, and kill him in imagination. Collected a\nfiddlebox full of wings and skins. Red squirrels, chipmunks, etc., contributed their\nskins. Had an exhibition in a barn. Put up all the partridges' tails and other things.\nAll this time read everything on sport and adventure and romance.\nNext was music. Father wanted me to learn. I hated it. Suddenly at thirteen to\nfourteen came a great liking for music. I would be a musician anyway. Parents protested. Did not like the profession. I was determined. Got a piano. Went at it\nfuriously. Wrote music and copied stacks of it. Made a list (200-300) of tunes I could\nplay. Would imagine a scene. A crowded hall. I played and swayed and swung my\nhead, and the people applauded. The assembly was charmed. All the time it was a\nlittle ditty and a common player. This is still a relic in my life. I now daze audiences\nin church and other places with my imaginary music.\nHypnotize the world.\nThen came oratory. I was aglow with enthusiasm. Webster to Hayne, \" Thanatopsis,\"\nByron's \" Darkness,\" Patrick Henry, and, best of all, \" The Maniac.\" I used to declaim it\nwith a flaming red necktie.\nIt was all terribly realistic.\nThen the girl fever. There were two or three who were my ideals at different times.\nThe first was five years older. I would have eaten dirt for that girl for a year or two\nShe never mistrusted it. Never dared speak to her. Then another nearer my own\nage. Spoke to her, and became an object of school jokes. She is still thought of with\na peculiar feeling.\nNothing is more intense and vivid than my plans for the future. One scene : A high\nhill with a bald summit. Had been blamed for something and went to that peak.\nAlone there I had a very deep and never-to-be-forgotten experience. Paced back and\nforth and said : \"Now, I will, I will make people like me, and I will do something in\nthe world.\" I called everything to witness my vow : \" I'll never visit this spot till this\nis fulfilled.\" Once a party went there years later, but I made excuse for not going to the\nsame spot.\n\nThe home problem of the adolescent cannot be solved until a thoro\nknowledge of the period has been gained. The matter of discipline is of\nfirst importance. The tight lines of childhood must be relaxed. How\nabsurd to command President Lincoln to wash and comb his hair, or to\nretire at 9 o'clock. The Lincoln in ideal suffers a like indignit}'. If\nthe discipline in early years has been good, the command may safely give\nway at adolescence to the ideal. If the early training has been bad, the\ncommand is useless now.\nAt no time in life will a human being respond so heartily, if treated\nby older and wiser people as if they were equal or even superiors.\nTo\n\n"}
{"page": 1049, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nADOLESCENT\n\nAT\n\nHOME\n\nAND\n\nIN\n\nSCHOOL\n\n1 041\n\nattempt to treat a child at adolescence as you would treat an inferior is\ninstantly fatal to good discipline.\nReal life is the best teacher.\nHere is a case : A father brought his son into the military school\nwhere I was teaching a few years ago. He said the boy had outgrown\nparental discipline, and he wanted to \" rein him in a little.\" The boy\nwas over six feet in height, and weighed 196 pounds. His bearing was\nmagnificent, his eye clear and large. It was my pleasure to walk and\nhunt often with the boy. His love for and knowledge of nature were\nremarkable. His Christian life was rich and full. He became the\nschool idol.\ni\nThere sometimes came into his eye a far-away look, but no murmur.\nThe discipline was petty — red-tape of the narrowest kind. Thirteen\ntimes a day this great fellow must toe the mark and answer roll-call. He\nmust hold his hands to an inferior boy, who inspected them to see if they\nwere washed properly before meals. Sent to the city on an errand, the\nboy forged checks to the amount of ^250, passed them, bought a lot of\npistols, bowie knives, and sporting goods, and started for the West. His\nfather was broken-hearted. His mother became insane at the loss of her\nboy and the death of her only other child. The home destroyed, the\nboy lost. Why? The father, a small, shriveled man, was busy with his\nwealth, growing narrow and prosy. The boy, with the enormous blood\npressure pumping life energy thru his veins, was just about, in his\nown imagination, to step before the world as a magnificent statesman and\norator. The father still thought of the boy as a mere child, and did not\nrealize the life that thrilled him. He tightened rein when he should\nhave turned the boy loose. To try to suppress the output of vital energy\nin the boy at that age is to sit on the safety valve. Someone will suffer.\nUnfortunately it is usually the boy. Discouraged, he turns to gratification of the body; or, in the deep moments of despondency, so frequent\nat fifteen to nineteen, he commits suicide. Keep a record but for one\nyear of the reports of young people who take their own life. It is shocking. There come moments of gloom that are clearly pathological in\nextent, but due to the rapid growth and changing functions of brain and\nbody.\nGenuine sympathy is a godsend to the boy or girl at this time.\nThe teacher of pupils whose ages range from twelve to eighteen, who\ntries the machine kind of discipline, may grind out order, but he murders\nthe budding life of his students, whom he_ is hired to assist into full\nmanhood.\nA difficult feature for the parents is the natural longing to get out\ninto the world, to see beyond the horizon which has limited the life.\nSaid one girl: \"I have the best of homes, yet I sometimes feel as if I\nshould go crazy if I must remain there. A long drive out into the\ncountry, or a week's visit, satisfies the feeling, and I return thankful for\nmy dear parents and the love and quiet of home.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 1050, "printed_page": null, "text": "Io4 2\n\nNA TIONAL\n\nED UCA TIONAL\n\nASSOCIA\n\nTION\n\n[Child Study\n\nThe rapid growth calls for excellent nutrition. Appetite changes\nrapidly, showing that the system demands new materials as food. Starvation may ripen, but it dwarfs.\nFeed the adolescent.\nParents are often shocked at the lack of respect suddenly shown by\nthe child. The parents have ceased to be the ideals. A higher ideal\nhas been conceived by the child. Or the child, with Tolstoi and many\nothers who might be cited, has discovered that his parents are not his\nparents at all. A college professor said to me: \"I awoke suddenly one\nday to the fact that my father was no relation to me. After deliberation\nI went and told him my discovery, and asked for $6 and a gun that I\nmight go to California to seek my foitune. Father took me to the barn\nand gave me a sound thrashing, and I never again for a moment doubted\nthat he was my father.\" Such cases are surprisingly common. At home\nthe child needs to be treated as an equal, to be taken into the family\ncounsels, to find his parents interested in all that interests him. A true\nsympathy between boy or girl and parents is the ideal good for the child.\nHome should nourish, rest, and sympathize with the adolescent.\nSchool must develop the mind and body. Before we can train the\nmind of the child it ought to be obvious that we must understand the\npsychology of the age which we are training. Epochs count for much at\nany time, never as at adolescence. Such interests as have been cited\nabove must be handled with care.\nFelix Adler says that we should have special high schools for those\nspecial interests. He could not say that and know much of adolescent\npsychology. Seldom does the mind unfold equally in all directions.\nOne year it is interest in art, another in music, another in literature or\nlanguage, and so on. Because a child is white-hot after music this year,\nit is no sign he is to be a musician. It means that his musical center is\nfunctioning, and, the rest of his nature not being complete, he goes in an\neccentric path. Make the most of each interest, but keep up general\nculture. To specialize there might hit the vital center of the life to be\nand develop it at the best, but the chances are very, very great that it would\nprove fatal to the individual by trying to make an artist or musician of\none born for something else.\nWhile the pupils are at this plastic age the opportunity of the teacher\nis almost infinite. The teacher who can see into the mind of the pupil,\nfind the growing center, and ^pply the stimulus at the right time and place\nis a person who has almost the power of creation.\nFor the adolescent, school may be anything but dull and be pardoned.\nDullness, stupidity, lack of life and school enthusiasm are absolutely\nunpardonable. A new theory, from our common source of inspiration,\nwas given to us recently when Dr. Hall advocated fighting. Fighting is\ninfinitely better than the loss of energy from immoral practices. They\nare not found together.\nThe boy must have excitement.\nKeep him\n\n"}
{"page": 1051, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\n7 HE\n\nADOLESCENT\n\nAT\n\nHOME\n\nAND\n\nIN\n\nSCHOOL\n\nIO43\n\nstrong and pure by expending his surplus energy in worthy activities.\nPlaying \"thumbs up\" or marbles is not sufficient for the adolescent. I\nam inclined to think that football as it is played is quite sufficient, and\nthat fighting, if necessary, might be for points under the rules of the\nLennox Club. Athletic sports are the divine right of a boy. The schools\nof England, like Eton and Rugby, have made men as no other schools\nhave done. Fighting and athletic sports have done much to produce\nWellington and Gladstone. Our high schools are too tame. We need\nto introduce heroic athletics and make every possible effort to draw every\nchild into play.\nJ\nAnother question must be settled : How much work may we safely\nallow the rapidly growing pupil to do ? Having collected facts on this\nsubject for three years, tho not ready for a final statement, I am quite\nconvinced that sharp, but not prolonged work, both physical and mental,\nis best for the adolescent. Our school periods are too long to hold sharp\nattention, and intense effort can be maintained only for a few minutes.\nComplete rest must follow.\nWe must remember that growth is the object to be attained, and anything which interrupts growth is injurious, no matter what it is. Adolescence is not a time to acquire skill, but to develop the fundamentals of\nall departments of mental and physical life. Skill is used here in the\nsense of a specialty.\nIn school, as in the home, discipline must be sympathetic and free from\nall mechanical devices. The adolescent interests are usually the key\nwhich opens the way to the solution of all problems of discipline. Interest\nin nature leads all others, yet nature study in our schools does not meet\nthe needs.\nOf all pedagogic ossuaries our nature work is the dryest. Froebel\nSaid that nature, being simple, educated the child. In all of man's history\ntill recent times nature has been his only teacher. Nature and the mind\nof the child are a mutual fit, because developed together. ^ To take a child\naway from nature and give him a text-book on nature is not only to miss\nthe entire value of nature work, but is such a stupid performance that it\nshould not be discussed in a teachers' association. Nature, by direct contact, goes to the heart of the child, heals every sorrow, inspires to sublimest\nthoughts and activities, and gives strength and courage, and calls forth and\nmatures the best endowments of the human soul.\n\n"}
{"page": 1052, "printed_page": null, "text": "I044\n\nNATIONAL\n\nCHILDREN'S\nBY\n\nISABEL\n\nLAWRENCE,\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nINTERESTS\n\nIN LITERATURE\n\nSTATE\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nNORMAL\n\nST.\n\nCLOUD,\n\n[Child Study\n\nMINN.\n\nArtists would fain have us believe that aesthetic tastes are somewhat\naccidental structures. Could we take the taste for literature in a cultured brain, and remove the last straw blown to it, and the next to\nthe last, and so on to the very center of the complex and compact accretion of years, we should find, at the beginning, native interests. Instinctive\ntendencies have originally determined the structure; native interests have\nenabled the first straws to stick. The question, then, which is being\nasked on every side, \" What material shall we select to build the taste for\nliterature in children and in the popular mind ?\" cannot be answered until\nafter the solution of that other problem of children's spontaneous interests. It matters not what you supply for children or communities to read,\nif they won't read it; it matters not what you compel them to read, if it\ndoes not stick.\nInstinctive interests are the inheritance of the past, and evolve in the\nchild according to a pre-established law written in his nervous system.\nThey must be found in every normal child, for they are racial rather than\nindividual. They are spontaneous ; education must wait upon them.\nThey should be allowed healthy development, with little conscious interference in very early years ; later, when the nucleus is large enough,\neducation has its opportunity ; but if the early development is faulty,\neducation can do little to repair the mischief. There is no chance for the\nmaterial to stick.\nWhat are the universal and fundamental interests in literature, and\nhow do they change in the growing girl and growing boy ? This childstudy problem is practically unsolved as yet, and there is much fumbling\nin deciding on the right method of research.\nSome studies have sought from the children themselves the list of\nbooks they have read and their own ideas of what has interested them.\nTwo typical cases taken from such a study in a large city may be found\nsuggestive :\nOne second grade, ages from seven to ten, handed in very neat papers,\ntelling what they had read and commenting on their favorite books.\nMany of the lists would do credit to a high-school grade. There is great\nunanimity of opinion. The description of dawn by Frank Dempster\nSherman is \"perfectly beautiful.\" These children \"love everything Mr.\nLongfellow or Mr. Whittier ever wrote,\" but the \"Children's Hour\" and\nthe \"Psalm of Life\" are the \"loveliest\" of Longfellow's, while \"My\nPsalm\" of Whittier is pronounced \"exquisite\" by three little girls of\neight or nine years' experience in this life.\n\nji\n\n"}
{"page": 1053, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCHILDREN'S\n\nINTERESTS\n\nIN LITERATURE\n\n1045\n\nSister Mary's little flock of corresponding ages at the parochial school\nin the same city, a grade largely composed of boys who on the street defy\nboth the policemen and the curfew, were corralled and made to write\nanswers to the same questions. According to some remarkably spelled\npapers, these little street boys are consumed with love for the catechism,\nthe lives of the saints, and Bible history. Says one sturdy little fellow of\nnine : \" I lik my prar book best. In the prar book are nice prayers. I ofen\npray into my prar book. Prar books are verry nise for to pray in. I\nlike prar books. I do car verry much about my prar book. I read my\nprar book once threw allready.\"\nThese children name first, second, and third readers with an occasional\n\"rithmetic\" or \"gography\" as their list of books read.\nWhat can be gotten out of such a study ? These papers photograph\nthe family, school, or public library, for children must read what they\ncan get. Children, too, are not above making grown-up opinions their\nown, if they can remember them. Aren't they marked down if they don't\ndo this in every other school exercise ? To be sure, the teacher n)ay\nhave explained the freedom of this composition, but that makes it all the\nmore suspicious. The children enter upon the work with anxious foreboding. What might happen to a boy who confessed that he adored Buffalo\nBill ? \"It's a trap most likely !\" So these studies betray the work of the\nteacher rather than the tastes of the children. Can't you see the charming teacher of that second grade ? Can't you hear her talking of \" lovely \"\nand \"exquisite\" and \"perfectly beautiful\" poems, while the little people\nbefore her are entirely occupied with her smiles, her graces, and her\nemphasis ? These studies have great local value both to the teacher and\nthe superintendent, but what light do they throw on the spontaneous\ninterests of all children in literature? Very little, and that little can be\nread only by one who knows those interests beforehand. It is true that\nsome of the most valuable contributions yet made to this subject have\nbeen studies of this sort ; but their authors have possessed an extensive\nknowledge of children's interests, and insight and discrimination enough\nto avoid the dangers of a very imperfect method.\nReminiscent studies, including autobiographies, can throw light on\ncertain phases of this subject, tho, aside from the danger of deceptive\nmemories, they too must chiefly reflect environment and adult influence.\nExamine the list of books read before ten by John Stuart Mill.\nThe plan suggested in the treatment of the story of Charlemagne in\nMrs. Barnes' Studies in Historical Method x'i an application of the method\nof difference to the problem. The story of Ivanhoe was told in this way\nto an assembly of children from five to fifteen, and reproduced three weeks\nlater. As the children remembered only what interested them, the varying tastes at different periods of development were clearly indicated.\nMiss Countryman, of the public library of Minneapolis, is making a\n\n"}
{"page": 1054, "printed_page": null, "text": "1046\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Child Study\n\nStudy of books spontaneously selected by children — a study which lacks\nmany of the drawbacks of the teacher's study, as the librarian finds the\nchildren off guard. An instance of the value of this method is found in\nher discovery that the children of Minneapolis do not spontaneously\nchoose nature books, however charmingly written or illustrated. They\nselect them only when suggested in lists given by teachers.\nEvery method of direct study of children's interests in literature may\nbe helpful, if pursued with due caution and a critical sense of the defects\nof the instrument. But literature is, after all, only a mode of expression\nof life. The native interests which underlie a taste for literature are\ninterests in life itself, and they are manifested in many\n\nother forms.\n\nStudies of children's actions, of their plays, their drawings, their ideals,\nand their emotions reveal the same nuclei. Very many of the characteristic interests of children have been discovered by inductive studies on\nsome^one of these subjects and verified again and again by other independent studies. Such known interests form a very solid and important basis\nfor the study of children's tastes in literature. It only remains to select\nthe best books to fit such native interests, and then verify the solution by\nan inductive study of its effects. First attempts must necessarily be very\ndefective, but a brief survey of the field from this standpoint may serve\nto illustrate a method which, carried out scientifically and exhaustively,\nmust lead to some certainty of result.\nLiterature realizes ideals for us. A little child before eight, in his\nignorance of natural law, is forever trying the impossible, and being\nbaffled and hurt in consequence. How delightful, then, to be the giant in\nthe story, to knock stars out of the sky with your head, to walk with sevenleague boots and actually seize the pot of gold at the end of the rainbow !\nThe child suffers from instinctive fears, and every fear means a possible\ninterest in the literature which can both exercise and allay it. The little\nmortal who trembles at the sight of a big dog, and hides under the bed\nclothes to escape the frightful monsters of the dark, glows with a sense of\nconquest when your story enables -him to slay lions and tigers with\nHercules, and face with sublime courage fearful dragons and fire-spouting\nchimeras. Thus myth and fairy tale satisfy the child as they have satisfied primitive man.\nThe instinct of trust is strong now. Every mind-picture is real to a\nlittle child. He fails to discriminate between images made with the help\nof the senses and those furnished him by the story. The most vivid\nimage is the truest ; so he wakes up to this life slowly after the tale is told.\nDo you not remember that you yourself could not tell whether it was\nmorning, or noon, or night when you got back ? It is this power to be\nanother, to live elsewhere than here and now, which develops into breadth\nof vision and power of every sort hereafter. Starve this instinct now,\nand man is forever doomed to live within narrow ranges.\nIts present\n\n"}
{"page": 1055, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCHILDREN'S\n\nINTERESTS\n\nIN LITERATURE\n\n1047\n\nfood is fancy. If the child does not enter the realm of literature thru\nthe time-honored gateway of fancy, there is danger that he may never\nfind any other entrance. The gate is widest under the magical sunrise\nsky of childhood. Later the door is shut, and he who climbs in by some\nother way must miss forever the beauty reflected from the orient.\nThe child before eight has a strong instinctive interest in rhythm,\nwhether of movement or sound. He is akin to primitive man, and, like\nhim, makes words of natural sounds. To these children Hiawatha sings\nlike the forest, and the refrains of the ballad sink deep into the soul and\ncultivate the ear for music and poetry. Sir Walter Scott at three shouting old English ballads from Percy's Reliques is an example of the spontaneous taste and of the effect of its gratification.\nChildren at this age care most for motor images, and as the image\ntends to react in movement, the dramatic instinct is strong. Test the\nliterature selected. If 95 per cent, of the sentences can be acted out, or\nrepresented in striking pictures, it is safe. Sentences which explain and\ncomment are a dreary waste. Homer and JEsop, ballads and story poems,\n\"Barbara Frietchie,\" \"The Pied Piper,\" and the \"Jackdaw of Rheims\"\nwill stand the test.\nFew poets sing the real emotions of children. Jean Ingelow in\n\"Seven Times One,\" Riley sometimes, and Stevenson almost always are\nreal child interpreters. Grown-ups often m^ke the mistake of selecting\nanything with a title referring to children as fitted for children to read — a\nmistake- eloquent of the superficial way in which this subject has been\nhandled. This has kept the \"Children's Hour\" in the list for little folks\nto repeat, tho the only stanza intelligible to them describes the storming\nof the study by \" grave Alice and laughing Allegra and Edith with golden\nhair.\" The rest, like \"Little Boy Blue\" and many of Field's most\nbeautiful child poems, is utterly incomprehensible to the child because\nfull of the emotions of the parent. \"The Barefoot Boy\" of Whittier is\nthe meditation of a grown-up, blase man of the city. What unmitigated\nnonsense it must seem to the barefoot boy himself ! \"Little Annie's\nRamble\" by Hawthorne is often given to children to read when no one\nbut a veritable grandsire, and he of Hawthorne Puritan type, could look\nat life from such a standpoint. When shall we learn that before eight\nthere is no instinctive interest of children to fasten any reflection upon ?\nThe animistic tendency which makes the little child attribute his own\nfeelings to things around him interests him especially in growing things —\nflowers and animals. The boy and the dog mutually understand each\nother. They roll over in the dirt with exactly the same impulse. No\ngrown-up need expect to enter the charmed circle. The child is nearer\nto the animal, and he proves his kinship by his interests. From this\neducators have concluded that the child cares how many legs the wasp\nhas, and longs for precise knowledge of the construction of the cat's eye\n\n"}
{"page": 1056, "printed_page": null, "text": "1048\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Child Study\n\nor the dog's feet. This proves an entire mistake. These are analytical,\ngrown-up interests, and have long made dull and stupid school hours for\nour children. The instinctive interest iri animals is social. It is one of\ncompanionship.\n\nThose books only which write sympathetically of the\n\nanimal's soul- life — ihe Jungle Book, Wild Animals I have Known, Black\nBeauty, Beautiful Joe, or Water Babies — really appeal to children. Great\nis the disdain for the improving nature reader.\nThere is an \"uncomfortable predilection in the child mind for very\nsynthetic theology.\" The pleasure taken in allegories indicates that little\nchildren's sermons should be parables with no unsought explanations.\nIn the world's history an age of faith is followed by an age of doubt ;\nso the child who has reveled in myth and fairy tale suddenly at eight or\nnine begins to inform you that the story is not true. We are all unnecessarily angry at errors from which we have just recovered, so our little\nskeptic criticises more severely than is quite consistent with his evident\ndesire to be around while you tell those stories to younger children. Do\nnot be deceived. He is simply trying to assert the possession of a new\npower of criticism, and will be as delighted with your fairy tale as ever,\nif it is distinctly understood that he does not believe a word of it. Still,\nthis new development of interest in whether stories are true or false\ndemands recognition. It marks the transition of the child into that leastunderstood period of child development, from eight to twelve or thirteen.\nThere is a demand now for the history story — Greek and Roman\nhistory, and the periods of chivalry and modern adventure, where the\ninterest centers upon individuals.\nFighting is an instinct now. The small boy who has hitherto cared\nlittle for books is fascinated by tales of battle. A sturdy little friend of\nmine, ten years old, whom his little playmates admiringly describe as hard,\nsat up reading Howard Pyle's Robin Hood long after bed time the other\nnight, very much to the surprise of his family. \"I don't think that book\nis very interesting,\" said his mother. \"O 'tis; Robin Hood just killed a\nman!\" A book like Stevenson's Black Arrow ca.n do wonders toward\ntransforming the brutal form of this instinct into the higher forms of\ncourage. Other literature which serves this purpose may be found in\nHoward Pyle's Otto of the Silver Hand and Men of Iron, Gilliat's Forest\nOutlaws, Horatius at the Bridge, Days of Bruce, and Hero Stories of\nAmerican History by Roosevelt and Lodge. In fact, an embarrassing\nwealth of good literature appeals to this interest, as well as countless bad\nbooks and worthless juveniles. Lazy parents and moral teachers, seeing\nthe evil, often condemn all such literature, both good and bad, thus\nmissing one of the strongest moral influences over boys of this age.\n\"I like that book,\" says a nine-year-old, \"because it tells about mummies and how they bundle them up.\" This interest in details and in\ndescriptions appealing to the senses should be utilized in the reading of\n\n"}
{"page": 1057, "printed_page": null, "text": "DepartmentJ\n\nCHILDREN'S\n\nINTERESTS\n\nIN LITERATURE\n\n1049\n\nbooks of travel and stories of industries as well as in history. This is,\nindeed, a most matter-of-fact age. The sentimental gets no genuine\nresponse.\n\" Whether we look or whether we listen,\nWe hear life murmur or see it glisten,\"\n\nrecites the teacher with appreciation. Lack of attention is evident in the\nfourth grade. Something must be done. Incautiously the teacher asks\nten-year-old John to tell what we hear murmuring on a beautiful June\nday. \" Skeeters, getting ready to bite yer,\" is the instant response. \"The\nIliad,'' says Sydney Smith, \" would never have come down to these times\nif Agamemnon had given Achilles a box on the ear.\" Certainly Lowell\nis no more in that fourth grade for that day. There would have been no\ndifficulty, had the teacher, consulting the children's tastes instead of her\nown, omitted the description of June and begun with —\n\" The drawbridge dropped with a surly clang.\nAnd through the dark arch a charger sprang.\"\n\nEarly adolescence, from twelve or fourteen to sixteen, produces violent changes in instinctive interests. Emotions develop rapidly in this\nstorm-and-stress period, and literature as the expression of emotion\nbecomes of immense importance. A volume could not discuss adequately all of these new-born instincts in their relation to literature. The\nnew love of nature and art, the sudden religious doubt, and the alternating fits of depression and elation, selfishness and altruism, find gratification m poetry, romance, and books of religious aspiration.\nSuddenly forced out of an attitude in which he has considered himself objectively, the young soul is shocked and disturbed at what he feels.\nThe tumult cannot be quelled until he finds himself. He is too sensitive\nto confide in people at this time ; so he reads hungrily. He is impatient\nof details, because every book has a message for him — too great for him\nto linger over form or dimly understood sentences. The whole universe\nand all past time must be searched before he will have time to study carefully and closely. His ideals, his plans for the future, are formed and\nabandoned daily. He must know what everyone else has done. He\nmust live in all sorts and conditions of life. With suddenly developed\nenergy and enthusiasm, he seeks out all heroes and throws himself at their\nfeet. If the wrong books are near at hand, he will be Fitzsimmons, a cowboy, or some brilliant detective. If the right books are there, he will\nchange his ideal from physical to moral and mental courage, but he still\nmust conquer. A narrow range of ideals now means a narrow range of\n-.thought and life hereafter. Lack of extensive reading means lack of\nideals. The cribbed, confined reading of one good book until he understands itmeans narrowness of thought forever.\nThis is the time when ye pedagog often stands directly in the way of\ninstincts he little appreciates.\nNo one is so sought for, to teach the early\n\n"}
{"page": 1058, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 050\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Child Study\n\nadolescent pupil in seventh and eighth grades, as the thoro teacher, one\nwho can hold the pupil down to a steady grind upon details. You know\nhow the boy is often driven from school, but the loss to the taste for literature in those who stay is not so often appreciated. No writer can\ncompare with Sir Walter Scott in presenting just the romantic qualities\nsuited to the taste of the adolescent. But the Talisman studied faithfully\nto the last allusion, with long columns of words to be searched for in the\ndictionary, daily, for an entire year in the eighth grade ! How they hated\nit ! Because Milton's Paradise Lost cannot be exhausted in two years'\nstudy is no reason for assigning it for two years in the grades. The\nseventh- and eighth-grade student should read many times as many books\nas the university student, because the close logical, analytical study which\nshould follow in later adolescence is absolutely dependent for its quality\non the breadth and extent of the reading which precedes it.\nThe development of the social instincts, the interest in the other sex,\na strong, overloaded passion of human nature, should not be overlooked\nin the use of literature. - In proportion as enthusiastic literary interests\nare formed is this tendency kept from becoming precocious and dangerous. Again, the knowledge of the passions of the great world without\ncomes to the child thru concrete images. His own environment may not\nfurnish noble ideals of love and marriage. Just here it is important that\nfiction — Evangeline, Hypatia, Ivanhoe, The Story of Jean Valjean as edited\nby Miss Wiltse, Tale of Two Cities, and many other novels of value —\nshould be added to his reading, and added early, that the new meanings\nof things may dawn upon him first thru the pure and noble ideals of\nthe best literature. These are the days when a morbid conscience and\nmawkish sentiment are to be guarded against. A word of warning\nin regard to stories and novels of the type of the \" Elsie Books \" and\nE. P. Roe's works. They are as common in our Sunday school and\npublic libraries as poison ivy in the woods of Minnesota. The cowboy novel and the detective story are not half so destructive to healthy\nmorality.\nThese books are not literature. After all, real literature is fairly safe\nin the hands of any child. Debarring a few books of perverted genius,\nand some earlier classics which belong only in the library of the literary\nspecialist, a family or public library containing nothing but really good\nliterature should be open to the adolescent to browse where he will.\nThe Head was right when he gave Beetle the run of his library of fine old\nEnglish classics, \"prohibiting nothing and recommending nothing.\"\nHe was right, too, in his method of happening in occasionally, to read a\nverse or two from this or that author, \"opening up avenues.\"\nIn later adolescence severe logical study should take the place of\nbrowsing. This is the reaping time. If in early years natural interests\nhave been seized at the right time, not the few but the many may take\n\n"}
{"page": 1059, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nA CURRICULUM\n\nOt^ APPLIED\n\nCHILD\n\nSTUDY\n\n1051\n\npossession of their rightful heritage in the noblest thought of the ages.\nEven \"the man with the hoe\" may have that priceless and surprisingly\nrare gift of the gods — a taste for good literature.\n\nCURRICULUM\nOF APPLIED\nCHILD\nSTUDY\nFOR\nKINDERGARTEN AND THE PRIMARY SCHOOL\nBY\n\nFREDERIC\n\nBURK,\n\nPRESIDENT\nFRANCISCO,\n\nSTATE\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nTHE\n\nSAN\n\nCAL.\n\nLloyd Morgan has pointed out, with some effective force and clearness, that the mental process by which we discover a truth for the first time\nis not the identical process, necessarily, by which we prove a truth logically. It is one thing to see that the shortest distance between two points\nis a straight line, but quite another process of mind to prove the same\nthing logically ; it is one thing to know that water will fiow down hill, but\nquite another thing to prove it as a truth of physics.\nThe distinction between the order of logical proof and the order of first\ndiscovery is clearly a vital one for pedagogy. As a rule, in our current\ntheories the pedagogical process is woefully confused with the logical\nmethod of proof, and we are persistently forcing upon the child the\nmethod of proof when he needs the method of discovery. Our dogmas\nof the formal steps are principles of logic ; no one has yet clearly written down the pedagogical steps. Practical experience, in a dumb, unconscious sort of way, has ever struggled against the current of this\nunfortunate confusion in education, and has repeatedly shown that with\nchildren certain very illogical methods have produced more successful\nresults than the logical methods. Let us take, for example, the method\nof teaching a child to read. The letter is clearly the logical simple. It\nis the fundamental brick out of which the complex structure of written\nlanguage is built, and it seemed reasonable beyond question fifty years\nago that the pupil should begin with this ultimate element, combine it to\nform syllables, combine syllables to form words, words to form sentences)\nand sentences to make sense. Horny-handed experience, despite the\nclearness of argumentative support, however, has swept all of this beautiful methodology of logic out of the back door, and the very name of the\n\"a, b, ab\" method in reading has become a byword and a reproach.\nThe same seemingly paradoxical results have been shown by experience in the methods of teaching the grammatical use of language. As an\nargument, the theory cannot be met that before a person can use language correctly he must begin with the simples of grammatical structure\n— with the parts of speech, then the paradigms and conjugations, and\n\n"}
{"page": 1060, "printed_page": null, "text": "1652\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Child Study\n\nfinally combining these into the correct syntactical forms. But again\nexperience has shown that children do not readily learn correct usage in\nthis way. Imitation, we find, in children is a stronger instinct than logic,\nand children by hearing correct language somehow acquire it, by some\nutterly unconscious and illogical process. In writing, we all recall those\nbeautiful scenes of our childhood's writing lesson, when our teacher stood\nin front of her class, beating musical time, while fifty cherubs made\nupstrokes and downstrokes — the elements of the letter; then came the\ncombination of letters to make words, and words to make sentences. Yet,\nagain, by the mandate of experience all of this orderly system has been\nabandoned, and our pupils, using the unthinking method of motor imitation, learn without knowing anything of the elements.\nIn all these past methods experience has shown that the assumption\nthat the logical simple is identical with the pedagogical simple is false.\nSuspicion is legitimately cast upon the surviving methods of the logical\norder as a pedagogical method in other branches of study. It requires\nbut a moment's consideration to realize that this same logical principle is\nthe controlling one in the majority of the current methods of our present\ncurriculum. In drawing, the majority of our methods require pupils to\nbegin with those logical elements — lines, or points; combine them to\nform angles, triangles, and other regular figures ; combine these again to\nform designs ; and thence, by a process of years of training, finally to draw\nobjects of natural form. Or in music, our prevailing systems have analyzed songs into tones, and tones into their logical simples of pitch, duration, and quality. Artificial exercises and drills are then manufactured,\nand pupils begin with these simples and are expected to build up, largely\nas a matter of conscious reason, the complex combinations, step by\nstep, thru the technique of scale practice, staff notation, and chords, until\nfinally in late years they are expected to sing songs. Nevertheless, in\nmany of our kindergartens and schools there are teachers who, abandoning the doctrine that all education comes thru the reason, commence\nwith songs and, in some illogical and unsystematic way, are producing\nresults whose success cannot be questioned. In literature, our prevailing\nsystems contend, with admitted success in argument, that before a pupil\ncan be expected to appreciate emotionally a sentiment he must have a\nthoro intellectual groundwork in structure and in rhetoric. Yet all experienced teachers have discovered that success has been reached by striking at the core of the sentiment illogically. In history, while strict\nmethod requires us to begin with the logical simples of chronology and\nsystems of government before we attack the details of complex form, still\nexperience in the past few years is insisting that we begin with the details,\nwith the complex culture forms, and leave our schematization on logical\nprinciples till the end. It seems inevitable, from a standpoint of reasoning, that the logical simples of mathematics should precede, and that the\n\n"}
{"page": 1061, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nA\n\nCURRICULUM\n\nOF\n\nAPPLIED\n\nCHILD\n\nSTUDY\n\n1053\n\nmind of the pupil should be led logically from the simplest conceptions,\nin a mathematical sense, toward concrete application. Nevertheless,\npractical experience has struggled against the theory, and in very recent\ntimes the logicians have awakened to the realization, and, humorously\nclothed in the name of \"psychology,\" are now crying \"Halt!\" They\nwordily tell us that the conception of ratio, which unquestionably is the\nlogical simple of mathematics, is consequently the pedagogical simple, and\ntherefore the beginning point for instruction. They insist that the primary pupil must carefully be deterred from the notion that he has four\nfingers, but must be taught to realize the elementary fact that he has one\nfinger taken four times, or, more correctly, in the ratio of four.\nBut in recent years experience has been reinforced in its resistance to\nthe logical order by modern sciences. Psychology is going far to show\nthat logical power serves as a means merely of grouping facts, and that its\nappearance is late in the development both of the child and of the race.\nModern neurology is establishing in concrete detail the principle that\nthe nervous system is made up of areas of parts, which are, to a certain\ndegree, independent of one another in structure and function, and that\neach ripens or becomes functional at periods which are predetermined by\nhereditary forces beyond the legitimate tampering of pedagogs. Dr.\nFlechsig has traced this order of development in young infants with\nextreme nicety of detail. The order of development seems ever to follow\nthe order which race experience has established. In other words, the\nprocess by which knowledge is acquired by children is determined more\nby lower race forms of psychoses than by the mental processes of civilized\nhuman adults.\nDr. Flechsig's studies upon the nervous systems of infants have shown\nbeyond question that there is a definite order in the development of the\nvarious brain areas. The localized areas of sight, hearing, touch, and the\nmotor regions of bodily movement, mature earlier than certain other\nregions to which Flechsig has been so bold as to ascribe the function of\nreasoning, higher ethics, and aesthetics. The principle of anatomical\nstructure of the nervous system is suggestive of such a view. There is a\nclass of nerve cells, which, in the terminology of Dr. Hughlings Jackson,\nwe may call the lowest level, whose fibers, motor and sensory, deal\ndirectly with foreign tissues — muscle, skin, etc. Above them is\nsuperposed a second level of cells whose fibers are not in direct contact\nwith foreign tissues, but merely act as modifying influences upon the\nlowest-level cells. In a similar manner other still higher levels are superposed upon those of lower order. The function of the higher level ever\nseems to be to introduce modifying factors into the action of the lower\ncells. This principle is neatly illustrated by certain forums of paralysis,\nwhich do not at once destroy all movements of some limb, but at first\nmerely elide certain of the more delicate and accurate movements.\nThe\n\n"}
{"page": 1062, "printed_page": null, "text": "I054\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Child Study\n\nexplanation which is advanced is that the seat of disease is in the higher\nlevel, thus affecting the finer modifications, while the lower-level movements of the same limb remain unimpaired. Similar phenomena are to\nbe observed in forms of aphasic diseases of speech. Further, so far as\nthe ripening process can be observed in the brains of infants, the order\nis always from the lowest level toward the higher levels, from those which\nare most directly connected with the outer world of sense toward those\nwhich are more remotely removed from it.\nNow, the essential of logical thought lies in the power of thinking\nrelations which are not directly connected with sense. There are relations\nwhich are essentially sensuous. For example, a fence board between two\nposts is a relation which can be apprehended by the senses. It can be\nfelt and seen and brought to consciousness by the brain structures and\nareas of sense. So also with the yellow color common to an orange and\na lemon. But there are relations which are abstract, such as most of the\nmathematical notions we have such difficulty in inducing primary children\nto comprehend, the relation of cause and effect in our science teaching,\nform relations in drawing, logical relations in grammar, causal relations in history, etc. If now we are to admit that the sense areas or\nregions of the brain mature some years earlier in a predominating sense\nthan the centers of the higher levels which deal with the more abstract\nrelations that are removed from the senses, we find a plausible explanation why experience has found such difficulties in the way of enforcing\nthe dogma of the logical order upon the theory that it is identical with\nthe pedagogical order. Lloyd Morgan has laid it down as a conclusion\nof his extensive studies that only adults think in terms of abstract relations ;\nchildren use them only feebly, while their absence in animal psychosis\nconstitutes the essential distinction between the mentality of animals and\nthat of man. In neurological terms we might similarly say that the highest-level structures predominantly ripen in adolescence, while in childhood the mentality directly or intimately connected with sense enters its\nnascent periods. For education, therefore, our curriculum, based upon\nthis view, should be adjusted, not upon a basis of subjects, but upon a\nprinciple of dealing in childhood with the more sensuous side of the\ntopics treated, leaving abstract relations for the later period.\nFor example in number, children at three or four years learn to count\nto one hundred or more with zest and interest ; but this is merely a language phenomenon, the learning of a series of words in a certain order by\nheart — one, two, three, etc. A child is five or six before he takes ar\ninterest, as a rule, in counting or numbering objects; but even then it is\nto be observed that he takes little interest in the abstract numerical relations which, under our curriculum, we are ever attempting to force upon\nprimary children. There is certainly an ample field in the kindergarten for\nexercise of the mere counting instinct, and a little later in counting and\n\n"}
{"page": 1063, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nA CURRICULUM\n\nOF APPLIED\n\nCHILD\n\nSTUDY\n\n1 05 5\n\narranging objects in simple groups, recognizing tliese groups when seen\nwithout counting, and in memorizing some of the simplest combinations\nof objects — not of numbers. In the primary school all teachers of\nexperience will agree that there is no difficulty in teaching the child\nto perform all the common arithmetical operations, provided the material\nwith which he deals consists of objects which he can sense, and is not\nnumerical symbols of abstract relations. Many schools are now omitting\nall arithmetic in the first one or two years of school. It would seem that\nthis is a step in the right direction so far as the understanding of figure\nwork is concerned, but there is no necessity for it so far as the calculation\nin terms of objects is concerned.\nAbstract cause and effect are the logical simples of science as such.\nBut scientific cause and effect are relations which do not belong to the\nsense areas of the brain. They seem to mature late. We need a lowerlevel science for children, which shall take advantage of their crude nature\ninterests, mixed as they doubtless are with bits of myth and nature awe,\nbut always in strong sense-pictures and hereditary impulses. The child\nhas no interest nor power to follow out long logical sequences of causeand-effect relations. Barnes, Lindley, and others have shown that the\nchild's thinking is done in a fragmentary sort of way, hopping and skipping from one strong mental picture to another, leaving out the connections\nwhich are contributed by higher-level thinking. There seems no place\nfor the kindergarten classic which begins with the bread, proceeds to the\nbaker and dough, then works back to the miller and flour, thence to the\nfarmer and wheat. We encounter the same difficulty when we insist upon\nthe child following the connection between water and evaporation, thence\nto clouds, their condensation by cold, and finally to raindrops. The child\nis delighted with the experiments, but that which we especially want him\nto get — the logical connections — is just what he does not take strong\nhold of. His physical science belongs to the experimental kind, with all\nthe reasons and the connections of abstract relation left out. Similarly\nin natural history he runs readily to collections, but he wearies when we\nattempt to add to a collection the abstract organic relations which make of\nit true science in an adult sense. There is a place in the kindergarten and\nprimary school for a science upon the basis of the collecting instinct, but\nrelational science must be left for a later period.\nThe development of the child's literary and historical interests shows\nus another phase of the same principle. The child loves the \" Mother\nGoose\" jingle, the fairy story, and the myth. The essential difference\nbetween this class of material and history and literature proper is that\nthe latter require the mind to be focused upon the connection and relation between facts, while the jingle or the fairy story gives us merely the\nfragmentary sense-pictures, disconnected, and with a most cheery disregard\nof all causal relations.\n\n\" Mother Goose \" has its place with the youngest\n\n"}
{"page": 1064, "printed_page": null, "text": "1056\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Child Study\n\nkindergarten children, giving place gradually to the fable and fairy story,\nand the historical interest does not make itself at all conspicuous, Mrs.\nBarnes has told us, until the ninth or tenth year. The child then begins\nto give his attention to the causal connections between these sensepictures.\nOr we may illustrate from the ethical development of the child. The\ninfant and young child confuse \"what is right\" with \"what I want,\"\nbecause they do not deal with abstract ethical relations. But repeated\nconflicts generally leave the child of four or five to nine or ten years in\na state of conviction that wrong is what mamma forbids and that right is\nwhat mamma permits. He learns concretely and specifically what these\nwrongs and rights are. He has no abstract principles of right and wrong,\nand he follows the law in the letter, rarely in the spirit. He imitates\nothers' actions, and is ready to justify any of his faults upon the ground\nthat so and-so did the same thing. Nevertheless, he clearly recognizes\nauthority, accepting it as an incontrovertible fact of his sense-experience.\nThe kindergarten and the primary child need to be told crisply what is\nright and what is wrong, and to obey promptly. There is no place in\nphilosophy for argument on the basis of ethical relations. In observing\nthe child's story preferences we find that he is intensely interested in\nthe problems of right and wrong, but always in a concrete black-and-white\nway. The type of morality we find in Jack and the Beanstalk appeals to\nhim, and leaves no place for the delicate shadings which the Sundayschool and the kindergarten story are prone to force upon him. In\nthe matter of the education of the aesthetic nature, child study has the\nsame struggle over again to prevent the forced introduction into the kindergarten of delicate aesthetic relations which ripen normally in adolescence.\nIn drawing, the many studies — those of Barnes, Brown, Lukens, O'Shea,\nMrs. Maitland in this country. Sully in England, Ricci in Italy, and\nPassy in France — agree conclusively in showing that drawing in the\nkindergarten and early primary years has little or no foundations in what\nwe call aesthetic appreciation. The child's drawings are picture-writings\nof the fragmentary mental images which come into his mind, and he\ncares little or nothing whether they represent accurately some object.\nAccurate representation does not seem to appear until the child is ten\nyears or more, under ordinary conditions. But there is an immense field\nfor the kindergarten and primary school in developing a curriculum along\nthe line of picture-writing. Such work manifestly strengthens all other\nfields of activity, especially laiiguage ; and after telling a story in pictures\nthe child is better able to tell the story in words. The kindergarten child\nis not interested, to any appreciable degree, in drawing regular geometric\nforms, in design, nor in copy work. These interests are just beginning\nin the latter part of the primary school. Nor has the child the powers\nof accurate finger movement to do such work.\n\n1\n\n"}
{"page": 1065, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nGROUP\n\nACTIVITY\n\nAMONG\n\nCHILDREN\n\n1 05 7\n\nIn the sister-art, music, studies have well demonstrated that young\nchildren are very fond of simple folk songs which have been used to\nexpress the emotions of religion, patriotism, and sentiments of the home.\nMusic as a training in the appreciation of the masters has a later place,\ntho it is certainly true that the power to appreciate by ear and to express\nby voice is farther advanced in children than is any other artistic\ninstinct.\n\nRACIAL\n\nBY\n\nC.\n\nC.\n\nVAN\n\nTRAITS\n\nLIEW,\n\nSUPERVISOR\n\nIN THE\nGROUP\nCHILDREN\n\nDEPARTMENT\nOF\n\nOF\n\nTRAINING,\nLOS\n\nACTIVITY\n\nPSYCHOLOGY\nSTATE\n\nANGELES,\n\nNORMAL\n\nAND\n\nOF\n\nPEDAGOGY,\n\nAND\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nCAL.\n\nThe thoughts which I have to offer in this paper have been suggested\nto me, primarily, in looking over some returns made in the State Normal\nSchool here (Los Angeles) upon the \" Spontaneous Play Activities of\nChildren.\" My conclusions, however, have been drawn in part by a\ncomparison with studies in the same or related fields, especially those by\nSheldon (\"Institutional Activities of American Children,\" American\nJournal of Psychology, Vol. IX, p. 425), Burk (\"Bullying and Teasing,\"\nPedagogical Seminary, Vol. VI, p. 336), Johnson (\"Rudimentary Society\namong ^oy^,'^ Johns Hopkins University Studies), Gulick (\"Psychological,\nPedagogical, and Religious Aspects of Group Games,\" Pedagogical Seminary, Vol. VI, p. 135). These studies and others have served to emphasize the very great educational significance of group activity among\nchildren. A great many cases reported to me by my students, as the\nresult of direct and objective field work, so to speak, in the study of\nchildren, have served to emphasize the same thought. The query\nnaturally presents itself as to what it is that constitutes the vital force,\neducationally, in the collective activity of children. It is the purpose of\nthis paper to suggest a tentative answer to that question — one that may\nbe, perhaps, suggestive of a method of approach and study of the problem\nin the future, tho it is not essentially original.\nIn comparing cases that have been brought to my attention, it has\noccurred to me that Le Bon's law of \"the crowd\" may be of service in\ngetting at the common actuating principles in group activity among\nchildren. According to this author the mind of the crowd is something\nvery different from a mere summation of individual minds. The crowd\nis characterized by a mental unity, in which each member has surrendered\nmore or less of his individual self; which is, in fact, a new chemical\n\n"}
{"page": 1066, "printed_page": null, "text": "1058\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Child Study\n\ncompound, as it were. This mental unity is ordinarily not secured by aunion of the highest, latest, and most individual traits of men, but by a\nfusion of their oldest, most instinctive traits. As soon as we become\nmembers of the crowd we are thrown back upon the unconscious substratum of action, upon heredity, upon the \"genius of race.\" To put it\nneurologically, we descend to Hughlings Jackson's lower and middle\nlevels, thus cutting out the higher centers of reflective action. In consequence, the action of crowds is lacking in those elements which mark\nindividual excellence and are the product of its most recent training, but\nrich in the fields of simple sensory and instinctive reaction. Keep the\ncrowd in the realms of sense and instinct, appeal to it chiefly thru\nthe law of suggestion, and you can determine its action. Raise it to the\nhigher level, where each of its members is thrown upon resources that\ndistinguish his recent training as an individual, and the crowd dissolves,\nbecause you have destroyed that which is the essence of a crowd, the\nunconscious, instinctive, and common substratum of action. I believe\nthat our ordinary, everyday observation of the crowd will serve to\nsubstantiate in general Le Bon's law of its action. In heredity and that\nsense-life which men have in common we have some light thrown upon\nthe unconsciousness, the irrationality, the impulsiveness and explosiveness, the great suggestibility, the fickleness and irresponsibility of crowds,\nas well as upon their strength and dangers.\nI believe, furthermore, that this same law of the crowd is suggestive\nin studying and understanding certain features, at least, of the group\nactivity of children. Indeed, Sheldon's study alone has shown that as\nchildren advance in years they tend more readily to engage in activity in\nlarge groups, and that in the later years of childhood, even well over into\nadolescence, the tendency is strongest to resort toiprimitive interests and\ninstincts. Yet this is the period in which the child is supposed to be\nadvancing very rapidly toward an individual dominance of reason.\nObservations in this field show that it is group activity, in fact, which\nmost readily stimulates the older and primitive instincts in children. It\nis true, for instance, among the juvenile offenders in our large cities.\nIndividually they are cowardly, for personal resources are narrow and\nlimited. Collectively, the \"old Adam \" is seen to wax to gigantic proportions. But the law may be illustrated not alone in criminal or degenerate\nyouth. Healthy youth exhibits its workings equally, tho under less\ndangerous, often under favorable, conditions.\nMy thought is that the conditions of group activity are such as directly\nto favor the development of primitive instincts. Each boy of a group, left\nto himself, would seldom evince the violent outbreak of ancient instincts\nwhich often characterizes his group as a whole. If he is morally and\nphysically healthy, he will not alone, for example, ordinarily indulge to\nthe same extent in acts of cruelty, of depredation, and the like.\nIn the\n\n"}
{"page": 1067, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department J\n\nGROUP\n\nARTIVITY\n\nAMONG\n\nCHILDREN\n\n1059\n\ngroup the unconscious substratum of fellowship, the instinctive in human\nnature, is a bond, powerful because it is deep-seated and old enough in\nnature to have become unconscious ; it is ever ready, upon the favorable\nsuggestion, good or bad, to level the features of individual training and\nto carry the actions of all in favor of a common feeling or a common\nimpulse. This is the reason, for instance, why a contagion of questionable\nsport seems unaccountably to spread among boys of exceptionally good\nenvironment. The unfavorable suggestion sweeps them away by the\nstrength of its appeal to the lower, racial instincts.\nYet, by no means all this influence in the group is unfavorable. To\nbegin with, Gulick has called our attention to the fact that a large\nnumber of the best traditional physical games which appear as soon as\nboys begin to be active in larger groups, such as tag-games, prisoner's\nbase, black-man, hare and hounds, etc., were evidently the outgrowth of\na response to such old racial instincts as hunting, roaming, predatory\ncontest, and the like. Sheldon's report reveals a large number of\nactivities of the group order which are rooted in old instincts. Among\nthe cases which have come under my own observation, among others,\nare many plays representative of hanging, nagging, terrible animal\ngames, depredation, especially upon a rival party; cave dwelling, spying,\nrobbers, haunting gloomy places, and \"enacting dismal and uncanny\nscenes, or telling like stories; charms and fetishism, following my\nleader, playing Indians, soldiers ; initiation tests of courage, wits, spirit,\nand endurance; severe imaginary punishments; camping, carnivals,\nhunting, etc.\nI am aware that two objections may be raised to my use of all these\nillustrations in substantiation of my thought. First, it may be said, many\nof these activities are too highly organized to belong to the law of the\ncrowd. So far as their conscious development goes, this is quite true.\nYet all which are not mere imitation of others probably found their\norigin in a very spontaneous and unorganized form of activity, but moved\nlater toward the organized form in which tradition crystallized them.\nThere are many instances observable of this spontaneous growth of\ngroup sports among children today. I have a record of one group of\nchildren who were constantly producing games in this way. They started\nwith the simplest, apparently least purposeful, action — mere outbursts of\na sportive crowd spirit — and developed set games to which names were\ngiven.\nIn the second place, a great deal is claimed today for the related\nprinciples of suggestion and imitation. With a great deal of justice they\nhave been regarded as constituting a well-nigh universal principle of connection between individuals and society. It may be claimed that many\nof the forms of group activity already cited are the result merely of the\nsingle universal instinct of imitation, which is common to all ages of life\n\n"}
{"page": 1068, "printed_page": null, "text": "To6o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Child Study\n\nand in no sense transitory or rudimental. The very evident influence of\nimitation in most of these activities, in fact, such as the plays of firemen,\nrobbers, Indians, soldiers, cannot be denied. But when we have admitted\nthe great influence of suggestion and imitation, we have still failed to\nanswer one very important question : Why does a child so often follow,\nespecially under conditions of the group, suggestions or copies that are\nmost foreign to, or least forcible in, his environment ? What is the principle of selection in imitation ? Why this persistence of primitive traits\nin the face of the most favorable modern environment ? It seems to me\nthat right here we are again forced back -to the thought with which we\nstarted. The vestiges of racial experience in the child, his instincts, furnish the mainsprings of both his emotional life and his action, in spite\nof the fact that imitation may lead him to the sphere of ideas in which\nemotion and action operate, while the association in the group offers the\nmost favorable conditions for the outbreak of primitive impulses. Yet\nimitation seems to exert a modifying influence upon all instincts. As is\nwell known, the force of imitation is apparent very early and lasts till the\nage of usefulness in life is past. Thus it parallels all the instincts of the\nimportant periods of childhood and adolescence, and influences their (the\ninstincts') development. Thus the instinct of vocalization initiates\nexperience in the organs of speech ; imitation seizes upon its products\nand fits them to the demands of the social environment. The instincts\nof play, graphic representation, dramatization, and the like are rooted\ndeeply in instinctive muscular and emotional reactions; but they display\nthe constant modification of imitation in the light of environment. A\nlike phenomenon may accompany any one of these instincts, as of\ncollection, roaming, hunting, acquisition. As they appear, imitation\ndetermines very largely what content oif experiences, and ultimately\nof ideas and thought, they shall yield. And yet the instincts are\nthe mainsprings, the sources, of emotional life, deep-seated, vital, and\nstrong. They will have to be reckoned with in an efficient system of\neducation.\nIn part, this relation which subsists between imitation and suggestion,\non the one hand, and the primitive and social instincts, on the other,\nseems to me to offer the key to the educational problem. While heredity\nprescribes conditions of education, in general too radical to be defied, it\ndoes yield very readily to those influences of environment which work in\nharmony with it. Speech, perhaps, illustrates the truth most forcibly. A\nfundamental, hereditary function underlies the faculty of speech ; yet it\nis very easily molded by force of environment into the forms of language which surround the child at the time of speech acquisition, no\nmatter what the place of his birth. In no phase of child activity is this\nmore apparent than in that we have called group activity. Let us illustrate by the story of one group of boys.\n\n"}
{"page": 1069, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nGROUP\n\nACTIVITY\n\nAMONG\n\nCHILDREN\n\nI06l\n\n\" Five charter members organized a secret society, called the B, B.'s,\nwhich meant Buckeye Boys, They were natives of Ohio, and the seal of\nOhio was their emblem. The organization continued five years, from the\ntime they were twelve until sixteen. Everything was very secret, not\neven their name being known. There were two corps of officers, one for\nmeetings, which were held weekly, and the other for field work or tours.\nA president, secretary, treasurer, and critic were home officers. Amusements, business, essays, papers, and readings took up most of the time.\nA corporal, cook, fireman, picket, and sergeant-at-arms were for field\nwork. The purpose of the organization was fun, fraternity, and the\nintellectual advancement of its members.\n\"They frequently took long excursions into the country, sometimes\ntaking along several chickens, bread and butter; then they would make\na raid on a friendly farmer's potato patch or cornfield and secure enough\nto fill their kettle, which the cook by this time had steaming over a fire\nnear a cool spring of water. One boy's father was a blacksmith ; they\nbecame deft in welding iron into shapes for their use, such as cranes for\ntheir kettles, badges on which the initials B. B. and the seal of Ohio were\nmolded. A good cannon was made on wheels by using a large elm stick,\nboring a hole thru it, and driving a three-inch gas-pipe into that. On\nthe outside of the wood iron bands were fastened, the whole covered with\nsheet iron, and more bands put about this. Powder was used as the\nexplosive. The cannon was used in times of peace for celebration of\ngreat events and in times of war as a means of defense. It was nicknamed Baby Betsey, as it bore the letters B. B. One boy's father had\nbeen a captain in the war, so they became well drilled. They had all the\nmilitary officers, and made some of their own weapons. They were a long\ntime in making a boat out of gasoline barrels, beer kegs, and boards bent\nover them. Great fun was had the day they hitched their fathers' horses\nto a large wagon and hauled it several miles to a stream where they\nlaunched it. They were always Indians on such excursions. They dug\na large cave in a hillside, where they hid their treasure. A wooden door\nclosed the entrance, and they covered it with earth. Other trips were\nmade to woods where they had permission to cut wood and sell it. They\nsold some and gave some to a poor lady they knew.\n\"The greatest fun was the initiation of a new member. He was first\nblindfolded, turned about for a minute, led over fences, thru fields, and\ninto an orchard where many trees would impede his advance. He was\ntold that if he caught a member he would be exempt from the other trials,\nbut if he failed he was led farther to encounter the goat. A real goat's\nhead was fastened to a padded rail. He was then asked how many fingers\nhe had ; when replying five, he was told no, that he had six, and no sixfingered boy could belong to their lodge. They would count his fingers\nso as to convince him of a sixth, which was then cut off. After being fed\n\n"}
{"page": 1070, "printed_page": null, "text": "io62\nupon\n\nNATIONAL\nchocolate-coated\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\ncayenne\n\npepper\n\nASSOCIATION\nhe\n\nwas\n\nconsidered\n\n[Child Study\n\na worth)'\n\nmember.\"\nI realize that this case, which I have ventured to give at length, is\nexceptional perhaps. Yet it well typifies many of the cases of children's\ngroup activity. It is only the typical to which I shall refer. Here we\nhave the interplay of the suggestions of instinct and those of the environment. Among' the former we detect traces of the social and sympathetic\nsense, of sorcery, pugnacity, hunting, migration, construction, torture, etc.\nAmong the latter a variety of actions, products, laws, purposes, and the\nlike, belonging strictly to the boys' environment. The former unquestionably furnished the mainsprings of interest and action. The latter\ndominated, in this case on the whole fortunately, the circle of ideas and\nexperiences.\nIs there not a lesson for education in this ? Is it possible wisely\nto circumvent even the rougher, cruder instincts in human nature ?\nAnd is not the method of treatment rather one in which education supplies an environment favorable to adaptations, leaving to the child,\nwithin reasonable bounds, the full force of his heredity ? I know\nthat this cannot be done in every instance. Some instincts do not seem\nalways to be amenable to the better suggestions of environment. But\nthe majority of them, I believe, which are not directly in harmony with\nthe present social environment, yield to a process of transformation. The\nthought of transformation, therefore, should be kept uppermost in the\neffort of parent or educator to control or modify the instinctive side of\ndevelopment. The power of suggestion and of favorable environment,\ntherefore, should be applied chiefly in the control qf the group for educative purposes.\nAgain, this recognition of the force of the group in education will\nnot necessarily stand in the way of individual development. Especially\nis this true when the group can be given greater or less freedom of movement. As the study of children in groups has shown, the natural\nselection of individual forces proceeds here as elsewhere. Leaders\narise thru force of character; the better moral ideals may dominate;\nthere are trials of individual merit, endurance, and strength; contest and fellowship are constantly disciplining, not only socially, but\nindividually.\nFinally, the force with which ideas and actions develop within the\ngroup suggests that its interests may be made points of departure in\ninstruction. Whatever feelings and instincts appear here are marked by\nintensity and strength. It is just for this reason, in part, that the experiences they develop become lasting impressions. Why not, then, following the suggestion of Colin Scott with respect to fears, draw the theme in\nart, literary, or practical instruction at times from the activities of childhood which are so strong and prominent in the group ? The case cited\n\n"}
{"page": 1071, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nGROUP\n\nACTIVITY\n\nAMONG\n\nCHILDREN\n\n1063\n\nabove suggests this. Sheldon has reported many cases suggestive in the\nsame way. In many of the cases that have come to my notice I have\nfound the group strengthening the interest in the story and exercising the\nfaculty of language, furthering the scientific interest; training to the\nappreciation and exercise of law and order and fellowship ; stimulating\nnative wit, invention, self-help, and construction. All this is possible, 1\nbelieve, largely because group activity deals with those primeval interests\nupon which, after all, human nature is built, and because thru them it\nawakens in the individual a deeper sense of strength.\n\n"}
{"page": 1072, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF PHYSICAL EDUCATION\n\nSECRETARY'S\nFIRST\n\nMINUTES\n\nSESSION.— Wednesday, July 12, 1899\n\nThe meeting was called to order in Turner Hall at 2 : 30 P. M. by Dr. W. O. Krohn,\nHospital, 111., the vice-president.\nAfter invocation by Rev. William Cleaver, an exhibition of class exercises in German gymnastics was directed by Mr. C. J. Rohde, Los Angeles, Cal.\nFollowing this came the address of the president of the department, G. W. Fitz\nHarvard University, on the \" Conditions and Needs of Physical Education of Today.\"\nThe next paper was read by Dr. P'rederic L. Burk, superintendent of schools\nSanta Barbara, Cal., the subject being \" Some Influences which Affect Growth.\"\nAfter a vocal solo by Mrs. Matthewson, Professor W. W. Hastings, of the University\nof Nebraska, gave a paper on \"Anthropometric Studies in Nebraska.\"\nT. A. Story, of Leland Stanford University, led in the discussion of Mr. Burk's\npaper, followed by W. E. Watts, Chicago, 111.\nThe president appointed as nominating committee :\nDr. Augusta Requa, New York city.\nRobert Krohn, Portland, Ore.\nMrs. Kate D. Pollans, Waterloo, la.\n\nSECOND\n\nSession. — Friday, July 14\n\nThe meeting was called to order at 2 : 30 P. M. by the vice-president, Dr. Krohn.\nAfter a violin solo by Mr. C. J. Fox, a class in wand exercises was led by Mr. Rohde.\nThe first paper was on the subject of \" Play Interests of Children,\" by Will S.\nMonroe, of the State Normal School, Westfield, Mass.\nAfter music by the Imperial Quartette, a paper on the subject, \" How may Fatigue\nin the Schoolroom be Reduced to the Minimum?\" was presented by Superintendent H. E.\nKratz, Sioux City, la. The same was discussed by Dr. W. O. Krohn, Hospital, 111., followed by Superintendent Powell, Washington, D. C, and Mrs. Rolfe.\nThe Committee on Nominations reported the following :\nFor President — George W. Fitz, Cambridge, Mass.\nFor First Vice-President —\\f. O. Krohn, Hospital, 111.\nFor Second Vice-President — Miss Ellen Le Garde, Providence, R. I.\nFor Secretary — Miss Mable Pray, Toledo, O.\n\nThe report was unanimously adopted, and the department adjourned.\nRebecca Stoneroad,\nSecretary.\n\n1064\n\n"}
{"page": 1073, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPRESIDENTS\n\nPAPERS\n\nAND\n\nPRESIDENT'S\n\nBY\n\nPROFESSOR\n\nG.\n\nW.\n\nFITZ,\n\nHARVARD\n\nADDRESS\n\n1065\n\nDISCUSSIONS\nADDRESS\n\nUNIVERSITY,\n\nCAMBRIDGE,\n\nMASS.\n\nWhile deeply regretting my inability to be in Los Angeles, I heartily\nappreciate the privilege granted me of briefly addressing you upon the\ncondition and needs of the physical education of today.\nThe present position of physical education offers much of encouragement. Educators and teachers are becoming more generally appreciative\nof the educational value of exercise. Physicians and parents recognize\nits hygienic value in promoting growth, and in producing that indefinable\nquality which characterizes the physically active, and which we call\nvigor. School system after school system is placing physical training in\nits curriculum. It would seem as tho now were the time when the\nphysical director and the teacher of gymnastics could look forward with\nconfidence to coming into his own.\nBut the present situation contains a threat as well as a promise. The\ngrowing demand for the teaching of physical training has been more\nthan met by the rapidly increasing supply of trained teachers. With the\nconsequent rise of competition have come those rivalries of schools which\nthreaten the unity of purpose and heartiness of co-operation upon which\nour future progress rests. The need for physical training is so great and\nso varied in its aspects that but few appreciate it in its fullness. One\nbecomes impressed with the poor carriage of school children, and indeed\nof the majority of mankind, and feels that physical exercise and training\nshould aim at the improvement of the carriage. Another notices the\nawkward restraint of movement, and is impelled to devise a system of\nculture which shall give freedom and grace. Another notices asymmetry\nand poor development, and devises such measurements and training as\nshall make for normal development. Still another is interested in\nathletics, and thinks that it is the panacea which will bring about human\nphysical perfection. The lover of childhood finds in spontaneity the\ngreat organ note of human life which harmonizes all activity, and so\nbelieves games and plays to be the truest training for school children.\nAs a result of this diversity of claim, school officers and superintendents are beginning to hesitate about the introduction of physical training,\noverwhelmed by the necessity for a careful consideration and just\nvaluation of the various systems, each one of which in its struggle for\n\n"}
{"page": 1074, "printed_page": null, "text": "lo66\n\nNATXONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical\n\nsupremacy claims to be alone in its completeness and adaptation to the\nneeds of the schools, and too often does not hesitate to condemn its rival\nas ignorant, careless, poorly equipped, and blind to the great underlying\nprinciple of gymnastic progression.\nThis spirit of the schools of physical training has seriously militated\nagainst a calmly critical study of the essential problems of physical education. Were the opportunities now possessed by physical trainers utilized\nfor a scientific investigation of these problems, we should not now lack a\nconcordant physiology and hygiene of physical exercise, a co-operative\nsynthesis of effort in defining the physical needs of children in kindergarten, primary, grammar, and high schools, or a just, mutually helpful\nemulation in furnishing the means for the physical activity thus defined.\nWe should have a clear idea of the relation of physical activity to growth,\nto the development and healthful action of the brain centers, and to the\nfatigue consequent upon school work, so that we should be enabled to judge\nmore accurateh' of the kind and amount of exercise most effective as a\nconstructive and remedial agent, and the conditions which determine\nits effectiveness. This can only come thru comparative studies made\nupon the results produced by the training offered in the various systems.\nAt present Dr. Foster, of Bryn Mawr, is the sole contributor to this comparative study.\nIt seems to me that this movement can no longer be delayed. Disagreement, sharp criticism, and conflicting claims cannot but make our\ncause ridiculous and delay a full recognition of physical education. We\nmust unite all conflicting factions into an earnest and efficient body of\nstudents who will be eager to grasp the truth, unmindful of its source,\nunprejudiced by its bearing upon preconceived ideas. This is no time for\nsentiment, for blind following of leaders, or the blinder application of cutand-dried rules. It is no time for political methods, for the bribery of\nschool and college officers to introduce a special form of gymnastics by\noffers of free instruction or even of gymnasia. It is a time for loyal, conscientious work and study, and for the re-examination of the foundations\nof the theory and practice of physical training. The continued existence\nas a theoretical entity of any system depends today upon a careful study '\nand adaptation of the newer results of physiological and psychological\nwork. It is not too much to say that our ideas of the relation of physical\nexercise to school work may be radically modified within the next five\nyears.\nSome advance toward this co-operation has already been made. The\nAmerican Association for the Advancement of Physical Education at its\nconvention in Boston, in April, considered the question of establishing a\nuniform system of examinations upon the basal studies of the curricula\nof normal schools in physical training, including anatomy, physiology,\nhygiene, physiology of exercise, and pedagogy, and of giving its certificate\n\n!\n\n"}
{"page": 1075, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nINFLUENCE\n\nOF EXERCISE\n\nUPON\n\nGROWTH\n\n1067\n\nto those who, by successfully passing these examinations, give evidence of adequate fundamental preparation for the teaching of physical\ntraining, regardless of their specialization in any one of the several\nso-called gymnastic systems. Steps were taken to appoint a committee of\nnine to prepare this matter for presentation to the next convention two\nyears hence. It was also unanimously voted that a committee of fifteen\nbe established somewhat upon the basis of the famous Committees of Ten\nand of Fifteen of the National Educational Association, with representative\nmembership drawn from all classes of teachers, physicians, and psychologists, to consider the physical needs of the various grades of the public\nschools and determine the amount of physical training which should be\nintroduced into each grade. Upon the successful outcome of this and\nsimilar plans for co-operative investigation and critical study must\ndepend the growth and vigor of physical education. Harmonious co-operation must take the place of antagonism. We must be students of the\ntruth of physical education, not merely exponents of fixed systems.\n\nTHE\nBY FREDERIC\n\nINFLUENCE\nL. BURK,\n\nOF EXERCISE\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nUPON\n\nOF SCHOOLS,\n\nGROWTH\n\nSANTA\n\nBARBARA,\n\nCAL.\n\nIt is not the purpose of this paper to prove that exercise affects growth.\nLet us accept this as a fact. An army of gymnasium directors are ready to\nshow that, in certain instances at least, certain exercises have produced\ni\n\nmarvelous enlargements of chest capacity, sudden increases in the circumferences ofthe biceps, have straightened misshapen limbs, squared sunken\nshoulders, and filled in here and taken out there, as a potter shapes clay.\nNevertheless, there have been failures now and then. Clearly, there are\nlimiting laws in promoting the function of exercise upon growth, and it\nis with some of these I shall deal.\nWhat is growth? It is not getting fat, and to say that it is simply the\nprocess of getting bigger is inadequate. It is admittedly true that we\nmust include under the term \" growth \" a vegetative phase which Aristotle\npointed out, and this certainly has to do with the increments of tissue —\ntheir size, form, symmetry, and relative proportion ; but this is manifestly\nnot the only phase, for it does not include the most pertinent of the aims\nof physical training — growth in the accuracy, rapidity, endurance, strength,\nexecution of long and delicately co-ordinated sequences of movement,\nwhich go to make up the requirements of modern life. No new muscles\nhave been. added to the hand of the skilled mechanic, artist, or musician,\nnor have the size, form, and relative arrangement of the muscles been\nmodified in any degree commensurable to the prodigious increase in\npower.\nThe muscular differences between the hand of a monkey and the\n\n"}
{"page": 1076, "printed_page": null, "text": "io68\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n[Physica\n\nhand of a man are hopelessly inadequate to bridge the chasm of increase\nin power, co ordination of movement, and delicate adjustment. Even in\nthe matter of strength no theory based upon muscular development alone\nmeets the fact that civilized races are superior to the uncivilized, or the\nfact, shown by Fere, that artisans whose daily work requires exercise of\nsome measure of intelligence are stronger than artisans whose work is\nalmost wholly muscular in form.\nIn the form of growth which has power for its aim we certainly must\nturn from the muscular to the nervous system ; nor can we accept as yet\nthe common assumption that growth toward ideals of muscular beauty,\nsymmetry, and proportion is any certain guarantee of growth in power.\nIndeed, we can have growth thru the vicarious exercise of muscles.\nFechner several years ago found that by learning to write with his right\nhand the figure 9 backward his left hand was vicariously taught to\naccomplish the same feat, tho it had not been exercised. Miss Smith,\nof Yale, for ten days exercised her right hand to insert a needle point\ninto a small hole, so arranged electrically that any unsteadiness was\nrecorded. Of 200 trials daily the percentage of error sank in the ten\ndays' exercise from 39 to 12 per cent. The left hand was tested at the\nbeginning and end of the ten days. It received no exercise in the meantime; yet the percentage of error had sunk from 50 to 24 per cent. As\nearly as 1858 Volkmann and Fechner had shown that by exercising the\nsensibility of any given area of the skin on one side of the body the\npower of discrimination of compass points on homologous areas on the\nother side increased, tho they were not directly exercised. Even in\nthe matter of strength this vicarious influence has been shown. Miss\nBrown, at Yale, for thirteen days exercised her right hand in squeezing a\nmercury dynamometer bulb, with the result of increasing the strength of\nthis hand from 28.8 to 48.6 — an increase of about 20 points. Her left\nhand, which had received no exercise, nevertheless showed an increase in\nstrength from 29.6 to 42.3 — an increase of 12.7 points.\nWe have in these experiments an agreement which leads to the conclusion, within the limitations of the experiments quoted, that growth in\npower can be effected thru exercise of the corresponding part of the\nopposite side of the body, without muscular exercise of the parts affected.\nHow is this fact to be explained? Certainly any theory which seeks to\nfind the explanation in muscular conditions most fall far short of\nadequacy. If for growth in power we turn our inquiry to the nervous\nsystem, the explanation that exercise affects not only the cell groups\ngoverning the muscular parts involved, but also, in a greater or less\ndegree, all cell groups in association, offers a plausible solution.\nThere are other principles of vicarious influence of exercise upon\ngrowth besides that of bilateral association. Fere, in the Revue philosophique, two years ago reported a series of most interesting experiments\n\n"}
{"page": 1077, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nINFLUENCE\n\nOP EXERCISE\n\nUPON\n\nGROWTH\n\n1069\n\nupon a subject who exercised his hand by simple and easy flexions of\nfingers. After three months of such training not only was the motility\nincreased, but also strength, precision, and reaction time of the entire\nhand. Clearly, there must be some explanation for the phenomenon in\nsome neural association, quite beyond any muscular training.\nThe separation of the problem of growth in the nervous system from that\nof growth in the muscular system introduces some important and significant\nmodifications. Growth, as a vegetative swelling in size, is a more primitive form. The protozoan cell swells in size until it reaches a certain\npoint in maturity, then it divides, and each daughter-cell repeats the pro\ncess. Most of the tissues of the human body effect growth by means not\ndistantly differentiated from this primitive form of vegetative increase.\nBut in the nervous system this form of growth ceases forever in the early\nembryological period. The number of cells does not increase thruout\nlife. We have, therefore, in the nervous system a .y?^/^<?«^;7> condition.\nGrowth in the nervous system after birth consists in the awakening of\nlatent cells into functional activity, and in the extension of associational\nfibers, bringing the cells into an ever closer co-ordination one with the\nother and with foreign tissues of the body. Ramony Cajal suggests\nplausibly that the energy which was employed in growth by cell division\nnow passes into the higher forms of fiber extension and the development\nof latent cells. Exercise administered at the proper time is certainly a\nfactor in producing this growth. Omission of it, we are almost justified,\nin asserting, at least in many cases, prevents development. In any adult\nbrain, even in old age, multitudes of undeveloped cells are to be observed,\nand growth of finer fibers is practically continuous thruout life, as the\nstudies of Kaes, Vulpian, and others would go to show. Donaldson has\nshown, from his study of the brain of the blind and deaf Laura Bridgman,\nthat in the visual and auditory areas there was an excessive number of\nundeveloped cells, and the number of fibers was very significantly small.\nThese areas had received no exercise. Also Hamarberg, in his comparative study of idiot and normal brains, shows beyond question the\nwoeful deficiency in the development of cells and fibers in the defective\nregions.\nWe now pass to some of the principles which condition growth and\nlimit the function of exercise.\nI. Hereditary structure provides the framework for the main form of\nthe more important fundamental movements and activities. Prior to\nbirth the nerve cells are already formed and are lying dormant in their\nrespective areas, and their larger connections, direction of course, and\nmain associations are established, anatomically, long before they become\nfunctional, and therefore long before exercise can legitimately become a\nfactor. This certainly applies to all of the well-established racial activities. To what extent preformation exists for activities less established,\n\n"}
{"page": 1078, "printed_page": null, "text": "1070\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical\n\nof course, can only be a matter of conjecture. Physical training, avowedly, has for its aim the development of those fundamental and basal\npowers which are old to the race, rather than those which the individual\nmay possibly originate for himself. The chief function of exercise certainly is,therefore, to reawaken that which is latent. We may sa}', perhaps, that exercise in early life is a factor which is in inverse ratio the\nforce of hereditary predisposition ; that is to say, the more deeply\ninstinctive a movement, the less the sphere of exercise. Chicks readily\nrun at the bursting of the shell, but in the less instinctive activities, such\nas methods of capturing prey and selecting good from bad food, skill is\nacquired, as Lloyd Morgan has shown, by exercise and training. Children\nneed comparatively little training in learning to walk, but an enormous\namount in learning to write.\n2. A popular conception is prevalent that by introducing certain exercises we may develop an organism in any order at will. But we are met\nby the fact that internal provision of hereditary origin determines the\norder or sequence by which the nerve centers governing the various\nmovements come into functional activity. Flechsig in his researches\nupon the nervous systems of the foetus and infants has unquestionably\nestablished this. In this primitive period Flechsig has traced in most\ninteresting detail the early sequences — growth first in one area and then\nin another, a bundle of fibers extending from this area to that, etc.\nThere seems to be a fixed causal sequence in this order, so that a ripening\nin one area or center becomes the cue for the ripening in another.\n3. A principle of overwhelming significance is that this determined\nsequence of development is an evolution from those structures or movements which represent the oldest racial forms toward those which are\nthe most recent additions of the race ; in other words, that the movements\nof the individual unfold in an order determined by the history of race\ndevelopment. A notable illustration is in the motor columns of the\nspinal cord, which convey voluntary impulses from the cortex downward\nto affect and modify the impulses originating in the cells of the spinal\ncord; while the spinal structures themselves are well matured before birth,\nthese foreign fibers, representing the later addition of will activity, mature\nat a distinctly later period. Voluntary control comes later in the child,\nas in the race.\n4. .\\ corollary principle to that of determined sequence in development isthat the time at which each area ripens tends to be approximately\n.the same in all individuals, altho other factors modify this principle to\na varying degree. For the primitive structures observed by Flechsig in\ninfants the variation, under normal conditions, is slight, but we certainly\nhave evidence in the later growths that this time relation is greatly modified. Secondly, all forms of growth, nervous and vegetative, are by rhythms\nof rest and activity.\nFor example, among children the world over there\n\n"}
{"page": 1079, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nINFLUENCE\n\nOF EXERCISE\n\nUPON\n\nGROWTH\n\n107 1\n\nis a period of comparatively rapid increase in height which some place\nbetween the sixth and ninth years ; then comes a period of two or three\nyears, just preceding pubescence, when the increase fs comparatively slight,\nsuggestively analogous to the resting period of a cell after division, while\nit stores up energy for a new growth. Then comes the rapid shoot of the\nfirst two or three years of adolescence ; then another rest, and a smaller and\nlater period of rapid growth. As Mailing Hansen, in Denmark, has shown,\nnot only are there diurnal alternations of growth and rest, but also weekly\nalternations ; and, further, boys grow in height two and one-half times\nas rapidly from April to x\\ugust as from August to November, while the\nweight rate is just reversed, and boys lose in weight during the spring and\nsummer; the growing period in weight is from August to November, when\nthe height rate is at its minimum. If exercise should be employed, as we\nare all ready to agree, only in the nascent periods of growth, what provisions have yet been made in our systems adequate to the necessities?\nWe are unable to take more than doubtful steps in this direction, for only\nthe shore-line soundings of the facts relative to nascent periods and their\ntimes of appearance have yet been made by investigation. We know, for\nexample, that the marvels of the gymnasium in developing large lung\ncapacities is possible because the gymnasium exercise as a rule deals with\nadolescents, and the nascent period of lung growth falls fortunately\nwithin this period. So with a large number of other powers, the age at\nwhich gymnasium exercise usually is introduced fortuitously hits the\nnascent period for the given organ or movement. Roberts, in the Fifth\nParliamentary Report, shows that the systematic exercises which in our\ngymnasiums for adolescents produce such quick responses for growth\nof lung capacity, strength, etc., have utterly failed when practiced by\nboys under twelve years. Their nascent periods in these lines have not\nyet come. We have much evidence to show that just before a structure\ncomes into its nascent period exercise may be very easily effective in producing a premature growth, perhaps to hygienic injury. A kitten's eyelids\ndo not open for several days after birth. The nerve is not medullated,\nthat is, is not functionally mature, until the end of that period. If, however, as has been done, the eyes are forced open prematurely at birth, the\nexercise set up by the light causes a premature meduUation of the nerve.\nOn the other hand, all practical observers know that exercise postponed beyond the nascent period is able to accomplish little, especially in\nthe cases where heredity plays a controlling role. A bad habit of movement acquired in a nascent period is hard to overcome. A child who\nlearns a foreign language in the nascency of the speech centers speaks\nwithout accent, while the language learned in adult life rarely reaches\nthis degree of perfection.\n5. The form of the exercise necessary to develop a fundamental\nfunction is essentially determined by hereditary structures and tendencies.\n\n"}
{"page": 1080, "printed_page": null, "text": "I072\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical\n\nCertain forms of play are universal among children the world over, varying only in name, and extend backward in history as far as tradition will\nreach. The gambols of a kitten or of a puppy are the same from generation to generation. The principle is more infrangible the more instinctive and fundamental the activity. Thus there is left no standing room\nfor originality in the invention of systems of exercise for children, especially those designed arbitrarily, regardless of heredity, to meet ideals\nof beauty to the ends of aesthetic exhibitions. Our business, on the contrary, must ever be to discover the form of exercise which race habit has\nhanded down, and this we have not yet done to any adequate degree.\n6. In the development of movement nature as a rule proceeds by a\nsystem of modifications of old movements. Thus speech uses practically\nthe same muscles as those used in eating, but a higher and more recent\nlevel of nerve cells exerts a controlling and modifying influence upon the\ncells which formerly controlled these muscles. The elements which make\nfor accuracy, rapidity, endurance, and dexterity seem to belong to the\nhigher levels, largely maturing in adolescence, as the studies of Bryan,\nGilbert, and others upon motor ability would suggest. For example,\ninfants may execute a finger movement, but accuracy and rapidity of finger\nmovement do not reach their rhythm of greatest nascency until puberty.\n7. In conclusion, then, there is slight evidence of any logical arrangement in the order of development of nascent periods \\ nothing which can\nbe prophesied by a systematic planning of what would logically seem to\nbe appropriate. The key lies hidden in the mystery of race development,\nand there is everywhere evidence that exercise given without regard to\nthis hereditary determining power is either ineffective or is positively\nunhygienic.\nThe movements of the thumb, so all-important in human use,\n. and seemingly so fundamental in the exercise of the hand, are several\nmonths later in their nascent periods than the movements of the rest of\nthe hand. The infant makes no use of his thumb until he is several\nmonths old. The explanation lies in the fact that in evolutionary history\nthe thumb came into use late. The infant at birth can grasp with his\nwhole hand with a strength which, proportional to his size and weight, he\ncan hardly be said to improve upon in later life. The infant's eyes tend\nto be independent of each other in movement, and growth in them\nis toward co-ordination ; yet in arm development a baby is several months\nold before he can make a movement with one arm without making the\nsame movement with the other. Growth in arm development is from\nco-ordination toward independence. The incongruity between eye and arm\ndevelopment finds a probable explanation in that in animal evolution the\nforelimbs were ever used co-ordinately and the eyes generally independently. And since this relation has been reversed in the primates, and\nespecially in man, the transition is repeated in the child. It follows that\nnotions of logical arrangements and arbitrary theories of symmetry can\n\n"}
{"page": 1081, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nINFLUENCE\n\nOF EXERCISE\n\nUPON\n\nGROWTH\n\n1073\n\nbe but a source of confusion in deterniining the order of exercises. How\ncan we, in the state of our present knowledge, cross-section the organism\nat any partial period of growth and declare that, by the. laws of tape and\nscales, this part needs development and that reducing? The proportion of today is not that of tomorrow, nor that of yesterday. The\ntheory of proportion and symmetry may have its place and significance\nin the training of adults, but with growing organisms we need to know\nmuch more than we know as yet of the nascent periods, when exercise\ncan safely and profitably be administered.\nWhile it is unquestionably true that our systems, based upon symmetry\nand proportion, are producing well-formed men, it has been by no means\nestablished that these products possess surer immunity from disease, or\nare the fittest to survive from a race or an individual standpoint. There\nis certainly much biological suggestion to indicate that symmetry and\naverage proportions have not been nature's aim; but, on the contrary, there\nis ever an effort to produce particular individuals, particular forms, and\nparticular proportions. From this standpoint, the function of exercise\nmust be ever to fulfill nature's first intention for the particular individual,\nand methods which tend toward averages must be classed as dangerous\nimpediments. This does not mean that unsymmetrical forms are always\nnature's aim, but it does mean that muscular symmetry cannot be placed\nas the ultimate end of physical training.\nLastly, we must not underestimate the power of exercise, arbitrarily\nenforced, to modify nature's intention. The principle has already been\npointed out that the more instinctive a given movement is, the less is it\nsusceptible to outside influence of exercise. But man has few set and\ncast-iron instincts, as the lower animals manifest. This is not because he\nhas a less number of instincts in tendency, but doubtless because, as the\nheir of all ages, he has a greater number of instincts, and they are in vigorous conflict. They hail from different origins, and at times it requires\nbut a touch to tip the scales in favor of one or the other tendency.\nDoubtless exercise has it in its power, at such moments, to direct energy\ninto one organ at the expense of its neighbor, or to overdevelop one part\nupon a theory of relative proportions. We have no assurance in a particular individual that symmetry is always the intention of nature.\nIn brief, the aim of this paper has been to present the view that exercise, while an essential and powerful factor of growth, nevertheless must,\nin order to be profitable and hygienic, be limited to the form, sequence,\nand time of application determined for it by hereditary design ; that\nexercise, the aim of which is merely muscular form and proportion, offers\nan inadequate grasp of the problem ; and that during the growing periods,\nespecially of those movements which are most instinctive, originality and\narbitrary systems of physical training leading to departures from racial\nhabit are notions to be avoided.\n\n"}
{"page": 1082, "printed_page": null, "text": "I074\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical\n\nDISCUSSION\nT. A. Storey, instructor of hygienic and organic training, Leland Stanford Jr.\nUniversity. — We as teachers are interested most vitally in that portion of Dr. Burk's paper\nwhich deals with the influence of exercise on the growth of younger children. We find\nthat the periods of natural growth for each muscle are the best periods for its development thru exercise, and that exercise applied either before or after these periods will\nbe either ineffective or positively injurious. The natural order of development of the\nvarious muscles is a problem that has never been worked out. We have no system of\nphysical training that takes such conditions into consideration. The teacher must use\nhis own good judgment in his selection of exercise, taking the movements that suit his\npurposes best, without reference to the particular systems in which they appear. This\nma}' not be a difficult or dangerous problem when one has to deal with older individuals,\nbut, as you can readily see from the paper just presented, the greatest caution must be\nexercised when younger children are in hand. That they need some sort of activity is\nself-evident. The most active children in school are between the ages of nine and twelve.\nThey are never quiet. Their natural need for exercise finds expression in their games\nand play. The play of children is largely the same the world over, and has been so as\nlong as we have record. The same large muscle groups have been exercised since the\nbeginning of time. This is good evidence of a common natural demand for exercise ;\nand these natural exercises that have trained children for ages must be good exercises for\nchildren.\nIs it not a significant fact that in their play children adopt an alternation of games\nthat varies greatly in its demands on the muscular system ? Compare the activities of\nmarbles, jackstones, or \"mumble peg\" with those of baseball, hide-and-seek, or prisoners' base. And have you ever noticed that these games have their own proper time in the\nyear's program ? And that a sort of inflexible law will not permit their being played out\nof season ? May there not be a physiological reason for this alternation of games that\ncomes to every community of children ? Is it possible that the natural periods of retarded\nand accelerated growth are accommodated by the various games that require, as the case\nmay be, greater or less muscular activity ?\nA study of antepuberal activities made upon large groups of boys and girls would do\nmuch to identify the natural sequence in development of the larger muscle groups. Such\na study made in conjunction with embryolpgical research would produce a much clearer\nconception of the natural unfolding of neuromuscular groups.\nSo far as I know, there has been no such study or combination of studies ever made\nfrom this particular standpoint. There is ample material for such a compilation, for we\nhave many earnest investigators in both fields. But, while we wait for someone to point\nout these general laws and prove them true, what shall we do for bur children ?\nNow, it is not my purpose to outline any \" system.\" I am not sure that I believe in\nsystems, and in the face of the many possible dangers that might follow, and in view of\nour lack of accurate knowledge on this subject, it seems to me that a most cautious and\nconservative course would be the most sensible.\nLet the youngsters have their natural play ; encourage the antics and gambols that\nhave been their habit as long as there have been children. Such activities are natural,\nand must be largely right. But there are some dangers in these natural gymnastics, aud\nthey are comuion dangers, too. The control of careful, experienced minds is an absolute\nnecessity for the best and safest results in the development of young children. For\ninstance, we are all right-sided, right-handed, right-armed, right-legged. One muscle\ngroup may vicariously educate another, but this, as Dr. Burk has told you, is the result of\n\n"}
{"page": 1083, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nINFLUENCE\n\nOE EXERCISE\n\nUPON\n\nGROWTH\n\n1075\n\nthe influence of exercise on the central nervous system. Dormant nerve cells may be\nawakened ; the nervous tissue may grow, may develop ; but the growth of the peripheral\nmuscular tissue in the groups vicariously educated is far behind the growth of the same\ncorresponding muscles directly exercised. If left to himself, the child may be right-sided\nor left-sided, or, at any rate, one-sided, and this to his great injury and disadvantage.\nNow, there may be no great harm in being merely right-handed, but there are often more\nfar-reaching results that are dangerous to a great degree.\nThe special use of the right arm has made it commonly longer and larger than the\nleft. Its great activity often permanently draws the right shoulder down, and may produce a curved spine and a depressed chest. In many cases the delicate organs in the\nthorax and abdomen are subjected by the spinal curve and the depressed chest to cramped\nand strained conditions that interfere with normal physiological action.\nIt is true that right-handedness is the result of causes too ancient in racial history\nto be completely removed, or perhaps even greatly influenced, by exercise. We cannot\nexpect to rearrange the cells of the central nervous system. Mr. J. M. Baldwin tells us\nthat the more efficient hand finds its center of control in near neighborhood to that center\nwhich controls the organs of Speech, and this relationship is never changed. Exercise\ncannot produce any different arrangement of central relationship, but it certainly may be\ninstrumental in altering some of the peripheral conditions. The left arm will probably\nnever be as efficient as the right, but it can do enough work to counteract the ordinary\none-sided influence exercised by the right arm on the shoulder, spine, and chest, and the\ndelicate organs in the body cavity.\nLet me cite another common danger. In a great number of cases there is found a\ndifference in femoral measurements. The right leg is usually shorter than the left. This\ncondition is the result of habit in standing, in play, in all those positions in which the\nright leg supports the weight of the body. One might say that the continued pressure\nstunts the growth of the right femur,. The results of this anatomical inequality are farreaching. The right innominate bone must, as a result, be lower than the left ; there\nmust be a right lateral sacral curve of the spine, and the possibility of further compensatory curves of the spine is, indeed, great. All the complications that come from a weak\nback are easily more possible under such conditions, and all because of an inequality in\nfemoral lengths. Here, again, the care and attention of the teacher may do much to prevent such abnormality and its probable disastrous results. If one case out of five hundred\nis saved, the work of the teacher is more than recompensed.\nThe danger of injury to the orderly development of the neuromuscular groups becomes\nall the greater as we attempt to apply various systems of physical culture, which require\naccuracy, dexterity, rapidity, great endurance, and strength. In their play our children\nemploy the larger, more simple, fundamental body, arm, and leg movements, which we,\nas teachers, can wisely and safely guide to a sure foundation of sound maturity.\nEncourage symmetry in play ; get your boys and girls on both feet ; be partial to \" leftsided \" movements. If set exercises are given, build the series up from those simple, full\narm, body, and leg movements that form the natural play of all children. The motor\ncenters that govern these movements develop first, and are not very liable to receive\ninjury from the exercise given by the. simple movements that form the natural sports of\nchildren.\nIn summarizing let me say : No system of physical training can be applied with\nequal success to all ages and conditions.\nPositions of the body often assumed tend to become permanent. The greatest care\nand caution is necessary to protect the child from the evils of one-sided development.\nThe natural spontaneous muscular activities of children are least dangerous to their\nphysical welfare, and afford a source from which the teacher of physical training may\ngain safe, practical, and successful exercises.\n\n"}
{"page": 1084, "printed_page": null, "text": "1076\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical\n\nPrincipal William E. Watt, Chicago, 111. — It is better to prevent evil than to\ncure it. If sewer gas has entered your house, your doctor is entitled to credit when he\nhas cured you of the resulting disease ; but your plumber is a better man because he\nmodifies things so that no sewer gas can get in.\nThere is a nerve-destroying element in the primary and grammar school which is\nworse than sewer gas. It is the excessive use of the pen. Our children are writing much\nof the time all day. When the teacher wishes to work with one class without interruption,\nshe sets the rest of the school at a task in writing. It is the easy way to get good order,\nand there is no denying that when a child has been idle during a writing period he is\ndetected at once, because he has not the necessary work to show for the time spent.\nSo much work is done with the pen that spines are bent, nerves destroyed, chests\ncontracted, indigestion aggravated, and eyes permanently mjured.\nThese evils the physical trainer is trying to overcome with appropriate and restful\nexercises. I wish to invite you to join in persuading superintendents generally to do less\nof those (hings which make your work so necessary. If the worst features of school work\ncould be prevented from injuring the bodies of our pupils, directors of physical training\nwould then have the happy task of building up perfect bodies in place of the sorry one of\ntrying to correct, as far as possible, the deformities which result from the unhealthful\noccupations of the schoolroom.\nNot only is the excessive use of the pen to be deplored because of its bad effects on\nthe growing child, but also on account of its utter uselessness. Overtraining of the\nmuscles of the hand before the age of puberty does positive injury to the hand as a\nwriting instrument. Pupils who come up thru our schools with much training in penmanship in the primary and lower grammar grades are not able to learn to write as well\nas those more fortunate ones who have escaped the grind in some way, and pursue penmanship more pleasantly at a later period. Overtraining before the age of twelve dwarfs\nthe powers that might belong to the pupils after that age.\n\nANTHROPOMETRIC\n\nBY\n\nPROFESSOR\n\nWILLIAM\n\nSTUDIES\n\nIN NEBRASKA\n\nW. HASTINGS, UNIVERSITY\nNEB.\n\n[abbreviated\n\nby the\n\nOF NEBRASKA,\n\nLINCOLN,\n\nauthor]\n\nThe teacher who attempts the development of the life of an individual\nwithout measuring his physical vitality is as wise as the builder who\nattempts to bridge the Niagara without a knowledge of the strength of\nmaterials.\nThe period at which, in a peculiar sense, rich, full life is made is that\nof childhood, when public-school teachers have the responsibility. It is\nthe period of ceaseless activity, of inquisitiveness and acquisitiveness, of\nlatent power, of growth and development. The ultimatum of our endeavor\nis not head-cramming with book-learning, but the formation of character.\nIn the final analysis force of character depends upon the sustaining power\nof a strong physique. The thoughtful teacher is beginning to recognize\nthat health and development, not book-learning, are his first care ; that\n\n"}
{"page": 1085, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nANTHROPOMETRIC\n\nSTUDIES\n\nIN NEBRASKA\n\n1077\n\nindividuals, not things, are to be taught ; that thinking, not knowledge,\nis power. He wants a working basis for the production of physical and\nintellectual power.\nThe first thing to know is whether and how much a child varies from\nthe normal of his sex and age ; then what kind of exercise will correct his\npeculiar defects. Upon the collection of a large number of physical\nmeasurements very accurate standards of normal development may be\nobtained.\nIn Lincoln, during May, 1898, two weeks were spent in taking measurements at ten schools. Twenty-five university students and instructors\nvolunteered to assist in the work. Efficient aid was rendered by teachers\nand principals, and the heartiest co-operation and practical interest were\nexercised by the city superintendent, Mr. J. F. Saylor. More than 2,500\nchildren were examined. Fifteen different physical qualities were taken by\nobservers. The same number of accessory items as to nationality, occupation, heredity, diseases, etc., was elicited by question blanks sent to\nparents. With the aid of assistants, several weeks were spent in the\ncalculation of results from these measurements. Up to the present time\nthe conclusions reached for Lincoln are :\n1. Girls are heavier and taller than boys during the thirteenth and\nfourteenth years. During the twelfth and fifteenth years also they\nexceed boys in height, but not in weight.\n2. The physical basis of mental efficiency was indicated, tho not as\naccurately as in the results obtained by Dr. Porter from St. Louis schools,\nbecause the number of children near the extremes was not sufficiently\nlarge to permit the calculation of an exact mean.\n3. Children of the ages of nine, ten, eleven, and twelve were classified\naccording to nationality of parents. With but one exception American\nchildren were taller than those of foreign extraction. American girls\ntwelve years of age were slightly shorter (two millimeters). American\nboys, with the exception of those eleven years of age, were heavier than\nboys of foreign parentage. American-born children excel in chest expansion for almost every age.\n4. According to Com.parative Table I ' the statures of children of\nnine, ten, eleven, and twelve years from various localities arrange themselves in the following order : Belgian children (Quetelet), lowest\nEnglish children (Roberts), second ; St. Louis children (Porter), third\nOmaha children (Hastings), fourth ; Lincoln children (Hastings), fifth\nBoston children (Bowditch), last, and superior in height to all the rest,\naltho Lincoln children are very close to them in development.\nThis fact\nof superior stature of Nebraskans has been forced upon my attention in\nthe examination of students in the university ; they are superior to\nAmherst, Yale, and Cornell men.\n'To be found in the Proceedings of the Nebraska Academy of Sciences, November, 1898.\n\n"}
{"page": 1086, "printed_page": null, "text": "1078\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n\\ Physica 1\n\nAccording to Comparative Table II' the same general order is preserved, except that English children in weight, or general solidity of\nmuscles and frame, take sixth, or highest, place. Lincoln children rank\nat third place ; the order being : Belgium, first ; Omaha, second ; Lincoln,\nthird ; St. Louis, fourth; Boston, fifth, and England, last. However, the\nultimate development of Boston boys is superior to that of the English\nboys, as the mean development for the years twelve to sixteen shows.\nThe type or norm of Lincoln children of each age and sex has been\ncalculated for the following qualities : weight, height standing, height\nsitting, breadth of chest, depth of chest, lung capacity, and chest expansion. They are prevailingly larger than St. Louis children of the same\nage and sex.\nUpon the organization of a local physical-education society this\nspring, Omaha perfected its arrangements for the examination of publicschool children. Under the able and immediate direction of Superintendent C. G. Pearse- 10,000 children were examined during four weeks\nending the second week in June.\nThe type of Omaha children has been calculated for weight, height\nstanding, and chest expansion. They are slightly inferior to Lincoln\nchildren, and, because of the deteriorating influence of city life, probably\ninferior to the type for the state of Nebraska.\nBy the results obtained in Omaha the physical basis of mental\nefficiency is satisfactorily demonstrated and the conclusions of Dr. Porter\nsustained. Children of the \"same age and sex increase in mental efficiency according to the development of their various physical qualities,\nheight, weight, etc. Time has not sufficed for the calculation of other\nqualities, but the rule is sustained as to height and weight, with but few\nexceptions, as indicated by the accompanying tables :\nHEIGHT\n\nSTANDING\n\n83\n\n83\n\nBOYS\n\nAge\n\nEight\nNine\nTen\nKleven\n\nNumber of observations and unit\nof measure\n\nNo. of obser.\nCentimeters\nNo. of obser.\nCentimeters\nNo. of obser.\nCentimeters\nNo. of obser.\nCentimeters\n\n1\nGrade I 7 Grade245II\n137\n119\n\nGrade III\n145\n\n125-75 (?)\n\n125.67\n\nGrade V\n\nGrade VI\n\n194\n\n120.67 29\n119.88\n\nGrade IV\n\n67\n\n124.88\n126.40\n\n126.758 (?)\n187\n127.62\n131-45\n\n129,00\n131.12\n\n151\n130.27\n131.70\n\n134-07\n\n176\n134.80\n137.06\n\n' Proceedings of the Nebraska Academy of Sciences, November, iJ\n50\n\n90\n\n59\n137-50\n\n"}
{"page": 1087, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nANTHROPOMETRIC\n\nSTUDIES\n\nIN NEBRASKA\n\nHEIGHT\nGIRLS\nNumber of observations and unit\nof measure\n\nAge\n\nEight\n\nNine '\nven '\nEle Ten\n\nNo. of obser.\nCentimeters\nNo. of obser.\nCentimeters\nNo. of obser.\nCentimeters\nNo. of obser.\nCentimeters\n\nGrade I\n\nGrade II\n\n95\n\n232\n123.16\n\nGrade III\n\nGrade IV\n\nGrade VI\n\n203\n\n79\n118.00\n\nGrade V\n\n134\n145\n\n125.12\n\n128.75\n\n108\nI29.II\n53\n132.25\n\n83\n\nI3I-71\n\n92\n\n132.\n\n83135-83\n\n50\n\n1637 -\n\n134.22\n\n137\n\n17\n\nWEIGHT\n245 31\nBOYS\n119\n\nEight\nNine\nTen\nEleven\n\nNo. of obser.\nPounds\nNo. of obser.\nPounds\nNo. of obser.\nPounds\nNo. of obser.\nPounds\n\n145\n194\n\n29\n\n187\n48.62\n55-10 (?)\n\n51.26\n54-75\n\n58.15\n\n53-80\n55-50\n151\n62.60\n\n57-25\n61.00\n\nNine\nTen\nEleven\n\n95\nII\n46.76\n\n52.00 (?)\n\n79\n\n232\n\n121\n\n49.29\n\n90\n\n145\n\n51.60\n\n78\n\n59\n\n67.10\n\n67.00\n\n53\n55.22\n58.62\n63.80\n\n134\n\n47\n\n108\n52.22\n\n57-58\n\n176\n\n203\n\n50\n\nNo. of obser.\nPounds\nNo. of obser.\nPounds\nNo. of obser.\nPounds\nNo. of obser.\nPounds\n\n58\n\n62.86\n90.30\n64.90\n\n59-60\n\nEight\n\n72\n\n62.00\n62.56\n56.88\n\n6\n\n68.5\n\n66.00\n\n59.42\n\nNo stress can be laid upon exceptions found in the above tables,\nsince the number in each case is too 3small\nto warrant the calculation of\n1\nan accurate mean.\nAnd not only is it true that children of better physique are more\n72\nadvanced in school grades, but as a rule the percentage of their class\nstanding increases with the advance in school grades ; i?. ^.,the percentages\nfor boys of nine years averaged by grades are : first, 82 ; second, 83 ;\nthird, 84; and fourth, 89. This rule holds as far as the calculation of\nresults has been made, viz., for children eight, nine, and ten years of age.\nWherever there is an occasional falling off in percentage it occurs usually\nin the highest grades for the age, especially in the fourth grade. From\nthis uniformity in the nature of the exceptions the general inference may\nbe drawn that the children in the highest grades were pushed into them\nI Not yet calculated.\n\n58\n\n"}
{"page": 1088, "printed_page": null, "text": "loSo\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical\n\ntoo rapidly. An added reason for the falling off of percentage in\nthe fourth grade in Omaha schools may be that the children are given\nan entirely different line of subject-matter as they enter this grade.'\nOmaha girls surpass the boys in weight during the twelfth, thirteenth,\nfourteenth, and fifteenth years ; in height during the ninth, tenth,\neleventh, twelfth, thirteenth, and fourteenth years. The superiority of\ngirls during the ninth, tenth, and eleventh years, however, is not very\nmarked.\nThe climate of Nebraska is said to induce nervousness. This tends to\ndecrease weight. Perhaps the nervousness of the climate affects the\nweight of growing boys more than that of girls ; but whatever the disturbing cause, the results from Omaha for the most part sustain the previous\nconclusions as to prepuberal acceleration of growth first pointed out by\nDr. Bowditch.*\nIn chest expansion Nebraska children are prevailingly larger than St.\nLouis children. In Lincoln some remarkable cases of chest expansion\nwere discovered. One boy of fifteen years in the Bancroft School measured five and seven eighths inches of expansion, which is more than any\nman in the University of Nebraska possessed. Only one man boasts an\nexpansion of five inches, and that not mainly because of his size, but\nrather from great flexibility of the thorax. Several boys in the Bancroft\nSchool had three inches or over of chest expansion coupled with a prevailingly large lung capacity. Out of six of our largest and strongest\nmen in the university, ranging from five feet ten inches to six feet six\ninches, and with a lung capacity of 345 cubic inches, the greatest\nchest expansion was between six and seven centimeters, or less than\nthree inches.\nIn Omaha also there were several cases of very remarkable chest\nexpansion. Upon the authority of Dr. Towne, who measured almost\nthe whole ten thousand children as to this physical quality, I am able t(5\nstate that there were a few cases in Omaha ranging from twelve to fifteen\ncentimeters. Among children of a medium age these cases of remarkable expansion are most frequent. All these observations appear to indicate that adults, especially large-boned individuals, usually have little\nflexibility of the thorax, and they point to a period during adolescence\nwhen flexibility is greater than in later life.\nThe smaller weight, broader\nthorax, and greater lung capacity of\n» It is worthy of note, also, that the children now in the fourth grade in Omaha are the first kindergartentrained children to enter the fourth grade. In response to an inquiry with reference to this matter, Dr.\nTowne, of Omaha, pointed out that possibly for this reason they are less mature, or, in his words, \" their\nchildhood has been prolonged.\"\n» In support of the statement that Nebraska has a nervous climate, it may be interesting to note that the\nnormal pulse rate for the young men of the state, as based upon 600 observations in the university, was\nfound to be eighty and a fraction. This rate is eight to ten beats higher than the normal for the East\nThe pulse rate of Nebraska football men in 1898 was 76.75 ; of the track men, 80.5 ; while the rate for athletic\nmen in the East is said to be about 60.\n\n"}
{"page": 1089, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department J\n\nANTHROPOMETRIC\n\nSTUDIES\n\nIN NEBRASKA\n\n1 08 1\n\nNebraska university students, men and women, the superior height of\nthe men of the state, as well as some other, minor differences in development, point to a distinct departure from the eastern student type. The\nfact that these observations for adults agree in the main with those\nalready made for Nebraska children indicates that the trend of development toward a certain fixed type is constant for the state during the whole\nperiod of growth.\nEvery state ought to be thoroly organized for the promotion of an\nadequate interest in the physique of its student population, from the\nkindergarten to the university. Physical facts need restatement in a\nterse, concrete form to teachers and pupils. There is sufficient general\nrealization of the value of exercise for the promotion of health, but there\nis no really practical and prevailing system of bringing about a reform.\nOur sympathy with the correction of physical abuses is lost sight of in\nthe intellectual work which has absorbed our lives.\nThe supporters of physical training are largely those who have\nlearned by a bitter experience in college or out in life that it takes vitality\nto do a man's work in the world. The masses of people who do not\nunderstand the meaning of weakness, atrophy, and low vitality are just\nas sympathetic with physical-education reform as they know how to be.\nThey understand that physical evils exist, and that in the abstract there is\nsome remedy for them ; but it rarely occurs to them that the state ought to\napply the remedy. These people can be aroused to a live interest only by\nthe presentation of concrete facts from their own immediate surroundings.\nGiven this vital interest, and the whole matter of physical education\nsolves itself. The need of gymnasia, physical instructors, time for exercise, character of exercise, etc., will be met. Nothing excites interest\nlike local facts.\nI. The best thing, then, to stir up an interest thruout a state is to\nexamine the children of the state. The result of this investigation will\nbe an interest aroused in students, parents, teachers, and school boards.\nChildren learn that they have a body to be developed ; become intelligently interested in care of health. Parents are reminded that the\nstrength of their children is their immediate and most vital care. Teachers understand that their pupils are not alike in physical capacity ; that\nsome must be pushed and some retarded, or rather their interest diverted\ninto physical development for their own ultimate good. They learn that\nto push the child out of one grade into another is not the ultimate end\nof good service; that certain children who appear dull and lifeless at\ntimes are so from pathological reasons rather than psychological ; that\nsuch children are not stubborn, but physically abnormal. A vast amount\nof friction between teacher and pupil which now passes under the name\nof a necessary evil might be avoided by the teacher's understanding more\nof physiological psychology and the laws of growth and development.\n\n"}
{"page": 1090, "printed_page": null, "text": "1082\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nPhysical\n\nFinally, the school boards which are prevailed upon to undertake such an\ninvestigation are interested individually and collectively by that which\nthey are undertaking thru delegated power, and never fail to show their\ninterest by the presence and active assistance of some of their number.\n2. The second thing to do is to bring conclusions into suitable shape\nfor presentation before the state medical association, the academy of\nsciences, or other scientific bodies ; before the state teachers' association ;\nbefore school boards of the cities interested ; and to present them also to'\nthe teachers and to the pupils of the schools which furnished the data.\n3. The third thing to do is to get some systematic physical training\ninto the schools, and with it a system of annual physical examination,\nsimple at first, but becomig more and more thoro as the services of able\nmedical men become available for examinations and prescription of exercise. Then we shall have provided for our own flesh and blood as carefully as we have for the young criminals of the country in our reform\nschools, and have given them an equal chance of becoming strong, ablebodied citizens.\nThe best method of securing the co-operation necessary to the carrying out of such an investigation of the growth and development of\nchildren is thru the organization of a local physical-education society.\nCo-operation means strength.\nThe matter of measurement of children is very much more expeditious than is the calculation of results. Ten afternoons of from two to\nthree hours each were necessary for the measurement of 2,500 in Lincoln\nschools, with two sets of instruments, taking two rooms at a time. With\none set of instruments and corps of observers, 10,000 were examined in\nOmaha within four weeks. With the proper organization of forces, these\nmeasurements can be taken accurately at the rate of two and even three\nchildren each minute. In Lincoln over three hundred children were\nmeasured thru two sets of instruments working in separate rooms within\ntwo hours.\nIt is not supposed that the figures given herewith are final for\nNebraska. The purpose of this first general examination is to provide an\napproximate standard of the normal development for each age and sex.\nNebraska will have a full series of anthropometric tables for use in schools\nas soon as the calculations can be completed, probably before the end of\nthis year. After physical examinations have been introduced for a period\nof several years thruout the state, and a hundred thousand or more individuals have been examined from various cities and schools, it will be\ntime to anticipate obtaining conclusions of more absolute accuracy.\nUntil such a time we may be content to use charts based upon the first\nexamination of the children of our own section, or else procure them\nfrom some state where the physical conditions are practically the same as\nin our own state.\n\n"}
{"page": 1091, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nANTHROPOMETRIC\n\nSTUDIES\n\nIN\n\nNEBRASKA\n\n1083\n\nFew cities, counties, of states are already so thoroly aroused to the\nneed of the prevention of disease, and of the promotion of growth and\ndevelopment of children, that they are ready to inaugurate outright a.\nwell-developed system of physical examination and of physical training.\nThey need some preliminary steps of encouragement to action. It has\nbeen the aim of this paper simply to offer these preliminary steps. This\nplan of local investigation of need never yet failed to arouse an everincreasing increment of interest in all who came in touch with it.\nAdditional scientific results of permanent value to anthropologists will\naccrue from such widespread investigation among the states, and will form\na sounder basis for future work ; and the young medics who are now\nkicking up their heels in offices all over the country, waiting to find or to\nmake patients, can secure more profitable occupation in practicing the\nprevention of disease as medical examiners and physical directors in our\npublic schools. The trend of modern medicine theoretically is to preventive medicine ; why not make it practical by putting it into force during\nthe time of life when the whole organism is plastic and complete development is possible ? By exercise properly directed more can be done for\nthe future physical strength of the man in one year of training before the\nuniversity age than in two or three years after his entrance upon academic\nstudy.\nBesides, the development which is obtained later in life is not so\npermanent.'\nSuch cities as Boston, St. Louis, and others, in which physical education has received most attention, have demonstrated by results the great\nvalue of corrective work upon the development of children. They have\ndemonstrated also the value of physical measurements as a guide to practical methods in the promotion of this growth and development. The\nimmense stimulus which their investigations have given to physical educators thruout the country is not a matter whose influence Ihey have\nmeasured or perhaps counted upon in the inception of their work, but\nthey have counted upon a definite influence upon the local interest in\nphysical training in these cities, and they are still prosecuting some form\nof investigation for scientific purposes which helps to stimulate local\ngymnastic and athletic interest.\nIt is for this practical, pedagogic value I recommend the first general\ninvestigation, and afterward observations for purely scientific purposes,\nwhen more accurate results have become possible thru the employment of\nmedical experts upon our public-school forces.\nWhat we want now is\n' Men often work up strong arms or legs, or some other part of the body which has been weak, by the use\nof gymnastics while in college, but after they get out into business or professional life and drop this form of\nexercise they are surprised to find that the development upon which they were wont to pride themselves has\ngone with the cessation of the exercise; not so with the brawn of the country-bred boy or with the gymnasiumbred city youth ; at least not as noticeably so, altho lack of exercise does tend to produce decline in strength in\nthe strongest.\n\n"}
{"page": 1092, "printed_page": null, "text": "Io84\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical\n\nsome practical plan by which the public attention maybe directed toward\nthe necessity of systematic physical training for public schools. The same\nsystematic physical examination and physical training which exists in our\ncolleges and universities must be extended to preparatory and public\nschools. The best initial step leading up to this ultimate end will be\nthat outlined above.\n\nFLA y INTERESTS\nBY\n\nWILL\n\nS.\n\nMONROE,\n\nSTATE\n\nNORMAL\n\nOF CHILDREN\nSCHOOL,\n\nWESTFIELD,\n\nMASS.\n\nPerhaps no one factor in the life of the young child is so conducive\nto healthy development as play activity. As Professor Preyer has forcibly stated it :\nA man does not learn through any kind of instruction or study in later life anything like so much as the child learns in the first four years of his careless existence\nthrough the perceptions and ideas gained in his play. What seems to adults unworthy\nof the slightest attention in childish play is to the child himself of the highest significance, because it has the charm of novelty.\n\nThe utility of children's play, from an intellectual point of view, is\nlikely to be overlooked, but in what other form of activity does one find\nsuch diversity and virility of mental forces ? As Professor Preyer remarks :\nHow much there is of combination, of putting together ; how much of analyzing or\ntaking to pieces of tangible things ; how much of construction and destruction ; how\nmuch of investigation and persistent penetration, accompanied with great muscular\neffort. . . . Play makes the child happy. Work makes happy the learned man ; and by\nsuch a parallel there is no expressed depreciation of the value of the activity of the investigator and thinker, the discoverer and inventor. We simply put a higher estimate on\nthe activity of the playing child, who, in his primitive fashion, likewise discovers and\ninvents.\n\nWith a view to ascertaining the games which children like best to\nplay, the following test was given to 978 boys and 1,072 girls between\nthe ages of seven and sixteen years : \" What games do you like best to\nplay in summer, and why ? \" Three hundred and thirty-two favorite\ngames were mentioned, fifty-four of which, being named but once, were\nregarded as exceptional rather than traditional, and were not collated.\nThe remaining 278 games were grouped under nine rubrics, and constituted the following percentages of all the games mentioned :\n1. Ball games\n;^2 per cent.\n2. Chase games\n- 31 per cent.\n3. Motion games\n10 per cent.\n4. Occupation games - 5 per cent.\n5. Parlor games\n3 per cent.\n\n6. Love games\n- 3 per cent.\n7. Guessing games\ni^ per cent.\n8. Animal games\n- >^ per cent.\n9. Miscellaneous\n(unclassified)\n14 per cent.\n\n"}
{"page": 1093, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPLAY\n\nINTERESTS\n\nOF\n\nCHILDREN\n\n1085\n\nAll games played with balls have been grouped under the rubric ball\ngames. The group includes 13 per cent, of all the games mentioned,\nand was represented by 65 per cent, of boys and 35 per cent, of girls.\nBaseball was the favorite ball game ; it was preferred by 70 per cent, of\nthe boys, and reached its maximum at eleven and twelve years. Football\nwas a favorite game with 32 per cent, of the boys, but it had few advocates\namong the younger children, and reached its maximum at the age of\nfourteen years. Handball and basketball each had a few advocates\namong the boys. Croquet is a favorite game with 20 per cent, of the\nboys and 44 per cent, of the girls. With both sexes it reaches the\nheight of its popularity at from eleven to thirteen years. Marbles are\nmentioned as favorite games by 28 per cent, of the boys and 4 per cent,\nof the girls. This game is rarely mentioned after the age of thirteen\nyears. Hopscotch is the game liked best by 10 per cent, of the girls\nand I per cent, of the boys. Among the other ball games less frequently\nmentioned are \"duck-on-the-rock\" and \"tennis\" by the boys, and \"beanbag\" and \"tennis\" by the girls.\nChase games, in which the element of vigorous physical exercise is\npronounced, constituted 31 per cent, of the favorite games. \"Hide-andseek\" ranked first, with 40 per cent, of boys and 60 per cent, of girls.\nIt is more often selected than any other game, and reaches its maximum\nwith the boys of twelve years and the girls of thirteen. \"Tag\" ranks\nsecond in popularity among the games of chase. It is mentioned by 13\npercent, of the boys and 50 per cent, of the girls; and \"blind-man'sbuff\" is third, with 5 per cent, of the boys and 12 per cent, of the girls.\nHere, as Professor Groos notes, instinct is more conspicuous than in\nother forms of play, since by means of it the young practice sportively\nthose movements which will be used in earnest later on. Many of the\nchase games partake of hunting and combative characteristics, and are\nonly explicable, as Professor James points out, as an aboriginal impulse\ninitiated by immediate and overwhelming tendencies to muscular discharge. If\n\" evolution and the survival of the fittest be true at all,\" he\nsays, \"the destruction of prey and human rivals must have been among\nthe most important of man's primitive functions; the fighting and the\nchasing instincts must have become ingrained.\" Some of them, too, are\nclearly derived from more serious practices of earlier times. Tylor says\nin this connection that things which occupy an important place in the\nlife history of primitive men become the playthings of children in a\nperiod of civilization. The bow and arrow, for example, which constituted the weapons of mankind at an early stage of its existence, have outlived the serious purposes for which they were devised and have become\ntoys in the hands of civilized children.\nThe keen enjoyment which rhythm occasions is the basis of preference\nin the motion games.\nSuch games include rounds and numerous verbal\n\n"}
{"page": 1094, "printed_page": null, "text": "Io86\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical\n\nrepetitions ; and if one is to judge by the preferences' of these children —\n27 per cent, of boys and 73 per cent, of girls — they appeal especially to\nthe feminine play instinct. \" Ring-around-the-rosey \" and \"farmer-inthe-dell\" are the two favorite games of this group. Most of the motion\ngames are accompanied with music, and in some there are certain dance\nvariations. Such games are favored almost entirely by girls under eleven\nyears of age. Miss Fanny B. Gates, in her excelleut study of the rousi\ncal interest of children,' remarks that the sense of rhythm is essentially a\nsense of movement and suggests the early connection of music and dancing. \"Anyone,\" as she says, \"who watches himself or other people as\nthey listen to music will perceive that the pleasure is often enhanced by\nactual rhythmical movements. Even if no actual movement occurs, the\ntendency is there.\"\nThe group of occupation games is not as large as one might reasonably expect ; but it should be recalled that not a few of the games of chase\nand the motion games imitate adult activities, and that many children play\nat housekeeping and storekeeping without thinking of them as games ;\nand three-fourths of such preferences are by children under eleven years of\nage. Keeping house, store, and school are the forms of occupations\noftenest mentioned. Among the children of the American Indians\nmost of the games are sportive imitations of occupations which they will\ncarry on in earnest a few years later. A Sioux Indian in writing his\nrecollections of wild life as a boy says :\nOur sports were molded by the life and customs of our people — indeed, we practiced\nonly what we were expected to do when grown. Our games were feats with the bow and\narrow, toot and pony races, wrestling, swimming, and imitations of the customs and\nhabits of our fathers. We had sham fights with mud balls and willow wands ; we played\nlacrosse, made war upon bees, shot winter arrows, and coasted upon the ribs of animals\nand buffalo robes.\n\nSocial games, played indoors, are mentioned as favorites by but 3\nper cent, of the whole number of children tested, of which 49 per cent,\nare boys and 51 per cent, girls, most of whom are from twelve to\nsixteen years of age. Checkers, chess, dominoes, and parchesi lead with\nthe boys, and cards with the girls. As the test called for favorite summer\ngames, it is not at all surprising that the number suggesting such games\nshould be so small, since the games of this group are essentially forms of\namuseinent in the winter.\nWhen it is recalled that in America boys and girls always attend\nschool together, surprise will be felt at the small number of children\nselecting love games as favorites. Is it because the sexes become so\naccustomed to one another that coquetry becomes too commonplace to\nfind a place in their games ? Many of the love games have pretty rounds\nand rhythmical dance accompaniments, and because of their jingle and\nmotion would naturally appeal to young children.\nBut less than 3 per\nI Journal of Pedagogy (Syracuse), October, i8g8, Vol. XI. pp. 265-84.\n\ni\n\n"}
{"page": 1095, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPLAY\n\nINTERESTS\n\nOF\n\nCHILDREN\n\n1 08 7\n\ncent, of the whole number of children tested mention love games, and\nthe feminine preponderance of those who do make such selections is\nmost striking, 87 per cent, of the number being girls and but 13 per cent,\nboys. Those who select love games are at the dawn of adolescence.\n\" Drop-the-handkerchief \" and \"post-office\" are the two favorites of this\ngroup.\nGuessing and animal games include respectively \\Yz per cent, and\n^ per cent, of the children tested, the former being mentioned almost\nentirely by the girls and the latter by the boys. Guessing introduces the element of chance which among primitive people was associated with the art of divination, and such games may be regarded as\nsurvivals of a branch of primitive philosophy. The animal games are\npurely imitative in character, and both the actions and the sounds of the\nanimals are imitated. Several of the animal games are also games of\nchase.\nVery naturally the children experienced much difficulty in stating the\nreasons why they preferred certain games. Twenty-four per cent, of the\nboys and over 30 per cent, of the girls gave no reasons. Few of the\nchildren of seven or eight years stated any reasons for their selections ;after thirteen years most of the children gave reasons for their\nchoice. This would hint that thirteen years is the age when children\nbegin critically to examine their evidence, and when the reasoning power\nof the mind appears as a dominant factor in the mental life of the child.\nSex differences are much less in the reasons than in the choice of the\ngames. Fifty per cent, of those who give reasons say that games give\nthem pleasure. That the game produces agreeable states — whatever they\nmay be — seems to these children a good and sufficient reason for liking\nit. Certainly in many instances, as Professor Groos has suggested,\npleasure is a cause. Fifteen per cent, definitely say that the pleasure\ncomes from movement exercise. Some of the children state that they\nlike to play because of the training in bodily functions, and the consequent pleasure that musculur agility and co-ordination will give them.\nSeven per cent, of the children base their game preferences on being in\nthe open air. Out-of-door play gives them a sense of freedom and lack\nof restraint which is common to adolescents. Six per cent, of the reasons\ncenter about emulation, gain, success. These children select games in\nwhich their own individual skill triumphs — games which accord them the\npleasure of enjoying their little successes. Five per cent, of the children\nselect games in which they can repeat the actions of grown people. Imatation and the conscious pleasure of self-delusion mediate the selections of\nthis group. Four per cent, of the children who give reasons say that\nthey like best the games that may be played in common with others ;\nthey give the desire for companionship as the basis of their choice; and\n4 per cent, select games that are exciting.\nSince the test called for summer\n\n"}
{"page": 1096, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n[Physical\n\ngames, 3 per cent, of the children make selections of games that can be\nplayed in summer and cannot be played in winter. Three per cent, consider certajn games more healthful than others, and 3 per cent, want games\nthat are not rough. This last group represents almost entirely girls, since\nmany of the boys distinctly state that they prefer vigorous, active, rough\ngames. The study suggests the preferences of children in play interests,\nand the question naturally arises : What social and educational forces are\nbrought to bear on the child during the period when play interests are\ndeepest ?\nIn some cities and towns in America games are recognized as a part\nof the regular school instruction. A most carefully worked out course of\nstudy of games, running thru the nine years of the elementary school,\nhas been prepared by Mr. George E. Johnson, superintendent of public\nschools at Andover, Mass. In Grade i (for children of six years), for\nexample, there are (i) simple rounds for the purpose of removing\nshyness, developing sociability, and gaining the attention of all to a\ncommon interest ; (2) games which involve the recalling of the names\nof animals as an aid to memory ; (3) observation and indentifying games\nto cultivate the perceptive powers; (4) anagrams, matching letters, and\nspelling matches to quicken interests in reading and spelling; (5) turning indicators with numbers, playing store, estimating distances, and\nmathematical puzzles as aids in arithmetic; (6) playing in sand, making\ncaves, roads, and sailing boats, as well as such games as \"follow-theleader,\" because of their educational value in geographic instruction ;\n(7) historical tableaux, literary whist, and theatricals as incidental aids in\nthe study of biography and history ; and (8) a long list of games especially adapted for purposes of physical training — return ball for the\ndevelopment of arms and hands ; feather games (keeping a feather in the\nair), squat-tag, and racing for chest development ; balloon ball, snow\nfights, and the London bridge (tug-of-war) for back, waist, and abdominal\nmuscles; and cross-tag, jumping, and marches for the legs. In some of\nthese games all the children take part ; such games are played on cool\ndays. In others only two or three children exercise at a time ; these are\nplayed on warm days. A third kind of games is played with apparatus,\nand these usually take place in the schoolrooms. Among the results\nnoted in these schools since definitely prescribed games have become a\npart of the school course are (i) better power of conversation on the part\nof the young children ; (2) more lively and sympathetic social interests in\nthe school ; (3) evidences of awakened intelligence on the part of the\nyoung children ; and (4) fatigue less apparent toward the close of the\nsessions.\nMiss Rebecca Stoneroad, director of physical training in the public\nschools of Washington, D. C, has also made a commendable beginning\nin the correlation of play interests with school work.\nIn her Gymnastic\n\n"}
{"page": 1097, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPLAY\n\nINTERESTS\n\nOF\n\nCHILDREN\n\n1089\n\n.\n\nStories and Plays for Primary Schools (Boston : D. C. Heath & Co., 1898)\nshe outlines a series of physical exercises along play lines for the first\ntwo years of school. Speaking of her efforts to make use of play as a\nfactor in body-training she says :\nWe have endeavored to take advantage of the play instinct of childhood, and,\nadapting it to our own ends, make it a means of education.\nThis becomes regulated\nplay — play directed toward educational ends\nIn these lessons the children use\ntheir imagination, and act out a connected and consistent story in a series of body movements. Many of these have been within their experience outside of school, yet they make\ngood gymnastic exercises, bringing into action many muscles of the body. Pretending to\ndo in school that which is seen or done out of it makes children happy in the doing. In\nthese natural movements of childhood opportunity is given for that co-ordination of\nmuscles so highly desirable in all physical exercises for the young.\n\nA secondary aspect of this study was the large number of countingout rhymes reported by the children as adjuncts of their favorite games.\nPractically none of the children seem to be without them ; and in some\ninstances individual children had as many as seventeen of these formulas\nfor use in their games. In all, 183 different counting-out rhymes were\nreported ; but all but fifty-four proved to be variations of a few pleasing or much-used jingles. The one oftenest mentioned — being given\nby 92 per cent, of the children — is unmeaning and inelegant:\nEna, mena, mina, mo,\nCatch a nigger by the toe ;\nIf he hollers, let him go,\nEna, mena, mina, mo.\n\nThe second in point of popularity — being given by 86 per cent., of the\nchildren — is:\nOne, two, three, four, five, six, seven.\nAll good children go to heaven.\n\nThese unmeaning\n\nand mysterious formulas serve a twofold purpose in\n\nthe child's play activities : (i) They determine who shall take the unde- '\nsirable part in a game — a species of casting lots, but differing only in the\nmethod of execution. As these Massachusetts children say, these countingout rhymes enable them to determine who shall be \"it.\" This use of \"it\"\nis purely technical and has distinct meaning in the play vocabulary of\nthe child. The French equivalent is Vetre, and the German expression\nsein daran and sein daraus. (2) They are used for purposes of divination : some of them foretell the life duration of the child ; others, the\noccupation of prospective husbands, probable number of children, etc.\nBolton is of the opinion that these counting-out rhymes are survivals of\nthe practice of sorcery ; that the spoken charms were originally used to\nenforce priestly power; and that children engaged in counting-out for\n• games are repeating in innocent ignorance the practices and language of\n- a sorcerer of a dark age.\n\nCounting-out rhymes are apparently universal features of children's\n\n"}
{"page": 1098, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nlogo\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n[Physical\n\nplays; and, altho they occasionally undergo changes, being transmitted from one generation of childhood to another by oral repetition,\nthe marvel is that they should linger at all with such apparent purity.\nThis persistence is possible only thru a conservatism of children\nwhich is as pronounced as it is unexpected. In most of the matters\nwhich pertain to the life of children they are reformers of the most\naggressive type, and quite oblivious of the traditions and limitations of\ntheir environment. But in all that pertains to their play interests they\nare conservative to the core, The formulas of plays are clung to with\ngospel tenacity ;■ and the children themselves are the most displeased when\nthe canons of games are irreligiously violated. Because of this insistence,\nthis vein of juvenile conservatism, children's play interests and activities\n— their toys and games — are the oldest things in the world, linking\nthe child thru his play-life to the mental life of savages and barbarians.\n\nHOW\n\nMAY\n\nFATIGUE\n\nIN THE\nJO\n\nBY\n\nDR.\n\nH.\n\nE.\n\nKRATZ,\n\nTHE\n\nSCHOOLROOM\n\nBE\n\nREDUCED\n\nMINIMUM?\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nSIOUX\n\nCITY,\n\nlA.\n\nMosso, an eminent authority on fatigue, states that he has made the\ndifficult ascent of Mt. Blanc several times, and observed the sublime\nscenery that greets the eye of the traveler, but that he can remember\nnothing of the magnificent view from the mountain's summit, because his\nfatigue so greatly lessened his mental ability.\nIf a well-trained, mature\nmind like Mosso's fails to carry away lasting impressions from scenes so\ngrand, so awe-inspiring, so profoundly impressive, so powerfully appealing to the emotions, as those gained from Mt. Blanc, because fatigue has\nlaid its numbing hand upon his powers of observation and perception,\nwhat can the untrained, immature mind of the child be expected to carry\naway from his usually dull routine of daily work in the schoolroom, when\nfatigue has laid its numbing hand upon his weak powers of observation\nand perception ? Has not this same experience of Mosso's been paralleled\nin the instruction of even bright pupils, and teacher and pupils saddened\nand discouraged because, after carefully and laboriously climbing to the\nmountain top of some difficult topic, from which a glorious view could be\ncaught, fatigue so dulled the powers of perception that practically nothing of permanent value was carried away ? Such experiences are only\ntoo common, and, besides being depressing, leave the pupil in a discouraged frame of mind, with confidence in self shaken and with less desire\nto make the ascent again.\n\n"}
{"page": 1099, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nHOW\n\nTO H EDUCE\n\nFATIGUE\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nSCHOOLROOM\n\n109 1\n\nMay not this be, in part at least, the explanation why so many pupils\nlose interest in their school work, develop a positive distaste for it, fall\nbehind in their work, and are classed with dullards, so-called ? Surely,\nthe normal mind of the child possesses as vigorous an appetite for mental\npabulum as his stomach does for physical pabulum. Why do so many\nturn away from the cuisine of the school ? The fault lies, not in the\nnature of the child's mind, but in the way and in the time in which it is\nserved.\nThe cry of overwork in our schools is frequently heard. It is a matter\nof supreme moment whether or not our children are in danger of overpressure. Fatigue is nature's kind warning against overpressure and\noverexertion. We need constantly to be on the alert to discover whether\nor not the requirements of the schoolroom are too heavy, whether the\nhours of work are too many, whether the study periods are too long,\nwhether the rest periods are too infrequent, whether any change can be\nmade by which the maximum mental efficiency can be secured with a\nminimum expenditure of each child's energy. It should be constantly\nborne in mind that what a child accomplishes or masters depends not so\nmuch on how hard or how long he works as it does upon the fact that he\nis working at the maximum of his power. Ten minutes of concentrated,\nvigorous effort, when the mind is fresh, is worth ten times ten minutes of\ndawdling, whether the dawdling be caused by fatigue or laziness. Time\nis no measure of progress in the schoolroom.\nRibot says : \" Fatigue in every shape is fatal to memory.\" Every\nteacher, therefore, should be familiar with the indications of fatigue, with\nthe conditions which most rapidly induce it, and with the means that may\nbe employed to avoid, to reduce, or to overcome it, so that the maximum of\neffort may be attained by the minimum expenditure of energy. It is said\nthat he who causes two blades of grass to spring up where only one was\ngrowing is a public benefactor. But what shall we term him who points\nout how to increase mental efficiency ? What honor shall we bestow upon\nhim who can so direct us that we can bring down with us the glorious\nviews from the mountain top, rather than be baffled and lose our grip\nupon them thru the benumbing effect of fatigue ?\nIt was my privilege, more than two years ago, to state before the\nDepartment of Superintendence of this association that fatigue furnished\n\" important indications, which, if carefully studied, will give the right\nordering of the daily work of the schoolroom and secure the largest\ndegree of mental efficiency with the least loss of the child's energy.\nThis problem has not yet been fully worked out, and we should earnestly\naddress ourselves to its solution.\" It may be said, after the lapse of more\nthan two years, that this problem has not yet been fully worked out, altho\nprogress has been made.\nDr. Hodge has demonstrated that brain work exhausts the nerve cells,\n\n"}
{"page": 1100, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 092\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical\n\ncausing them to shrink, and that rest is needed for their recovery. Mosso\nconcludes that such exhaustion is due, in great part, to the formation of\ntoxic products thru nervous and muscular action. These poisonous products distributed by the blood chiefly induce fatigue. Severe and longcontinued activity leads to an accumulation of poisonous products in the\nblood. These cause acidity of the blood, which in turn lends a temporary\nacidity to the disposition. This irritability is one of the familiar signs of\nfatigue. Other indications are wandering, lusterless eyes, jaded expression, asymmetry of posture, twitching of muscles of the face and of\nfingers, week balance of hand, abnormal color of skin, frequency of errors,\nand lack of the usual mental grasp.\nBut how may fatigue in the schoolroom be reduced to the minimum ?\nis the important question. We concede in our question that it cannot be\nentirely overcome ; that we must reckon with it, and endeavor to reduce it\nto the minimum where it will clog instruction as little as possible.\nThis paper cannot take up the subjects of good health, nutritious foods,\nproper exercise, etc., altho each of these contributes in no small degree\nto that fresh, vigorous condition of mind and body which is so essential\nfor the attainment of the maximum of mental efficiency. Nor can it\nmore than point out that much of inattention, that source of incalculable\nloss in the schoolroom, is often due to overeating, impoverishment,\nvitiated and overheated atmosphere, misfits in desks, and many other\ncauses whose remedies are to some extent within the grasp of the teacher.\nOur psychologists tell us that with the normal pupil mental fatigue\nfrom school work is quickly induced and also quickly passes away. Mental\nefificiency, or the increments of skill gained thru mental training, is much\nmore permanent in its character, and is not soon lost. If this be true,\nin order to attain the highest possible maximum of mental efficiency,\nwith the greatest economy of effort, provide working periods with more\nfrequent rest periods, and thus secure, thru this power of the mind to\nrecuperate rapidly, an almost continuous high state of mental vigor.\nThat which has prevented us in the past from injecting more freely these\nrest periods into the work periods has been the fear that during such\ninterruptions pupils would lose all the advantage gained. But that fear,\naccording to this statement of our friends, the psychologists, is not well\nfounded. The mind, instead of being, as we supposed, like the oldfashioned sensitized plate of the photographer, which required a long\nexposure, is, after all, more like the highly sensitized plate of the snapshot camera. Not long exposure, but right conditions, such as proper\"\nfoundations, close attention, profound interest — these determine the vividness of the mental picture, its permanency, and the degree of strength\ngained. We need, especially in the lower grades, to bring in these more\nfrequent rest or exercise periods, believing that the increments of power\ngained from mental\nactivity will not be dissipated thru such slight\n\n"}
{"page": 1101, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nHOW\n\nTO REDUCE\n\nFATIGUE\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nSCHOOLROOM\n\n1093\n\ninterruptions, and that eificiency of public-school work will be greatly\nincreased as well as relieved of much of its present drudgery.\nChange is rest. Presumably the psychological explanation lies in the\nfact that the brain has various sense centers, to which are referred\nappropriate stimuli. Weariness, therefore, in the sense of sight can be\npartially relieved by exercises which appeal largely to the ear or the use\nof the hand. The daily program should be so arranged as to bring out\nthe strongest possible contrasts and, for the lower grades, frequent changes\nin subjects. Music, drawing, and physical culture should be sandwiched\nin between the more difficult studies.\nNot simply should strong contrasts be sought in arranging the daily\nprogram, but there should be careful study made so as to arrange subjects\nwith reference to the hours when each can be pursued to best advantage.\nProfessor Seeley, from memory tests made by Dr. Krohn, concludes that,\nwhatever subject is taken first in the morning, the average retentive power\nof the children reaches 89 per cent. This, therefore, is the best working\nperiod of the day, and presumably the period for arithmetic. The secondbest working period he places from 3 to 4 in the afternoon, and,\nwith history as the subject, finds the retentive power of the children is\nonly 3 per cent, less than for the morning hour. Common observation,\nhowever, will scarcely sustain this conclusion. The next-best period is\nassigned to the time from i to 2 : 30, and the poorest period from 1 1 to\n12. Under the best possible arrangement of recitation periods the\ngreatest loss- at any one period is 21 per cent., while under the arrangement of the average school program the loss is 38 percent., or 17 per\ncent, greater. The average loss under a poorly arranged program is 1 1\nper cent, greater than under the best arrangement. Whether we accept\nthese results as strictly accurate or not, it certainly remains a highly\nimportant fact that much can be gained toward relieving the fatigue of\nthe schoolroom by a wise arrangement of the daily program with reference\nto contrasts in subjects and their best adaptation to the hours of work.\nPupils waste an enormous amount of energy in their misguided efforts\nto master a subject. The need of training pupils how to study, how to\ncenter every energy upon the task in hand, is not yet sufificiently appreciated by'teachers. Tests in the recitation are all directed to ascertaining\nhow much the pupil knows of the subject, and the more vital process of\nhow he gained his knowledge is ignored. Studying is a great art, and its\nmastery, or the failure to master it, is fraught with momentous consequences\nto the pupil. There are those right beginnings which lead on to conscious power and mastery, and there are those misguided efforts which\nlead to weariness and defeat. The teacher of today must be keen enough\nto discover what bad habits of study are mocking this or that earnest pupil,\nand making his school life drudgery instead of an inspiration ; and, when\ndiscovered, must be able to train into a better use of his mental powers.\n\n"}
{"page": 1102, "printed_page": null, "text": "I094\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical\n\nThe study of interest — how to utilize it more fully in school work —\nhas in the last decade banished much of the weariness and drudgery\nfrom the schoolroom, and its advantages and helpfulness in this direction\nare yet far from being exhausted. The reason why interest is such an\nimportant factor in relieving from fatigue lies in the well-known fact\nthat the greater the interest in a subject, the less the effort of will to\nhold the attention to that subject. The conscious exercise of will is\nalways fatiguing, and especially so when the subject under consideration is distasteful. The potency of interest in relieving from drudgery\nlies in the fact that, even concerning subjects which at first were\ndistasteful, \" we may,\" to quote the Herbartians, \" build up such a\npowerful apperception mass that any fact connected with that mass will at once attract our attention, quite irrespective of our will.\" Under the\nwise teacher's management, therefore, every subject in the school curriculum can eventually be included within the charmed circle of the pupil's\ninterests.\nWhy is fatigue induced so much sooner when the work is distasteful ?\nWe have already intimated that it is due to the greater exercise of will\nwhich is required to hold the wavering attention. But it seems that\nanother characteristic should be pointed out. Where distaste exists an\nattitude of antagonism springs up. This feeling of dislike seeks to\nexpress itself in some outward form. To repress it requires great effort.\nAltho outwardly the pupil may seem composed, there is a deep\ninward struggle. The teacher, unless some bodily expression be given to\nit, remains ignorant of it, and is not conscious of the immense expenditure of mental, even physical, energy the child is undergoing. Let me\nillustrate : I press my hand against one of the walls of this room. I\nfoolishly fear that it may fall upon me and crush me. I press with all\nmy might against it. Every muscle in my body is tense. The cold,\nunfeeling wall ^hows no sign of yielding, but resists with equal pressure\nmy tense muscles ; and but slight evidence goes forth that I am in such\nan intense attitude of resistance. What a serious mistake to conclude\nthat, bec_ause there is but little motion, there is therefore no intense\nstruggle going on, and therefore no cause for weariness. And so in\nthe schoolroom : when the pupil has a serious dislike for a subject of\nstudy, or for the uninteresting manner of presenting it, or a feeling of\nantagonism has, unfortunately, sprung up between him and his teacher,\nwhat a serious mistake to conclude that, because there is but little outward\nmanifestation, there is therefore no severe tension or cause for weariness !\nThese dislikes, these antagonisms, these undercurrents of feeling sap\nenergies which should be utilized in fruitful school work.\nEducation, from this point of view, is to direct nervous energy into\nright channels and to keep it out of wrong ones. In every idea received\nthere is a tendency toward motion aroused, which expends itself either in\n\ni\n\n"}
{"page": 1103, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nHOW\n\nTO REDUCE\n\nFATIGUE\n\nIN THE\n\nSCHOOLROOM\n\n1095\n\nnervous tension or in action. This is illustrated in mouth-watering when\nsomething luscious is seen, or in mind-reading. The child, therefore, is\nto be regarded as a sensitive being in which nerve currents are constantlybeing aroused both by external and internal stimuli. These nerve\ncurrents may or may not be under control. Some may be termed friendly\nand some hostile, some dominant and some defeated. To resist a\nterrifying sound may waste more energy than to give way to it. To\nprevent fidgetiness may be more exhausting than to yield to it. Fatigue\nand worry may so react upon each other that they become an endless\ncircle. Here is where the skilled twentieth-century teacher, with her\nsuperior knowledge of these nervous forces, will be able to lessen this\nwaste of energy.\nPlay furnishes a potent means for reducing to a minimum the fatigue\nof the schoolroom. The old saying, \"All work and no play makes Jack\na dull boy,\" contains an important pedagogical truth. There is nothing\nso rapidly recuperative for mental fatigue as spontaneous activity ; and\nyet, on the other hand, there is nothing so helpfully educative as the\nself-activity engendered in play. That which has been most beneficent\nin the present modification of the work of the schoolroom has been the\nintroduction of the play idea from the kindergarten. Strange 'that it\nwas not introduced sooner ! Every idea that enters a boy's mind is\naccompanied with some tendencies to motor activity. He cannot think of a ripe watermelon without a rush of saliva to his mouth and the\nmuscles of his right hand becoming tense with the desire to grasp the\nluscious slice. In fact, he has not thoroly grasped any idea until it has\nset every possible power he possesses, both of mind and body, into sympathetic action. He must be free to learn it all over, to secure for himself\nas many points of contact as possible. And yet, until quite recently,\nGray's churchyard silence, \"when all the air a solemn stillness holds,\"\nwas the supreme test of schoolroom management. What an indictment\nmight here be entered against the strait-jacket school of yesterday !\nPlay, according to Dr. Fitz, is not due so much to an overflow of\nanimal spirits, to a superabundance of strength, as held by Schiller and\nSpencer, as for the better preparation of life which nature designs to be\nrealized thru it. To quote Dr. Fitz :\nThus youth becomes more completely an apprenticeship to life, with play as the\nmaster-workman. In play the child is the unit of force ; he initiates his own conditions.\nHis limitations are self-imposed. His self-control lies in execution rather than in inhibition. He is concerned with self-expression rather than with self-repression. Play thus\nrelates itself to the truest conception of education, the development of power, the power\nof the individual to act as a self-directed unit in civilization. The self-control gained by\nplay acts immediately, strongly, and honestly in response to conditions as they are presented in life.\n\nSome schools rely upon physical-training exercises to relieve from\nfatigue, but, while it may be admitted that. such exercises are helpful, they\n\n"}
{"page": 1104, "printed_page": null, "text": "1096\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n[Physical\n\ndo not afford as good opportunities for mental recuperation as the more\nspontaneous movements in an outdoor recess. Physical-training exercises\nusually require close attention, and much of that same exercise of will\nwhich is the chief cause of schoolroom fatigue. The movements are liable\nto become perfunctory, lacking the spontaneity, the vital interest, and, in\nconsequence, the exhilaration which outdoor play gives, and which is the\nbest tonic for rapid recovery from mental fatigue.\nI plead guilty to the charge of being one of those city superintendents\nwho thought it wise, because of the danger from excessive exercise and\nexposure, but chiefly because of the moral contamination possible during\nthe outdoor recess, to cut off such recess in the upper grades ; but I have\nbeen soundly converted. I have instructed my teachers to return to the\noutdoor recess, and to avoid its former excesses and moral contamination,\nas well as securing more of its recuperative and educative influence, by\nparticipating freely in, and in part supervising, the children's games on\nthe school ground. I hold that its educative, as well as its recuperative\nand its health, side is of such value that we should utilize it as an\nimportant factor in the children's education.\nTo sum up : Fatigue in the schoolroom may be largely decreased, if\nnot reduced to the minimum, by more frequent use of rest periods ; by\narranging stronger contrasts in the daily program, as well as securing a\nwiser adjustment of difficult subjects to the best working hours; by\npatient and wise training of pupils into better habits of study ; by a better\nutilization of the doctrine of interest ; by lessening nervous tension in the\nschoolroom ; and by wise use of play under supervision.\n\n"}
{"page": 1105, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL\nINSTRUCTION\nSECRETARY'S\nFIRST\n\nSCIENCE\n\nMINUTES\n\nSESSION.— Thursday, July 13, 1899\n\nThe meeting was called to order in the hall of the chamber of commerce at 3 p. M.\nby Charles Newell Cobb, president of the department. In the absence of the secretary,\nN. A. Harvey, West Superior, Wis., was elected secretary pro tempore.\nThe program presented was as follows :\nPresident's address, \" Thirty Years' Progress in Science Teaching,\" by Charles\nNewell Cobb, Albany, N. Y.\n\" The Status of the Fur Seal,\" by President David Starr Jordan of Leland Stanford\nJr. University.\n\" The Relation of Physics to Other Subjects in the High-School Curriculum,\" by S. P.\nMeads, professor of science. High School, Oakland, Cal. This paper was discussed by\nMr. Cobb, Mr. Schultz, and Mr. Tolman.\nThe report of the Committee on Physics and the report of the co-ordinating committee of the Department of Natural Science Instruction were read. Upon motion, the\nreports were received as reports of progress, and action upon them was deferred until the\nnext day.\nREPORT\n\nOF COMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nPHYSICS\n\nA copy of the following proposition has been presented to each member of the committee. The replies\nreceived are indicated below.\n\" As a member of the Physics Committee appointed to act in co-operation with the Natural Science Section of the National Educational Association, I approve the following recommendations:\n\" I. That, in public high schools and schools preparatory for college, physics be taught in a course\noccupying not less than one year of daily exercises ; more than this amount of time to be taken for the work if\nit is begun earlier than the next to the last year of the school course.\n\" 2. That this course of physics include a large amount of individual laboratory work, mainly quantitative, done by the pupil under the careful direction of a competent instructor and recorded by the pupil in a\nnotebook.\n\" 3. That such laboratory work, including the keeping of the notebook and the working out of results from\nlaboratory observations, occupy not more than one-half of the whole time given to physics by the pupil.\n\" 4. That the course include also instruction by text-book and lecture, with qualitativeexperimentsby the\ninstructor, elucidating and enforcing the laboratory work, or dealing with matters not touched upon in tha{\nwork, to the end that the pupil may gain, not merely empirical knowledge, but, so far as this may be practicable, a comprehensive and connected view of the most important facts and laws in elementary physics.\n\" 5. That college-admission requirements be so framed that a pupil who has successfully followed out such\na course of physics as that here described may offer it toward satisfying such requirements. (The question\nwhether the college should hold an examination to determine the candidate's^attainments in physics is not here\nconsidered.) \"\nProfessor Carhart, of Ann Arbor, signed the propositions as here given.\nChancellor Fulton of the University of Mississippi also signed them without change.\nMr. C. L. Harrington, of Dr. Sachs' Collegiate Institute in New York, signed after changing the\nphrase \" toward satisfying such requirements\" in s to \" as satisfying the requirements in physics.\" I have\nno reason to think that this change affects the meaning of the proposition as interpreted by the other members\nof the committee.\n1097\nMr. Julius Hoktvet, of the East High School in Minneapolis, signed, but wrote : \" 1 would amend 3\nby stating that the laboratory work, including the keeping of the notebook, etc., occupy at least one-half of\n\n"}
{"page": 1106, "printed_page": null, "text": "1098\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nthe whole time given to physics by the pupil.\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\nI am coming to the belief that physics should be given at least\n\na year and a half in the latter part of the school course.\"\nMr. C. J. Ling, of the Manual Training School in Denver, signed after changing \" next to the last \"\nin I to \" third,\" and added : \" I change first statement to read as above on account of those schools which have\nonly three years in the course. I consider algebra and plane geometry of great help to a successful course in\nphysics.\"\nProfessor E. L. Nichols, of Cornell, signed, but wrote : \" I would suggest that section 3 be made to\nread that the time allotted to laboratory work should be approximately one-half the total time allotted to\nphysics.\"\nMr. E. D. Pierce, of the Hotchlciss School, Lakeville, Conn., signed the propositions without change.\nProfessor Sanford, of Leland Stanford, signed after changing the words \" not more than one-half \"\nin 3 to \" at least three-fourths.\"\nMr. Edward R. Robbins, of the LaWrenceville School, Lawrenceville, N. J., signed after striking out\n\" the next to \" of the last line in i and changing \" toward satisfying \"to \" in satisfaction of \" in 5.\nProfessor B. F. Thomas, of Columbus, O., signed the propositions without change.\nI approve all the propositions.\nIt now seems to me that if we change the words \" not more than one-half\" in 3 to \" approximately onehalf,\" as Professor Nichols suggests, we shall have a set of propositions upon which the committee is substantially agreed, altho it will not be safe to say that the agreement is complete. I doubt whether it is worth\nwhile to try to get from the committee anything more than what I have here set down.\nThese propositions, with Professor Nichols' amendment as just given, were read by me before the Section\nof Physics and Chemistry of the New York State Science Teachers' Association at Columbia University,\nDecember 30, 1898, in the course of a paper on my experience with physics as a requirement for admission to\ncollege. I did not propose or think of their adoption by that section; but they were immediately approved by\nthe section, on the motion of Professor Hallock, of Columbia, and will doubtless appear as adopted in the\nreport of the meeting to be printed by the state of New York.\n(Signed)\n\nSECOND\n\nEdwin\n\nH. Hall,\nHarvard University,\n\nSESSION.-- Friday, July 14\n\nThe meeting was called to order by President Cobb. The following committees\nwere appointed :\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nNOMINATIONS\n\nJ. H. Witherspoon.\n\nT. H. Kirk.\n\nJames R. Meskimons.\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nRESOLUTIONS\n\nSidney F. Smith.\nA. P. Troth.\n\nC. D. Wilson.\n\nThe following program was presented :\n\" The Pedagogical Content of Zoology,\" by N. A. Harvey, State Normal School,\nWest Superior, Wis. The paper was discussed by Dr. Nicholas Murray Butler, of Columbia\nUniversity, New York.\n\" Science in the High School,\" by Dr. George Mann\norganic chemistry, Leland Stanford Jr. University.\n\nRichardson, professor of\n\n\" Relation of High-School to College Mathematics,\" by Charles F. Wheelock, University ofthe State of New York.\nThe Committee on Nominations reported as follows :\nFor President — Tti. George Mann Richardson, California.\nFor Vice- President —Hr. Charles W. Dabney, Tennessee.\nFor Secretary — Charles B. Wilson, Westfield, Mass.\n\n,\n\nOn motion, the secretary was instructed to cast the ballot of the department for the\npersons nominated.\nThe Committee on Resolutions reported as follows :\nWhereas, The members of the department feel a deep and heartfelt appreciation for the reception\naccorded them by the citizens of Los Angeles, the chamber of commerce, and the Academy of Sciences of\nSouthern California ; therefore, be it\nResolved, That the Department of Natural Science Instruction of the National Educational Association\nextend a vote of thanks and good wishes to the chamber of commerce and the local committee for the use of\n\n"}
{"page": 1107, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHIRTY\n\nYEARS'\n\nPROGRESS\n\nIN SCIENCE\n\n7 BACHING\n\n1099\n\ntheir assembly room, and for their assistance in making our visit and our meetings both pleasurable and\ninstructive.\nResolved, That a vote of thanks be extended to the members of the National Educational Association\nwho have contributed to the efficiency and popularity of our program, and to the president, vice-president, and\nsecretary pro tempore for their interest and zeal in their work for science and this department.\nResolved, That a copy of these resolutions be spread upon the minutes, and copies sent to the chamber\nof commerce and the local committee of the Academy of Sciences.\nSigned\n\n( Sidney F. Smith.\n< Charles B. Wilson.\n( Alonzo B. Troth.\n\nOn motion, the resolutions were adopted.\nThe president-elect was introduced, and the department adjourned.\nN. A. Harvey,\n,\n\nBY\n\nSecretary pro tempore.\n\nPAPERS\n\nAND\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nTHIRTY\n\nYEARS'\n\nPROGRESS\n\nIN SCIENCE\n\nCHARLES\n\nNEWELL\n\nCOBB,\n\nUNIVERSITY\nALBANY,\n\nOF\nN.\n\nTHE\n\nSTATE\n\nTEACHING\nOF\n\nNEW\n\nYORK,\n\nY.\n\nThirty years of discovery and invention have done much for the\nprogress of science, and, as a consequence, within that period our surroundings have changed to such a degree that we are likely to be oblivious\nto the conditions existing only three decades ago.\nLess than one generation back there was no multiple nor wireless\ntelegraphy, no stock-ticker nor telephone, no dynamo, with all the resulting applications of cheap electric energy to the multitudinous requirements of the present civilization. The Rontgen rays were unknown, and\nthe liquefaction of the more refractory gases had not been attained. Photography was circumscribed by the limits of the wet process, and the\nreproduction of the photograph to millions of copies by the present\nimproved methods was no more than a dream.\nTrains of sleeping-cars and dining-cars heated by steam, lighted by\nelectricity, and-controlled by the air-brake had not been built, nor had a\nsingle line of railway yet extended its tracks of steel across the buffaloblackened plains to join the crowded Atlantic states with the then sparsely\nsettled Pacific coast. Only sixty-three elements were then listed, and\nlittle was known of organic chemistry, while the saving of by-products is\na recent-day study.\nThe discoveries in biology, bacteriology, geography, and geology have\nbeen fully equaled by those in medicine, dentistry, and surgery, mining\nand metallurgy, and the whole category of sciences of that day. Meteorology and economic entomology may be mentioned as examples of many\n\n"}
{"page": 1108, "printed_page": null, "text": "iioo\n\n^\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nnew sciences developed by the present generation. So the field for science\nstudy and teaching is daily extending, and it is true now to an extent that\nit was never before true that it is no light task for one to overtake the\npresent state of the world's knowledge even within narrow limits.\nThe material for science teaching is constantly increasing, as are also\nthe facilities for obtaining it. The express and mail now bring it from\nall parts of the world, while home industries furnish it on every hand.\nNever before were school apparatus and school supplies so abundant, so\nvaried, or so cheap as now.\nWithin the period under consideration no small degree of progress has been made in the science of teaching, while the dissemination\nof the knowledge of that science and the growth of the art have been\nboth extensive and intensive. In 1870 only 53 normal schools, having\n1,028 students, were reported by the United States Commissioner of Education in\n;\n1896-97, 362 normal schools, having 67,700 students, were\nreported ; while the entire number of those reported as taking normal\ncourses in normal schools, universities, colleges, high schools, and academies was 89,943, an increase of 5,534 over the previous year.\nThirty years ago the teachers' institute was in its infancy, and few\nteachers came under its influence, while today those who attend are numbered by the ten -thousand. At that time few teachers attended summer\nschools of any sort, while now many annually gain either in matter or in\nmethod from this source. Then teachers' papers and magazines were few\nin number and had few readers; now the number of these publications is\ngreat and is increasing yearly ; the amount and the character of talent\nengaged in their preparation is ever increasing and improving, while they\nnumber among their readers, not only nearly all teachers, but many members of school boards and trustees.\nAnother hopeful sign is the growing number of associations, councils,\nand clubs where teachers gather for professional improvement. In the\nstate of New York there are now eleven annual educational gatherings,\ndrawing their onembership from the entire area of the state, viz.: the university convocation, including the officers and teachers of all secondary\nand higher institutions, which meets at Albany the last week in June: the\nmeetings of the academic principals and of the grammar-school principals at Syracuse during the holiday week ; the state teachers' association\nfor all interested in education; the meetings of the science teachers; the\nmusic teachers; the art teachers, who hold two meetings yearly; the business teachers; the school commissioners; the city and village superintendents, and the school boards — all meeting at various times and places.\nIn addition to these, the normal-school principals meet twice yearly, and\nthere are county and tricounty and interlake and locality associations,\ncouncils, and clubs to the number of sixty, gathering their members from\nmore limited geographic areas.\n\n"}
{"page": 1109, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHIRTY\n\nYEARS'\n\nPROGRESS\n\nIN SCIENCE\n\nTEACHING\n\nno I\n\nThis general interest in the science of teaching has not been without\nits effect on the methods of teaching science; and improved supervision,\nincluding the administration of laws regulating the practice of medicine,\nsurgery, dentistry, and pharmacy, has accomplished much in the same\ndirection. As a natural result of an extended field, added material,\nimproved methods, and more intelligent supervision may be noted the\nlengthening of existing science courses and the establishing of such\ncourses where formerly there were none. President Jordan said at Champaign in 1892 :\nI was early called from New York to such a chair [natural history] in a well-known\ncollege of Illinois. As professor of natural history I taught zoology, botany, geology,\nphysiology, as a matter of course ; physics, chemistry, mineralogy, natural theology, and\npolitical economy, also as a matter of course. With these went German, Spanish, and evidences of Christianity, because there was no one else to take them. There finally fell to\nme the literary work of the college — the orations, essays, declamations. I tried at one\ntime to establish a little laboratory in chemistry, but met with a sharp rebuke from the\nboard of trustees, who directed me to keep the students out of what was called the Cabinet,\nfor they were likely to injure the apparatus and waste the chemicals.\nIn one institution toward which I looked the chair of natural history was found\nunnecessary. In the meeting of the board of trustees a member arose and said in substance:\"We have just elected a professor of history. This includes all history, and the\nwork in natural history is a part of it.\"\n\nSpeaking of Dr. Torrey, of Columbia College, the catalog of 1868\nsays : \" It is his purpose to deliver lectures on botany at such hours as will\nnot interfere with the regular studies of the undergraduates.\" This might\nseem to indicate that there were graduate students, but no mention is\nmade of such, tho the names of all the undergraduates are given to the\nnumber of 147.\n»\nIt is only thirty-two years since Columbia School of Mines sent out\nits first graduate. The Massachusetts Institute of Technology and Cornell\nUniversity were just opening. Johns Hopkins, the University of Chicago,\nthe University of California, and Leland Stanford Jr. were not yet. Prior\nto i860 only fourteen schools and departments of science had been\nopened in the United States, if we are to credit the report of the Commissioner of Education.\nIt was about this time that an enterprising publishing firm, correctly\nanticipating extensive sales, arranged with a scholarly gentleman of literary\ntaste to write a series of popular, readable text-books covering brief\ncourses in elementary science. This series of text-books accomplished\ntwo results of general interest : first, it brought considerable sums of\nmoney into the hands of the author, a large portion of which has been\nused to build and equip a most admirable physical laboratory for a wellknown university ; and, second, it led many persons to pursue a short\ncourse in elementary science who otherwise would not have given it any\nattention.\n\n"}
{"page": 1110, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n[Science\n\nAt that time one-third year courses in all sciences taught in secondary\nschools were the rule ; now year courses in the physical sciences and halfyear courses in the biologic sciences and the earth sciences largely prevail.\nLonger and better courses have demanded better facilities, and the material equipment for successful science teaching has been so largely\naugmented within the last thirty years that it might almost be said to\nhave been created within that period. In 1896-97 the value of scientific\napparatus and libraries in the colleges and schools of technology of the\nUnited States amounted to nineteen and a quarter millions of dollars, or\na little over twenty-six cents per capita of estimated population. Wellequipped physical, chemical, and biological laboratories are no longer\nuncommon in the high schools of villages and smaller cities.\nIn this connection mention should be made of the fact that New York,\nthru its university, pays one-half the cost of approved books and apparatus for its public high schools and non-sectarian academies.\nMen of large wealth unite with those of more limited means in supplying the necessities of institutions of learning already founded, and in\nfounding others, to such an extent that it scarcely attracts the attention of\nthe general public when a college president announces at commencement that gifts have been received during the last year amounting to over\na million dollars.\nTurning now from things to men, it is to be observed that the number of persons teaching science exclusively has been multiplied manyfold, and with the increase in numbers has come noteworthy increased\naverage ability to instruct. Thirty years ago a man holding a doctor's\ndegree for work in science was rarely found teaching in a secondary\nschool, but now there are many, and President Harper recently told some\nof his students that when they had completed their work for a doctor's\ndegree they must not expect a college chair, as there are many more candidates than there are positions, but they must he well content to secure\na position in a secondary school.\nThe most encouraging thought of all is that the factors mentioned\nabove have so molded public opinion that the reflex influence is now felt,\nand, while thinking people commend the present state of science teaching,\nthey demand in no uncertain way still further improvement.\n\n"}
{"page": 1111, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nBY\n\nPLACE\n\nOF PHYSICS\n\nRELATION\nTHE\n\nS. P. MEADS,\n\nHEAD\n\nCURRICULUM\n\n1103\n\nOF PHYSICS\nTO\nOTHER\nSUBJECTS\nHIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULUM\n\nIN\n\nOF\n\nSCIENCE\n\nIN HIGH-SCHOOL\n\nDEPARTMENT,\n\nOAKLAND,\n\nOAKLAND\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nCAL.\n\n[abridged]\n\nEver since Cicero said in his oration for the poet Archias, \" all the\narts which pertain to humanity have some common bond and are held\ntogether among themselves, as it were, in a certain blood-relationship,\"\nthe truth of his assertion has been growing clearer. The energetic\nteacher of his own subject needs to guard against an overestimation of\nthe relative value of the branch he teaches and to keep well in mind the\neducational value of other subjects. A youthful and enthusiastic professor\nof science, as we parted recently, said to me : \" Why ! scientific knowledge is the only real knowledge.\" A few days later I heard a middleaged professor of philosophy cap a very tall climax with the statement :\n\" Why ! philosophic knowledge is the only real knowledge.\" The youthful scientist and the middle-aged philosopher are blood-relatives. The\nexaggerated exclamations of each, being interpreted, mean that science\nphilosophically taught and philosophy scientifically taught are wonderfully helpful in extending the field of human knowledge. I am very\nglad to testify to the increasing appreciation which our best teachers have\nof the labors of their fellows in other departments, and to the wonderful\ngrowth among instructors of a feeling of unity in educational effort.\nIt is very desirable that a brief grammar-school course in physics\nshould precede the course in the high school, not so much as a preparation for high-school physics, or a preparation for chemistry and botany,\nas a help in composition exercises in English. This course may easily be\nmade too discursive and may be extended too far. Metric measurements ;\ncohesion, adhesion ; the facts of osmose and diffusion ; a few air-pump\nexperiments, to give the pupil an idea of the fact that we live at the bottom of a gaseous ocean, and to teach some simple truths about the\nmechanical properties of gases ; the plainest phenomena of magnetism,\nand other work of like simplicity, may be profitably taken up in the\ngrammar school.\nIt is pretty well settled that high-school physics should be taught during the latter half of the high-school course. This seenis to be its proper\ntime-relationship. In our own school we take the usual course in\nmechanics and heat during the first senior term of five months, and electricity, light, and sound during the second senior term of five months,\ngiving the subject one hour per day for five days in the week thruout the\n\n"}
{"page": 1112, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 104\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n[Science\n\nyear.\nWe divide the time equally between the text-book and lectureroom on the one hand and the laboratory on the other.\nA year and a half of algebra and a half-year of geometry should be a\nminimum requirement for beginning high-school physics, if solid and enduring work is to be done. The thought in physics is so often almost purely\nmathematical that without a good groundwork in algebra and geometry\nthe lecture-room becomes a peep-show, and the laboratory directions a sort\nof meaningless cookbook. Before taking up. the subject of light, one year's\nwork in geometry is needed. In the preparatory algebraic work, proportions, decimals, and fractional coefficients should often be given in\nclass- room work. The teacher of physics ought to be as much interested\nin the successful progress of the mathematical classes as in his own work,\nand, without being meddlesome or officious, should lend his assistance in\nevery way possible to the teachers of mathematics.\nSynonyms used in expressing everyday activities, if made a part of the\nassignments for junior English, would help us in teaching physics. We\nshould take every opportunity to impress upon individual pupils in the\nlower classes the great need of being faithful both in English and in\nmathematics, if they would succeed in physics. Not only are we teachers\nof physics indebted to the teachers of those subjects for giving us\nwell-prepared pupils, but we owe the English teachers, especially those\nteaching the higher grades, a debt for teaching us something whereby\nwe may connect personality with the truths we teach.\nPictures of Newton, Faraday, Volta, Helmholtz, Galileo, and other\neminent physicists now adorn the walls of phvsical lecture-rooms and\nlaboratories, emphasizing not only the discoveries of each, but giving a\nhistorical view of the subject that is exceedingly valuable.\nIt is generally conceded that chemistry should precede physics in the\ncourse. That portion of chemistry which should be taught in high\nschools is vastly easier to comprehend than the laws of physics. Unfortunately, inmany schools something more than half of the pupils fail to\nget chemistry at all, and are therefore unable to comprehend, as they\nought. Voltaic cells, electrolysis, and kindred subjects.\nGood preparation in drawing shows itself in the laboratory notebook,\nnot only in improved cuts of apparatus, but in making the entire record\nmore satisfactory. However, in many schools only a part of the pupils\nget any instruction in drawing after leaving the grammar school.\nPhysics not only receives help from other studies of the high-school\ncurriculum, but gives help as well. It gives both information and dis-'\ncipline of the most practical sort. Our everyday life is touched by its\nlaws and influenced by its forces at every turn. Its practicalities give to\nthe pupils of English a certain fiber and strength that are very desirable.\nIt has three graces — force, energy, and power; and the greatest of these\nis power.\n\nA clear conception of the word \"power\" in physics is necessary\n\n"}
{"page": 1113, "printed_page": null, "text": "Departmenti\n\nPLACE\n\nOF PHYSICS\n\nIN HIGH-SCHOOL\n\nCURRICULUM\n\n1 1 05\n\nto the proper conception of the word in literature. Pleasing, superbly\npolished literary work has its use and place, but the world is not moved\nby such work to heroic effort in the reformation of its abuses. A certain\nelement of ruggedness is necessary to present motives for action that will\nright wrongs of long standing. Some man with lever and fulcrum must\nappear, who fears neither dust nor perspiration, who has a proper estimate\nof the resistance, and a divine confidence in the product of the force he\ncan apply into the leverage he has given. The world meets with a great\nloss when a literary man's education is deficient in physics. Hundreds of\nour strongest expressions like \"magnetic leader,\" \"buoyant hopes,\"\n\"stability of character,\" \"an electrified audience,\" etc., are only half\nappreciated if one has not studied physics.\nPhysics assists zoology in the study of vision, hearing, nervous action,\netc. Botany is indebted to it for a more complete understanding of\ncirculation in plants and the absorption of solar energy. In fact, there\nis but one great whole to study. We subdivide roughly into parts for\nconvenience, and to lessen the difficulty for the beginner, but every part\nis essentially related to the others, and cannot be studied completely\nalone without the aid of the others. Some pupils come to the high school\nwith great prejudice against certain studies. These prejudices are often\nacquired with little fault on their part, on mere hearsay evidence, often\nfrom those who ought *to know better. Some girls think that mathematics\nwill do them no good. Some boys think botany is a flower study, worthy\nthe attention of girls only. Some think Greek and Latin are the only\naristocratic studies, and others think Greek and Latin are dead languages,\nwhose dead should bury their dead. Nothing corrects these stubborn\nprejudices so quickly or so thoroly as for teachers to explain to pupils the\ntrue value of the study they would neglect and the interrelationship of all\nstudies. The value of some well-taught science to the classical student is\nequaled only by the value of some well-taught ancient or modern language to the scientific student.\nThe physical laboratory is a revelation to many pupils, especially to\ngirls. It opens a new world to them that before had not been in their\nthought. Especially is this the case with some bright pupils, who have\nunderrated science, and whose minds have been exercised almost wholly\nalong other lines. As one of these was studying her figures, made to\nfind the gain in rigidity by placing flat beams edgewise, she came suddenly\nupon the truth and exclaimed, with the joy of originaL discovery :\n\"That's the reason they place those things in the attic that way, isn't it ?\"\nAnother, after studying the relation of the distance between the piers to\nthe strain, said : \" I shall have more respect for the men who build the\nlong railroad bridges now.\"\nThe physics lecture-room ought often to be used for the benefit of\nother subjects.\nIt should be a room with raised seats, easily darkened by\n\n"}
{"page": 1114, "printed_page": null, "text": "ilo6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\ndrawing double incased curtains, and its lantern and screen should be at\nthe service of English history, art, biology, and any other subject needing\na lantern demonstration or a systematic lecture occasionally. In other\nwords, physics ought to have an intimate relationship to all other subjects\ntaught in the high school. No course should omit it, not even the classical.\nNo high-school pupil should graduate without studying the subject one\nyear. Those universities which do not require it for admission in my\nopinion make a great mistake. The effect is highly injurious upon the\nsecondary schools which send pupils to those universities. Finally, physics\nsupplements other subjects in furnishing its quota of lessons for instruction\nin morals. As in the study of mathematics, intellectual honesty is promoted byobservation of the rigid sequence of cause and effect in physics,\nespecially by the study of the quantitative relations between the two in\nthe laboratory. No sham activity of the dishonest student, no sleight-ofhand, no glibness of wordy effervescence can make results appear which\nare not. The faithful laboratory student touches on the side of nature\nthe hem of the garment of the Infinite One who said to the seer of- old :\n\"I am that I am.\" \"Wonderful, isn't it ?\" said a classical student as he\ngazed upon the iron filings in the field of a strong magnet and with\nshort suspended needle studied the direction of the force lines ; \" I shall\nhave a more serious conception of personal influence because of studying\nthis magnet.\" I know of no more vivid illustration of the influence of a\nstrong personality going out in all directions in beneficence or in\nmalignity, according to the character of the personality, than the curved\nlines of force about a magnet, revealed by iron filings.\n\nBY\n\nTHE\n\nPEDAGOGICAL\n\nN.\n\nHARVEY,\n\nA.\n\nSTATE\n\nCONTENT\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nOF\n\nZOOLOGY\n\nWEST\n\nSUPERIOR,\n\nWIS.\n\nIt is the purpose of this paper to state as clearly as possible what there\nis in the subject of zoology that renders it capable of furnishing certain\nfundamental disciplines that can be obtained only with difficulty in other\nsubjects. It will be necessary to show, also, how these fundamental\ndisciplines may be obtained, and thus indicate more or less clearly a\nmethod of teaching. In order to make the subject definite, it is proposed\nto limit the discussion to such zoology as can be taught in high schools,\nand to such teaching as high schools are established for giving, viz.,\ngeneral education, intellectual discipline, as distinguished from technical\ninstruction in a subject that is to be followed as a business thruout life.\nI. The first object sought in the subject of zoology is to teach the\npupil to gather knowledge at first hand.\n\nFirst-hand knowledge is the\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 1115, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nPEDAGOGICAL\n\nCONTENT\n\nOF ZOOLOGY\n\nII07\n\nmost important kind, altho not the greatest in amount. It is the kind of\nknowledge upon which most of our actions and decisions are based. A\nman who must gather all his knowledge at second hand, from some other\nperson or from some other authority, is likely to become the prey of\ndemagogs or unscrupulous leaders in society.\nI said that first-hand knowledge is not the greatest in amount.\nProbably nine-tenths of all our knowledge must come from the reading\nof books ; but in order to read a book intelligently, there must be an\napperceiving basis of personal experience — first-hand knowledge.\nThis content fixes the method. It must be laboratory work, pure and\nsimple. The use of a text-book, even for a part of the time, defeats the\npurpose for which zoology is taught. No book must stand between the\npupil and the object studied.\nHere, I think, we find a serious error of judgment in the report of the\nCommittee of Ten. To recommend that a text-book be used for half of\nthe time, or any other part of the time, devoted to a laboratory subject\nis like recommending that a student of Latin shall use an interlinear\ntranslation (vulgarly called a pony) on Tuesdays and Thursdays, but not\non other days. The teachers of science have yet much to learn from the\nteachers of the classics.\nEvery teacher of laboratory work has found that pupils coming from\nthe lower grades, after seven to nine years of study almost exclusively\nbookish, are unable to realize what the study of a thing is. They are able\nto learn what a book says, or what a teacher tells them, but to study a\nreal thing is beyond their power.\nFor this purpose of training in gaining knowledge at first hand, zoology\nclaims no superiority over botany, chemistry, physics, or any other subject\nthat can be made exclusively laboratory work.\n2. The second object sought, or discipline contained, in the study of\nzoology is training to gain clear ideas of the objects studied. Clear ideas\nare necessary for the further mental operations proposed. Clear ideas\nof an insect, a frog, or a crawfish cannot be obtained from reading a book.\nFrom a book we can get only an idea of the writer's idea of the object\nstudied, and in many cases the idea filters thru the ideation of several\nwriters, each multiplying the obscurities of the other, until our idea derived\nfrom reading resembles the object very remotely.\nHere, also, zoology claims no superiority over other laboratory subjects.\nClear-cut mental pictures constitute the aim in each.\n3. The third content of the subject is training in concrete analysis.\nWhen I look at a thing part by part I am analyzing it into its elements.\nThis is a true analysis. That it is a necessary training every teacher in\na laboratory will admit. That many pupils without laboratory training,\nor its equivalent, do habitually look at things in their parts I would\nunhesitatingly deny.\n\n"}
{"page": 1116, "printed_page": null, "text": "iio8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n[Science\n\nAnalysis is a term much used in grammar and arithmetic. The mental\noperation involved is similar, but concrete analysis, the examination of\nthings in parts, is so much easier, and productive of so much more tangible\nresults, that it is a waste of energy to give a sufficient amount of analytical\ntraining outside of a laboratory.\nZoology and botany are almost equal in the facility for giving training\nin concrete analysis. Both, I think, are somewhat superior to physics, and\ndecidedly so to chemistry.\n4. The fourth content of zoology is a training to use the mind in\nits capacity for abstraction. When I analyze a thing into its parts\nand regard one part alone, I am exercising the mind in its function of\nabstraction.\nVVe are told that abstract terms are used very early by children, and\nthe inference is drawn that the process is an easy one. But every teacher\nof algebra in a beginning class knows that to use abstract notions is a\nvery difficult process. Any kind of abstract thought makes a difficult\nsubject for untrained minds to read. Hence the importance I would lay\nupon this activity of the mind, and the training given to it in abstraction by the subject of zoology, properly taught.\n5. The fifth content is a training of the mind in discrimination, the\nability to distinguish one thing from another, and to recognize and state\nwherein the difference exists. The process may be best exemplified by a\nseries of tables, actual copies of those made by pupils in the first year\nof high-school work, from their own observation, without suggestion or\nguidance, except as to form, from the teacher.\nTABLE\n\nOrthopTERA\nGrasshoppier\n\nNO.\n\nLepidopTERA\nButterfly\n\nI. — DIFFERENCES\n\nHymenopTERA\n\nStraight\nBiting\n\nMetamorphosis . Direct\nNymph\nActive\nPupa\n\nTABLE\n\nHousefly\nBeetle\nSquashbug\nButterfly.\nGrasshopper\nBumblebee\nDragonfly\n\nNO.\n\nINSECTS\n\nTERA\n\nTERA\nCOLEOP-\n\nBumblebee\n\nBeetle\nBiting\n\nSquashbug | Housefly\n\nSucking\n\nMembrane\nBiting\nlappingand\n\nSheath\n\nIndirect\nCaterpillar\nInactive\n\nIndirect\nGrub\nInactive\n\nIndirect\n\nHalf\nSucking\n&\npiercing\nDirect\n\nGrub\nInactive\n\nNymph\nActive\n\nScaly\nWings\nMouth parts . . .\n\nOF\n\n2. — RESEMBLANCES\nINSECTS\n\nDragonfly\nNeuropBiting\n\nSucking\nTwo\nIndirect\nMaggot\nInactive\n\nDirect\nNymph\n\nOF\n\nChitinous exoskeleton\nThree body divisions\nSeventeen body segments\nSegmented abdomen\nJointed appendages\nJ One pair of antennae\n1 Two pairs of maxillae\n1 Three pairs of legs\nJaws move sideways\nCompound eyes\nBreathe by spiracles\nDouble nerve cord and ganglia\n\nTABLE\nGrasshopper\nCentipede\nSpider\nCrawfish\n\nNO.\n\n4. — RESEMBLANCES\nARTHROPODS\n\nOF\n\nappendages\nC\nExoskeleton\n! Jointed\nWhite blood\nII Jaws\nDoublemove\nnervesideways\ncord and ganglia\nI. Specialized breathing organs\n\n"}
{"page": 1117, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nPEDAGOGICAL\n\nTABLE\n\nNO.\n\n3. — DIFFERENCES\n\nNumber of legs\n\nOF ZOOLOGY\nARTHROPODS\nCrustacea\nCrawfish\n\nMVRIAPODA\n\nCentipede\nSpider\nTwo\nChitinous\nNone\nSimple\nAir gills\nFour pairs\n\nThree\nChitinous\nOne pair\nCompound\nSpiracles\nThree pairs\n\nEyes\n\nOF\n\nArachnida\n\nInsecta\nGrasshopper\nBody divisions\n\nCONTENT\n\nOne (differentiated)\nChitinous\nOne pair\nNone\nI\nSpiracles\nThirty-one pairs i\n\nTwo\nTwo pairs\nCompound\nGills\nTen\n\nIt seems to me that this is a most important content of the subject.\nThe man who discriminates well sees clearly, thinks clearly, and is\nthereby enabled to arrive at a valid judgment. But one who is untrained\nin seeing differences can never be an accurate thinker.\n6. The sixth content of zoology is a training to see resemblances ;\nthat is, training to exercise the mind in its capacity for comparing.\nTABLE\n\nNO.\n\n5. —\n\nDIFFERENCES\n\nMammal\nRabbit\n\nOF\n\nFrog\nVERTEBRATES\nBatrachia\n\nBird\n\nFish\nPerch\n\nPigeon\n\nCovering\nAppendages\n\nHair\nLegs\nLungs\n\nFeathers\nLegs and wings\nLungs\n\nNaked\nLegs\nLungs\n\nScales\nFins\n\nHeart\n\nFour chambers\nLeft\nDouble, complete\nNon -nucleated\nViviparous\nConstant\nTwo\n\nFour chambers\nRight\nDouble, complete\nNucleated\n\nThree chambers\n\nGills\n\nRight and left\nDouble, incomplete\nNucleated\n\nSingle, complete\nNucleated\n\nOviparous\nConstant\nOne\n\nOviparous\nVariable\nTwo\n\nOviparous\n\nCirculation\nBlood corpuscles\nReproduction\nOccipital condyle.\n\n...\n\nTABLE\n\nRESEMBLANCES\nTEBRATES\n\nRabbit\nPigeon\nFrog\nFish\n\nNO. 6. —\n\nOF\n\nC Internal, jointed, bony skeleton\nJaws move vertically\nTwo pairs of appendages\nRed blood\nBrain and spinal cord inclosed\nI\nseparate, bony cavity\nI Jointed appendages\nI One pair of simple movable eyes\n\nVER-\n\nin a\n\nNone\n\nTABLE\n\nNO.\n\n7. —\n\nRESEMBLANCES\nMALS\n\nOF\n\nANI-\n\nParamoecium f Free locomotion — generally\nSponge\nNervous activity — voluntary moEarthworm\ntion\nlydra\nStarfish\nClam\nI Food ingested in solid particles\nGrasshopper\n|\nRabbit\nI. Exchange CO, for oxygen\n\nIt matters not at all for our present purpose that these tables are crude\nand unscientific. The only thing that does make a difference is that they\nHy(\"\nare the work of the pupils from their own knowledge of the objects\nstudied, gained at first hand.\nIt is rather a more difficult process to see resemblances than it is to see\ndifferences. It is rather a higher kind of mental activity. But in the\nultimate analysis it is only by observing resemblances and differences\nthat we do learn or can learn anything. Surely, then, too much importance cannot be attributed to training the mind consciously to do these\nthings.\nI Scolopocryptops.\n\n"}
{"page": 1118, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 1 10\n\nNA TIONAL\n\nED UCA TIONAL\n\nASSOCIA TION\n\n[Science\n\nPermit me here to digress for a moment, long enough to enter a\nprotest against the practice prevalent in some schools of putting too\ngreat a proportion of time devoted to the subject upon one, or a very few,\nforms. This is generally done by that kind of teachers which Mr. Blatchley has denominated \"microscopic specialists,\" who, to use the well-known\naphorism of Professor Forbes, are unable to see nature until it has been\nboiled in corrosive sublimate, fried in parafifine, and sliced with a microtome.\nWe must have a sufficient number of forms to furnish abundant\nmaterial for making tables of differences and resemblances. I say it\nwithout the slighest fear of successful contradiction that the chief value\nof botany and zoology, in a high-school course, comes from the fact that\nthey are classificatory sciences. The units of classification are derived\nfrom an examination of these tables of resemblances and differences.\nHence naturally follows our\n7. Seventh content, the training of the mind in forming the general\nconcept of a class or a group. The general idea is formed from the table\nof resemblances, and includes all the animal forms which possess the\ncharacteristics there represented. It does not matter at all that this\ngeneral idea will become more and more definite, and our tables of resemblances shorter and shorter, as the number of forms studied increases.\nThe only thing that appeals to us now is the fact that we have here a\nconscious attempt to generalize, tor obtain an idea of a comprehensive\nterm that will include all the particulars.\nI think everyone will admit the supreme importance of the activity of\ngeneralizing. It leads directly to the highest form of thinking, philosophy ; and I have often thought that many of our great philosophers have\nmanifested a \"plentiful lack\" of training in the elementary processes of\ngeneralization, such as I am proposing to give in the subject of zoology.\n8. The eighth content of zoology is training in logical definition. A\nlogical definition is one which manifests the nature of the thing defined.\nIt always includes the genus and the differentia, or those characteristics\nwhich distinguish the object from others in the same genus. The genus\nshould be the proximura genus. It is thus always derived from a table of\ndifferences, either expressed or understood, as shown in Table 8 on the\nfollowing page.\nThe genus is expressed by the predicate noun, and the predicate noun\nalways expresses the characters of the table of resemblances from which\nthe general idea is derived.\nDiscursive thought involves three processes : first, the formation of\nthe concept or the notion ; second, judging ; third, reasoning. It will\nbe seen that so far the preceding exposition has dealt entirely with the\nfirst, or the notion. I lay so much stress upon the study of zoology\nbecause I believe the acquisition of the notion to be the most important\n\n"}
{"page": 1119, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nPEDAGOGICAL\nTABLE\n\nParamcEcium\n\nSponge\n\nAnimal\ncharacteristics\n\n=\"\nMany cells\n\nNO,\n\nCONTENT\n\n8. — SCALE\n\nOF\n\nOF ZOOLOGY\n\nANIMAL\n\nnil\n\nLIFE\nGrasshopper\n\nRabbit\n\n=\n\n=\n\n=\n\n=\n\n=\n\n=\n\n=\n\n=\n\n=\n\n=\n\n=\n\n=\n\nNervous system. Sepaive rate\ncavitydigest-\n\n=\n\n=\n\n=\n\n-\n\n=\n\n=\n\n=\n\nbreeding\nSpecialized\n\n=\n\n=\n\nStarfish\n\nEarthworm\n\n=\n\n=\n\n=\n\n=\n\n=\n\nHollow\ncavity body\n\nHydra\n\nBilateral\nsymmetry\n\nClam\n\n=\n\norgans\nJointed\npendagesapBrains\n\nand\n\ninclosedcord\nin\nspinal\nbony cavity\nseparate\n\n[See Table I.] A Lepidopter is an insect (genus) having scaly wings, sucking\nmouth parts, indirect metamorphosis, whose larva is a caterpillar, and whose pupa is\ninactive, etc.\n\nStep in thinking, and at the same time the most difficult to attain. It is\nnot too much to say that all healthy minds will judge alike and reason\nalike, and reach the same conclusion, if they see alike.\nThere is constant exercise in practical judging and practical reasoning\nin the study of zoology, but other subjects deal with the formal side in a\nconscious manner better. Grammar deals with the proposition which is\nthe expression of a judgment. Euclidean geometry deals with formal\nreasoning exclusively. It appears to me that zoology, grammar, either\nLatin or English — and I would prefer the English — and geometry are\nthe three subjects which may be used to the greatest advantage, with\nthe least loss of energy in training to discursive thinking.\nThis view of the matter was suggested to me by reading a course in\nlogic while I was teaching zoology and trying to discover what there\nwas in the subject that justified or demanded its introduction into a\ncourse of study. It seems to me that we have here a pedagogical\nprinciple of considerable value : that for teachers it is better to study\ndynamic mind than static mind ; that it is better to make formal logic\nthe basis of pedagogical experience than our ordinary psychology.\nIt is necessary to point out the importance of a method in teaching\nzoology, or any other subject. The particular discipline indicated can\nbe obtained in learning zoological facts by one method. But if the facts\nbe\nare learned by another method, these particular disciplines may\n\n"}
{"page": 1120, "printed_page": null, "text": "1112\n\nNA TIONAL\n\nEDUCA\n\nTIONAL\n\nASSOCIA TION\n\n[Science\n\nentirely avoided, and can never thereafter be attained by the study of\nthis subject. While I would affirm that the disciplines I have suggested\nare by far the most available, they are not the only ones, and the subject\nmay be used for an entirely different purpose.\nThat it is the discipline involved, and not the knowledge of particular\nforms acquired, which constitutes the content of the subject will be\nacknowledged by all when it is recognized that one class of students\nmay study one set of animal forms and another class an entirely different\nset, with equal benefit.\nColleges, then, that complain of the work of high schools quite\ngenerally set up a false standard, and do an injury to the schools when\nthey demand knowledge of particular forms as a test of efficiency,\ninstead of facility in mental processes properly cultivated by the subject.\nIn all: our work it is necessary to keep in mind the fact that it is the\npupil that is to be taught and not the subject.\nThis view of zoology fixes its position in a high-school course.\nPhysics and chemistry, being the laboratory subjects that are quantitative,\ngiving a different kind of discipline, and demanding more maturity of\nmind, should follow the qualtitative subjects of botany and zoology.\nPhysiological processes can best be studied in plants. From this fact,\nand from the further fact that the differences which are the bases of\nclassification in animals are more easily observable than the differences\nin plants, it will be found advantageous to put zoology in the first year of\nany high-school course.\nThe teacher must know the content of his subject. If he does not,\nhe is a bungler and not worth his salary, however meager that may be.\nBut it is not necessary, nor even advisable, that the pupil should know it.\nThe teacher knows that the objects sought are to be found in the\ndisciplines acquired. Let the pupil feel that the object sought is a\nknowledge of the frog and the tadpole and the earthworm. Here, as elsewhere, the greatest good is apparently incidental.\nThere are many other reasons why zoology should be studied in high\nschools. But I have preferred to lay emphasis upon the indisputable\npropositions that will forever demand its introduction into the schools,\nand am willing to pass by without comment those advantages which,\nwhile often more apparent, are really of less importance than these\nfundamental disciplines which are of eternal consequence to the human\nunderstanding.\n\nH\n\n"}
{"page": 1121, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSCIENCE\n\nSCIENCE\nBY\n\nGEORGE\n\nMANN\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nHIGH\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nHIGH\n\nRICHARDSON,\nSTANFORD\n\nJR.\n\nSCHOOL\n\nI I I3\n\nSCHOOL\n\nPROFESSOR\n\nOF\n\nUNIVERSITY,\n\nCAL.\n\nCHEMISTRY,\n\nLELAND\n\nWhen a man wishes to be dogmatic upon a subject, he finds it a great\nconvenience not to know very much about it. Now, I have never been\nconnected with the high school as a teacher, or even as a pupil ; you\nwill recognize at once, therefore, that I have certain qualifications for\naddressing you upon the topic \"Science in the High School.\"\nScience has won its place in the curriculum of the high school\nagainst much opposition, and under unfavorable conditions — unfavorable\nbecause of the way science was at first taught, and still is taught in some\ninstances — on account of which the valuable mental training peculiar to\nscience study was not obtained.\nFacts about the sciences were read from textbooks ; definitions and\nclassifications were committed to memory with a very hazy notion as to\ntheir true import. This unfortunate method of teaching science was in\ngreat part due to the fact that, at first, properly trained science teachers\nwere few in number, and to a decided tendency among school authorities\nto thrust the science work upon some already overcrowded teacher, who\nhad to carry the additional load as best he could. The chief result of\nthis kind of science study upon the pupil is the blunting of his curiosity\nconcerning the sciences, a curiosity which has become widespread,\nbecause, in their applied form, the sciences are met with on all sides, and\nbecause .they have so completely revolutionized our methods of living\nwithin the last fifty years.\nWhatever excuse there might have been for this method of caring for\nthe sciences at first, there is certainly none now.\nThere are plenty of well-trained science teachers now to be had, and\nschool boards that are not willing to employ such should have the courage\nto leave science out of their school altogether. Yet, almost every year\nI have known of teachers of chemistry who had never studied chemistry\nbefore they undertook to teach it, and who were making desperate efforts\nto keep at least one lesson ahead of their class. Under such conditions\nthere is little to be said in favor of retaining for science a place in the\nhigh-school curriculum, and much to be said against it. Nevertheless,\nscience has a real and very important place in our educational system.\nIntelligent persons have given up the idea that natural laws will or can\nbe changed for man's benefit, or be brought into accord with man's desires ;\nbut they recognize that the same result can be reached by changing\nthemselves, by putting themselves in accord with natural laws. To do\nthis it is necessary to know the laws of nature, and hence it is that the\n\n"}
{"page": 1122, "printed_page": null, "text": "III4\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCJATION\n[Science\n\nStudy of the natural sciences has a very wide practical application in\nteaching people the methods of right living. In addition to the value\nof the knowledge itself, science, when properly taught, gives a peculiar\nkind of training, and develops a certain attitude of mind, which are very\ndesirable for the educated man. Science deals with things that are\nknowable, with facts which, by patient observation and experiment, may\nbe proved.\nIn proving the facts of science we must exercise patience, impartiality,\nand absolute honesty. We must observe accurately, distinguish between\nthe important and the unimportant, between the real and the apparent,\nand learn to weigh evidence, and finally learn to suspend judgment\nwhere the evidence is not conclusive. It is sometimes said that science\nleaves no room for the imagination, and that science teaching destroys the\nimagination of children. This, it appears to me, is an unjust criticism ;\nfor, while science does try to have its knowledge well based upon facts,\nand has little patience with statements that cannot be proved by any who\nhave the skill and will take the time, in its theories, its gUesses at the\ncause of the phenomena observed, science has need of, and gives, exercise\nto the most highly developed imagination. In fact, much of the growth\nof science is due to the continual effort to learn whether the theories, the\nresults of well-guided imagination, are actually in accordance with the facts.\nAlmost any of the natural sciences, properly taught, will give this kind\nof training. Indeed, all of the natural sciences are artificial subdivisions\nof one great whole. As our knowledge increases and the boundaries of\nthe known are extended, one science will merge into another, and we shall\nsee that there are no natural boundary lines between them ; all boundary\nlines are artificial and of our own making. Such a merging of two\nsciences is now going on between physics and chemistry. Fifteen years\nago the merest schoolboy could accurately point out the difference between\nphysics and chemistry ; now we find the one passing over into the other,\nand where we cross the line dividing them those who know the most about\nit are unable to tell.\nAs our knowledge of the biological sciences increases on the one hand,\nand of physics and chemistry on the other, we shall find them drawing\ntogether, and some time, in the still distant future, the scientist who tills\nthe intermediate ground will find no real division between these sciences\nwhich, from our lack of knowledge concerning them, are now so wide apart.\nThe experimental sciences have certain advantages for educational\npurposes in the secondary schools. In these we can reproduce and control many of the forces of nature and govern the conditions under which\nthey are to act. Physics and chemistry are perhaps the most developed\nof the experimental sciences.\nThey are studied almost wholly in the laboratory, where the student\nis able to produce a given set of conditions repeatedly and examine\n\n"}
{"page": 1123, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSCIENCE\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\n1 II5\n\nthe result of these conditions acting upon various things, and thus to\ndiscover laws and test them as often as he wishes. Few other sciences\nare so favored in this respect.\nThe geologist, for example, can reproduce in the laboratory but few\nof the world-building forces of nature which he wishes to study. So,\ntoo, the astronomer has little control over the phenomena which interest\nhim, and in order to study them has to await their natural occurrence.\nMoreover, chemistry and physics are, in a sense, fundamental sciences ;\nthe other sciences being more or less highly specialized applications of\nthese, and a certain knowledge of chemistry and physics being necessary\nto their proper understanding. It would seem, then, that chemistry and\nphysics are the best adapted for educational purposes in the secondary\nschools ; but with those who think otherwise I shall have no controversy.\nAt least physics and chemistry are the sciences most usually taught in the\nsecondary schools.\nWith the time at the disposal of the classes in the high school it is,\nof course, impossible to master any single science. The greatest evil of\nour present method of teaching science in the secondary schools is, it\nseems to me, a tendency to cover too much ground. This, of course, comes\nfrom the desire to gain as much information about the science as possible;but it makes more difficult the more important point — the gaining\nof scientific training. We can gain information all our lives; with many\nthe high school offers the only opportunity to gain scientific training.\nThis attempt to cover much ground necessitates dealing with more or less\nisolated\" facts, the connection between which may or may not be pointed\nout by the teacher or the text-book, but which is rarely appreciated by\nthe pupil. The pupil is hurried from topic to topic, without taking time\nthoroly to understand the relationships of that which he has studied. In\nthe laboratory especially is the evil effect of this hurry noticeable ; the feeling of haste and pressure, consequent upon this desire to get on, is\ndirectly and fundamentally opposed to the conditions for successful laboratory work. It causes the pupil to slight the experiment in some essential\ndetail, the \"one step omitted which nature never pardons;\" causes the\nexperiments to be only partially successful.\nThe continued performance of experiments which are only partially\nsuccessful is worse than no experiments at all ; it causes the pupil to lose\nconfidence in himself and in the science; it develops nothing of that feeling of strength and power which is the result of successful laboratory\nwork.\nThis custom of covering a large amount of a science in an insufficient\ntime accentuates what is almost a national characteristic — a feeling of\nhaste, a lack of appreciation of the importance of small things, and a\ndisinclination to stick to one thing until it is mastered. It does nothing\ntoward developing what is called the scientific attitude of mind.\n\n"}
{"page": 1124, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 1 16\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n[Science\n\nInstead of attempting to gain what is sometimes called a \"broad\nview\" of tiie science, it seems to me that it would be better to get a deep\nview ; better to get the fundamental, basic facts of the subject thoroly in\nmind in such a way that the pupil is convinced of their truth by his own\npowers of observation and reason. Let the theories of the science follow\nthe facts which they are to explain ; let their relationship to the facts and\nto the science as a whole be carefully considered, always remembering\nthat future discoveries must modify them, and perhaps render them entirely\nuntenable. Encourage the pupil to form his own estimate of the value and\nprobability of a theory, basing his estimate upon the evidence, upon its\nreasonableness, and upon its usefulness to the science.\nSuccessful laboratory work requires patience, close attention to detail,\nand close powers of observation. To cultivate these the feeling of haste,\ntheir greatest foe, must be overcome. The pupil should feel, when he\nundertakes laboratory work, that he has all the time necessary to perform\nthe experiments with the greatest possible care, in order to get the best\npossible results; to repeat the work, if necessary; to take every precaution that will add to the accuracy of the results. He must learn to be\nunwilling to leave an experiment until he thoroly understands it and its\nbearing upon the subject in hand.\nThe pupil cannot, of course, get all of his facts from his own laboratory experience. This is neither necessary nor desirable ; he must, indeed,\ndepend largely for his facts upon the experience of others. My point is\nthat he should get a few facts, and get these few fully and thoroly, from\nhis own work. This will give him the most desirable laboratory training ;\nit will, enable him to understand the methods of getting nature's facts;\nand it will give him, therefore, a keener. appreciation of all the facts\nwhich he uses, tho they are not the result of his own experience.\nIn selecting the experiments to be performed by the pupil constant\nregard should be had to the pupil's laboratory experience and advancement, to his skill and ability to perform them successfully. Every experiment should either illustrate some important principle or some important\nproperty of the thing under consideration. It is usually not worth while\nto illustrate by experiment phenomena that are occurring about us all\nthe time, and are already familiar to the pupil, or can be made familiar\nby simply calling his attention to them.\nFor example, it is scarcely worth while to perform experiments in the\nlaboratory to distinguish between chemical and physical action, while we\nare continually surrounded by examples of each in nature, to which the\npupil only needs to have his attention called in order to get as perfect an\nidea of physical action as he will by heating a platinum wire in a Bunsen\nflame, oras perfect an idea of chemical action as he will by heating a testtube containing sugar. For the purpose of the kind of training which\nlaboratory\nwork so well gives, experiments should be selected which\n\n"}
{"page": 1125, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSCIENCE\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\n1 I I 7\n\nrequire some skill and thought to work out, and, wherever possible, they\nshould be quantitative.\nI do not sympathize with the tendency to make the laboratory experiments for pupils as simple as possible, and to take the fact that an experiment can be performed with ordinary kitchen utensils as ample reason for\nintroducing it into our school courses. I do not like an experiment which\nrequires an affirmative answer to the frequent question : \" Is that all there\nis to it?\" Such experiments are in large part responsible for the prevalence of that unwholesome dread of experiments which require some time\nand skill for their performance, which is so prevalent among the students\nentering our colleges. Experiments which require little thought are very\napt to receive it.\nAs a whole, I believe physics has certain advantages over chemistry for\nhigh school work, because it deals with phenomena that are more apparent to the senses, and with phenomena which permit of a readier quantitative study ; but chemistry also has certain advantages peculiar to itself.\nSince, however, chemistry and physics are no longer independent sciences,\nI believe the ideal course of experimental science for secondary schools\nwill be one which makes no effort to keep them differentiated, but, rather,\nwhich unites in one course as much of both as is needed to gain a thoro\nunderstanding of the phenomena\n\nstudied. I feel very sure that a two-\n\nyears' science course in the high school, based upon such lines, would give\nmost satisfactory results.\nFinally, in all science work, but especially in the laboratory, very much\ndepends upon the teacher. School authorities do not, as a rule, sufficiently appreciate the demand made upon the time and energy of their\nteachers by laboratory work.\nThe instruction in the laboratory being largely personal, a teacher\ncannot successfully handle here such large classes as in the recitation\nroom. In the laboratory the pupil must be constantly watched, and not\nallowed to acquire slovenly habits of work ; laboratory notes must be\nlooked over, and errors of observation and conclusiofi pointed out and\ncorrected ; teachers must use every opportunity to converse with the pupil\nabout his laboratory work, to draw him out, and to direct his attention to\ncertain points by questions ; for thus an experiment which may be of\nalmost no value to the student unaided may sometimes be rendered a\nmine of information. All of these duties make large demands upon the\ntime and working power of the teacher.\nThe importance of a good teacher outweighs all other considerations.\nPresident Eliot has said : \"Two kinds of men make good teachers — young\nmen and men who never grow old.\"\nGood science teachers have three indispensable qualifications — they\nmust know their subject, they must love their subject, and they must have\nan enthusiasm for work.\n\n"}
{"page": 1126, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF\n\nSCHOOL ADMINISTRATION\n\nSECRETARY'S\nFIRST\n\nMINUTES\n\nSESSION.— Thursday, July 13, 1899\n\nOwing to the unavoidable absence of two speakers on the program, the two sessions\narranged for were merged into one. In the absence of the regular chairman, E. E.\nBarthell, Nashville, Tenn., was elected temporary chairman.\nEric Edward Rosling, Esq., Tacoma, Wash., read the first paper, entitled \"Employment and Dismissal of Teachers.\" He was followed in a discussion of his paper \"by\nSamuel F. Smith, San Diego, Cal., and E. Morris Cox, Santa Rosa, Cal., and a number\nof the members of the Teachers' Federation of Chicago.\nWilliam George Bruce, Milwaukee, Wis., then read a paper entitled, \" Quo Vadis,\nSchool Board ?\"\nThis was followed by a paper read by Dr. Ella J. Fifield, Tacoma, Wash., entitled\n\" The School Board and the Press.\"\nThe nominating committee, which had been appointed at the beginning of the\nmeeting, then reported the following-named officers for the ensuing year :\nFor President— Hon. E. E. Barthell, Nashville, Tenn.\nFor First Vice-President — Thomas M. Gafney, Syracuse, N. Y.\nFor Second Vice-President — William F. Bradt, Ishpeming, Mich.\nFor Secretary — William George Bruce, Milwaukee, Wis.\nFor Executive Committee — Charles Cassat Davis, Los Angeles, Cal., Chairman.\nLyman Evans, Esq., Riverside, Cal.\nWilliam S. Mack, Aurora, 111.\nR. L. Yeager, Kansas City, Mo.\nE. B. Kruttschnitt, New Orleans, La.\n\n'\n\nUpon motion, the report was adopted and the officers declared elected.\nAdjournment followed.\nWm. Geo. Bruce,\nSecretary.\n\nPAPERS\nEMPLOYMENT\nBY ERIC\n\nEDWARD\n\nAND\nAND\n\nROSLING,\n\nDISCUSSIONS\nDISMISSAL\n\nESQ., PRESIDENT\nTACOMA,\n\nOF TEACHERS\nOF BOARD\n\nOF EDUCATION,\n\nWASH.\n\n\" Good Lord ! How many good and clear wits of children be now-adays perished by ignorant schoolmasters,\" wrote Sir Thomas Elyot in\n1 531. Centuries have come and gone since then — centuries whose\neducational reformers, like Comenius, Milton, Locke, Rousseau, Pestalozzi, Froebel, and Spencer, have accomplished wonders for the schoolboy ;\n1118\n\n"}
{"page": 1127, "printed_page": null, "text": "Administration]\n\nEMPLOYMENT\n\nAND\n\nDISMISSAL\n\nOF\n\nTEACHERS\n\nHIQ\n\nyet even now we can occasionally hear this sentiment echoed, at least\nfaintly, from both rural and urban districts, because there are still a few\nschool boards which are either ignorant or regardless of their trust, or\nhave a crude conception of it.\nIn our city lives a man who has for several years vainly placed himself \"in the hands of his friends\" as a candidate for school-board honors.\nIn urging his claims for my support in our last contest, he laid emphasis\nupon his four or five years' experience as a teacher in an eastern state.\nSurprised at learning of this qualification, I pressed the subject further,\nand was gravely informed that the school board under which he served\nfollowed the very excellent and economical plan of annually offering the\nposition to the lowest bidder, and with pardonable pride he added that\nhe received the appointment every year for several years.\nScarcely less questionable, or more conducive to the promotion of the\nwelfare of the schools, is the similar economic plan adopted by some\nboards, in both city and country, of fixing the salaries of their teachers at\nthe lowest schedule upon which any teacher, almost regardless of qualifications, can possibly be obtained, and then justifying their course by\ndemonstrating that their teachers rarely leave them for other schools.\nThey do not seem to realize that the teachers for whom their schedule\nwas an attraction would hardly be the ones for whom other and wiser\nboards would be seeking; and that \"the very foundation of the whole\ncommonwealth is the proper bringing up of the young\" is believed as\nfirmly today as when Cicero proclaimed it centuries ago. And as the\nother mighty factors in the make-up of the education of our youth,\nnamely, home, society, and church, cannot be universally and infallibly\nrelied upon to do their whole part, the people believe in education thru\nthe medium of the public school. Allow our school system to degenerate\nthru the introduction and retention of incompetent teachers, and we\nallow the foundations of our governmental structure to be seriously\nundermined, and at the door of the department of school administration\nmay largely and justly be laid the blame.\nAm I putting that too strongly ? I believe not. Chosen by the\npeople, who thus delegate largely parental responsibility, and created\nand clothed with extraordinary powers and authority by the state, our\nboards of education, as we are called in the state of Washington, are\nmade the legal guardians of our schools, the business managers of the\nsystem, and held strictly accountable to the general public and the state\nfor the manner and method of our administration.\nVentilation, heating, lighting, recreation, and seating, each present\nproblems for our solution that are both perplexing and difficult; but\novershadowing all these, in its importance and far-reaching influence\nupon the welfare of children, community, state, and nation, is the subject\nof this afternoon's paper, the \"Employment\n\nand Dismissal of Teachers.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 1128, "printed_page": null, "text": "112O\n\nNA TIONAL\n\nEDUCA\n\nTIONAL\n\nASSOCIA TION\n\n[School\n\nFew of us realize our great need of divine guidance and wisdom in this\nimportant branch of our work, or the care and deliberation requisite in\nthe execution of this part of our trust. We hold the balance of power\nand can make for weal or for woe.\nPermit me, therefore, to suggest that the personnel of our board is\nproperly our first consideration, for water will not rise higher than its\nsource, and a board itself deficient in manhood, character, and moral\nworth can hardly be relied upon to make these qualifications the first\ntest of fitness, as they should be, in the selection of teachers. The board\nshould be, and can be made, nonpartisan. School politics, or the application of politicians' methods to school affairs, should never be tolerated\nfor a moment, or teachers' positions will rapidly become considered as\nspoils ; the introduction of a spoil system into our schools would prove\ndisastrous. Schools should be kept out of politics and politics out of\nthe schools. But, you ask, can this be done ? Let me tell you how. A\nboard that is truly alive to its trust and responsibility will see to it that\nonly the right kind of men and women are elected to its membership.\nIn due season, before the annual election, quietly have a meeting of such\nmembers of your board as you know have a true conception of what is\ndue from members of a school board ; then carefully canvass the names\nof your best and most representative fellow-citizens, and select a ticket\nwhich your board will support, taking care that every name upon it represents a man \"or woman who (i) has a good Christian character and the\nconfidence of your community ; (2) is not a politician nor a political\naspirant; (3) is a man of good judgment and common-sense; (4) has no\ngrievance to satisfy or ax to grind, no enemy to punish or friend to\nreward; (5) whose ambition will be to improve the schools; and, lastly,\nsee that your ticket has on it names representing each of the leading\npolitical parties, taking care that the election of your ticket will not give\nany of said political parties an unfair majority in the board as a whole.\nYou then have a ticket that will bear close scrutiny, and will receive the\nunited support of your teaching corps and its friends, and of the patrons\nof the schools, and thus insure success at the polls. This can be done,\nand, if done, the best result in the selection of teachers is possible.\nBefore the election of teachers naturally must come their selection,\nand right here we are to put the test as to our own fitness for our office.\nThe patrons of our schools may employ whom they will for their doctors\nand lawyers, but as to the choice of a teacher, to whom is intrusted that\nmost important duty of the development of the minds and bodies of their\nchildren, they have nothing to say. With this tremendous responsibility\nshifted onto our shoulders, do we not, indeed, have need of exceeding\ncare and wise deliberation ? The teacher is to open the eyes of the child\nto a world of wonders, his mind to realms of knowledge ; and from him\nthe child should learn to love truth, purity, refinement, and all that makes\n\n"}
{"page": 1129, "printed_page": null, "text": "Administration]\n\nEMPLOYMENT\n\nAND\n\nDISMISSAL\n\nOF\n\nTEACHERS\n\nII2I\n\nup a perfect character ; and to scorn meanness, idleness, and all that\ndebases. The teacher's personal influence is greater than that of our textbooks, libraries, or laboratories, for the teacher is the school ; therefore,\nhow great the necessity of careful selection ! We may be proud, and with\nreason, of our buildings and grounds, but every school board should have\nreason to point with greater pride at a corps of teachers who are not only\nteaching history, physics, English, etc., but by word and example awakening their pupils to the highest and noblest purposes and deeds. Yes,\nwithout discounting the necessity for culture and attainments in the least,\nI would still make true manhood and womanhood my first test of fitness\nin the applicant.\nThe superintendent is, and should be, the ofificial and expert adviser\nof the board ; yet, to avoid all appearance of evil, as well as to insure the\nbest results, the rules should require him, after careful and personal\ninvestigation of the qualifications of all applicants, to select at least\nthree of the very best, everything considered, for each vacancy to be\nfilled. His list of recommendations should then be referred to a committee on teachers and salaries, who should be selected because of their\nmarked fitness for this particular work. If not practicable for the entire\nboard to do so, the entire membership of this committee at least should\nnot only carefully examine the testimonials accompanying the applications, but should meet each applicant personally and, if possible, inspect\nher work. To this end the superintendent should assign each of the\nrecommended applicants to sufficient substitute work to enable her to\nfairly demonstrate her qualifications to the teachers' committee, or to the\npaid supervisors of our larger cities. The committee is then in a position\nto distinguish the nagging, scolding \"school-marm\" from the one whose\nlove for childhood keeps her kind and patient thru mischief and dullness ;to compare their discipline, methods, etc., and make a wise report.\nThe election of relatives of the board or committee should be avoided, if\npossible; the politics of the applicant should never be known or considered ;one applicant should never be preferred over another by reason\nof her influential friends, or other similar pressure, or because of her\npoverty or need ; for our schools are not asylums, and we must remember\nthat \"the welfare of the child shall be the highest law.\"\nThe election should be for one year and to the end of the current\nschool year, rather than for an indefinite term, conditioned even on good\nbehavior and successful work.\nDoubtless this latter proposition will provoke much adverse criticism,\nbut it is submitted only after mature deliberation, and is based upon\nexperience in our own city. The objection may be raised that the teacher\nis thus kept on the anxious seat, preventing her from really producing\nthe best results of which she is capable. To a very small extent this may\nbe .true, but, on the other hand, the annual election is a constant incentive\n\n"}
{"page": 1130, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n[School\n\nto the best possible efforts, and will prevent careless, indifferent work, as\nlong as the board is alive to its duties and does not allow the annual\nelection to degenerate into a mere formality. The condition of good\nbehavior and satisfactory work in a life term is, except in extreme cases,\nusually of little practical value. Experience teaches us that it requires a\nflagrant case to interfere with any life term, largely because there is no\nperiodical investigation, upon the issues of which is based the continuity\nof the term. See, for example, the recent exposure of the shortcomings\nof that New York surrogate to whom a long-suffering public submitted\nfor years, until Governor Roosevelt personally took the matter in hand\nand in his characteristic manner compelled a surrender of the office. If\nthe merits or demerits of this surrogate could have been passed upon\nby the people at the polls annually or biennially, you may be sure he\nwould have proven a better judge.\nIf \" when once in, always in \" becomes recognized by the teachers of\nyour corps as the policy of the board, whether based upon a formal annual\nelection or a life term, the board has permitted a mighty blow to be\nstruck at the welfare of both school and community, and is guilty of\ncriminal negligence that should not go unpunished. The annual election\naffords the needed opportunity to drop the unsatisfactory teacher without\nthe unnecessary publicity of a discharge. The simple omission of a\nname in the list of re-elected teachers will rarely be discovered. And\nfurther to relieve the unsuccessful teacher from embarrassment, both\nfinancial and social, I believe that, while all renewals of contracts should\ntake effect from the opening of the fall semester, yet the annual election\nshould be held immediately preceding the beginning of the annual\nsummer vacation, so that abundant opportunity may be given the rejected\nteacher to make other plans for the future, and at the same time relieve\nall the other teachers from any anxiety and insure to them the full\nenjoyment of the vacation season.\nBut whether you employ your teachers annually or not, let the teacher\nwho is doing good, faithful work feel, not only that she has your approval\nand appreciation, but that she can count upon your support just as long\nas her exemplary work continues. Such teachers, with each succeeding\nyear's added experience, become more and more invaluable, and should\nbe retained at any reasonable cost.\nThere are many little details and items that might properly be considered in connection with this subject, but which are largely subject to\nthe conditions of each school district. In this brief paper I have not\ndared to venture into so exhaustive a field, but have contented myself\nwith the statement of a few general principles, the observance of which I\nmodestly believe would prove of practical value to us all.\nJust a word further on the subject of dismissals and I am done.\nExcept in cases justifying summary action, such as immoral conduct) I\n\n"}
{"page": 1131, "printed_page": null, "text": "Administration]\n\nEMPLOYMENT\n\nAND\n\nDISMISSAL\n\nOF TEACHERS\n\n1 1 23\n\nbelieve each teacher is entitled to fair warning before dismissal for\nincompetency; the notice should be coupled with friendly criticism and\nadvice from the proper source, acquainting her with her deficiencies;\nand both supervisors and principal should give her unusual attention and\nassistance, not only for the sake of the scholars, but for her own sake.\nSuch a course has been the making of some of our best teachers, who\nwould otherwise have retired from the profession discouraged. A change\nof grade or environment may bring about a happy result.\nIf it is self-evident that she can never become a successful teacher,\nhave her told so kindly, and, above all, do not soothe her disappointment\nby arming her with credentials and recommendations in subtle form,\ncalculated to deceive wherever presented. Do not pass such a teacher\nalong to inflict her incompetency upon others ; nor keep her yourself\nbecause of her influential friends ; but remain true to your trust, and\nremember that the welfare of the child is your highest trust.\n\nDISCUSSION\n\nSam Ferry Smith, member of board of education, San Diego, Cal. — The object\nand purpose of the public-school sygtem is to educate the child ; to bring into play and\nactivity, and to direct into the proper mental, moral, and physical channels, the dormant,\ngrowing, and developing powers. The child comes to the school \" a bundle of inherited\ntendencies,\" good, bad, and indifferent. To furnish an environment that will stimulate\nand bring out intellectually and ethically all that is good and noble, and to repress all\nthat is bad and vicious, is its mission. The chief factor is the teacher. You may have\nfine buildings, elaborate text-books, and expensive laboratories, and yet without a good\nteacher fail to educate, while with a good teacher all else may be deficient, or even totally\nwanting, and yet marvelous results be obtained. The teacher, then, is the principal factor\nin a successful school.\nHow should this teacher be selected ? What qualifications should she have ? And\nby whom should the selection be made ?\nLet us first consider the qualifications. She must, of course, have a teacher's certificate ;\nbe of good moral character, neat and tidy in appearance ; have sufficient physical strength\n{0 maintain discipline; have complete control over herself, particularly her temper; above\nall must possess that subtle but indescribable power of imparting knowledge to others, of\ninstilling by moral influence the highest ethics, inspiring the pupil by example rather than\nby precept to develop the best and noblest that is in him ; the power of enforcing obedience by strength of will rather than by force of muscle ; and last, but not least, must\nhave a love of children and a strong sympathy with their weaknesses and frailties. A rare\ncombination, truly ; yet not one of these qualities can be omitted if the best results are to\nbe obtained.\nAs to the manner of selection : There are three methods now in vogue ; all others are\nmodifications or combinations of two or more of these three. They are, first, selection by\na board of education at large ; second, selection by a committee of the board appointed\nfor that purpose ; and, third, selection by the superintendent of schools.\n\n"}
{"page": 1132, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 124\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[School\n\nMuch can be said in favor of each system ; each has its advantages and disadvantages, and should be considered in all its various phases and modifications ; but time\ndoes not permit ; therefore I shall devote the time allotted to me to the presentation of\nwhat, to my mind, is the best system, viz., the selection by the superintendent of schools —\na system which, I believe, has the most advantages and is subject to the least criticism.\nWhen this system is suggested, the question is at once asked : Why centralize this power?\nWhy should a board of education abdicate this prerogative to one man, and that man an\nemploy^ ? I answer : Because the average member of a board of education has neither\nthe time, opportunity, nor capacity to make the observations and investigations necessary\nto perform that important duty in a proper manner. To determine whether or not a\nteacher possesses the required qualifications it is necessary that frequent visits be made to\nthe schoolroom, so that her influence and methods may be observed ; to ascertain whether\nor not she has that requisite peculiar personality; to note her maral and intellectual\ninfluence over her pupils ; to compare her work with the work of other teachers of the\nsame grade ; to examine the written work of her scholars to see whether or not the\nresults are up to the standard. This must of necessity consume a great deal of time, and\nmust be done by personal observation, contact, and examination. An attendance at classday exercises or other public functions is not sufficient, nor does a five- or ten-minute visit\nto the school once or twice a year suffice. Credentials, no matter how high-sounding or\nfrom what institution issued, will not determine it. Recommendations, no matter from\nwhat source, are not conclusive. The teacher may be a graduate of the highest institution of learning, may be entitled to write enough letters after her name to make an alphabet, and yet, as an imparter and inspirer of moral, intellectual, and ethical qualities in a\nchild, be a dismal failure ; while one with no certificate higher than that of a grammar\nschool or high school, or in fact no certificate at all other than that giving her the\nright to teach, may meet with marked success and be a truly ideal teacher. Teachers\nare, to a large extent, born and not made ; and while training and education are necessary\nand beneficial, yet they are not all ; and those qualifications which make the best teacher\ndepend more upon the character and personality of the individual than upon the training\nand education that she may have had. Hence the proper selection cannot be made upon\ncredentials or recommendations, but must be made after a full and fair trial amid the\nconditions and surroundings in which the teacher is expected to work, and after a careful\nobservation by the person who is supposed to make the selection. All applicants should,\ntherefore, serve from three to twelve months on probation before receiving permanent\nemployment. It follows of necessity that the person who makes the selection must be\none who has the time, opportunity, and ability to perform that duty. Except in rare\ncases, members of the board of education, coming as they do from the busy walks of life,\ncannot spare sufficient time from their business duties, and have not had the technical\ntraining in methods of teaching which would qualify them to pass upon the qualifications\nof a teacher. Hence I feel and believe that the proper place to lodge this power is in\none who, by reason of his position, training, and opportunities, is best qualified to make\nthe selection. Let the board of education select a superintendent who is truly devoted to\nthe cause of education, whose whole ambition and purpose is to carry out in its fullest\nscope the true mission of the schools ; then place in his hands the power of selecting his\ncorps of teachers, and hold him in strict accountability. When this is done personal\n<' pulls,\" political preferences, influential relatives, and many other things that now in\nmany cities make the educatioiuil department a dumping-ground for relatives and impecunious friends, will become extinct ; incompetency will be weeded out, and the moral\nand educational standard of the school department will be elevated to the highest pinnacle,\nand become what it is destined to be — the best, noblest, and greatest institution under the\nAmerican flag.\nThis high standard, once attained, should be maintained.\nWhenever a teacher from\n\n"}
{"page": 1133, "printed_page": null, "text": "Administration]\n\nQUO\n\nVADIS,\n\nSCHOOL\n\nBOARD?\n\n1 1 25\n\nany cause fails to keep up to the standard, she should at once be dropped and another\nteacher put in her place. And it should be the rule that, so long as the teacher maintains\nthat high standard which should be required of her to gain appointment in the department, just so long should she be secure of her position, and no longer ; and hence, having\nno tenure in office but that of satisfactory service, the teacher will be ever alive to the\nnecessity of having her work up to the highest standard.\n\nQUO\n\nBY WILLIAM\n\nGEORGE\n\nVADIS,\n\nBRUCE,\n\nSCHOOL\n\nBOARD?\n\nEDITOR \"AMERICAN\nMILWAUKEE,\nWIS.\n\nSCHOOL\n\nBOARD\n\nJOURNAL,\n\nThe general progress which has manifested itself in all lines of human\nactivity has touched the management of our educational affairs with equal\nforce. While it may be said that all advancement must have its impetus\nin knowledge, and knowledge its source in education, we differentiate\nhere education in the abstract from a system or machinery for its application or distribution. This system has kept fully abreast with the educational progress of the day, and the machinery which was once crude and\nclumsy has grown into an intricate piece of mechanism. The principles\nwhich serve- as its motive power have always been the same.\nThe school board of the present day is, however, a different affair from\nthe school board of even a quarter of a century ago. The simple course\nof study, the limited list of books, and the meager school supplies left\nlittle for the old-time school board to look after. The amplification of\nstudies, the increased size and number of school buildings, together with\nthe requirements of a modern schoolhouse, make greater demands upon a\nschool board.\nThese demands are met by men who are equal to the task. The\nrough and unlettered citizens who served upon the old school board have\ngradually been displaced by the business and professional men in every\ncommunity. The' farmer as well as the mechanic who may hold a membership in a school board is fully equipped to meet the obligation of a\nnew condition. For all that has been accomplished we should feel truly\ngrateful. The thousands who have served on boards of education have\ncontributed their share toward the great progress made. Without them\nlittle could have been accomplished.\nThe establishment of our public-school system brought into life the\nfirst school board.\nThe latter was necessary for the life of the former.\nThe very nature of our form of government called for a system of\nschool government which brought the schools as near the people as possible. The foundation of the republic rested then, as it does now, upon\nthe public-school system.\nIt involved, not merely the education of the\n\n"}
{"page": 1134, "printed_page": null, "text": "I 126\n\nNATJONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\npeople, but an inculcation of the spirit of democracy.\n\nThis spirit\n\nfound its profoundest' expression in its school system, and was typified[Schinool\nthe real conservator of the schools, the school board, a body created of\nthe people for the government of the school system by the people and\nfor the people. The very fact that the people had the management\nunder their own control served as an impetus toward enlightenment and\nfreedom. A centralized or paternal form of school management would\nhave been fatal to the cause. A radical change would have come over\nthe spirit of our institutions. Plutocracy rather than democracy would\nhave been the result. But the school board proved to be the real hand\nthat rocked the cradle of democracy. It watched unceasingly the interests\nof the public-school system which has proven itself the bulwark of a\nrepublic.\nSo much for the introduction, at least, of my discussion.\nI have thus far merely aimed to lend the subject a background which\nshall show the spirit which its founders breathed into our school system,\nthe fundamental principles which have so successfully governed them.\nI mean now to contrast some of the modern tendencies in school\ngovernment with the well-established doctrines which have stood the test\nof time so well — tendencies which not only weaken and divert, but\nantagonize its very existence. That these tendencies should creep into\nthe management of our educational affairs, that centralization and paternalism should even find recognition at the hands of progressive members of\nboards of education, may be difficult to understand.\nIn this age of feverish haste it may not be surprising that we should\nmove, temporarily at least, in wrong directions, that we leap into new\ndepartures before we have foreseen their ultimate effect. But the paternalist, the autocrat, is abroad in school affairs as well as elsewhere. He\nseeks centralization of power, of monopoly in the management of our\neducational affairs, with the same avidity with which he combines commercial interests. A one-man power is his ultimate aim.\nOne form of this modern tendency finds expression in the disposition\nof educators to question the right of school boards to have any jurisdiction over the education of the child. Superintendent Jones, of Cleveland,\nrecently voiced the sentiment of educators when he challenged the right\nof anyone, not a specially trained teacher of the highest attainments, to\nplan or criticise a course for our public schools. Not even the school\nboard is to have a voice in the matter.\nThe answer to this proposition is well put by Mr. Backus, a member\nof the Cleveland school board.\nHe said :\nI take issue with the superintendent ; I believe that the men and women in active\nbusiness and professional life, the people who come into daily contact with the different\nphases of our business and social and political existence, are specially fitted to judge and\ndetermine what should be taught in our schools, to meet the modern requirements of\ncitizenship. This most certainly was the thought of the legislature of the state when it\n\n"}
{"page": 1135, "printed_page": null, "text": "Administration]\n\nQUO\n\nVADIS,\n\nSCHOOL\n\nBOARD ?\n\n1 1 27\n\nenacted the law directing the members of the board of education — who are the direct\nrepresentatives of the people — to determine by the majority vote of all members elected\nthe studies to be pursued, and what text-books shall be used in the schools under their\ncontrol. It is within the province of the superintendent to determine how a subject is to\nbe taught, but it should, and must, remain the duty of the school board to say what shall\nbe taught.\n\nAnother proposition that reveals a modern tendency emanates from\nSuperintendent Andrews, of Chicago, who arrogates to himself the sole\nright to select and appoint teachers. Here, too, school boards are to\nhave no voice in the matter. Let me give you the answer to this form of\ncentralized power in the language of Mrs. Wiles, who spoke before the\nNational Convention of School Boards in 1897.\nShe said:\nIf boards cannot judge of the qualifications of teachers, how are they to judge\nwhether the superintendent appoints, promotes, and dismisses on merit alone, and\nwhether he is himself a capable and inspiring leader of teachers ? If boards know\nnothing of text-books and courses of study, how are they to judge whether the superintendent chooses wisely ? The fact is, the board (or at least some members) must know\nsomething of all these things, or fail in its duty. Otherwise it is at the mercy of a superintendent who may work simply to please parents and teachers, and, succeeding in that,\nmay draw his salary year after year, and the schools grow poorer and poorer, with no\none to say \"nay.\"\n\nIf a school board is incapable of ratifying the appointment of a thirdgrade teacher, how, in the name of common- sense, can it ever be intrusted\nwith the appointment of a superintendent?\nIt is by no means argued that the superintendent is not to have a\nvoice in all matters touching upon the professional side of school work,\nor even the greater power in this direction, as I shall demonstrate.\nThe progress in school government includes, no doubt, a clearer\nunderstanding between the board and its superintendent, a more definite\ndivision of duties and responsibilities, as well as a more clearly defined\nrelationship.\nThe causes which bring into life these small reform school boards\nmay in every instance be traced to the misdeeds of a larger predecessor.\nThe good public and the press, at the sound of an internal school-board\nrupture, determine that the size, rather than the mode and manner of a\nboard's operation, is at the bottom of its weaknesses. The capacity of the\nindividual members and the representative character of the organization\nbecome less of a factor in a reform movement than the numerical proportion. A smaller body is legislated into life, the representative feature is\noverlooked, and an aristocratic school board is intrusted with the care\nof the schools. The elimination of the representative feature is presumably made up in the character of the newly appointed.\nMen who stand highest in commercial and professional circles ought\nto make the best material for a school board. The proposition naturally\nappeals to one's reason, but\n\nthe selection of any one distinctive class\n\n"}
{"page": 1136, "printed_page": null, "text": "1128\n\nNA TIONAL\n\nEDUCA\n\nTIONAL\n\nASSOCIA TION\n[School\n\noffers some serious objection. True, a school board should be made\nup of men who have a good standing in the community, but also of men\nwho possess in a high degree that interest which will prompt them to give\ntheir best service. A great lawyer or a wealthy banker may be a failure\nas a school-board member. A lack of time and inclination to the work\nmay unfit him. The indolent or indifferent man is certainly undesirable, but equally so is the man who is too busy — the man who cannot\nor will not give the requisite time.. In fact, men of this class have oftentimes undervalued the dignity, the importance,' or the duties of their\nposition. They had to be urged in the first place to accept, and felt\nsomewhat above the place while serving. While you may* hold this to be\nthe exception, I have found it, in the Jarger cities at least, to be more\nthan a mere exception.\nFurthermore, these men do not, as a rule, give the requisite time to\ndo justice to their position. It is oftentimes said that it takes a busy\nman to find time for school-board duties. I grant this. But many of\nour professional and business-men who accept school-board honors do\nnot — because they are too busy — give the time and attention necessary.\nThey are unable, altho in attendance at regular board meetings, to give\nthat thought, that deep interest, which makes a draft upon time by attend-^'\ning committee meetings, and which is so essential to the successful\nadministration of school affairs. This sort of school member necessarily\nbecomes an exclusive personage. The great pressure upon his time, the\nmultiplicity of affairs with which he deals and in which school-board\nmatters, from his standpoint, are classed as insignificant trifles, render\nhim at once an autocrat as far as his relations with the school system and\nthe public are concerned.\nI have in mind here a city school board made up of the cream of\ncommercial and professional men. Its leading members cannot be seen\nupon school matters except at committee meetings. A visit to the office\nof the president in a high office building will find you confronted with a\npolite clerk who will deliver your card to the great man who is hid in the\ninner recesses of his private sanctum. You wait at the outer portals of\nthis temple until the clerk returns to tell you that school matters cannot\nbe discussed by \"his chief. The very nature of your business will exclude\nyou from the great man's presence.\nHere I hold that the man who holds membership in a school board\nowes a certain amount of time to those who have legitimate business with\nthe school system. A parent, a pupil, a teacher, even a stranger, may\nhave a claim with the school-board member which he is in duty bound\nto respect.\nHe is the mediary between the school system and the public, and\nshould be the friend of the pupil and the teacher. Holding, as he does,\nconfidential relations to the school system, he must be willing to give a\n\n*\n\n"}
{"page": 1137, "printed_page": null, "text": "Administration]\n\nQUO\n\nVADIS,\n\nSCHOOL\n\nBOARD\n\n?\n\n1 129\n\nhearing to his constituency, in order to determine whether their case\nshould be brought before a committee. An experienced member knows\nthat many of the ordinary affairs must be adjusted without being brought\nbefore a committee, and, again, that the average teacher, pupil, or citizen\nmay be extremely embarrassed at being obliged to go before a committee\nmeeting. In this connection let me say that even the bookman, or supply agent, is entitled to a hearing if the board is in the market for his\ngoods. A personal interview will sometimes bring out information\nregarding the goods in question which cannot be elicited in the five- and\nten-minute speeches before committees. An agent will always discourse\nfreely the shortcomings of his competitor's wares — shortcomings which\ncould not be brought to light so readily in any other way. A great deal\nof information on a given subject can be obtained from these salesmen —\nwho give it gratis.\nThe president of the school board should be at the helm. His duties\nand responsibilities are greater than those of the ordinary member. His\nguardianship over the school system not only implies wise leadership in\nschool-board transactions ; it makes him the counselor and the friend of\nthe parent, teacher, and pupil. To him must be confided the many things\nwhich, if given publicity, would cause a calamity. He must relieve the\nstrain and friction which are so common in school management, but which\nonly a wise and considerate man of affairs can adjust. We have seen\nexcellent school systems where the school board was made up of earnest\nmen of good character, but with no claims to distinction or exceptional\nlocal prominence, while we know of school systems which are below the\nusual standard, whose school board consists of the highly stationed element.\nThus some of the leading cities in the United States are afflicted with\naristocratic school boards. Usually the largest cities have intensified the\naristocratic feature most. New York city a year ago prided itself on its\nreform school board, which was only about one-half the size of the former\norganization. Small boards and high-class men was the cry. Today the\nmost thoughtful people in New York city pronounce their reform school\nboard a failure.\nIn a recent interview Mayor Van Wyck made this statement :\nI am going to advertise for first-class men who can and will give all their time as\ncommissioners of education. The great trouble at the present time is that the school\ncommissioners cannot give enough time to their duties, and the result is they know little\nor nothing about the detailed work of their important department.\n\nA similar wail comes from other cities. What is the next logical step\nin cities where the idea of concentrated power has gained ground ? The\nappointment of a salaried commission of three men who shall govern the\nschool system. This suggestion has alreaay been made, and if the\npaternalists are true to their creed, such a commission will be the ultimate\n\n"}
{"page": 1138, "printed_page": null, "text": "II30\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[School\n\noutcome in the larger cities. The school system will then be placed on a\nlevel with the police, fire, sewerage, and sundry other departments of a\ncity government.\nIn line with this tendency is the new fad which likens a school system to a factory plant. Like the factory superintendent, the school\nsuperintendent is to employ all hands, fix all salaries, and boss the job\nfrom beginning to end. The school board is to become a sort of board\nof directors which is simply to pore over the annual reports and compute\nthe educational dividends which may be squeezed out without smashing\nthe educational factory plant. To this plan I simply reply that no schoolboard member can read the result of a school system from a superintendent's report.\nTo use the language of a prominent school-board member :\nThe success of the private corporation can be measured accurately and beyond\ndoubt in dollars and cents, while the success of a school superintendent is in developing\nall the inherent power of a child, and in forming his mental and moral character. There\nis no measure of such success or failure, no hard or fast test ; the board of education cannot sit back in office chairs and read this from scholarship averages, examination marks,\nand numbers of promotion.\n\nIn order that a board of education may reach the largest measure of\nusefulness and fulfill in the highest degree the sacred duty devolved\nupon it, the original ideas which brought it into life must prevail. It has\nstood the test of time, and while the changes which arise with new conditions affect only the means to an end, the principle of democracy must\nprevail now as it did then, not only in the schoolroom — where one child\nis the equal of another — but in the school board which gives life and sustenance to the school. In order that this principle may be exerted to its\nhighest degree of blessing, the school board must be truly representative\nof this community. The poor but intelligent mechanic should be given\n^ a place beside the rich banker ; the small tradesman should be entitled to\nthe same recognition that is accorded the prominent professional man.\nThe board should represent the various social strata as well as political\nshades of a community. Its members should be in direct touch with the\nmasses, whose throbbings of life they feel, with whom they sympathize,\nand whose needs they realize. A proper division of duty and authority\nin the school board which is numerically as well as intellectually'strong\nenough will never make concentrated power needful or attractive.\nThe possession of unlimited power in any direction, the ability to control absolutely\nthe pecuniary condition of a large number of people [says Mrs. Taylor, of the Cleveland\nboard], involved a responsibility from which any man might well shrink. Yet, observation and experience teach us that the exercise of such power has a tendency to render\nalmost any man despotic in disposition, selfish and grasping in practice. It has been\nsaid that a wise despotism is the best government in actual practice, and Americans are\noath to subscribe to the statement.\n\n\"Concentration of authority in the past has always resulted in the\n\n\\\n\n"}
{"page": 1139, "printed_page": null, "text": "Administration!\n\nTHE\n\nSCHOOL\n\nBOARD\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nPUBLIC\n\nPRESS\n\ni 131\n\nbuilding up of some at the expense of the many,\" says President Will of\nthe Kansas State Agricultural College, \" and the ultimate overthrow of\nliberty.\" Imperialism should be as foreign to the American public-school\nsystem as it is to the genius of our form of government. Hence an\nimperialistic form of school government should not and cannot be tolerated. The present tendency toward concentration can end in nothing\nless than an educational trust — the concentration of the one-man power.\nLet us adhere to the old-time idea of the genius of republicanism, which\ngives the schools to the people who must maintain them ; to the idea that a\nschool system does not exist for self-aggrandizement of ambitious citizens ;\nthat schoolhouses are not built for architectural ornaments ; that the school\nboard is not the stepping-stone to high political honors; but that schoolhouses, -books, and -teachers, and, last but not least, school boards, all\nexist for one definite purpose — the educational welfare of the child.\n\nTHE\n\nBY\n\nELLA\n\nJ.\n\nSCHOOL\n\nFIFIELD,\n\nBOARD\n\nM.D.,\n\nMEMBER\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nPUBLIC\n\nOF\nWASH.\n\nBOARD\n\nOF\n\nPRESS\n\nEDUCATION,\n\nTACOMA,\n\nTwo powerful factors in directing the educational affairs and the\npublic policy of the nation are the public schools, as represented by\nschool boards, and the public press. These cannot be considered as two\nopposing factors, but as great powers working along different lines in the\neducation of the people. The school board represents the people in the\ncare and conduct of the public schools. Its power for good or ill is\nincalculable. It controls to a great extent the mental, moral, and physical interests of children at a period of life when they are not only being\neducated, in the common acceptation of the term, but also during the\ntime when the plastic mind is being molded and the elements of character\nare being developed. It depends on the wise or unwise action of school\nboards whether the hands that fashion the eager, active, childish mind\nshall be skillful, strong, clean, and capable, or weak, inefficient, and careless.\nThe school board must accept the responsibility of providing training\nthat will not merely give the boy and girl intellectual development, but\nthat will surely result in forming the character of the future citizen. The\nwork of the school board of today is not so manifest in the present as it\nwill be in a few years hence. What we as school boards are now sowing\nthru the teachers we employ, and the standards we set up, will be seen\nmost clearly in the harvest of by and by.\nStill, there is a present influence\n\n"}
{"page": 1140, "printed_page": null, "text": "II32\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n[School\n\nexerted by our schools, both by the lessons and ideas carried into the\nhomes by the children, and by the presence in the community of a body\nof cultured, upright men and women, such as most teachers are, that gives,\ndirection and impulse to the affairs of that community. The individual\nis the unit of the state and nation, and it is by the influences exerted on\nindividuals that that great, invisible, indefinable, but all-powerful something\nwhich we call public opinion is formed. The public schools certainly\nhave a large share in this formation, but another great factor previouslymentioned is the mighty influence of the public press.\nThe schools reach the sixteen million children of the land and thru them\ntouch the homes with their influence, but the newspaper goes directly into\nthe heart Of the family, and carries its messages of good or ill into the\nhands of our seventy-five million people. So universal has its circulation\nbecome that scarcely a house is without its one to half a dozen papers.\nEven in remote country places, hamlet or farmhouse, this messenger from\nthe outside world finds its way and exerts its silent power on every reader.\nIt may be the children of a larger growth are as unconscious of the\ninfluence exerted on their actions and opinions by their text-book, the\nnewspaper, as the little ones of their growth of character in the schoolroom but\n;\nthe power is there ; and the character, opinions, and expressions\nof the newspaper to a great extent mold the sentiment and dictate the\npolicy of the nation.\n• This power is recognized in every activity of life. A great political\nparty which looks forward to achieving success in its issues early lays its\nlines to capture the newspapers and secure their support.\nIf an individual wishes to promote any enterprise in a community, he\nis careful not to antagonize the newspapers, but seeks rather their indorsement. He knows his success depends largely on the estimate they place\nupon him and the light in which they place him before the public.\nWith these two great forces permeating the affairs of the nation thru\nchild and man, it would seem that the best interests of all could be conserved by a harmonious combination of the two; or, if not an actual\ncombination, then a friendly touch and spirit of co-operation between\nthem. While the press is really a private enterprise conducted for profit\nto its owners, it is also in a sense a public institution, dependent on the\npublic for its existence. It is used to promote enterprises of both a public\nand a private nature, and why should it not be especially enlisted in that\nmost vital of all interests, the public school ? Usually, I think, the press\nis awake to the affairs of the schools, and is ready to help foster its\ninterests, but it may be mistaken in the line of the policy it pursues to gain\nthe desired ends. One great trouble with newspapers sometimes is that\nthey know so much that isn't true that they may be very misleading in the\ndirection they give to public sentiment. No doubt part of the difficulty arises from a desire for information which they are tmable to get\n\n"}
{"page": 1141, "printed_page": null, "text": "Adminfetwtionj\n\n'TU:E 'SCHOOL BOARD\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nPUBLIC\n\nPRESS\n\n1 133\n\ncorrectly ; and as they must give their readers news of some kind, they\nevidently manufacture it for the occasion. Perhaps this might be avoided\nif the reporter were taken more into the confidence of the board and\nfurnished facts to replace his fancies. The school board and the people\nshould be in closer touch, and this may be to a great extent accomplished\nthru the newspaper. The public has a right to know what is being done\nby its elected officers, and can only obtain its knowledge thru the medium\nof newspapers. Representatives of the press ought to receive a welcome\nat the regular meetings of the board, and be given an opportunity to\ncorrectly learn the actions taken. This would undoubtedly often prevent\nbeing wwreported. There may be occasions when it would not be the\npart of wisdom to have all the proceedings of the board made public.\nIn cases of discipline, or in discussion of qualifications of teachers,\npublicity might work injustice or even harm, but these executive sessions\nshould be the exception and not the rule.\nThe wisdom of controversy with the press thru its columns is very\nquestionable. It is hard for a school board, working conscientiously and\nfaithfully for the best interests of the schools, working at a personal\nsacrifice of time and strength, and with no hope of reward, to be misrepresented, tohave its actions ascribed to selfishness and favoritism, or\nbe accused of extravagant misuse of the people's money, and to have\nother unjust and either thoughtless or malicious charges against its integrity sent broadcast in the community thru the columns of the local press.\nThere is an almost irresistible desire to retaliate by a letter of denial and\nexplanation, refuting all such accusations, which the paper would no\ndoubt publish. In doing so, however, it is well to remember that the\nnewspaper, like a woman, will always have the last word, and may dissect\nyou and your explanation with a pen wielded with experience and pointed\nwith sarcasm.\nIt is difficult to say why newspapers are thus ready to attack the\nactions and impugn the motives of such bodies as school boards, unless,\nfrom their editorial and reportorial knowledge of the seamy side of life,\nthey learn to be suspicious and lose faith in everyone. It is possible,\nalso, that the low standard of service set by the generality of public servants may lead many papers to estimate the character and work of school\nboards on the same plane.\nI do not wish to intimate that school boards are faultless, nor are\ntheir actions always above criticism. But I do maintain that as a rule\nthey are chosen from the honorable and respected class of citizens, and\nare usually desirous of conducting the affairs of the office fairly and honestly. This is especially true of localities where school affairs are kept\nseparate from politics. Possibly the criticism of the press serves one\ngood purpose — that of stimulating school boards to their best efforts,\nand acting as a check upon carelessness or faithlessness.\n\n"}
{"page": 1142, "printed_page": null, "text": "1134\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[School\n\nIf newspapers were as ready to give praise when due, and recognize\nthru their columns the earnest endeavors and faithful performance of the\ndifficult duties devolving upon school boards, as they are to volunteer\nunkind criticism, the interests of the schools would be better served, and\nboards would have less difficulty in securing the co-operation of the public in building up and increasing the efficiency of the schools.\nIt is to be hoped that a frant? discussion of the situation may lead to\na better understanding between the powers that be, and result in a closer\nco-partnership for the advancement of the public-school interests.\n\n"}
{"page": 1143, "printed_page": null, "text": "LIBRARY DEPARTMENT\nSECRETARY'S\nFIRST\n\nMINUTES\n\nSESSION.— Thursday, July 13, 1899\n\nThe department was called to order at 3 p. M. in the council chamber by President\nL. D. Harvey, Madison, Wis.\nIn the absence of the secretary. Miss Avery, of New York, Miss Elizabeth Skinner,\nDenver, Colo., was appointed acting secretary.\nThe president introduced Mr. Alfred Bayliss, Springfield, 111., who read a paper on\nthe subject, \"The Function of School Superintendents in Procuring Libraries for, and Their\nProper Use in, the Public Schools.\" Discussion was opened by S. P. McCrea, of Arizona*\nfollowed by President L. D. Harvey.\nThe president spoke on the report of the Committee on the Relation of Public\nLibraries to Public Schools, and suggested means for the distribution of the report.\nMrs. Grenfell, superintendent of public instruction of Colorado, recommended the\nreading of it by superintendents and principals, as it seemed impossible to put it into the\nhands of all teachers.\nComments and suggestions were made by Miss Dunn, Los Angeles, Cal. ; Miss\nCasson, Mrs. Wadleigh, Mr. Kimball, Mr. Young, and Mrs. Eames.\nAnnouncements by the president.\nMeeting adjourned to meet Friday at 3 p. m.\nSECOND\n\nSESSION.— Friday, July 14\n\nThe second session was called to order in the council chamber at 3 p. M., President\nHarvey in the chair. Resolutions were presented by J. H. Van Sickle, Denver, Colo., on\nmaking the report of the Library Committee effective, as follows :\nWhereas, The widespread interest among library managers and educational leaders in the extension of\nlibrary work, thru the intelligent cooperation of the teachers in the public schools, renders the report of the\nCommittee on the Relation of Public Libraries to Public Schools exceedingly valuable at this time ; and\nWhereas, The wide dissemination of this report among the teachers of the country cannot fail to be of\nvalue in awakening additional interest, and in giving useful information concerning the extension of library\nwork in the public schools ; therefore be it\nResolved, by the Library Department of the National Educational Association, That the Executive\nCommittee of the National Educational Association be urgently requested, in the exercise of the discretion allowed them by recent action of the Board of Directors, to have not less than 10,000 copies of the report\nof the Library Committee printed for free distribution thru the Secretary's office, so as to reach the largest number of teachers possible; and that an edition be printed and offered for sale at cost and in such quantity as to\nsupply whatever demand may arise.\nResolved, That the officers of the Library Department of the National Educational Association be, and\nare hereby, constituted a committee representing the department, and are instructed to prepare a circular\nletter to state superintendents calling attention to the report of the Committee on the Relation of Public\nLibraries to Public Schools, and inviting their co-operation in securing and distributing the report among\nthe teachers of the several states.\nAnd be it further\nResolved, That such circular letter should set forth the importance of arousing an intelligent interest\namong teachers and library managers in the work of extending the usefulness of the library, and also should present some suggestive plan for the organization of the work in each state.\n\nThe resolutions were unanimously adopted.\n1135\nA committee on nominations was appointed, consisting of J. H. Van Sickle, Denver,\nColo. ; Miss Willard, Carnegie Library ; Miss Mary L. Jones, Los Angeles, Cal.\n\n"}
{"page": 1144, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 136\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\nMiss Mary L. Jones, of Los Angeles, read a paper on \" School Reading thru the Public Library.\"\nA paper entitled, \" How to Acquire a Taste for Good Reading,\" was read by\nElizabeth Skinner, Denver.\n\"The Use of the Library\" was the subject of an address by C. C. Young, San\nFrancisco, Cal.\nDiscussion followed the reading of the papers.\nThe Committee on Nominations submitted the following report :\nFor President — Sherman Williams, Glens Falls, N, Y.\nFor Vice-President — Mrs. Harriet Child Wadleigh, Los Angeles, Cal.\nFor Secretary — Elizabeth Skinner, Denver, Colo.\n\nDepartment abjourned.\n\nElizabeth Skinner,\nSecretary pro tempore.\n\nPAPERS\nTHE\n\nBY\n\nAND\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nFUNCTION OF SCHOOL SUPERINTENDENTS IN FRO\nCURING LIBRARIES FOR, AND THEIR PROPER USE IN,\nTHE PUBLIC SCHOOLS\n\nALFRED\n\nBAYLISS,\n\nSTATE\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\nSPRINGFIELD,\n\nOF\n\nPUBLIC\n\nINSTRUCTION,\n\nILL.\n\nFor the purpose of this discussion, superintendents may be grouped\nin three classes : (i) superintendents of schools in cities having good and\ngrowing public libraries ; (2) superintendents and supervising principals\nin towns and villages without public libraries ; (3) county superintendents,\nwhose work and interests are nearly or quite altogether with the rural\nschools.\nIn general, office-seeking does not correlate closely with the supervision of education ; but if a school superintendent knows that the office\nof director of the public library is chasing him, he ought not to run away\nfrom it ; if he even surmises that the said office is seeking a man, he\nought to put himself, or a conscript in the person of his best-adapted\nprincipal, in a position to be very easily found.\nIn the beautiful and progressive city of Rockford, 111., there is a most\nexcellent public library. The population of Rockford is nearly 30,000,\nand the library contains over 30,000 volumes. The president of the library\nboard is principal of one of the schools. For years teachers have enjoyed\nthe special privilege of drawing from the library as many as ten books at\none time. During the past year, at the instigation and under the immediate supervision of the principal-president, and, it is needless to say.\n\n"}
{"page": 1145, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPROPER\n\nUSE\n\nOF PUBLIC-SCHOOL\n\nLIBRARIES\n\n1 1 37\n\nwith the co-operation of the superintendent, convenient cases of carefully\nselected books have been prepared, and teachers of any grade, from the\nfourth to the eighth inclusive, can now draw a whole library at a time,\nand when that has served its purpose, exchange it for another.\nMr. Barbour, who is the soul of this plan at Rockford, gave me the\nfollowing notes, which he said had been handed to him by teachers before\nthe little libraries had been in use three months :\n1. One boy who has been in the habit of spending several evenings each week down\ntown on the streets became very much interested in the books that he had drawn from\nthe library sent to his room. Two or three weeks after the books had been put into the\nschool he told his teacher that these library books were better than a curfeiu law for him,\nfor he had not been down town an evening since the library came into his room.\n2. In another school a little colored boy, by his almost utter disregard for the rules of\ngood order and the neglect of his work, had become a disturbing element in the school,\nand his teacher was getting not a little discouraged with him. One day the subject of\n\"heroes\" was being considered. Several pupils had told of heroes they had read about\namong them Grant, Sheridan, and Dewey. Soon the teacher noticed this boy's hand\nraised. She called upon him. He said : \" I can tell you of a hero.\" Given permission,\nhe stood, with eyes sparkling, and told the story of one of the old Greek heroes, which\nhe had read in one of the library books. Since then he has been much more interested in\nhis work, and his conduct is very much improved.\n3. Many of the parents and older brothers and sisters of the pupils, who were not\npatrons of the public library proper, have become interested in these books. Pupils\nfrequently ask their teachers for an extension of time on their books, so that other members of the family at home may read them.\n\nSo much for the first class. This example indicates the least the city\nsuperintendent should do, or cause to be done, as well as at least one use\nof the library in the school. • The library, rightly used, will certainly\nreinforce the school in that part of its work which counts most toward\nthe \"conduct which is three-fourths of life.\"\nBut in all Illinois there are not half a hundred libraries equipped\nto thus reinforce the school. What state has a growing library and a\nlive librarian within reach of every graded school? May I cite another\nconcrete example from Illinois in illustration of what niay be done under\nother conditions ?\nYates City, 111., is not a city at all. It is a beautiful little village of\nfewer than eight hundred people. The school has four teachers, counting\nthe principal but once. Twenty years ago the school took the premium for\nsomething or other at the county fair — ten volumes of Rolfe's classics.\nThese books suggested more books. So then the principal proposed\nthat each pu.pil give to the school, to form a library, one book which he\nor she had read and found interesting, and added that the name of the\ndonor would be written on a label and pasted in the book ; result, fifty\nvolumes, all readable. Then followed some talk to the citizens about a\nvillage library, some of whom discouraged the project ; they had seen it\ntried and fail ; rent of a suitable room, fuel, janitor's work, and librarian's\n\n"}
{"page": 1146, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 138\n\nNA TIONAL\n\nED UCA TIONAL\n\nASSOCIA TION\n\n[Library\n\nservices would cost so much there would be a deficit long before books\ncould be bought. But the principal was young, and in his lexicon \"fail\"\nhad not yet been written. There was that vacant recitation -room. The\nboard said he might have it. That canceled three items, and he elected\nhimself librarian, without salary, and thus canceled the fourth. In this\nway every dollar raised became available for the purchase of books. He\nnamed it the \" School and Public Library,\" and it proceeded to thrive.\nThere was a Thanksgiving festival, and everybody who bought two tickets\nto the festival was given one library card, good for a year. There was a\nliterary and musical entertainment connected with the festival, but — and\nthis indicates the business sagacity of the young man — there were no\nfree tickets to anybody, not even to the manager. All work was done\nfrom a motive of loyalty to the school and the village. \"This,\" he said\ntome, \"brought in only the capable, energetic, and generous workers,\nand the public, knowing this fact, I think, were much more willing to\ncontribute when they knew nobody was dead-headed. Those who did\nthe work donated it, and paid for admission the same as those who did\nnothing.\" Ten days after the festival the books were selected, purchased,\nand in circulation. There were books of biography, history, travel, and\nstandard fiction, and everybody wanted to read. Moreover, there were\nIzaak Walton, Sports Afield, The Still Hunter, and The Game Birds of\nAmerica, all classics, but put there chiefly as \"bait\" for two or three\ninfluential men of means who had certain tastes of their own ; and it\nlanded them, for that type is usually generous, and the library thus\nmade fast friends of them. That Thanksgiving festival has been repeated\ntwenty times. It wears well, for it remains the event of the year in that\nlittle community.\nThe library has grown from ten to two thousand volumes. It is open\nto the school every day and to the comrnunity every Saturday from 2 to\n4 p. M. The principal continues to act as librarian without salary, and the\npresent principal has indulged in a \"card catalog under a somewhat\nmodified form of 'the expansion system.\" He issued last year, on Saturday afternoons, nearly two thousand books.\nAs to their use in the school, the founder' of the library says: \"We\nmade daily use of the library in connection with almost every subject,\nbut especially geography and history, and many a day I have helped put\nback upon the shelves more than fifty volumes that had been consulted by\nthe pupils of my room.\" If geography is the story of man's effort to\nrealize himself thru his environment, and history the same thru institutions— instead of bounding states and memorizing dates — who shall\nestimate the value of that little library, with its 300 histories, 254\nbiographies, and 141 books of travel, for the purpose of adding flesh and\nblood and color to the dry bones of the text-book ?\n' Superintendent W. L. Steele, now of Galesburg, 111.\n\n"}
{"page": 1147, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPROPER\n\nUSE\n\nOF\n\nPUBLIC-SCHOOL\n\nLIBRARIES\n\n1 1 39\n\nIn the rural districts of Illinois there is just now unusual activity in\nprocuring school libraries. This is justly attributable, I think, to the\ncurrent set in motion by this department at Buffalo, three years ago.\nNearly every county superintendent is earnestly pushing some plan or\nproject for a library in every school. Every conceivable plan for raising\nmoney which the enthusiasm and ingenuity of teachers and pupils have\nbeen able to devise, with variations, has been tried somewhere : literary,\nmusical, social, and \"mixed\" entertainments; box, basket, pie, oyster,\nand plain socials and suppers ; subscriptions of money from a penny up ;\nbook receptions, spelling matches, auctions, and scrubbing bees — that is,\nin a number of cases, the pupils scrub the schoolroom floors and wash\nthe windows, for the benefit of the book fund. In one county an enterprising young teacher went to a merchant about Christmas time, got a\nsupply of Bibles, photograph albums, and other \" holiday goods,\" and at\nthe close of a short concert, or something, auctioned them off to the\nhighest bidders, and realized $8 in commissions for the benefit of her\nschool library.\nSome superintendents are of the opinion that these devices are detrimental to the school, tending, as they easily may when overdone or\nmismanaged, to interfere with the regular business, and that, therefore,\nbooks should be purchased with money appropriated for that purpose by\nthe board. Others think that the educational value of the idea of selfhelp more than compensates for all necessary interference with the stated\nprogram. Each superintendent or teacher must work that problem out\nfor himself. For my own part, I remember reading in my home paper,\nnot long ago, the following item :\nAn entertainment was given in the town hall at Kangley last night by the pupils of\nLloyd Painter's school, and the net receipts were $38. This sum will be used to purchase\nnew books for the school library recently started by Mr. Painter. The hall was packed\nto its utmost capacity, and the program was an excellent one throughout. Until this\nlibrary was started many of the pupils had never read a book through except their schoolbooks.\n\nLloyd Painter is but a boy schoolmaster and Kangley but a little mining\nvillage. The children are, many of them, foreign-born, and nearly all of\nforeign-born parents, mostly Slavs. The entertainment may have interrupted the routine of the school, but the interruption might easily be\njustified on other grounds than the need of money to buy books. But if\nthe ^38 worth of books to read, and that solely for the mere pleasure of\nthe reading, were all, the justification is ample.\nThe Illinois county superintendents are almost a unit in certifying to\nthe value of a sufficient number of good books in their schools. I quote\nthe language of two. The superintendent of Peoria county says: \"I\nthink that no other one thing has advanced and helped the schools of\nthe county as much as the introduction of the 'Pupils' Reading Circle'\ninto our schools.\"\nThe superintendent of La Salle county says that\n\n"}
{"page": 1148, "printed_page": null, "text": "114°\n\nT^ATTONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAZ\n\n'ASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\nwherever he has been able to place libraries he finds \" better conduct,\ngreater interest in school work, ambition to advance in the intellectual\nlife, and greater interest in the school by parents who read the books or\nhear them read.\"\nMy conclusion, therefore, paraphrasing the familiar phrase of an\nalmost forgotten philosopher, is that the function of school superintendents in procuring libraries for the schools is to procure them, and preferably by a method which involves some form of self-help and sacrifice on\nthe part of those who are to use them. The city superintendent should\nbe identified, either in person or by proxy, with the public library, with\nthe clear purpose of limiting its abuse and extending its wise use by both\nteachers and pupils. The public library, wherever it exists, should be\na tributary ally to the public school. In communities without a library\nthe superintendent or principal should forthwith establish one. In the\nrural districts there should be books for reading and reference in every\nschool, and it is the easy and delightful function of the county superintendent to see that his teachers devise ways and means for procuring and\ncirculating and caring for them, or move on into an adjoining county.\nAgain, because there are books and books, it is the function of the\nsuperintendent to know the one from the other. Is it too much to say\nthat he should read, or cause to be read by a competent judge, every book\nselected ? There should be books of reference, books for supplementary\nreading in connection with all studies, books for culture, .and books to be\nread for recreation — the mere delight of reading — and \"he should know\nwhich are which,\" for \" books can never teach the use of books.\"\nThe use of the library in the school is threefold. It clarifies the\nunderstanding, contributes to the joy of living, and is the most effective\nethical instrument available.\nReading extends observation, stimulates thought, and corrects them\nboth; hence, it is a prime factor in clearness of vision, either mental or\nmoral. It is almost certain that the intellectual capacity of man has not\nincreased for a thousand years, but it is quite certain that the cultured\nman of today has an immense advantage over his intellectual equal of a\nthousand years ago, because of the wealth of accumulated knowledge and\nthought stored in printed books. To be sure, it is undeniable that,\nwithout reading, a man whose observation is reliable, who sees clearly and\nthinks logically, may become the master of broad acres. He may be\nshrewd and \" deep \" — enough so to rent his farms and move into town ;\nbut his shrewdness and depth may be, and sometimes are (as I happen to\nknow), entirely compatible with a narrowness that permits him to scheme\nto keep down the school taxes upon the fields he has abandoned.\nAnd O, the pleasure of reading ! Our saddest failure in teaching is\nthe hopeless attempt to cram mere information into growing minds in\nmeasured quantities, against time, prematurely, and then to pump it out\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 1149, "printed_page": null, "text": "BepartmentJ\n\nPROPER\n\nUSE\n\nOF PUBLIC-SCHOOL\n\nLIBRARIES\n\nII41\n\nagain with the \"test\" pump, without loss in quantity or quality. Such a\nprocess is not education. Education is the process of interesting.\nILikes and dislikes have a bearing and a value that cannot be ignored.\n■\" Give us, O give us,\" says Carlyle, \" the man who sings at his work.\nHe will do more in the same time, he will do it better, he will persevere\nlonger. One is scarcely sensible of fatigue whilst he marches to music.\"\nBut who can sing except the man whose mind is filled ? The man whose\nihead is empty can, at the utmost, merely whistle. If the pleasure to be\n•derived from books, the added disposition as well as ability to sing at\n(one's work, were all, it would amply vindicate everything we are doing to\nmake the children acquainted with, and to teach them how to use, them.\nBut the chief end of man is not happiness. Books rightly chosen\nand rightly read will certainly throw over our lives great floods of \"the\nlight that never was on sea or land,\" but their full service goes farther\nthan that. \" Every animal of the barnyard, the field, and the forest,\nof the earth and the waters under the earth,\" says Emerson, \" has contrived to get a footing and to leave the print of its features and form in ^\nsome one or other of those upright, heaven-facing speakers. Ah,\n[brother, hold fast to the man and awe the beast : stop the ebb of thy soul —\nebbing downward into the forms into whose habits thou hast now for\nEoany years slid.\"\nSo the highest use of the library is an ethical one.\n\" We come, then, to the great concourse of the dead,\" says Ruskin,\n\" not merely to ktiow from them what is true, but chiefly to feel with them\nwhat is righteous.\" \" Men are criminals,\" says De Garmo, \" because\nthey ihave not imagination enough to see the inevitable consequences\noi tb«£ir misdeeds.\"\nBut most of us might better \"bay the moon\" than depend upon\n(direct and didactic methods in teaching ethics. If the education which\n■makes for the conduct of life depended upon that, its influence would be\naltogether insufficient. In this part of the. work we must proceed by\noblique methods. To this end, there can be no manner of doubt as to\nthe value of books. Do you want to teach a boy mercy and kindness —\nto \"love all things both great and small, as he loveth who loveth best \"?\nThere are Black Beauty, The Dog of Flanders, and The Nurnberg Stove.\nDo you want him to love his own above all other lands ? There is that\nmarvelous \"Address at Gettysburg.\" Would you guard him from the\ndrunkenness that may come with too great national power — from\n\"frantic boast and foolish word\" ? There is the \"Recessional\":\nThe tumult and the shouting dies —\nThe captains and the kings depart;\nStill stands Thine ancient sacrifice,\nAn humble and a grateful heart ;\nLord God of Hosts, be with us yet —\nLest we forget,»lest we forget !\n\n"}
{"page": 1150, "printed_page": null, "text": "114^\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\nIn short, whatever we do to inculcate the love of liberty, truthfulness,\npatriotism, piety, patience, gratitude, reverence, philanthropy, fortitude,\nand to subdue such passions as anger, avarice, envy, jealousy, hatred,\nrevenge, pride, and vanity — to \"hold fast to the man and awe the beast \"\n— can best be done — can, perhaps, be done in no other way than — thru\nhome, school, and public library.\nLastly, one book owned is equal to several borrowed. Every man is\nrightful heir to a share of the culture of his time, but he cannot come\ninto full possession of his estate until he owns as well as reads a few good\nbooks. \" No book is serviceable until it has been read and re-read, and\nloved and loved again ; and marked so that you can refer to the passages\nyou want in it, as a soldier can seize the weapon he needs in an armory,\nor a housewife bring the spice she needs from her store.\"\n(Ruskin.)\nThe final cause, then, of all our work to develop the interest in\nbooks, and to train children to read them, should be to lead them to\nknow, select, and become the owners of books, some of which at least\nshould not only be real books, but well bound, printed from clear type,\non good paper, with broad margins ; standards of taste as well as sources\nof happiness, virtue, and strength.\nThere is a story which comes to me very often, to the effect that in an\nold Irish cathedral there is a chime of bells made years ago for an Italian\nconvent by an enthusiast who took up his abode near the convent to\nenjoy their melody. Time and chance made the man a wanderer. He\nbecame old. His wanderings brought him to Ireland. Just at sunset, at\nthe close of a rare day in June, as the vessel that bore him floated down\nthe bay, there came a peal from the cathedral tower. No other bells\nwere like these. The memories of other days, home, friends, all things\nhe loved and cherished were in their sound. He lay back in the boat.\nWhen the sailors saw him his eyes were sightless. His wanderings on\nearth were ended by the sudden tide of sweet memories which had\nsnapped the chords of his heart asunder.\nSo our work in reading ought some day to be a memory chime which\nshall ring back into the hearts of those for whom we toil, as they journey\nthru life, only sounds of sweet concord. Unlike the Limerick bells, such\na chime cannot be separated by any reverse of fortune from its owner, but\nin all his wanderings, whether up or down the earth, it will ever be with\nhim ; and let his occupation be what it may, he will be a man who \"will\nsing at his work.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 1151, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSCHOOL\n\nREADING\n\nTHRU\n\nTHE\n\nPUBLIC\n\nLIBRARY\n\n1I43\n\nDISCUSSION\n\n[reported\n\nby\n\nmiss\n\nL. p. swan, WHITEWATER,\n\nWIS.]\n\nS. P. McCrea, Bisbee, Ariz. — Only a few schools in the larger towns of Arizona have\nlibraries or access to public libraries. In Bisbee a public library of 5,000 volumes lends a\nnoticeable influence to our pupils and teachers. Next year we have planned to have each\ngrade teacher have from twenty to twenty-five books on her desk and let the pupils use\nthem freely.\nThis matter does not receive the attention that it should.\nL. D. Harvey, Madison, Wis. — The superintendent must do his best work thru his\nteachers to interest the pupils in books. He should lead his teachers to see that they cannot stimulate pupils to read unless they themselves enjoy the same books.\nNo one gets help out of a book ; it is what the book gets out of the reader that is\nhelpful. The teacher must both know the book and know what the child is prepared to\nread understandingly.\nThis year at the institutes in Wisconsin model country-school libraries are to be used,\nthat teachers may learn how to make best use of them in their schools. We already have\nlibraries in nearly all schools of the state ; where there are none, book dealers might loan\nbooks to the county superintendent for institute use. In one place in the woods of Wisconsin an enthusiastic teacher, who could get no money for books, asked her pupils to\nbring an egg each day, and soon had enough to realize $1.^0, which she expended for\nbooks.\nS. E. Busser, superintendent of reading-rooms, Santa Fe system. — Every boy\nshould own a book and have his name in it. Boys in every town will take an interest in\ncollecting money for books. Reading-rooms are established every 200 miles on the Santa\nY€ route ; 40 per cent, of the books are fiction, 40 per cent, history and biography, and\nthe rest poetry, science, and the like. Daily, weekly, and monthly periodicals are furnished, and all railroad employes and their families have free use of these reading-rooms.\nBath- and amusement-rooms are often provided. Lectures and social entertainments\nare given. Railroad employes are easily persuaded to read, and teachers who can work\nwith the young should be encouraged by this fact.\n\nSCHOOL\nBY\n\nMISS\n\nREADING\nMARY\n\nL. JONES,\n\nTHRU\nPUBLIC\n\nTHE\n\nPUBLIC\n\nLIBRARY,\n\nLIBRARY\n\nLOS ANGELES,\n\nCAL.\n\nIn opening a discussion before this particular body, it may not be out\nof place to quote the words of a prominent librarian, setting forth the\naims of the Library Department of the National Educational Association :\nIt is hoped that a library school section ....\n\nwill discuss the advisability of\n\nplacing small circulating libraries in schoolrooms, there to be under the teacher's entire'\ncontrol ; it will urge the increase of the number of books placed in every schoolroom to\naid the teacher in her work ; it will urge the increase in number and size of schoolroom\nreference-books for the use of the pupils ; it will advocate the giving to every pupil, by\nmeans of such libraries, a working knowledge of books, a beginning of experience in the\nlaboratory method, an apprehension of the fact that out of books he can always correct his\n\n"}
{"page": 1152, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 144\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\nown and others' passing ignorance, and can sometimes get out of them a glimpse of wisdom ;it will look with a critical eye into the size of the average high-school reference\nlibrary, and the lamentably small and ill-directed, or undirected, use made of the same ; it\nwill take hold of the subject of outside reading in the high-school grades, and will attempt\nto settle the question of what and how much ; and it will, we trust, help to unite and\nstrengthen the good work of placing the right book in the right hands, along all the many\nlines of that work which are common to associations of librarians and associations of\nteachers.\n(J. C. Dana, in Library Journal, Vol. XXI, p. 134.)\n\nIt is fortunately not necessary to consider the advisability of special\nreading outside the regular school curriculum ; neither is this the place\nto set forth the possibilities of the public library as an adjunct of popular\neducation ; but granting the place of reading in the scheme of commonschool education, granting the existence of the school library together with\nthat of the public library, it may not be unprofitable to inquire into the\nbest means of bringing about, thru both of these institutions acting in harmony, the best results to the greatest number with the least expenditure\nof money and work ; or, as the motto of the American Library Association words it, \" the best reading for the largest number at the least cost.\"\nBoth institutions are making efforts equally heroic to bridge over the\nchasm between formal instruction and a firm mastery of \"the best that has\nbeen thought and said in the world.\" A stronger appreciation than ever\nbefore prevails in the schools today of that supplementary work which is\ntoo elusive to be reduced to a science or system, which cannot be graded,\nand upon which no per cents, can be placed by the most expert examiner.\nIn some of our large cities, libraries have taken up school work, conducting night classes and doing special work along technical lines. But this\nis in localities and among people beyond the reach of the common schools.\nSuch movements are merely temporary encroachments on the part of the\nlibrary into the school domain. To say that there is a lack of harmony\nbetween the public library and the public schools generally would be\nvastly overstating the case. But in many instances the school library is\nduplicating the work of the public library. It goes without saying that\nsmall collections of books can never accomplish the work of the larger\ncollections ; likewise that the cleverest men and women trained for one\nbranch of educational work can never successfully accomplish the work\nof another. The waste in energy, time, and money in the smaller towns\nand cities supporting the duplicate system is truly deplorable. But, aside\nfrom its extravagance, it reacts unfavorably upon the children themselves.\nTaught to read from the school library alone, on leaving school they have\nnot developed what might be called a public-library habit. Too few of\nour people, cut off from school privileges at an early age, or graduating\nimmaturely, find their way to this most generous of almae matres, which\nCarlyle so fittingly calls the \"people's university.\"\nIt is plain to any casual observer that the school and the library are\nworking by different methods toward the same end.\nThe lines of work\n\n"}
{"page": 1153, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSCHOOL\n\nREADING\n\nTHRU\n\nTHE\n\nPUBLIC\n\nLIBRARY\n\n114S\n\nare parallel, and there must be innumerable cross-lines from one to the\nother. In many instances, under state or county direction, or frequently\nby individual endeavor and private philanthropy, a correlation of forces\nhas been brought about. But much remains to be done. The experimental stage is not yet passed. A single board managing both institutions is surely not the best system, as has been proved in states where\nthe custom prevails. Successful work has been accomplished in spite\nof, rather than because of, the combination. The old-time district\nlibraries, which have practically become school libraries, have surely not\nfulfilled the purpose for which they were instituted. A comparison\nof the work accomplished in the state of New York by the public\nlibraries department of the university with that of the district libraries is proof enough of the statement. In many of the cities excellent\nwork is being accomplished, based on the mutual good-will of the publicschool teachers and the library staff. It is obvious that any work which\nrests on such a basis is more or less unstable and in that respect unsatisfactory. The best results can be obtained only by a systematic union of\nforces.\nPerhaps as successful a plan of co-operation as any is being followed\nout in Los Angeles. In California a very generous school-library system\nis provided for by the state law. For the past seven years, under a somewhat generous interpretation of this law, the boards of the public schools\nand public library respectively have co-operated most successfully. Not\nonly has there been a marked economy in the expenditure of funds,\nbut the object of all libraries, public or school, has been attained : the\nright book has surely been placed in the right hands. The law is interpreted to apply to the first nine grades only, and is as follows :\nIn cities not divided into school districts the library fund shall consist of a sum not\nto exceed fifty dollars for every one thousand children or fraction thereof of five hundred\nor more, between the ages of five and seventeen years, annually taken from the city or\ncounty school fund apportioned to the city\nLibraries are under the control of the\nboard of trustees or city board of education.\n(School Laws of California, 17 14-15.)\n\nUp to 1892 library money was apportioned directly to the various\nschools in this city, the county board maintaining legal- supervision.\nThe books thus purchased took the course of the average school library.\nSome teachers made most intelligent use of this provision ; others disregarded itentirely. Unavoidable losses were inevitable, and valuable\nworks were needlessly duplicated. Thru the summer vacations the school\nlibrary lay in a state of innocuous desuetude. During these years, however, a strong library board, with an exceptionally able librarian, was\nbuilding up in Los Angeles one of the most efficient public libraries in\nthe country. The first step toward co-operation with the schools was to\ngrant to pupils in certain grades the privileges of the library without the\nfees charged to other members.\nIn 1891, however, the library was made\n\n"}
{"page": 1154, "printed_page": null, "text": "V\n1 146\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\nfree to all residents of the city. During the year following the present\nsystem of co-operation was inaugurated. All books belonging to the\nschool libraries at that date were deposited in the public library, and\nhave been administered as a part of it from that time. Additions have\nbeen made from time to time, as formerly, from the county fund. As in\nother cities of the country, all purchases are made thru the board of education from the list adopted by the county board. This list is, of course,\nin a constant state of revision. Works thus acquired are practically an\nintegral part of the public library open to all readers, whether connected\nwith schools or not. On the other hand, all books belonging to the\npublic library are at the disposal of teachers, whether purchased from\nschool money or public-library funds. Thus is secured \" the best possible\nreading for the greatest possible number at the least possible cost.\"\nA most wholesome condition of mutual helpfulness is the result. In\nthe library the school and juvenile departments are combined. Children\nare made most welcome to this well-stocked room. Papers and magazines, books and pictures, flowers and sunshine, with willing attendants,\nmake it the most attractive room in an overcrowded building. The\nprincipal of the school department is a regular member of the library\nstaff, with assistants as needed from the force. Under regulations\nadopted by the joint action of both boards, books are taken to the schoolrooms for the use of teachers and pupils. Briefly stated, these rules are\nas follows :\nBooks to the number of twenty may be taken by each teacher. These\nmay be retained four weeks, subject to renewal. Selection is made by\nteachers on Saturday and Monday ; collections and deliveries, under the\ndirection of the superintendent of school buildings, on Wednesday. For\nconvenience the city is divided into four districts, each changing its\nbooks on a fixed day of the month.\nIn the schoolroom the teachers may do with the books what they will,\nbut they are usually loaned to the children for home use. Pictures,\nchiefly photographs of famous works of art, famous buildings, celebrated\npersons, etc., are loaned to the schools under the same rules as those\ngoverning the books. These are sent out either in frames to hang upon\nthe wall, or in portfolios, to illustrate the course of study. It may be\nremarked, by the way, that the same collections of pictures frequently\nmeet the wants of art classes and students in the city generally.\nIn the school department of the library are duplicate sets of reference-books which do not circulate, and in the schools are certain books\nof reference which do not leave the school building.\nA portion of the fund has been spent on duplicate sets of the magazines, popular as well as pedagogical, which circulate among teachers\nonly. A collection of the best works on education is also at their disposal.\n\n"}
{"page": 1155, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSCHOOL\n\nREADING\n\nTHRU\n\nTHE\n\nPUBLIC\n\nLIBRARY\n\n1 147\n\nTo teachers in other than public schools of the city the library board\ngrants special cards, upon which several books may be taken out at a\ntime. This same privilege is extended to teachers of the public schools\nduring vacations.\nThe library reserves the right of recalling any book from this school\ncirculation, and at times of an epidemic of contagious diseases circulation thru the schools may be suspended.\nThis, briefly, is the plan which has worked with satisfaction for the\npast seven years in this city. Many details of its management would be\nof interest to practical librarians only. The economy and efficiency of\nthe system may readily be seen. The principle of reciprocity involved\nis the basis of its success. The schools have the advantage of the trained\nstaff in the library, as well as its entire collection of books. The library\nhas the additional income of the purchase of books and some five hundred centers of influence in the schools.\nBut the possibilities of this union of forces are not at an end. An\nexperiment is being tried in an unused school building on New Macy\nstreet, about a mile from the library. A room has been furnished and\nlighted at the expense of the school board. It is provided with a collection of some four hundred volumes, chosen mainly from the county\nlist, with miscellaneous additions from the general library. A young\nwoman, with assistants from the public-library staff, is in charge of this\nreading-room, which is open each evening from 6 to 9 : 30 o'clock.\nAnother room in the same building is fitted up as an audience-room, and\nit is designed to hold educational entertainments from time to time, and\nto give courses of lectures, all of which are to be free to the citizens\nof that part of the city. It is hoped that other vacant schoolrooms\nthruout the city may be put to a similar use, and that a system of branch\nreading-rooms and delivery stations may be operated in connection with\nthe schools, reinforced by lecture courses under the auspices of the school\nboard and the University Extension Society.\nIn this way, we maintain, the schools and the library, working\ntogether in the utmost harmony, are accomplishing the maximum amount\nof good upon the minimum amount of money, time, and energy. The\npupil not only has the public library brought to him every day in the\nschoolroom, but he is constantly reminded of the source from which so\nmany blessings come. He is directed to the public library in guch a way\nand at such a time that, when circumstances do force him from the\npublic schools, he is already prepared for the people's university from\nwhich there is no graduation. It is hoped that the branch libraries in\nschoolhouses will emphasize another feature of the system ; and that\nactive library interest will reach from the children to the parents and\nelder brothers and sisters, that awakened interest in the homes will\nquicken the interest of the parents in the daily work of the children.\nAs\n\n"}
{"page": 1156, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 1 48\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\na consequence, children will be retained in school for a longer time.\nAccording to the well-known theory of John Fiske, the infancy of the\nindividual, thus prolonged, will result in a higher state of civilization than\nany yet attained.\n\nHOW\n\nTO ACQUIRE\nBY\n\nMISS\n\nA\n\nELIZABETH\n\nTASTE\nSKINNER,\n\nFOR\n\nGOOD\n\nDENVER,\n\nREADING\n\nCOLO.\n\nHow to acquire a taste for good reading is a question of growing\ninterest, not pnly to the parent and teacher, but to the nation ; for its life\naesthetical, as well as ethical, is embodied in art forms, of which literary\nmasterpieces are in the highest rank.\nThat which educates and elevates the youth of any land lays for it a\nfoundation of strength and prosperity.\nHorace Mann says : \" If a boy reads of the friendship of Damon and\nPythias, the integrity of Aristides, the perseverance of Franklin, the purity\nof Washington, he will think differently all the remaining days of his life.\"\nIt is a matter of statistics that more than 50 per cent, of the children\nleave the public school before the age of fourteen. The fact that the\ngreat majority of them leave without the slightest conception of the\ninfluence of books, and without any literary discrimination, should enlist\nthe interest of every educator.\nWhen a child has learned how to read, a vast storehouse opens up\nbefore him. On the one hand are means of culture, mental and moral ;\non the other, possibilities of the deepest degradation. The inventor of\nthe first printing-press realized this, for he said he quailed at the responsibility of giving to evil-minded men so mighty an engine of mischief.\nThe formation of the habit of reading is the vital question. Many\nwho have given the subject careful study think it is infinitely better for a\nboy to read anything and everything he can get than to have no desire at\nall to read. Of this class there are not a few. The mind is, of necessity,\nactive. If one be so unfortunate as to crave demoralizing literature, he\nwill suffer no more from the reading of it than if he were left with his\nown thoughts. The average boy will not long be satisfied with chaff when\nwheat is everywhere in abundance. How much worse for a girl to\nread a book whose moral tone is far below what it should be than to\nspend the same length of time gossiping about her neighbor or idly daydreaming ?\nWhere shall the work begin, and when ? In the home, by all means,\nand as early in life as possible. Who so well as the mother understands\nthe disposition of her child ; who has a better opportunity of studying his\n\n"}
{"page": 1157, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nHOW\n\nTO ACQUIRE\n\nA TASTE\n\nFOR\n\nGOOD\n\nREADING\n\ni I49\n\ninclinations ? Parents do not think of waiting till he is six years of age\nto teach him to be truthful, honest, obedient ; they know too well the\npower of habit.\nStory-telling, which naturally precedes reading, can be made of interest to children of very tender age. They can be taught to look forward with\npleasure to a part of the day or evening when a good story is read or\ntold to them. This is frequently done when the mother is in the mood\nto do so, or when she has time. It should be systematically done. She\nshould put herself in the mood ; she should take time, and take it daily.\nFifteen or twenty minutes cannot greatly interfere with the day's work\nor social duties. How many hours are spent for the adornment of the\nbody while the mind craves food ! When your daughters have grown to\nwomanhood, they will not remember whether their little dresses were\nmade of sheer linen or domestic gingham. Your young men will not\ncare whether the ruffes on the waists they wore in boyhood were stitched\nby hand or machine, but they will remember the walks and talks, the\nstories and books, that did so much to make childhood happy.\nMany objections are made to fairy stories on account of the improbability and, in many cases, the impossibility of the conditions. It is\nthought to be a great mistake to say \"the dish ran away with the spoon,\"\nor \"the cow jumped over fhe moon.\" We may say a dog can bark, but\nnot laugh ; and yet the poets we love best tell us of the whispering treetops, the murmuring brooks, and the laughing rills. If it were not for\nimages formed by his own fancy, a child's life would be a barren waste.\nWhat would the inventor, the artist, the poet do without imagination ?\nLet us be generous with childhood, generous as Alexander with his\nThracian robber, when he said : \" Take off his chains, and use him well.\"\nLet us take off the chains of children, and let them revel in the realm of\nimagination. It is theirs by right of inheritance. When nature gave this\npower to her children, she gave of her choicest gifts.\nTo those who object to fairy tales there is no dearth of material, if\nparents will but use it. Children are born naturalists. Their hearts turn\nto birds, beasts, and flowers, as leaves turn to the light. Nature furnishes\ninnumerable avenues where they may wander with pleasure and profit.\nChildren have preferences, too. Some enjoy travel, others biography,\nstill others science. Indeed, it makes little difference as to the particular\nbook read ; it is the class of reading. The teacher has a work that the\naverage mother cannot do. Children's books are publications of later\nyears, and few mothers have time to acquaint themselves with many of\nthem.\nIt is part of a teacher's work to do so.\nToo much cannot be said in favor of school libraries, especially room\nlibraries. They are an advantage to the child, the teacher, and the home.\nA vast amount of time is squandered in many schools. Tasks\nrequiring fifteen or twenty minutes of solid study frequently take twice\n\n"}
{"page": 1158, "printed_page": null, "text": "£ 1 50\n\nNA TIONAL\n\nEDUCA TIONAL\n\nASSOCIA TION\n\n\\Library\n\nas much time. If a boy knows that he has the privilege of reading when\nhis lessons are prepared, he will make the best of his time.\nHis association with books, his judgment in looking up references, his\ndepending upon himself to select what he reads, *all help to make him\nstrong.\nThe literature of school libraries is taken into the homes ; a deeper\ninterest on the part of parents is aroused ; and a warmer feeling for the\nschool is the result. No money was ever invested that pays a higher rate\nof interest.\nWhen parents feel that books for their children are a necessity instead\nof a luxury ; when the adornment of the body gives place to the adornment of the mind; when home and school join hands in the uplifting of\nour children, then will a taste for good reading be established, and literature pure and ennobling will predominate in the land.\n\nBY\n\nTHE\n\nUSE\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nLIBRARY\n\nC. C. YOUNG,\n\nLOWELL\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nSAN\n\nFRANCISCO,\n\nCAL.\n\nI have at hand a little book' compiled almost twenty years ago, composed of papers nearly all twenty years old and more, in which are discussed, and well discussed, the identical questions that are at present\noccupying our attention. Every article clearly and forcibly presents the\nthought that those two great co-factors in the education of mankind,\nthe public library and the public school, can most economically and\nmost efficiently perform their offices only when working together in a\nwell-ordered, well-adjusted union. In every paper the same needs are\nset forth, the same methods are suggested, the same ideals are pictured,\nthe same hopes are raised, that we are today listening to during these\nsessions of our department. This was twenty years ago ; yet today, with\ncertain notable exceptions, the school and the library have never yet\nbeen joined in that union which the lovers of both had so fondly hoped\nand so assiduously labored to bring about.\nThe subject of library and school co-operation, then, is not one on\nwhich anything startlingly new can at presient be offered. Neither is it\npossible to compress within the necessary limits of a single paper anything like an adequate presentation of even the oft-repeated truths upon\na matter of such vast and far-reaching importance. Accordingly I shall\ntake the liberty of modifying the very comprehensive subject assigned\nme, and shall discuss what seems to me to constitute just now the most\nvital and necessary phase of that subject, \"The Educative Value of the\nI Libraries and Schools, by S. S. Green,\n\nNew York : F. Leypoldt.\n\n"}
{"page": 1159, "printed_page": null, "text": "1151\nDepartment]\n\nTHE USE OF THE LIBRARY\n\nUse of Books, and the Responsibility of the School in Inspiring and\nDirecting that Use.\" The means of securing books and the methods of\nusing them are both interesting questions, but, after all, they are only\ndetails, which, in these days of library activity, will work themselves out,\nif only a sufficiently strong desire to secure and to use them is engendered on the part of the teacher. \"Where there is a will\" there is always\nto be found a \"way,\" and the excellence of the way will generally be in\ndirect proportion to the energy of the will.\nEver since the librarian first realized that his mission was something\nhigher than to be a mere custodian of books he has been earnestly and\nunremittingly seeking alliance with the teacher, his co-worker in the\neducational world. Time after time has the subject been discussed in\nhis assemblages and brought forward in his journals. From a recent\neditorial in the official organ of his national association I read: \"There\nis no more important, as there is no more interesting, part of a librarian's\nwork than that dealing with the relations of the library and the school.\nIt seems not too much to say that this is the most vital part of a library's\nadministration. The library that has no connection with the local\nschools is neglecting its mission and ignoring its noblest opportunities.\"\nSo much from the standpoint of the librarian. He would doubtless\nclaim, and could doubtless produce the. strongest proofs of his claim,\nthat the teacher has never yet met him half way. To be sure, in the case\nof certain wide-awake and progressive communities, as in parts of Massachusetts, Wisconsin, and Colorado, and in the case of certain individual\nteachers of many communities, this claim might be gloriously refuted.\nStill, on the whole, I think we must admit that, from all appearances, the\nteacher has never yet sufficiently strongly felt any necessity of joining in\nthat alliance which the librarian has so long been striving to accomplish.\nIt seems to me, moreover, that this apparent apathy must be due to the\nfact that the teacher has never yet felt any great burden of responsibility\nor consciousness of a privilege or duty as regards the directing of the\nreading of the young minds under his charge. Consequently, I believe\nthat our first business, as members of the Library Department of this\nassociation, is to insist with all our might, in season and out of season,\nupon this thesis, viz. : The most important duty of the public school,\nbeyond teaching the child to read, is to teach him what to read and how\nto read; properly to introduce .him to the world of good books, and to\ngive him an ability to discover for himself what is soundest and best in\nliterature. To enlarge upon this thesis, then, shall be our aim today;\nand I am very sure that it will prove defensible from the standpoint of\nfundamental pedagogic principles.\nThe drawing out of the child's latent powers and faculties, his\nphysical and intellectual, moral and spiritual development, is a product,\nnot of the school^ and the teacher, but of many factors, as diverse and\n\n"}
{"page": 1160, "printed_page": null, "text": "1152\n\nNA TIONAL\n\nED UCA TIONAL\n\nASSOC I A TION\n\n[Library\n\ncomplex as is society itself. Moreover, these educative forces are present,\nnot alone for a single brief period, but thru all the years of man's existence and of the mind's and soul's activity. A school whose organization\nis such as to disregard these great truths can never take the high position\nit is designed to occupy. Yet how many schools are so planned and so\ncarried on that the pupil feels only the drudgery and the humdrum of a\nround of duties, which, so far as he can see, has little earthly connection\nwith the life he expects to live! And how rarely do we meet the boy\nwho, as he goes out into the world, continues of his own volition those\nstudies which, so short a time before, were deemed the necessary and allimportant factors of his development ! The school, and after that life\nand the world — this fallacy is at the very bottom of the matter. The\nschool does not \" prepare for life ; \" the school is a part of life.\nOnce granted that the contention is correct that education is not for\nthe few years of a limited school course, but for life, and that the chief\nfunction of the school is so to arouse the child's interest and direct his\nendeavors as to insure a wise and constant future self-education, I think\nwe shall admit that it is not far wrong to say: \"This implies that\neducation must be carried on by means of reading.\" I judge that no\ngreat stress need be laid upon this point in an assemblage of this kind.\nThat systematic, well-chosen, properly directed reading is an almost\nindispensable factor in the training of the mind needs little proof. Its\ninfluence in forming correct habits of thought and research, broadening\nthe horizon of the reader, overcoming narrowness and provincialism,\nquickening the sympathies, awakening the imagination and aesthetic\nsensibilities, bringing out the ethical consciousness — in short, developing\nthat fullness of culture and roundness and nobility of character which\nare the prime ends of education — all these are too clearly appreciated to\nrequire demonstration. As Dr. Harris has so well said : \" It is thru\nliterature that the genius of the race, appearing in exceptional individuals,\ninstructs the multitude, educates man's insight into the distinction of\ngood from evil, reveals to him his ideals of what ought to be, and elevates\nthe banner of his march toward the beautiful good and the beautiful true.\"\nIf, then, the reading of good books is so educative in its tendency\nand so essential to sound development, at what period in the life of man\nis their properly directed use so important as that at which he is most\nsusceptible to the influences of education ? During the years of childhood\nand youth, when the interest is so easily aroused, when the sympathies\nare so keen, when the mind is so open to impressions, and the memory\nso tenacious in retaining them ; when the tastes are yet unperverted, and\nthe capacity for forming ideals is so strong; when the natural appetite for\nreading is so marked, and when the conditions of life give so much\nleisure to indulge it — at this time, if ever, is there necessity for wise and\nskillful guidance in the use of books.\nThis necessity is emphasized all\n\n"}
{"page": 1161, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE USE OF THE LIBRARY\n\nthe more by the fact, so constantly evident to all of us, that the reading\nhabits which the child acquires will, for the most part, be identical with\nthe reading habits which the man possesses. A love for the best in literature in most cases comes in childhood, if it comes at all. Consequently,\nthe assistance given to the child in this regard is, perhaps, more efficiently\neducative than any other form of instruction ; for what we are giving to\nthe boy and the girl of today is really given to the man and woman of\nthe future.\nThat children are at present receiving no such aid is clearly shown\nby numerous investigations along this line. Without entering into the\ndetails of these investigations, I think that I may safely sum them up by\nsaying that not 50 per cervt. of the children who are in the habit of reading at all are favored with any real guidance respecting either the nature,\nthe quantity, or the method of their reading. In this, perhaps the most\npotent of all influences upon the child's development at that adolescent\nperiod which is conceded to be the most critical of his life, he is left to\nwander blindly and aimlessly, absolutely in the dark.\nNow, just as it is true that good reading is a positive good in the\neducation of man, so is it also true that bad or slovenly reading is a\npositive evil. Hence arises the imperative necessity of looking after this\nmatter at that period when the mental habits of a lifetime are being\nformed. For, as we have seen, children, if left to themselves, will not\nchoose the best reading, but will too frequently choose very bad reading.\nWho, then, must undertake this supervision ?\nThere are two, and only two, organized institutions whose business\nit is to look out for the education of the child. These institutions are\nthe home and the school. Consequ'ently, the direction of this branch of\nthe child's education must fall into the hands of either the parent or the\nteacher. But experience has proved that to rely upon the parent for this is\nto lean upon a broken reed. If the' choice of the child's reading is left to\nthese natural advisers, thru lack of time and interest, or thru ignorance\non their part, it will, tho sometimes made wisely, frequently be made very\nunwisely, and still more frequently be made not at all. At least these\nthree things must be possessed by him who can successfully direct the\nreading of the child : .\n1. An understanding of the child mind as distinguished from the\nadult mind, and an appreciation of its needs and desires at various stages\nof its growth.\n2. A knowledge, not only of literature in general and the principles\nwhich underlie it, but more especially a knowledge of the mass, content,\nnature, and comparative value of the literature adapted to children.\n3. An opportunity and ability of scientifically observing the effects of\nvarious kinds of reading on children, both individually and in masses,\nand of correlating this general reading with the special studies, such as\n\n"}
{"page": 1162, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 1 54\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\nhistory, geography, and the like, which are taking up the child's attention.\nIt is scarcely necessary to point out that the average parent,\" even if\ndisposed to give the time, is by no means able to meet all these\nrequirements.\nIf, then, it is true that the child must have the help of books properly\nto educate him, and if he cannot, unaided or aided at home, determine\nwhat to read, and, what is equally important, cannot learn how to read, in\nthe proper sense of that term, then the proposition that the school must\nlend a helping hand will scarcely need proof, for the very necessity of the\ncase makes the work devolve upon it. Its duty, which I have mentioned\nbefore — that of co-ordinating, as far as possible, the varied factors which\ngo to make up the pupil's education — still further emphasizes its\nresponsibility.\nTo aid the child in choosing his associates is largely outside the power\nof the school ; the home and the church are jealous of their rights ; but\nthat other great educative force, books and their choice, belongs to the\nchild's mental life, and must in all reason be looked after by the power\nthat has the general supervision of his mental growth. The choice\nand use of books should come under the province of the school. To it\nthe pupil should be accountable for what he reads and how he reads.\nFrom it he should get the advice, the inspiration, the foundation of taste,\nwhich will make him a wise and careful reader.\nThus it devolves upon the school to see to it that the best and most\nsuitable books are placed before the child, and that his interest is aroused\nin such a way that he will read them \\ and, still further, that he will read\nthem in such a way that there may be formed in him a correct taste for\nbooks and a correct reading habit, which he may ever take with him as\nthe most precious gift of the school system, and which he will inevitably\ntransmit, at least in some degree, to the generations following him. I\nshould like to see this study of literature the very center around which\nthe work of the school revolves. I would have a course of study so\narranged that the child may devote much of the time which so many\nschools now give to the spiritless anti uncomprehending acquisition of\ndead and dissociated Gradgrind facts to the flesh and blood and life of\nthe never-dying masterpieces of his mother-tongue. I would have him,\nfrom the earliest possible moment, begin to realize that there is a world\noutside the sphere of his small activities, that there is a glorious past of\nwhich he is the heir, and that that world and that past have left to him\nfor the asking treasures which he can here and now begin to gather, but\nwhose infinite richness he can never exhaust. And I would have him so\ndirected that during his whole life's reading he may, both artistically and\nethically, learn to know the good from the bad, and become accustomed\nof his own knowledge and volition to choose the good because it is good\nand to reject the bad because it is bad.\n\n"}
{"page": 1163, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE USE OE THE LIBRARY\n\nBut in order to be able to attain these ideals the schools must have\nbooks — books far in excess of the reference works or supplementary textbooks which the school library is able to supply ; and for these they must\nturn to the public library. So important does this latter factor become\nthat the school in a certain sense appears to be merely an adjunct to the\nlibrary. That I may not appear too extravagant in this statement, I will\nhere appeal for aid to our honored Commissioner of Education. Says Dr.\nHarris: \"The school is set at the task of teaching the pupil how to use\nthe library in the best manner — that, I take it, is the central object toward\nwhich our American schools have been unconsciously tending.\" Words\nas forcible as these, uttered by the head of American schools, and backed\nup by the scholarly, thoughtful, extremely conservative nature of the man\nwho gave them utterance, cannot fail to have their weight.\nSo to the library we come as teachers, and to our gratification find not\nonly the door open, but the most cordially welcoming hand stretched out\nto greet us. The library wants trained readers; we are seeking to train\nreaders. No wonder, then, that we are gladly welcomed. And to the\nlibrarian, whose province it is, we may safely intrust the methods by\nwhich the books shall be put into our hands. Whether he adopt the\nWorcester plan or the Denver plan or the Milwaukee plan or the San\nFrancisco plan will depend upon local conditions and restrictions, and,\nafter all, really matters very little. Our business just now is not with the\nlibrarian, but with the teacher ; our highest aim for the present should be\nto awaken upon his part a livelier interest in and a deeper insight into\nthis, one of the greatest of modern educational movements*\n\n"}
{"page": 1164, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF THE EDUCATION\nDEFECTIVES\n\nSECRETARY'S\nFIRST\n\nOF\n\nMINUTES\n\nSESSION. — Wednesday, July 12, 1899\nEDUCATION\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nDEAF\n\nThe department was called to order at 2 : 30 P. M. in Broadway Church, Los Angeles,\nwith Mrs. Kath. T. Bingham, Palo Alto, Cal., in the chair. After brief introductory\nremarks by President David Starr Jordan of Leland Stanford Jr. University, papers were\nread on the following topics :\n\" Time Allowed for the Public Schooling of the Deaf as Compared with Hearing\nChildren, and How to Make the Most of It,\" by Professor Charles S. Perry, California\nState School for the Deaf, Berkeley, Cal.\n\"All along the Line,\" by Mrs. Katherine T. Bingham, Palo Alto, Cal.\n\" Importance of a Right Beginning,\" by Miss Helen Taylor, kindergartner in Public\nDay Schools for the Deaf, Los Angeles, Cal.\n\"Vacation Schools for the Deaf,\" by Miss Mary McCowen, principal of Chicago\nPublic Day Schools for the Deaf.\nA general discussion followed by Dr. Warring Wilkinson and Professor O'Donnell,\nof the State Institution for the Deaf at Berkeley, Cal.; Miss West, of the State Institution\nfor the Deaf, Mt. Arey, Pa. ; J. A. Foshay, superintendent of city schools, Los Angeles,\nCal. ; Albert G. Lane, district superintendent of schools, Chicago, 111. ; Dr. William E.\nWaddell, president of Parents' Association, Los Angeles, Cal.\nIn the school exhibit, which was held in the Spring Street School building, this\ndepartment was represented by only one school, the Los Angeles Day School for the\nDeaf. Here two groups of deaf children in charge of their teachers, the Misses Mary\nBennett and Helen Taylor, gave brief class exercises on alternate days. At other times\nthey explained to interested visitors the results of the regular class work of the year, as\nshown in the drawing, painting, writing, and other expression and construction work,\nwhich was exhibited in the room, and which elicited warm praise for its evidence of\ngenuineness, originality, and artistic excellence.\nSECOND\n\nSESSION. — Thursday, July 13\nEDUCATION\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nBLIND\n\nThe department convened at 2 : 30 P. M., with J. E. Carter, of Oregon, in the chair.\n\" In what Respects should the Education and Training of .the Blind Differ from the\nEducation and Training of Normal Pupils ? \" was the subject of a paper by Dr. Warring\nWilkinson, superintendent of the State Institution for the Deaf and Blind, Berkeley, Cal.\nDiscussion followed by Professor Chappell, of the Minnesota State School for the\nBlind ; Professor J. L. Carter, of the Oregon State School for the Blind, and Professor\nCharles Wilkinson, of the California Institution\n1156 for the Blind.\n\n"}
{"page": 1165, "printed_page": null, "text": "Defectives]\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLING\n\nTHIRD\n\nOF DEAF\n\nSESSION.\n\nEDUCATION\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nCHILDREN\n\n1 1 57\n\n— Fripay, July 14\nFKEBLE-MINnEI)\n\nThe department convened at 2 : 30 P. M., with Superintendent J. W. Jones, Columbus, O., in the chair.\nProfessor Thomas P. Bailey, of the University of California, read a paper on \"Character Types among the Feeble-Minded.\"\nAt the business session the following-named were duly elected as officers of the\ndepartment for the ensuing year :\nFor President — Warring Wilkinson, Berkeley, Cal.\nFor Vice-President, Subdepartment for the Deaf — Miss Mary McCowen, Chicago, 111.\nFor Vice-President, Subdepartment for the Blind — E. E. Allen, Philadelphia, Pa.\nFor Vice-President, Subdepartment for the Feeble-Minded — Arthur C. Rogers, Faribault, Minn.\nFor Secretary — Edgar Allan Fay, Washington, D. C.\n\nThe register of the department showed the names of teachers of defective classes\nfrom twenty states.\nThe department adjourned.\nMary McCowen,\nSecretary.\n\nPAPERS\n\nAND\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nTIME ALLOWED FOR THE PUBLIC SCHOOLING OF DEAE\nAS COMPARED WITH HEARING CHILDREN, AND HOW\nTO MAKE\nTHE MOST OF LT\n\nBY\n\nPROFESSOR\n\nCHARLES\n\nS.\n\nPERRY,\n\nSTATE\n\nBERKELEY,\n\nCAL.\n\nSCHOOL\n\nFOR\n\nTHE\n\nDEAF,\n\nA few weeks since, at a festal board spread less than a thousand miles\nfrom where we sit as members of a national council of educators, one\nof the business magnates of this state and country voiced his conviction\nthat the youths of our land are drinking too deeply at the Pierian springs\nof knowledge ; that, in fact, our American masses are getting overeducated, and that a fifteen-year limit should be set to student life. His\nassertion was emphatically seconded shortly afterward by no less a business authority than Mr. Russell Sage, of New Vork, who, under the old\nregime, \"quit school and went into business at eighteen,\" and, as he\nmodestly puts it, \" has done very well.\" These somewhat startling expressions of opinion have, as you are aware, given rise to a good deal of newspaper talk and interviewing of prominent educators in this state and\nelsewhere; for, if California takes to herself pride in aught, after her\never-glorious \"climate,\" it is in her broad-gauged and excellent system\nof public instruction. These opinions have generally been adverse to the\nutterances of our millionaire friends, and the consensus seems to be that\n\n"}
{"page": 1166, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 158\n\nNA TIONAL\n\nED UCA TIONAL\n\nASSOC/ A TION\n\n[ Education of\n\nour present public-school age limits are not a day too long for the development of our present common-school and academic scheme of education.\nSuch being the voice of the people, a discussion at this time and upon this\noccasion of school privileges accorded to our deaf, as contrasted with our\nhearing, youth becomes singularly opportune. This subject, if the writer\nstates it from memory correctly, is worded in the form of a question\nassuming a fact, to wit : \" Why should deaf children be allowed from five\nto ten years less time under instruction than their hearing associates ? \"\nWhile the law in this matter, as all know, varies in different sections\nof our country, custom, if the writer mistakes not, is coming to allow to\nthose charged with the education of the deaf large discretionary or\nadvisory powers in defining the duration of their pupilage as wards of the\nstate. Here in California, as Dr. Wilkinson informs us, the trend of\nlegislation has steadily favored extension of this age limit, and year by\nyear has aimed to make it correspond more closely with that of pupils in\nour hearing grades.\nThe same disposition has manifested itself in Ohio, where not very\nmany years ago deaf children were fated virtually, in the majority of\ncases, to lose twelve years of life's most receptive period, educationally,\nunschooled at home. And it was a common and, to the thoughtful\ninstructor, a most disheartening sight to see, in a cl^ss-room of beginners\nat that late age, young people approaching or beyond the opposed age\nline of twent)' years present themselves for education. Five years was\nthe time granted at that date in which to compass this momentous task,\neked out in special cases by the grudging addition of two years more.\nThen followed, in 1867, under Dr. Fay, the admission of the deaf to\nschool privileges at the age of ten, twenty remaining the final age limit.\nSeven years were allotted for the course, with three years more as a bonus\nin cases of exceptional promise. The year 18-73 ^^s signalized for the\ndeaf of Ohio by further time concessions, the school being thrown open\nto all deaf youths of sound mind between the ages of six and twenty-one,\nthus approximating closely to the time law and custom obtaining in schools\nfor hearing people. In 1881 the age of admission was set at eight years,\na measure reluctantly taken, but necessitated by the overcrowded condition of the Columbus school at that time.\nThese statistics are quoted to substantiate the statement just made,\nthat more and more latitude is being granted to educators of the deaf as\nto time limits. The sentiment of the public regarding us and our work\nmay, in brief, be worded thus : \"Take your own time, but give us the best\nresults attainable ; \" and the question now before us is, not so much the\ngaining for ourselves, by public consent, of more time for our task, as\nhow to make more of the time that already is accorded t,o us in advancing\nthis great and growing work. As this is, or ought to be, an \"experience\nmeeting\" for the interchange less of pedagogic theories than of actual and\n\n"}
{"page": 1167, "printed_page": null, "text": "Defectives]\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLING\n\nOF\n\nDEAF\n\nCHILDREN\n\n1159\n\napproved practices in teaching our common profession, the writer may be\npermitted to describe, or rather to hint at, certain means to this end, to\napprove ourselves living agents in quickening and informing the intelligence of our pupils, thus most effectively stimulating their powers of\nexpression, and so bringing them more and more into touch with those\nabout them. The stream cannot rise higher than its source, nor can language outstrip the mental wealth and activity of which it is the exponent.\nOf course, we cannot expect our charges, as a rule, to be Helen Kellers, in\nmental grasp and retentiveness, nor can they hope to be blessed, like her,\nwith the individual companionship for an unlimited period of a devoted\ninstructor. Yet the writer speaks from experience in maintaining that\nspecial methods and appliances may be made to aid vastly the development in our deaf children of this alertness of apprehension, this \"catching\"\non\" faculty, that distinguishes the \"quick,\" perceptively speaking, from\nthe \"dead.\"\nFirst, then, let the personal intelligence of the would-be instructor of\nthe deaf be alert and sympathetic. \"That which we are,\" asserts Emerson, that prince of teachers, \"we shall teach, voluntarily, involuntarily.\"\nThe heavy, unresponsive \"logy\" teacher — we all have seen and recognize the type — tho versed in all of the 'ologies, chirology included, has\nno call to teach the deaf. A little leaven, we are assured, leaveneth the\nlump ; but be it little or much, leaven it must be ; and tho that type of\ninstructor may, under a long-suffering Providence and forbearing school\nboards, achieve a measure of success, it should not be at the expense of\npupils already heavily handicapped in their race toward education's goal.\nIn personal sympathy, after all, must we recognize the touchstone of successful teaching of the deaf — ^a sympathy quick to avail itself of every\naccredited aid to this end, contemning none ; enlisting in this exacting service heart and hand, tongue and thought; a sympathy making itself \"eyes\nto the blind,\" ears for the deaf; literally \" feeling with\" them the stress\nof their life-burden, while philanthropically striving to lessen its weight ;\nseeking not private gains; broad and enduring in its nature as life itself.\n\"Unless you expect to make instruction of the deaf your life-work, let it\nalone ! \" was the curt and wholesome advice of a veteran in our profession\nto the writer at the outset of his teaching experience. Again, let instruction\nbe presented in the most attractive and condensed form possible to the deaf ;\nknowledge in nutshells, as it were. In his own teaching the writer has found\nthe use of card abstracts, historical, biographical, geographical, etc., to be\na distinct time-saving. Such helps may be procured of educational publishers, or may readily be prepared by the teacher, and handled as\nteaching experience will quickly suggest. It has been amply proved that\nin this simple manner the memories of a class may be stored with grouped\nfacts in endless variety, and, as they pass in review, unflagging interes\nmay be maintained in the series thruout the school year.\n\n"}
{"page": 1168, "printed_page": null, "text": "Il6o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Education of\n\nThe importance of having, close at hand, up-to-date maps, school\napparatus, and compact reference-books in conducting this education thru\nthe eye need not be emphasized in this company. In this connection\nmay be instanced, however, the marked advantage which, during this\nhistory-making period thru which we are passing, the conveniently cased\nset of wall-charts provided by the state has been to the writer's own class\nof patriotic young people. Rarely has this case been allowed to remain\nclosed during a daily session by these pupils ; while, as their knowledge\nof localities widened, their interest in tracing the \" course of empire \"\nhas fully kept pace with it. And the handy two-volume Young Folks'\nCyclopedia, that lies within easy reach, has been thumbed like a \" hornbook.\" Which facts simply demonstrate the desirability of enconomizing to the utmost the time of our youthful knowledge-seekers, by having\nsuch aids to information at hand in abridged form, rather than to expect\npupils to consult authorities elsewhere ; or, most likely, suffer this laudable impulse to verify facts to lapse, rather than tackle the ponderous\nencyclopaedias that lade the shelves of some remote library.\nAs another means of keeping our young Americans abreast with the\ntimes in thought, do we, as a practice, make sufficient use of the morning\npaper in purveying material for journal-writing, taking it for granted that\na daily class exercise of such sort is, as it should be, kept up? The tendency, as no doubt we have all observed with our pupils, is to grow introspective in their mental processes of this kind, making themselves and\ntheir personal affairs too exclusively the subject of their journalistic\nessays. Nor are they to be blamed, unless news matter of general interest, discreetly pruned of sensationalism, be provided to their hand, and\ntheir thoughts be led outward to note intelligently the march of current\nevents. And this again suggests the query how we may most quickly\ninduce in our pupils and confirm the reading habit upon which their\nfuture intellectual growth must so largely depend. It has for years been\nthe writer's custom to keep a running record of the books read by\npupils, by pages, the tally being from time to time announced, and\nsummed up at the term's close ; thus promoting emulation, among the\nmembers of the class not only, but between successive classes as well.\nSystematically arranged wall cabinets in the class-room itself contribute wonderfully to the enrichment of those fleeting five hours a day\nwe are privileged to spend among our neophytes. Properly classified and\npigeonholed, here under the teacher's eye and hand, may be marshaled a\nstore of material pat to \" point a moral or adorn a tale ; \" or, mayhap, to\nsuggest a ready solution for that recurrent conundrum of \" What next ? \"\nwhich often perplexes the teacher ambitious to improve to its utmost the\npassing moment. The range of such illustrative collections is wide, and\nthe emprise of it is to find how often, and in what unlooked-for ways, its\nresources are drawn upon.\n\n"}
{"page": 1169, "printed_page": null, "text": "Defectives]\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLING\n\nOF\n\nDEAF\n\nCHILDREN\n\n1 161\n\nA live query box should hold place among the furnishings of every\nwell-equipped class-room for the deaf. To dispose our pupils to ask\nquestions intelligently on the subject-matter before them is, as we all\nknow, one of our hardest tasks. The desire is there, doubtless ; otherwise\nthey would not be Yankees ; but a hesitation seems to lurk in their midst\nabout putting this desire to know into words. Let this latent inclination\nof youth be fostered in every way and encouraged to declare itself. If\nthe interrogation point be justly characterized as the \" teacher's fishhook,\" \"turn about\" here becomes \"fair play,\" and if it be the fate of\nthe unwary preceptor occasionally to get numbered among the caught, all\nthe better for the pupil.\nThe practice has been found very helpful in teaching colloquial English\nof taking action words, for example \"get,\" following up the term thru its\nProtean changes of application in getting \"at,\" \"around,\" \"into,\"\n\" over,\" \" thru,\" \" by,\" and \" out of \" things, even tho our disciples must\nenter with us the 'gates of slang in \"getting there.\" But is it not into\nthis very free-masonry of speech in \" everyday clothes \" that we should\nseek to initiate our candidates if we are ever to make them at home in the\nvernacular ? This lead has been followed for months in one of our\ngrades, with growing interest, and the class voluntarily petitioned that\ntime be allowed it before term closing to copy the results of its researches\nfor future reference.\nThe value of the facile crayon, as an auxiliary in teaching the deaf,\nshould not be overlooked. The ability by a few deft strokes to outline\nto the eye a form illustrating, inartistically it may be, to the pupil the\nsubject before him is one to be coveted and cultivated by every teacher.\nYet, if the ready crayon be not at hand, a shape picture in ambient air\nmay flash the idea with equal vividness, and far greater rapidity, aiding\nthe judicious instructor effectively in securing that clear comprehension of\na thought that must precede and pilot its expression in words. But we\nverge upon debatable ground — the limbo of gesture land! Environment, also, to use a hard -worked phrase, the social atmosphere of a wellorganized and -equipped school establishment, is undeniably a powerful\nfactor in drawing forth the dormant, or repressed, powers of the young\nand impressionable. This is acknowledged to be the case with normal\nyouths, whose parents gladly incur the expense and self-denial involved in\nsending them away to distant boarding schools, for the sake of the educational associations they may offer. But notably is it true with our deaf\nchildren, the quickening of whose faculties, under class stimulus, at the\nvery threshold of their school life, is ofttimes little short of marvelous,\nas every teacher of the deaf can testify. And can parents do less for\ntheir deaf than for their hearing offspring in thus putting them in the\nway of training to the best purpose, under time limitations, their hampered powers ?\nEspecially when\nthe state steps forward\nand says :\n\n"}
{"page": 1170, "printed_page": null, "text": "1162\n\nNA TIONAL\n\nEDUCA\n\nTIONAL\n\nASSOCIA\n\nTION\n\n[Education of\n\n\" Come ! I make these youths my foster-children ; let them have all the\nadvantages, for the time being, of the well-conducted private school,\ncoveted for their hearing brothers and sisters, free of cost ! \" Can an\nenlightened and generous public do more? or less ?\nYet, why catalog, here and now, educational considerations that\nshould naturally suggest themselves to all thoughtful teachers of the deaf,\nwho, pre-eminently among educators, find themselves confronted by\nproblems and conditions calling for the highest originality in methods, as\nwell as of patience beyond compare ?\nUpon this common ground, trained tho we may have been in differing schools, pledged as we are to our cause, we meet, extending, each to\nother, the \"glad hand\" of fellowship. ^^ Viae diver sae,'' it may be; ''destinatio una \" — our \" ways \" converge to one objective point, and the same :\nthe restoration to social kinship of those in danger, thru force of untoward\ncircumstances for which they are not responsible, of drifting apart\nfrom their kind ; by so arming them against fate that, tho they may not\nyet \" by opposing end \" it, they may win from those about them honest\npraise for well-directed endeavor, and the intelligent and inspiring sympathy that spurs on to high emprise.\nHe who opened the eyes of the blind and unstopped deaf ears no\nlonger walks among us — the \"Man of Sorrows, and acquainted with\ngrief,\" omnipotent in his sympathies, infinite in his patience. Yet\nupon us — in all reverence be it said — who so imperfectly, because, alas,\nhumanly, tho humanely, are striving to lighten, if we may not lift, a burden of our common humanity grievous to be borne, doth not his mantle in\na measure rest ?\nAs those, then, struggling to carry forward his work, let us broaden\nour own sympathies ; let us \" covet earnestly the best gifts \" for these\ndeaf, not dumb, even tho voiceless children of our native land ; ever\nready to adapt our methods to their varying needs, while conscientiously\nutilizing to the utmost, and seeking to extend, the time that the public\nspirit of the community accords us.\n\nTHE\n\nBY\n\nMISS\n\nHELEN\n\nIMPORTANCE\n\nTAYLOR,\nTHE\n\nOF A RIGHT\n\nKINDERGARTNER\nDEAF,\n\nIN\n\nLOS ANGELES,\n\nBEGIAAING\n\nPUBLIC\n\nDAY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nFOR\n\nCAL.\n\nThere is, after all, a far-reaching truth in the old and timeworn\nexpression of \"as the twig is bent, the tree is inclined.\"\nWhen we have in consideration the lives of so many hundreds of children deprived of hearing who are trying to cope with this great handicap,\n\n"}
{"page": 1171, "printed_page": null, "text": "Defectives]\n\nTHE\n\nIMPORTANCE\n\nOF\n\nA\n\nRIGHT\n\nBEGINNING\n\n1163\n\nthe question of the proper way to start these children on the voyage of\nlife is one of great importance. As teachers we feel this responsibility\nand are laboring to give them every advantage and help that the intelligence of the nineteenth century can afford.\nBy those unacquainted with the work of teaching the deaf child the\ngreat advance in the educational methods in this department can scarcely\nbe realized. From a state of almost total isolation from society, he is\nrapidly taking his right place among his fellow-men. To walk into a\nsloyd room of hearing schools and to find there the deaf boys working\nalong with their hearing brothers means a great deal to the ones who\nhave been struggling all these years for such a condition and recognition\nfor our defective children. Such is the case with the boys in the deaf\ndepartment of the Spring Street School, Los Angeles. They enjoy the\nwork and derive just the same benefit from it as do the other children.\nNo difference is felt by the teacher who has charge of the sloyd department in the instruction of the deaf children, and no difficulty is experienced in communicating with them.\nIt used to be, and still is by many people, a fixed idea that because a\nchild is deaf he is mentally deficient, and is considered peculiar, with all\nthe unpleasant significance possibly attached to the word. And in many\ncases this opinion is justified by deaf children who are growing up without being helped to interpret the life around them and acquire the use of\nlanguage. The time is now at hand when the deaf child must be justly\ndealt with ; his education must fit him to mingle with, and be a living\npart of, the world.\nThis education cannot begin too early. It is seldom the case that the\nparents can give the proper amount of help, as it requires a great deal of\ntime, patience, and knowledge of teaching to reach such a child. The\nmother cannot neglect her other duties entirely, and so it often happens\nthat the child begins life with no idea of his proper relations, no sense\nof law, no conception of personal rights or ownership ; in fact, he is in\nhis own mind the nucleus of the little world in which he lives. Selfish,\nobstinate, unlawful, and many more unpleasant adjectives describe him,\nsimply because he has not been able to adjust himself to life as he grew.\nRealizing the urgent need for a close relation and hearty co-operation\nbetween parents and the children, there have been formed in many of our\ncities what is called \" mothers' study clubs.\" The benefit derived from\nsuch clubs is incalculable. The mothers really take an active interest\nin the school life. They hold regular and frequent meetings for the purpose of studying how they can best help in the training and education of\ntheir childreh at home. The teacher does not feel, when the child goes\nhome from school, that her work is discontinued until the next day, but\nthat it will be helpfully carried on.\nTo do this, of course, there must be a close relation between the\n\n"}
{"page": 1172, "printed_page": null, "text": "1164\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Education of\n\nmother and teacher; the schoolroom should be frequently visited and not\nbe a place totally unlike home. As much of home life and interest should\nbe introduced into each day's work as is possible. It is- surprising to see\nhow readily very small children comprehend their relation ; how soon you\ncan develop the sense of citizenship in them.\nFrom first to last the great struggle in the education of the deaf child\nis to give him language and have him use it. The little hearing baby\nhas words poured into his ears continually. He first learns to recognize\nthe meaning of words, and then, as he begins to speak, it is long before\none really plain Avord is spoken. Now, we certainly do not expect the deaf\nchild after a few months of work to be able to do what the hearing child\ndoes after three years of hearing words continually. What we want is to\nhave the child begin as soon as. possible to recognize language and to use\nhis vocal organs in natural baby babblings. In cases of children who are\nborn deaf, no difference is detected in them until the time comes for\nthem to speak. They laugh, cry, babble, just as does every normal baby.\nThe kindergarten is one of the greatest blessings to the deaf child. In\naddition to developing his mental, moral, and physical nature, it gives him\na wonderful opportunity to acquire language. I shall not go into detail\nabout the special things and their uses for meeting the negds of children.\nIt is conceded by the thinking world today that the kindergarten is an\nessential factor in education, and, as I have said before, the deaf child is\nquite as capable of comprehending and using material as any other. He\nis entitled to his share of the inheritance, and we have no right to withhold it. In our work we strive to have him see and feel the relations in\nlife. Each day is followed in a logical sequence of work. To do this\nwe have plans of work. When a subject is taken up it is developed in the\nnatural way to the climax. The child is led to see each step. In the\nprocess of germination, for instance, the box is prepared for the seeds ;\nsoil is put into it; seeds are planted ; each day we help in this growth by\nkeeping the box in the sun and keeping the earth moist. By and by the\nfirst little green leaf appears, and the child's delight is unbounded ; he\nfeels natural interest in that plant life; the care of it each day is a pleasure ;it makes him feel his importance, and that he is a necessity to something ;he gets an insight into nature. In the games he is thoroly at\nhome. His interest is aroused, and he is anxious and willing to have the\nlanguage for these interests. The activities : jump, skip, walk, hop, run,\ncatch, come, stand up, sit down, etc., he learns in a most unconscious\nway. At first the language is recognized from the lips, and when he is\nanxious for a \"run \" around the circle to \"catch\" another child, he soon\nbegins to speak these words. After the child understands that speaking\nis the method of communication, he soon learns to try to use it. The\nacquiring of language by the little child is slow and often laborious. But'\nas I recall an instance of a mother for the first time hearing her little one\n\n"}
{"page": 1173, "printed_page": null, "text": "1165\n\nALL ALONG\n\nDefectives]\n\nTHE LINE\n\nsay \" love mamma,\" the amount of work sank into insignificance in comparison to the happiness of that mother who has been waiting so long to\nhear the voice which she had thought silent forever speak her name. Men\nand women have spent their lives working for children. Froebel and\nPestalozzi have been quite as great benefactors of the deaf children as of\nthe hearing. It is a matter long ago settled without question that the first\nyears are the ones that need the most careful attention. No one would\nthink of planting a choice flower and to allow it simply to grow without\nany care at all. Instead it is placed in a sunny bed, is carefully watered, is\nwatched and worked with each day. So, in our child garden, we must be\npainstaking and indefatigable gardeners.\n\nALL ALONG\nBY\n\nMRS. KATHERINE\n\nTHE\n\nT. BINGHAM,\n\nLLNE\nPALO\n\nALTO,\n\nCAL.\n\nThe keynote of educational thought today is child study. No more\nmay teachers blindly follow the traditions of the past. The drift of\neducational effort and the trend of educational progress are in the direction of keen insight into and careful consideration of the child's mind\nand ways ; and upon these are based the new methods.\nIt is the glory of this kind of study that it includes of necessity all\nclasses of children — the feeble-minded no less than the highly gifted ;\nthe blind child whose objective impressions are limited by the reach of his\narm, and the deaf one whose world is bounded by his range of vision.\nThe knowledge of each class throws light upon other classes. Horace\nMann first declared the true status of the deaf. Before his day the\npublic regard classed them as peculiar objects of charity, to be relegated\nto the \"asylums,\" and \"for whose instruction,\" in Mrs. Bell's words,\n\" strange and mysterious methods must be employed.\" Horace Mann first\nrecognized the deaf child as an individual, as capable of the same kind\nand degree of education as any child, and he first set forth the idea of\nthe co-ordination of his education with that of the hearing.\nHow would his noble heart have rejoiced to see the fruit of his planting as shown in this department of the National Educational Association !\nTo him also is due the awakening of interest in oral teaching which\nspeedily resulted in its introduction into this country from Germany,\nwhere it had been established for nearly half a century. The fatal mistake\nwas made, however, from the start of trying to unite the two radically\nopposed systems of speech and sign language ; and, tho resulting invariably\nin failure to the former, the combination is still maintained in many of\nour institutions.\n\n"}
{"page": 1174, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 1 66\n\nNA TIONAL\n\nEDUCA\n\nTIONAL\n\nASSOCIA\n\nTION\n\n[Educarion of\n\nA few fallacies and misconceptions prevail concerning the deaf that I\nlong to see corrected. First is that bete noir of signs, about which more\nwords have been wasted than aborut any other educational topic, I am sure.\nThe most oft-repeated and specious claim of their advocates is that\nsigns are the natural language of the deaf, and are therefore superior to\nall other means of communication for them, entirely overlooking the fact\nthat they are no less natural to the hearing, but are not for that reason\nallowed to supersede speech.\nEvery baby, the deaf and the hearing alike, learns to \"pat-a-cake\"\nand to imitate the entrancing pantomime of the \"ten little piggies,\" told\noi? on the rosy toe-tips, long before he can speak a word.\nTo deaf children signs are just as natural as to hearing children, but\nno more so. The deaf child also laughs and cries audibly, and expresses\nits baby emotions in the same inarticulate cooing and babbling as does\nthe hearing baby, until he reaches the age when the latter begins to imitate\nthe speech of those about him, while the former continues to make\ninarticulate and meaningless sounds because of not hearing those about\nhim. This causes him to appear less intelligent than he should, and his\nmother begins to suppress these vocal utterances and to substitute signs\nfor speech ; thus the fatal habit of silence is formed and the pernicious\npractice of pantomime confirmed.\nThe continued use of signs, after the natural period for them has\npassed, instead of being natural, is the result of assiduous cultivation,\nand does, moreover, a distinct injury to the child, by retarding his mental\ngrowth and his acquirement of speech.\nAnother fallacy, repeated often by those who ought to know better, is\nthat speech is not natural to the deaf child, but at best only a mechanical\nand artificial acquirement. The truth is that deaf children are no more\nnaturally speechless than are hearing children. Both are alike born incapable of speech until it is taught to them. The hearing child acquires it\n(after some two years or so of natural mental preparation) unconsciously,\nby imitating the sounds he hears others use to express their thoughts.\nDeaf children do not, indeed, gain what has been aptly termed \"the\nunspeakable gift of speech \" by nature's own process of unconscious\nacquirement, but yet they are undeniably aided by \" the cumulative inheritance of a thousand generations of ancestors\" who have communicated\ntheir thoughts by this means. They have an undoubted constitutional\ntendency toward speech. A special organ and set of muscles are set apart\nfor them to utilize in this manner. The deaf child differs not at all from\nthe hearing child, save only that his instinct and native aptitude cannot\nserve him without intelligent help at the right stage.\n. One out of every fifteen hundred of the children of the United States\nis born deaf, it is said ; but it is only the ignorance or neglect of their\nfriends that renders them dumb.\n\n"}
{"page": 1175, "printed_page": null, "text": "Defectives]\n\nALL\n\nALONG\n\nTHE\n\nLINE\n\n1 167\n\nThere exist in deaf, as in hearing, children the nerves and muscles\nconnected with the organs of speech, and the use of these means of cerebral stimulation in deaf children results in a higher mental development\nthan could otherwise be attained.\nSir Richard Burton, the famous traveler, tells of finding somewhere in\nthe ends of the earth, where no gleam of civilization had penetrated, a\npeople of the lowest type, who could not communicate with each other in the\ndark, but lighted blazing fires in their huts at night, before which they\nexchanged such limited ideas as they possessed, using the identical\n\"natural\" signs, no doubt, that are so eloquently extolled' and so sedulously cultivated in the great institutions of our land at the present day.\n\" Natural\" they are, no doubt, to the infants of the race as to those of the\ncivilized family, but they belong alone to the period of infancy. As wisely\nmight you keep the sturdy youth in swaddling clothes as confine him —\ndeaf or otherwise — to the sign language. There is a natural age for\nsigns, and it is the same in the man as in the race — the age of infancy —\nto which signs correspond as an expression of mental power.\nTo this period of signs there succeeds, in the order of nature, that of\narticulate language as a means of conveying thought. This power develops\nlater in all children, because it marks a higher stage of mental development. All other things being equal, the child educated by speech attains\na fuller and more harmonious development than the one educated without\nit — by whatever other means.\nWe shall all agree about this when we are informed in the scientific\nfacts of the matter and have no professional prejudice, or family fame, or\nselfish interest to warp our judgment. These are potential \"ifs,\" I am\nwell aware, but yet they are all fading swiftly away in the searching light\nof this day of the new education.\nExamination of the records of the schools for the deaf of the United\nStates shows that the importance of early instruction has only lately come\nto be recognized. At first the theory was held that \"the pupil\" (in the\nwords of an early report of the first institution) \"should be old enough to\nprofit by the advantages offered him at public expense.\" Of late years it\nis found that the younger the pupil, the better the results. The Hartford\nAsylum, established in 1817 (by natural evolution this name has lately\nbecome the American School for the Deaf), fixed upon four years, and afterward twelve, \" as the best time,\" as it was expressed, \" for the commencement\nof their education.\"\nIn 1843 the age was again reduced to eight years.\nThe movement for earlier admission has extended thruout the country,\nwith few exceptions, several schools now admitting pupils at two and a\nhalf and even two years of age. Many of the older schools and institutions have several times reduced the age of admission.\nIn the matter of the time allowed for instruction, too, great advance\nhas been made.\n\nThe seventh annual report of the Hartford School — at\n\n"}
{"page": 1176, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 1 68\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Education of\n\nthat time the only one in the country — speaks as follows: \"Some pupils\nstay at the school only two years, and four is thought by many a pretty\ncomfortable time for completing their education.\" A course of four years\nwas then prescribed, \" that being,\" to quote from the resolution adopted,\n\"the least time in which they can acquire even an ordinary education.\"\nIn 1835 the term was again extended to five years. As time has elapsed,\nthe necessities of the case came to be better appreciated, and the period\nof instruction has been gradually increased, until now forty-four out of\nthe seventy-eight schools of the United States allow a term of ten years\nand upward.\nThe first \" day school \" for the deaf was established about thirty years\nago — the Horace Mann School of Boston, which is today one of the\nbest equipped schools in the United States. There are now thirty-four\nof these schools in the country, which employ seventy-four teachers and\naccommodate 555 pupils. Twenty-three out of the thirty-four are oral\nschools, and they are located in nine different states.\nIn Chicago a unique and most excellent plan is in operation, which\nplaces the schools for the young children as near as possible to their\nhomes. A class is opened in the nearest vacant schoolroom, where six\nto eight deaf children are gathered, while the older and more advanced\npupils are expected to attend schools located at central points at greater\ndistances from their homes.\nThe highest mark of advance attained in the education of the deaf up\nto the present time is the establishment of oral day schools for the deaf,\nas an integral part of the public-school system. This idea, and its first\nrealization in Wisconsin some thirteen years ago, is one of the many great\nachievements for the deaf of Dr. Alexander Graham Bell, to whose worldwide fame as a scientist is added the yet greater honor of being the\nveritable apostle of speech for the deaf.\nIn the oral day school the deaf child may be educated at home, and\nhis parents spared the anguish of separation during his childhood ; they\nmay co-operate in his education, and his instruction may be begun at a\nmuch earlier period than otherwise — an all-important consideration this,\nas the first years are the natural period for acquiring speech, and the lack\nof such opportunity has been the greatest obstacle to success heretofore.\nHis education may be accomplished at far less expense, also, than is now\nthe case where the state provides costly buildings and charges itself with\nthe maintenance of its deaf as well as their education. A room is set\napart in the ordinary public-school building, where a teacher specially\ntrained for the purpose instructs a small class of deaf children in the\nsame branches that are taught in the other rooms of the building. This\"\nis done by means of speech mainly, and in all cases by the English\nlanguage. They join with their hearing companions of the other rooms\nin not a few of their exercises in which the eye may serve instead of the\n\n"}
{"page": 1177, "printed_page": null, "text": "Defectives]\n\nALL\n\nALONG\n\nTHE\n\nLINE\n\n1 1 69\n\near ; they mingle freely on the playground, gaining thereby abundant\npractice in speech and speech-reading, and in all ways come to affiliate\nwith, and to assume their natural place among, the hearing.\nOn the other hand, the special training in phonetics and articulation\ngiven by their particular teacher is open also to the hearing pupils, and\nthe numerous speecli defects of foreign children, and of those having any\nimpediment of speec.h, may be corrected. Moreover, those children, of\nwhom late researches have disclosed so large a proportion in our public\nschools, whose hearing is so defective as to interfere sadly with their\nprogress, serving to class them, oftentimes quite wrongly, as dull scholars,\nmay be trained to make sight supplement hearing; or they may, in many\ncases, gain auricular development — ability in which art is an important\npart of the oral teacher's equipment, since there are numerous kinds and\ndegrees of deafness among his pupils.\nThis plan is no longer an experiment, having been in successful\noperation in several eastern states for years, and it has even made its\nway of late to this coast. My hearers may see an illustration of this\nplan in the Spring Street School of this city, and the Los Angeles school\nboard is to be commended for the progressive spirit shown in adopting this school, in advance of legislative enactment. The natural adjunct\nof the parents' association is also in operation here.\nIn San Francisco there is also an excellent private day school, whose\nteachers, in connection with the Parents' Association of Northern California, are active in every interest pertaining to the education and welfare\nof deaf children.\nThe oral method is fast supplanting the sign method, so that out\nof over five hundred schools in the world more than half are now\noral schools. Dr. Bell's declaration at the Convention of American\nInstructors of the Deaf, at Flint, Mich., in 1895, was a prophecy that is\nbeing swiftly fulfilled. \" Oralism,\" said he, \"has come to stay; it will\nbe the system of the twentieth century.\" I venture to predict, further,\nthat before the end of the new century special teaching for the deaf child\nwill have become a matter only of the very first few years of his life.\nThe education of the deaf child should begin in earliest infancy,\nprecisely as does that of the hearing child. To this end the co-operation\nof the mother is indispensable. She must be assisted to do consciously\nfor her deaf baby what she does unconsciously for her hearing one.\nThus prepared to enter the kindergarten at the proper age, he will profit\ndoubly by his training, and with such early preparation the battle of\nspeech for the deaf child will be won before he even becomes aware of it;\nand as this plan of intelligent co-operation of parents and teachers comes\nto be more fully and perfectly realized, it is altogether probable that the\nwhole problem of his education will be solved by the time he finishes his\nkindergarten course, so that he will no longer require special instruction.\n\n"}
{"page": 1178, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 1 7o\n\nNA TIONAL\n\nEDUCA TIONAL\n\nASSOCIA\n\nTION\n\n[Education of\n\nSkilled thus in the use of his own mother-tongue, how infinitely\nhappier the child is than if he were educated in the foreign language\nof signs, even tho his teacher were one of those \"masters\" \"whose\nhands,\" in the eloquent words of one of the sign-language enthusiasts,\n\"pluck the stars from their courses, who bring the rolling sea to his feet,\nand in whose fingers the budding flowers burst into bloom\" !\nIt is of pre-eminent importance to teach speech to deaf children at\nthe natural age when hearing children acquire it. When the war about\nconventional methods shall cease, and teachers of the deaf shall come\nand sit with teachers of the hearing at nature's feet, then will it appear\nthat heaven and earth work together to teach the deaf child to talk.\nBy means of constant early use of his voice it will respond to his\nemotions, and will not become harsh. A deaf child whose attention is\nearly directed to harshness of tone whenever he produces it soon\nbecomes quite as sensitive as if he could hear. This is because such\nvocal utterance is the expression of a jarring sensation within, which\nthe deaf child easily learns to recognize, and in the beginning can easily\ncontrol.\nThe scientific study of the deaf child not only throws a flood of light\nupon the subject of means and methods of instructing him, but we are\nmuch encouraged to find how generously nature compensates his defect.\nScientists tell us that nine-tenths of every child's sense-perception comes\nthru sight. We who know deaf children are assured that the superior\nskill in observation which they acquire of necessity goes far to make up\nfor the lack of the remaining tenth. Moreover, the sense of touch —\nresembling, as it does, that of hearing, in giving first the parts, and then\nthe whole, leading to synthetic mental processes — is a suitable counterpart to the sight, by which we see first the whole, and then its parts,\nleading to analytic thinking.\nIt is greatly to be desired that the sense of touch should receive more\nparticular attention and cultivation in schools for the deaf.\nSome most interesting and valuable experiments in this direction\nwere made years ago in the practice school of Dr. Bell in Washington.\nA most ingenious touch alphabet, devised by him, and designed as a\ncomplement to the visible elements of speech and to be used in connection with speech, was found very useful in assisting the acquirement of\nspeech-reading. It is much to be regretted that many progressive and\noriginal ideas proved there to be both practical and helpful should not\nhave found their way to other schools.\nBesides the neglect to cultivate the sense of touch as an ally to sight,\nand as taking the place of hearing in its mental effect, another most\nvaluable aid is overlooked in physical culture — intelligently arranged\nbreathing exercises, and judicious gymnastic practice for increasing lung\npower and vocal volume.\nThis is far more important for the deaf child\n\nJ\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 1179, "printed_page": null, "text": "Defectives]\n\nEDUCATION\n\nAND\n\nTRAINING\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nBLIND\n\n1 171\n\nthan for the hearing, not only as a means of muscle-building, but still\nmore so for its value in developing voice.\nAt present, while we work and wait for the ideal conditions of the\nfuture, we have to make , the best of many discouraging ones in the\npresent. Children of all ages and stages, and all phases of ignorance\nand neglect, must be instructed; but for them all my urgent plea is that\nthey may be given speech.\nThere can be no question to any well-informed and fair-minded person that speech is practicable and in every way desirable, for the deaf\nas for the hearing. This is not saying that every deaf child of every age\nmay learn to talk as well as any hearing one ; but I do claim that speech,\neven tho imperfect, is far better than any other means of communication\nfor every child born among hearing people. Among the thousand and\none good reasons why the deaf should be educated by speech there is one\npre-eminent in importance, namely, that thereby only may they assume\nand maintain their proper and rightful place in society. Can you think\nwhat it is to go thru life as one of a peculiar class ? It is the sum of\nhuman misery. No other misfortune is comparable to this. The individual must be one with the race, or he is virtually annihilated. I can\nassure you of my own knowledge that the fact of congenital deafness\nimposes no heavier burden — no other burden, indeed, of necessity —\nthan just this sense of peculiarity, apartness from the life of the world,\nto which the deaf equally with the hearing belong. And, believe me,\nthis peculiarity is not inevitable. It is solely the result of shutting up\ndeaf children to be educated in sign schools, whence they emerge to be\nlifelong foreigners in their own families and aliens in their own country.\nThe day of progress has come. Teachers of the deaf, allied with those\nof the hearing, are measuring themselves and their methods by a broader\nand more intelligent standard. Above all they are coming to regard the\ndeaf child as one with his kind, to whom science and humanitarian progress have at length restored his birthright of education and the enjoyment\nof his life in the world of hearing people.\n\nIN\n\nWHAT RESPECTS S'HOULD THE EDUCATION AND\nTRAINING OE THE BLIND DIFFER FROM THE EDUCATION AND TRAINING OF NORMAL PUPILS?\n\nBY WARRING\n\nWILKINSON,\nDEAF\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\nAND\n\nBLINDJ\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nBERKELEY,\n\nINSTITUTION\n\nFOR THE\n\nCAL.\n\nIt is not my purpose in the present paper to ignore the handicap of\nblindness in an efficient equipment for life and its duties; nor is it my\npurpose to detract from the merit of the patient, hard-working teacher\n\n"}
{"page": 1180, "printed_page": null, "text": "1172\n\nNA TIONAL\n\nEDUCA\n\nTIONAL\n\nASSOCIA\n\nTION\n\n[Education of\n\nunder whose wise guidance and helpfulness this handicap is reduced to a\nminimum. In all the range of pedagogy which in these latter days is\nbecoming so differentiated and specialized, I know of no department\nwhere aptitude and experience count for so much, and ar6 so essential\nto the highest success, as in teaching the blind and the deaf. And yet I\nsometimes think that we are apt unduly to magnify our work and its difficulties, and to permit the public to surround it with a mystery that does\nnot by right attach to it. To the average man the calamity of blindness\nis so appalling, by shutting his eyes it is so easy to realize its hideous\nblackness, that he is prepared to look upon any achievement under such\nharsh and untoward conditions as a little short of miraculous. And then\nthe pity of it ! To think of this imprisoned soul, whose horizon is\nbounded by the radius of his arm, walking in eternal darkness, stirs human\nsympathy to its lowest depths. Thus wonder and tenderness unite to\nexaggerate the work of our pupils, and our part in it. The effect is not\ngood on the teacher or the taught. By reason of our partial isolation we\nboth live in an atmosphere of commendation which is exceedingly pleasant\nto breathe, but is not wholesome to the intellectual life. Scarcely a visitor\nenters our class-room without ejaculating, \" Wonderful,\" \" Marvelous,\" or\n\"Poor things,\" \"Isn't it sad?\" as his emotion predominates — both\nexpressions equally bad in their moral effect, one stimulating conceit in the\npupil, the other enervating his manly fiber, which is weak enough at the\nbest.\nIt has been my fortune for the last thirty-four years to be associated\nwith the blirid and the deaf, brought under the same management during\ntheir school life. The opportunity has thus been given me to observe\nthe comparative disability caused by the loss of sight or hearing, and the\nrelative value of the eye and the ear as factors in intellectual development. It has been an interesting study. The psychological conditions\nproduced by deafness and blindness have no sort of similarity, and\nperhaps you will bear with me for a few minutes while I roughly sketch\nthe salient features of these differences. It will be nothing new to my\nprofessional friends, but may have some interest to those who have never\nhad their attention called to the subject.\nAll experience comes to us thru the senses, and it is only as\nexperience thus derived is organized and correlated that human intelligence is developed. Indeed, I cannot imagine a soul to flower and fruit\nwithout the vivifying influence of sensuous experiences. I can believe\nin a potential energy, hidden somewhere in the convolutions of the\nbrain, whose latent life may be awakened to activity by the ceaseless\nimpact of sense-perceptions, just as I can believe in the potential blade\nand stalk and ear which a kernel of corn contains and puts forth under\nthe gentle stimulus of sunshine and shower, but the growth of the seed\nis conditioned by moisture and warmth, and the initial development\n\n"}
{"page": 1181, "printed_page": null, "text": "Defectives]\n\nEDUCATION\n\nof the soul or\nconscious of.\n\nAND\n\nTRAINING\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nBLIND\n\n1 1 73\n\nself-consciousness must depend upon something to be\n\nBut, while intellectual development depends upon experience, and\nexperience comes thru, or by means of, the senses, it does not follow\nthat all the senses are of equal value. Many people get on very well in\nthis world without the sense of smell ; perhaps are sometimes happier for\nlack of it. It is said that Democritus put out his eyes in order that he\nmight see better, which is probably a classic myth to illustrate the value\nof introspection ; but an aborted or paralyzed auditory nerve interferes\nwith the natural processes of thinking, deprives the deaf-mute of his\nshare in the accumulated wisdom of the ages, cuts him off from all communication with his kind, and offers the saddest sight on earth, a primitive human being standing bewildered amid the intellectual life and\nactivity of the nineteenth century. No lullaby of maternal love falls\nupon his deadened ear ; no nursery rhyme or fairy tale comes to stir his\nimagination ; no chatter of childhood ; no evening prayer at the mother's\nknee; no songs of praise; no answers to the questioning of his pathetic\neye.\n\nThe deaf child has, to be sure, the visual perception of color, form,\nand space, but he has no words or names for these phenomena, and, for\nlack of intellectual commerce, they exist as incoherent, uncorrelated facts\nof an experience which is of no great value as a mental stimulus.\nBlindness produces an entirely different set of psychological conditions. The lack of sight is an interference with freedom of physical\nmovement, and the deprivation of one important group of sensuous\nexperience, but causes no serious mental disturbance. The blind child,\nunlike the deaf-mute, has none of the struggle with language as the\ninstrument of thought to contend with. From earliest infancy his mental\nprocesses have been developed along normal lines, so far as the vehicle of\nknowledge is concerned. His speech comes to him without effort or fatigue\nthru the ceaseless prattle of parents and playmates. \" Mother Goose \"\nand Grimm's tales form the foundation of his literary equipment, just\nthe same as of his seeing brother. He takes in thru his abnormally quickened sense of hearing all the knowledge and wisdom floating in popular\nspeech, the multitudinous voices of nature, the song of linnet and lark,\nthe katydid's querulous cry, the buzz of insect life, the sough and sigh of\nthe forest, and its analogue, the ceaseless surf of the \"many-sounding\nsea.\" With it all comes the varied nomenclature of this vast body of\nexperience, and, if the child has an environment of refined speech, he\nformulates his vocabulary in correct syntactical sequence without the\ntoilsome study of Brown or Kerl. As his intelligence develops, he needs\nno eyes to appreciate the literature of poetry, of history, of science, or of\nart. He listened with rapt delight to the legendary bringing of the\nTrojan gods to Latium as told by Virgil, and to the scarcely less thrilling\n\n"}
{"page": 1182, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 1 74\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Education\n\nprose epic of the Plymouth Colony as told by Fiske. The sad story of\nLittle Nell and the sisterly self-sacrifice of Efifie Deans brings tears to his\nsightless eyes. He laughs at the jokes of Charles Lamb and Thomas\nHood ; appreciates alike the Yankee patois of the Bigelow Papers and the\nunctuous brogue of Mr. Dooley of Chicago, and at the same time keeps\nabreast with the march of science and invention, and talks as intelligently\nas most of us concerning the automobile and wireless telegraphy. Nay,\nmore : he may hope himself to contribute something to the stock of\nhuman achievement, for which he has the stimulus of fine example ; for\nthe services of the blind to the world have been many and eminent.\nThe greatest poems have been written by blind men. Homer and Milton ;\namong the foremost histories stand the works of William Hickling\nPrescott, a blind man ; a standard authority on bees was written by Francois\nHuber, a blind man ; the Lucasian chair of mathematics at Cambridge\nUniversity was filled for many years by Nicholas Saunderson, a blind man ;\nthe best postmaster-general England ever had was Henry Fawcett, a\nblind man ; while Herreshoff, the blind shipbuilder, has designed the\nfastest yachts in Europe and America.\nI have meant you to infer from what I have said that the blind child\nis a child lacking an important sense, it is true, but the lack of which\ndoes not interfere with normal processes of thought or its expression. A\ncertain group of sense-perceptions with the blind, as with the deaf, must\nbe forever unknown. In both cases other senses are called upon to substitute in an imperfect way the lost faculty. The eye cannot hear; the\near and fingers cannot see ; and, while the congenitally blind talk glibly,\nas they often do, of the phenomena of light and color and space, it must\nbe quite evident to you that correct concepts of these phenomena are\nimpossible to them.\nSo when a blind poet like Dr. Blacklock writes,\nMild gleams the purple evening o'er the plain,\n\nwe are sure he is using merely conventional terms of speech, of the fundamental meaning of which he can know nothing. And when Saunderson, the blind mathematician, said that the color red was to him like the\nblast of a trumpet, he illustrated the sort of sense metonomy which continually lakes place in the mind of a blind person. But while the cognitions of the senses are thus interchangeable only by a verbal convention,\nthere is a quickening and strengthening of the remaining faculties by use\nand burden, a collection of experiences and observations, which, being\nunconsciously perhaps co-ordinated, rises in the blind to the dignity of *\nalmost a sixth sense, and explains the marvelous recognition of person,\nplace, and direction which often puzzles his seeing companion. Now, it\nis because the blind child is thus normal in way of thinking that I say he\nshould be educated on those lines which the best wisdom and experience\napprove for seeing children\n\n"}
{"page": 1183, "printed_page": null, "text": "Defectives]\n\nEDUCATION\n\nAND\n\nTRAINING\n\nOF THE BLIND\n\nAs this paper is not written to set forth what is the best system for\neducating a seeing child, I might well stop here, leaving to you to search\nout that best method and to apply it in your individual work.\nBut I also referred to certain reservations which are called for, not so\nmuch by the nature of blindness itself as by the thoughtlessness or mistaken\ntenderness of parents and friends, and the attitude of the child's civic\nenvironment. What I have to offer is designed to bring the blind child\ninto line with his seeing fellows, and not to suggest differences in the\nmethods in instruction.\nThe heaviest handicap of the blind is not his lost sight, nor his lack\nof one group of sense-cognitions. This is bad enough, to be sure, but\nhis misfortune is greatly exaggerated in many cases by the ill-advised\n\"helps\" that are continually thrust upon him from the moment his blindness is discovered till at last he loses all ability to take care of himself,\nand, what is worse, all desire to do so.\nFrom earliest infancy many a blind child is hedged in by a succession '\nof restrictions that are' worse than the foot bandages of a Chinese lady of\nrank. He must not put on his own clothes because, when he once tried\nit, he got on his trousers wrong side before. He cannot wash himself\nbecause he makes \" a mess of it.\" He is not allowed to move for fear he\nmay run his nose against the door or bark his shins on the horse block.\nHe might fall if he climbed a cherry tree in search of fruit, and to go on\nan errand to the next-door neighbor would be as dangerous as Nansen's\nexpedition in search of the North Pole. Bobby must give up to Tommy\nhis sweetmeats, his playthings, his priceless collection of pocket paraphernalia, with no adequate return, because \" Tommy is blind, you know ;\"\nand so Tommy becomes selfish as well as helpless. If parents could be\nmade to understand the value of the cultivation in their blind child of\nmanners, care and cleanliness of person, self-help and independence of\nmovement, the little altruisms of the fireside and playground, and the\nvigilant suppression of habits which attract attention, the work of the\nschool would be greatly simplified and relieved. For this training the\nparent is responsible, and it ought not to be delayed for, nor delegated\nto, the institution.\nThe gymnasium with a competent teacher should be a part of every\nwell-equipped school for the blind as for the seeing ; and for girls it is\nindispensable ; but for boys I know of nothing that quite equals a military\ndrill. It cultivates erectness of carriage, synchronous movement, measured step, varied exercise, and a certain alertness of mind, in co-ordinating muscular action. These are all valuable acquisitions toward the\nphysical training of the blind ; moreover, the soldierly drill eliminates\none more of the things which \"the blind cannot do,\" and, to this extent,\nstrengthens his moral power.\n\nIt is from this lack of moral power, or \"grit,\" or \"sand,\" to use the\n\n"}
{"page": 1184, "printed_page": null, "text": "1176\n\nNA TIONAL\n\nEDUCA\n\nTIONAL\n\nASSOCIA\n\nTION\n\n[Education of\n\nStrong Saxofl metaphor of the street, that our saddest failures come.\nThe lack is largely due to the injudicious coddling just spoken of, and\nthe physical and the mental flabbiness consequent thereto, and is\nincreased by the universal sympathy which the misfortune of blindness\nengenders, and which finds easiest expression by a gift of coin or the\npaying twenty-five cents for a lead pencil dear at twenty-five cents a gross.\nI confess that the temptation of the blind is sore. To trade on his affliction, to stand with placard on breast and cup in hand on a street corner\nand gather in the benevolent contributions of the passers-by, is so much\neasier than to \"rustle\" and to work; and when one sees the horde of\nstalwart, able-bodied tramps which infests alike city and country, it is small\nwonder that now and then a blind man yields to temptation and avails\nhimself of the profitable and easy resource at his command. It is, however, our business to see that, so far as in us lies, every pupil goes forth\nequipped, not only with a book knowledge that shall place him in intellectual fellowship with his seeing brother, but also with a manly determination to do his part in the battle of life, and if need be to die in the\nconflict. It is not always necessary to live ; to die is sometimes gain. The\nstruggle of Gethsemane, the agony of Calvary, have helped men to suffer\nand to endure for nineteen hundred years.\nOur boys should be taught, not the dignity of labor, but the dignity\nof the laborer ; that the bread of charity is unwholesome ; that a coin\nreceived in alms should burn in the palm like fire ; that starving is better\nthan begging ; and, if down he must go in the fierce mglee of life, let him\ngo with unsullied soul and exulting manhood.\nSomehow I cannot help thinking that this sort of education, this\ncharacter-building, is more important than enlarging the blind boy's\nsense-perception of things that are of no particular consequence anyhow.\nIndeed, I sometimes think that we are unduly anxious about petty details\nof tactual perception at the sacrifice of matters of larger moment.\nThere are relative values in subjects for teaching, and the best\ninstructor will best select from the vast storehouse at his command ; not\nthat all sorts of knowledge have not some value, but that some sorts are of\nmore worth than other sorts.\nIn all departments of public education, and in life as well, this \"terrible choice,\" as Robert Browning calls it, is of the highest importance ;\nbut in the education of the blind it is vital, for misdirected effort during\ntheir school life is not so easily corrected and atoned for as with those\nwho can see. I sometimes fear that in these days of money-getting,\nwhen education seems so largely directed toward how to \" make a living,\"\nwe are neglecting the gentler art of \" how to live ; \" that in the demand\nfor mechanics we forget the nobler use and need for men. I once heard\nCharles Dudley Warner say in a college address that the ideal university\nof the future would be a place where nothing practical is taught.\nThe\n\n"}
{"page": 1185, "printed_page": null, "text": "Defectives]\n\nEDUCATION\n\nAND\n\nTRAINING\n\nOF THE BLIND\n\nremark was doubtless a humorous protest against the material tendencies\nof the age, but there was a pregnant thought at the bottom of it, viz.:\nthat character and culture are better than coin; that \"a life\" is better\nthan \"a living.\"\nThe material achievements of men are but the temporary housings\nthat perish with the using. If in some great cataclysm of nature all the\nhouses and railways and ships and temples and monuments and wealth\nwere destroyed, and the world could be left with its accumulated experience of faith and hope and charity and .patience and love that have been\ngathering force thru all the ages, the world would be the better for the\nchange; for out of the wreck of matter would speedily rise a new earth,\nspanned by a nobler heaven than vision of prophet ever saw. No need\noi crystal sea, nor jeweled gates, nor golden streets, to adorn this new\nJerusalem ; the all-sufficient glory and beauty thereof would be its true\nand faithful men and women.\n\n"}
{"page": 1186, "printed_page": null, "text": ""}
{"page": 1187, "printed_page": null, "text": "LIST OF LIFE AND ACTIVE MEMBERS\nARRANGED\n\nBY\n\nSTATES,\n\nCLASSES,\nREVISED\n\nAND\nTO\n\nYEARS\n\nDECEMBER\n\nOF\nI,\n\nCONTINUOUS\n\nMEMBERSHIP\n\n1899\n\nThe marginal figures indicate the year of the commencement of continuous annual\nmembership for those whose names immediately follow. The indented figures indicate\nyear of appointment to present educational position. The names of deceased members\nare indicated by a *.\nExtra copies of this list may be obtained by remitting twenty-five cents to the Secretary, Irwin Shepard, Winona, Minn.\nALABAMA\nactive members\n1882.\n\nJulia S. Tutwiler.\nPrincipal of Alabama Normal College for Girls, Livingston.\nJ. H. Phillips, A.M., Marietta Coll., O. ; Ph.D., Southern Univ., Ala.\n1883. Superintendent of Schools, 2231, 7th Ave., Birmingham.\n18(32. Francis Morton Roof.\n1897. President of Howard College,East Lake.\n1894. LuciEN V. La Taste.\nGeneral Agent, University Publishing Co. of New York, Box 564, Montgomery.\nJOHK Massev, A.m., '75, LL.D., '79) Univ. of Ala.\n1876.\nPresident of Alabama Conference Female College, Tuskegee.\n1895. Mary A. Cahalan.\n1884. Principal of the Powell School, 2311, 4th Ave., Birmingham.\nJ. B. Cunningham.\n1898. Principal of High School, 600 S. 27th St., Birmingham.\nRobert Alexander Mickle, A.B., '86, Davidson Coll., N. C.\nPrincipal, Jefferson St. Primary and Grammar Schools, loi Georgia Ave., Mobile.\nKate E. Moon.\nGrammar Department, Public Schools, no N. Conception St., Mobile.\nJames K. Powers, A.M., '73, LL.D., '97, Univ. of Ala.\n1897.\nPresident of University of Alabama, University.\nJohn D. Yerbv, A.B., '79, Southern Univ. ; A.M., '96, Univ. of Ala.\n1894.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 996 Government St., Mobile.\n1897. Alabama Polytechnic Institute.\nPresident, William Le Roy Broun; Librarian, Charles C. Thach, Auburn.\n1898. Robert\nVfeNABLE Allgood, B.P., '88, B.Sc, '90, So. Univ., Greensboro; A.M., '93, Univ. of\nNashville.\n1888.\n\n1894. Superintendent of Public Schools, sth Ave. E., Avondale, Birmingham.\nJ. F. Elliott.\n1897.\nPrincipal of High School, Brookwood.\nJ. A. Knight, B.C., '87, Keochie Coll., La. ; B.Sc, '95, Nat. Nor. Univ., Lebanon, O. ; A.B.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Mt. Willing.\n1899. Arthur U. Craig, B.Sc, '95, Univ. of Kan.\n1895. Teacher of Physics and Mechanical Drawing, Tuskegee Institute, Tuskegee.\nARIZONA\nactive members\n1895.\n\nHorace E. Wilson.\n1898. Superintendent in charge of Supai Indians and School, Supai.\nLydia Hunt Wright.\n1894.\nSuperintendent, U. S. Indian Boarding School, Indian School, San Carlos.\n1898. T. E. Dalton.\nEx-Territorial Superintendent, Phoenix.\nR. L. Long.\n1899. Superintendent of Public Instruction, 211 Fleming Block, Phoenix.\n1899. Frank Yale Adams, A.B., '88, A.M., '94, Si. Lawrence Univ.\nT897.\nProfessor of History and Pedagogy, University of Arizona, Tucson.\nW. J. Anderson, B.Sc, '97, National Univ., Chicago.\n1898.\nGrand Avenue School, 12th Ave. ; Box 282, Phoenix.\nEdward J. Berringer.\nTeacher in Indian Schools, Parker.\nSidney C. Botkin.\nII79\nMatron of Indian Schools, Parker.\nF. A. Cooley, A.B., '92, Stanford Univ.\n1898.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 51 Council St., Tucson.\n\n"}
{"page": 1188, "printed_page": null, "text": "ll8o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[California\n\nKViXZQi^K— Continued\n1899.\n.\n\nW. B. Creager, A.B., '95, Ind. State Univ.\nSuperintendent of City Schools, Phoenix.\nGeraldine E. Gerald.\n1898.\nTeacher in Fifth and Sixth Grades, Globe.\nA. J. Matthews.\n1898.\nSuperintendent of City Schools, Prescott.\nJ. R. Meskimons.\n1896. Assistant Principal of High School, Phoenix.\nM. M. Parker, A.M., '78, Wesleyan Univ.\n1897. President of University of Arizona, Tucson.\nARKANSAS\nactive members\n\n1887.\n\nThomas\n\nA. Fixtrall, A.M., West Tenn. Coll.\n1884.\nSuperintendent of Schools and County Examiner, Marianna.\nJosiAH H. Shinn, A.B., A.M., '70, Northwestern Univ.\nEklitor \"Southern School Journal,\" President, College of Springdale, Springdale.\n1895. George B. Cook, A.M.\nSuperintendent of City Schools, Hot Springs.\nJ. L. HoLLOWAV, A.M., Missouri State Normal.\n1889. Superintendent of Schools, 12th and K Sts., Fort Smith.\nW. W. Rivers, A.B., '86, A.M., '89, Univ. of Miss.\n1894. Superintendent of City Schools, Helena.\n1896. Howard Gates.\n1891.\nPrincipal of Kramer School, Little Rock.\nJ. H. HiNEMON, A.M., '93, Arkadelphia Coll.\n1895. Superintendent of Schools, 618 W. 6th Ave., Pine Blufi.\nAlfred Lee Peacher, A.M., '92, Wooster Univ., O. 1895. Superintendent of Schools, 806 Broadway, Van Bureo.\n1897. Hendrix College.\nPresident, A. C. Millar, Conway.\nJ. W. Parker.\nPrincipal of School, 8th and B Sts., Fort Smith.\nJohn Hugh Revsolds, A.B., '93, Hendrix Coll. ; A.M., '97, Univ. of Chicago.\nProfessor of Education and History, Hendrix College, Conway\n1898. Mrs. E. M. Blake, Ph.B.\nTeacher of English, Onachita Baptist College, Arkadelphia.\nBelle Bunzel.\nTeacher in Public Schools, Little Rock.\nA. D. Garden, A.B., '90.\n1898. Superintendent of City Schools, Camden.\nA. H. Carter. A.B.\n1890. Principal of Duval School, 401 S. 18th St., Fort Smith.\n\n1890.\n\nJ. C. CoRBiN,1873.\nA.B.,President\n'53, A.M.,of '60,\nOhioNormal\nUniv.; College,\nPh.D., '99.\nBranch\nPint Bluff.\nEva L. Davis, B.L., Hardin Coll., Mexico, Mo.\n1898. Teacher in Public Schools, 1003 Poplar St., Pine Bluff.\nR. C. Hall.\n1898.\nPrincipal of Peabody High School, 1817 Broadway, Little Rock.\nFrances Owen Hogg.\nTeacher in Public Schools, 630 Chestnut St., Pine Bluff.\nEmma Mann, M.E.L., '91, Memphis Con. Female Inst., Jackson, Tenn.\n1898.\nVice-Principal of 6th Ave. School, 627 Pine St., Pine Bluff.\nJohn E. Martineau, A.B., '96, Univ. of Ark.\nPrincipal of Public School, Argenta.\nMary E. Mftchell.\nAssistant in High School, 713 State Line St., Texarcjina.\nMaggie Murphy, ^LE.L.\n1890.\nTeacher in Public Schools, Little Rock.\nT. P. Murrey.\nRepresentative of American Book Co., Fort Smith.\nJessie Pollock, M.E.L.\n1895.\nTeacher in Public Schools, Little Rock.\nJ. R.\n\nRiGHTSELL.\n\nSuperintendent of City Schools, Little Rock.\nCora Sheber.\n1894. Teacher in Public Schools, Hot Springs.\nJulia Shives.\nTeacher in Public Schools, Van Buren.\n1899. J. J. DOYNE.\nState Superintendent of Public Instruction, Little Rock.\nJames H. Witherspoon, A.B., '92, Univ. of Tenn.\n1895. Principal of High School, 205 W. 12th Ave., Pine Bluff.\n\n,\n\nCALIFORNIA\n1877.\n«R70.\n\nlife members\nAnna Kalfus Spero.\nPublisher, N. McLaughlin Ave., near Santa Clara Ave., San Jose.\nJames H. Hoose, A.M., '64, Ph.D., '73, Syracuse Univ.\nDepartment\nof Psychology\nEuclid Ave.,\nPasadena. and Pedagogy, University of Southern Cal.,\n\n255 S\n\n"}
{"page": 1189, "printed_page": null, "text": "California]\n\nLIFE\n\nAND\n\nACTIVE\n\nMEMBERS\n\nIl8l\n\n1882.\n\nHarriet N. Morris, A.M., '86, Nat. Nor. Univ.\n2346, 2d St., San Diego.\nNathan Crook Twining, A.B., '61, A.M., '65, Milton Coll., Wis.\n1895.\nPrincipal of San Jacinto High School, 1224 Walnut St., Riverside.\nC. y. Roop.\n1899.\nSuperintendent of City Schools, Santa Barbara.\n1888. Rebecca F. English.\n1891.\nCritic Teacher, State Normal School, 141 S. loth St., San Jose.\n1889. Augusta W. Hobe.\n1888.\nTeacher in Grammar Grade, 1633 Hyde St., San Francisco.\n1884.\n1886.\n\nactive members\ni88g.\n\nSanford A. Hooper, A.B., '72, A.M., '82, Beloit Coll.\n1899.\nHead Master of Los Angeles Military Academy, Los Angeles.\nT. Pierce, LL.B., '77, Union Univ.; Pd.D., '94, N. Y. Nor. Coll.\n1893.\nPresident of State Normal School, 631 W. 5th St., Los Angeles.\n1891. Elmer Ellsworth Brown, A.B., '89, Univ. of Mich.; Ph.D., '90, Halle.\n1893.\nProfessor of Theory and Practice of Education, Univ. of Cal., 2341 Channing Way,\nBerkeley.\nEdward\n\n1892. Frederic L.1899.\nBurk, President\nB.L., '83,of Univ.\nCal. ; School,\nA.M., '92,\nUniv. ; Ph.D., '98, Clark Univ.\nState of\nNormal\nSan Sanford\nFrancisco.\n1893. James A. Foshay, A.M., Univ. of So. Cal. ; Pd.D. , '98, N. Y. Nor. Coll.\n1895.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 2341 Scarff St., Los Angeles.\n1894. Ellwood\n\np.1899.\nCubberley,\nA.B.,\n'91, Ind.\nUniv.\nAssociate\nProfessor\nof Education,\nLeland Stanford Jr. Univ., Stanford Univ.\nJ. C. Templeton, A.B., Leland Stanford Jr. Univ.\n1899.\nSuperintendent of City Schools, Santa Ana.\nCharles C. van Liew, Ph.D., '93, Jena.\n■ 1899.\nPresident of State Normal School, Chico.\n1895. D. R, Augsburg,\n'84,ofSyracuse\n1898. B.P.,\nDirector\nDrawing,Univ.\nPublic Schools, 1261, 6th Ave., East Oakland.\nLewis B. Avery, B.Sc, '83, Tabor Coll., la.\n1895.\nPrincipal of Union High School, Redlands.\nJ. Bailey.\nEx-County Superintendent of Schools, Escondido.\nSamuel T. Black.\n1898. President of State Normal School, San Diego.\nTheodore B. Comstock, B.Ag., '68, Pa. State Coll.; B.Sc, '70, D.Sc, '86, Cornell Univ.\n535 Stirason Block, Los Angeles.\nMelville Dozier, Ph.B., '67, B.Pd., Furman Univ., S. C.\n1895. Vice-President of State Normal School, 825 W. nth St., Los Angeles.\nCharles Edward Hutton, A.B., '53, A.^L, '61, St. John's Coll., Md.\n1890. Instructor in State Normal School, 1007 W. 21st St., Los Angeles.\nThomas J. Kirk.\n1899. State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Sacramento.\nJoseph Le Conte, A.B., '41, A.M., '45, LL.D., 79, Univ. of Ga. ; LL.D., 'g6, Princeton; M.D., '45,\nColl. of Phys. & Surg., N. Y. ; B.Sc, '51, Harvard Univ.\n1868.\nProfessor of Geology and Nat. Hist., Univ. of Cal., 2739 Bancroft Way, Berkeley.\nJames McNaughton, A.B., '62, A.M., '65, Ph.D., '87, Allegheny Coll.\n1899.\nPresident of State Normal School, San Jose.\nJ. B, MoNLUx, A.M., '81, Iowa State Univ.\n1896. Principal of 28th St. School, 250 E. 30th St., Los Angeles.\nUniversity of California.\nPresident, Benjamin Ide Wheeler, LL.D. ; Librarian, J. C. Rowell, Berkeley.\n1896. E. Morris Cox, A.B., Haverford Coll.. Pa.\n1897. Principal of Public Schools, Box 16, Santa Rosa.\nMrs. C. L. Place.\n1897. Principal of Training Dept., State > ormal School, 129 E. Julian St., San Jose.\nHarriet M. Scott.\n22 W. California St., Pasadena.\n1897. Christine Benson.\n1898. Primary Teacher, Gray Gables, Los Angeles.\nArthur H. Chamberlain.\n1896.\nProf, of Pedagogy and Instructor of Sloyd, Throop Polytechnic Institute, Pasadena.\nFree Public Library of San Francisco.\nSecretary, George A. Mullin, San Francisco.\nF. S. Hafford, A.B., '94, Healdsburg Coll., Cal.\n1899. Principal of High School, Long Beach.\nFlorence Lawson.\nDirector of Kindergarten Department, State Normal School, Los Angeles.\nFernando Sanford.\n1891. Professor of Physics, Leland Stanford Jr. University, Stanford University.\nLeland Stanford Jr. University.\nPresident, David Starr Jordan; Librarian, H. C. Nash, Stanford University.\nState Normal School at Chico.\nPresident, C. C. Van Liew, Chico.\nState\" Normal School at Los Angeles.\nPresident, Edward T. Pierce, Los Angeles.\n1898. Henry T. Ardlev, S.A., '70, London, Eng.\n1893.\nProf, of Decorative and Industrial Art, Univ. of Cal., 2311 Durant Ave., Berkeley.\nJames A. Barr.\n1891.\nSuperintendent of City Schools, 1407 E. Channel St., Stockton.\nMorris Elmer Dailey, A.M., Ind. Univ.\nSuperintendent of City Schools, Fresno.\nDAi'iD Starr Jordan, M.Sc, Ph.D., M.D., LL.D.\nPresident of Leland Stanford Jr. University, Stanford University.\nWalter\n\n"}
{"page": 1190, "printed_page": null, "text": "Il82\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n[California\n\n1898. Anna E. Lemon.\n^\n,\n. ^.\n„ .\no ,;. .-^ »\nt,\nj\n1894. Teacher in First Primary, 50 S. Euclid Ave., Pasadena.\nAlbert Lyser.\nPrincipal of John Swett Grammar School, McAllister St., between\nFranklin\nGough Sts., San Francisco.\nAlexander Holmes MacDonald, Dalhousie Coll.. Halifax, Nova Scotia.\n1885. Principal of Lincoln Evening School, 407 Fair Oaks St., San Francisco.\nB.A., '98, Stanford Univ.\nMaitland,\nMrs. Louise1898.\nTeacher in State Normal School, 245 W, San Carlos St., San Jose.\nCecil W. Mark, B.Sc, '88. Univ. of Pacific, Cal.\n1899. Deputy Superintendent of Schools, 3722, 20th St., San Francisco.\nCarl H. Nielsen.\n, r- ,^ ,• o\n^\n^\n^\nEx- Superintendent of Schools, Sonoma Co., Santa Rosa.\n\nand\n\nAntrim Edgar Osborne, M.D., '77, Ph.D., '79.\n1886. Superintendent of State Institute for Feeble- Minded; 1896, Professor, Nervous and\nMental Diseases, College of Physicians and Surgeons, San Francisco; Eldridge.\nState Normal School Library, San Jose.\nPresident, James McNaughton; Librarian, Ruth Royce, San Jose.\n1899. James E. Addicott.\n1891. Teacher of Manual Training and Mathematics, San Jose.\nLulu Claire Bahr.\n1899.\nCounty Superintendent of Schools, 222, 7th St., San Bernardino.\nThomas P. Bailey, Jr., Ph.D., Univ. of So. Cal.\nAssociate Professor of Education as Related to Character, Univ. of Cal., Berkeley.\nW. H. Baker, A.M., P.T., State Nor., Kirksville, Mo.\n1897. Teacher of Mathematics, High School, 103 Abby St., Fresno.\nHugh J. Baldwin.\n1899.\nCounty Superintendent of Schools, Court House, San Diego.\nKatherine M. Ball\n1895. Supervisor of Drawing, 1260 California St., San Francisco.\nMiss Lew Ball.\nTeacher in Public Schools. Oakland.\nO. F. Barth, A.B.. '82, A.M., '85. Shurtleff Coll.\n1897. Principal of Union High School, Perris.\nKate L. Bassett.\nKindergarten Supervisor and Training Teacher, Pomona.\nKatherine T. Bingham.\nPalo Alto St., Palo Alto.\nSara P. Brown, B.Sc, '81, Univ. of W. Va.\nPres. American Young- People's Patriotic Society, 902 California St., San Francisco,\nThomas P. Brown, A.B., '99, Nev. State Univ.\n1899.\nPrincipal of Magnolia Public School, Clair; res., Santa Monica.\n♦\nLouis A. Buchanan, M.E., '93, Stanford Univ.\n•\nDirector of Manual Training, 221 W. Magnolia St., Stockton.\nJ. D. Burks, Ph.B., '93, Univ. of Chicago; M.L., '94, Univ. of Cal.\nDepartment of Psychology and History of Education, State Nor. School, San Diego.\nMinnie L. Catey.\n1895.\nTeacher in Grammar Department, Compton.\nW. R. Chandler, Grad., Cal. State Nor. Sch.\nPrincipal of Schools, Tropico.\nFrederick H. Clark, A.M., '86, Univ. of Cal.\n1889.\nHistory Department, Lowell High School, San! Francisco ; res., 1418 Myrtle St..\nOakland.\nMrs. Henrietta Treat Compton.\nTeacher in South Pasadena, 94 Allesandro PI., Pasadena.\n'\n^\"\nW.H.Cook.\nPrincipal of Vernon School, 1134 E. Vernon Ave., Los Angeles.\nMinnie Coulter, A.B., '98, Stanford Univ.\n1898. Superintendent of Schools of Sonoma County. Santa Rosa.\nHenry G. Crocker, M.L., '91, Vale.\n1897.\nPrincipal of High School, Coronado.\nJ. G. Cross, M.D., McKendree Coll.\nUnion High School, Redlands.\nFrank P. Davidson.\n1889.\nSuperintendent of Schools, San Diego.\nAnna E. Edwards.\n1892. Teacher of Mathematics, 1837, 3^ St., San Diego.\nWalter A. Edwards, A.M., '86, Knox Coll.\n1897.\nPresident of Throop Polytechnic Institute, Pasadena.\nW. S. Edwards, A.M., Alfred Univ.\nCounty Superintendent of Schools, Santa Barbara Co., Santa Barbara.\nGeorge L. Farnham, A.M., Franklin Coll., Ind.\n686 Magnolia Ave., Riverside.\nRichard Douglas Faulkner, B.L., 77, Univ. of 111.\n1895.\nPrincipal of Franklin Grammar School, 809 Castro St., San Francisco.\nFrank L. Ferguson, B.D., Yale.\nPresident of Pomona College, Claremont.\nPaul A. Garin.\n/.,\n^ Assistant in Mission High School, 259 Harriet St., San Francisco.\nCharles Mills Gaylev, A.B., Univ. of Mich.\n1889.\nProfessor of English Language and Literature, University of California, 3403 Piedmont Ave., Berkeley.\nJames D. Graham, A.M., '88, Toronto Univ.\n. _ _\nSuperintendent of Schools, 510 Ellis St., Pasadena.\nJ. P. Greeley.\nCounty Superintendent of Schools, Santa Ana.\n\n"}
{"page": 1191, "printed_page": null, "text": "California]\n1899.\n\nLIFE\n\nAND\n\nACTIVE\n\nMEMBERS\n\n1183\n\nLyman Gregory, M.D., '87, Chicago Home Med. Coll.\n305 Hermosa St., Santa Ana.\nE. F. Goodyear, A.B., '92, Univ. of Cal.\n1896.\nPacific Coast Agent of The Macmillan Co., 325 Sansome St., San Francisco.\nHattik F. Gower.\n1896. Assist. Teacher of Sloyd, cor. N. Johnson and M innesota Sts., Sta. A, Los Angeles.\nA. F. GuNN.\nAmerican Book Co., 204 Pine St., San Francisco.\nJ. C. Hammel, A.B.,\n'94, Stanford\nUniv.\nPrincipal\nof George\nDewey School, Fruitvale.\nLilian D. Hazen.\nTeacher in Grammar Grade, 544 Ruth Ave., Los Angeles.\nT. L. Heaton.\n1897. Teacher of Pedagogy, Berkeley.\nEdward T. Hewitt.\n1894.\nInstructor of Manual Training, California School of Mechanical Arts, i6th and\nUtah Sts., San Francisco.\nCaspar W.^HoDGSON,\nA. B.,\n'96, Stanford\nPacific\nManager,\nD. C.Univ.\nHeath & Co., 325 Sansome St., San Francisco.\nW. H. HousH.\n.1895^\nPrincipal of High School, 1534 Ingraham St., Los Angeles. ,\nAgnes E. Howe, A.B., '97, Stanford Univ.\n1897. Instructor in History, State Normal School, San Jose.\nA. D. Hunter.\nDirector of Music, Public Schools, 582 N. Ellen St., Pomona.\nFrank H. Hyatt.\n1898. Superintendent of Schools, Pomona.\nO. P.Jenkins, A.B., A.M., Moores Hill Coll.; M.Sc.,Ph.D., Ind. Univ.\nProfessor of Physiology, Leland Stanford Jr. University, Stanford University.\nP. W. Kauffman.\noPrincipal of High School, Ventura.\nRev. S. H. Kell gg. D.D., '57.\nloio E. 9th St., Los Angeles.\nBurt O. Kinney, A.B , '97, Staiiford Univ.\nPrincipal of Siskiyou County High School, Yreka.\nT. H. Kirk.\nMonrovia.\nC. A. KuNOU.\nSupervisor of Manual Training, 422 So. Ave, 19, Los Angeles.\nJ. W. McClymonds, A.B., '71, Westminster, Pa.\n1889.\nSuperintendent of City Schools, 447, 34th St., Oakland.\nF. H. Meyer.\nInstructor in Drawing and Manual Training, 545 N. Center St., Stockton.\nCharles M. Miller.\nDirector of Manual Training, Normal School, Los Angeles.\nErnest\n\nCarroll\n\nMoork, A.B., '92, LL.B.,'94, Ohio Nor. Univ.; A.M., '96, Columbia Univ.;\nPh.D, '98, Univ. of Chicago.\n1899. Instructor in Philosophy, University of California, Berkeley.\nFrank Morton, A.B., '80, Dartmouth.\n1888.\nPrincipal of Lowell High School, 3331 Washington St., San Francisco.\nE. H. Mosher.\n1897.\nPrincipal of Schools, Benicia.\nF. O. Mower, A.B., '78, Bates Coll., Lewiston, Me.\n1897.\nPrincipal of High School, 715, 3d St., Napa.\nWatson Nicholson, A.B., '92, Stanford Univ. ; A.M., '95, Harvard.\n1897.\nTeacher of English, Redlands.\nMrs. Gertrude B. Parsons, Grad., '98, Am. Inst. Nor. Methods.\n1897.\nSupervisor of Music, 247 S. Hill St., Los Angeles.\nMrs. Sophia E. Peart.\nCounty Superintendent of Schools, Yolo County, Woodland.\nPomona College.\nPresident, Frank L. Ferguson ; Librarian, F. P. Brackett, Claremont.\nMinnie Rees.\nTeacher of Fifth and Sixth Grades, City Schools, 632 Britannia St., Los Angeles.\nMrs. May Reese, Grad. of Nor. Sch.\nDirector of Kindergarten, 412 W. Montecito St., Santa Barbara.\nGeorge Mann Richardson, A. C, '86, Lehigh; Ph.D., '90, Johns Hopkins Univ.\n1891.\nProfes-sorof Organic Chemistry, Leland Stanford Jr. University, Stanford University\nW. W. Seaman.\nFourth Deputy Superintendent of Public Instruction, 1419 O St., Sacramento.\nMrs. Hattie Burdick Sharkley.\nTeacher in First Grade, Public Schools, 578, 17th St., Oakland.\nGeorge M. Sheldon.\n1897.\nTeacher in Grammar School, Anaheim.\nU. P. Shull, A.m., Westi^eld Coll.\nSupervising Principal of Schools, cor. Painter and Philadelphia Sts., Whittier.\nDavid S. Snedden, A.B., Stanford Univ.\n1897.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Paso Robles.\nState Library of California.\nLibrarian, J. L. Gillis, Sacramento.\nF. W. Stein, Jr.\n1899.\nPrincipal of Harper School, 1398 Newton St., Los Angeles.\nW. W. Stone.\n1890. Principal of Burnett School, 745 Shrader St., San Francisco.\nAnna M. Stovall.\n1891. Principal of Free Normal Training School of Golden Gate Kindergarten Association\n221, 9th St., San Francisco.\n\n"}
{"page": 1192, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 1 84\n\n1899.\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n^Colorado\n\nCMAYOV^nVK- Continued\nJ. H. Strine.\n1898. County Superintendent of Schools, Monrovia.\nFrancis A. Swanger, M.S.U., '92, Mo, State Nor., Kirksville; A.M., '98, Willamette Univ., Ore.\n1899. Principal of High School, Woodland.\nJohn Swett, A.M. (honorary), Dartmouth Coll.\nContra Costa, Martinez.\nAllyn O. Taylor, A.B., '83, A.M., '86, La Grange Coll. ; Ph.D., '97, Add-Ran Qniv.\n1887.\nPrincipal of High School, S. W. cor. W. 2d and J Sts., Benicia.\nW. Scott Thomas, A.B., '89. Johns Hopkins Univ.\n1899.\nSuperintendent of City Schools, cor. 7th and D Sts., Petaluma.\nG. S. Trowbridge, B.Sc, '80, A.M., '82, Iowa State Univ.\nPrincipal of San Fernando Union High School, Fernando.\nHarr Wagner, A.B., '81, A.M., '85, Wittenberg Coll.\nEditor \" Western Journal of Education,\" 723 Market St., San Francisco.\nM. Edna Walker.\n1896.\nTeacher in Public Schools, Monrovia.\nLouis K. Webb, B.Sc, '78, Univ. of Mich. ; A.M., '98, Stanford Univ.\n1899.\nPrincipal of Union High School. Clovis.\nR. H. Webster, A.B., '77, A.M., '82, Univ. of Cal.\n1896. Superintendent of Schools in and for the City and County of San Francisco, City\nHall, San Francisco.\nDaniel H. White.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Solano County, Fairfield.\nM. M. Whiting, A.B., '81, Cent. Univ. of Iowa.\nPrincipal of Lugo School, Compton.\nWarring Wilkinson, A.B., '58, Union Coll. ; L.H.D., Gallaudet Coll., D. C.\n1865.\nPrincipal of Institute for Deaf and Blind, Berkeley.\nAnna L. Williams.\n1899.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Alturas.\nM. Ida Williams, A.B., '99, Stanford Univ.\n1899.\nTeacher in Public Schools, 135 S. Marengo Ave., Pasadena.\nMrs. Rose V. Winterburn, B.L., '95, Univ. of Mich.\nSupervisor in History and Literature, 1009 N. Sutter St., Stockton.\nCOLORADO\nLIFE\n\n1888.\n\nDIRECTOR\n\nAaron Gove, A.M., '78, Dartmouth Coll. ; LL.D., '88, Univ. of Colo.\n1874.\nSuperintendent of Schools, District No. i. High School, Denver.\nLIFE\n\nMEMBER\n\n1886. Frank Howard Clark, B.Didac, '83, Univ. of Kan.\n1899.\nSuperintendent of City Schools, Spruce St., Central City.\nACTIVE\n\n1884.\n\nmembers\n\nJames H. Baker, A.B., '73, A.M., '76, LL.D., '92, Bates Coll.\n1892.\nPresident cf University of Colorado, Boulder.\nRobert H. Beggs, B.Sc, '68, Illinois Coll.\n1880.\nPrincipal of Grammar School, 2427 Ogden St., Denver,\n1887. Charles V. Parker, B.Sc, '97, Denver Univ.\n1899.\nSuperintendent of City Schools. 601 Baca St., Trinidad,\nZ. X. Snyder. B.Sc, '76, A.B., '78, Ph.D., '85, Waynesburg Coll., Pa.\n1891. President of State Normal School of Colorado, Greeley.\n1890, Warren E. Knapp.\n1897. Superintendent of Schools of Arapahoe Co., Room 20, Court House, Denver.\n1892. Lewis C. Greenlee, Grad. State Nor. Sch., '78, Edinboro, Pa. ; A.M., '95, Waynesburg Coll., Pa.\n1890. Superintendent of Schools, Dist. No. 2, 549 S. Tremont St., Denver.\nWilliam Henry Smiley, A.B., '77, Harvard Univ.\n1892. Principal of High School, Dist. No. i, 2112 Lincoln Ave., Denver.\nJames H. Van Sickle, A.B., '96, A.M., '98, Univ. of Colo.\n1891. Superintendent of Schools, North Side, 3247 Bryant St., Denver.\n1893. Henrietta B. Ayres.\n1882.\nTeacher in Gilpin School, Denver.\nCharles A. Bradley. Grad., '77, U. S. Military Acad.\n1894.\nPrincipal of Manual Training High School, 1341 Corona St., Denver.\nJames W. Scott, A.B., Duquesne Coll.\n1899.\nPrincipal of Garfield School,' 601 N. Nevada Ave., Colorado Springs.\n1894. S. Arthur Johnson, B.Sc, '91, M.Sc, '9s, Rutgers Coll.\n1896. Instructor in Math., High School, Dist. No. 2, 55 S. Washington Ave., Denver.\n1895. H. M. Barrett, A.B., '90, A.M., '93, Allegheny Coll.\nTeacherof Latin and English, High School, 3325 Osceola St., Highlands Station\nDenver; Editor \" Colorado School Journal.\"\nA. E. Beardsley, B.Sc, '78, Cornell Univ. : M.Sc, '98, Univ. of Colo.\n1892. Professor of Biology, State Normal School, 1412, loth St., Greeley.\nGeorge Lyman Cannon, Jr.\n1887.\nInstructor in Geology and Biology, East Denver High School, Denver.\nWilliam V. Casey.\n1893. Superintendent of Schools, 820 Pine St., Boulder.\nCharles Ernest Chadsey, A.B., '92, A.M., '93, Stanford; A.M., '94, Ph.D., '97, Columbia.\n1897. Superintendent of City Schools, Durango.\nFred Dick, A.M., Hamilton Coll., N. Y.\nPrincipal of Normal and Preparatory School, 1543-45 Glenarm St., Denver.\n\n"}
{"page": 1193, "printed_page": null, "text": "Connecticut]\n\nLIFE\n\nAND\n\nACTIVE\n\nMEMBERS\n\n1 185\n\nCOLORADO— Co«//«7«rrf\n1895.\n\nJohn Dietrich.\n1893. Superintendent of City Schools, 1824 N. Nevada Ave., Colorado Springs.\nE. Waite Elder, A.B., '91, A.M., '94, Princeton.\n1895. Science Master, State Preparatory School, Boulder.\nJohn B. Garvin, B.Sc, '86, Univ. of Illinois.\n1892. Instructor in Chemistry, High School, Dist. No. i, 2536 W. 34th Ave., Denver.\nEdward F. Hermanns.\n1891.\nPrincipal of High School, Dist. No. a, 1425 Broadway, Denver.\nMrs. F. R. Houghan.\n1873.\nPrincipal of Gilpin School, Plymouth Place, Denver.\nJohn F. Keating, A.B., '92, Ohio Wes. Univ.\n1896. Superintendent of Schools, South Side, 1102 Lake Ave., Pueblo.\nCharles Joseph Ling, B.Sc, '90, Cornell Univ.\n1894. Instructor in Physics, Manual Training High School, Denver.\nClara Louise Little.\nTeacher in Public Schools, Delgany School, Denver.\nJ. S. McCuwG.\n1879.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Dist. No. i, 423, iith St., Pueblo.\nMiss A. N. Miller.\n1887. Principal of Garfield School, 1037 S. 9th St., Denver.\nDora M. Moore.\n1893. Principal of Corona School, 1031 Emerson St., Denver.\nCharles Skeele Palmer, A.B., '79, A.M., '82, Amherst; Ph.D., '86, Johns Hopkins.\n1887.\nProfessor of Chemistry, University of Colorado, 1224 Pine St., Boulder.\nSidney Fuller Smith, Grad., '84. U. S. Naval Acad.\n1890.\nInstructor in Physics, High School, Dist. No. i, 2009 Vine St., Denver.\nEmanuel Stuver, B.Sc, '77, M.Sc, '85, Nat. Nor. Univ., Lebanon, O. ; M.D., '80, Ohio Med. Coll. ;\nPh.D., '95, Wyo. Normal and Scientific Coll.\nRohling Block, Fort Collins.\nW. J. Wise, B.Sc, '84, A.M., '88.\n1893.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 1864 S. Washington St., South Denver.\n1896. O.J. Blakeslev, B.Sc, Pd.D.\n1896.\nSuperintendent of Schools, La Junta.\nMrs. Z. X. Snyder.\nGreeley.\n\n1897. IzoRA Scott, A.B., '87, Kan. Nor. Col.\"\n1899.\nPrincipal of High School, 425 Broadway, Pueblo.\nState Normal School at Greeley.\nPresident, Z. X. Snyder; Librarian, Joseph F. Daniels, Greeley.\n1898. Cecelia Adams, '88, Chicago Froebel Assoc.\nSupervisor of Kindergartens, High School, Dist. No. i, Denver,\nEdward G. Bauman, Grad., '90, Ind. State Nor. Sch. ; Ph.B., '96, 111. Wes. Univ. ; A.M., '98, Cent.\nWes., '99, 111. Wes. Univ.\n1899. Principal of High School, 903 Arizona Ave., Trinidad.\nEmily H. Miles.\n1893.\nSupervisor of Drawing, Dist. No. i, 2432 Lincoln Ave., Denver,\nLola M. Miller.\n1895. Teacher in 5th Grade, Lincoln School, 160 S. Denver Ave., Denver.\nH. W. Zirkle, A.B., '83, A.M., '95, Polytechnic Inst., Va.\n1892.\nPrincipal of Elmwood School, 357 Lincoln Ave., Denver.\n1899.\n\nA. B. COPELAND.\n\n1882.\nSuperintendent of City Schools, 1228 Main St., Greeley.\nC. Elliott, B.Sc, '95, A.M., '97, Univ. of Neb.\n1898. Superintendent of City Schools, Box 462, Leadville.\nBenjamin R. Gass, A.B., '66, A.M., '69, Antioch Coll.\n1891.\nPrincipal of Hyde Park School, 2020 Clarkson St., Denver.\nMrs. Helen M. Grenfell.\n1899. State Superintendent of Public Instruction, 1452 Elizabeth St., Denver.\nHerbert Griggs.\n1884.\nDirector of Music, Box 765, Denver.\nJohn W. Hall.\n1898.\nPrincipal of Departments of Training and Child Study, and Professor of Pedagogy,\nState Normal School, 1024, 8th St., Greeley.\nE. G. Lancaster, A.B., '85, A.M., '88, Amherst; Ph.D., '97, Clark Univ.\nAssistant Professor of Philosophy and Pedagogy, Colorado College, 929 N. Nevada\nAve., Colorado Springs.\nH. S. Phillips, A.B., '83, Oskaloosa Coll.\nPrincipal of Logan School, 57 S. Washington Ave., Denver.\nHenry B. Smith, A.B., '94, Harvard.\n1897. Instructor in Latin, High School, District No. 2, Wolfe Hall, Denver.\n\nEdward\n\nCONNECTICUT\nLIFE\n\n1884.\n\nHenry\n\nmember\n\nBarnard, A.B., '30, Yale; LL.D., '52, Yale, Harvard, and Union ; L.H.D., '87, Columbia.\nEx-U. S. Commissioner of Education 1866-70, 118 Main St., Hartford.\n\nactive members\nB. Hurd,\n1885.\nSupervising Principal of Winchester School District, 8 Prospect PI., New Haven.\n1889. Charles W. Deane, A.M., '84, Ph.D., '92, Allegheny Coll.\n1893.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 338 Main St., Bridgeport.\n\n1888. George\n\n"}
{"page": 1194, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 1 86\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\nCONNECTICUT—\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Dist. of Col.\n\nContinued\n\n1892. David N. Camp, A.M., '53, Yale.\n1855.\nEx-State Supt. of Schools, Manager of New Britain Library, 9 Camp St , New\nBritain.\n1893. Rachel King.\n1894. Principal of Training Class and Supervisor of Free Kindergartens, 38 Howe St.,\nNew Haven.\n1894. Frederick A. Curtiss.\n1892.\nPrincipal of High School, Old Saybroolc.\n1895. Nathan L. Bishop.\n1877.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Central District, 7 Huntington PI., Norwich.\nCalvin N. Kendall, A.M.\n1895. Superintendent of Schools, 21 Center St., New Haven.\nCharles H. Keyes, A.B., '78, St. John's Coll.\n1899.\nSuperintendent of Schools, South District, Hartford.\n1896. E. Hermann Arnold, M.D., '94, Yale.\nDirector of Anderson Normal School of Gymnastics, 46 York Sq., New Haven.\nF. E. Howard.\n1890. Supervisor of Music, 85 Congress St., Bridgeport.\n1897. B. W. Tinker, A.M., Bates Coll.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Waterbury.\n1898. Wilbur Fisk Gordv.\n1884.\nSupervising Principal, 2d North School District, 104 Gillett St., Hartford.\nStuart H. Rowe, A.B., '95, Yale; Ph.D., '95, Jena Univ., Germany.\n1898.\nSupervising Principal, 30 Academy St., New Haven.\nSarah J. Walter.\n189s.\nTeacher of Training and Method, State Normal Training School, Willimantic.\n1899. Isaac M. Agard, A.B.,'79, A.M., '84, Amherst Coll.\n1888.\nPrincipal of Rockville High School ; Superintendent of East District Graded School,\nVernon ; res., Rockville.\nWaterman Rufus Burnham.\n362 Main St., Norwich.\nWilliam North Rice, A.B., '65, A.M., '68, Wesleyan; Ph.D., '67, Yale; LL.D., '86, Syracuse.\n1867.\nProfessor of Geology, Wesleyan University, 31 College Place, Middletown.\nGiles Alfred Stuart, A.B., '77, A.M., '80, Bates Coll.\n1896. Superintendent of Schools, 31 Emmons Pi., New Britain.\nDELAWARE\nactive members\n1891. Edwina\n1892. Albert\n1896.\n\nB. Kruse.\n1876.. Principal of High and Grammar School, No. 16, 206 E. loth St., Wilmington.\nN. Raub, A.M., '67, Princeton; Ph.D., '79, Lafayette; LL.D., '95, Ursinus Coll.\n\nA. H. Berlin, A.M., '88, Hamilton Coll.\n1888. Principal of High School, 817 Adams St., Wilmington.\nDISTRICT\n\nOF COLUMBIA\n\nLIFE directors\n857. *Zalmon\n876.\n\nRichards, A.B., '36, A.M., '39, Williams Coll.\n1301 Corcoran St., Washington.\nWilliam Torrey Harris, A.M., '69, Yale; LL.D., '70, Univ. of Mo. ; '94, Univ. of Pa. ; '95, Yale;\n'96, Pnnceton;\nA.M., Ph.D., '93, Brown Univ.; Ph.D., '99, Univ. of Jena, Germany.\n1889. United States Commissioner of Education, 1303 P St., N. W., Washington.\n\n\"\" . James Ormond\nA.M.,\n'74, Dartmouth\nColl.\n1892. Wilson,\nSecretary\nof American\nColonization\nSociety; Custodian of National Elducational\nAssociation, 450 Pennsylvania Ave., N. W., Washington.\nlife members\n. John Hitz.\n\n889.\n\n1887.\nSuperintendent of Volta Bureau, cor. 35th and Q Sts., Washington.\nAlex. Graham Beli\n1331 Connecticut Ave., Washington.\nRt. Rev. John J. Keane, D.D., Laval ; LL.D., Harvard.\n1886.\nLate Rector of Catholic University of America, Washington.\nACTIVE\n\n889.\n\nmembers\n\nW. F. Powell.\n\nMinister to Haiti, American Legation ; address State Dept., Washington.\n892. William Bramwell Powell, A.M., '66, Lombard Univ.\n1885.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Franklin School, Washington.\nMrs. Sara A. Spencer.\n1891.\nPresident of Spencerian Business College, Academy of Music Building, 9th and D\nSts., Washington.\n893. John Eaton, Ph.D., Rutgers Coll. ; LL.D., Dartmouth Coll.\nEx-U. S. Commissioner of Education, The Concord, Washington.\n894. Susan Plessner Pollock, Grad. of Kg. Nor. Inst., Berlin.\nPrincipal Froebel Normal Institute and Kindergarten, 1426 Q St., N. W., Washington.\nEstelle Reel.\n1898.\nSuperintendent of Indian Schools, Department of the Interior, Washington.\n1895. Allan Davis, B.Sc, '90, M.Sc, 96, Columbian Univ. ; LL.M., '93, Nat. Law School, Washington.\n1890. Principal of Business High School, ist St., between BandCSts.,N.W., Washington.\n*Died November\n\ni, 1899.\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 1195, "printed_page": null, "text": "Dist. of Col.]\n\nLIFE AND\n\nACTIVE\n\nMEMBERS\n\n1187\n\n1895. Anna Toi.man Smith.\nBureau of Education, Washington.\nCarrie E. Syphax.\n1889.\nDirector of Sewing, Public Schools, 1447 Pierce PI., Washington.\nBenaiah Longley Whitman, A.B., '87, A.M., '90, Brown Univ. ; D.D., '94, Bowdoin Coll.\n1895.\nPresident of Columbian University, Washington.\n1896. Powhatan W. Robertson, M.Accts., '82, Eastman Nat. Bus. Coll.\n1894. Columbian University, 2232 Q St., N. W., Washington.\nRebecca Stoneroad, Grad.. Oswego Normal School.\n1889. Director of Physical Training, Public Schools, Webster School, loth and H Sts.\nWashington.\n1897. Court Foster Wood, LL.B., '84, LL.M., '85, Columbian Univ.\n1885.\nPrincipal of Wood's Commercial College, 311 E. Capitol St., Washington.\n1898. Job Barnard, LL.B., '67, Univ. of Mich.\nTrustee of Public Schools, 500, 5th St., N. W., Washington.\nZoE Hunter Brockett.\nTeacher of Physical Training in Public Schools. 3425 Holmead Ave., N. W.,\nWashington.\nElias Brown.\n1895. Teacher, Deanwood.\nElizabeth V. Brown.\nMethod and Training Teacher, Normal School, 1357 Roanoke St., Washington,\nEllis W. Brown.\n1896. Supervisor of Public Schools, 924, 24th St., N. W., Washington.\nJohn T. Freeman, B.Sc.,'83, M.Sc, '87, Dartmouth.\n1890. Supervisor, Washington Public Schools, Tyler School, S. E., Washington.\nNathaniel P. Gage, A.B., '62, A.M., '65, Dartmouth Coll.\nSupervisor of Schools, 1126, 5th St., N. W., Washington.\nEmma M. Gillett, LL.B., '82, LL.M., '83, Howard Univ.\nTrustee of Washington College of Law, LeDroit Building, 8th and sth Sts., N. W.,\nWashington.\nMiss A. L. Grant.\n1887.\nPrincipal and Sth Grade Teacher, 507 E. Capitol St., Washington.\nWilliam Hamilton, A.B., '84, Moravian Coll., Bethlehem, Pa.; A.M , '94, Columbian Univ.\n1890.\nAgent, Bureau of Education for Alaska, Bureau of Education, Washington.\nDavid H. Hazen, M.D.\nTrustee of Public Schools, 407, 6th St., S. W., Washington.\nNora Lindenberg Hoegelsberger.\n1887.\nTeacher of German, Central High School, 924 Mass. Ave., N. W., Washington.\nBernard T. Janney.\nSupervising Principal of Public Schools, 1671, 31st St., N. W,, Washington.\nHosmer M. Johnson.\n1895. Principal of Eastern High School, Washington.\nArtemas Martin, Ph.D., '82, Rutgers; LL.D., '85, Hillsdale; A.M.. '87; Fellow of the Amer. Assn.\nfor the Advancement of Science; Member of the London, Edinburgh, and N. Y. Mathematical\nSocieties.\n\n1899.\n\n'•\nLibrarian U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, 1534 Columbia St., N. W., Washington,\nE. E. McCaslin. A.B.. '92, A.M., '95, Antioch Coll.\nPrincipal Teacher, Industrial Home School, W. Washington.\nKelly Miller, A.B., '86, Howard Univ.\n1890.\nProfessor of Mathematics, Howard University, Washington.\nWinfield Scott Montgomery, A.B., '78, Dartmouth; M.D., '90.\n1899.\nSupervising Principal, gth Div. Public Schools, 1912, nth St., N. W., Washington.\nSophie F. E. Nussbaum, Grad., Teacher's Sem., Rostock, Meckl. Schwerin, and Conservatory of\nMusic, Dresden. Germany.\n1889. Bureau of Education, Washington.\nAlice N. Parker.\n1896. Director of Kindergarten, Buchanan School, The Concord, New Hampshire Ave\nand S St., Washington.\nWarren W. Phelan, A.B., '94, A.M., '96, Columbia Univ.\n1896.\nHead Master and Proprietor, National Capital University School for Boys, 822\nConn. Ave., N. W., Washington.\nLoviCH Pierce, A.B., '60, Emory Coll.\n1893. Clerk in Bureau of Education, Washington.\nE. J. Somers.\nPrincipal of Mt. Vernon Seminary, nth and M Sts., N. W., Washington.\nAlex. Summers, B.Sc, '76, A.M., '93, Univ. of Tenn.\n1894. Statistician in U. S. Bureau of Education, Washington.\nMary C. Terrell.\n1936, 4th St., N. W., Washington.\nMrs. Miranda Tulloch.\nTrustee of Public Schools, 121 B St., S. E., Washington.\nEdith C, Westcott.\n1890. Principal of Western High School, 1719 H St., Washington.\nJesse H. Wilson, A.B., '74, LL B., '76, Columbian Univ.\nTrustee of Public Schools, 319, 4^^ St., Washington.\nEdward Allen Fay, A.B., '62, A.M., '65, Univ. of Mich. ; Ph.D., '81, Johns Hopkins Univ.\n1866.\nProfessor and Vice-President, Gallaudet College, 3 Kendall Green, Washington.\nMerrill Edwards Gates, Ph.D.,- LL.D., L.H.D., Princeton, Univ. of Rochester, Columbia Coll.,\nWilliams Coll.\n1899.\nSecretary of U. S. Board\nof Indian Commissioners,\n1429 New York Ave.,\nWashington.\nChafles D. Rakestraw, A.M., Univ. of Va.\nSupervisor of U. S. Indian Schools, Indian Office, Washington\n\n"}
{"page": 1196, "printed_page": null, "text": "I 188\n\nNA TIONAL\n\nED UCA TIONAL\n\nASSOC! A TION\n\n[Idaho\n\nFLORIDA\nACTIVE\n\nMEMBERS\n\n1893.\n\nWilliam N. 1892.\nSheats,\nA.B.,\n'73, A.M., '76,\nEmory Instruction,\nCollege, Ga.Tallahassee.\nState\nSuperintendent\nof Public\n\n1895.\n1S98.\n\nJ. L. HoLLlNGSWORTH,\nA.B.,\n'88, Emory Coll.,\nOxford,\nGa.\n1893. County\nSuperintendent\nof Public\nInstruction,\nBartow.\nL. W. BucHHOLZ, Nor. Sch., Pr. Friedland, Germany.\nSuperintendent of Public Instruction, Hillsboro Co., io6 Park Ave., Tampa.\n\n1899.\n\nH. Elmer\n\nBierly,\nA.B., '92,of Princeton\nUniv.\n1898.\nProfessor\nBiology and\nGeology in the State Seminary, Tallahassee.\nGEORGIA\nLIFE\n\n1890.\n\nW. H. Baker.\n\nMEMBER\n\nSuperintendent of Schools, Chatham Academy, Savannah.\nACTIVE\n\nMEMBERS\n\n1887. EuLER B. Smith,\n'82, Emory\nColl., Oxford,\nGa. School, Athens.\n1895. A.M.,\nDepartment\nof English,\nState Normal\n1894. Otis Ashmore, A.M., Univ. of Ga.\n1896. Superintendent of Schools, Savannah.\nGeorge Glenn Bond, A.M., '95, Univ. of Ga.\n1891. Superintendent of City Schools, Dearing St., Athens.\nLawton B. Evans, A.M., Univ. of Ga.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 415 Mcintosh St., Augusta.\"\nWilliam Martin Slaton, A.M., '91, Univ. of Ga.\n1892. Principal of Boys' High School, 142 Jackson St., Atlanta.\n1895. Atlanta University.\nPresident, Rev. Horace Bumstead; Dean, Rev. M.W. Adams, Atlanta.\nG. R. Glenn, LL.D., '98, Univ. of Nashville, and '98, Peabody Nor. Coll.\n1894. State School Commissioner, Capitol, Atlanta.\nJoseph S. Stewart, A.B., '83, Emory Coll. ; A.M., '97, Univ. of Ga.\n1897. President of North Georgia Agricultural College, Dahlonega.\nUniversity of Georgia.\nChancellor, Walter B. Hill ; Secretary, W. D. Hooper, Athens.\nThomas E. Williams.\n1892.\nCounty School Commissioner, Berrien County, Sparks.\n1896. D. Q. Abbott, A.M., '78, Emory Coll., Ga.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 654 Mulberry St., Macon.\nN. E, Ware.\n1891.\nSuperintendent of Public Schools, Hawkinsville.\nH. C. White, B.Sc, C. & M.E., '70. Ph.D., '87, Univ. of Va.. F. C. S.\n1898. President of National Agricultural College and Experiment Station ; 207 Milledge\nAve., Athens.\nJ. H. WiTCHARD.\n1896. County School Commissioner, Terrell Co.. Dawson.\nNathan Benjamin Young, A.B., '88, A.M., '91, Oberlin Coll.\nV\n1897.\nDepartment of Pedagogy, State Industrial College, College, Chatham Co.\n1897. L. M. Landrum, A.B., '76, Univ. of Ga.\n1897. Assistant Superintendent of Schools, 105 Smith St., Atlanta.\nJohn N. Rogers.\nCounty School Commissioner, Sandersville.\nWilliam F. Slaton, A.M., '51, Emory Coll., and '94, Univ. of Ga.\n1879.\nSuperintendent of Public Schools, 336 Courtland St., Atlanta.\nJessie May Snyder.\n1898. Assistant Training Teacher, State Normal and Industrial College, Milledgeville.\nJohn Charles\n\nWoodward, A.B., '88; Grad. Student, Univ. of Chicago, '97.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Newnan.\nCary.\nTeacher in Kindergarten Department, 47 Bradley St., Atlanta.\nCarleton B. Gibson, A.M., '85, Univ. of Ala.\n1896.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 314, nth St., Columbus.\n1899. Walter B. Hill, A.B., A.M., B.L.\n1899.\nChancellor of University of Georgia, Athens.\n1898. Alice Dugged\n\nIDAHO\nactive members\n1888. James C. Black, Pd.M., '94, Pd.D., '93, School of Pedagogy, Univ. of City of New York.\n1897. President of State Normal School, Albion.\n1898. John W. Daniels. A.B . AM.\ni8g8.\nSuperintendent of City Schools, 432 Jefferson St., Boise.\nGeorge E. Knepper, A.M.\n1895. President of State Normal School, Lewiston.\n1899. Permeal French.\n1898. State Superintendent of Public Instniction, Boise.\nDoris McMaster.\n1896. Teacher in High School, Boise.\n\nll\n\n"}
{"page": 1197, "printed_page": null, "text": "Illinois]\n\nLIFE AND\n\nACTIVE\n\nMEMBERS\n\n1 1 89\n\nILLINOIS\nLIFE\n\nDIRECTOKS\n\n1884.\n\nAlbert G. Lane, A.M., '96, Dartmouth.\n1898. Assistant Superintendent of Schools, 430 W. Adams St., Chicago.\nCharles Dougherty, A.M., Ph.D.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Peoria.\nCharles I. Parker.\nPrincipal of South Chicago High School, 893, 71st PI., Chicago.\n1890. State Teachers' Association of Illinois.\nJ. H. Collins, Springfield; Secretary, Joel M. Bowlby, Carbondalc.\n1891. Joshua Pike, A. B., '65, A.M., '68, Univ. of Chicago.\n1874.\nSuperintendent of City Schools, Jerseyville.\n1887.\n\nNewton\n\nLIFE members\n1870.\n1876.\n1880.\n1884.\n\n1887.\n\nIra Wilder Allen, A. B., '50, Hamilton Coll., N. Y. ; A.M., '52, Antioch Coll., O. ; LL.H., '63.\nAlbany Law Sch. ; LL.D., '74, Union Christian Coll., Ind.\n6i2 W. 60th PI., Station O, Chicago.\nAlexander Forbes, A.M., Ph.D.\n3x5-321 Wabash Ave., Chicago.\nGeorge P. Brown.\nEditor \" School and Home Education,\" Bloomington.\nAugustus J. Cheney, B.Sc, '57, Dartmouth Coll.\nWestern Agent for G. & C. Merriam Co., 316 N. Grove Ave., Oak Park.\nEmily A. Hayward.\nTeacher, 1233 W. Irving Park Boul., Irving Park, Chicago.\nEdwin C. Hewett, LL.D., '77, Shurtleff Coll.\nAssociate Editor \" Public School Journal,\" Box 42, Normal.\nHenry Raab, LL.D.\n229 S. High St., Belleville.\nClara Conway, A.M., '88, Peabody Nor. Coll.\nFounder and Organizer of Clara Conway Institute, Memphis, Tenn. ; University of\nChicago, Chicago.\nactive members\n\n1880.\n\nFrancis W. Parker, A.M., Dartmouth Coll. ; LL.D., Lawrence Univ.\n1899. President of Chicago Institute, Chicago.\n1884. Albert R. Sabin.\n1887.\nAssistant Superintendent of Schools, 2509 Vernon Ave., Irving Park, Chicago.\n1886. Louis Milton Dillman.\nEducational Publisher, 521 Wabash Ave., Chicago.\nDavid S. Geer.\n1886.\nOfficial Stenographer, Nat. Educa. Assn., 100 Washington St., Chicago.\nA. F. Nightingale, A.B., '66, A.M., '69, Wesleyan Univ., Conn.; Ph.D., 'gi. Upper Iowa Univ.\n1892.\nSuperintendent of High Schools, 1997 Sheridan Road, Station X, Chicago.\n1887. John C. Ellis.\nEducational Publisher, 521 Wabash Ave., Chicago.\nx888. Thomas Charles, A.M., Antioch Coll., O.\nDealer\nin Kindergarten and other Educational Materials, 195-197 Wabash Ave.,\nChicago.\nAndrew S. Draper, LL.B., '71, Union Univ. ; LL.D., '89, Colgate Univ.\n1894.\nPresident of University of Illinois, President's House, Champaign.\n1889. O. F. Barbour.\n1866.\nPrincipal of Kent School, 512 N. Court St., Rockford.\nRobert G. Young. M.Sc, '77, Ph.M., '99., Cornell Coll.\ni8g6.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 719, 22d St., Rock Island.\n1890. John E. Bradley, Ph.D., '79, Univ. of N. Y. ; LL.D., '93, Williams Coll.\ni8q2.\nPresident of Illinois College, 1202 W. College Ave., Jacksonville.\nJohn Williston Cook, A.M., '86, Knox Coll. ; LL.D.. '92, Blackburn Univ.\n1899.\nPresident of Northern Illinois State Normal School, De Kalb.\nHenry R. Corbett, B.Sc, '89, Hastings.\n1898. Graduate Student, University of Chicago, 108 La Salle St., Chicago.\nCharles Alexander McMurry, Ph.D., '87, Halle.\n1899. Principal of Practice School, State Normal School, De Kalb.\nWilliam Lucas Steele, A.M., '80. Monmouth Coll., III.\n1885.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 462 N. Cherry St., Galesburg.\nP. R. Walker.\n1884.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 716 N. Church St., Rockford.\n1891. F.J. Albrecht, F. R. G. S.\nEducational Publisher, Wabash Ave. and Randolph St., Chicago.\nHerbert F. Fisk. A.B.. '60, A.M., '63, D.D.,, '88, Wes. Univ., Conn.; LL.D., '99, Allegheny Coll.\nx888.\nPrin. Academy and Prof, of Ped., Northwestern Univ., 1625 Judson Ave., Evanston.\nDana Warren Hall, A.M., '93, Colby Univ., Me.\n1894. High School and College Department, Ginn & Co., 378-388 Wabash Ave., Chicago.\nM, A. Whitney,\n'po, A.M., of\n'93,Schools,\nColby Univ.\n1896. A.B.,\nSupermtendent\nElgin.\n1892. C. M. Bardwell.\n1896.\nSuperintendent of East Side Schools, 60 S. Lincoln Ave., Aurora.\nAlbert W. Clancy, Grad., National Normal School.\n1880.\nAmerican Book Co., 521 Wabash Ave. ; res., cor. Langley Ave. and 39th St., Chicago.\nMrs. M. E. Ferris Gettemy, M.L., '97, Knox Coll.\n1895. Assistant in High School, 246 N. Academy St., Galesburg.\nHenry Talbot.\n1899.\nSupervisor of Drawing, Public Schools, 804 Summit Ave., East St. Louis.\n1893. J. J. Allison.\n1899.\nSuperintendent of City. Schools, 329 Jeffenson St., Joliet.\n\n"}
{"page": 1198, "printed_page": null, "text": "IIQO\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Illinois\n\n1893. O. T. Bright.\nArchibald\n\nCounty Superintendent of Schools, 907 The Temple, Chicago.\nO. Coddington, M.L., '83, Univ. of 111.\nPrincipal of Knickerbocker School, 1190 Sheffield Ave., Chicago.\n\nMrs. J. N. Grouse.\n\n1890. Director of Kindergarten College, 2231 Prairie Ave., Chicago.\nLincoln P. Goodhue.\n1889. Principal of D. S. Wentworth School, 7029 Yale Ave., Chicago.\nWilliam O. Krohn, A.B., Western Coll. ; A.M., Ph.D., '89, Yale.\n1897. Psychologist, Illinois Eastern Hospital for the Insane, Hospital.\nFred R. Nichols.\n1891. Instr. in Physics, Eng. High and Man.Train. Sch., 126 S. Jefferson St., Chicago.\nMrs. Alice H. Putnam.\n1881.\nSuperintendent, Chicago Froebel Asso., 4740 Madison Ave., The Belvoir, Chicago.\nLucy S. Silke.\n1890. Assistant Special Teacher in Drawing, Public Schools, 3307 Rhodes Ave., Chicago.\nAlice E. Sollitt.\n1890. Principal of Kenwood School, 4020 Prairie Ave., Chicago.\nCharles H. Thurber, Ph.B., '86, Cornell; A.M., '90, Haverford Coll.\n1899.\nDirector of Co-operative Work, University of Chicago, Chicago.\nVoLNEV Underhill, Ph.B., '71. LL.B., '75, Univ. of Wis.\n1875.\nPrincipal of Carpenter School, 296 S. Paulina St., Chicago.\n1894. C. H. CONGDON.\nMusic Department, Scott, Foresman & Co., 378 Wabash Ave., Chicago.\nIra T. Eaton.\nPublisher, Eaton & Co., 203 Michigan Ave., Chicago.\nRichard Hardy, B.Sc, Univ. of Mich.\n1899.\nRepresentative of Prang Educational Co., 5326 Calumet Ave., Chicago.\nJoseph C. Hisey.\n1898. Representative, Ginn & Co., 378 Wabash Ave., Chicago.\nMrs. Frances Smallwood Lane, B.Sc, '65, Genesee Coll. ; M.Sc, '80, Syracuse Univ.\n430 W. Adams St., Chicago.\nLivingston C. Lord.\n1898.\nPresident of Eastern Illinois State Normal School, Charleston.\n1895. John Nichols Adee, Ph.B., '91, Northwestern Univ.\n1898. Superintendent of Schools, Sycamore.\nB. D. Berry.\nEducational Publisher, 378-388 Wabash Ave., Chicago.\nJulia E. Bulkley, Ph.D., Ziirich.\n1892. Associate Professor of Pedagogy, University of Chicago, Chicago.\nJames C. Burns, A.M., '75, Monmouth Coll.\n1888.\nSuperintendent of City Schools, 1106 E, Boston Ave., Monmouth.\nS. Lillian Byington.\n1894.\nDirector of Music, Public Schools, 1723, 6th Ave., Moline.\nFremont Luman Calkins, B.Sc, '81, N. Ind. Nor. Sch.\n1894.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Delavan.\n'\nW. H. Campbell.\n1899. Principal of Taylor School, 6147 Woodlawn Ave., Chicago.\nW. A. Clark, .\\.B.. '72, A.M., '85, Pd.D., '94, National Normal Univ.\n1899.\nFellow in Pedagogy, University of Chicago. 6049 Ellis Ave., Chicago.\nJoseph H. Collins, A.B., '75, A.M., '78, La Grange Coll., Mo.\n1888. Superintendent of City Public Schools, 715 S. 7th St., Springfield.\n\nMrs. Julia H. Collins.\n\n715 S. 7th St., Springfield.\nHenry C. Cox, A.M., '73, Abingdon Coll.\n1884.\nPrincipal of Froebel Grammar School, 850 W. 21st St., Chicago.\nMay M. Crockett.\n1891. Principal of Irving School, 1826 Maine St., Quincy.\nEdward C. Delano.\n1877.\nAssistant Superintendent of Schools, 172 Ashland Boul., Chicago.\nW. H. Ducker.\nEducational Publisher (Sibley & Ducker), 378 Wabash Ave., Chicago.\nJoseph Hewett Freeman, A.M., '88, Bates Coll.\n1899.\nA.ssistant State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Capitol, Springfield.\nEnoch A. Gastman.\n1862.\nSuperintendent of City Schools, 464 W. North St., Decatur.\nWilliam M. Giffin, A.M., '82, Lawrence Univ., Wis. ; Pd.D., '94, State Nor. Coll., N. V.\n1889. Vice -Principal of Chicago Normal School, 7710 Emerald Ave., Chicago.\nNewell D. Gilbert, A.B., '79. -'^.M., '82, 111. Wes. Univ.\n1899.\nSuperintendent of Public Schools and Department of School Organization and\nManagement, N. Illinois Normal School, De Kalb.\nR. A. Haight, A.B., '75, A.M., '78, Shurtleff Coll., III.\n1881. Superintendent of Schools, 1129 Warren St., Alton.\nJohn A. Hancock, M.L., '90, Univ. of Wis.; A.M., '93, Stanford Univ.\n5622 Ingleside Ave.. Chicago.\nWilliam\nA.B., '70, Muskingum Coll. ; Ph.D., '75, Yale; D.D., '91, Colby Univ. ; LL.D.,\nUniv. R.of Harper,\nNeb.\n1890. President of University of Chicago, 59th St. and Lexington Ave., Chicago.\nElizabeth Harrison.\nPrincipal of Kindergarten College, 10 Van Buren St., Chicago.\nMary S. L. Hartigan.\n1893. Principal of Hoemer School, 7409 Morgan St., Chicago.\nMary Hartmann, A.M., '88, Lombard Univ.\n1882. Instructor in Mathematics, Illinois State Normal School, 109 Normal Ave., Normal.\nW. H, Hatch,\n1892. Superintendent of Schools, Oak Park,\nP. C, Hayden.\nTeacher of Music, Public Schools, 1826 Maine St., Quincy.\n\n"}
{"page": 1199, "printed_page": null, "text": "Illinois]\n\nLIFE\n\nAND\n\nACTIVE\n\nMEMBERS\n\n1191\n\n1895. Harry Helmer.\n315 Wabash Ave., Chicago.\nCharles Hertel, M.Sc, Cent. Wes..Coll., Warrenton, Mo.\n1894. Superintendent of Schools of St. Clair County, Court House, Belleville.\nAmalie Hofer.\nEditor\" Kindergarten Magazine,\" 1207 Woman's Temple, Chicago.\nJ. A. HORNBERGER, A.B., '84, A.M., '87, Bucknell Univ., Pa. ; Ph.D., '8g, Bellevue Coll.\n1899.\nEducational Department, Rand, McNally & Co., i66 Adams St., Chicago; res.,\nNaperville.\nWilbur S. Jackman, A.B., '84, Harvard.\n1899.\nHead of Department of Natural Science and Dean of the Chicago Institute, 6916\nPerry Ave., Station O, Chicago.\nFrancis Austin Kendall.\n1888.\n\nPrincipal, Ellsworth Sch. ; 1894, Secretary, 111. Pupils' Reading Circle, cor. Sleight\nand Mechanic St^., Naperville.\nKendall, B.Sc, '78, Cornell Univ.\nGeneral Agent, Ginn & Co., 378 Wabash Ave., Chicago.\nEffie J. Kilbourne.\n1891.\nHead Assistant in Kenwood School, 73, 50th St., Chicago.\nVashti a. Lambert.\n1886. Teacher in Jefferson Park School, 4280 Milwaukee Ave., Chicago; res.. Palatine.\nLeslie Lewis, A.B., '66, A.M., '69, Yale.\n1890. District Superintendent of Schools, 5605 Madison Ave., Chicago.\nWilliam S. Mack.\nWestern Manager, The Prang Ed. Co., Room 813, Fine Arts Building, Chicago.\nFranklin Mason\n\nJ. J. McGlynn.\n\n1888. Teacher of Science, High School, McPherson Hotel, East St. Louis.\nA. L. McLaughlin.\nAgent for Sheldon & Co., 315-321 Wabash Ave., Chicago.\nKate S. O'Learv.\n1882. Teacher in Public Schools, 208 S. Hickory St., Joliet.\nC. M. Parker.\n\nC. F. Philbrook. Editor of \" The School News,\" Taylorville.\n1893.\nSuperintendent of Public Schools, Rochelle.\nAlbert R. Robinson, A.M., Northwestern Univ.\n1891. Principal of English High and Manual Training School, 126 S. Jefferson St., Chicago ;\nres., Hinsdale.\nMary E. Rowe.\n1899.\nPrincipal of Chicago Preparatory School for Teachers, Howland Block, Dearborn\nand Monroe Aves., Chicago.\nErastus H. Scott.\nPublisher, 378 Wabash Ave., Chicago.\nOrion C. Scott,\nI78, B.D., '80,\nA.M., '81,\nUniv. of\nIowa.\n1898. Ph.B.,\nSuperintendent\nof Schools,\nBerwyn,\nCook\nCo.\nJames P. Slade, A.M., '72, Shurtleff Coll.\n424, 9th St., East St. Louis.\nWinfield S. Smyth, A.M., '66, Wesleyan Univ., Conn. ; Ph.D., '76, Syracuse Univ.\nEducational Publisher (D. C. Heath & Co.), 378 Wabash Ave., Chicago.\nLydia E. Snyder.\n1893.\nTeacherin Brentano School, 1389 N. Rockwell St., Maplewood.\nLiLLiE S. Stephenson.\n1898. Teacher in 6th Grade, Park Ridge School, 1028 Dempster St., Evanston.\nFrank D. Thomson, A. B., '92, A.M., '95, Knox Coll.\n1895. Principal of High School, 228 Tompkins St., Galesburg.\nJ. E. Turner, A.B., '94, A.M., '95, Lincoln Univ.\n1896. Principal of High School, 722 Alby St., Alton.\nEdwin O. Vaile.\nT. Veatch.Editor of the \" Intelligence,\" Oak Park.\n1887. Superintendent of Schools, Rushville.\nJ. W. Warr.\nEditor of \"The Practical Age,\" 1723, 6th Ave., Moline.\nW. E. Watt.\nNathan\n\nPrincipal\nGraham School, Director of Principals' Male Quartette, 4453 Emerald\nAve., of\nChicago.\nCharles W. Weeks.\n1888. Supervisor of Music, 320 Congress St., Ottawa.\nOliver S. Westcott, A.M., '56, D.S., '92, Brown Univ.\n1883. Principal of North Division High School, Chicago; res., Maywood.\nDaniel A. White, A.B., '83, Harvard Univ. ; LL.B., '92, Lake Forest Univ.\n1896. Principal of Everett School, 3501 Wabash Ave., Chicago.\nHarry G. Wilson.\n1879. The American Book Co., 521 Wabash Ave., Chicago.\n1896. Mary E. Ahern.\nEditor of \" Public Libraries,\" Library Bureau, 215 Madison St., Chicago.\nC. J. Albert, B.Sc. and A.M., '78, Baldwin Univ.\nhurst. of the Albert Teachers' Agency, Central Music Hall, Chicago; res., ElmManager\nB. F. Armitage, A.B., '80, A.M., '84, Dartmouth Coll.\nSuperintendent of Citv Schools, 1317 Charleston Ave., Mattoon.\nAlfred Bayliss, M.Sc, '73. Hillsdale Coll., Mich.\n1899. Superintendent of Public Instruction, Springfield.\nS. S. Beggs, A.B., '88, A.M., '95, N. E. Ohio Nor. Coll. ; LL.B., '99, Indianapolis Coll. of Law.\n1897. Superintendent of City Schools, Beardstown.\nCharles A. Bennett, B.Sc, '86. Worcester Polytechnic Inst.\nHead of Department of Manual Arts, Bradley Polytechnic Institute, 211 S. Garfield\nAve.. Peoria,\n\n"}
{"page": 1200, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 192\n1896.\n\n1897.\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Illinois\n\nR. W. Burton. A.M., '85, Beloit Coll.\n1894. Superintendent of Schools of Stephenson Co., 209 Pleasant St., Freeport.\nWilliam J. Botton.\nPresident of the Werner Schoolbook Co., 378-388 Wabash Ave., Chicago.\nAnnice Bradford Butts, A.M.\nPrincipal of Kenwood Institute, 40 E. 47th St., Chicago.\nMrs. Elizabeth Blanchard Cook, A.M., Wheaton Coll.\nPresident of Woman's Educational Union, 316 Washington Boul., Chicago.\nJames W. Cupples, A. At., '89, Wesleyan Univ.\n1898.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 1086 Oak St., Galena.\nGeorge W. Davis.\n1892. Principal of Hawthorne School, 1430 Montrose Ave., Chicago.\nWilliam T. Dix.\nSecretary, Thomas Charles Co., 195 Wabash Ave., Chicago.\nWilliam C. Dddge.\n1887.\nPrincipal of Franklin School, 2268 Kenmore Ave., Station X, Chicago.\nMabel E. Dougherty.\n906 E. Bluff St., Peoria.\nMrs. Millie Ryan Eakins.\n1898.\nCritic Teacher, Chicago Normal School, 6233 Peoria St., Station O, Chicago.\nH. A. FoRESMAN, A.M., '90, Lafayette Coll.\nPublisher (Scott, Foresman & Co.), 307 Wabash Ave., Chicago.\nRobert Foresman.\nEducational Publisher (Silver, Burdett & Co.), 262-264 Wabash Ave., Chicago.\nG. Charles Griffiths.\n1893. Principal of Schools, 5737 Ontario St., Austin.\nCharles W. Groves, '80, Univ. of III.\n1897.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 515 Peoria Ave., Dixon.\nLe Roy Halsey, A.B., A.M., '79, Univ. of Mich.\n1897. Agent for Ginn & Co., 275 Belden Ave., Chicago.\nJohn W. Henninger, B.Sc, '81, M.Sc, '84, LL.B., '91, McKendree Coll.\n1896. Superintendent of City Schools, 1127 W. Lafayette Ave.. Jacksonville.\nMargaret MacDonald.\n1886.\nTeacher in Public School, 6440 Ellis Ave., Chicago.\nJ. F. McCullough.\nAgent for Silver, Burdett & Co., 378-388 Wabash Ave., Chicago.\nMrs. Lida B. McMurry.\n1892.\nTraining Teacher. Primary Department, State Normal University, Normal.\nO. L. Miller, A.B., '90, Univ. of Mich.\n1898. Principal of Township High School, Sterling.\nMrs. Sarah J. O'Keefe.\n1885.\nPrincipal of Jefferson Park School, Chicago; res., Arlington Heights.\nF. B. Ormsby.\n1895. Principal of Perkins Bass School, 6550 Lafayette Ave., Station O, Chicago.\nW. B. Owen.\nAgent, Publishing House, Ginn & Co., Chicago; res., 851 Grove St., Jacksonville.\nR. S. Page, A.M.\n1895.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Brewster House, Freeport.\nBertha Payne.\n1895.\nPrincipal of Chicago Froebel Association, Chicago; res., Hinsdale.\nWilliam C. Payne.\n1890. , Principal of Gladstone School, Chicago; res., Hinsdale.\nWilliam J. Pringle, A.M., Ph.B., LL.B.\ni8g8.\nExtension Work of Lewis Institute, 2953 Groveland Ave., Chicago.\nMary \\. Purer.\ni8p3.\nPrincipal of La Fayette School, 1902 Barry Ave., Chicago.\nW. F. Rocheleau.\n1899. Editor, Educational Publications, 2838 N. Hermitage Ave., Ravenswood, Chicago.\nD. Frances Sellars.\n1897. Supervisor of Public Instruction, 3d Ward, 715 S. Main St., Jacksonville.\nMabel E. Smallwood.\n1892. Teacher of Biology, Englewood High School, 6716 Perry Ave., Chicago.\n■ E. E. Smith, A. B., B.Sc.\n1898. Managerof Educational Dept., Rand, McNally & Co., 6039 Jefferson Ave., Chicago.\nW. W. Speer.\n1895. Assistant Superintendent of Schools, The Yale, Station O, Chicago.\nArnold Tompkins, A.M., '91. Univ. of Ind. ; Ph.D.. '96. Univ. of Ohio, Athens.\n1899. President of State Normal University, Normal.\nFranklin N. Tracy.\n1881.\nSuperintendent of City Schools, 316 Harrison Ave., Kankakee.\nRichard Waterman, Jr., B.Sc, '92, Mass. Inst, of Tech.\n1896. Secretary of the Educational Committee of the Civic Federation of Chicago, 26 Scott\nSt., Chicago.\nJ. J. Wilkinson, Grad.. '85, III. Nor. Univ.; Ph.D., '98, Univ. of Leipzig.\n1899.\nSupervisor of Practice, State Normal University, Normal.\nJames D. Williams. A.M., '72, Hillsdale Coll., Mich.\nManager, Maynard, Merrill & Co., 203 Michigan Ave., Chicago.\nFrancis Marion Woods, A.B. and A.M., Northwestern Univ.\nManager and Treasurer, Educational Aid Asso., 1278 Washington Boul., Chicago.\nL, H. Alien, A.B., '87, E. Ind. Nor. Sch.\n1896.\nTraveling Agent. National Educational Co., 521 Wabash Ave., Chicago.\nRichard H. Allin, B.D., '62, Univ. of Iowa.\nManager, Educational Map and Globe Department, Rand, McNally & Co., 320 E.\n57th St., Chicago.\nEmma V. Bailey.\n1895.\nTeacher in Public Schools, 531 S. Claremont Ave., Chicago.\nFrank H. Ball.\nTeacher of Manual Training, Private School, 5412 Ellis Ave., Chicago.\n\n<\n\n"}
{"page": 1201, "printed_page": null, "text": "Illinois]'\n1897.\n\nLIFE\n\nAND\n\nACTIVE\n\nMEMBERS\n\n1193\n\nWilliam J. Bartholf, A.B., Univ. of 111. ; B.Sc, Ind. Nor. Sch.\n1888. Principal of Von Humboldt School, \"11 Roslyn Pi., Chicago.\nHomer Bevans.\n1884. La Salle School, 353 W. 60th PI., Station O, Chicago.\nWilliam J. Black.\n1887.\nPrincipal of Sherwood School, 6620 Lafayette Ave., Station O, Chicago.\nEmanuel R. Bover, A.B., Harvard.\n1899.\nPrincipal of South Division High School, 536 W. 6ist St., Chicago.\nJ. Stanley Brown, A.B., '89, Denison Univ. ; A.M., '91, Arlington Coll.\n1893.\nSuperintendent and Principal of Township High School, 115 Uewey Ave., Joliet.\nDelos Buzzell, M.Sc, '74> Univ. of Mich.\n1890. Principal of Irving Park School, 2406 N. 42d Court, Chicago.\nTaylor C. Clendenen.\n1886. Superintendent of City Schools, 722 Center St., Cairo.\nEdwin Gilbert CooLEY, Ph.B., '95.\n1893. Principal of Lyons Township High School, 125, 7th Ave., La Grange.\nEmma Cov.\nPrincipal of Hall School, 615 Oak St., Rockford.\nMrs. Charles R. Crane.\nPresident of Chicago Asso., Parents of Deaf Children, 2559 Michigan Ave., Chicago\nJohn Dewey, A.B., '79, Univ. of Vt. ; Ph.D., '84, Johns Hopkins.\n1894. Professor of Philosophy, University of Chicago, Chicago.\nLetitia L. Doane.\n1898. Teacher in Public Day Schools for the Deaf, 142 Warren Ave., Chicago.\nM. Luella Dodge.\nGrade Teacher, 1752 W. Balmoral Ave., Chicago\nM. Elizabeth Farson.\n1889. Principal of Brown School, 134 Warren Ave., Chicago.\nMary C. Foote.\ni8qi. Principal of School, 124 Auburn PL, Rockford.\nJ. M. Frost, A.M., Hobart Coll.\n1896. Superintendent of Schools, Hinsdale.\nMary Gillespie.\n1893.\nPrincipal of High School, Winnetka.\nNellie Gillespie.\n1893. Assistant in High School, Winnetka.\nJoseph Claybaugh Gordon, A.B., '66, A.M., '69, Ph.D., '92, Monmouth Coll.\n1897. Superintendent of State School for the Deaf, Jacksonville.\nA. V, Greenman.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 248 Galena St., Aurora.\nFrank H. Hall.\n1897. Superintendent of Institution for the Blind, Jacksonville.\nJames Hannan.\n1898. District Superintendent of Schools, 5136 S. Park Ave., Chicago.\nDudley Grant Hays, Graduate, State Normal Univ.\n1899. Acting Head of Department of Science and Nature Study, Chicago Normal School.\n550 W. 60th PI., Englewood, Chicago.\nSamuel H. Heidler.\n510 W. 65th St., Chicago.\nMrs. Kate A. Henderson.\n1897.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Barber Building, Joliet,\nR.M. Hitch.\n.\nPrincipal of Dore School, 151 S. Robey St., Chicago.\nA. W. HUSSEY. B.Sc, '78, Nat. Nor. Univ.\n1896.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Geneseo.\n\nThe John Crerar Library, Chicago.\n\nLibrarian, Clement W. Andrews, Chicago.\nJ. A. Johnson.\n\nPrincipal of Mark Sheridan School, 3500 Ellis Ave., Chicago.\nEmma Frances Jones.\n1878.\nAssistant in High School, 1131 S. 6th St., Springfield.\nC. H. Kamman, B.L., Univ. of 111.\n1894. Head of German Department, High School, Peoria.\nHenriette M. Knispel.\n1871. Teacher in Public Schools, 308 S. Charles St., Belleville.\nCarl J. Kroh.\n1899. Head of Physical Training Department, Blaine School of Pedagogy, Chicago.\nCephas H. Leach.\nPrincipal of A. H. Barley School, 523 Greenleaf Ave., Rogers Park, Chicago.\nLincoln University.\nPresident, A. E. Turner; Secretary, C. E. Conant, Lincoln.\nMary McCowen.\nPrincipal of Day Schools for the Deaf, 6550 Yale Ave., Chicago.\nFrancis M. McKay, B.L.\n1882.\nPrincipal of Anderson School, 61 Alice Court, Chicago.\nAnna McKillop.\n1886. Head Assistant in Graham School, 740 W. 47th PI., Chicago.\nWalter Reynolds Mitchell, B.Sc, '87, Univ. of 111.\nDepartment of Biology, High School, 433, 57th St., Hyde Park, Chicago.\nDora Montgomery.\n1894.\nHead Teacher, Oral Class for the Deaf, Public Schools, 4319 Drexel Boul., Chicago.\nMontgomery Moore, A.M., Ph.D.\nSuperintendent of Schools of South Belvidere, 501 Logan Ave., Belvidere.\nRoyal T. Morgan, A.B., '74, A.M., '77, Wheaton Coll.\n1886.\nCounty Superintendent of Schools, 710 College Ave., Wheaton.\nFrank L. Morse, A.B., '86, A.M., '89, Brown Univ.\nPrincipal of Burr School, 393 Warren Ave., Chicago.\n\n"}
{"page": 1202, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 194\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Illinois\n\n1897. 'Edwin\n\nI 898.\n\nH. Owen.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Carlinville.\nDaniel Baldwin Parkinson, A.M., '74, Ph.D., '98, McKendree Coll.\n1898.\nPresident of Southern Illinois Normal University, 335 Walnut St., Carbondale.\nMarv Reid Pierce.\n1898.\nAgent, American Book Co., 521-531 Wabash Ave., Chicago.\nFrederick William Plapp, A.B., '85, A.M., '91, Dartmouth Coll.\n1890. Assistant in Jefferson High School, 2549 N. 42d Ave., Station 35, Chicago.\nMrs. Andrea Hofer Proudfoot.\nEditor \" Child Garden,\" 9333 Prospect Ave., Chicago.\nLouise D. Rennick.\nTeacher in Pullman School, 7142 Evans Ave., Station R, Chicago.\nRobert H. Rennie.\n1889. Principal of Gresham School, 817 W. 87th St., Chicago.\nJohn Richeson, M.Sc, '80; A.M. (honorary), '84, Ewing Coll.\n1897.\nSuperintendent of City Schools, District No. i, 819 Ohio Ave., East St. Louis.\nGeorge A. Robbins.\n1891. Teacher of Woodwork, Public Schools, 6922 Union Ave., Chicago.\nH. L. Roberts.\n1896. Superintendent of Public Schools, Farmington.\nJoseph L. Robertson.\n1894.\nCounty Superintendent of Schools, Court House, Peoria.\nGeorge H. Shornev.\nHope Publishing Co., 84 Wabash Ave., Chicago.\nEdward O. Sisson, B.Sc, '86, State Agr. Coll. ; A.B., '93, Univ. of Chicago.\n1897. Director of Bradley Polytechnic Institute, Peoria.\nEva a. Smedley.\n1898. Principal of Noyes St. School, Evanston; 138 Wells St., Chicago.\nE. R, Smith.\nGeneral Agent for D. C. Heath & Co., 378 Wabash Ave., Chicago.\nArthur J. Snyder.\n1897.\nSuperintendent of North Belvidere Schools, cor. McComb and Van Buren Sts.,\nBelvidere.\nMrs. Helen E. Starrett.\nPrincipal of Scoville Place College Preparatory School for Girls, Lake St., Oak Park.\nJohn H. Stehman.\n1881.\nPrincipal of Avondale School, 1571 Kimball Ave., Station Y, Chicago.\nAlbert LeRoy Stevenson, B.Sc, '81, N. Ind. Nor. Sch.\n1892. . Principal of Oakland Grammar School, 3946 Drexel Boul., Chicago.\nEmma J. Todd.\n283 Downer PI., Aurora.\nHenry L. Tolman, A.M., '69, Rochester Univ.\nProfessor of Medical Jurisprudence, School of Medicine, Univ. of 111., 929 Chicago\nOpera House Building, Chicago.\nJohn F. Wicks.\n1890.\nPrincipal of School, Blue Mound; res., Decatur.\nThe Chicago Public Library.\nLibrarian, Frederick H. Hild, Chicago.\nLaura Dale Floyd.\n1899.\nTeacher in 8th Grade, 629 E. Broadway, Centralia.\nJohn A. Forbes.\nWith Butler, Sheldon & Co., Publishers, 315 Wabash Ave., Chicago.\nJohn Calvik Han-na. A.B., '81, A.M . , '84, Univ. of Wooster.\n1898.\nPrincipal of Oak Park High School, 226 Home Ave., Oak Park.\nIllinois State Normal University.\nPresident, Arnold Tompkins, Normal.\nL. E. Loveridge.\nWestern Agent, The Morse Co., Publishers, 195 Wabash Ave., Chicago.\nNewberry Library.\nLibrarian, J. V. Cheney, Chicago.\nChauncey F. Newkirk.\nManager, Western\nEducational Department,\nWabash Ave., Chicago.\n\nJ. H. PUGH.\n,„\n„\nW. S.\nRussell.\n\nHoughton,\n\nMifHin &\n\nCo., 378-388\n\nAgent, Werner Schoolbook Co., 378 Wabash Ave., Chicago.\n\nWestern Manager, Edu. Dept., Harper & Brothers, 203 Michigan Ave., Chicago.\nClyde Sloane, A.B.,\n'88. Univ. of Mich.\nCarrollton.\nMrs. Constance B. Smith.\n1899.\n\n^ ,„\n1894.\nSupervisor of Music in Public Schools, 239 Webster Ave., Jacksonville.\nJ. W. Asbury, B.Sc, Ph.B., Glasgow Nor. Sch. ; A.B., Nor. Sch., Valparaiso, Ind.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Marion.\nHenry L. Boltwood, A.>L, '56, Amherst.\nT\nr^ ^^^3Principal of High School, 1218 Benson Ave., Evanston.\nIsaac B. Burgess, A.B., '83, A.M., '86, Brown Univ.\n117\nl^V\nProfessor of Latin in the Academy of the University of Chicago, Morgan Park.\nWayland J. Chase, A.B., '87, A.M., '89, Brown Univ.\n-s '\ns\nJ\n„ „ '898. Assistant Professor of History and Acting Dean of Morgan Park Acad., Mot^an Park.\nPrincipal of Nathaniel Greene School, Chicago.\nuepartment of Public Instruction, State of Illinois.\nxf\n>,\n^ „ Superintendent, Alfred Bayliss, Springfield.\nMrs. Mary E. Gilbert.\nj'\n• f\ne\nPrincipal of Brighton School, 3207 Prairie Ave., Chicago.\n•Died August 25, 1899.\n\n"}
{"page": 1203, "printed_page": null, "text": "IndianaJ\n\nLIFE\n\nAND\n\nACTIVE\n\nILLINOIS—\n1899.\n\nMEMBERS\n\n1195\n\nContinued\n\nWilliam Gardner Hale, A.B., '70, Harvard; LL.D., Union and Princeton.\n1897. Professor of Latin, University of Chicago, 5757 Lexington Ave., Chicago.\nIra W. Howerth, A.B., '93, Harvard; A.M., '94, Ph.D., '97, Univ. of Chicago.\n1898. Registrar, College for Teachers, University of Chicago, 228, 53d St., Chicago.\nFlorence Maxam.\nPrincipal of Ward School, Elgin.\nWilliam P. McKee, A.M., Univ. of Minn. ; B.D., Univ. of Chicago.\n1897.\nDean, the Frances Shimer Academy of the University of Chicago, Mt. Carroll.\nNorthern Illinois State Normal School.\nPresident, John W. Cook, De Kalb.\nJames B. Scott, A.M., 'gi. Harvard; J.U.D., '94, Heidelberg.\nProfessor of Law and Dean of School of Law, University of Illinois, Champaign.\nAlexander Smith, B.Sc, '86, Edinburgh; Ph.D., '89, Munich.\n1894.\nAssociate Professor of General Chemistry, University of Chicago, Quadrangle Club,\nChicago.\nGeorge W. Smith, A.M., Blackburn Univ.\nInstructor in History and Geography, State Normal School, Carbondale.\nUniversity of Illinois, Library.\nPresident, Andrew S. Draper; Librarian, Katharine L. Sharp, Champaign.\nRansom E. Walker.\n748 Harrison St., Chicago.\nMeta Wellers.\nTeacher in Grammar Department, The Renfost, Chicago.\nINDIANA\nLIFE\n\ndirector\n\n1877.\n\nJames Henry Smart, A.M., '72, Dartmouth; LL.D., '83, Ind. Univ.\n1883.\nPresident of Purdue University, iqi Columbia St., Lafayette.\n\n1876.\n\nMoses Cobb Stevens, A.M., '83, Earlham Coll.\n1883.\nProfessor of Mathematics, Purdue University, 11 Waldon St., W. Lafayette.\nJohn S. Irwin, A.B., '42, Western Univ. of Pa. ; M.D., '47, Univ. of Pa. ; LL.D., '75, Univ. of Ind.\n1203 E. Main St., Lafayette.\n\nLIFE members\n\n1880.\n\n1885.\n1890.\n1891.\n\n1892.\n1893.\n\nACTIVE members\nMary E, Nicholson.\nPrincipal of Normal School, 1222 Broadway, Indianapolis.\nAnna Suter.\n1889. Principal of High School, 115, 4th St., Aurora.\nW. S. Almond.\n1893. Superintendent of Schools, East Franklin St., Delphi.\nJesse H. Brown.\nLecturer on Art and General Educational Subjects, 1615 Broadway, Indianapolis.\nMiss N. Cropsey.\n1894. Assistant Superintendent of Schools, 1219 College Ave., Indianapolis.\nEdward Ayres, A.B., '78, A.M., '85, Amherst Coll.\n1890. Superintendent of Schools, 625 Ferry St., Lafayette.\nWilliam L. Bryan, Ph.D., '92, Clark Univ.\n1887. Professor of Philosophy; 1893, Vice-President, Indiana University, Bloomington.\nAlbert E. Humke.\n\n1891. Superintendent of Public Schools, Vincennes.\nJoseph Swain, B.L., '83, M.Sc, '85, Ind. Univ. ; LL.D., '93, Wabash Coll.\n1893. President of Indiana University, Beechwood Ave., Bloomington.\nH. G. Woody, B.Sc, National Normal Univ.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Greencastle.\n1894. George W. Benton, A.B., '84, A.M., '87, Wabash Coll.\n1888. Instructor in Chemistry, High School, 609 N. Delaware St., Indianapolis.\nGeorge W. Hufford, A.M., '67, Antioch Coll.\n1892. Principal of High School, 1209 Park Ave., Indianapolis.\n1895. W. C. Belman.\n1883.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 130 Ogden St., Hammond.\nH. B. Brown, A.M.\nPresident of Northern Indiana Normal School, 53 Jefferson St., Valparaiso.\nJohn A. Carnagey, A.B., '81, A.M., '84, Hanover Coll., Ind.\n1890.\nSuperintendent of City Schools, 1039 Franklin St., Columbus.\nT. F. FiTZGiBBONS, Grad., '90, Ind. St. Nor. Sch. ; A.B., '97, Ind. Univ.\n1890.\nSuperintendent of Public Schools, 1015 Main St., Elwood.\nW. B. Flick.\nStudent, 35 E. Washington St., Indianapolis.\nD. M. Geeting.\n1895. Publisher \" Indiana School Journal,\" 2026 Central Ave., Indianapolis.\nDavid Kopp Goss, A.B., '87, Indiana Univ. ; Fellow in Cornell, '92-3.\n1894. Superintendentof Schools, 2329 College Ave., Indianapolis.\nWilliam A. Hester, A.M., '83, De Pauw Univ.\n1894.\nSuperintendent of City Public Schools, 330 Parrett St., Evansville.\nCyrus W. Hodgin, A.M., '88, Earlham Coll.\n1887. Professor of History and Political Science, Earlham Coll., 30 Central\nRichmond.\n\nAve.,\n\nFrank L. Jones, B.Sc, '90, N. Ind. Nor. Sch. ; A.B., '98, Ind. Univ.\n1898.\nState Superintendent of Public Instruction, Room 27. State House, Indianapolis.\n\n"}
{"page": 1204, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 196\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indiana\n\n1895. George\n\nFranklin Kenaston, A.B., '78, Dartmouth; A.M., '81, Univ. of Mich.\n1897. Superintendent of Schools, 511 S. Washington St., Crawfordsville.\nW. S. RowE, A.B., '92, De Pauw Univ.\n1895. Superintendent of Schools, 803, 8th and Grand Sts., Connersville.\nJames F. Scull.\n1882.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Room 11, Central Building, .Rochester.\nW. R. Snyder, A.M., Pennsylvania Coll.\n1887.\nSuperintendent of City Schools, 319 W. Adams St., Muncie.\nWabash College.\nPresident, George Stockton Burroughs; Sec, Henry Z. McLain, Crawfordsville.\n1896. George F. Bass.\nManager \" Ind. Young People's Reading Circle,\" 30 S. Meridian St., Indianapolis.\nMrs. Eliza A. Blaker.\n1882. Superintendent, Indianapolis Free Kindergartens, 2320 N. Meridian St., Indianapolis.\nHenry Willard Bowers, A.B., '77, A.M., '81, De Pauw Univ.\n1896. Superintendent of Schools, Union City.\nJohn Franklin Brown, Ph.B., '89, A.M., '95, Earlham Coll.; Ph.D., \"96, Cornell.\n1898. Vice-President and Professor of Philosophy, Earlham College, Richmond.\nIsaac Vinton Busby, A.B., '91, Indiana Univ.\n1894.\nSuperintendent of City Schools, 202 E. Garfield St., Alexandria.\nRobert I. Hamilton.\n1887. Superintendent of City Schools, 53 Poplar St., Huntington.\nMiles W. Harrison, A.B., '79, Oberlin.\n1886.\nSuperintendent of City Schools, 109 W. Sinclair St., Wabash.\nW. H. Hershman, A.B., '98, Ind. Univ.\n1894.\nSuperintendent of City Schools, cor. Bank and Spring Sts., New Albany.\nJ. R. Houston,\nMoore'sof Hill\n1896. M.Sc.,'93,\nSuperintendent\nPublicColl.\nSchools, Aurora.\nJohn O. Lewellen, B.Sc, N. Ind. Nor. School.\nPrincipal of Lincoln School, 301 North St., Muncie.\nC. M. McDaniel, B.Sc, \"85, A.M., '93.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Madison.\nWilliam A. Millis, A.M., Ind. Univ.\n1894.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Attica.\nB. F. Moore.\n1899. Superintendent of City Schools, Marion.\nThomas Abbott Mott, A.M., '98, Earlham Coll.\ni8g6. Superintendent of Schools, Garfield School, Richmond.\nCharles N. Peak, A.B., '84, Moore's Hill Coll.; Ph.B., '86, Ind. Univ.\n1891. Sujjerintendent of City Schools, Princeton.\nFlora Roberts, B.Sc, '87. M.Sc, '98, Purdue Univ.\n1894. Teacher in West La Fayette High School, Northwestern Ave., La Fayette.\nHoward Sandison.\nVice-President, Indiana State Normal School, 434 N. Center St., Terre Haute,\nD. W. Thomas, A.B., '72, A.M., '75, De Pauw Univ.\n1886. Superintendent of City Schools, 506 Pigeon St., Elkhart.\nWilliam H. Wiley, A.B., '64, A.M., '67, Butler Univ.\n1869. Superintendent of Schools, 451 N. 7th St., Terre Haute.\nAlbert Henry Yoder, A.B., '93, Ind. Univ.\n1896.\nPresident of Vincennes University, Vincennes.\n1897. Adelaide Steele Baylor, Ph.B., '97, Univ. of Chicago.\n1888. Principal of High School, 108 E. Hill St., Wabash.\nJ. W. Carr, A.B., '85, A.M., '90, Ind. Univ.\n1890.\nSuperintendent of City Schools, 430 W. 12th St., Anderson.\nIndiana State Library.\nState Librarian, W. E. Henry, State House, Indianapolis.\nIndiana State Normal School.\nPresident, William W. Parsons, Terre Haute.\nI. F. Mather, A.B., A.M., Iowa Coll.\nSuperintendent of City Schools, East Chicago.\nFrancis M. Merica, B.Sc, '96, Wm. Taylor Univ. ; Ph.B., '97, Univ. of Chicago.\nSuperintendent of Schools, La Grange.\nEdwin S. Monroe, Ph.B., '96, 111. Wesleyan Univ. ; A.M., '97, Hanover Coll.\n1895. Superintendent of City Schools, Box 552, Mt. Vernon.\nH. C. Montgomery, A.B., '80, Hanover Coll. ; A.M., '91, Univ. of Mich.\n1892. Superintendent of Schools, Seymour.\nWill A. Myers, A.B., '96, A.M., '99, Indiana Univ.\n1899.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Shoals.\nThe Northern Indiana Normal School.\nPresident. H. B. Brown ; Librarian, O. P. Kinsey, Valparaiso.\nRobert Alexander Ogg, B.Sc, '72, A.M., '92, Ind. Univ.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Kokomo.\nMay Wright Sewall. M.Sc, A.M., '69, Northwestern Univ.\n1882.\nPrincipal of Girls' Classical School, 635 N. Pennsylvania St., Indianapolis.\nJustin N. Study, A.M., '73, Ohio Wes. Univ.\n1896. Superintendent of Public Schools, Fort Wayne.\n1898. Mrs. Harriet F. Case.\nSupervisor of Methods, Public Schools, 320 S. Liberty St., Muncie.\nFassett a. Cotton.\n1895.\nDeputy State Supt. of Public Instruction, Room 27, State House, Indianapolis.\nW. S. Hiser\nSupervisor of Penmanship, Public Schools. 33 S. 13th St., Richmond.\nDorman S. Kelly.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 622 E. Chestnut St., Jeffersonville.\nAlfred E. Malsbary, Grad., '89, Ind. State Nor. ; A.B., '96, Ind. State Univ.\nSiiperintendent of Schools, Peru.\nClara J. Mitchell, A.B., '97, Ind. Univ.\n1897. Teacher of English and History, High School, 36 E. Broadway, Shelbyville.\n\ni\n\n"}
{"page": 1205, "printed_page": null, "text": "lowal\n\n±IFE AND\n\nACTIVE\n\nMEMBERS\n\nII 97\n\n\\^V>\\Pl^ K— Continued\n1898. John F. Rieman, B.Sc, '97, Univ. of Mich. ; B.Pd., '99, Mich. Nor. Colj.\nSuperintendent of Public Schools, Goshen.\nJohn A. Wood, A.B., Ind. Univ.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 1508 Indiana Ave., La Porte.\n1899. C. Bunnell.\nPrincipal of High School, Wanatah.\nClara Funk, B.Sc, '84, Nat. Nor. Univ., Lebanon, O.\n1891. Teacher\nof English in High School, Jeffersonville;\nres., 208 Cherry St., New\nAlbany.\nJoseph P. Funk, A.M., Nat. Nor. Univ., Lebanon, O.\n1887.\nPrincipal of High School, 208 Cherry St., New Albany.\nIOWA\nLIFE\n\n1886.\n\nDIRECTOR\n\nJosiAH Little Pickard, A.B., '44, A.M., '47, LL.D., '94, Bowdoin Coll.\nEx-President. State University of Iowa, 419 N. Clinton St., Iowa City.\nLIFE members\n\n1884.\n\nHenry J. Taylor, A.B., '78, LL.B., '80, A.M., '84, Univ. of Wis.\nLawyer, 1635 Douglas St., Sioux City.\nWilliam A. Willis, A.B., '62, A.M., '65, Beloit Coll.\nProprietor and Principal of Iowa City Academy, 308 Church St., Iowa City.\nactive members\n\n1884.\n\nHamline\n\nH. Freer, B.Sc, '69, M.Sc, '78, A.B., '80, A.M., '83, Cornell Coll., la.\n1872.\nProf, of Science and Art of Teaching and Polit. Econ., Cornell Coll., Mt. Vernon.\n\nWiLLLiAM Fletcher King, A.B., '57, A.M., '60, Ohio Wesleyan\nUniv.; D.D., '70, Ill.Wesleyan\nUniv. ; LL.D., '87, State Univ. of Iowa, Ohio Wesleyan Univ.\n1863.\nPresident of Cornell College, Mt. Vernon.\n1889. William Miller Beardshear, A.B., '76, A.M., '79. LL.D., '85.\n1891.\nPresident of Iowa State College of Agriculture and Mechanical Arts, Ames.\nHenry Sabin, LL.D., '93, Drake Univ. ; '94, Cornell Coll. ; '95, State Univ. of Iowa.\nEx-State Superintendent of Public Instruction, 615 Iowa Loan and Trust Building,\nDes Moines.\nHomer H. Seerley, Ph.B., '73, B.D., '75, A.M., '76, State Univ. of Iowa ; LL.D., '98, Penn. Coll.\n1886.\nPresident State Normal School, 2403 Normal St., Cedar Falls.\n1890. H. E. Kratz, A.m., '775 Ph.D., '90, Univ. of Wooster, O.\n1891. Superintendent of Schools, 805 Douglas St., Sioux City.\n1891. O. P. BOSTWICK, A.B., '78, Lombard Univ., 111.\n1889.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 313, 8th Ave., Clinton.\n1892. J. M. Mehan.\n1884.\nPresident, Capital City Commercial College, Y. M. C. A. Building, Des Moines.\n1893. Jacob Theodore Merrill, A.B., '62, A.M., '65, Otterbein Univ.\n1890. Superintendent of City Schools, 518, 7th St., Cedar Rapids.\n1894. Ashley Van Storm, Ph.B., '98, 111. Wesleyan Univ.\n1898.\nSuperintendent of City Schools, Cherokee.\nA. B. Warner.\n1896.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Missouri Valley.\n1895. James Johnson Billingsly, B.Sc, '92, N. Ind. Nor. School.\n1898.\nSuperintendent of Public Schools, Sanborn.\nM. E. Crosier.\n1892. Superintendent of Schools, Walnut.\nE. D. Y. CuLBERTSON, B.D., '89, State Normal School, Cedar Falls, la.\n1895.\nSuperintendent of City Schools, Ames.\nO. E. French.\n1895.\nSuperintendent of City Schools, 602 N. Maple 9l., Creston.\nO.J. Laylander.\n1888.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 920 Main St., Cedar Falls.\nJoseph Jasper McConnell, A.B., '76 ; B.Didac, '78, A.M., '80, State Univ. of Iowa.\n1891. Professor of Pedagogy, State University of Iowa, 331 Summit St., Iowa City.\nW. A. McCord.\n1898.\nEducational Department, Rand, McNally & Co., Des Moines.\nJ. J. Nagel, Ph.B., '98, Wesleyan Univ., Bloomington, 111.\n1870.\nPrincipal of Grammar School No. 4, 906 W. Locust St., Davenport.\nElla L. Packer.\n1898. Teacher, Grand Forks, N. D. ; home address, 912, loth St., Sioux City.\nEtta Suplee.\nSupervisor of Training, State Normal School, Cedar Falls.\nFannie Suplee.\nPrincipal of Public School, 1045, 9th St., Des Moines.\nJ. E. Williamson, A.M.. '82, Wabash Coll.\n1892.\nSuperintendent of City Schools, Fairfieldi\n1896.\nRichard C. Barrett, A.M., '94, Cornell Coll., la.\n1898.\nState Superintendent of Public Instruction, Des Moines.\nWilliam Beal.\n1895.\nPrincipal of High School, Maynard.\nGeorge I. Miller, B.Sc, '77, M.Sc, '97, Iowa State Coll.\n1886.\nSuperintendent of Public Schools, 427 Story St., Boone.\nA. C. Newell, B.Sc, '92, Univ. of Mich.\n1894.\nI nstructor in M amial Training and Mechanical Drawing, 1 519 Center St. , Des Moines\n\n"}
{"page": 1206, "printed_page": null, "text": "II98\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n\\0\\il K—Continued\n\n[Kansas\n\n1896. Franklin T. Oldt, A.M.\n, ^.\ne ^ i\nt\n. o. t^ t,\n1895. Supenntendent of City Schools, 1240 Locust St., Dubuque.\nPresident of Cedar Rapids Business College and Editor of \" Western Penman,\"\nCedar Rapids.\nHattie Adelia Phillips.\n1894.\nSupervisor of Kindergartens, 1013, 21st St., Des Moines.\nF. E. WiLLARD, B.Sc, '89, A.M., '92. Iowa Coll.\n1896.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 206 W. Grant St., Marshalltown.\nJ. B. Young,1878.A.B..Superintendent\n'61, A.M., '64,ofMiddlebury\nSchools, 422Coll.\nE. 14th St., Davenport.\n1897. Eugene Brown, B.Sc, Iowa Agri. Coll.\n1894.\nEx-Superintendent of Schools, Cerro Gordo Co., Mason City.\nT. L. BuECHELE, Ph.B., '86, Cornell Coll., Iowa.\n1896. Superintendent of City Schools, Independence.\nHorace T. Bushnell.\n1873.\nPrincipal of Grammar School No. 8, Famara St. and South Ave. , Davenport.\nC. P. CoLGROVE, A.M., Univ. of Chicago.\n1896. Assistant Professor of Pedagogy, State Normal School, 1207 Clay St., Cedar Falls.\nW. A. DORON, M.Sc.\nSuperintendent of Public Schools, Eldora.\nMrs. E. Dudley, A.B., '84, A.M., '87, Cornell Coll.\n1890.\nAssistant Principal in High School, Paullina.\nIrene Garrette.\nPrincipal of Jefferson School, 708, 3d Ave., Cedar Rapids.\nHerbert B. Havden, A.M., '99, Mt. Hope Coir\n1898.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 148 Glen Ave., Council Bluffs.\nB. J. Horchem.\n1898. Principal of Audubon School, 315 Bluff St., Dubuque.\nF. E. Lark.\n1896.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Monona Co., Onawa.\nGeorge E. MacLean. A.B., A.M., LL.D., ^Villiams; B.D., Yale; Ph.D., Leipzig.\n1899. President of the University of Iowa, 603 College St., Iowa City.\nA. R. Sale.\n1893. Superintendent of City Schools, 226 W. 9th St., Mason City.\nWilliam S. Shearer.\nAgent for Harper & Brothers, School Books, 1084, 25th St., Des Moines.\nJ. F. Smith.\n1899.\nPrincipal of Schools, Waukon.\nState Normal School, Cedar Falls.\nPresident, H. H. Seerley, Cedar Falls.\nState University Library of Iowa.\nLibrarian, Mrs. Bertha G. Ridgeway, Iowa City.\nCynthia Titus. B.D.\n1898. Principal of Lowell School, 1102 Washington St. , Waterloo.\nV. L. Wilson.\nAgent for American Book Co.. Ottumwa.\nF. M. Witter, B.Sc, A.M., '76, University of Iowa.\n1885.\nSuperintendent of Schools. 1314 Mulberry St. , Muscatine.\nC. F. Woodward, A.B., A.M., Cornell Coll.\n1898. County Superintendent of Schools, Eldora.\n1898. E. N. 'Coleman.\n\nSuperintendent of City Schools, 1401 Madison St., Le Mars.\n\nJ. M. Davis.\n\nSuperintendent of City Schools, 307 Jackson St., Sigourney.\nJ. D. Stout, B.D., '82, B.Sc, '83, N. Ind. Nor. Sch.\n1899. President of Ellsworth College, Iowa Falls.\nMary Ziek.\n1898.\nPrincipal of Madison School, 417, ist St. W., Cedar Rapids.\n1899. F. L. Douglass.\nEditor \"Midland Schools,\" Des Moines.\nHarlan Updegraff,\nA.M* '98, Columbia\n1898.\nSuperintendent\nof Schools,Univ.\nKnoxville.\nKANSAS\nLIFE\n\n1886.\n\nDIRECTORS\n\nA. V. Jewett, A,B.,\n'S7, Middlebury Coll., Vt.\nAbilene.\nA. R. Taylor, Ph.D., '83, Lincoln Univ., 111.\n1882.\nPresident of State Normal School of Kansas, 928 Union St., Emporia.\nlife members\nBoard of Education, Abilene.\nPresident, Mrs.<Mary Hamilton; Secretary. W. P. Gulick.\nBoard of Education, Dodge City.\nPresident,\nM. Kirkpatrick; Clerk, W. H. Chapman.'\nBoard of Education,\nCity ofJ. Ottawa.\nPresident, O. M. Wilber; Clerk, F. A. Wilkinson.\nBoard of Education, Sedgwick.\nPrincipal, E. L. Hillis ; Clerk, G. P. Schouten.\nAnubrson Griffeth Campbrll.\nCouncil Grove.\n\n"}
{"page": 1207, "printed_page": null, "text": "Kansas]\n1886.\n\nLIFE\n\nAND\n\nACTIVE\n\nMEMBERS\n\n1 1 99\n\nNathaniel\n\nCoover.\n1888.\nPrincipal of High School, Wilson.\nT. Fairchild,\nSuperintendent of City Schools, Ellsworth.\nHenry G. Larimer, LL.B., '81, Univ. of Mich.\nLawyer, 535 Kansas Ave., Topeka.\nA. N. Limerick.\nP;;.ncipal of Public Schools, South Haven.\nJohn MacDonald.\nEditor \" Western School Journal,\" Topeka.\nPeter McVicar, A.B., '56, A.M., '71, D.D., '71, Beloit Coll.. Wis.\n1895.\nPresident Emeritus of Washburn College, Topeka.\nRiley Co. Educational Association,\nEdward\n\nPresident, George K. Knipe, Manhattan; Sec'y, Miss Reppie Carey, Manhattan,\nW. Roach, M.Sc, Mt. Union Coll., Alliance, O.\nSuperintendent of Business College, Salina.\nGeorge E. Rose, B.P., '83, Univ. of Kan. ; M.Sc, '98, Kan. St. Agri. Coll.\n1893.\nPrincipal of High School, 2020 N. Walnut St., Kansas City.\nThomas A. Sawhill, A.B., '74, Amherst Col.\nPublisher of \"Concordia Empire,\" Concordia.\nAaron Schitvler, A.M., '60, Ohio Wes. Univ. ; LL.D., '73, Otterbein; Ph.D., '98, Kan. Wes. Univ.\nProf, of Phil, and Higher Math.. Kan. VVesleyan Univ., 1316 S. Santa Fe St., Salina.\nEdmund Stanley, A.M.. '91, Penn Coll., Oskaloosa, la.\n1898.\nPresident of Friends' University, 1203 University Ave., Wichita.\nTeachers' Association of Cowley Co.\nPresident, Julia B. King; Secretary, Edna M. Glass, Winfield.\nD. C. TiLLOTSON.\n621 Filmore St., Topeka.\nPhilo Jesse Williams,\nA.M., '57, Madison Univ.; D.D., '76, Univ. of Kan.\nBaldwin.\nThomas\n\nactive members\n1884.\n\nJ. N. Wilkinson.\n1884.\nDirector of Training. State Normal School, 832 Merchant St., Emporia.\n1889. Emory M. Wood. A.M., '82, Ph.D., '93, Allegheny Coll.\n1887.\nProfessor of Mathematics, Baker University, 8th and King Sts., Baldwin.\n>\n1890. William M. Davidson.\n1892.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Topeka.\nArvin i\nS. Clin, A.B., '92, Ottawa Univ.; A.M., 94, Univ. of Kan.\n1899.\nProfe.ssor of Education, University of Kansas, 1134 Louisiana St., Lawrence.\nWilliam C. Stevenson.\n1890.\nProfessor of Bookkeeping and Penmanship, State Normal School. 1017 Mechanic\nSt., Emporia.\nL. E. Wolfe.\n1898.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 921 Minnesota Ave., Kansas City.\n1891.\nFrank R. Dyer, A.M., '88, M.Pd., '93, Ohio Nor. Univ. ; A.M., '92, Ohio Wesleyan Univ.\n1893.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 6og N. Topeka Ave., Wichita.\n1893. Francis Huntington Snow, Ph.D.. '81, Williams Coll.; LL.D., '90, Princeton.\n1890. Chancellor of University of Kansas, Lawrence.\n1894. Elva Enola Clarke.\n1893. Librarian of State Normal School, 1025 Constitution St., Emporia.\nEtta I'Dell Clarke.\nTeacher of Music, 1025 Constitution St., Emporia.\nO. P. M. McClintock.\n1897.\nPrincipal of Clay School, iiii Huntoon St., Topeka.\n1895. O. P. Barnes.\nWestern Agent, Ginn & Co., Leavenworth.\nJessie L. Clark.\n1892. Supervisor of Music, Public Schools, 1203 N. Market St., Wichita.\nFenella Dana.\n1889. Teacher in Public Schools, 909 Tyler St., Topeka.\nM. E. Dolphin.\n1891. Superintendent of City Schools, Leavenworth.\nLeida H. Mills.\n1895.\nAssistant in High School, 1203 N. Market St., Wichita.\nMaggie S. Mitchell, B.Sc, Geneva Coll., Pa.\n1879.\nTeachei in Public Schools, 509 W. 6th St., Topeka.\nL. H. MuRLiN, A.B., '91, S.T.B., '92, De Pauw Univ. ; D.D., '97, Cornell Coll. ; S.T.D., '97, Denver.\nUniv.; B.D., '99, Garrett Biblical Inst.\n1894. President of Baker University, Baldwin.\nMiss C. S. Newell.\n1890. Teacher in Public Schools, 817 W. 14th St., Topeka.\nDavid F. Shirk.\n1893. Superintendent of City Schools, Cottonwood Falls.\n• E. A. SiMERWELL.\n1892. Principal of Grant School, 1209 N. Western Ave., Topeka.\n1896. Byron Dean Van Ostrand, B.Sc, '84, Cornell Univ.\n1894. Superintendent of City Schools, Marion.\n1897. Mrs. Gaston Boyd.\nSupervisor of Music, Public Schools, and Director\nof the Department of Elocution and Physical Culture, Bethel College. Newton.\nCharles A. Boyle.\n1893. Director\nof Department of Music, State Normal School, 831 Constitution St.,\nEmporia.\nL. A. Lowther, A.B., '94, State Univ.\nt8o6.\nSuperintendent of City Schools, 617 Exchange St., Emporia.\n\n"}
{"page": 1208, "printed_page": null, "text": "I200\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kentucky\n\nKANSAS — Continued\n1897.\n\nH. B. Peairs.\n\nSuperintendent of IJaskell Institute, Indian Industrial Training School, Lawrence.\nG. RisTe.\n1895. Principal of Thomas County High School, Colby.\nFrank P. Smith, A.B., '78, Ind. Univ. ; A.M., '90, Baker Univ.\n1894.\nSuperintendent of City Schools, 900 Tennessee St., Lawrence.\nState Agricultural College of Kansas.\nLibrarian, Josephine Thomdyke Berry, Manhattan.\nL. A. WiRicK.\nYates Center.\n\nWalter\n\n1899.\n\nFrederick\n\nB. Abbott, Ph.D., '98, Martyn Coll.\nTeacher of Manual Training, State Normal School, Emporia.\n\nJ. H. Naff.\n\n1893. Superintendent of Public Schools, Waterville.\nJ. W. Spindler, A.m., '95, Ohio Univ.\n1891.\nSuperintendent of City Schools, Winfield.\nKENTUCKY\nLIFE\n\ndirector\n\n1886.\n\nGeorge Thompson Fairchild, LL.D., '93, Oberlin Coll.\n1898.\nVice-President and Professor of English Literatuce, Berea College, Berea.\n\n1877.\n\nWilliam Henry Bartholomew.\nPrincipal of Girls' High School, 426 E. Gray St., Louisville.\nMrs. Laura 1881.\nL. Monsarrat.\n\nLIFE\n\nmembers\n\nPrincipal of Seventh Ward Public School, 208 W. Walnut St., Louisville.\nactive members\n1891. Charles H. Dietrich, B.Sc, '78, Ohio State Univ.\n,\nAgent for American Book Company, Cincinnati, O. ; res., Hopkiusville.\nMcHenrv Rhoads, A.m., West Ky. Coll. ; Ph.M.. Hartford Coll.\n1891. Superintendent of Schools, 513 Todd St., Frankfort.\n1892. J. D. Coleman, Ph.B., '91, Hartford Coll.. Ky.\n1892. Principal of High School, 249, sth St., Louisville.\nMary F. Dodson.\n1880.\nAssistant Principal of High School, 327 N. 4th St., Paducah.\nJames E. Dorland.\n1892.\nAgent for American Book Co., 1807, ist St., Louisville.\nGeorge O. McBroom, A.B., '85, Drake Univ., Des Moines, la.\n1890. Superintendent of Schools, Longfellow School, Paducah.\n1893. H. R. Blaisdell, Ph.D., '76.\nPrincipal of High School, 66 E. 7th St., Covington.\nKdgar H. Mark.\n1894. Superintendent of Schools, Center an^ Walnut Sls., Louisville.\nJames McGinnis.\n1891. Superintendent of Schools, 114 W. 4th St., Owensboro.\n1894. Susie M. Bartholomew.\n426 E. Gray St., Louisville.\nJ. M. N. Downes, B.Sc, '86, Glasgow, Ky., Nor. School.\n1894. Superintendent of Bellevue Schools, 132 Taylor Ave., Newport.\nArthur C. Fleshman, B.Sc, '84. M.Sc, '92, Nat. Nor. Univ., O.\n1898.\nInstitute Instructor, and Student in School of Pedagogy, New York Univ., Bagdad.\n1895. Livingstone McCartney.\n\\%<j<^. Superintendent of Schools, Hopkinsville.\n1896. F. S. Alley.\n1896. Superintendent of Schools, Dayton.\nW. J. McConathy.\n1895. Principal of Normal School, 1454, 2d St., Louisville.\nJohn Morris.\n1898.\nSuperintendent of Public Schools, 829 Scott St.. Covington.\nIda Rudolf.\n1895. Principal of Montgomery School, 2427 W. Chestnut St., Louisville.\nEdward Taylor, A.M., '78, Earlham Coll., Richmond, Ind.\n1894. Superintendent of Schools, 1109 College St., Bowling Green.\nLouise A. Wiard.\nTeacher in Eighth Grade, Public Schools, Frankfort.\n1897. J. G. Crabbe, A.B., A.M., Ohio Wes. Univ. ; M.Pd., Ohio Univ.\n1890.\nSuperintendent of City Schools, Winchester Ave. and 22d St., Ashland.\nReuben Post Halleck, A.M., Yale.\nPrincipal of Boys' High School, 1240, 3d Ave., Louisville.\nG.Clinton Hanna, A.B , '70, A.M., '73, Calvert Coll.. Md.\n1895. Superintendent of City Schools, 207 Rose Hill Ave., Versailles.\nAnna C. Roth.\n1887.\nTeacher in Sixth Grade, Duncan St. School, 2441 W. Chestnut St., Louisville.\nDora Svvoboda.\n1889.\nTeacher in 3d St. School, 2412 W. Chestnut St., Louisville.\nE. W. Weaver.\n1894.\nSuperintendent of City Schools, Paris.\n1898. W. Thomas Berry.\nPrincipal of Third District School, 221 Wood St.. Maysville.\n\n"}
{"page": 1209, "printed_page": null, "text": "Maryland]\n\nLIFE\n\nAND\n\nACTIVE\n\nMEMBERS\n\nI20I\n\nKENTUCKY— Co«/i«««</\n1898.\n\nA. C. KuYKENDALL,\nA.B,, of\n'91,Mathematics,\nBurrctt Coll. South Kentucky College, Hopkinsville.\n1898. Teacher\nMiles E. Marsh, Principal\nA.B.,_ '93,ofOberlin\nAcademyColl.\nof Berea College, Berea.\nWilliam H. Perry, A.M., '92, Ky. State Univ.\nPrincipal in Public Schools, 2909 W. Walnut St., Louisville.\nLOUISIANA\nactive members\n\n889.\n\nMiss Marion Browk.\n1895. Principal of New Orleans Normal School, ir42 Constance St., New Orleans.\nJ. Ramsey, A.M., Hampden Sidney Coll., Va. ; LL.D., Southwestern Univ.\n1885.\nPresident of Silliman Collegiate Institute, Clinton.\n1892. George Soi;l^.\nPresident of Soule Commercial College and Literary Institute, 603 St. Charles St.,\nNew Orleans.\n1894. Miss H. A. Suter.\n1878. Principal of McDonogh High School No. 2, 1426 St. Andrew St., New Orleans.\n1895. Warren Easton.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 1413, 3d St., New Orleans.\n1896. B. C. Caldwell.\n1896. President of State Normal School, Natchitoches.\nJ. G. Haupt.\nLake Charles.\nKate Kelly.\n1890. Principal of McDonogh School No. 1,4428 Canal St., New Orleans.\nLizzie Kelly.\n1884.\nPrincipal of McDonogh School No. 4, 4428 Canal St., New Orleans.\n1897. Clara G. Baer, Grad., '91, Posse Gymnasium.\n1891. Dir. of Physical Education, Newcomb Coll., 1532 Washington Ave. , New Orleans.\nBrandt V. B. Dixon, A.M., LL.D.\nPresident of H. Sophie Newcomb Memorial College, 1220 Washington Ave., New\nOrleans.\nEveline A. Waldo.\nGeorge\n\n1899.\n\nKindergarten Training Teacher,\" Nor. School, 6106 St. Charles Ave. , New Orleans.\nAugustine Aurianne, L.I., Peabody Nor. Sch., Univ. of Nashville.\n1898.\nCritic Teacher, Normal School, 6x5 Conti St., New Orleans.\nMAINE\nACTIVE\n\n*\n\nMEMBERS\n\n1890. M. C. Fernald, A.B., '61, A.M., '64, Ph.D., '81, Bowdoin Coll.\nProfessor of Philosophy and Logic, Emeritus, University of Maine, Orono.\n1892.\n\nW. J. Corthell,\n'57, KM..,\nWaterville\nColl.Gorham,\n; LL.D., '92, Colby Univ.\n1879. A.B.,\nPrincipal\nof State'60,\nNormal\nSchool,\n\n1895.\n\nJohn S. Locke.\n1893.\nSuperintendent of Schools; President of York Institute, 42 Middle St., Saco.\n•William Wallace Stetson.\n1895. State Superintendent of Public Schools, 295 Minot Ave., Auburn.\n1897. Orlando M. Lord.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Portland.\n1898, Charles\n\nFred. Cook, A.B., '91, St. Lawrence Univ.\n1896. Principal of Cony High School, 52 State St., Augusta.\nW. Harris, A.B., A.M., Wesleyan Univ. ; Sc.D., Bowdoin.\n1893. President of University of Maine, Orono.\nFranklin W. Johnson, A.B., '91, A.M., '94, Colby Univ.\n1894. Principal of Coburn Classical Institute, 6 Dalton St., Waterville.\nMary S. Snow, Ph.M., 'q6, Univ. of Maine.\n1889. Superintendent of Schools, City Hall, Bangor.\n\nAbram\n\nMARYLAND\n1876.\n\nlife member\nSarah E. Richmond.\n1875.\nVice-Principal of State Normal School, 2508 Madison Ave., Baltimore.\n\n1885.\n\nHenry\n\nactive members\nA. Wise, Grad. of Virginia Military Inst.\n1883. Superintendent of Schools, 409 St. Paul St., Baltimore.\n1891. John E. McCahan, A.M., '69, Dickinson Coll., Pa.\n1884. Assistant Superintendent of Schools, 1719 Hollins St., Baltimore.\n1892. Elijah Barrett Prettyman, A.B., '48, A.M., '52, LL.D., '97, Dickinson Coll., Pa.\n1890. State Superintendent of Public Instruction, 1200 Lafayette Ave., Baltimore.\n1894. Eli M. Lamb.\n1864.\nRachel E. Lamb. Principal of Friends' Elementary and High School, 1432 McCulloh St., Baltimore.\nEnglish\nInstructor in Friends' Elementary and High School, 1516\nBaltimore.\n1895. William H. Shelley, A.M., Iowa Wesleyan Univ.\n1890.\nPrincipal of Girls' Latin School, St. Paul and 24th Sts., Baltimore.\n1896. Daniel C. Oilman, LL.D., Yale.\n1875. President of Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore.\n\nLinden Ave.,\n\n"}
{"page": 1210, "printed_page": null, "text": "I202\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Massachusetts\n\nyiPA\\l.PCi!iD— Continued\n1896. Harry Marc Rowe, Ph.D.\nSecretary and Treasurer, Sadler, Rowe & Co., 12 N. Charles St., Baltimore.\n1897. Zachariah C. Ebaugh.\nMember of State Board of Education and Secretary of Board of School Commissioners, Baltimore Co., Reisterstown.\n1898. Susie S. Bouldin.\nAssistant in State Grammar School No. 43, 839 Aisquith St., Baltimore.\nE. E. Gates, A.B., '83, A.M., '88, Colby Univ.\n1897. President of Frederick College, Frederick.\nJohn E. Edwards. A.M.\n1898. County Examiner, 157 Washington St., Cumberland.\nElmer Gates.\nIn charge of Laboratory of Psychology and Psychurgy, Chevy Chase Circle, Chevy\nChase.\nA. J. Gminder.\n1895.\nPrincipal in English -German Public School No. 7, iiii Barclay St., Baltimore.\nHenry B. Gwynn, M.D., '88, Baltimore Univ.\nPrincipal of Male Grammar School No. i, 724 N. Gilmore St., Baltimore.\nJacob Tome Institute.\nPresident. Mrs. Evelyn S. Tome; Librarian, Caroline Bumite, Port Deposit.\nSchuyler B. Moon, A.B. and C.E., '87, Washington and Lee Univ.\n1887. Teacher in McDonogh Institute, McDonogh.\nI. A. Thorson.\n1899. Graduate Student, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore.\nJ. H. N. Waring, A.M., Howard Univ. ; M.D.\nSupervisor of Public Schools, Washington, D. C. ; res.. Linden.\nJohn Thomas White, Grad., '78, Mercersburg Coll.,; A.B., '78, A.M.. '84, Franklin and Marshall\nColl., Lancaster, Pa.\n1888. Principal of Allegheny County High School, 24 S. George St., Cumberland.\n1899. A. Marshall\nElliott, A.B., '66, A.M., '78, Haverford Coll.; A.B., '68, Harvard;\nPh.D., '77,\nPrinceton; LL.D., '91.\n1876. Professor in Johns Hopkins University, 935 Calvert St., Baltimore.\nThomas Crawford Galbreath, A.M., '97. W. Md. Coll., Westminster.\n1899.\nSuperintendent of Public Schools of Harford County, Bel Air.\nEdward H. Griffin, D.D., Amherst; LL.D., Princeton.\n1889.\nProfessor of the History of Philosophy and Dean of the College Faculty, Johns\nHopkins University, Baltimore.\nMASSACHUSETTS\nLIFE DIRECTORS\n\n1857.\n1887.\n\nWilliam Evarts Sheldon, A.M., '69, Middlebury Coll., Vt.\n1877. Editor of \" American Teacher,' and Business Department \"Journal of Education,\"\n3 Somerset St., Boston.\nMrs. Mary Hanchett Hunt.\nNational and International Superintendent of Scientific Temperance Instruction.\nW. C. T. U., 23 Trull St.. Boston.\nLIFE MEMBERS\n\n1884.\n1886.\n\n1884.\n\nJohn Bascom, LL.D, '73, Amherst Coll. ; D.D., '75, Iowa Coll. ; LL.D., '97, Williams Coll.\n1891.\nProfessor of Political Science, Williams College, Park St., Williamstown.\nWilliam Augustus Mowrv, A.M., Brown Univ. ; Ph.D., Bates Coll.\nWriter and Lecturer, 17 Riverside Sq., Hyde Park.\nFrank A. Fitzpatrick.\n93 Summer\nMrs. Eva D. Kellogg.\n\nactive members\nSt., Bo ton.\n\nF.ditor of \"Primary Education,\" soBromfield St., Boston.\n1890. Albert Gardner Boyden, A.M., '61, Amherst Coll.\ni860.\nPrincipal of State Normal School, Bridgewater.\nMrs. Mary Dana Hicks.\n1887.\nDirector of Prang Normal Art Classes, 646 Washington St., Boston.\nArthur P. Smith.\n1868.\nMaster of South Grammar School, 11 High St., Waltham.\n1891. G. Stanley Hall.\nPresident of Clark University, 94 Woodland St., Worcester.\nD. C. Heath, A.B., '68. A.M., '71, Amherst Coll.\n1876.\nEducational Publisher, no Boylston St., Boston.\nAmy Morris Homans.\nDirector of Boston Normal School of Gymnastics, Huntington Ave., Boston.\nRay Greene Huling, A.B., '69, A.M., '72, D.Sc, '94. Brown Univ.\n1893.\nHead Master of English High School, loi Trowbridge St., Cambridge.\nA. Eugene Nolen, A.B., '67, A.M., '70, Yale.\n1881.\nTeacher of Greek and Latin, High School, 3 Wood PI., Fitchburg.\nAlvin F. Pease, A.B., '75, A.M., '78, Brown Univ.\n1898.\nWith\nElizabeth H. Perry. N. E. Publishing Co. and Winship's Teachers' Agency, 3 Somerset St., Boston.\n1891.\nTeacher of Drawing, Normal School, Bridgewater.\nJohn Tilden Prince, Ph.D., '89, Leipzig.\n1881. Agent for Massachusetts Board of Education, 15 Temple St., West Newton.\n1892. Orlando Merriam Baker.\nPublisher, 499;Main St., Springfield.\n\n"}
{"page": 1211, "printed_page": null, "text": "Massachusetts]\n1892. Milton Bradley\n\nLIFE\n\nAND\n\nACTIVE\n\nMEMBERS\n\n1203\n\nKindergarten Publisher, Springfield.\n\nJohn S. Clark.\n\nTreasurer, Prang Educational Co., 646 Washington St., Boston.\nCharles W. Eliot, A.B., '53, Harvard; LL.D., '69, Williams, Princeton; '70, Yale.\n1869.\nPresident of Harvard University, 17 Quincy St., Cambridge.\nOilman C. Fisher, A.B., '69, A.M., '86, Colby Univ.\n•\n1898.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Castle St., Great Barrington.\nRobert C. Metcalf.\n1882. Supervisor of Schools, School Committee Rooms, Mason St., Boston; 17 Kenwood\nSt., Dorchester.\nWilliam W. Taplev.\nAssistant Manager, Educational Department, Milton Bradley Co., Springfield.\nGeorge A. Walton, A.M., Williams Coll.\n68 Chestnut St., West Newton.\nHenry N. Wheeler, A.B., '71, A.M., \"75, Harvard.\n1882.\nSupt. of Educational Department, Houghton, Mifflin St Co., 4 Park St., Boston.\nArthur K. Whitcomb, A.B., '73, Dartmouth.\ni89r.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 61 Durant St., Lowell.\nAlbert Edward Winship, Lit.D., '98.\nEditor of \" Journal of Education,\" 3 Somerset St., Boston.\n1893. Francis Cogswell, A.M., '81, Harvard.\n1874.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 257 Prospect St., Cambridge.\nFrank Irving Cooper.\nMary A. Grandy. Wayland.\n1898.\nSupervisor of Music, 184 Maple St., Springfield.\nIda K. Greenlee, A. B., '84.\n1898. Teacher in High School, 184 Maple St., Springfield.\nErnest Henry\nA.B.,\n'91, A.M.,\n'92,Chelsea;\nBrown Univ.\n1896. Johnson,\nMaster of\nWilliams\nSchool,\n234 Mauran Ave., East Providence, R. I.\nGeorge H. Martin, A.M., '81, Amherst Coll.\n1892.\nSupervisor of Schools, Boston; res., 388 Summer St., Lynn.\nWill S. Monroe, A.B., '94, Stanford Univ.\n1896. Department of Pedagogy and Psychology, State Normal School, Westfield .\nCharles Cornell Ramsay, A.B., A.M., '92, Harvard.\n1892.\nPrincipal of B. M. C. Durfee High School, 355 N. Main St., Fall River.\nEdwin P. Seaver, A.M., LL.B., Harvard.\n1880.\nSuperintendent of Schools, School Committee Rooms, Mason St., Boston.\n1894. Fred Washington Atkinson, A. B., '90, Harvard; Ph.D., '93, Leipzig.\n1894. Principal of Central High School, 95 Elliott St., Springfield.\nFrederick Elmer Chapman.\n1891. Director of Music, Cambridge Public Schools, 126 Oxford St., North Cambridge.\nJ. A. Russell.\n6 Allston St., Boston.\n1895. Sarah Louise Arnold.\n1895. Supervisor of Schools, Boston; res., 21 Institution Ave., Newton Centre.\nThomas M. Balliet,\n1887. Superintendent of Schools, 47 Vernon St., Springfield.\nEugene Bouton, A.B., '75, A.M., '80, Yale; Ph.D., '81, Syracuse.\n1894.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 60 Elizabeth St., Pittsfield.\nJ. E. Burke, A.B., '90, A.M., '93, Colby Univ.\n1894.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Lawrence.\nC. F. Carroll.\n1894. Superintendent of Schools, 666 Main St., Worcester.\n♦Larkin DimTON, LL.D., '80, Colby Univ.\n1872.\nHead Master of Boston Normal School, 16 Ashford St., Allston, Boston.\nSamuel T. Dotton, A. B., Yale.\n1890.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Brookline.\nRoland W. Guss. Grad., '81, State Nor. Sch., Pa. ; A.B., '88, A.M., '91, Wesl. Univ., Conn.\n1897. Instructor in Natural Science, State Normal School, 85 Church St., North Adams.\nIsaac Freeman Hall.\n1895. Superintendent of Schools, 4 Elmwood Ave., North Adams.\nPaul H. Hanus, B.Sc.\nAssistant Professor of the History and Art of Teaching, Harvard University, 13\nPhillips PI., Cambridge.\nAlbert Bushnell Hart, A.B.. '80, Harvard; Ph.D., Freiburg, Baden.\n1897.\nProfessor of History, Harvard University, 15 Appian Way, Cambridge.\nHarvard College Library.\nPresident, Charles W. Eliot; Librarian, William C. Lane, Cambridge.\nFrank A. Hill, A.B., '62, A.M., '6s, Lit.D., '94, Bowdoin.\n1894. Secretary of Stale Board of Education, 3S6 Harvard St., Cambridge.\nAustin H. Kenerson.\nAgent for Ginn & Co., Schoolbooks, 13 Tremont PI., Boston.\nAlonzo Meserve.\n1886.\nMaster of Bowdoin School, 87 Linden St., Allston Station, Boston.\nCharles H. Morss, A.B., '80, A.M., '82, Harvard.\n1895. Superintendent of Schools, Medford.\n^\nJames Phinney Miwroe, B.Sc, '82, Mass. Inst, of Technology.\nAuthor, 179 Devonshire St., Boston.\nCharles W. Parmenter, A.B., '77, A.M., '86, Ph.D., '95, Tufts Coll.\n1894. Head Master of Mechanic Arts High School, Boston; res., 80 Huron Ave., North\nCambridge.\nBaroness Rose Posse.\n♦Deceased.\n\n1892. Director of Posse Gymnasium\nton St., Boston.\n\nand Editor \" Posse Gymnasium\n\nJournal,\" 23 Irving-\n\n"}
{"page": 1212, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 2 04\n\nNA\n\nTIONAL\n\nEDUCA\n\nTIONAL\n\nASSOCIA\n\nTION\n\n[Massachusetts\n\n1895. Charles A. Siblev,\nA.B., of'87,\nMember\nfirmAmherst.\nof Leach, Shewell & Co., 68 Chauncy St., Boston.\nJohn Gilbert Thompson, A.B., '86, A.M., '94. Dartmouth Coll.\n1895. Principal of State Normjil School, 55 Garnet St., Fitchburg.\nAlfred Turner, B.Sc, '93, Amherst Coll.\n• Haiti E Twichell.\n1897.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Turner's Falls.\n1896. Kindergarten Training Teacher, Longmeadow.\nHenry Whittemore, A.B., '66, Dartmouth Coll.\n1898. Principal of State Normal School, Framingham.\n,\n1896. Charles H. Ames, A.B., '70, A.M., '73, Amherst Coll.\nEducational Publisher, with D. C. Heath & Co., no Boylston St.. Boston ; res.. West\nNewton.\nGeorge Peters Armstrong.\n1896.\nSuperintendent of Schools in Belmont and Manchester, 7 Oak St., Belmont.\nWilliam C. Bates, A.B., '77, Harvard.\n1894.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 218 Lincoln Ave., Fall River.\nWall.\\ce C. Bovden, A.B., '83, A.M., '86, Amherst.\n1889.\nMaster of Boston Normal School, 221 Walnut St., Newtonville.\nGeorge W. Brown.\n1886.\nPrincipal of J ackman School, 38 High St., Newburyport.\nElmer Hewitt Capen, D.D., '79. St. Lawrence Univ. ; LL. D., '99, Buchtel Coll.\n1875.\nPresident of Tufts College, 8 Professors' Row, Tufts College.\nJoseph G. Edgerlv.\n1875.\nSuperintendent of City Schools, 37 Atlantic Ave., Fitchburg.\nHerbert J.1899.\nJones,Superintendent\nPh.B., '94, Cornell\nUniv. Southern Berkshire District, Sheffield.\nof Schools,\nFrances H. LxioK.\n1892. Principal of Florence Kindergartens, 116 Elm St., Northampton.\nLincoln Owen, A.B., '89. A.M., '92, Colby Univ.\n1893. Master of Rice Training School, 53 Montview St., West Roxbuiy.\nWalter Scott Parker.\n1894. Supervisor, Boston Public Schools, School Com. Rooms, Mason St., Boston.\nMvron T. Pritchard.\nMaster of Everett School, Boston; res., 125 School St.. Roxbury.\nDudley A. Sargent, A.B., '75, A.M., '87, S.D., '93, Bowdoin; M.D., '78, Yale.\n1879.\nDirector of Hemenway Gymnasium, Harvard Univ., 27 Everett St., Cambridge.\nKirk N. Washburn.\nOne of the Publishers of Webster's International Dictionary, 499 Main St., Springfield\nCharles Branch Wilson, A.B., '81, A.M., '84, Colby Univ., Me.\n1896.\nDept. of Natural Science, State Normal School, 16 Washington St., Westfield.\nCollege Library.\nLibrarian, W, I. Fletcher, Amherst.\nErnest Milnor Benedict, A.B., '85, Kenyon Coll. ; D.B., '91, Epis. Theol. Sch.\nStudent, Graduate School, Harvard University, 58 Hammond St., Cambridge.\nS. F. Blodgett, A.m., '74, Yale.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 103 Union Ave., So. Framingham.\nBoston College.\nPresident, W. G. Read MuUan; Librarian, Edward P. Spillane, 761 Harrison Ave.\nBoston.\nArthur C. Bovden, A.B., '76, A.M.. '81, Amherst Coll.\n1879.\nVice-Principal of State Normal School, Park Ave., Bridgewater.\nJ. H. Carfrey, Ph.M., Syracuse Univ.\n1898. Superintendent of Public Schools, Northampton.\nGeorge H. Conley, A. B., Holy Cross.\nSupervisor of Schools and (1893) Member Mass. State Board of Exiucation, Mason\nSt., Boston.\nGertrude Ed.mund, Pd.D., '93, New York Univ.\nPrincipal of Normal Training School, 74 Huntington St., Lowell.\nWilliam E. Hatch, A.B., A.M., Bowdoin.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 168 William St., New Bedford.\nE. A. Kirkpatrick, B.Sc, '87, Ph.M., '8g, Ames.\nPsychology and Child Study, State Normal School, 26 Atlantic .Ave., Fitchburg.\nPerkins Institution and Massachusetts School for the Blind.\nPresident, F. H. Appleton;\nDirector, Michael Anagnos, East Broadway, South\nBoston.\nLillian E. Rogers.\n1896. Teacher of 7th Grade Grammar, Brookline; res., 37 Chesley Road, Newton Centre\nThomas E. Thompson.\n1895. Superintendent of Schools, Leominster.\nWestfield State Normal School.\nPrincipal, Charles S. Chapin, 8 Mill St., Westfield.\nWilliams College Library.\nLibrarian, Charles H. Burr, Williamstown.\n1898. Arthur Deerin Call, Ph.B., '96, Brown Univ.\n1899. Superintendent of Schools, Medway, HoIIiston and Sherbom Districts, Holliston,\nCity Library Associ.'^tion, Springfield.\nLibrarian, J. C. Dana, Springfield.\nGeorge Wells Fitz, M.D., '91.\n1894.\nAssistant Professor, Harvard University, 6 Acacia St., Cambridge.\nFree Public Library of the City of Worcester.\nLibrarian, Samuel S. Green, Worcester.\n1897. Amherst\n\nF. F. MURDOCK.\n\nHerbert\n\nPrincipal of State Normal School, North Adams.\nMyrick. B.Sc, '82, Mass. Agri. Coll.\nPresident of Orange Judd Company, New York; 151 Bowdoin St., Springfield.\n\n"}
{"page": 1213, "printed_page": null, "text": "Michigan]\n\nLIFE AND\n\nACTIVE\n\nMEMBERS\n\n1205\n\nMASSACHUSETTS— 0«^z«Kf</\n1898. Mrs. Ellen H. Richards, A.B., '70; A.M., '73, Vassar Coll. ; S.B., '73, Mass. Inst, of Tech.\n1884.\nInstructor in Sanitary Chemistry, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston;\nres., 32 Eliot St., Jamaica Plain.\nState Library of Massachusetts.\nState Librarian, C. B. Tillinghast, State House, Boston.\n1899. Lyman Richards Allen, B.Sc. '98, Harvard.\n1898.\nInstructor of History and Geography, Normal School, North Adams.\nFrank F. Coburn, A.B., '705 Amherst.\nPrincipal of State Normal School, 277 E. Merrimac St., Lowell.\nW. M. Davis, B.Sc, '69, M.E., '70, Harvard.\n1890. Professor, Harvard University, 17 Francis Ave., Cambridge.\nEdwin H. Hall, Ph.D., '80, Johns Hopkins.\n1895. Professor of Physics, Harvard University, 37 Gorham St., Cambridge.\nLizzie Mason.\n1891. Superintendent of Schools of Orange, Wendall, and Ewing ; Box 1373, Orange.\nMay E. Murray,\n\"Kindergarten Review,\" 51 Acushnet Ave., Springfield.\nJohn Russell Olin,Principal\nA.B., '93,\nA.M., School,\n'96, Hobart\nColl.\nof High\nBelmont.\nWilliam T. Sedgwick, Ph.D., '81, Johns Hopkins Univ.\n1883. Professor of Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston.\nMaurice B. Smith, A.B., '95, Amherst Coll.\n1896. Principal of High School, Holliston.\nState Normal School, Fitchburg,\nPrincipal, John G. Thompson, Fitchburg.\nCharles F. Warner, A.B., '79, A.M., '82, Colby Univ.\n1898.\nPrincipal of Mechanic Arts High School, 837 State St., Springfield.\nMICHIGAN\nLIFE directors\n1895.\n\nHugh\n\nA. Graham, A.B., '87, A.M., '92, Albion Coll.; A.B., '90, Univ. of Mich.\n1898.\nSuperintendent of Public Schools, Grayling.\nG. White, A.B., '73, A.M., '80, Ph.D., 'go1884. Superintendent of Schools, Lake Linden.\n\nCharles\n\nACTIVE\n1884.\n\n1887.\n\nmembers\n\nB. A. Hinsdale, A.M., '71, Williams Coll. ; Ph.D., '87, Ohio State Univ. ; LL.D., '92, Ohio Univ.\n1887. Professor of Science and Art of Teaching, University of Michigan, 1414 Washtenaw\nAve., Ann Arbor.\nJohn A. Stewart, A.B., '7S. Univ. of Mich.\n1894. Superintendent of Schools, 908 Van Buren St., Bay City.\nWilliam Austin Ellis, Grad., Mich. State Nor. Sch., '83; LL.B., '95, Detroit Coll. of Law; Grad.,\nMich. State Nor. Coll., '97.\n1885. Principal of Duffield Grammar School, 424, 2d Ave., Detroit.\n\n1889. J. L. Snyder,\n'86, Ph.D.,\n'gi, Westminster\nColl.\n1896.A.B.,President\nMichigan\nState Agricultural\nCollege, Agricultural College.\n1890. Ferris S. Fitch, A.B., '77, Univ. of Mich.\nEx- State Superintendent of Public Instruction, 49 Williams St., Pontiac.\n1892. Myra Jones.\n1883.\nSupervisor of Drawing, Windermere Apartments, Detroit.\nJohn B. Nykirk, A.B., '85, A.M., '88, Hope Coll., Mich.\n1895. Professor of English Language and Literature, Hope College, 236 Columbia Ave.\nHolland.\nHenry\n\nR. Pattengill, B.Sc, '74, Univ. of Mich.\n1896. Editor and Publisher, 420 Townsend St., Lansing.\nA. Strong, A.B., '58, A.M., '65, Union Coll.\n1885.\nProfes.sorof Physical Sciences, State Normal College, 127 Normal St., Ypsilanti\n1893. S. Emory Whitney.\n1885.\nPrincipal of Cass School, 83 Winder St., Detroit.\n1894. E. D. Palmer, A.B., '89, A.M., '92, Hillsdale Coll. ; A.M., '97, Univ. of Mich.\ni8g8.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Mason.\nH. M. Slauson, Ph.B., '77, Univ. of Mich.\n1898. Superintendent of Schools, Ann Arbor,\nDuRAND William Springer, B.Sc, '86, Albion Coll.\n1893.\nDirector of Business Department, High School, 702 E. University Ave., Ann Arbor\nEdwin C. Thompson, A.M., Pd.M.\n1888. Superintendent of Schools, 1117 Court St., Saginaw, W. S.\nAllen S. Whitney, A. B,, '85, Univ. of Mich.\n1899. Junior Professor of Pedagogy, University of Michigan, 620 State St., Ann Arbor\n1895. Frederick W. Arbury, A.B., '83, Univ. of Mich.\nEx -Superintendent of Schools, Battle Creek; 226 Warren Ave. W., Detroit\nFrederick Leroy Bliss, A.B., '77, Univ. of Mich.\n1899.\nPrincipal of Detroit University School, 69 Frederick Ave., Detroit.\nFrank W. Cooley, B.Sc, '81, M.Sc, '86, Lawrence Univ.\n*\n1893.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 27 Mine St., Calumet.\nHenry H. Frost, A.B., '85, Univ. of Mich.\n1897. Teacher of Geometry, Central High School, 1302 John R St., Detroit.\nAustin George, A.B., '66, A.M., '69, Kalamazoo Coll. ; M.Pd., '93, Mich. State Nor. Sch.\nSuperintendent of Public Schools, in Normal St., Ypsilanti.\nCarl C. Marshall.\n1895.\nEducational Author, 347 E. Main St., Battle Creek.\n1896. L. E. Amidon, A.B., '92, Mich. Univ. ; A.M., '98, Harvard Univ.\n1898. Superintendent of Schools, Iron Mountain.\nEdwin\n\n"}
{"page": 1214, "printed_page": null, "text": "I2o6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nMICHIGAN- C<7«rf«w<frf\n1896.\n\n[Minnesota\n\n-\n\nW. E. CONKLING, Grad.j Mich. St. Nor. Coll.\n1896.\nSuperintendent of Schools. 304 Cortland St., Dowagiac.\nAugustus E. Curtis, A.B., '66, A.M., '70, Union Coll.\n1896.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 113 W. Maumee St., Adrian.\nE. E. Ferguson, B.Pd., '96, Mich. State Nor. Coll. ; Ph.B., '99.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 526 Bingham Ave., Sault Ste. Marie.\nS. B. Laird. M.Sc, '96, McKendree Coll., 111.\n1899.\nAssociate Professor of Pedagogy, Michigan State Normal College, 423 Ballard St.,\nYpsilanti.\nWilliam Lightbody, B.Sc, Mich. Agr. Coll. ; B.Pd., Mich. Nor. Sch.\nPrincipal of Higgins School, Woodmere; 496 Dragoon Ave., Detroit.\nDavid Mackenzie, A.M., Univ. of Mich.\n1892.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 208 W. Clay Ave., Muskegon.\nJames M. Mandeville, Grad., Mich. State Nor. Sch.\n1891.\nPrincipal of Amos School, Military Ave., Detroit.\nLew. D. Remington.\n1890. Principal of High School, 1020 Adelaide St., Fenton.\nW. V. Sage, B.Sc, '84, Mich. Agri. Coll.\n1899. Superintendent of Schools, Mt. Pleasant.\nJ. D. Schiller, A.M., '87. Hillsdale Coll.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Niles.\nAnna A. Schrvver.\nTeacher in Natural Science Department, State Normal College, Ypsilanti; 411 E.\nUniversity Ave., Ann Arbor.\nMrs. Emma A. Thomas.\n1886.\nSupervisor of Music, 91 Watson St., Detroit.\nOmar D. Thompson.\n1876.\nSuperintendent of Village Schools, Romeo.\nO. I. WOODLEV.\n\n1894. Superintendent of Schools, 617 Stephenson Ave., Menominie.\nL. L. Wright.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Ironwood.\n1897. James H. Beazell. _\n1899. Principal of Centra! High School, 94 Horton Ave., Detroit.E. F. Bradt.\nPresident of Board of Education, Ishpeming.\nH. Z. Brock, B.Sc, '85, Univ. of Mich.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Hancock.\nFrancis D. Clarke, C.E., Univ. of Mich.\nSuperintendent of State School for the Deaf. Flint.\nDelos Fall, B.Sc, '75, M.Sc, '82, Univ. of Mich. ; Sc.D., '98, Albion Coll.\n1879.\nProfessor of Chemistry, Albion College, iioi Michigan Ave., Albion.\nWilliam H. Fort.\n,\nSujjerintendent of Public Schools, Munising.\nPaul C. Freer, M.D., Ph.D.\n1889.\nProfessor of General Chemistry, University of Michigan, 1410 Hill St., Ann Arbor\nC. O. Hoyt, a. M., Albion.\n1899.\nProfessor of Pedagogy, State Normal School. 502 Cross St., Ypsilanti.\nWarren C. Hull, Ph.M., '94, Albion ; B.Pd., '91, M.Pd., '96, Mich. Nor. Coll.\n1898.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 301 Court St., Flint.\nHenry C. Lott.\n1895. Superintendent of Schools, Elk Rapids.\nW. F. Lyon.\n1887. Supervisor of Penmanship, 534 Greenwood Ave., Detroit.\nW. C. Martindale, LL.B., Detroit Law Sch.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Detroit.\nCharles McKenny, B.Sc, '81, Mich. Agr. Coll. ; A.B., '89, A.M., '92, Olivet.\n1896. Principal of Central Michigan State Normal School, Mt. Pleasant.\nFred Newton Scott, Ph.D., '89, Univ. of Mich.\nJunior Professor of Rhetoric, University of Michigan, 1113 College St., Ann Arbor.\nThe Public Library of Detroit.\nLibrarian. H. M. Utley, Detroit.\nBellk M. Tower.\n1896. Critic Teacher, Wealthy Ave. Normal School, 531 Jefferson Ave., Grand Rapids.\nWilliam Stearns White, Ph.B., '89, Albion Coll.\nState Agent for the American Book Co., Grand Rapids.\n1898. Paul A. Cowgill, B.Sc, Univ. of Mich. ; B.Pd., Mich. State Nor. Coll.\nSuperintendent of City Schools, Lapeer.\nGeneral Library, University OF Michigan.\nPresident, James B. Angell ; Librarian, Raymond C. Davis, Ann Arbor.\nJames H. Harris, A.B., '91, Univ. of Mich.\n1897. Principal of High School, 501 N. Madison St., Bay City, Mich.\nE. A. Lyman, A.B., '86, Univ. of Mich.\n1899.\nPrincipal of State Normal College, 126 N. Washington St., Ypsilanti.\n1899. Anna M. Chandler, Ph.M., '79, Univ. of Mich.\n1888. Superintendent of Public Schools, 411 E. Ridge St., Marquette.\nW. N. Ferris.\n,\nPrincipal, Ferris Institute, Big Rapids.\nFrederick Edward Searle, A.B., \"93, Williams Coll.\n1899.\nPrincipal of The Detroit School for Boys, Detroit.\nMINNESOTA\nLIFB\n\n1870.\n\nDIRECTOR\n\nWilliam F. Phelps, A.M., '52, Union Coll., N. Y.\nDirector, State Normal Schools, 512 Washburn Boul., St. Paul.\n\n"}
{"page": 1215, "printed_page": null, "text": "Minnesota]\n\nLIFE\n\nAND\n\nACTIVE\nLIFE\n\n1864.\n1890.\n\ni88o.\n\n1886.\n\n1 207\n\nMEMBERS\n\nCalvin Smith Pennell, A.B., '41, A.M., '50, Colby Univ.\nEx -Professor of Moral and Mental Phil., Washington Univ., St. Louis, Mo,, 2245\nKnapp St., St. Anthony Park.\nBoard of Education, Independent School District No. 3, Northfield.\nPresident, W. A.Hunt, M.D., Northfield.\nACTIVE\n\n1883.\n\nMEMBERS\n\nMEMBERS\n\nD. L. KiEHLE, A.B., '61, A.M., '64, LL.D., '87, Hamilton Coll., N. Y.\n1893.\nProfessor of Pedagogy, Univ. of Minn., 2800 Portland Ave., Minneapolis.\nIrwin Shepard, A.B., '^\\, A.M., '74, Ph.D., '93, Olivet Coll., Mich.\n1893.\nSecretary of National Educational Association, 118 W. Wabasha St., Winona.\nFrederick 1892.\nE. Stratton,\n'71, A.M.,Carleton\n'74, Williams\n; Ph.D., '91, 111. Wesleyan Univ.\nPrincipalA.B.,\nof Academy,\nCollege,Coll.\nNorthfield.\n\n1890.\nRobert Eduard Denfeld, A.B., '76, A.M., '78, Amherst Coll.\n1885. Superintendent of Schools, Central High School, Duluth,\n1893, Charles M, Jordan, Ph.D., '92, Tufts Coll.\n1892. Superintendent of Schools, 615 E. i8th St., Minneapolis.\nA. W. Rankin, A.B., '80, Univ. of Minn.\n1895. State Inspector of Graded Schools, 1529 University Ave. S. E., Minneapolis.\n1894. George B. Aiton, A.B., '81, A.M., '87, Univ. of Minn.\n1893. State Inspector of High Schools, 1601 University Ave. S. E., Minneapolis.\nSarah C. Brooks.\n1899.\nPrincipal of Teachers' Training School, 631 Westminster St,, St. Paul.\nS. A. Farnsworth.\ni886.\nPrincipal of Cleveland High School, 529 Case St., St. Paul.\nJ. G, Hopkins,\n318 West King St,, Winona,\nL, Grace Hopkins,\nStenographer, State Normal School, 318 W. King St., Winona.\nIsabel Lawrence.\n1879. Training Teacher in Normal School, 417, 2d Ave. S., St. Cloud.\nLucia M. Miller.\nPrincipal of Webster School, 631 Westminster St., St. Paul,\nMary L, Olds.\n1889,\nPrincipal of Washington School, 301 E. 3d St,, Duluth,\nWilliam Wirt Pendergast,\nHutchinson, A,M,, '93, Bowdoin Coll,, Me.\nMrs, Louise Preece,\nAuthor and Instructor of the Preece System of Physical Training, Hotel Berkeley,\nMinneapolis,\nAlex M, Rowe, A.B., '70, A.M., '79, Oberlin Coll.\n1897. Superintendent of Schools, Little Falls.\n1895. *A. E. Engstrom, A.B., '78, A.M., '81, Carleton Coll.\n1881.\nCounty Superintendent of Schools, Cannon Falls.\nThomas J. Gray,\nUniversity of Minnesota, College of Medicine, 602 Nicollet Ave,, Minneapolis,\nF. V, Hubbard,\n1896, Superintendent of Schools, Red Wing,\nGeorge R, Kleeberger,\n1895. President of State Normal School. St. Cloud.\nJesse F. Millspaugh, A.B., '89, Univ. of Mich.; M.D., '83, Univ. of Pa.\n1898. President of State Normal School, Winona.\nS. S. Parr.\n1889.\nSuperintendent of City Schools, 520, 2d Ave. S., St, Cloud,\nSamuel J, Race, B,L,, Univ. of Pa.\n1886. County Superintendent of Schools, Redwood Falls.\nW. A, Shoemaker, Pd.M., '98, N. Y. Univ.\n1881, Teacher of Mathematics and Methods, State Normal School, 921, loj^ Ave. S. ,\nSt. Cloud,\nWillliam G, Smith,\nEditor\" School Education,\" 26 Washington Ave, S,, Minneapolis,\nJames W, Strong, A,B., '58, A.M., '61, D.D., '72, Beloit Coll. ; LL.D., '96, 111. Coll.\n1870.\nPresident of Carleton College, 108 College Ave., Northfield.\nAdolph C. Tibbetts.\n1896. Superintendent of Schools, St. Charles,\nFrank A. Weld,\n1899. President of State Normal School, Moorhead.\n1896, C, A. Ballard, B.Sc, '94, Univ. of Minn.\n1899.\nDepartment of Science, State Normal School, Moorhead.\nJ. D. Bond, B.Sc, '72, M.Sc, '73, Milton Coll., Wis.\n1872.\nAssist. Superintendent of Public Schools, 451 Marshall Ave., St. Anthony Hill\nStation, St. Paul.\nClarence M. Boutelle, LL.D., '96, St. Stephen's Coll., Annandale, N. Y.\n1895.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Marshall.\nRalph H. Burns, A.B., Yale.\n1899.\nSuperintendent of Public Schools, Renville.\nMrs. Alice W. Cooley.\n1895. Supervisor of Primary Schools, 1674 Hennepin Ave., Minneapolis.\nR. W, Cranston.\n1898.\nAgent for Butler, Sheldon & Co., 1025, 3d Ave. S., Minneapolis.\nJames J. Dow, A.B., '74, A.M., '78, L.H.D., '99, Carleton Coll.\n1875,\nSuperintendent of School for the Blind, Faribault.\n* Died October 12, 1899.\n\n"}
{"page": 1216, "printed_page": null, "text": "I2o8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Minnesota\n\n1896. Etta J. Fay.\n1892. Teacher in Intermediate Grade, Washburn Memorial Orphan Asylum, Station\nMinneapolis.\nH. L. Grant, M.Sc, Lawrence Univ.\nRaymond PI., St. Paul.\nBonnie E. Snow.\n1896.\nSupervisor of Drawing, Public Schools, Hampshire Arms, Minneapolis.\nHelen Ford Staples.\n1891.\nTeacher in Primary Department, Public Schools, 127 E. Broadway, Winona.\nJ. A. Vandyke, A.M., '90, B.Pd., '89, B.Ph., '87, Univ. of Iowa.\n1899. Superintendent of Public Schools, 511 Union Ave., Fergus Falls.\nWilliam Franklin Webster, A.B., '86, Univ. of Minn.\nPrincipal of East Side High School, 1025, 5th St. S. E., Minneapolis.\n1897. Isaac I. Bargen.\n1885. County Superintendent of Schools, Mountain Lake.\nWilliam A. Bartlett, B.Sc, '87, A.M., '90, Iowa QjoW.\nt896.\nPrincipal of High School, 214 W. Wabasha St., Winona.\nA. B. Christy, Ph.M.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Allen Ave. and Oak St., East Grand Forks.\nHerbert R. Edwards, Ph.B., '91, Alfred Univ.\n1899.\nSuperintendent of Public Schools, Browns Valley.\nFrances A. Elmer.\n1886. Teacher of Latin, State Normal School, 264 W. Wabasha St., Winona.\nLyman H. Ford,\n'^2, A.M., of'93,Schools,\nUniv. of\nWooster.\n1893. A.B.,\nSuperintendent\nOwatonna.\nGeo. a. Franklin, Grad., '77, Nor. Sch., Normal, 111.\n1894. Superintendent of Schools, 401 W. 6th St., Faribault.\nLaura Hand.\n1893. Principal of Van Buren School, 598 Grand Ave., St. Paul.\nP. P. Kennedy,\n'90, Univ. of\n1895.B.Sc,\nSupermtendent\nof Minn.\nSchools, Fairmont.\nMary A. Keyes. .\nCritic Teacher, State Normal School, Winona.\nMary E. Lynch.\nPrimary Teacher, 118 Mark St., Winona.\nC. L. Sawyer, A.M., '91, Dartmouth; LL.B., '97, Univ. of Minn.\nMoore Bros. & Sawyer, 311 Nicollet Ave., Minneapolis.\nHiram Worcester Slack, Ph.B., '95, 111. Was. Univ.\n1876.\nPrincipal of Schools, 735 Olive St., St. Paul.\nAlma B. Stanford.\n1894. Principal of High School, Northfield.\nState Normal School at Moorhead.\nPresident, Frank A. Weld, Moorhead.\nState Normal School at St. Cloud.\nPresident, George R. Kleeberger, St. Cloud.\nState Normal School at Winona.\nLibrarian, Ida D. Aikins, Winona.\nJames A. Tormey,\nB.L., '95, Univ.of ofSchools,\nWis.\n1896. Superintendent\n373 Johnson St., Winona.\nEllen F. Wheaton.\n1898.\nPrincipal of Van Cleve School, 1721 Clinton Ave., Minneapolis.\n1898. E. T. Critchett, A.B., '85, A.M., '88, Dartmouth.\n1894.\nSuperintendent of Public Schools, New Ulm.\nFannie P. Farnsworth, B.L., '88, Univ. of Wis.\n1898. Principal of High School, 203, 3d St., Red Wing.\nDiedrich a. Grussendorf, B.Sc, '97, Univ. of Minn.\n1899. Principal of High School, New Ulm.\nJohn Loman,1896.\nA.B.,Principal\n'85. Yale.\nof High School, Duluth.\n\n1899.\n\nJohn C. Miller, Ph.B., Hamlin Univ., Minn.\n1899.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Lanesboro.\nMinneapolis Athenaeum.\nLibrarian, Jessie McMillan, Minneapolis.\nW. F. F. SELLECK,Ph.B.,'98, 111. Wes. Univ.\n1892. Superintendent of Schools, 804 Freeborn St., Austin.\nA. J, Smith, A.M.\n1898. Superintendent of City Schools, New York Life Insurance Building, St. Paul.\nG. O. Virtue, A.M., '93, Ph.D., '97.\n1897. Instructor in History and Civics, State Normal School, 152 W. Wabasha St., Winona.\nJulius Hoktvet, B.Sc, '86, Univ. of Wis.\n1892. Teacher of Physics in East Side High School, 1521 University Ave. S. E., Minneapolis.\nJ. H. Lewis. A.B., '78.\n1899. State Superintendent of Public Instruction, St. Paul; res., Hastings.\nArthur C. Rogers, B.Sc,, '77, Earlham Coll. ; M.D., '83, Univ. of Iowa.\n1885. Superintendent of School for Feeble-Minded, Faribault.\nPete W. Ross, B.Sc, A.B., Univ. of Mich.\nSuperintendent of Public Schools, Morris.\nEdith A. Scott.\n1899. Principal of Model School, Moorhead.\nState Normal School at Mankato.\nPresident, C. H. Cooper, Mankato.\n\nD,\n\n1\n\n"}
{"page": 1217, "printed_page": null, "text": "Missouri]\n\nLIFE\n\nAND\n\nACTIVE\n\nMEMBERS\n\n1209\n\nMISSISSIPPI\nACTIVE\n\nMEMBERS\n\n1890.\n\nJames Rhea Preston, A.M.\niSgg.\nPresident of Faculty, Stanton College, Natchez.\n1892.\nDabney Lipscomb, A.M., '81, Univ. of Miss.\n1895. Professor of English and of Belles-lettres, University of Mississippi. University.\n1894. Robert B. Fulton, A.B., '69, A.M., '72, Univ. of Miss. ; LL.D., '93, Univ. of Nashville.\n1892. Chancellor of University of Mississippi, University.\n1895. E. E. Bass, B.L., '83, Mo. State Univ.\n1884.\nSuperintendent of City Schools, 509 N. Broadway, Greenville.\n1896. A. A. Kincannon, A.B., M.Sc, Lebanon, O.\n1896. State Superintendent of Education, Jackson.\nRichard M. Leavell, A.B., '59, Univ. of Miss. ; LL.D., '89, Miss. Coll.\n1890.\nProfessor of Philosophy and Political Economy, Univ. of Mississippi, University.\n1897. J. G. Deupree, A.B., A.m., Howard Coll., Ala. ; LL.D., S.W. B. Univ., Tenn.\n1896.\nProfessor of Pedagogy, University of Alississippi, University.\nJohn Clayton Fant, A.M., '92, Emory and Henry Coll. ; Pd.M., '95, N. Y. Univ.\n1896.\nSuperintendent of Public Schools, The Highlands, Meridian.\nW. I. Thames, Grad., N. Nor. Univ. ; A.B.\nPrincipal of High School, Poplarville.\n1899.\nRev. Cyrus Hamlin, D.D.. '83, Beloit, Wis.\n1896.\nDean of Tougaloo University for Colored People, Tougaloo,\nB M. Walker, B.Sc , '83, M.Sc, '86, Miss. Agri. and Mech. Coll.\n1888.\nProfessor of Mathematics, Mississippi Agricultural and Mechanical College.\nMISSOURI\nLIFE directors\n\n1877.\n1886.\n\nF.Louis Soldan, LL.D., '83, South Carolina Univ.\n1895. Superintendent of Schools, 3634 Flad Ave., St. Louis.\nJ. M. Greenwood, A.M., '73, LL.D., Univ. of Missouri.\n1874.\nSuperintendent of City Schools, 9th and Locust Sts., Kansas City.\nlife members\n\n1871.\n\nJames B. Merwin.\n\n1886. Charles Henry\n1877.\nG. I. Harvey.\n\nEditor \" American School and College Journal,\" 3609 Palm St., St. Louis.\nEvans, A.M., '78, William Jewell Coll., Liberty, Mo.\nEditor of \"American College and Public School Directory,\" 915 Locust St., St. Louis.\n3d and Francis Sts., St. Joseph.\nactive members\n\n1887. James U. White, M.S.D., Missouri State Nor. Sch.\n1899.\nSuperintendent of City Schools, Brookfield Ave., Brookfield.\nCalvin Milton Woodward, A.B., '60, Harvard Univ.; Ph.D., '84, Washington Univ.\n1870.\nProfessorof Mathematics and Applied Mechanics ; 1879, Directorof Manual Training\nSchool, Washington University, 3013 Hawthorne Boul., St. Louis.\n1890. Mrs. Matilda Evans Riley.\n1887.\nDirector of Drawing, Public Schools, Board of Education Building, St. Louis.\n1891. John R. Kirk.\n1899.\nPresident of State Normal School, Kirksville.|\nGeorge Thomas Murphy.\n1890. Assistant Superintendent of Schools, 4946 Berlin Ave., St. Louis.\nF. D. Tharpe.\n1884.\nPrincipal of Webster School, J216 Anderson Ave., Kansas City.\n1892. Richard Henry Jesse, LL.D., '91, Tulane Univ.\n1891. President of University of State of Missouri, Columbia.\nMary Clifton McCulloch.\n1880.\nSupervisor of Public Kindergartens, 3851 Washington Boul., St. Louis.\nFlorence McNeal.\n1896. Teacher in Humboldt School, 310 E. lothSt., Kansas City.\nC. W. Robbins.\nPresident, Central Business College, Sedalia.\n1893. James Underwood Barnard.\n1897. City School Principal, 3038 E. 7th St., Kansas City.\nObediah M. Wood.\n1883.\nPrincipal of L'Ouverture School, 3016 Caroline St., St. Louis.\nVictor Buchanan, A.M., '94, McKendree Coll., 111.\n1893. Superintendent of Schools, 614 W. 7th St., Sedalia.\nEdwin D. Lockey, B.S.D.,.'87, State Normal School, Kirksville, Mo.\n1893.\nPrincipal of Elleardville School, 1332 Union Boul., St. Louis.\n1895. William H. Black, A.M., '76, Waynesburg Coll. ; D.D., '88, Cumberland Univ.\n1889. President of Missouri Valley College, 312 College Ave., Marshall.\nIra I. Cammack, B.Sc, '84, Earlham Coll., Ind.\n1897.\nVice- Principal of Central High School, 528 Chestnut Ave., Kansas City.\nSarah Elizabeth Crouch.\n1890. Teacher in Longfellow School, 2915 Charlotte St., Kansas City.\nArthur A. Dodd, M.S.D., \"86, State Nor. Sch., Warrensburg, Mo. ; B.Sc, '95, Harvard.\n1896.\nDirectorof Math. Course, Man. Train. High School, 2918 Tracy Ave., Kansas City\nMary Gilday.\nTeacher in Jefferson School, 140J Wabash Ave., Kansas City.\nWilliam Henry Lynch, A.B. , '68, A.M., '72, Univ. of Missouri.\n1899.\nPrincipal of Mountain Grove Academy, Mountain Grove.\n\n1894. George\n\n"}
{"page": 1218, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n[Missour\n\n1895, Richard C. Norton, A.M., LL.D.\no ,\nrr , ■„\n1893. Department of Didactics, \"State Normal School, Kirksville.\nJosephine Norville.\nChair of English, High School, 336 E. Webster St., Chillicothe.\nCharlks B. Reynolds.\n1897. Principal of Garfield School, 321 Wabash Ave., Kansas City.\nLouis Theilmann, B.Sc, '85, M.Sc, '90, Missouri Univ.\n1888. Associate Principal of Academy, Appleton City.\nMarie L. Turner.\ni8gi.\nPrincipal of Public School, Clayton.\nUniversity of the State of Missouri.\nPresident, R. H. Jesse; Secretary, J. G. Babb, Columbia.\nJohn A. Whiteford, M.S.D., '93, State Nor. Sch., Kirksville. _\n1895. Superintendent of City Schools, 835 W. Rollins St., Moberly.\nW. H. Williams.\nPrincipal of Chace School, Kansas City.\n1896. Ameua C. Fruchte.\nFirst Assistant, Normal and High School, 4296 Washington Ave., St. Louis.\nJosephine Heermans.\n1891. Principal of Whittier School, 1803 E. 7th St., Kansas City.\nAnna Isabel Mulford, A.B., A.M., '86, Vassar Coll. ; Ph.t)., '95, Washington Univ.\n1898. Teacher of Botany, High School, Missouri Botanical Gardens, St. Louis.\n1897. Z. R. Ashbaugh, Grad., '72, Hillsdale CSll., Mich.\n1898. Agent for American Book Co., Midland Hotel, Kansas City.\nS. M. Barrett.\n1899. Department of History, High School, 621 S. Main St., Springfield.\nBenjamin Blewett, A.B., '76, A.M., '79, Washington Univ.\n1897. Assistant Superintendent of Schools, 9th and Locust Sts., St. Louis,\nJohn S. Collins, A.B.,\n'72, of\nUniv.\nof School,\nMiss.\nPrincipal\nDivall\nSt. Louis; res., Kirkwood.\nW. D. DOBSON, LL.D.\nProfessor in State Normal School, 315 E. Jefferson St., Kirksville.\nGrace Geary.\n1896. Teacher in Superior, Wis., Normal School; res., 1515 Campbell St., Kansas City.\nPeter Herzog.\n1882. Principal of Blair School, 3219 Bailey Ave., St. Louis,\nBenjamin F. Hoffman, A.M., '88, Univ. of Mo.\n1895.\nProfessor of German, University of Missouri, Columbia.\nG. B. LONGAN.\n1880.\nPrincipal of Schools, 1517 Michigan Ave., Kansas City,\nMrs, Sallie C, Maguire.\n1887.\nFirst Assistant, Lincoln School, 912 E. loth St., Kansas City.\nJames A, Merrill,Teacher\nB.Sc, of'93,Natural\nHarvard.\nSciences, Manual Training School, Kansas City.\nSarah J. Milligan.\n1887.\nPrincipal of Public School, Webster Groves.\nAlex H, Noel.\n1883. Principal of Grant School, 1518 S. Broadway, St. Louis.\nHenning W. Prentis.\n1878.\nPrincipal of Hodgen School, S723DelmarBoul., St. Louis.\nCatherine Spencer.\nPrimary Teacher in Jefferson School, 1700 E. 8th St., Kansas City.\n1898, G. W. Armstrong, B.Sc, '71, Eureka Coll., 111.\n1894. Principal of Bryant School, 2304 Lydia Ave., Kansas City,\nJoseph D, Elliff.\n1897. Superintendent of City Schools, 825 W. 3d St., Joplin.\nWilliam Prentice Evans, A.B., '84, Washington Univ.\n1893.\nPrincipal of Chouteau School, 6618 S. 6th St., St. Louis.\nGeorge Henry Howe, Ph.B., '86, A.M., '89, 111. Wes. Univ.\n1899.\nPresident of State Normal School. 204 Tyler Ave., Warrensburg.\nIsaac H. Hughes, LL.B., '89, Cumberland Univ. ; B.C., B.Sc, '95, A.B., '96, Nat. Nor, Univ,\nPd.M., '97, Nor. Sch., New Mex. ; A.M., '97, Nat. Nor. Univ.\n1898. Superintendent of Schools, Bloomfield.\nGeorge Warren Krall, B.Sc, Millersville Nor. Sch., Pa.\nof Physics, Manual Training School, St. Louis.\n•\nWilliam CampbellTeacher\nRidgeway.\n\n1899.\n\n1898. Principal of Scarritt School, 3035 E. 7th St., Kansas City,\nOliver Stigall, B.S.D., '92, State Normal School.\nSuperintendent of City Schools, Chillicothe.\nC. C. Thudium, A.M.. M.Sc, O. Nor. Univ.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Hermann.\nWilliam J. S. Bryan, A.B., '73, Washington Univ.. St. Louis, Mo.\n1895. Principal of St. Louis Normal and High School, 3746 Windsor PI., St, Louis,\nMiss C, L, Bryant.\nPrincipal of Charless School, 3039 Locust Ave., St. Louis,\nW, T, Carrington.\n1899. State Superintendent of Public Schoofs, 804 E. High St., Jefferson City,\nD, A. McMillan, A.M., '99, Miami Univ.\n1882.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Mexico.\nGilbert B. Morrison.\n1896. Principal of Manual Training High School, 2510 Peery Ave., Kansas City.\nAlice Murphy.\n1897. Teacher of Art, Manual Training High School, iioo Prospect Ave., Kansas City.\nE. H. Stroeter, A.B., '98, William Jewell Coll., Liberty, Mo.\n1898. Superintendent of Schools, Carrollton,\n\n"}
{"page": 1219, "printed_page": null, "text": "Nebraska]\n\nLIFE\n\nAND\n\nACTIVE\n\nMEMBERS\n\n1 211\n\nMONTANA\nlife member\n1886,\n\nJames E. Klock.\n1896.\n\nSuperintendent of Schools, 1220, 8th Ave., Helena.\nACTIVE\n\nMEMBERS\n\n1891. J. D. Orr.\n\n1898.\nPrincipal of Schools, Big Timber.\n1892. Oscar J. Craig, A.M., De Pauw Univ. ; Ph.D., Wooster Univ.\nPresident of University of Montana, 318 W. 2d St., Missoula.\n1895. James M. Hamilton, M.Sc, '90, Union Christian Coll.\ni88g.\nSuperintendent of City Schools, Missoula.\nW. H. Johnson, A.M., '90, Univ. of Kansas.\n1896. Principal of High School, 819, 8th Ave., \"Helena.\nJames Reid, A.B. President\n'81, McGill\nColl.\nof Montana\nCollege of A. and M. Arts, Bozeman.\nCynthia Elizabeth Reiley, B.Sc.\nProfessor of Mathematics, University of Montana, Missoula.\nD. E. Sanders, A.M., '97, Kan. Nor. Coll.\n1897. President of State Normal School, Dillon.\n1896. E. A. Steere, B.Sc, '81, M.Sc, '95, Univ. of Wisconsin.\n1898. Superintendent of City Schools, Kalispel.\n1897. E. A. Carleton.\nState Superintendent of Public Instruction, Helena.\nMrs. M. S. Cummins, A.M., A. F. Seminary, Staunton, Va.\nHelena.\nFrank C. Patten.\n1892. Librarian, Public Library, Helena.\nMrs. Laura Zook.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Custer County, Miles City.\n1898. J. P. Hendricks.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 411 W. Quartz St., Butte.\n1899. Miss B. P. Downey.\nCounty Superintendent of Schools, Silver Bow Co., Butte.\nS. D. Largent.\n1898.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Great Falls.\nMary E. Ryan.\nPrincipal of Jefferson School. Butte.\nNEBRASKA\nlife members\n1876.\n1880.\n1886.\n\n1890.\n1890.\n1892.\n\nS. DeWitt\n\nBeals.\n1882.\nTeacher in High School, 2118 Davenport St., Omaha.\nB. Sudborough.\n549 S. 26th Ave., Omaha.\nJ. H. Miller.\n1890.\nEditor and Publisher \"Northwestern Monthly,\" Lincoln,\nMrs. Grace\n\nactive members\nLizzie L, Banker.\n1890. Principal of Central Park School, 4736 N. 39th St., Omaha.\nC. G. Pearse.\n1895.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 508 City Hall, Omaha.\nW. K. Fowler.\n1893. Superintendent of Schools, Blair.\n\n1894. D. C. O'Connor,\n'89, A.M., of'93,Schools,\nAllegheny\nColl., Meadville, Pa.\n1892. A.B.,\nSuperintendent\nNorfolk.\nAnna M. Tibbets.\n1892. Principal of Grammar School, 658 S. 17th St., Lincoln.\n1895. Charles Edwin Bessey, B.Sc, '69, M.Sc, '72, Mich.\nAgri. Coll.; Ph.D., '79, Univ. of Iowa ;\nLL.D., '98, Iowa Coll.\n1884.\nProfessor of Botany, and (1899) Acting Chancellor of the University of Nebraska,\n1504 S St., Lincoln.\nEdwin J. Bodwell, B.Sc, '88, Dartmouth Coll.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Douglas Co., Court House, Omaha.\nJames W. Crabtree, B.Sc, '90, Bloomfield Sci. Inst.\n1897.\nInspector of Nebraska High Schools, 631 N. 24th St., Lincoln.\nIrwen Leviston, A.B., '82, A.M., '88, Dartmouth Coll.\n312 N. 2ist St., Omaha.\nG. W. A. LucKEY, A.B., '94, Stanford Univ.\n1895.\nProfessor of Pedagogy, University of Nebraska, 1542 P St., Lincoln.\nA. A. Reed, A.B., Univ. of Neb.\n1893. Superintendent of Schools, Crete.\nEmma Wheatley.\n1892.\nPrincipal of Ward School, 2539 Capitol Ave., Omaha.\nWilliam J.Williams, B.Sc, '71, A.B., '71, A.M., '74, Denison Univ.\n1894. Superintendent of Schools, sio, 14th St., Columbus.\n1896. Howard Walter Caldwell, Ph.B., '80, A.M., '94, Univ. of Neb.\n1892.\nProfessor of Am. Hist, and Jurisprudence, Univ. of Neb., 511 N. t6th St., Lincoln.\nHenry Ellsworth Dawes, B.Sc, '86. A.M., '93, North Western Normal.\n1897.\nSuperintendent of Nebraska Institute for the Deaf and Dumb, Omaha.\n,\nWilliam R. Jackson.\n1897.\nState Superintendent of Public Instruction, 1909 G St., Lincoln.\n\n"}
{"page": 1220, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 21 2\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[New Jersey\n\nNEBRASKA- Co«//«w*<^\n1896, A. H. Waterhouse.\n1896.\nPrincipal of High School, 1235 Q St., Lincoln.\nHarry KiRKE Wolfe, A.B., '80, Univ. of Neb. ; A.M., Ph.D., '86, Leipzig.\n1898. Superintendent of Public Schools, High School, South Omaha.\n1897. S. P. Arkot.\n1896.\nSuperintendentof City Schools, Harvard.\nKate L. Brown.\n1896.\nPrincipal of Clifton Hill School, 314 S. 26th St., Omaha.\nGeorge L. Farley.\nCounty Superintendent of Schools, Plattsmouth.\nAnna Fogs.\nPrincipal of Schools, The Madison, Omaha.\nA. L. Shaw, B.Sc, '94, Olivet Coll.\nSuperintendent of Schools. Valley.\nUniversity of Omaha.\nPresident, David R. Kerr, Bellevue.\nHenry Baldwin Ward, A.B., '85, Williams; A.M., Ph.D., '92, Harvard.\n1893. Professor of Zoology, University of Nebraska, Lincoln.\n1898, John Wirt Dinsmore.\nSuperintendent of City Schools, 425 N. 4th St., Beatrice.\nAllen T). Fling, A.B., '94, A.M., '98, Univ. of Neb.\n1898. Superintendent of City Schools, 115 N. nth St., Nebraska City.\nOmaha Public Library.\nLibrarian, Edith Tobitt, Omaha.\nJ. Irving Read, A. 3., '94, Dartmouth.\nInstructor in Latin and English, High School, 2615 Capitol Ave., Omaha.\nUniversity of Nebraska.\nChancellor, Charles Edwin Bessey ; Librarian, J. I. Wyer, Jr., Lincoln.\n1899. Mrs. Donna Wilson Crabtree.\n631 N. 24th St., Lincoln.\nEllery W. Davis, B.Sc, Univ. of Wis. ; Ph.D., Johns Hopkins Univ.\nProfessor of Mathematics, University of Nebraska, 1545 C St., Lincoln.\nCharles Fordyce, B.Sc, A.M., Univ. of Neb.\nt893.\nDepartment of Biology, Nebraska Wesleyan University, Lincoln.\nNEVADA\nactive members\n1895.\n\n1899.\n\nWalter\n\nC. Gayhart, C.E.\n1894. Principal of High School and Public Schools, Austin.\nJ. E. Stubbs, A.B., '73, A.M., '76, D.D., '90.\n1894. President of State University of Nevada, Reno.\nJames C. Doughty.\nPrincipal of Schools, Tuscarora.\nNEW\n\nHAMPSHIRE\n\nactive members\n1898. New\n\nHampshire State Library.\nLibrarian, Arthur H. Chase, Concord.\n1899. John Augustus Brown, A.B., '79, Harvard.\ni885.\nMember of School Board; Private Tutor, 33 Pine St.. Exeter.\n\n1876.\n\nNEW\n\nJERSEY\n\nLIFE\n\nMEMBER\n\nLangdon Shook Thompson, A.M., '84, Marietta Coll., O, ; Pd.D., '91, Univ. of the City of New York.\n1889.\nSupervisor of Drawing, Public Schools; 1893, Principal of Metropolitan Normal\nArt School, 12 Park St., Jersey City.\n\n'\n\nactive members\n\n1889. A. W. Moon, A. B., '95, Indiana Univ.\n1899. Supervising Principal of Schools, Pleasantville.\n1890. Levi Seelev, A.M., '83. Williams Coll. ; Ph.D., '86, Leipzig.\n1895. Professor of Pedagogy, State Normal School, 482 W. State St., Trenton.\n1891. Augustus Scarlett.\n1863.\nPrincipal of South 8th St. School, 56 S. nth St., Newark.\n1892. Sarah Y. Ely.\n1887.\nSupervisor in High and Grammar Departments of State Model School, 46 Carroll\nSt., Trenton.\nJames M. Green, A.M., '84, Dickinson Coll. ; Ph.D., '90, III. Wesleyan Univ.\n1889. Principal of State Normal and Model Schools, Trenton.\nM. H. Kinsley, B.Sc, '88, St. Lawrence Univ.\n1899.\nPrincipal of School No. 5, 117 Magnolia Ave., Arlington.\nJane M. Lewis.\n1877.\nPrincipal of Primary School No. 8, 99 Mercer St., Jersey City.\nS. E. Manness, A.m., '96, Univ. of Tenn.\n1890. Super\\'ising Principal of ist District, 425 Chambers Ave., Camden.\nByron C. Mathews, A.B., '77, A.M., '92, Ph.D., '93, Syracuse Univ.\n1885.\nInstructor in Greek and Economics, High School, 36 Kearney St., Newark.\nHenry M. Maxson, A.M., '80, Amherst Coll.\n1892, Superintendentof Schools, 439 W. 6th St., Plainfield.\n\n"}
{"page": 1221, "printed_page": null, "text": "New Jersey]\n\nLIFE\n\nAND\n\nACTIVE\n\nMEMBERS\n\nI 2 I3\n\n1892. Addison\n\nB. Poland, A.M., '76, Wes. Univ., Conn. ; Ph.D., 'go, Univ. of City of N. V.\n1897. Superintendent of Schools, City Hall, Paterson.\nJames M. Ralston, A.M., '82, Dickinson Coll.\ni8qo.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 707 Grand Ave., Asbury Park.\nEmily A.. Rice, Pd.D., Albany Nor. Coll.\nTeacher of Private Classes, 77 Clark Ave., Ocean Grove.\nRandall Spaulding, A.B., '70, Yale.\n1874.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 14 Clinton Ave., Montclair.\nJotham Walker Wakeman.\n1865.\nPrincipal of School No. 6, 550 Summit Ave., Jersey City.\nH. Brewster Willis.\n1886.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Middlesex Co., 185 Livingston Ave., New Brunswick.\nWilliam R. Wright.\n1893.\nPrincipal of Franklin Public Schools, Nutley.\n1893. Martin Luther Cox, Pd.M., '97, New York Univ.\n1898. County Superintendent of Schools, 4 Blackwell St., Dover.\nCharles M. Davis, A.B., '43, A.M., '45, Princeton.\n1891. Superintendent of Schools, 766 Avenue A, Bayonne.\nC. B. Gilbert.\n1896. Superintendent of Schools, City Hall, Newark.\n, Henry E. Harris.\n1879.\nPrincipal of School No. i, 64 Trask Ave., Bayonne.\nMiss S. M. Searle.\n1893.\nPrincipal of Primary Department, Public School No. 23, cor. Romaine and Pavonia\nAves., Jersey City.\nL. C. Wooley.\nPrincipal of James Wood School, 136 E. Front St., Trenton.\n1894. William N. Barringer, A.M., Princeton; Pd.D., Univ. of City of N. Y.\nSupervisor of Evening and Summer Schools, 1142 A. Broad St., Newark.\nRichard Case, A.M., '81, Brown Univ.\n1898. Superintendent of Schools, Trenton Ave., Point Pleasant.\nMary J. Donohoe.\n1895. Principal of School No. 4, 33 Dodge St., BSyonne,\nBenjamin C. Gregory, A.B., Coll. of City of New York.\n1888. Supervising Principal of Schools, 54 Chestnut Ave., Trenton.\nAnna J. Guden.\n1892. Assistant, School No. 4, 202 Avehue D, Bayonne.\nJ. F. D. Heineken.\n1899. Principal No. 7, Public Schools, East Brunswick; res., Milltown.\nGaius Hoffman.\n1881. Principal of Schools, Bound Brook.\nWilliam C. Ingalls, A.B., '84, A.M., '87, Brown Univ.\n1898.\nSupervising Principal of Public Schools, 160 Orient Way, Rutherford.\nCarl F. Kayser, Ph.D., '92. Univ. of City of New York.\n1897. First Assistant of Latin and German, Boys' High School, and (1899) Acting Principal of High School Annex, q.-^A St., New York city; res., 21, gth Ave., Newark.\nJames Wilmer Kennedy, A.M., '91, New York Univ.\n1889. Principal of Miller Street Grammar School, 3 Emmett St., Newark.\nHenrietta S. Leslie.\n1885. Principal of Public School, Box 26, Blackwood, Camden Co.\nN. W. Pease.\n1867.\nPrincipal of Grammar School No. 2, 31 Morrell St., Elizabeth.\nJ. Albert wareReinhart,\nA.M., '77, Ph.D., '81, Syracuse Univ. ; Ph.B., '76, A.M., '77, Ph.D., '81, DelaColl.\n1882. Principal of City High School, 534 E. 27th St., Paterson.\nE. H. Schuyler, A.M., '92, Princeton Coll.\n1884.\nProfessor of Mathematics, Dr. Julius Sachs' Collegiate Institute, 38 W. 59th St.,\nNew York city; res., Haworth.\nHenry Snyder, A.B., '78, A.M., '88, Lafayette Coll.\n1892.\nSuperintendent of Public Schools, City Hall, Jersey City.\nMargaret L Wade.\nTeacher of Mathematics, High School, 507 Third Ave., Asbury Park.\n1895. Wilson Farrand, A.B., '86, A.M., '89, Princeton.\n1889.\nAssociate Master of Newark Academy, 544 High St., Newark.\nAda Van Stone Harris.\n1897. Supervisor, Primary Schools and Kindergartens, office Board of Education, Newark.\nLinn Marie Hawn.\n1896. Superintendent of Music, Public Schools, 7 N. Grove St., East Orange.\nRobert Mezger, Grad., Univ. of Heidelberg, '90.\n1897. Instructor in German, High School, 295 Garside St., Newark.\nW. J. Shearer, A.B., '87, A.M., '90, Dickinson Coll.\n1895. Superintendent of Schools, 470 Monroe Ave., Elizabeth.\n1896. Charles J. Baxter.\n1896. State Superintendent of Public Instruction, 930 Putnam Ave., Plainfield.\nMrs. Lydia A. Bennett.\n1895.\nPrincipal of Leonia Heights Public Schools, Leonia, Bergen County.\nH. B. BoiCE, M.D., '88, Univ. Med. Sch., New York city.\n1891.\nState Normal School, Box 638, Trenton.\nMrs. Orrell F. Elwell.\n1876. Teacher of Grammar School, 152 S. Stockton St., Trenton.\nD. H. Farley.\nTeacher in State Normal School, 515 E. State St., Trenton.\nE. R. Johnstone.\n1898. Vice- Principal of N. J. Training School for Feeble -Minded, Vineland.\nEdwin C. Merrill.\nPublisher, Maynard, Merrill & Co., 29-33 E. 19th St., New York ; res., 33 Washington St., East Orange.\n\n"}
{"page": 1222, "printed_page": null, "text": "I2I4\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\nNEW\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[New Mexico\n\nTERSEY— C<7«/z«w*^\n\n1896. F. E. Spaolding, A.B., '89, Amherst; Ph.D., '94, Univ. of Leipzig.\n1897.\nSuperintendent of City Schools, 54 High St., Passaic.\n*Miss M. J. B. Thomas, Pd.M., '93, N. Y. Univ.\n1889.\nPrincipal of High School, 425 Ave. E, Bayonne City.\nAlbert H. Wilson.\n1892. Principal of Nassau Public School, iii Chestnut St., East Orange.\n1897. Margaret Bancroft.\nPrincipal and Owner of Haddonfield Training School, Haddonfield.\n\nMiss Jean N. Cox.\n\n1889. Principal of Haddonfield Training School, Haddonfield.\nAnna M. Fell, M.E.L., Pennington Sem.\n1894.\nPrincipal of Cadwalader School No. 21, 304 W. State St., Trenton.\nFree Public Library of Jersey City.\nLibrarian, E. E. Burdick, Jersey City.\nMary A. Lyon.\n>.\nBox 352, Boonton.\nAndrew J. Rider.\nPresident of Rider Business College, Ribsam Bldg., Trenton.\nE. K. Sexton, Pd.M., '92, New York Univ.\nPrincipal of Ann St. School, 64 Ninth Ave., Newark.\nState Normal School. Trenton.\nPrincipal, J. M. Green, Trenton.\nIra Winthrop Travell, A. 15., '90, Williams Coll.\n1893. Principal of High School, 815 College Place, Plainfield.\nThyrza C. Williams.\nT896.\nAssociate Principal of Haddonfield Training School, Haddonfield.\n1898. S. V. Arrowsmith.\n1897. Superintendent of Schools, 103 Maple Ave., Red Bank.\nArthur Grant Balcom.\nPrincipal of Franklin School, 167 Mt. Prospect Ave., Newark.\nS. Olin Garrison, A.m., Wes. Univ., Middletown, Conn.\nPrincipal of the New Jersey Training School for Feeble-Minded Children, Vineland.\nPhoebus W. Lyon, A.M., Princeton.\nPrincipal of West Jersey Academy, Bridgeton.\nWilliam M. Swingle, Ph.D.\n1898. Superintendent of Schools, High School, Orange.\nClaude L. West.\n1897.\nPrincipal of Elementary School, 478 Ellison St., Paterson.\nLeonard Worcester Williams, A.B., '95, A.M., '98. Hanover Coll., and '99, Princeton Univ.\n1899. Fellow in Biology, Princeton University, 73 Alexander St., Princeton.\n1899. R. L. Rogers Dresser.\nTrainer of Kindergartners, 229 High St., Burlington.\nJ. Howard Hulsart. A.M., '98, 111. \\Ves. Univ.\n1891.\nSupervising Principal, 105 Sussex St., Dover,\nAndrew F. West, Ph.D., LL.D.\n1883.\nProfessor of Latin, Princeton University, Princeton.\nNEW\n\nMEXICO\n\nactive members\n1891.\n\nHiram Hadley, A.M., '85, Earlham Coll.\ni8g8.\nProfessor of History and Pedagogy, Coll. of Agri. and Mech. Arts, Las Cruces.\nClarence T. Hagertv, B.Sc, '90, M.Sc, '95, Notre Dame Univ., Ind.\nrSgi.\nProfessor of Mathematics, Coll. of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts, Las Cruces.\nCharles E. Hodgin, Grad., '81, Ind. St. Nor. ; B.Pd., '93, Univ. of N. Mex.\n1897. Principal of Normal Department, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque.\nMrs. Elizabeth R. Jackson.\n1899.\nAssistant Superintendent of Schools, Silver City.\nC. M. Light, Ph.D., Univ. of City of N. Y.\n1896. Principal of Normal School of New Mexico, Silver City.\n1897. George Benjamin Haggett, B.Sc, '75, Grand River Institute.\n1899.\nPrincipal Teacher, Indian Service, Thornton.\nFrederic\nS.\\nders, A.B., '83, Coll. of City of N. Y. ; A.M., '92. Harvard Univ. ; Ph.D., '95,\nUniv. of W.\nChicago.\n1895.\n\n1899.\nPresident and Professor of Political and Economic Science, New Mexico College of\nAgriculture and Mechanic Arts, Mesilla Park.\nJames Alpheus Wood, A.B., '77, A.M., '80.\n1899.\nSuperintendent of Public Schools, Santa Fe.\n1898. \\Villiam J. Oliver.\n1898. Teacher of Manual Training, Indian School, Albuquerque.\n1899. William H. Decker, B.E., Nor. Sch., Silver City, N. Mex.\nPrincipal of Schools, Pinos Altos.\nEdgar L. Hewett, M.Pd.\n1897. President of New Mexico Normal University, Las Vegas.\nEtta Hynes.\nTeacher in Indian School, Mescalero.\nMrs. M. R. Koehler.\n1899. Superintendent of Public Schools, Silver City.\nJennie Potter.\n1899.\nTeacher in Grammar Department, Canal St., Eddy.\nO. P. Whitehill.\nTeacher in Public School, Silver City.\n* Died October 18.. 1899.\n\n"}
{"page": 1223, "printed_page": null, "text": "New York]\n\nLIFE\n\nAND\n\nACTIVE\nNEW\nLIFE\n\nMEMBERS\n\n1 21 5\n\nYORK\nDIRECTORS\n\n1880.\n\nAlbert Prescott Marble, A.M., '63, Ph.D., '83, Colby Univ., iVle.\n1896.\nAssociate Superintendent of Schools, Park Ave. and 59th St., New York.\n1884. James H. Canfield, A.B., '68, A.M., '77, LL.D., '94, Williams Coll.\n1899.\nLibrarian of Columbia University, New York.\n1885. Nicholas Murray Butler, A.B., '82 Ph.D., '84, Columbia Coll.\n1889. Professor of Philosophy and Education, Columbia University, 119 E. 30th St., New\nYork.\nEzekiel Hanson\nCaleb G. Hall.\n\nCook, A.B., '66, A.M., '69, Bowdoin Coll. ; Ph.D., '89, Colgate Univ.\n610 S. Broadway, Yonkers.\nNew Berlin.\n\n1890. Charles Rufus Skinner, A.M., '90, Hamilton Coll. ; LL.D., '95, Colgate Univ.\n1895. State Superintendent of Public Instruction, 453 State St., Albany.\nLIFE\n\nmembers\n\n1857.\n\nJames Cruikshank, LL.D., '62.\n1875.\nPrincipal of Grammar\nSchool No. 12, and Evening High School; Secretary of\nCouncil of Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences, 206 S. Oxford St., Brooklyn.\n1870. Oliver Cromwell Arev, A.M., '65, Union Coll.\n229 Averill Ave., Rochester.\nW. E. Crosby.\n178 W. 135th St., Manhattan, New York.\n1871. John Jacob Anderson, A.M., '67, Rutgers Coll. ; Ph.D., '76, New York Univ.\nAuthor of Schbol Histories and Historical Readers, 343 Adelphi St., Brooklyn.\n1876.\nCharles C. Rounds, B.Sc, 's7> M.Sc, '60, Dartmouth Coll.; A.M., Bowdoin Coll. and Waterville\nColl. ; Ph.D., Bates Coll.\n1896. Institute Instructor and Lecturer, 256 W. looth St., New York.\n1882. Josephine E. Hodgdon, Pd.M., '91, Univ. of City of New York.\n1898.\nPrincipal of Primary School No. no, 20 Sidney PI., Brooklyn.\nMenco Stern.\n1879. Professor of German Language and Literature, Stern's School of Language, 27 E.\n44th St., New York.\nA. Stewart.\n28 W. 94th St., New York.\nMrs. Georgiana Van Aken.\n\n1884. Sarah\n\n1858.\nPrincipal of Day School, Ladies' Home Mission, 63 Park St., New York.\nHunter, A.M., '66, Columbia Coll. ; Ph.D., '77, Williams Coll. ; LL.D.. N. Y. Univ.\n1869.\nPresident of Normal College, Park Ave. and 68th St., New York.\n1891. Mrs. M. J. B. Wylie.\n46 Essex St., Buffalo.\n1893. University of State of New York.\nSecretary, Melvil Dewey, Albany.\n1885. Thomas\n\nactive members\nS. Goodnough.\n1890. Director of Drawing, Borough of Brooklyn, 267a Lewis Ave., Brooklyn.\n1884.\nEdward N. Jones, A.B., A.M., Ph.D., Hamilton Coll.\n1898. The New York Training School for Teachers, Henry and Oliver Sts., New York\ncity; res., 50 Church St., White Plains.\n1886. Charles L. Patton.\nUniversity Publishing Co., 43-47 E. loth St., New York.\n1887. *Louis H. Galbreath, B.L., \"go, Cornell Univ.\n1898.\nFellow in Teachers' College, Columbia University, 528 W. 123d St., New York.\nGussiE Power.\n\n1882,\n\nWalter\n\n1880. Teacher, 535 Warren St., Hudson.\n1889. Charles De Garmo, Ph.D., '86, Halle, Germany.\n1898.\nProfessor of Science and Art of Education, Cornell University, Ithaca.\nThomas Francis Kane, A.B.. '92, Cornell Univ.\n1899. Teacher of Mathematics, Stapleton High School, Richmond Borough, 3 Horton\nRow, New Brighton, S. I.\nGratia L. Rice.\n1892.\nState Director of Drawing, Box 321, Buffalo.\n1890. C. W. Bardeen, A.B., '6g, Yale.\n1874.\nEditor of \" School Bulletin,\" 406 S. Franklin St., Syracuse.\nA. B. Blodgett.\n1889.\nSuperintendent of School, 127 Burnet Ave., Syracuse.\nJohn T. Buchanan, A.B., '72, A.M., '74, Central Coll.\n1897. Principal of Boys' High School, New York city; res., 592 Greene Ave., Brooklyn.\nJohn W. Chandler, PlxD., '77, Univ. of State of New York.\n1894.\nSuperintendent of Schools, EUenville.\nEdward D. Farrell, A.M., '67, Coll. of the City of New York.\n1889.\nAssistant Superintendent of Schools, 163 E. 124th St., New York.\nMary A. Fleming.\n1878. Teacher in Grammar School No. 13, 432 Pearl St., Buffalo.\nAmos M. Kellogg, A.M., '57, Hamilton Coll.\nEditor of\" The School Journal,\" 61 E. 9th St., New York.\nJames M. Milne, Cortland.\nA.M., '83, Rochester Univ. ; Ph.D., '85, Colgate Univ.\nFrancis B. Palmer, A.B., '58, A.M., '63, Ph.D., '79, Univ. of Rochester.\n1878. Principal of State Normal School, 86 Central Ave., Fredonia.\nIsaac H. Stout, A.M., '88, Hobart Coll.\n1887.\nSupervisor of Teachers' Institutes, State Department of Public Instruction, Albany.\n*Died August 21, 1899.\n\n"}
{"page": 1224, "printed_page": null, "text": "I2l6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n1891. Vincent Aldridge, A.M., '81, Syracuse Univ.\n1889. Teacher of Mathematics, Boys' High School, 26 Clarkson St., Brooklyn.\nEarl Barnes, A.M., '89, Ind. Univ. ; M.Sc, '90, Cornell Univ.\n232 Greene Ave., Brooklyn.\nFrancis John Cheney, A.B., '72, A.M., '75, Ph.D., '89, Syracuse Univ.\n1892.\nPrincipal of State Normal School, 45 Church St., Cortland.\nAugustus S. Downing, A.M., Pennsylvania Coll.\n1898. Principal of New York Training School for Teachers,\n119th St. and\nNew York.\nMatthew\nHarlan\n\n[New York\n\n2d Ave.,\n\nJ. Elgas, A.B., '62, A.M., '63, Montreal Coll. ; Ph.D., '69, St. Johns Coll.\n1896. Associate Superintendent of Public Schools, 121 W. 87th St., New York.\nP. French, A.B.,'68, A.M., '71, Amherst Coll.\n1896. Member\nof Board of Education, Proprietor of Albany Teachers' Agency, 24 State\nSt., Albany.\n\nGeorge D. Hale, A.B., '70, A.M., '73, Univ. of Rochester.\n1871.\nPrincipal of Hale's Classical and Scientific School, 409 Lake Ave., Rochester.\nOssiAN H. Lang.\n1895. Managing\nEditor of \" The School Journal,\" New York and Chicago, 61 E. 9th St.,\nNew York.\nHenry M. Leipziger, A.M., Coll. of City of N. Y. ; Ph.D., Columbia Coll.\n1890. Supervisor of Lectures, New York city, 146 Grand St., New York.\nAlbert Leonard, A.B., '88, A.^L, '91, Ohio Univ.; Ph.D.. '94, Hamilton Coll.\n1897. Dean of College of Liberal Arts and Professor of Pedagogy, Syracuse University,\nSyracuse.\nJohn M. Milne, A.M., '79, Rochester Univ. ; Ph.D., '90, Univ. of State of N. Y.\n1889.\nPrincipal of State Normal School, Geneseo.\nThomas B. Stowell, A.M., '65, Genesee Coll. ; Ph.D., '81, Syracuse Univ.\n1889.\nPrincipal of State Normal and Training School, 6 Le Roy St., Potsdam.\n1892. Mrs. Ella N. Allen.\n1897.\nSupervisor of Practice, State Normal School, Platteville, Wis. ; res., Yonkers.\nThomas O. Baker, A.M., '92, Ph.D., Univ. of City of New York.\n1895. Principal of High School, Yonkers.\n*Elias J. Beardsley, C.E., A.B., '55; A.M., Union Coll.\n1889.\nSuperintendent of Schools, City Hall, Lake and Church Sts., Elmira.\nEmmet Belknap, A.B., 80, A.M., '83, Marietta Coll.\n1889.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 206 East Ave., Lockport.\nW. H. Benedict, A.B., '75, A.M., '78, Hamilton Coll.\n1889. Principal of School No. 8, 508 W. 3d St., Elmira.\nA. Hall Burdick.\n1890. Principal of Public School No. 14, and High School, 4 Harrison St., Stapleton.\nCharles W. Cole, A.B., A.M., Ph.D., Hamilton Coll.\n1878.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 354 Hudson Ave., Albany.\nMelvil Dewey, A.B., '74, A.M., '77, Amherst.\n1888.\nSecretary of University of State of New York, Regents' Office, Albany.\nWilliam B. Friedberg, B.Sc, '73, Coll. of New York; LL.B., '77, Columbia Law School.\n1890.\nPrincipal of Grammar School No. 95, 21-23 E. 125th St., New York.\nWilliam B. Harison.\nH. E. Hayes.\n1890.\nMary\n\nF. Hyde.\n\nExlucational Publisher, 3 and 5 W. 18th St., New York.\nManager of Educational Department, D. Appleton & Co., Publishers, 72, 5th Ave.,\nNew York.\n\nAuthor of \"Lessons in English,\" 208 Main St., Binghamton.\nJames Lee, M.D., '86, \" Bellevue Hospital Sledical Coll.\"\n1892. Associate Superintendent of Schools, 235 E. 124th St., New York.\nWilliam H. Maxwell, A.B., '72, A.M., '74, Queen's Univ., Irelaiid.\nSuperintendent of Schools, the City of New York, 146 Grand St., New York.\nWilliam J. Milne, Ph.D., Rochester Univ. ; LL.D., DePauw Univ.\nPresident of State Normal College, 94 Willett St., Albany.\nR. V. K. Montfort, M.D., '56, Albany Med. Coll.\n1887.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 22 Montgomery St., Newburgh.\nOscar D. Robinson, Ph.D., '87, Dartmouth Coll.\n1886.\nPrincipal of High School, 501 State St., Albany.\nJames Winne,\n'77, A.M.,\n'79, Hamilton\nt886. A.B.,\nPrincipal\nof High\nSchool, 30 Coll.\nHooker Ave., Poughkeepsie.\n1893. Henry P. Emerson, A.B., A.M., Univ. of Rochester.\n1893. Superintendent of Education, 122 College St., Buffalo.\nJohn Arthur Greene.\n1896. Manager of American Book Co.. 100 Washington Sq., New York.\nGeorge Griffith, A.B., '77, Hamilton Coll.; Ph.D., '93, 111. Wesleyan.\n1892.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 40 Jewett PI., Utica.\nMary F. Hall.\nSpencer.\nC. Hull, A.B., '77, A.M., '97, Univ. of Mich.\n1899. Principal of Academic Department, Brooklyn Poljrtechnic Institute, 29 Schermerhom St., Brooklyn.\nJenny B. Merrill, Pd.D., '92, New York Univ.\n1896.\nSupervisor\nof Kindergartens, Boroughs of Manhattan and the Bronx, 112 E. 8ist St.,\nNew York.\nLawrence\n\nJosephine E. Rogers.\nPrincipal of Public School No. 73, 482 Lexington Ave, New York.\nEiJWARD Richard Shaw, B.L., '78, Del. Coll.; Ph.D., '81, Lafayette Coll.; Ph.D., '90, N. Y. Univ.\n1894. Dean of School of Pedagogy, New York University, University Building, Washington Sq., New York.\nArthur Merrill Wright, A.B., '72, A.M., •'80, Hamilton Coll.\nSupervisor,\nBureau of Compulsory Education, Department of Public Instruction,\nWaterville.\n*Died March 2, 1899.\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 1225, "printed_page": null, "text": "New York]\n\nLIFE\n\nAND\n\nACTIVE\n\nMEMBERS\n\n1 21 7\n\n1894. J. W. Babcock,\n'78, Cornell of\nUniv.\n1881. A.B.,\nSuperintendent\nSchools, 627 Washington Ave., Dunkirk.\nFrank D. Beattys, A.B., '85, A.M., '88, Wesleyan Univ.\nManager, Silver, Burdett & Co., 31 E. 19th St., New York.\nMrs. B. Ellen Burke.\n/\n1898.\nInstitute Instructor, Main St., Malone.\nFrancis R. Clair.\n1893.\nSchool Commissioner, Queens County, College Point.\nCharles Newell Cobb, A.B., '77, and A.M., '80, Syracuse Univ.\n1893.\nInspector of University of State of New York, 26 N. Pine Ave., Albany.\nFlorence Browning Himes.\n1894.\nState Instructor in Drawing, 126 Chestnut St., Albany.\nLogan D. Howell, A.B., '89, Univ. of N. C.\n1898. Teacher of English, High School, Borough of the Bronx, 3080, 3d Ave., New York.\nCynthia Lagomarsino.\n1884. Teacher in Five Points Mission Day School, 63 Park St., New York.\nWilliam A. Mackey.\n1899. Principal of Grammar School No. 53, 1697 Amherst St., Buffalo.\nCharles E. Merrill.\nEducational Publisher, 29-31 E. 19th St., New York.\nFrederick Monteser, Ph.D., '85, Univ. of Vienna, Austria; Pd.D., '93, N. Y. Univ.\n1893. Lecturer, School of Pedagogy, New York University ; 1897, Teacher in Boys' High\nSchool, New York city; res., Caryl Station, Yonkers,\nMrs. Agnes O'Brien.\nPrincipal of School No. 151, 91st St. and ist Ave., New York.\nW. F. O'Callaghan, A.B., Harvard Univ.\n1894. Assistant Principal of Grammar No. 29, Washington and Albany Sts., New York.\nGeorge A. Plimpton.\nPublisher, 70, 5th Ave., New York.\nHester A. Roberts.\n1886.\nPrincipal of Primary Department No. 10, 149 W. 128th St., New York.\nGeorge G. Ryan, A.B., '74, A..M., '77, Middlebury Coll., Vt.\n1899.\nPrincipal of School, Brooklyn.\nEdgar O. Silver, A.B., '83, A.M., '86, Brown Univ.\nPublisher, President of the Corporation Silver, Burdett & Co., 29-33 E. igth St.,\nNew York.\nJoseph S. Taylor, Pd.D., '92, New York Univ.\n1885. Principal of Public School No. 19, 142, 5th Ave., New York.\nMartha Van Rensselaer.\n1894. Schocfl Commissioner, Second pistrict, Cattaraugus Co., Randolph.\n1895, Samuel Houston Albro, Ph.D., Colgate Univ.\nWoodside, Central Ave., Fredonia.\nH. T. Ambrose.\nPresident of American Book Co., Publishers, 100 Washington Sq., New York.\nMiddlesex A. Bailey, A.M., '79, Wesleyan Univ. of Conn.\n1899.\nDepartment of Mathematics, New York Training School for Teachers, 119th St.\nand 2d Ave., New York.\nIda C. Bender, M.D., '90, Univ. of Buffalo (Med. Dept.).\n1893.\nSupervisor of Primary Grades, 731 Ellicott St., Buffalo.\nN. L. Benham.\n1892. Superintendent of Schools, 539, 4th St., Niagara Falls.\n1\nClarence C. Birchard.\nAgent for American Book Co., 100 Washington Sq., New York.\nAnnie M. Bissell.\n1882.\nAssistant in Grammar School No. 62, 265 Alexander Ave., New York.\nColumbia University.\nPresident, Seth Low ; Secretary, W. H. H. Beebe, New York.\nFannie S. Comings.\n1893. Principal, Primary Department, Grammar School No. 77, 22 Halsey St., Brooklyn.\nJulia E. Crane.\n1884. Teacher of Vocal Music, State Normal School, and Director of Crane Normal Institute of Music, 91 Main St., Potsdam.\nJohn W. Davis.\n1886. Public School No. 81, Bedford Park, New York.\nH. T. Dawson, A.B., '82, 111. Wesleyan Univ.\n;\nPublisher, 424 \\V. 144th St., New York.\nGeorge W. French LL.B., '78, Columbia Coll.\n1881.\nPrincipal of Public Schools, Jamaica Ave., opp. Enfield St., Brooklyn.\nMrs. Anna Eggleston Friedman.\n1898.\nInstructor in Primary Work, Teachers' Institutes, 45 Wadsworth St., Buffalo.\nHayward, A.M., Ph.D., '90. Union Coll.\n1892.\nPrincipal of High School, 177 Genesee St., Lockport.\nWelland Hendrick, A.B., '80, A.M., '83, Colgate Univ.\n1898.\nFirst Assistant, New York Training School for Teachers, 174 St. Nicholas Ave.,\nNew York.\nEdward\n\nWalter L. Hervey, A.B., A.M., Ph.D., '93. Princeton.\n1898. Examiner of Board of Education, 146 Grand St., New York.\nSamuel B. Howe, A.M., '65, Ph.D., '87, Union Coll.\n1865.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 6r5 Union St., Schenectady.\nWilber W. Howe.\ni8gi.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Whitehall.\nJoseph P. Jackson, LL.B., '76, Iowa Univ. ; A.M., '80, Oskaloosa Coll.\n1899. Scholar in Teachers College, Columbia Univ., 120th St., Station J, New York.\nSara D. Jenkins.\n1895. Principal\nof Teachers'\nHuestis\nSt., Ithaca.Training Class and Teacher of English, High School, 103\n\n"}
{"page": 1226, "printed_page": null, "text": "I2l8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[New York\n\n1895. Thomas R. Kneil, A.B., '75, A.M., '78, Wesleyan Univ., Middletown. Conn.\n1893.\nSuperintendent of Schools, High School Building, Saratoga Springs.\nLouise M. Lapey.\nDepartment Principal of School No. 16, 731 Ellicott St., Buffalo.\nCharles D. Larkins, Ph.B.. '81, Alfred Univ.\n1893. Principal of Manual Training High School, 76 Court St., Brooklyn.\nSethPrinceton.\nLow, LL.D., '89, Amherst; '90, Univ. of State of N. Y., Univ. of Pa., Harvard, Trinity; '96,\n1889. President of Columbia University, New York.\nKate Palmer Macdona.\n1899.\nPrincipal, Primary Department, Public School No. 70, 126 W. 91st St., New York.\nJ. MiLFORD McKee,\n'95, St.,\n111. Mt.\nWesleyan\nUniv.\n122 Ph.B.,\nValentine\nVernon,\nF, M. McMuRRV, Ph.D., Jena.\n1898.\nProfessor of Theory and Practice of Teaching, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York.\nH. D. Newson.\nManager of Educational Department, Harper & Brothers. Franklin Sq., New York.\nAndrew V. V. Raymond, A.B., '75. D.D., '86, Union Coll.; LL.D., '94, Williams Coll.\n1894. President of Union College, College Hill, Schenectady.\nJ. M. Rice, M.D., '81, Coll. of Phys. and Sur., New York.\nEducational Writer, Editor of the \" Forum,\" 1245 Madison Ave., New York.\nRoviLLUS R. Rogers, A.B., Oberlin Coll.\n1890. Superintendent of Schools, 627 E. 6th St., Jamestown.\nJames E. Russell, A.B., '87, Cornell ; Ph.D., '94, Leipzig.\n1898.\nDean of Teachers College, Columbia University, 120th St. W., New York.\nHenry R. Sanford, A.M., '64, Genesee Coll. ; A.M., '73, Syracuse Univ. ; Ph.D., '94, Union Coll.\n1885.\nState Institute Conductor and State Examiner of New York, E Main St., Penn Yan.\nAlfred T. Schauffler, A.B., '65, A.M., '68, Williams Coll.\n1898.\nAssociate Superintendent of Schools, Boroughs of Manhattan and the Bronx, New\nYork city; res., 23 Woodland Ave., New Rochelle.\nJane A. Schermerhorn.\n1889.\nKindergartner in Union Free School, Hillside Ave., White Plains,\nHenry G. Schneider, B.Sc, '87, Coll. City of New York.\nThird Assistant Grammar School No. 90, 610 W. 47th St., New York,\nMyron Tracy Scudder, A.B., '82, A.M., '86, Rutgers Coll.\n1899.\nPrincipal of State Normal School, New Paltz.\nSylvester R. Shear.\n1897. Superintendent of Schools, 3 South Broadway, White Plains.\nHerbert J. Smith, A.B., '88, A.M., '91, Colgate Univ.\nOswego.\ni\nJ. Mace Smith, B.Sc, '82, Mch. Agri. Coll.\n1897. Principal of St. John Ave. School, 122 LeRoy St., Binghamton.\nPlowdon Stevens, Jr., B.Sc, '88, Coll. City of New York.\n1898. Assistant Principal of Public School No. 81, 2126 Washington Ave., New York,\nJohn H, Walsh, A.B., '73, A.M., '89, Georgetown Coll., D. C. ; LL.B., '80, Columbia Coll.\n1889,\nAssociate Superintendent of Public Instruction, 39, 3d Place, Brooklyn.\nFrank E. Welles, Ph.B., '86, A.M., '92, 111. Wesleyan Univ. ; Ph.D., '97, Nat. Nor. Univ.\n1889.\nProfessor of Latin and Greek, State Normal School, 97 South St., Geneseo.\nCharles F. Wheelock. B.Sc, '73, Cornell Univ.\n1891. Head Inspector, University of State of New York, Regents' OflSce, Albany,\n1896. Mrs. Amelia D. Alden, Grad., '68, State Nor. Sch., Albany, N. Y.\n1895. Vice-Principal of Westerleigh Collegiate Institute, West New Brighton.\nMrs. Fannie Schwedler Barnes.\nEditor of \"The Mother's Voice,\" 141 W. 24th St., New York.\nJohn Elmendorf Brandegee, B.A., '74, Trinity.\n1896. Member of School Board, 30 Geneva St., Utica.\nE. N. Bristol.\nBook Publisher, 29 W. 23d St., New York,\nKate G. Broderick.\n1881.\nPrincipal of Public School No. 76, E. 68th St., New York.\nFrank S. Capen, A.B.,\n'68, A.M., '71, Rochester Univ. ; Ph.D., '87, Colgate Univ.\nNew Paltz.\nEugene C. Colby.\n1885.\nPrincipal of Department of Industrial and Fine Arts, Rochester Athenaeum and\nMechanics' Institute, 38 S. Washington St., Rochester.\nLe Roy C. Cooley, A.M., Ph.D.\n1874.\nProfessor of Physics, Vassar College, 2 Reservoir Sq., Poughkeepsie.\nCornell University Library.\nPresident, J. G. Schurman; Librarian, George W. Harris, Ithaca.\nHenry M. Crist.\nManager of New York Office, Milton Bradley Co., 11 E. i6th St., New York.\nBoothe\nUniv, Colwell Davis, A.B., '90, A.M., '93, Alfred Univ.; B.D., '93, Yale; Ph.D., '96. Nat, Nor,\n1895,\nPresident of Alfred University, 8 Terrace St., Alfred.\nGeorge S. Davis.\n1888.\nAssociate Superintendent of Schools, 146 Grand St., New York,\nWilliam Reed Eastman, A.B., '54, Yale; B.L.S., '92, Univ. of N. Y.\n1892. Inspector of Pub. Libraries, Univ. of State of New York, State Library, Albany,\nA. W. Edson, A.B., '78, A.M., '81, Dartmouth Coll.\n1897. Associate Superintendent of Schools, 146 Grand St., New York.\nElla C. Elder,\n1892.\nSuperintendent of Buffalo Free Kindergarten Assoc, 86 Delaware Ave., Buffalo.\nHenry W. Ellsworth, Grad., Fredonia Acad., N. Y.\n.\\uthor and Publisher of Schoolbooks, 127 Duane St., New York.\nJames A. Estek, A,M., Alfred Univ.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 17 Marshall Ave., Gloversville.\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 1227, "printed_page": null, "text": "New York]\n1896.\n\nLIFE\n\nAND\n\nACTIVE\n\nMEMBERS\n\n1 2 19\n\nMrs. E. D. Farrell.\n163 E. 124th St., New York.\nFenton.\nAgent for American Book Co., Broadalbin, Fulton Co.\n\nGeorge\n\nJennie Gifford, B.Sc, '67, A.B.,'8o, Nat. Nor. Univ., Lebanon, O.\n53 E. s6th St., New York.\nCharles Eugene Gorton.\n1883. Superintendent of Schools, 55 Hawthorne Ave., Yonkers.\nElbert W. Griffith, Ph.B., 111. Wes. Univ. ; A.M., Wes. Univ., Conn.\n1899.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 8 Sherman Ave., Glens Falls.\nWalter B. Gunnison, A.B., '75, A.M., '78, Ph.D., '93.\n1896. Principal of Erasmus Hall High School, 77 Wilson St., Brooklyn.\nAlfred Hallam.\nSuperintendent of Music, 116 N. 9th Ave., Mt. Vernon.\nMary E. Harris.\n1895. Principal of Intermediate Department, State Normal School, New Paltz.\nCaroline T. Haven.\n1884. Principal, Kindergarten Department, Ethical Culture Schools, 109 W. Sith St., New\nYork.\nFrances C. Hayes.\n1898.\nSupervisor of Kindergartens. Borough of Queens, New York city; res., Flushing.\nWilliam C. Hess, B.Sc, '67, M.Sc, '71, Coll. of City of N. Y.\n1897. Principal of Public School No. 30, and (1896) Principal of East Side Evening High\nSchool, 439 E. ii8th St., New York.\nW. D. Hewe?.\n1893.\nPrincipal of High School, Shortsville.\nJeremiah W. Jenks, A.M., Ph.D., '85, Halle.\n1891. Professor of Political Science, Cornell University, 220 South Ave., Ithaca.\nL. C. JuDD, B.Sc.\n•\nAgent for Ginn & Co., 70, 5th Ave., New York.\nAlpheus B. Kenyon, B.Sc, '74, M.Sc, '77, Alfred Univ.\n1874. Professor of Mathematics and Graphics, and (1891) Registrar of Alfred Univ., 33\nS. Main St., Alfred.\nRoland S. Keyser, A.B., '72, Ph.D., '81, Syracuse Univ.\n1898. Department of English, Normal School, Jamaica.\nMrs. Maria Kraus-Boelte.\n1873.\nPrincipal of Kraus Seminary for Kindergartners, Hotel San Renio, Central Park,\nWest, New York.\n•\n♦Frederick H. Lane, Ph.D., '95, 111. Wes. Univ.\nWith Silver, Burdett & Co., 31 E. igth St., New York.\nCharles E. Lawton.\n1889.\nPrincipal of Central Grammar School, 7 Franklin St., Auburn.\nLouise A. Lounsberry.\n1896. Teacher of Music and Drawing, St. Johnsville.\nThomas Bailey Lovell, A.B., '62, A.M., '65, Univ. of Rochester.\n1892. Principal of High School, 1018 South Ave., Sta. A, Niagara Falls.\nHoward Lyon, M.Sc, '90, Lafayette Coll. ; A.B., '93, Harvard.\n1893. Teacher of Science, State Normal School, 35 Cedar St., Oneonta.\nMary A. Magovern.\n1876.\nPrincipalof Primary Department, Public School No. 166, 134 W. 89th St., New York.\nNathalie Mankell, Grad., Central Royal Institute, Sweden.\nTeacher in Gymnastics in Franklin School, and (1899) Lecturer in Medical Gymnastics, University of Buffalo, 85 Mariner St., Buffalo.\nJ. Edman Masses, A.B., '73, A.M., '76, Hamilton Coll.\n1898.\nSuperintendent of City Schools, 981 Broadway, Watervliet.\nMark M. Maycock, M.P., Syracuse Univ., '75.\nTeacher in State Normal School, 220 Jersey St., Buffalo.\nClarence E. Mpleney, A.B., '76) A.M., '79, Colby Univ.\n1896.\nAssociate Superintendent of Schools, 429 Washington Ave., Brooklyn.\nGuRDAN R. 1893.\nMiller,Principal\nPh.B., of\n'93,Union\nSyracuse\nUniv.\nSchool,\nMatteawan.\nOtis Montrose.\nPrincipal of Haldane Union School, Coldspring.\nHoward J. Rogers, A.B., '84, Williams Coll.\n/\n1895.\nDeputy State Superintendent of Public Instruction, 115^^ Lancaster St., Albany.\nCharles M. Ryon.\n1875. Superintendent of Schools, 130 Elmendorf St., Kingston.\nElisa a. Sargent.\n1889.\nDirector of the Prang Normal Art Classes of New York, 3 W. i8th St., New York.\nSara A. Saunders, Grad., '73, Cortland State Nor. Sch.\n1895. Method Teacher, State Normal School, Brockport.\nFrank A. Schmidt, Pd.D., '91, New York Univ.\n1885. First Assistant, Grammar School No. 49, and (1895) Principal of Evening School\nNo. 79, 4 Van Nest Place; Charles St., New York.\nJacob Gould Schurman,\nA.B., '77> A.M., '78, London Univ.; D.Sc, '78, Edinburgh; LL.D.,\nColumbia.\n1892.\nMary V. Squire.\nHenry\nEdward\n\nPresident of Ccrnell University, Ithaca. Coll.\n\nAssistant in School No. 39, 19 Marigold Ave., Buffalo.\nMorse Stephens, A M., '92, Oxford.\n1894. Professor of History, Cornell University, Ithaca.\n\nWalmsley Stitt, M.Sc, '98, Coll. of City of New York; Pd.M., '97, N. Y. Univ.\n1896. Principal of Public School No. 89, Lenox Ave. and X34th St., Borough of Manhattan, New York.\nMary E. Stockman.\nPrivate Instructor, 53 E. s6th St., New York.\n*Died June, 1899.\n\n"}
{"page": 1228, "printed_page": null, "text": "I2 20\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[New York\n\n1896. Ada Frances Thayer.\n1893.\nSupervisor of Physical Training, Public Schools, Board of Edu. Rooms, Syracuse.\nAmelia Earle Trant, M.D., '94, Univ. of Buffalo.\n1897. Principal of Boys' Department, Instructor of Psychology and Physiology, Masten\nPark High School, 1268 Main St., Buffalo.\nM. H. Walrath, A.B., '89, A.M., '92, Syracuse Univ.\n1896.\nPrincipal of High School, Pawling Ave., Box 544, Troy.\nEtta Lansing Wentz.\nPhysical Director, Female Academy, Kindergarten Training School and Woman's\nGymnastic Club, 99 Eagle St., Albany.\n1897. Jessie H. Bancroft.\n1893.\nDirector of Physical Training, Public Schools, 131 Livingston St., Brooklyn.\nC. L. Barstow, A.B., Union Coll.\nManager of Educational Dept., Longmans, Green & Co., 93, 5th Ave., New York.\nEnoch Henry Currier, A.M., Nat. Coll. of the Deaf.\n1893.\nPrincipal of New York Institute for Instruction of the Deaf and Dumb, 163d St. and\nBroadway, Station M, New York.\nEditors' Library, American Book Co.\nLibrarian, L. H. Peet, Washington Sq., New York.\nAnne J. Farley.\nPrincipal of Primary Department, Grammar Sch. No. 81, 128 E. 63d St., New York.\nHenry W. Jameson, A. B., Yale.\nAssociate Superintendent of Schools, 47 W. 119th St., New York.\nA. L. Peck.\n1880.\nLibrarian of Free Library, Gloversville.\nGustave Straubenmuller, A.B.\nAssociate Superintendent of Schools, Boroughs of Manhattan and the Bronx, 403\nW. 147th St., New York.\nJ. H. Thiry.\nIntroducer of the School Savings Bank System, 181 Academy St., Long Island City,\nHenry H. Vail, A.B., '60, LL.D., '96, Middlebury Coll.\nPublisher, 322 W. 7sth St., New York.\nZ. F. Westervelt, LL.D., '95, Rochester Univ.\n1876.\nSuperintendent\nRochester. of Western N. Y. Institution for Deaf-Mutes, 945 N. St. Paul St.,\nJessie M. Winterton.\n1891. Director of Kindergarten Dept. and Training Class for Kindergartners, 118 W. 7sth\nSt., New York.\n1898. Bryson Library, Teachers' College.\nLibrarian, Miss E. G. Baldwin, Momingside Heights, 120th St., W., New York.\nMary Hyde Carroll.\nPrivate Teacher, Church St., Kingsbridge.\nSusan F. Chase, A.M., Wis. Univ. ; D.Pd., Teachers' Coll., Buffalo Univ.\nTeacher of Literature and History, State Normal School, 139, 14th St., Buffalo.\nW. E. Cochrane.\nManager of Prang Educational Co., 5 W. i8th St., New York.\nI. O. Crissy.\nAlbany.\n1895. Inspector\nof Business Education, University of State of New York, 137 Eagle St.\nRichard Elwood Dodge, A.B., '90, A,M., \"94, Harvard Univ.\n1896. Professor\nof Geography, Teachers College, Columbia University, 120th St., W.\nNew York.\nThomas M. Gafney.\n1898. Member of Board of Education, 407 Otisco St., Syracuse.\nGeorge B. Germann, A.B., '95, Ph.D., '99, Columbia Univ.\n1899. Assistant in Philosophy and Education, Columbia University, 90 Norman Ave.,\nBrooklyn.\nCharles L. Harrington, A.B., A.M., Amherst Coll.\n1884.\nHead Master, Dr. J. Sachs' Collegiate Institute, 38 W. 59th St., New York.\nEdwin S. Harris, M.A., '89, Union Coll.\n1898. Superintendent of Schools, Nelson House, Poughkeepsie.\nMrs. Louise E. Hogan.\nCare of Harper & Brothers, New York.\nCharles C. Holden, Pd.M.\n1893.\nFirst Assistant M.D., Public School No. 39, Manhattan ; res., Mamaroneck.\nJohn F. Hughes.\nChairman of Board of Education, 35 Charlotte St., Utica.\nArthur Marvin, B.A., '91, M.A., '96, Yale.\n1897. Principal of Union Classical Institute, 832 Union St., Schenectady.\nWilliam Smith Murray, B.Sc, '88, M.Sc, '93, Syracuse Univ.\n1899. Graduate.Student in Columbia University, New York.\nEdward Beverly Nelson, A.B., '73, A.M. (honorary), '94, Harvard Univ.\nPrincipal, Central N. Y. Institution for Deaf-Mutes, 711 N. Madison St., Rome.\nMilton Noyes.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Free Academy Building, Rochester.\nVinton S. Paessler.\nPrincipal of Barlow School of Industrial Arts, 23 Walnut St., Binghamton.\nC. R. Richards, B.Sc.\n1898. Director, Manual Training Dept.,Teachers College, Columbia University, New York.\nSyracuse Central Library.\nLibrarian, Ezekiel W. Mundy, Syracuse.\nEdward\nLee Thorndike, A.B., '95, Wes. Univ.; '96, Harvard; A.M., '97. Harvard; Ph.D., '98,\nColumbia.\nVassar\n\n1899. Instructor in Genetic Psychology, Teachers College, Columbia Univ., New York.\nCollege Library.\nLibrarian, Frances A. Wood, Poughkeepsie.\n\n"}
{"page": 1229, "printed_page": null, "text": "North Carolina]\n\nLIFE\n\nAND\n\nACTIVE\n\nMEMBERS\n\n1 22 1\n\nNEW XO^Yi— Continued\nFrederic Vroom.\n1898. Teacher of Shopwork, Grammar School No. 5, 181 Convent Ave., New York.\nSherman Williams, Ph.D., '94, Albany Nor. Coll.\n1898.\nInstitute Instructor, New York State, lo Grove Ave., Glens Falls.\nJ. C. Witter.\nEditor \" Art Education,\" 123, 5th Ave., New York.\n1899. Danforth E. Ainsworth.\n1895.\nDeputy State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Capitol, Albany.\nBuffalo Public Library.\nSuperintendent, H. L. Elmendorf; Assistant Superintendent, Walter L.Brown;\nLibrarian, William Ives, Buffalo.\nHarry D. Frisbee, A.B., '91, Columbia Univ.\n1895.\nTeacher in City Schools, 1340 Fulton Ave., Burrough of the Bronx, New York.\nJosephine A. Greene.\n1895. Director of Art Department, Normal School, Plattsburgh.\nA. Leroy Jones, A.B., '95, Williams Coll. ; Ph.D., '98, Columbia Univ.\n1898. Assistant in Philosophy, Columbia University, 310 W. 113th St., New York.\nJohn Kennedy.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Batavia.\nNew York Public Library.\nDirector, John S. Billings, Astor Library Building, 40 Lafayette PI., New York.\nJuliet Pearson.\ni860.\nPrincipal of School, 319 Lenox Ave., New York,\nEmily H. Radcliffe.\n1897. Principal of Training School, Waterbury, Conn. ; res., 180 \\V. 4th St., Oswego.\nFrances E. Ransom.\nDirector of Drawing, New York Training School, 702 St. Nicholas Ave., New York.\nJ. F. Reigart, A.B., DickinFon Coll.\nSuperintendent of Workingman's School, 109 W. 54th St., New York.\nM. Augusta Requa, M.D., '93, Women's Coll., N. Y. Infirmary; M.Pd., '96, N. Y. Univ.\n1896. Supervisor of Physical Education, New York College, 65 W. sad St., New York.\nEdward B. Ravvson, B.Sc, '81, Mass. Agri. Coll.\n1897. Principal of Friends' Seminary, 226 E. i6th St.. New York.\nLaura R. Snell.\n\n1898, William\n\nTeacher in Grammar School No. 8, Rochester.\nSchool, New Paltz.\nPrincipal, Myron T. Scudder, New Paltz.\nRalph Stockman Tarr, B.Sc, '91, Harvard.\n1896. Professor of Dynamic Geology and Physical Geography, Cornell University, i East\nAve., Ithaca.\nTeachers' College, Department of Manual Training.\nDirector, C. R. Richards, New York.\nWilliam L. Tuttle, M.D.\n54\" W. i26lh St., New York.\nFred C. White, A.B., '95, Alfred Univ.\n1899. Principal of High School, Cornwall -on -Hudson.\nJohn F. Woodhull, A.B., '80, Yale; Ph.D., '99, Columbia.\n1888.\nProfessor of Physical Science, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York.\nState Normal\n\nNORTH\n\nCAROLINA\n\nlife members\n1880.\n1884.\n\nEmily M. Coe.\n1897. Principal of Normal Department, Red Springs Seminary, Red Springs.\nRobert Bingham, A.M., '60, LL.D., '90, Univ. of N. C.\n1873.\nSuperintendent of the Bingham School, Asheville.\nactive members\n\n1894. Edwin\nAlderman,\nPh.B., Univ. of N. C; D.C.L., Univ. of the South; LL.D., '99, Tulane\nUniv.,A. La.\n1892. President of University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill.\n1895. John Jay Blair, B.Sc, A.B., '85, Haverford Coll., Pa.\n1899.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Wilmington.\n1896. Charles D. McIver, A.B., '81, D.L., '93, Univ. of N. C.\nPresident of State Normal and Industrial College, Greensboro.\nDora B. Rogers.\n.\n•\n1898. Teacher of History, Literature, and Sciences, Kmsey Seminary, Wilson.\nTrinity.\nGeorge Tayloe Winston, B.L., '74, Cornell; A.M., Davidson Coll. ; LL.D.,\nPresident of No. Car. College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts, West Raleigh.\ni8g6.\n. »#\n,„ », ,\n. , ^ ,,\nPhilander P. Claxton, A.M., '86, Univ. of Tenn.\n1898.\nState Normal and Industrial College, W. Market and MenPedagogy,\n1893. Professor\ndenhallof Sts.,\nGreensboro.\nG. A. Grimsley, A.M., '99, Univ. of Nashville, Tenn.\n1890. Superintendent of Schools, 313 Forbis St., Greensboro.\nJ. Y. JOYNER, Ph.B., Univ. of N. C.\n^^\n,\n^ t j\n• , ^ „\nProfessor of English Literature, State Normal and Industrial College, 1027 Spring\nGarden St., Greensboro.\nState Normal and Industrial College of North Carolina.\nPresident, Charles D. McIver, Greensboro.\n,\nD. Matt. Thompson, A.M., Butterford Coll.\n1891. Superintendent of Schools, Box 145, Statesville.\nX899.\nCollierCobb,A.B., '89, A.M., '94, Harvard. , ,,, , ^\n,.\n^.\n, u-,,\n1892. Professor of Geology, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill.\n\n"}
{"page": 1230, "printed_page": null, "text": "1222\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nNORTH\n1899.\n\nCK^OlAi^K\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Ohio\n\n— Continued\n\nCharles B. King, A.M., '83, Roanoke Coll. ; D.D., '83, Theological Sam., Gettysburg, Pa.\n1897. President of Elizabeth College, Charlotte.\nUniversity of North Carolina, Library.\nPresident, E. A. Alderman; Librarian, Edward K. Graham, Chapel Hill.\nNORTH\n\nDAKOTA\n\nACTIVE\n\nMEMBERS\n\n1894. Walter L. Stockwell, B.Sc, '89, Univ. of Minn.\n1891. Superintendent of Schools, Grafton.\nMrs. Helen H. Stockwell, B.L., Univ. of Minn.\nGrafton.\n1895. George A. McFarland, B.Sc, '83, M.Sc, '86, Hiram Coll.\n1892. Principal of State Normal School, Valley City.\nWebster Merrifield, A.B., '77, A.M., '92, Yale.\n1891. President of State University of North Dakota, University, Grand Forks Co.\nLura L. Perrine, A.B., '80, Albion Coll., Mich.\n1892. Teacher of Natural Sciences, State Normal School, Valley City.\n1896. Educational Association of North Dakota.\nPresident, Superintendent W. L. Stockwell, Grafton.\nJoseph Kennedy, B.Sc, Univ. of Minn.\n1893. Professor of Pedagogy and Principal of Normal Department, University of North\nDakota, 1102 Broadway, Grand Forks.\n1897. Anna Barnum.\n...\n'\n.\nCritic Teacher in State Normal School, Mayville.\nJ. G. Halland, A.m., Luther Coll., la.\nState Superintendent of Public Instruction, Bismarck.\nW. E. Hoover.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Park River.\nRosalie Pollock.\nState Institute Instructor, 210, 8th St. S., Fargo.\nBerth.v Scofield.\n1899. Teacher in 2d Primarv Department, Public Schools, Drayton.\n1898. H. W. McArdle, B.Sc, '87, Mich. Agri. Coll.\nProfessor of Mathematics, North Dakota Agricultural College, Faigo.\nOHIO\nlife directors\n1870.\n\nEmerson\n\nElbridge White, A.M.,'58,Westem Reserve Coll. ; LL.D.,'76, Ind. Univ. and Marietta Coll.\nAuthor and Lecturer, 387 E. Broad St., Columbus.\n\n1866.\n\nUlysses Thompson\n\nLIFE\n\n1870.\n\nMEMBERS\n\nCorran, A.B., A.M., Miami Univ. ; B.L., Cinn. Law Coll.\nEx-Superintendent of Schools, 622 Columbus Ave., Sandusky.\nMrs. Delia Lathrop Williams, Pd.D., '94, N. Y. State Nor. Univ.\n1880. Assistant Professor of English, Ohio Wesleyan University, 62 S. Liberty St,\nDelaware.\n\n1876.\n\nWnxiAM Allen Bell, A.B.,'6o, A.M., '63, Antioch Coll.\n1899.\nPresident of Antioch College, Yellow Springs.\nJ. J. Burns. A.M., Washington and Jefferson Coll. ; Ph.D., '76, Ohio State Univ.\n1899.\nState Secretary of Ohio Teachers' Reading Circle, 602 Washington St., Defiance.\nCharles C. Davidson, A.M., '87, Ohio Univ.\n1891. Trustee of Ohio University, 59 W. Ely St., Alliance.\nBkttie a. Dutton.\n1870.\nPrincipal of Kentucky Street School, 94 State St., Cleveland.\nMrs. Reuben McMillan.\nS. Broad St., Canfield.\nLewis Miller.\nPresident of Chautauqua University, Oak Place, Akron.\nJohn\nBradley\nPeaslee, A.B., '63, A.M., '66, Dartmouth; LL.B., '66, Cincinnati Law Coll.;\nPh.D., '79, Ohio State Univ.\n809 North Crescent St., Cincinnati.\nEsther A. Widner.\n21 Maple St., Dayton.\n1882. jAMfes A. Robert, A.M., '67, Yale; Ph.D., '83, Denison Univ.\n230 Sunset Ave., Dayton.\n»\n1883. E. W. CoY, A.M., '58, Brown Univ. ; Ph.D., '86, Princeton.\n1873. Principal of Hughes High School, Cincinnati.\n1884. C. W. Bennett. A.B., '66, A.M., '69, Ohio Wesleyan Univ. ; Ph.D., '89, Moores Hill Coll., Ind.\n1874. Superintendent of Schools, 218 W. Ash St., Piqua.\n1894, Jacob Albright Shawan, A.B., '80, A.M., '83, Oberlin Coll. ; Ph.D. (honorary) , '94, Muskingum Coll.\n1889.\nSuperintendent of City Schools, 1122 Bryden Road, Columbus.\n1880.\n\nactive\n\n1879.\n1884.\n\nMEMBERS\n\nWilliam Nicholas Hailmann, A.M., '64, Univ. of Louisville; Ph.D., '85, Ohio State Univ.\n1898. Superintendent of Instruction, Steele High School, Dayton.\nRichard G. Boone, A.M., De Pauw Univ. ; Ph.D., Ohio Univ.\n1899. Superintendent of City Schools, Cincinnati.\n\n"}
{"page": 1231, "printed_page": null, "text": "Ohib]\n\nLIFE AND\n\nACTIVE\n\nMEMBERS\n\n1 2 23\n\n1884.\n\ne/a. Jones, A.B., '65, A.M., '68, Amherst Coll.\n1869.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 138 E. Tremont St., Massillon.\n1886. *Christ:ne Gordon Sullivan, A.M., Ph.D.\n1885. Supervisor of Art Instruction, Public Schools, cor. Harvey and Park Aves., Walnut\nHills, Cincinnati.\n1887. Oscar T. Corson, A.M., '87.\n1891. State Commissioner of Common Schools, \" The Dennison,\" Columbus.\n1889. Edwin B. Cox, A.B., '74. Ohio Wesleyan Univ.\n1881.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 205 W. Church St., Xenia.\nNathan L. Glover.\n1872.\nTeacher of Music, Public Schools, 627 E. Mill St., Akron.\nL. H. Jones.\n1894.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 190 Euclid Ave., Cleveland.\n1890. Louis D. Bonebrake, A.M., Ph.D.\n1898. Commissioner of Schools of Ohio, 1315 Forsythe Ave., Columbus.\nMrs. Ada E. Laird.\n1892. Principal of Waverly School, 265 Franklin Ave., Cleveland.\nAnna M. Osgood.\n1893. Principal of Avondale School, 1348 Oak St., Columbus.\nJ. P. Sharkey.\n1885. Superintendent of Schools ; 1893, Member of State Board of Examiners, Van Wert.\nSophie Vance.\n1876.\nTeacher in Grammar Department, 1229 Ridge Road, Van Wert.\n1891. Arthur Owen Jones, B.Sc. '99, Univ. of Cincinnati.\n1890. Teacher of Drawing, Public Schools, 2315 Highland Ave., Walnut Hills, Cincinnati.\nR. Anna Morris, Grad., '88, Anderson Nor. Sch. of Physical Training.\n1894. Special Teacher of Physical Culture, Public Schools, igo Euclid Ave., Cleveland.\nEllen G. Revelev, Pd.D., '94, N. Y. State Nor. Coll.\n1892. Supervisor of Public Schools, 190 Euclid Ave., Cleveland.\nCharles William Super, A. B., '66, Dickinson Coll.; A.M., '82, Syracuse Univ.;\nPh.D., '74, 111,\nWesleyan Univ. ; LL.D., '94, Dickinson Coll.\n1883.\nPresident of Ohio University, no Union St., Athens.\nFrederick Treudley, A.B., '78, Univ. of Ind.\n1886. Superintendent of Schools, 625 Elm St., Youngstown.\n•\n1892. VirgilG. Curtis, A.M., Tufts Coll.\n1899. Superintendent of Manual Training School, \" The Monticello,\" Toledo.\nC. C. Miller, A.B., '83, Ohio State Univ.\n1895. Superintendent of Schools, 701 W. North St., Lima.\nN. CoE Stewart, F.C.M.\n1867.\nDirector of Music, Public Schools, 71 Jennings Ave., Cleveland.\nMatilda L. Walke.\nTeacher in Public School, 471 Riddle Road, Cincinnati.\n1893. Charles Haupert, A.B., '80, A.M., '83, Heidelberg Univ.\n1893. Superintendent of Schools, and (1894) Member of State Board of Examiners, 9\nCollege Ave., Wooster.\nM, A. Kimmel.\n1880.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Poland.\nMrs. Caroline Newhall Lathrop.\nPrincipal of Normal School, \" The Somerset,\" Avondale, Cincinnati.\nH. H. Raschig.\n1874.\nPrincipal of loth District School, 618 Prospect Place, Avondale, Cincinnati.\nS. D. Sanor, A.m., '98, LL.B., '99, Westeiti Reserve Univ.\n1899.\nInstructor in English, South High School, 150 Hawthorne Ave., Cleveland.\nWilliam H. Scott, A.M., '65, Ohio Univ. ; LL.D., '84, Ohio Univ. and Ohio Wesleyan Univ.\n1883.\nProfessor of Philosophy, Ohio State University, 131, 15th Ave., Columbus.\nLuciA Sticknev, A.m., '95, Oberlin Coll.\n1877. Teacher in Hughes High School, 455 Franklin Ave., Cincinnati.\n1894. James W. Bashford, A.B., '73, A.M., '76, Univ. of Wis. ; S.T.B., '76, Ph.D., '81, Boston Univ.;\nD.D., '90, Northwestern Univ.\n1889.\nPresident of Ohio Wesleyan University, 23 Oak Hill Ave., Delaware.\nJ Remsen Bishop, A.B., '82, Harvard.\nPrincipal of High School, Alpine Place, Walnut Hills, Cincinnati.\nW. W. Boyd, A.B., '84, A.M., '86, Marietta Coll.\n1891. Superintendent of Schools, 109 Wood St. , Painesville.\nEmma C. Davis.\n1893. Supervisor of Public Schools, 190 Euclid Ave., Cleveland.\nArnold J. Gantvoort.\n1894. Lecturer on Musical History and ^Esthetics, College of Music, Cincinnati.\nEdward L. Harris, A.B.. A.M., Ph.B.\n1889.\nPrincipal of Central High School, Cleveland.\nHarriet L. Keeler, A.B., '70, Oberlin Coll.\n1878. Assistant, Central High School, 91 Olive St., Cleveland.\nCharles P. Lynch, A.B., '86, A.M., '89, Ph.D., '97, Allegheny Coll.\n1891.\nTeacher of Latin, Central High School, 146 Hawthorne Ave., Cleveland.\nWilliam O. Thompson, D.D., '91, Muskingum Coll. ; LL.D.\n1899.\nPresident of Ohio State University, Columbus.\nGeorge R. Twiss, B.Sc, '85, Ohio State Univ.\nHead Science Teacher, Central High School, 142 Cornell St., Cleveland.\nAnna J. Wright, A.B., '72, Oberlin Coll.\nWest High School, 94 State St., Cleveland.\n1895. Charles E. Albright.\n1899.\nPrincipal of Central High School, 449 W. 5th Ave,, Columbus.\nC. G. Ballou, B.Sc, O.Wes.Univ.\nPrincipal of High School, 116 Floyd St., Toledo.\nCharles S. Barrett, B.Sc, '85, Hopedale Coll., O.\n1887. Principal of sth Ave. School, 78 W. 9th Ave., Columbus.\n♦Died, September i, 1899.\n\n"}
{"page": 1232, "printed_page": null, "text": "12 24\n1895.\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Ohio\n\nMary\n\nBlakiston, Ph.B., '93, Ohio State Univ.\nu\niSgg.\nHead of Department of Languages, East tt-,_c.l,\nHigh School, 1117 r^1e\nOak St., ,-1\nColumbus.\nPaxton Burris, Ph.B.. '91, A.M., '94, DePauw Univ.\n1898. Superintendent of Schools, 67. 10th St., Salem.\nGeorge Stockton Burroughs, A.B., '73, A.M., '76, Ph.D., '84, D.D., '87, Princeton; LL.D., '95,\nMarietta Coll.\n.\n^,\n, ^ „\nt-,\n1899. Professor of Old Testament Languages and Literature, Oberlin College, 257 Elm\nSt., Obedin.\nC. E. Carey, Ph.B.\n1897. Superintendent of Public Schools, 305 Mahoning Ave., Warren.\nWilliam Wallace Chalmers, A.B., '87, Univ. of Mich. ; A.M., '89, Eureka Coll. ; B.Pd.. '91, Mich.\nState Normal Coll.\n1898. Superintendent of Instruction, 331 Floyd St., Toledo.\nS. T. Dial, A.B., '80, A.M., '84, Ohio Wes. Univ. ; Ph.D., '94, Syracuse Univ., N. Y.\n1890.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 116 Hillside Ave., Lockland.\nClayton L. Dickey.\n1893. Superintendent of Schools, Ginton, Sharon, and Perry Townships, N. Broadway,\nClintonville.\nGeorge A. Howard.\nWith American Book Co., Cincinnati.\nAnne H. King, B.L., '92, Univ. of Cincinnati.\n1894. Teacher in Public School, 3716 Morris PI., Station C, Cincinnati.\nJulia C. Kolbe.\n1896.\nPrimary Teacher, Norwood, 337 Milton St., Cincinnati.\nAnnie Laws.\nPresident of Cincinnati Kindergarten Mothers' Asso., 818 Dayton St., Cincinnati. .\nS. Her RICK Layton, B.Sc, '92, O. N. W.\n1899. Superintendent of Schools, Bamesville.\nWilliam R. Lazenbv, B.Agri., Cornell ; M.Agri., Iowa Agri. Coll.\n1881.\nProfessor of Horticulture and Forestry, Ohio State University, Columbus.\nCharles L. Loos, Jr., A.B., '69, A.M., '71. Bethany Coll., W. Va.\n1888.\nAssistant Principal, Steele High School. 132 Salem St., Dayton.\nS. H. Maharry, A.m., '90, Muskingum Coll., New Concord, O.\n1896. Superintendent of Schools, Millersburg, Holmes Co.\nS. K.MARDIS, Ph.B., Pd.B., '93, Ohio Univ., Athens.\n1898.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 88 N. Water St., Uhrichville.\nG. C. Maurer, Ph.M., '90, Univ. of Wooster.\n1893.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 409 W. Ray St., New Philadelphia.\nW. W. McIntire, Ph.B., Ph.M., Univ. of Wooster.\n1897. Manager of School Music Department, The John Church Co., Cincinnati.\nHenry N. Mertz. A.B., '70, A.B., '80, Bethany Coll.\n1879.\nSuperintendent of Public Schools, La Belle Ave., Steubenville.\nMiami University.\nPresident, David Stanton Tappan, Oxford.\nWilliam\n\n1896,\n\nCarrie E. Moores.\n_ Co.\n'\n^\n1896. Teacher in College, College Hill, Hamilton\n,\nW.H.Morgan.\nEjc-Superintendent of Schools, Cincinnati.\nHenry M. Parker, A.B.,'s9, A.M., '65, Marietta Coll., O.\n1873.- Superintendent of Public Schools, Elyria.\nJ. W. Pfeiffer, A.B., Hopedale Nor. Coll.. O.\n1888. Superintendent of Schools, 141 Wooster Ave., Canal Dover.\nEd. H. Prichard.\nPrincipal of Third Intermediate School, Franklin St., Cincinnati.^\nR. E. Rayman.\n1897. Superintendent of Public Instruction, 235 Walnut St., East LiverpooL\nW. S. Robinson, B.Sc, '91, M.Sc, '93, Mt. Union Coll.\n1897.\nSuperintendent of Public Schools, 13 Sandusky St., Ashland.\nWilliam C. Skinner.\n1896. Superintendent of Manual Training, 2145 Ashland Ave., Toledo.\nHorace A. Stokhs, A.B., '87, Ohio Wesleyan Univ. ; A.M., '96, DenisonUniv.\n1897. Superintendent of Schools, 70 Lincoln Ave., Delaware.\nMargaret W. Sutherland.\n1889. Principal of Normal School, 1160 Neil Ave., Columbus.\n.\nCharles F. Thwing, D.D., '88. Chicago Theo. Sem. ; LL.D.. '94, 111. Coll. and Marietta Coll.\n<\n1890. President of Adelbert College and Western Reserve University, Cleveland.\nk\nJ. S. Young, A.M., '98, Univ. of Mich.\nA\n1898. Superintendent of Schools, 335 N. Main St., Fostoria.\n•*\nP. J. Anderson.\n• \\\n1895.\nPrincipal of Felton Ave. School, 648 E. Long St., Columbus.\nJ. J. Bliss, A.B., '81, A.M., '86, Oberlin Coll.\n1895.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 512 E. Rensselaer St., Bucyrus.\nG. B. Bolenbaugh.\n1898.\nAssistant Principal of Lincoln School, 4738 Harris St., Cincinnati.\nGranville W. Brumbaugh, M.E., '89, Juniata Coll., Pa.\ni8q6.\nPrincipal of Seventh District School, 1226 W. istSt., Dayton.\nMaris L. Bruot.\n1889. Teacher of Elocution and Oratory, Central High School, Cleveland.\nHoward Champlin.\n1892. Superintendent of Writing in Public Schools, Lane Seminary Grounds, Station D\nWalnut Hills, Cincinnati.\nTress a M. Corcoran.\n1886. Principal of Allen School, \" The Normandie,\" Dayton.\nE. S. Cox, Lit.D.\n1894.\nSuperintendent of Public Schools, Sidney.\nF. B. Dyer, A.B.\n1886.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Madisonville.\n\n"}
{"page": 1233, "printed_page": null, "text": "Ohio]\n1896.\n\nLIFE AND\n\nACTIVE\n\nMEMBERS\n\n1225\n\nAugust F. Foerste,\nA.M., ofPh.D.,\n'90,Steele\nHarvard\n1893. Teacher\nPhysics,\nHighUniv.\nSchool, Dayton.\nL. Fulton, B.Sc, '95, Ohio Wes. Univ.\n1896.\nSuperintendent of Public Schools, Clyde.\nAlfred E, Gladding,\nA.M., of'91,\nBethany; Ph.D.,\n'98,ofMt.\n1899.\nProfessor\nMathematics\nand Dean\nMt.Hope.\nHope College, 5 Eells St., Rogers.\nJ. P. GoRDV, Ph.D., Leipzig Univ., LL.D.\nProfessor of Pedagogy, Ohio State University, Columbus.\nF. J. Heiermann.\n1899.\nSt. Ignatius College, Carroll and Jersey Sts., Cleveland.\nLemira W. Hughes.\n1892. Principal of Normal Training School, \"The Lennox,\" Cleveland.\nJ. W. Jones, B.Sc, N. Nor. Univ. ; B.P., O. Univ.\nSuperintendent of the Ohio Institute for the Deaf, Columbus.\nFrederick Alwin King, A.M.\nTeacher of Latin and Greek, Hughes High School, no Huntington Place, Mt.\nAuburn, Cincinnati.\nMrs. Frances W. Leiter.\n1890.\nSuperintendent of Physical Education Department of The National W. C. T. U.,\n220 W. Park Ave., Mansfield.\nAnna E. Logan.\n1896. Teacher in Intermediate Grade, Westwood, Cincinnati.\nJ. V. McMillan.\n1899.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Canal Dover.\nGeorge M. Plumer.\nPrincipal of Ward School, 623, 4th St., Marietta.\nS. L. Rose.\n1895.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 219 N. 2d St., Hamilton.\nJohn H. Rowland, A.M.\nGeneral Agent, American Book Co., 240 N. Main St., Delaware.\n\nWarren\n\nJoseph H. Snyder,\nB.Sc, '74, Ohio\nCent. Coll.\nA.M., Heidelberg\n1890.\nSuperintendent\nof Schools,\n169; Monroe\nSt., Tiffin. Coll., O.\nHarriet E. Terrel.\n1890.\nPrincipal of Scranton Schools, 381 Jennings Ave., Cleveland,\nR. S. Thomas, A.B., 111. Wes. Univ. ; Ph.D., '98, Mt. Hope Coll.\n1898.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 210 N. Prospect St., Akron.\nAnna M. P. Tucker.\nPrincipal of Anna M. P. Tucker School of Ethical and Physical Culture, 878 Case\nAve., Cleveland.\nCharles Liggett Van Cleve, A.B., A.M., O. Wes. Univ., Delaware.\nSuperintendent of Public Schools, 3233 Plum St., Troy.\nWilliam M. White, A.B., McNeely Nor. Sch.\n1868.\nSuperintendent of Union Schools, Mt. Pleasant.\nIda Mortimer Windate, A.B., O. W. Univ.\nPrincipal of High School, 148 Washington St., Delaware.\n1897. Ella Beistle.\n1888.\nPrincipal of loth District, 31 E. McOwen St.. Dayton.\nCleveland Public Library.\nLibrarian, William H. Brett, Cleveland.\nCora M. Gayer.\nSpecial Teacher of German, 135 Miles Ave., Cleveland.\nRose Morrison.\nKindergartner's Assistant in Normal Training School, 741 Willson Ave,, Cleveland.\nOhio State 1894.\nUniversity.\nPresident, William O. Thompson ; Librarian, Olive Jones, Columbus.\nMabel L. Pray.\n1893.\nDirector of Physical Training, \"ITie Monticello,\" Toledo.\nJohn C. Ridge.\n1877. With the American Book Co., 2322 Nelson Ave., Mt. Auburn, Cincinnati,\nSylvester F. Scovel, A.B., '53, A.M., '56, Hanover.\n1898.\nEx-Presidentand Professor of Morals and Sociology, University of Wooster,Wooster,\nJulia C. Silcox.\nTeacher in 8th Grade, 137 Miles Ave., Cleveland.\nEdward M. Van Cleve, A.B., '86, A.M., '89, Ohio Wes. Univ.\n1892. Superintendent of City Schools, 127 W. Main St., Greenville,\nMary-Belle Westfall.\n1882.\nPrincipal in nth District, 219 N. Main St., Dayton.\nT. Howard Winters, A.B., '96, Ohio Wes. Univ.\n1896. Teacher in Kingsbury High School, 58 S. 6th St., Ironton.\n1898. Perla G. Bowman.\n1897. Associate Professor of Domestic Science, Ohio State University, Dennison Hotel,\nColumbus.\nJambs M. Carr.\n1893. Superintendent of Schools, Frazeysburg.\nRobert Brown Ewing, B.Sc, '85, Nat. Nor., Lebanon, O.\n1894. Superintendent of Schools, Gallipolis.\nH. D. Grindle, A.B., '91, Ohio Wes. Univ. ; A.M., '98, Defiance Coll.\n1898. Superintendent of Public Schools, Columbus Grove.\nMyra H. Hanson, Mt. Holyoke Coll.\n1898. Teacher of Latin In High School, \"The Monticello,\" Toledo.\nE. M. Hartman, M.L., Univ. of Mich.\n*\n1899.\nTeacher, 140 Broadway, Toledo.\nL. J. House.\n1899. Superintendent of Perkins Public Schools, Lock Box 96, Sandusky.\nEdmund D. Lyon, A.B., Ohio Wesleyan Univ.\n1895. Superintendent of Schools, 181 W. ist St., Mansfield.\n\n'\n\n"}
{"page": 1234, "printed_page": null, "text": "12 26\n\n1898.\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Oregon\n\nQ>E\\0— Continued\nGillespie K. Lyons.\nAgent for American Book Co., 2130 Lawrence Ave., Toledo.\nHarvev V. Merrick, A.B., '80, A.M., '83, Mt. Union Coll.\n18B8.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Cadiz.\nNormal School, Dayton.\nPrincipal, Grace A. Greene, Dayton.\nJames E. Randall.\n1897. Superintendent of Schools, Camden.\nW. C. Reeder.\n1893. Teacher of English and History, Steele High School, 1253 \\V. ist St., Dayton.\nWilliam E. Roberts.\nSupervisor of Manual Training in Public Schools, 371 Franklin Ave,, Cleveland.\nF. J. Roller,\n'83, Mt. Union\nColl. Schools, 24 Main St., Niles.\n1888.A.M.,\nSuperintendent\nof Public\nJohn M. Sarver, A.M., Ohio Nor. Univ.\n1893. Principal of High School, 3136 Tuscarawas St., Canton,\nLeander William Sheppard.\n1898. Teacher in High School, 79 E. nth Ave., Columbus.\nP. N. SiGLER.\n1897. Member of Board of Education, 424 Grand Ave., Dayton.\nJ. F. Smith, 1888.\nA.B., Principal\n'85, A.M.,of '90,\nHighKenyon.\nSchool, 130 Hancock St., Findlay.\nRalph Richard Upton, A.B., Yale; LL.B., LL.M., Columbian.\n1898. Principal of High School, 196 W. Water St., Chillicothe,\nTassel.\nIsaac Newton VanSuperintendent\nof Schools, 33 N. Prospect St., Bowling Green.\nMary Walter.\nPrimary Teacher, Public Schools, Pomeroy.\nMiss M. A. Woodmansee.\niiQ S. Williams St., Dayton.\n\n1899.\n\n^\n\"^\n\nHoward Ayers, B.Sc, '83, Harvard; Ph.D., '86, Freiburg, Germany ; LL.D., '99, Mo. State Univ.\n1899. President of University of Cincinnati, 3240 Burnet Ave., Avondale, Cincinnati.\nJulia A. Harris.\n1873.\nTeacher in Primary Grade, Webster School, Cincinnati.\nJohn A. Heizer, B.Sc.\nFirst Assistant in 19th District, Cincinnati Schools, Norwood, Cincinnati.\nH. C. Koehler, Ph.B., Mt. Union Coll., Alliance, O.\n1899.\nSuperintendent of Public Schools, Louisville, Stark Co.\n•\nT. B. Pinkerton.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Waterville.\nF. P. Shumaker, M.Sc, '86, Mt. .Union Coll.\n1888.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Chagrin Falls.\nDavid Stanton Tappan, A.B., '64, Miami Univ.; A.M., '78, Wooster Univ.; D.D.,'87, Lenox\nColl.; LL.D., '99, Wooster Univ.\n1899.\nPresident of Miami University, Oxford.\nFannie E. Thomson, Ph. B., '95, Oberlin Coll.\n1887.\nPrincipal of High School, Medina.\nThe Western.\nPresident, Leila S. McKee; Librarian, Miss C. D. White, Oxford.\nMartha S. Williamson.\nTeacher in Public Schools, 208 W. 12th St., Cincinnati.\nOKLAHOMA\nACTIVE\n\nmembers\n\n1892.\n\nDavid R. Boyd, A. B., '78, A.M., '81, Univ. of Wooster.\n1892.\nPresident of University of Oklahoma, Norman.\nH. E.Thompson, B.Sc.\nPrincipal of Preparatory Department, A. and M. College, Stillwater.\n1898. L. W. Cole, B.Pd., '93, S. W. Kan. Coll. ; A.B., '99, Univ. of Okla.\n1897.\nSuperintendent of Schools, El Reno.\nS. N. Hopkins.\nTerritorial Superintendent of Public Instruction and ex-officio Auditor, 411 N. Broad\nSt., Guthrie.\nEdmund D. Murdaugh.\nPresident of Territorial Normal School of Oklahoma, Edmond.\nBlanche Torrence Thomas.\n1896.\nKindergarten Teacher, Pawnee.\n1899. G. L. PiGG, A.B.\nSuperintendent of Government School, Anadarko.\nUniversity of Oklahoma, Library.\nPresident, David R. Boyd; Librarian, Maud Rule, Norman.\n1895.\n\nOREGON\nLIFE\n\ndirector\n\n1888.\n\nCharles Carroll Stratton, A.M., Willamette Univ., Ore. ; D.D., '79, Northwestern Univ., 111.,\nand '80, Ohio Wes. Univ.\nEx-President of Portland University, University Park.\n\n1884.\n\nHenry\n\nLIFE member\nM, James, A.B., '61, A.M., '64, Williams Coll.\n370, 14th St., Portland.\n\n"}
{"page": 1235, "printed_page": null, "text": "Pennsylvania]\n\nLIFE\n\nAND\n\nACTIVE\n\nMEMBERS\n\n1227\n\nO^^GCm— Continued\nACTIVE\n\nMEMBERS\n\niijg2.\n\nEdwin DeVore Ressler, A.B., '91, Otterbein Univ.; A.M., '97, Ohio State Univ.\n1897. Superintendent of Public Schools, Eugene.\nJ. H. ACKERMAN.\n1898. State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Portland.\nE. B. McElrov, A.m., '83, Christian Coll. ; Ph.D., '84, Willamette Univ.\n1895. Professor of Ethics, University of Oregon, Eugene.\n1897. Charles Friedel, Ph.D., '95, Leipzig.\nProfessor of Physics in University of Oregon, Eugene.\n1898. Frank Rigler.\n1896. Superintendent of Schools, 533 Yamhill St., Portland.\n1899. H. D. Cannon.\nPrimary Teacher, St. Helen's Hall, Portland.\nJ. S. Landers, B.Sc, '87, Nor. Ind. Nor. Sch.\n1899. Superintendent of Public Schools, Union and 9th Sts., The Dalles.\n1895.\n\n'\n\nPENNSYLVANIA\nlife directors\n1879.\n\n1891.\n\nTeachers'\n\nInstitute of the City of Philadelphia.\nPresident, A. J. Macfarlane;\nSecretary, Mary Wallace, 913 S. i6th St., Phila\ndelphia.\nRepresentative for 1899, William H. Samuel, Philadelphia.\nEliphalet Oram Lyte, M.Sc, Millersville; A.M., Ph.D., Franklin and Marshall Coll.\n1887.\nPrincipal of First Pennsylvania State Normal School, Millersville.\nlife members\n\n1876.\n\nEdward\n\nBrooks, A.M., '58, Union Coll. ; Ph.D., '76, Lafayette Coll., and Wash, and Jeff. Coll.\n1891.\nSuperintendent of Public Schools, 5971 Drexel Road, Philadelphia,\nFoster Avery.\nSomerton, Philadelphia.\nSimon Gratz, A.M., Univ. of Pa.\nEx-President of Board of Education, 1919 Spruce St., Philadelphia.\nEdward Shippen.\nEx-President of Board of Education, 532 Walnut St., Philadelphia.\n1880. Edgar Arthur Singer, Ph.D., '96, Univ. of Pa.\n1887. Assistant Superintendent of Schools, 4662 Penn St., Station F, Philadelphia.\n1884.\nRobert Curry, A.B., '48, A.M., '51, Jefferson Coll. ; Ph.D., '73, Wash, and Jeff. Coll., Palmyra.\n2420 Perryville Ave., Allegheny City.\n1879. Rachel\n\nACTIVE\n\n1879.\n\nmembers\n\nGeorge\n\nMorris Philips, A.M., '74, Ph.D., '84, Bucknell Univ.\n1881. Principal of State Normal School, West Chester.\nJ. Morrison, A.M.\n1899.\nPrincipal of Northeast Manual Training School, 1430 N. 7th St., Philadelphia.\n1884. George H. Stout.\n1888. Supervising Principal of Boys' Grammar School, 3746 Powelton Ave., Philadelphia.\n1887. Nathan C. Schaeffer, LL.D., '95, Western tjniv. of Pa.\n1893. State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Harrisburg.\n1891. E. Mackey, A.B., '78, Mercersburg Coll.\n1899.\nSuperintendent of Public Schools, 8th and Washington Sts., Reading,\n1892. Eliza A. Bishop.\n211 Pine St., Harrisburg.\n\n1881. Andrew\n\nR. K. Buehrle,\n'78, Ph.D., of'87,\nFranklin\nMarshall\nColl., Pa.\n1880. A.m.,\nSupermtendent\nSchools,\n408 and\nManor\nSt., Lancaster.\nW. Wilberforce Deatrick, A.B., '76, A.M., '79, Mercersburg Coll.\ni8gi.\nProfessor of Psychology and Pedagogy, Keystone State Normal School, Kutztown.\nMrs. Constance Mackenzie Durham.\nFormerly Director of Public Kindergartens, 4816 Florence Ave., Philadelphia.\nH. W. Fisher, Grad. State Nor. Sch., Millersville, Pa.\n1875.\nSupervisor of 17th Ward Schools, 350 Lehigh Ave., Pittsburgh.\nJoseph K. Gotwals, A.M.\n1872.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 19 E. Chestnut St., Norristown.\nMary J. Lamberton.\n1891; Supervising Principal of George W. Childs School, 4403 Osage Ave., West Philadelphia.\nEnoch C. Layers, A.M., Pd.D., Ph.D.\n1894. . Teacher of Mathematics and Pedagogy, Public and High Schools, 324 Cattell St.,\nEaston.\nHerman T. Lukens, A.M., '88, Univ. of Pa. ; Ph.D., '91, Jena.\n1898.\nHead Training Teacher of State Normal School, California.\nJohn A. M. Passmore, M.Sc, '62, State Nor. Sch., Millersville, Pa.\n1890.\nAgent for American Book Co., 318 S. 42d St., Philadelphia.\nS, C. SCHMUCKER, A.M., '8s, M.Sc, '90, Muhlenberg Coll., Pa. ; Ph.D., '93, Univ. of Pa.\n1895. Professor of Biological Sciences, State Normal School, 610 S. High St., West\nChester.\nH. H. Spayd.\n1883. Principal of Public Schools, Box 310, Minersville.\nJ. Liberty Tadd.\n1884. Director of Industrial Art School, 319 N. 32d St., Philadelphia.\n\n"}
{"page": 1236, "printed_page": null, "text": "1228\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Pennsylvania\n\n1893. C. A. Babcock,A.M.,\n'71, LL.B., of\n'83,Schools,\nHamilton\n1883.\nSuperintendent\n513 Coll.\nPetroleum St., Oil City.\nM. G. Brumbaugh, A.M., '93, Ph.D., '94, Univ. of Pa.\n1893. President of Juniata College, and (1894) Professor of Pedagogy, University of\nPennsylvania, 311 S. 40th St., Philadelphia.\nJames A. Dewey,\nM.E., '84, StateofNor.\nSch., Newport\nMansfield.\n1890.\nSuperintendent\nSchools,\nTownship, Wanamie.\nLoyal Freeman Hall, M.E.D., '91, State Nor. Sch., Indiana, Pa.\nPrincipal of McKean St. and Springdale School, 125 Lincoln Ave., Butler,\nWilliam Henry Samuel, Ph.D., '92, Univ. of Pa.\n1878. Supervising Principal of Public Schools, 2505 N. 12th St. , Philadelphia.\nAndrew Thomas Smith, Pd.D., '93, School of Pedagogy, Univ. of N. Y.\n1899.\nPrincipal of State Normal School, Mansfield.\nPauline W. Spencer.\n1893. Teacher of Literature, Girls' Normal School, 3421 Race St., Philadelphia.\n1894. Franklin B. Sawvel, A.M., Hopedale Coll. ; Ph.D.. '86, Wittenberg Coll.\n1890.\nProfessor of English Literature and Philosophy, \"ITiiel College, Greenville.\nHenry T. Spangler, A.B., '73, A.M., '76, Ursinus Coll.; D.D., '94, Heidelberg Univ., O.\n1893.\nPresident Ursinus College, CoUegeville.\nCharles K. Witmer, A.B., '88, A.M., '91, Franklinand Marshall Coll.\n1893.\nPrincipal of High School, United States Hotel, Lebanon.\n1895. Arthur Dana\nA.M., of'84,\nAllegheny\n1883. Colegrove,\nSuperintendent\nCity\nSchools, Coll.\n73 Euclid St., Cony.\nW. G. Cans.\n1898.\nPrincipal of Union High School, Turtle Creek; East Pittsburgh.\nJames Mac 1890.\nAlister,\nA.M., of\nLL.D.,\nUniv. Philadelphia.\n; LL.B., Univ. of N. Y. ; Officier d' Academic, Paris.\nPresident\nDrexelBrown\nInstitute,\nMrs. Mary E. Mumford.\nMember of Philadelphia Board of Education, 1401 N. 17th St., Philadelphia.\nRt. Rev. J. W. Shanahan, D.D.\nBishop of Harrisburg, Harrisburg.\nSydney T. Skidmore, A.M., '85, Amherst Coll.\n1893.\nProfessor of Natural Sciences, Normal School, 1706 N. i8th St., Philadelphia.\nH. M. Trask.\nManager for Silver, Burdett & Co., 1328 Arch St., Philadelphia.\n1896. J. George Becht, M.Sc, Lafayette Coll.\n1893.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Lycoming County, Muncy.\nR. M. Cargo.\n1868. Principal of Mt. Washington School, 127 Sycamore St., Pittsburgh.\nWatson Cornell, Ph.D., '97, Univ. of Pa.\nSupervising Principal of Logan Grammar School, 1725 N. i6th St., Philadelphia.\nL.O. FoosE, A.M., '78, Penn. Coll., Gettysburg.\n1879. Superintendent of City Schools, 121 Chestnut St., Harrisburg.\nJohn Arthur1896.\nGibson,\nA.B., '91, Allegheny\nSuperintendent\nof Schools, Coll.\n418 N. McKean St., Butler.\nGeorge Howkll.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 175 Bromley Ave., Scranton,\nW. L. MacGowan, A.B., Allegheny Coll. ; Ph.B. and Ph.M.\n1890.\nSuperintendent of Schools ; office, East St. Building, Warren,\nC. B. McCabe.\nPrincipal of North Braddock Borough Schools, 1019 Halkett St., Braddock.\nS. R. McClure, A.m., '94, Ph.D., '97, Grove City Coll.\n1893.\nPrincipal of High School, 616 Jones Ave., North Braddock.\nTheodore B. Noss, A.M., '82, Ph.D., '83, Syracuse Univ.\n1883.\nPrincipal of State Normal School, California.\nEmma G. Olmstead.\n18^ 9. Principal of Training School, Scranton.\nW. Riddle.\nEducational Author, 1314 N. Line St., Lancaster.\nJlTOSON Perry Welsh, A.M., '84, Ph.D., '93, Lafayette Coll., Easton, Pa.\n1890.\nPrincipal of State Normal School, Bloomsburg.\nMargaret Catharine Zillafro, M.E.D., State Nor. Sch., Edmboro.\n1893.\nPrimary Teacher, 4th Ward Schools, 2 Jackson Ave., Bradford.\n1897. Francis Burke Brandt, A.B., '92, Harvard; Ph.D., '95, Columbia.\n1896. Professor of Pedagogy, Central High School, 1637 S. 15th St., Philadelphia.\nC. E. Ehinger, M.D.\nPhysical Director of State Normal School, 15 Normal Ave., West Chester.\nThe Free Library of Philadelphia.\nLibrarian, John Thomson, 1217-1221 Chestnut St., Philadelphia.\nMary S. Garrett.\n1893.\nPrincipal of Home for the Training in Speech of Deaf Children before they are of\nSchool Age, Belmont and Monument Aves., Philadelphia.\nM. A. Grove.\n1897. Department of Commerce, 918 N. 6th St., Harrisburg.\nHenry Houck^\nDeputy State Superintendent, Harrisburg.\nN. P. McNelis.\nEli M. Rapp.\n\nSuperintendent of Berks County Schools, 115 N. 4th St., Hamburg.\nSchool at Millersville.\nPrincipal, E. Oram Lyte, Millersville.\nState Normal School Library, Mansfield.\nPrincipal, Andrew Thomas Smith, Mansfield.\nD. H. Bergey, B.Sc, '84, M.D., '84, Univ. of Pa. ; A.M., '94, 111. Wes. Univ.\n1895.\nFirst Assistant, Laboratory of Hygiene, University of Pennsylvania, 34th and Locust\nSts., Philadelphia.\nState Normal\n\n1898.\n\nInspector of Parochial Schools, St. Bernard's Church, Indiana,\n\n•\n\n"}
{"page": 1237, "printed_page": null, "text": "Rhode Island]\n\nLIFE\n\nAND\n\nACTIVE\n\nPENNSYLVANIA—\n1898.\n\nMEMBERS\n\n1229\n\nContinued\n\nAnna Bodler, M.Sc,\n'95, Mansfield, Pa., State Nor. Sch.\n«\nGermania.\nA.J. Davis, A.M., LL.D.\ni888.\nPrincipal of State Normal School, Clarion.\nFranklin Spencer Edmonds, Ph.B., '93, Univ. of Pa.\nAssistant Professor of Political Science, Central High School, 1753\nPhiladelphia.\n\nN.\n\n33d St.,\n\nFels, A.B., '83, Johns Hopkins Univ. ; LL.B,, '85, Univ. of Pa.\n1312 Franklin St., Philadelphia.\nJ. R. Flickinger, A.B., '77, A.M., '80, Princeton.\n1896. Principal of State Normal School, Edinboro.\nH. W. Golden, B.Didac, '90, M Didac.,'92, Edinboro State Normal.\n1897. Principal of sth Ward Public Schools, Allegheny City ; 8 Dawson Ave., Bellevue.\nSamuel Hamilton, A.M., Grove City Coll.\nCounty Superintendent of County Schools, Braddock.\nKeystone Literary Society of the Keystone State Normal School.\nKiitztown.\nJohn W. Lansinger.\nState Normal School, Millersville.\nWilliam A. Mason.\n1892. Director of Drawing in Schools of Philadelphia, 212 W. Chelton Ave., Germantown.\nJesse H. Michener, Ph.D., Univ. of Pa.\nPrincipal of Grammar School, 4512 Regent St., Philadelphia.\nRev. Eugene Murphy.\nDirector of St. John the Baptist Parochial School, 146 Rector St., Manayunk,\nPhiladelphia.\nMary Craig Peacock.\n1894.\nTeacher in Normal School, Torresdale, Philadelphia.\nPhilomathean Literary Society, Keystone State Normal School.\nKutztown.\nMaurice\n\n1899.\n\nR. H. Pratt, Major of ist Cavalry, U. S. A. ; LL.D., '98, Dickinson Coll.\nSuperintendent of Indian Industrial School, Carlisle.\nMargaret S. Prichard.\nHead of Department of Psychology, Normal School, Philadelphia.\nElizabeth S. Tait.\nTeacher in Normal School, 342 S. i8th St., Philadelphia.\nUniversity of Pennsylvania, Library.\nLibrarian, Morris Jastrow, Jr., Philadelphia.\nEdward Weldon.\n1898. Member of Board of Education, 117 Church St., Bethlehem.\nLightner Witmer, Ph.D., '91, Leipzig, Germany.\n1893. Professor of Psychology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia.\nEdward E. Allen, A.B., '84, Harvard.\n1890.\nState Institution for the Instruction of the Blind, Overbrook.\nBryn Mawr College.\nPresident, Miss M. Carey Thomas; Librarian, Isabel Ely Ix)rd, Bryn Mawr.\nCarnegie Library of Pittsburgh.\nLibrarian, E. H. Anderson, Schenley Park, Pittsburgh.\nGeorge D. Gideon.\nPublisher, 17 N. 7th St., Philadelphia.\nBenjamin Wiestling Mitchell, A.B., '83, A.M., '86. Princeton ; Ph.D., '88, Washington- Jefferson.\n1897.\nProfessor of Latin and Head of Department of Ancient and Modem Languages,\nCentral High School, 4326 Pine St., Philadelphia.\nHenry C. Pearson, A.B., '92, Harvard.\nPrincipal of the Allegheny Preparatory School, 820 Lincoln Ave., Allegheny.\nJames H. Penniman, A.B., '84, Yale.\n1886.\nDe Lancey School, 4326 Sansom St., Philadelphia.\nJoseph R. Smith, Colonel U. S. A. ; M.D., Univ. of Buffalo; A.M., Univ. of Mich.\n2300 De Lancey St., Philadelphia.\nState Normal School.\nPrincipal, Theodore B. Noss, California.\nScranton Public Library.\nLibrarian, Henry J. Carr, Scranton.\nM. B, Wicks.\n1872.\nTeacher in Eastburn Academy, 700 N. Broad St., Philadelphia.\nMrs. L. L. W. Wilson, Ph.D., '97, Univ. of Pa.\n1893.\nHead of Department of Biology, Normal School, 640 N. 32d St., Philadelphia.\n,\n\nRHODE\n\nISLAND\n\nlife director\n1882.\n\nThomas\n\nW. Bicknell, A.M., '60, Brown Univ. ; '78, Amherst Coll. ; LL.D.. '84, Drury Coll.\n719-721 Industrial Trust Building, Providence.\nactive members\n\n1891. Thomas\n\nB. Stockwell, A.M., '65, Brown Univ.\n1875.\nCommissioner of Public Schools, Box 1432, Providence.\nHorace S. Tarbell, A.M., '62, Wesleyan Univ. ; LL.D., '96, Brown Univ.\n1884.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 169 Power St., Providence.\n1892. Benjamin Baker, A.M., '78, Brown Univ.\n1890.\nSuperintendent of Schools, to Mt. Vernon Court, Newport.\nGeorge E. Church, A.B., '72, A.M, '78, Amherst Coll.\n1889.\nPrincipal of Peace Street Grammar School, 37 Adelaide St., Providence.\n\n"}
{"page": 1238, "printed_page": null, "text": "1230\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nRHODE\n1894.\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[South Dakota\n\nISLAND— C<?«rz««<?rf\n\nWalter\n\nBallou Jacobs. A.M., '8s, Brown Univ.\n1895.\nAssociate Professor of Pedagogy ,'Brown University, 310 Olney St., Providence.\nAbbv L. Marlatt,\nB.Sc, '88,M.Sc.,\n'90, Science,\nState Agri.\nColl., Kan.\n1894. Teacher\nof Domestic\nManual\nTraining High School, 261 Benefit St.,\nProvidence.\n\n1896. Victor Frazee, A.B.. '89 Dalhousie Coll., Halifax, N. S.\n1893.\nTeacher in Hope Street High School, 109 Halsey St., Providence.\nHenry Dwight Hervev, A.B., '89, A.M., '^, Denison Univ., Granville, O.\n1898.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 80 Lyon St., Pawtucket.\nEllen Le Garde.\n1893.\nPhysical Director of Schools, 10 Mawney St., Providence.\nMrs. Ella M. Pierce.\n1891.\nSupervisor of Primary Schools, 19 Lester St., Providence.\nBessie M. Scholfield.\nSupervisor of Primary Work in Public Schools, igo Knight St., Providence.\nW. R. Whittle, A.B., ;83, A.M., '88, Colby Univ.\n1891. Principal of Schools, 56 Elm St., Westerly.\n1897. Rhode Island Normal School.\nPrincipal, Fred Gowing, Providence.\n1898. David Webster Hovt, A.M., '72, Brown; '61, Middlebury.\n1864.\nPrincipal of English High School, 36 Humboldt Ave., Providence.\n1899. Sarah Dyer Barnes.\nSupervisor of Grammar Schools, Providence; res., Manton.\nHarris Institute Library.\nLibrarian, Anna H. Ward. Woonsocket.\nSOUTH\n\nCAROLINA\n\nlife member\n1891.\n\nMartha\n\nSchofield.\n'\n1868.\nFounder of Schofield Normal and Industrial School for Colored Youth, Aiken.\nactive members\n\n1895. Winthrop\n\nNormal and Industrial College.\nPresident. D. B. Johnston, Rock Hill.\n1896. E. S. Dreher, A.M., '93, Roanoke Coll., Salem, Va.\n1895. Superintendent of Schools, Columbia.\nW. H. Hand.\n1893. Superintendent of City Schools, Chester.\n1897. C. A. Graeser, A.m., Charleston Coll.\n1898.\nProfessor of Modem Languages, High School, Charleston.\n1898. J. Frank Fooshe, A.M., '93. Wofford Coll., Spartanburg.\n1898.\nAssistant Principal, Mt. Zion Institute, AVinnsboro.\nJohn S. Marquis, A.B., '76, A.M., '93, Lafayette Coll.. Easton, Pa.\n1892. Principal of Brainerd Institute, Box 235, Chester.\n1899. A. P. Montague, A.M., LL.D.\nPresident of Furman University, Greenville.\nF. Q. O'Neill.\nTrustee of College of Charleston, Charleston.\nW. K. Tate, A.B., y. Univ. of Nashville.\n1898. Principal of Memminger Normal School, 81 Vanderhorst St., Charleston.\nW. B. Wilson.\nCharleston.\nF. C.Woodward, A.M., Lit.D.\nPresident of South Carolina College, Columbia.\nSOUTH\n\nDAKOTA\n\nactive members\n1875.\n\nFayette L. Cook.\n\nPresident of South Dakota State Normal School, Spearfish.\nWilliam H. H. Beadle, A.B., '61, A.M., '64, LL.B., '67, Univ. of Mich.\n1889. President of State Normal School, ^Iadison.\n1893. A. Wellington Norton, A.B., '73, A.M., '76, Rochester Univ.\n1899. President of Sioux Falls College, Sioux Falls.\n1894. Mattie Jones.\n1896. Teacher in Indian Industrial School, Flandreau.\nKate Taubman, B.Didac, Iowa State Nor. Sch.\n1895.\nPrincipal of High School, 308 Nicollette St., Aberdeen.\n1895. Frank Crane, A.M., Gale Coll.\nWatertown.\nAnna B. Herrig, Grad., Oswego Normal School.\n1898. Superintendent, Training Department, State Normal School, Madison.\nGeorge M. Smith, A.B., '73, A.M., '77, Colby Univ.\n1899. Professor of Modem Languages, Literature, and Pedagogy, University of South\nDakota, Vermillion.\n1890.\n\nEdmund J. Vert, Pd.D., '94. Ph.B., '96, Ph.D., '98.\n1895.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 502 Lynn St., Yankton.\n1896. A. H. Avery.\n1894. Principal of Public Schools, Woonsocket.\n1897. Alexander Strachan, A.M., '82, Univ. of Rochester.\n1890. Superintendent of Schools, 71 Forest Ave., Deadwood.\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 1239, "printed_page": null, "text": "Texas]\n\nLIFE\n\nAND\n\nACTIVE\n\nSOUTH\n1899.\n\nMEMBERS\n\n1 23 1\n\nVtKYSyVK— Continued\n\nE. E. Collins.\n\nSuperintendent of Public Instruction, Vermillion,\nWilliam W. Girton, Grad., '74, State Nor. Sch., Platteville, Wis.\n1896.\nProfessor of Civics, Geography, Geology, and Astronomy, State Normal School\n1219 Egan Ave., Madison.\nIda p. Hatch.\n1896. Superintendent of City Schools, Pierre.\nTENNESSEE\nLIFE\n\n1886.\n1889.\n\nDIRECTORS\n\nWilliam Robertson Garrett, A.M., '57, William and Mary Coll. ; Ph.D., '91, Univ. of Nashville.\n1895.\nProfessor of American History, Peabody Normal College, 813 S. Summer St.,\nNashville.\nBoard of Education of Nashville.\nPresident, J. L. Weakley; Superintendent, H. C, Weber, Nashville.\nactive members\n\n1889.\n\nW. T. White, A.B., '77, A.M., '33, Univ. of Tenn.\n1885. Principal of Girls' High School, 508 Broad St., Knoxville.\nWilliam H. Payne,Chancellor\nLL.D., Univ.\nof Mich. of; Ph.D.',\nUniv.\nNashville.of Peabody Normal College, 16\nof University\nNashville\nand ofPresident\nLindsley Ave., Nashville.\n1894. A. T. Barrett, LL.D., ;8i, S. W. Univ.\n1891. Superintendent of City Schools, looi E. 9th St., Chattanooga.\nRichard Jones, A.M., '81, Iowa Coll. ; Ph.D., '93, Heidelberg, Germany.\ni8g8.\nProfessor of Literature, Vanderbilt University, Nashville.\n1895. John Braden, A.B., A.M., Ohio Wesleyan Univ. ; D.D., Iowa Wes. Univ.\n1867.\nPresident of Central Tennessee College, 82 Maple St., Nashville.\n1896. James A. Henry,\nA.B., '83, ofAtlanta\nUniv. 207 Grove St., Chattanooga.\n1886. Principal\nHigh School,\n1892.\n\n1897. James C. Blasingame, A.B., Univ. of Ga.\nPresident of Holbrook Normal College, Fountain City.\nJ. M. Guilliams, A.B., Central Nor. Coll. ; A.M., 'g8.\n1899.\nVice-President of Normal University, Normal Park, Chattanooga.\nJ. H. McCallie, B.Sc, Grant Univ.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 233 Deaderick St., Knoxville.\nH. C. Weber.\n1897. Superintendent of Schools, cor. Broad and Spruce Sts., Nashville.\n1898. William Riley Payne.\n1892. Secretary and Treasurer of Peabody Normal College; 1895, Secretary, Board of\nEducation, City of Nashville, 16 Lindsley Ave., Nashville.\n1899. Charles Wm. Dabnev, A.B., Hampden-Sidney ; Ph.D., Gottingen.\n1887. President of University of Tennessee, Knoxville.\n\nM. M. Ross.\n\n1886.\n\nPrincipal of Grammar\n\nSchool, 523 Stevenson Ave., Nashville.\nTEXAS\n\nactive members\n1874.\n\nAlexander\n\nHogg, A.M., '57, Randolph-Macon Coll.; '74, William and Mary Coll; '89, Univ. of Ala\nT892.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 303 Lamar St., Fort Worth.\nH. C. Pritchett, A.m., '78, Pritchett Institute, Glasgow, Mo.\nT891.\nPrincipal of Sam. Houston Normal Institute, Huntsville.\n1894. Oscar Henry Cooper,\nA.B., '72, Yale; A.M., LL.D., '91, Univ. of Nashville.\nCarthage.\nA. H. Wilkins.\nRepresentative of American Book Co., 418 Main St., Dallas.\n1895. David Shires Bodenhamer.\n1885.\nProfessor of Mathematics, Trinity University, Tehuacana.\nJames\nM. Carlisle, A.B., '98, Cumberland Univ. ; A.M., '78, Emory Coll., Ga. ; LL.D., '98, Univ. of\nNashville.\n1892.\n\n1891.\nState Superintendent of Public Instruction, Austin.\nJ. M. Fendlev, A.B., '82, Univ. of Nashville.\n1885.\nCounty Superintendent and Principal of Avenue\nGalveston.\n\nL\n\nSchool.\n\n330a\n\nAvenue\n\nT. G. Harris, A.B., '76, A.M., '80, Carson Coll., Tenn.\n1895. Superintendent of Schools, Austin.\nH. S. Parsons, A.B., '86. N. Ind. Nor. Sch.\n1896. Vice-President of Grayson College, Whitewright.\nW. S. Sutton, A.B., '78, A.M., '84, Univ. of .-Vrk.\n1897. Professor of Pedagogy, University of Texas, 1812 Congress Ave., Austm.\n1896. J. L. Long.\n, t-, n\n1893. Superintendent of Public Schools, High School, Dallas.\n1897. Charles T. Alexander.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 1122 Columbus St., Waco.\nN. J. Clancy, Grad., State Nor. Sch.\n>\nSuperintendent of Schools, Mansfield.\nC. E. Foster, B.Sc, E. Tex. Nor.\n1898. Principal of Public Schools, Handley.\n\nN,\n\n"}
{"page": 1240, "printed_page": null, "text": "1232\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Washington\n\nTEXAS— C(7«^i««e«;\n1898. J. K. McBride,\nPeabody\nNor. Coll. Burleson\n; A.B., '93,\nUniv. Greenville.\nof Nashville.\n1899. F.I.,\nPhysical\nDepartment,\nCollege,\nR. E. Miller, A.B., Nat. Nor. Univ.\n1898. Principal of High School, Lafayette.\nUniversitv of Texas.\nLibrarian, Benjamin Wyche, Austin.\n1899. Allan L. Burleson,\nA.M.,\n'81, Racine;\nB.D., '93,\nKenyon.San Antonio.\nRector\nof West\nTexas Military\nAcademy,\nUTAH\nACTIVE\n\nMEMBERS\n\n1892.\n\nAllen Allensworth, A.M.\ni885.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 23 Fountain Square, Fort Douglas.\n1894. Frank B. Cooper.\n1899. Superintendent of City Schools, 129 B St., Salt Lake City,\n1895. William Jasper KerRj B.Sc, D.Sc.\n1894.\nPresident of Brigham Young College, Logan.\nUniversity of Utah.\nPresident, J. T. Kingsbury ; Librarian, George Quincy Coray, Salt Lake City.\n1896. M. Adelaide Holton.\n1897.\nSupervisor of Primary Schools, 6 Thornton Ave., Salt Lake City.\n1897. A. O. Clark.\nPrincipal of High School, 1059, 3d St., Salt Lake City.\nJoseph M. Tanner.\nPresident of Agricultural College, Logan.\n1898. Brigham Young College.\nPresident, W. J. Kerr, Logan.\n1899. J. L. Brown, B.Sc, B.Pd., '97, Univ. of Mich.\n1897.\nSuperintendent of Public Schools, Utah Co., Pleasant Grove.\nSusan G. Stokes, B.Sc, '96, Stanford Univ.\n1896.\nInstructor in Biology, High School, Salt Lake City.\nVERMONT\n,\n1889. Edmund\n\nlife member\n\nWentworth Wright, A.B., '66, A.M., '69, Harvard Coll.\nTeachers' Examiner, Lunenburg.\nactive members\n\n1894.\n\nMason S. Stone, A.B., '83, Univ. of Vt.\n1892. State Superintendent of Education, Montpelier.\n1898. John L. Alger, A.B., '90, A.M., '95, Brown Univ.\n1895\nSuperintendent of Schools, 211 Washington St., Bennington.\n1899. David Y. Comstock, A.B., '73, A.M., '76, Amherst Coll.\nPrincipal of St. Johnsbury Academy, i Main St., St. Johnsbury.\nVIRGINIA\nactive members\n1894.\n\nJohn H. Bader, A.B., '8s, Washington and Lee Univ.\n1893, Superintendent of Public Schools, Staunton.\nWilliam F. Fox, A.M., '58, Richmond Coll.\n1889.\nSuperintendent of Schools, City Hall, Richmond.\nE. C. Glass.\n1893.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 622 Madison St., Lynchburg.\n1896. Albert H. Tuttle, B.Sc, '68, M.Sc, '71, State Coll. of Pa.\n1888.\nProfessor of Biology, University of Virginia, i West Lawn, Charlottesville.\n1897. Celestia S. Parrish, Ph.B., '96, Cornell Univ.\n1893.\nProfessor\nof Philosophy in Randolph Macon Woman's College, Lynchburg.\nGeorge C. Shepard.\n1899.\nPrincipal of Fairfax Hall, 112 Market St., Winchester.\n1898. Bessie Crawford Anderson.\n\\\n16 S. Coulter St., Staunton.\nM. M. Lvnch.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Winchester.\nJoseph W. Southall.\n•\nState Superintendent of Public Instruction, Richmond.\n1899. N. C. Starke, Grad., '89, Va. Military Inst.\nPrincipal of \" The Virginia High School,\" Farmville.\nWASHINGTON\nlife member\n1891.\n\nJohn Hull, A.M., New\n'76, 111.\nWes. Univ.\nWhatcom.\nactive members\n\n1890. WiLUAM\n\nE. Wilson, A.M., '75, Monmouth Coll., 111.\nJ898. Principal of Washington State Nonn^l School, Ellensburg.\n\n^\n\n"}
{"page": 1241, "printed_page": null, "text": "Wisconsin]\n\nLIFE\n\nAND\n\nACTIVE\n\nMEMBERS\n\n1233\n\nWASHINGTON— Co«^i««?rf\nFrank J. Barnard.\n1890. Superintendent of Schools, 7th and Marion Sts., Seattle.\n1895. J. T. Forrest, Ph.B., '83, Central Univ. of Iowa.\n1899.\nDepartment of Mathematics, State Normal SchQpl, 586 Gardner St., New Whatcom.\nM. G. Royal, A.B., '75, A.M., '78, W. Univ., Salem, Ore.\nOlympia.\n1896. Reuben S. Bingham, A.B., A.M., Hamilton Coll.\n1896. Superintendent of City Schools, 616 Tacoma Ave., Tacoma.\nCharles F. Reeves, B.Sc, '^%, M.Sc, '81, Pa. State Coll.\n1894. Dean of College of Liberal Arts and Professor of Modern Languages, University of\nWashington, Seattle; res., Columbia City.\nJ. F. Savlor, B.Sc, '82, Iowa Agri. Coll.\nSuperintendent of City Schools, High School, Spokane.\n1897. Washington State Normal School.\nPrincipal, W. E. Wilson, Ellensburg.\n1898. George Lancaster, Ph.B., Wesleyan Univ., 111.\n1899.\nInstructor in Mathematics in High School, Everett.\nUniversity of Washington.\nPresident, Frank Pierrepont Graves; Librarian, Rev. Clark Davis, Seattle.\nO. C. Whitney, B.L., '96, Puget Sound Univ.\n1895. Principal of Bryant School, 704 S. I St., Tacoma.\n1899. Mary A. Grupe.\n1897. Principal of Training Department of Drawing, State Normal School, Ellensburg.\nJ. H. Morgan, A.M., '79, Furman Univ.\n1893.\nVice-Principal of State Normal School, Ellensburg.\nErnest Riste.\nEx-Principal of High School, Odell, Neb. ; res., Cheney.\nCharles S. Tilton.\nPrincipal of City School, Fall City.\nJessie B. Wilcox.\n1898. History and Training, State Normal School, Ellensburg.\nX891.\n\nWEST\n\nVIRGINIA\n\nlife director\n1877.\n\nT. Marcellus\n\nMarshall.\nGlenville.\n\n1870.\n\nWilliam H. Cole, A.B., A.M., Ohio Wesleyan Univ.\n1898.\nSuperintendent of Public Schools, 933, 3d Ave,, Huntington.\n\nLIFE\n\nMEMBER\n\nactive members\n1890. W. H. Anderson, A.M., '89, Bethany Coll.\n1885.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 45, 14th St., Wheeling.\n1891. J. Walter Barnes, A.M., West Vi rginia Univ.\n1892. Principal of State Normal School, Fairmont.\nByRD Prillerman, B.Sc, '89, Knoxville Coll. ; A.M., '94, Westminster Coll.\n1895.\nProfessor of English Language, West Virginia Colored Institute, Institute.\n1894. Robert A. Armstrong, A.M., '90, West Virginia Univ.\n1893. Professor of English Literature, and (1897) Vice-President, West Virginia University, Morgantown.\n1895. D. M, Willis.\nPrincipal of Commercial Department, West Virginia University, Morgantown.\n1896. J. N. Deahl, A.B., '93, Harvard ; A.M., '99, Columbia Univ.\nClaude, Taylor Co.\nCharles W. Evans.\n1897.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 415 Walnut Ave., Fairmont.\nLucy Robinson.\nSupervisor of Music, 112 S. Front St., Wheeling.\n1897. J. R. Trotter, A.B., '96, Harvard.\nState Superintendent of Free Schools, Charleston.\n1898. Charles H. Cole, A.B., '82, A.M., '97, Univ. of Mich.\n1897.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 119 North Raleigh St., Martinsburg.\n1899. Jerome Hall Raymond, A.B., '92, A.M., '93, Northwestern Univ. ; Ph.D., '95, Univ. of Chicago.\n1897.\nPresident of West Virginia University, Morgantown.\nMrs. Josephine Raymond, B.L., Northwestern Univ.; M.L., Univ. of Wis.\nMorgantown.\nWest Virginia University.\nPresident, Jerome H. Raymond; Librarian, Eliza J. Skinner, Morgantown.\nWISCONSIN\nLIFE\n1884.\n\nmembers\n\nAlumni Association, State Normal School at Milwaukee.\nPresident, Lutie E. Steams ; Secretary, Annette Rosenthal, Milwaukee.\nAtheNjEum Society of State Normal School at Platteville.\nLibrarian, Miss B. A. Gardner, Platteville.\nJohn Arthur Aylward,\nB.A., Madison.\n'84 ; B.L. (Law), '90, Univ. of Wis.\nVilas Block,\nGeorge\n\nBeck, M.Sc, '63, Univ. of Mich.\n514 N. Elm St., Platteville,\n\n,\n\n"}
{"page": 1242, "printed_page": null, "text": "1234\n1884.\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Wisconsin\n\nBeloit City School Board.\n^\nPresident, F. E. Converse ; Secretary, A. N. Bort, Beloit,\nBoard of Education of the City of Janesyille.\nPresident, James Shearer; Clerk, Fred. L. Clemons, Janesville.\nBoard of Education, La Crosse.\nPresident, J. J. Fruit; Superintendent, John P. Bird, La Crosse.\nBoard of Education, Oshkosh.\nPresident, Dr. Harvey B. Dale; Clerk, Dan Witzel, Oshkosh.\nBoard of Regents, State Normal Schools.\nPresident, A. E. Thompson, Oshkosh; Secretary, S. S. Rockwood, Portage.\nBoard of School Directors, Milwaukee.\n/\nPresident, Frank M. Hoyt, 222 Prospect Ave, ; Secretary, Henry E. Legler, City\nHall, Milwaukee.\nCrxY Superintendents' and Supervising Principals' Association of Wisconsin.\nPresident, L. A. Williams, Fond du Lac ; Secretanr, J. H. Derse, Black River Falls.\nJairus Harolin Carpenter, A.M., '74, Yale; LL.D., '76, Univ. of Wis.\n1868.\nProfessor of Law, University of Wisconsin, 315 Wisconsin Ave., Madison.\nWillard H. Chandler.\nEx- State Inspector of High Schools, Sun Prairie.\nLewis Herbert Clark.\n1892.\nProfessor of Mathematics, State Normal School, River Falls,\nCounty Teachers' Association, Milwaukee County,\nPresident, Herbert J. Piper, 712 Astor St., Milwaukee.\nPhilip Eden, Ph.B., '72, Univ. of Wis.\n601 Pine St., Platteville.\nJohn Q. Emery, A.M., Ph.B.\n1899.\nState Normal School Regent, Albion.\n♦John\n\nT, Flavin,\n\n1874.\nSuperintendent of Schools of Dodge County, Watertown.\nLorenzo Dow Harvey, Ph.D., '91, Milton Coll,\n1898. State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Capitol, Madison.\nAndrew J. Hutton.\n1879.\nInstitute Conductor, State Normal School, 1105 Main St., Whitewater,\nCharles H, Nye.\n893.\nSuperintendent of Schools of Grant County, 212 N. Adams St., Lancaster.\nW. D. Parkter, A.m.. Univ. of Wis.\n1899. State Inspector of Free High Schools, Capitol, Madison.\nJohn Barber Parkinson, A.B.. '60, A.M., '63, Univ. of Wis.\n1885. Vice-President, and (1893) Professor of Constitutional and International Law, University ofWisconsin, 803 State St., Madison.\nPhiladelphian Society of State Normal School at Platteville.\nPresident, Alfred Kuykendall ; Secretary, Arthur Hughes, Platteville.\nPublic School Teachers of Janesville.\nSuperintendent, D. D. Mayne; Secretary, Lizzie A. Paterson, Janesville.\nSamuel Shaw, A.M., '75, Univ. of Wis.\nLawyer, Crandon, Forest Co.\nRobert Closson Spencer.\n1863.\nPresident of Sp)encerian Business College, 112 Wisconsin St., Milwaukee.\nJoshua Stark, A.B., '48. Union Coll., Schenectady, N. Y.\n355 Farwell Ave., Milwaukee.\nState Historical Society of Wisconsin.\nPresident, John Johnston. Milwaukee ; Secretary, Reuben G. Thwaites, Madison ;\nLibrarian, Isaac S. Bradley, Madison.\nState Normal School at Platteville.\nPresident, Duncan McGregor; Secretary, Carol Goff, Platteville.\nJohn Willliam Stearns, A.B., '60, A.M., '64, Harvard; LL.D., '74, Chicago Univ.\n1888.\nProfessor of Philosophy and Pedagogy, and (1897) Director of School of Education,\nUniv. of Wis., 512 Wisconsin Ave., Madison.\nIsaac N. Stewart, B.Sc, '62, Univ. of Wis.\nEditor of Milwaukee \"Journal,\" 609 Grand Ave., Milwaukee.\nTeachers' Association of Wisconsin.\nPresident, G. G. Williams, West Superior; Secretary, W. H. Cheever, Milwaukee.\nCharles F. Viebahn.\n1881.\nSuperintendent of City Schools and Principal of High School, Watertown.\nWilliam\nIllinois,Clarke Whitford, A.B., '53, A.M., '58, Union Coll., N. Y. ; D.D., '85, Blackburn Univ.,\n1858.\n\nPresident of Milton College, Milton, Rock Co.\nactive members\n\n1887.\n\nAlbert Salisbury, Ph. D., Milton Coll., Wis.\n1885.\nPresident of State Normal School, Whitewater,\n1890. JuDSON E. Hoyt, A.B., '8<J, Univ. of Wis.\n1891.\nSuperintendent of Schools, 512 Wilson Ave., Menomonie.\n1891. Marie E. Doyle.\n, „\n1894Supervisor of Practice, State Normaf School, West Superior.\n1892. I.e. McNeill.\n1896.\nPresident of State Normal School, West Superior.\nMrs. I. C. McNeill.\nWest Superior.\nM. V. O'Shea, B.L., '92, Cornell.\n1895, Professor\nof the\nScience and Art of Exiucation, University of Wisconsin, 140 Lang\ndon St.,\nMadison.\nA. W. Tressler, A.B., '91, Univ. of Mich,\n„ '^98Principal of Schools, Ripon.\n1893. William George Bruce,\nEditor of \" American School Board Journal,\" 435 Hanover St., Milwaukee,\n♦Died*\nAugust 26, 1899.\n\n"}
{"page": 1243, "printed_page": null, "text": "Wisconsin]\n\nLIFE\n\nAND\n\nACTIVE\n\nMEMBERS\n\n1235\n\n1894. BuEL T, Davis,\n\n71 Wagoo St., Oshkosh.\nR. B. Dudgeon,\n'76, Univ. of\n1891. A.B.,\nSuperintendent\nof Wis.\nSchools, 520 Jefferson St., Madison,\nMaximilian P. E. Gkoszmann, Pd.D., '93, New York Univ.\n273, 24th St., Milwaukee.\nD.D. Mayne.\n1893. Superintendent of Schools, 226 S. Main St., Janesville.\nTheron B. Pray, A.M., '72, Univ. of Chicago.\n1894. President of State Normal School, 402 Pine St., Stevens' Point.\n1895. G. L. Bowman.\n1896. Teacher of Mathematics and Reading, State Normal School, 1713 Hughitt Ave\nWest Superior.\nWarren J. Brier.\n1898.\nPresident of State Normal School, River Falls.\nC. E. Brown.\n1034 Spaight St., Madison.\nW. H. Elson, A.B., Univ. of Ind.\nSuperintendent of Schools, West Superior.\nSilas Y. Gillan, A.M., '87, 111 Wesleyan Univ.\n1892. Editor \" Western Teacher,\" 141 Wisconsin St., Milwaukee.\nRuFUS Henry Halsey, A.B., '77, Williams Coll.\n1898. President of State Normal School, 107 Mt. Vernon St., Oshkosh.\nEllen C. Sabin, A.M., '95, Univ. of Wis.\n1891.\nPresident of Milwaukee-Downer College, Milwaukee.\nH. O. R. SlEFERT.\n1896. Superintendent of Schools, City Hall, Milwaukee.\nH. A. SiMONDS, A.B., '83, A.M., '86, Amherst Coll.\n1899. Superintendent of Schools, 170 Wisconsin Ave., Oshkosh.\nRose C. Swart, A.M., '95, Univ. of Wis.\n1884.\nInspector of Practice Teaching, State Normal School, 37 Elm St., Oshkosh.\nSamitel B. Todd, A.B., Univ. of Mich. ; A.M., Univ. of Nashville.\nWisconsin State Agent, American Book Co., Pfister Hotel, Milwaukee.\nE, V. Wernick.\n1895. President of Board of Education, Hillsboro.\nCharles F. A. Zimmerman, Ph.B., '96, 111. Wes. Univ. ; A.M., '96, Charles City Coll.\n1888.\nPrincipal of 17th District School, 622 Otjen St., Milwaukee.\n1896. Walter Allen.\n1899.\nAssistant Superintendent of City Schools, 344 AVashington St., Milwaukee.\nWilliam H. Beach.\nProfessor of History and Civics, East SideHigh School, 229 Pleasant St., Milwaukee.\nWilliam Owen Brown.\n1894. Principal of East Side High School, 518 Chicago St., Green Bay.\nArthur Burch.\nAssistant Superintendent of Public Schools, 116, 32d St., Milwaukee.\nW. H. Cheever, B.Pd.\n1899.\nPresident of State Normal School, 2510 Sycamore St., Milwaukee.\nOtis C. Gross, B.Sc, '90, Univ. of Minn.\n1896. Superintendent of Schools, 338 Oxford Ave., Eau Claire.\nMary Hill.\n1891. Assistant Teacher, 3d District, 881 Mound St., Milwaukee.\nHarriet B. Merrill, B.Sc, '90, M.Sc, '93, Univ. of Wis.\n1899.\nProfessor of Biology in Milwaukee -Downer College, Milwaukee.\nKate S. Nelson.\nGrade Teacher, no Park Ave., Janesville.\nMae E. Schreiber.\nIn Department of Public Instruction, Madison.\nEmma Willard Shrieves.\n1895. Physical Training Dept., State Normal School, 178 Prospect Ave., .Milwaukee.\nGeorge C. Shutts, Ph.B.\nTeacher of Mathematics, State Normal School, 306 Main St., Whitewater.\nR. A. Waterbury, A.B., '67, A.M., '70, Ph.D., '86, Alfred Univ.\nAppleton.\n1897. R. L. Barton,\nv\n1893. Superintendent of Schools, Chippewa Falls.\nMrs. Helen E. Bateman.\n.\nTeacher of Literature in National German -American Teachers' Seminary, 558-568\nBroadway, Milwaukee.\nJohn P. Bird.\n1897. Superintendent of Schools, 904 Cass St., La Crosse.\nJulia Campbell.\n1880. Assistant Teacher in Public Schools, 7th Grade, 97, i8th St., Milwaukee.\nC. P. Cary, B.Sc, Univ. of Chicago.\n, o u ,\n1893.\nSupervisor of Practice Teaching, and Model Schools, State Normal School, 1703\nCedar St., Milwaukee.\nR. L. Clark.\n1897. Principal of School, 508 Washington St., Oshkosh.\nF. E. Converse, B.L., '88, Univ. of Mich.\n1897.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Prospect Ave., Beloit.\nGeorge Eber Dafoe.\n1892. Principal of High School, Plainfield.\nF. E, Doty, B.L.\n1897.\nSuperintendent of City Schools, Sparta.\nA. L. EwiNG, M.Sc, '85, Cornell Univ.\n1888.\nProfessor of Natural Science, State Normal School, River Falls.\nMrs. Medora Dodge Gammon, Grad., Froebel Asso., Chicago.\n1752 Balmoral Ave., Chicago; home address, 408 Exchange St., Kenosha.\n\n"}
{"page": 1244, "printed_page": null, "text": "1236\n1897.\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\ni\n\n[Wyoming\n\nAlbert Guttman.\n1886. Principal of Schools, Manitowoc,\nN. A. Harvey, Ph.D.\n1896. Teacher in State Normal School, 2007 Hughitt Ave., West Superior.\nEllen C. Lloyd Jones.\n1887. Proprietor of Home School, Hillside.\nJane Lloyd Jones.\n1887. Principal and Proprietor of Home School, Hillside.\nW. W. Jones.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Washburn.\nF. G. Kraege, B.L., '89, M.L., '95, Univ. of Wis.\n1897.\nEmma J. Luebke. Superintendent of Public Schools,'336 S. Monroe Ave,, Green Bay,\n1895. Principal of loth Dist. Primary School No. i, 872, loth St., N. W, Sta., Milwaukee,\nMary L, Lugg.\n1885. Teacher in Public Schools, 464 Russell Ave., Milwaukee.\nHarriet Cecil Magee, Grad.. Mt. Holyoke Coll., '82.\n1884. Director of Drawing, State Normal School, Oshkosh.\nC. O. Marsh.\n1893. Principal of High School, and (1898) Supt. of Schools, 103 Clermont St., Antigo.\n\nI\n\n1\n\nE. C, Meland, B.L.,\n'89, Univ.\nof Wis. High School, De Forest,\nPrincipal\nof Windsor\nCharles O. Merica, A.M.\n1897.\nSuperintendent of Wisconsin Industrial School for Boys, Waukesha.\nThomas B. Mills.\nSenator, nth District, West Superior.\nJohn A. Moldstad,De A.B.,\nForest.'94, Luther Coll., Decorah, la,\nJohn G, Nageler.\n1896. Principal of Primary School, 2517 Elm St., Milwaukee.\nOliver Needham, Grad., '96, State Normal School.\nStudent in Normal School, Box 30, Midway.\nRichard J. O'Hanlon.\n1892.\nPrincipal of 21st District School, 959, ist St., Milwaukee.\nFrank Ostrander.\nRegent of Normal Schools, West Superior.\nJ. P. Peterson.\n1894. Superintendent of Schools, Polk County, West Denmark.\nLorenzo D. Roberts.\n1888. County Superintendent of Schools, Main St., Shawano.\nJohn F. Sims.\n1896. Teacher of Geography and Civics in State Normal School, River Falls.\nHarriet E. Smith, Grad., Oshkosh Nor. Sch.\n1892. Principal of i6th District Primary School, 2409 Cedar St., Milwaukee.\nState Normal School, Oshkosh.\nPresident, Rufus H. Halsey, Oshkosh.\nLizzie P. Swan.\n1897. Librarian of State Normal School, Whitewater.\nJohn W. Swiler.\n1880.\nSuperintendent of State School for the Deaf, Delavan.\nMiss J. L. Terry.\nTeacher in Model Department, State Normal School, River Falls,\nJ. M. Turner.\nSuperintendent of Schools, Burlington.\nE. W. Walker.\nInstitute Conductor, State Normal School, 1910 John Ave., West Superior.\nEdith M. Watson.\n1896. Kindergartner, 1611, 14th St., West Superior.\nA. W. Weber.\nPrincipal of High School, Fort Atkinson.\nH. A. Whipple.\n1899.\nSuperintendent of Schools and Principal of High School, 523, 3d Ave., Baraboo.\nWilliam Hill Williams, A.B., '84, A.M., '87, Williams Coll.\nTeacher of Mathematics in State Normal School, Platteville,\n1898. Thomas Higdon Gentle.\ni8q8.\nAssistant Professor of Psychology and Pedagogy, State Normal School, Platteville.\nMilwaukee Public Library.\nLibrarian, George W. Peckham, Milwaukee.\nAdolphus H. Sage, B.Sc, '86, Cornell Univ.\n1893.\nProfessor of Physics, State Normal School, 400 Algoma St., Oshkosh.\nState Normal School, Whitewater.\nPresident, Albert Salisbury, Whitewater.\nGuy Allan Tawney, A.B., '93, A.M., '94, Princeton; Ph.D., '96, Leipzig.\n1897. Associate Professor of Mental Science, 674 College Ave., Beloit.\n1899. Charles H. Haskins, A.B., '87, Ph.D., '90, Johns Hopkins Univ.\n1892.\nProfessor of Institutional History, University of Wisconsin, Madison.\nV, A, Suydam, B.Sc, '96, Univ. of Wis.\n189(5. Assistant Principal of High School, Ripon.\nWYOMING\nactive members\n1895.\n\nHenry Merz, B.Sc, A.M., Blackburn Univ,\n1888,\nProfessor\nof German and Social Science, University of Wyoming,\nLaramie,\n\n407, 9th St,,\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 1245, "printed_page": null, "text": "Corresponding]\n\nLIFE\n\nAND\n\nACTIVE\n\nWYOMING\n\nMEMBERS\n\n1237\n\n— Continued\n\n1897.\n\nJ. O. Churchill.\n\n1899.\n\nSuperintendent of Schools, 2504 Ferguson St., Cheyenne.\nThe University of Wyoming.\nLibrarian. Grace Raymond Hebard, Laramie.\nC. P. Lamar, B.Sc, A.M., Nor. Ind. Nor. Sch.\nSuperintendent of City Schools, Rawlins.\nT. T. Tynan.\nState Superintendent of Public Instruction, 1308 Ferguson St., Cheyenne.\nALASKA\n\n1895.\n\nactive member\nCassia Patton.\n1894. Teacher of School No. 2, Sitka.\nHAWAIIAN\n\nISLANDS\n\nactive members\n189s,\n1899.\n\nAllie M. Felker, Grad., '84, State Normal Sch., San Jose.\n1899.\nAssistant in Princess Kaiulani School, Box loo, Honolulu.\nOsMER Abbott, A.B., '90, Oberlin ; Ph.D., '98, Jena.\n1895. Principal of Lahainaluna Seminary, Lahaina.\nJohn A. Moore.\nPrincipal of English School, High St., Wailuku Maui.\nHenry S. Townsend, A.B., '80, A.M., '83, Univ. of Des Moines.\n1896. Inspector General of Schools, Honolulu.\nPUERTO\n\n'\n\nRICO\n\nactive members\n1890.\n1899.\n\nCharles B. Scott, A.M., '87, Rutgers Coll.\n1899.. In charge of Schools of American Missionary Association, Santurce, San Juan.\nVictor S. Clark, A.B., '90, Univ. of Minn.\n1899. President of Insular Board of Education and Insular Superintendent of Schools\nSan Juan.\nCANADA\nactive members\n\n1890. James L. Hughes.\nInspector of Schools, cor. York and Richmond Sts. ; 58 Henry St., Toronto.\n1891. Samuel Bower Sinclair, A.M., '93, Univ. of Toronto.\n1893.\nVice -Principal of Normal School, Ottawa.\n1895. Mrs. Ada M. Hughes.\nSuperintendent of Kindergartens, Public Schools, 58 Henry St., Toronto.\nHUNGARY\nactive member\n1893.\n\nB^la Kr^csy, State High School Teacher's Diploma, '81.\nState High School, 6th District at Budapest, VI Lovag Utca 18, Budapest.\n\nCORRESPONDING\n\nMEMBERS\n\nMiss Dorothea Beale, Principal of Ladies' College, Cheltenham, London, England.\nSiGNOR LuiGi BoDio, Direttore Generale della Statistica del Regno, Roma, Italia.\nProfessor Ferdinand Buisson, Professor of Education at the Sorbonne, Paris, France.\nGabriel Compayr:^, Rector of the University at Lyons, France.\nSir Joshua G. Fitch, LL.D., formerly Her Majestj-'s Inspector of Training Colleges and Lecturer on\nEducation at the University of Cambridge, 13 Leinster Sq., Bayswater, W., London, England. ,\nS.S.Laurie, LL.D., Professor of the History and Institutes of Education in the University of Edinburgh,\nScotland.\nDr. E. Levasseur, Professor at the College of France, President of the Statistical Commission for\nPrimary Instruction.\nFriedrich Paulsen, Ph.D., Professor of Philosophy and Education in the University of Berlin,\nGermany.\nMichael Sadler, A.M., Director of Special Inquiries and Reports, Department of Education,\nWhitehall, S. W., London, England.\nHon. E. Lyulph Stanley, Member of the School Board, London, England.\n\n"}
{"page": 1246, "printed_page": null, "text": "I\nINDEX\n\nTO\n\nLIST\n\nOF\n\nLIFE DIRECTORS, LIFE AND ACTIVE MEMBERS\n[The names of Life Directors and Life Members are printed in italics.]\n[Deceased members are Indicated by a *.]\nAbbott,\nQ., Kan..\nGa., '96\nAbbott, D.\nF. B.,\n%g\nAbbott, Osmer, H. I., '99\nAckerman, J. H., Ore., '95\nAdams, Cecilia, Colo., '98\nAdams, F. Y., Ariz., '99\nAddicott, J. E., Cal., '99\nAdee, J. N., 111., '95\nAgard, I. M., Conn., '99\nAgricultural Coll., Kan., '97\nAhem, M. E., 111.. '96\nAinsworth, D. E.. N. Y., '99\nAiton, Geo. B.,Minn., '94\nAla. Polytech. Inst., Ala., '97\nAlbert, C.J. ,111. ,'96\nAlbrecht, F. J., 111., '91\nAlbright, C. E., Ohio, '95\nAlbro, S. H., N. Y., '95\nAlden, Amelia D., N. Y., '96\nAlderman, E. A., N. C, '94\nAldridge, Vincent, N. Y., '91\nAlexander, Chas. T., Tex., '97\nAlger, John L., Vt., '98\nAllen, E. E., Pa., '99\nAllen, Mrs. Ella N., N. Y., '92\nAl/en, Ira IV.. 111., '70\nAllen, L. H., 111., '97\nAllen, L. R.,Mass., '99\nAllen, Walter. Wis., '96\nAllensworth, Allen, Utah, '92\nAlley, F. S., Ky., '96\nAllgood, Robt. v., Ala., '98\nAllin,'8 R. H., 111., '97\nAllison,4 J. J., 111., *93\nAlmond, W. S., Ind., '91\nAlutnnz Asso.,Mil'ivaukee,Wis.\nAmb\nH. T., N. Y., '95\nAmerose Cha\nH., Mas\n'96\nAm s, , Cso.l\nLib s.,Mas\n'97\nhe\nAm rst L. l.E., Mi'cy,\n'9s6.,\nAndidon\nBes\nCh,., Va. '98\n,\nAn erso\nJoshie /., N. ,Y., '71\nAndders n, P. J.n, Ohi\n'q6\nAndersoon, W. H., Wo., Va. '90\nAnderson,\nW. J., Ari\n',99\nz\nArb erson, F. W., Mic .. '95\nn\nh\nu\n.\n,\nArd ry, H. T., Cal ,'98\nAr ley, Oli\nC .,N. Y., '70\ne\nveBr F. , 11\nArm y,\n. , 1., '96\nArmitag\nGeo P., Mas\n'96\nAr str e,\nG. .W. Mo. s.,'98\nArmmstrong,\nRob , A., W,. Va. '94\n,\nArn stroong,E. H., t.Con\n'96\nArnold, ng,Sar\nL., nM.a,s\n'95\nArnold, S. P.a,h Neb\n'9s7.,\nArrot,\nS. .V,., N. J., '98\nAsbowsm\nW. Ill\nAs ury ith Z. R., .M,'o9.9 '97\nAshhbau,!. , Oti\nG\n',\ns,^ a.,W 94 '\nAt moregh,\n84\nOf\nis\nAtkhenc ,\nFre .W,., M.a,s\n'94\nAtl insoeuTUnni d Ga. '95s.,\nn\na\n,\nv\n.\nn\n.\nAu ta\nD., R. Ca\n'95\nAurgsbu\nA., La., '9l9.,\nAveiannrg,A. H., S. , D., '96\ne\nr\nAve y, , Lew\nB., Cal\n'95\nAv ry, Ra is\nF,, P.a,. '79\ner\nch\n,\ny,\nel\n\nAyers, Howard, Ohio, '99\nAyhuard, John A., Wis., '84\nAyres, Edw., Ind., '92\nAyres, Henrietta B., Colo., '93\nBabcork. C. A., Pa., '93\nBabcock,!. W., N. Y., '94\nBader, John H., Va., '94\nBaer, Clara G., La., '97\nBahr, Lulu C, Cal, '99\nBailey, Emma V., 111., '97\nBailey, M. A., N. Y., '95\nBailey, T. P., Jr., Cal., '99\nBailey, Walter J., Cal., '95\nBaker, Benj., R. I., '92\nBaker, Jas. H.. Colo, '84\nBaker, O. M., Mass., '92\nBaker, Thos. O., N. Y., '92\nBaker, W. H., Cal., '99\nBaker, W. //., Ga., '90\nBalcora, A. G., N. J., '98\nBaldwin, H. J., Cal., '99\nBall, Frank H., 111., '97\nBall, Kath. M., Cal., '99\nBall, Miss Lew, Cal., '99\nBallard, C. A., Minn., '96\nBalliet, Thos. M., Mass., '95\nBallou, C. G., Ohio, '95\nBancroft, Jessie H., N. Y., '97\nBancroft, Margaret, N. J., '97\nBanker, Lizzie L., Neb., '90\nBarbour, O. F.,II1., '89\nBardeen, C. W., N. Y., '90\nBardwell, C. M., 111., '92\nBargen, I. I., Minn., '97\nBarnard, Frank J., Wash., '91\nBarnard, Henry, Conn., '84\nBarnard, Jas. U., Mo., '93\nBarnard. Job, D. C, '98\nBarnes, Earl, N. Y., '91\nBarnes, Mrs. F. S., N. Y., '96\nBarnes, J. Walter, W. Va., '91\nBarnes, O. P., Kan., '95\nBarnes, Sarah t)., R. I., '99\nBarnum, Anna, N. D., '97\nBarr, Jas. A., Cal., '98\nBarrett, A. T.,Tenn., '94\nBarrett, Chas. S., Ohio, '95\nBarrett, H. M., Colo., '95\nBarrett, R. C, Iowa, '96\nBarrett, S. M., Mo., '97\nBarringer, Wm. N., N. J., '94\nBarstow, C. L., N. Y., '97\nBarth, O. F., Cal., '99\nBartholf, Wm. J., 111., '97\nBartholomew, Susie M., Ky., ' 94\nBartholomew, W, H., Ky., '77\nBartlett, Wm. A., Minn., '97\nBarton, R. L., Wis., '97\nBascom, John, Mass., '84\nBashford, Jas. W., Ohio, '94\nBass,\nE. E.,F.,Miss.,\nBass, Geo.\nInd., '95\n96\nBassett, Kate L., Cal., '99\nBateman, Mrs. H. E., Wis., '97\nBates, Wm. C, Mass., '96\nBauman, E. G., Colo., '98\nBaxter, Chas. J., N. J., '96\nBayliss, Alfred.1238\n111., '^96\n\nBaylor, Adelaide S., Ind., '97\nBeach, Wm. H., Wis., '96\nBeadle. Wm. H. H., S. D., '90\nBeal, Wm., Iowa, '96\nBeals, S. DeWitt, Neb., '76\nBeardshear, W. M.. Iowa, '89\nBeardsley, A. E., Colo., '95\n*Beardsley, Elias J..N. Y., '92\nBeattys, Frank U., N. Y., '94\nBeazell, Jas. H., Mich., '97\nBecht, J.Geo., Pa., '96\nBeck. Geo., Wis., '84\nBeggs, Robt. H., Colo., '84\nBeggs, S.\nS., Ohio,\n111.. '96'97\nBeistle,\nElla,\nBelknap, Emmet, N. Y., '92\nBell, Alex. Graham, D. C, '84\nBell, Wm. A., Ohio, '76\nBelman, W. C, Ind., '95\nBeloit Sch. Board, Wis., '84\nBender, Ida C, N. Y., '95\nBenedict, E. M., Mass., '97\nBenedict. W. H., N. Y., '92\nBenham, N. L., N. Y., '95\nBennett. Chas. A., 111., '96\nBennett. C. W., Ohio. '84\nBennett, Mrs. Lydia, N, J., '96\nBenson, Christine, Cal., '97\nBenton, Geo. W.. Ind., '94\nBergey, D. H.. Pa., '98\nBerlin, A. H., Del.. '96\nBerringer, E. J., Ariz., '99\nBerry, B. D., 111., '95\nBerry, W. T., Ky., '98\nBessey, Chas. E.. Neb., '95\nBevans, Homer, 111., '97\nBicknell, Thos. IV., R. I., '82\nBierly, H. Elmer, Fla., '99\nBillingsly, J. J., Iowa, '95\nBingham, Mrs. K. T., Cal.. '99\nBingham, Reuben S., Wash., '96\nBingham, Robt., N. C, '84\nBirchard, C. C. N. Y., '95\nBird, John M., Wis., '97\nBishop, Eliza A., Pa., '92\nBishop. J. Remsen, Ohio, '94\nBishop, Nathan L ., Conn., '95\nBissell. Annie M., N. Y., '95\nBlack,\nIda.,'95'88\nBlack, Jas.\nS. T.,C,Cal.,\nBlack, Wm. H., Mo., '95\nBlack, Wm. J., 111., '97\nBlair, JohnH.J..R.,N. Ky.,\nt'., '95\nBlaisdell.\n'93\nBlake, Mrs. E. M., Ark., '98\nBlaker, Mrs. E. A., Ind., '96\nBlakesley, O. J., Colo., '96\nBlakiston, Mary, Ohio, '95\nBlasingame, J. C., Tenn., '97\nBlewett, Benj., Mo.. '97\nBliss, Fred. L., Mich., '95\nBliss, J. J., Ohio. '96\nBlodgett, A. B.,N. Y., '90\nB. of Ed., Abilene, Kan., '86\nB. of Ed., Beloit, Wis.. '84\nB. of Ed., Dodge City, Kan., '86\nB. of Ed., Janesville, Wis., '84\nB. of Ed., La Crosse, Wis., '84\n\n"}
{"page": 1247, "printed_page": null, "text": "INDEX\nB. of Ed., Milwajtkee,Vf\\%.. '84\nB. of Ed., Nashville, Tenn., '89\nB. of Ed., Northfield, Minn., '90\nB. of Ed., Oskkosk,W\\s., '84\nB. of Ed., Ottawa, Kan., '86\nB. of Ed., Sedgwick, Kan., '86\nB. of Regents, St. ISlor. Sch.,\nWis., '84\nBodenhamer, D. S., Tex., '95\nBodler, Anna, Pa., '98\nBodwell, Edwin J., Neb., '95\nBoice, H. B., N. J., '96\nBolenbaugh, G. B., Ohio, '96\nBoltwood, H. L., 111., '99\nBond, G. G.,Ga.,'94\nBond, J. D., Minn., '96\nBonebrake, Lewis D., Ohio, '90\nBoone, Richard G., Ohio, '84\n, Boston College, Mass., '97\nBostwick, O. P., Iowa, '91\nBotkin, Sidney C, Ariz.. '99\nBouldin, Susie S., Md., '98\nBoutelle, C. M., Minn.. 'g6\nBouton, Eugene, Mass., '95\nBowers, H. W., Ind., '96\nBowman, G. L., Wis., 95\nBowman, Perla G., Ohio, '98\nBoyd, David R., Okla., '92\nBoyd, Mrs. Gaston, Kan., '97\nBoyd, W. W., Ohio, '94\nBoyden, Albert G., Mass., '90\nBoyden, Arthur C, Mass., '97\nBoyden, Wallace C, Mass., '96\nBeyer, E. R., 111., '97\nBoyle, Chas. A., Kan., '97\nBraden, John, Tenn., '95\nBradley, Chas. A., Colo., '93\nBradley, John E., 111., '90\nBradley, Milton, Mass., '92\nBradt, E. E., Mich., '97\nBrandegee, J. E., N. Y., '96\nBrandt, F. B., Pa., '97\nBrier, Warren J., Wis., '95\nBrigham Young Coll., Utah, '98\nBright, O. T., 111., '93\nBristol, E. N., N. Y., '96\nBrock. H. Z., Mich., '97\nBrockett, Zue H., D. C., '98\nBroderick, Kate G., N. Y., '96\nBrooks, Edw., Pa., '76\nBrooks, Sarah C., Minn., '94\nBrown, C. E., Wis., '95\n\"Brown, Elias, D. C, '98\nBrown, Eliz. V., D. C, '98\nBrown, Ellis W., D. C, '98\nBrown, Elmer E., Cal., 'gi\nBrown, Eugene, Iowa, '97\nBrown, Geo. P., 111., '80\nBrown, Geo. W., Mass., '96\nBrown, H. B., Ind., '95\nBrown, Jesse H., Ind., '91\nBrown, J. L., Utah, '99\nBrown, John A., N. H., '99\nBrown, John F.. Ind., '96\nBrown, J. Stanley, III., '97\nBrown, Kate L., Neb., '97\nBrown, Miss Marion, La., '89\nBrown, Sara P., Cal., '99\nBrown, Thos. P., Cal., 9\nBrown, Wm. O., Wis., '96\nBruce. Wm. G., Wis., '93\nBrumbaugh, G. W., Ohio, '96\nBrumbaugh, M.G., Pa., '93\nBruot, Marie L., Ohio, '96\nBryan, Wm. J. S., Mo., 99\nBryan. Wm. L., Ind., '93\nBryant, Miss C. L., Mo., '99\nBryn Mawr Coll., Pa., '99\nBryson Library, Teachers' Coll.,\nN. Y., '98\nBuchanan, Geo. V., Mo., '94\nBuchanan, John T., N. Y., '90\nBuchanan, L. A., Cal., '99\nBuchholz, L.W., Fla., '98\nBuechele, J, L., Iowa, '97\nBuehrle, R. K., Pa., '92\nBuffalo Pub. Library, N. Y., '99\nBulkley, Julia E., 111., '95\n\nTO LIFE AND ACTIVE MEMBERS\nBunnell, C, Ind., '99\nBunzel, Belle, Ark., '98\nBurch, Arthur, Wis., '96\nBurdick, A. Hall, N. Y., '92\nBurgess, I. B., 111., '99\nBurk, Fred. L., Cal., '92\nBurke, Mrs. B. Ellen, N. Y., '94\nBurke, J. E., Mass., '95\nBurks, J. D., Cal., '99\nBurleson, A. L.,Tex., '99\nBumham, W. R., Conn., '99\nBurns, Jas. C., 111., '95\nBurns, J. J., Ohio, '80\nBurns, Ralph H., Minn., '96\nBurris, Wm. P., Ohio, '95\nBurroughs, Geo. S., Ohio, '95\nBurton, R. W., 111., '96\nBusby,\nBushnell,Isaac\nH. V.,\nT., Ind.,\nIowa, '9697\nButler, Nicholas M., N. Y., '85\nButton, Wm. J., 111., '96\nButts, Annice B., 111., '96\nBuzzell, Delos, 111., '97\nByington, S. Lillian, 111., '95\nCahalan, Mary A.. Ala., '93\nCaldwell, B. C., La., '96\nCaldwell. H. W., Neb., '96\nCalkins, F. L., 111., '95\nCall, A. D., Mass., '98\nCammack, Ira I., Mo., '95\nCamp, David N., Conn., '92\nimpoeii, /i. i»., rv.an., 00\nCamp\nCampbell,\nCampbell. A. G., Kan., \" '\nimpbell, Julia, Wis., '97\nimpbell, W. H., 111., 'qs\nCat,\ninfield. J as. //., N. Y., '8\nCannon, Geo. L., Colo., '95\nCannon, H. D.,Ore., '991\nCapen, Elmer H., Mass., '96\nCapen, Frank S., N. Y., '96\nGarden, A. D., Ark;, '98\nCarey, C. E., Ohio, '95\nCarfrey, J. H., Mass.. '97\nCargjo, R. M., Pa., '96\nCarlisle, Jas. M., Tex., '95\nCarlton, E. A., Mont., '97\nCarnagey, J. A., Ind., '95\nCarnegie Library, Pa., '99\nCarpenter, J. //., Wis., '84\nCarr, J. M., Ohio, '98\nCarr, J. W., Ind., '97\nCarrington, W. T., Mo., '99\nCarroll, C. F., Mass., '95\nCarroll, Mary H., N. Y., '98\nCarter, A. H., Ark., '98\nCary, Alice D., Ga., '98\nGary, C. P., Wis., '97\nCa.se, Harriet F., Ind., '98\nCase, Richard, N. J., '94\nCasey, W. v., Colo., '95\nGates, E. E., Md., '98\nCatey, Minnie L., Cal., '99\nChadsey, Chas. E., Colo., '95\nChalmers, W. W., Ohio, '95\nChamberlain, A. H., Cal., '97\nChamplin, Howard, Ohio, '96\nChandler, Anna M., Mich., '99\nChandler, John W., N. Y, '90\nChandler, Willard H ., Wis.,'!\nChandler, W. R., Cal., '99\nChapman, F. E., Mass., '94\nCharles, Thos., 111., '88\nChase, Susan F., N. Y., '98\nChase, W. J., 111., '99\nCheever, W. H., Wis., '96\nCheney, Augustus J., 111., '84\nCheney, Francis J., N. Y., '91\nChicago Pub. Library, 111., '98\nChristy, A. B., Minn., '97\nChurch, Geo. E., R. I., \"92\nChurchill, J. O., Wyo., '97\nCity Lib'y, Springfield, Mass., '9\nClair, Francis R., N. Y., '94\nClancy, Albert W., 111., '92\nClancy, N. J., Tex., '97\nClark. A. O., Utah, '97\nClark, Frank H., Colo.. '86\nClark, F. H., Cal., '99\nClark, John S., Mass., '92\n\nClark, L. H., Wis., '84\nClark, R. L.. Wis., '97\nClark, V. S., P. R.,*90\nClark, W. A., 111., '95\nClarke. Elva E., Kan., '94\nClarke, Etta I., Kan., '94\nClarke, Francis D., Mich., '97\nClarke, Jessie L., Kan., '95\nClaxton, P. P., N. C, '98\nClendenen, T.C., 111.,'97\nCleveland Pub. Lib'y, Ohio, '97\nCobb, Chas. N., N. Y., '94\nCobb, Collier, N. Car., '99\nCoburn, F. F., Mass., '99\nCochrane, W. E., N. Y., '98\nCoddmgton, A. O., 111., '93\nCoe, Emily M^ti. C, '80\nCogswell, Francis, Mass., '93\nColby, E. C, N. Y., '96\nCole, Chas. H., W. Va„ '98\nCole, Chas. W., N. Y., '92\nCole, L. W., Okla., '98\nCole, IVm. H., \\V. Va., '70\nColegrove, A. D.. Pa., '95\nColeman, E. N., Iowa, '98\nColeman, J. D., Ky., '92\nColgrove, C. P., Iowa, '97\nCollege, Agr., of Kan., '97\nCollege, Amherst, Mass., '97\nCollege, Boston. Mass., '97\nCollege. Brig. Young, Utah, '98\nCollege, Bryn Mawr, Pa., '99\nCollege, Hendrix, Ark., '97\nCollege, Pomona, Cal., '99\nCollege, Vassar, N. Y., '98\nCollege, Wabash, Ind., '95\nCollege, Williams, Mass., '97\nCollins, E. E., S. D., '99\nCollins, J. H., 111., '95\nCollins, Mrs.J,H.. III., '95\nCollins, John S., Mo., '97\nColumbia University, N. Y., '95\nComings, Fannie S., N. Y., '95\nCompton, Mrs. H. T., Cal., '99\nComstock, T.\nD. B.,\nY., Cal.,\nVt., '09\n95\nCongdon, C. H., 111., '94\nConkling, \\V. E., Mich., '96\nConley, Geo. H., Mass., '97\nConverse, F. E., Wis., '97\nConway, Clara, 111., '87\nCook, Chas. F., Me., '98\nCook,E.H., N. Y.. '72\nCook, Elizabeth B„ 111., '96\nCook, F. L.. S. D., '7?\nCook, Geo. B., Ark., '95\nCook, Ida M., 111., '99\nCook, John\nW.,Cal.,\n111.,'99\n'90\nCook.\nW. H.,\nCooley, Mrs. A. W., Minn., '96\nCooley, E. G., 111., '97\nCooley, F. A., Ariz., '99\nCooley, F. W., Mich.. '95\nCooley. L. C, N. Y., '96\nCooper, F. B., Utah, '94\nCooper, F. I., Mass., '93\nCooper, O. H., Tex., '94\nCoover, N., Kan., '86\nCopeland, A. B., Colo., '99\nCorbett, H. R., 111., '90\nCorbin, J. C., Ark., '98\nCorcoran, Tressa M., Ohio, '96\nCornell Univ. Library, N.Y., '96\nCornell, Watson, Pa.. '96\nCorson, O. T., Ohio, '87\nCorthell, W. J., Me., '92\nCo. Teachers' A sso., Wis., ''S4\nCotton, F. A., Ind., ^98\nCoulter, Minnie, Cal.. '99\nCowgill, Paul A., Mich., '98\nCox, Edwin B.. Ohio, '89\nCox, E. Morris. Gal., '96\nCox, E. S., Ohio, '96\nCox, Henry C. 111., '05\nCox, Jean\nMartinN.,L..N.N.J.,J.,'97\nCoy, Emma, 111., '97\nCoy, E. W., Ohio, '83\n\n"}
{"page": 1248, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 240\n\nNATIONAL\n\nCrabbe, J. G., Ky.. '97\nCrabtree, J. W., Neb., '95\nCrabtree, Mrs. D. W., Neb., '99\nCraig, Arthur U., Ala., '99\nCraig, Oscar J., Mont., '92\nCrane, Mrs. Chas. R., 111., '97\nCrane, Frank, S. D., '95\nCrane, Julia E., N. Y.. '95\nCranston, R. W., Minn., '96\nCreager, W. B., Ariz., '99\nCrissy, I. O., N. Y., '98\nCrist, Henry M., N. Y., '96\nCritchett, E. T.,Minn., '98\nCrocker, H. G., Cal., '99\nCrockett, May M., 111., '95\nCropsey, Miss N., Ind., '91\nCrosby, W. E., N. Y., '70\nCrosier, M. E., Iowa, '95\nCross J. G., Cal., '99\nCrouch, Sarah E., Mo., '95\nCrouse, Mrs. J. N., 111., '93\nCruikshank, Jas., N. Y , '64\nCubberly, E. P., Cal., '94\nCulbertson, E. D. Y., Iowa, '95\nCummins, Mrs. M. S., Mont., 97\nCunningham, J. B., Ala., '95\nCupples, J. W., 111., '96\nCurran Ulysses T., Ohio, '66\nCurrier. E.H,. N. Y., '97\nCurry, Robt., Pa., '84\nCurtis, A. E., Mich., '96\nCurtis, Virgil G., Ohio, '92\nCurtiss, Fred. A., Conn.. '94\nDabney, C. W., Tenn., 99\nDafoe, Geo. Eber., Wis., '97\nDailey, M. E.. Cal., '98\nDalton, T. E., Ariz., '98\nDana, Fenella, Kan., '95\nDaniels, J. W„ Ida., '98\nDavidson, Chas. C, Ohio, '80\nDavidson, F. P., Cal., '99\nDavidson, Wm. M., Kan., '90\nDavis, A, J., Pa., '98\nDavis, Allan, D. C, '95\nDavis, Booth C, N. Y., '96\nDavis, Buel T., Wis., '94\nDavis, Chas. M., N. J., '93\nDavis, Ellery W., Neb., '99\nDavis, Emma C, Ohio, '94\nDavis, Eva L.,Ark., '98\nDavis, Geo. S., N. Y., '96\nDavis, Geo. W., 111., '96\nDavis, John W.,N. Y., '95\nDavis, J. M., Iowa, '98\nDavis, W. M., Mass., '99\nDawes, H. E.,Neb., '96\nDawson, H. T., N. Y., '95\nDeahl, J. N., W. Va., '96\nDeane, Chas. W., Conn., '89\nDeatrick, W. W., Pa., '92\nDecker, Wm. H., N. Mex., '99\nDe Garmo, Chas., N. Y., '8q\nDelano, Ed. C, 111., '95\nDenfeld, Robt. E., Minn., '90\nDept. Pub. Instr., 111., '99\nDeupree, J. G., Miss. ,'97\nDewey, Jas. A., Pa., '93\nDewey, John, 111., '97\nDewey, Melvil, N. Y., '92\nDial, S. T., Ohio, '95\nDick, Fred. Colo., '95\nDickey, C. L., Ohio, '95\nDietrich, Chas. H., Ky., '91\nDietrich, John, Colo., '95\nDillman, L. M., 111., '86\nDinsmore, J. W., Neb., '98\nDix, Wm.T., Ill.,'96\nDixon, B. V. B., La., '07\nDoane, Letitia L., Ill,, ^97\nDobson, W. D.. Mo., '97\nDtjdd, Arthur A., Mo., *8s\nDodge, M. Luella, 111., '97\nDodge, R. E„ N. Y., '98\nDodge, Wm. C. 111., '96\nDodson, Mary F.. Ky., '92\nDolphin, M. E., Kan., '95\nDonohoe, Mary J., N. J., '94\nDorland, J. E., Ky., '92\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nDoron, W. A., Iowa, '97\nDoty, F. E., Wis., V\nDougherty, Mabel E., III., '89\nDougherty, N. C, 111., '87\nDoughty, Jas. C, Nev., '99\nDouglass, F. L., Iowa, '99\nDow, J. J., Minn, '96\nDownes, J. M. N., Ky., '94\nDowney, Miss B, P., Mont., '99\nDowning, A. S., N. Y., '91\nDoyle, Marie, E., Wis., '91\nDoyne, J. J., Ark., '99\nDozier, Melville, Cal., '95\nDraper,\nDreher, Andrew\nE. S., S. S.,\nC, 111.\n'96,''88\nDresser, R. L. R.. N. J., '99\nDucker, W. H., 111., '95\nDudgeon.\nR. B.,\nDudley, Mrs.\nE., W^is.,\nIowa, '94\n97\n*Dunton, Larkin, Mass., '95\nDurham, Mrs. C. M., Pa., '92\nDutton Betiie A., Ohio, '80\nDutton, S. T., Mass., '95\nDyer, F. B., Ohio, '96\nDyer, Frank R., Kan., '91\nEakins, Mrs. Millie R.. Ill,, '96\nEastman, Wm. R., N. Y.,'96\nEaston, Warren, La., '95\nEaton, Ira T., 111., '94\nEaton, John, D. C., '93\nEbaugh, Z. C, Md., '97\nEden, Philip, Wis., '84\nEdgerly, Jos. G., Mass., '96\nEd. Assoc, N. I)., '96\nEditors Library, N. Y., '97\nEdmonds, F. S., Pa., '98\nEdmund, Gertrude, Mass., '97\nEdson, A. W., N. Y., '96\nEdwards, Anna E., Cal., '99\nEdwards. H. R.. Minn., '97\nEdwards, J. E., Md., '98\nEdwards, W. A., Cal., '99\nEdwards, W. S., Cal., '99\nEhinger, C. E., Pa., '97\nElder, Ella C„ N. Y.. '96\nElder, E. W., Colo., '95\nElgas, Mathew J., N. Y., '91\nEliot, Chas. W., Mass., '92\nElliff, J. D., Mo., '98\nElliott, A. M., Md., '99\nElliott, E. C. Colo., '99\nElliott, J. F., Ala., 'g8\nEllis, John C, 111., '87\nEllis, Wm. Austin, Mich., '87\nEllsworth, Henry W., N. Y., '96\nElmer, Frances A., Minn., '97\nElson, W. H., Wis., '95\nElwell, Mrs. O. F., N. J., '96\nEly, SarahY.,N.J., '92\nEmerson, Henry P., N. Y., '93\nEmery, John Q., Wis., '84\nEnglish, Rebecca F., Cal., '88\n*Engstrom, A. E., Minn., '95\nEstee,Jas. A.. N. Y.,'96\nEvans, Chas. H., Mo., '86\nEvans, Chas. W.. W. Va., '96\nEvans, Lawton B.,Ga., '94\nEvans, Wm. P., Mo., '98\nEwing, A. L., Wis., '97\nEwing. R. B., Ohio, '98\nFairchild, E. T., Kan., '86\nFairchild, Geo, T., Ky., '86\nFall, Delos, Mich., '97\nFant, John C, Miss.. '97\nFarley, Anne J., N. Y., '97\nFarley, D. H.,N. J., '96\nFarley, Geo.\nNeb.,\nFarnham,\nGeo.L.,L.,\nCal., '9799\nFamsworth, Fannie P. , Minn. , '98\nFarnsworth, S. A., Minn., '94\nFarrand, Wilson, N. J., '95\nFarrell, Edw. D.,N. Y., V>\nFarrell, Mrs. E. D., N. Y., '96\nFarson, M. Elizabeth, 111., '97\nFaulkner, R. D., Cal., '99\nFay, Edw. A., D. C, '99\nFay, Etta J., Minn., '^\nFelker, Allie M., H. I., '95\n\nFell, Anna M., N. J., '97\nFells,Maurice, Pa., '98\nFendley, J. AI., Tex., '95\nFenton. Geo., N. Y., '96\nFerguson. E. E., Mich,, '96\nFerguson, F. L., Cal., '99\nFernald, M. C, Me., '90\nFerris, W. N., Mich., '98\nFisher, Oilman C, Mass., '92\nFisher, H.W., Pa., '92\nFisk, Herbert F., 111., '91\nFitch, Ferris S., Mich., '90\nFitz, Geo. W., Mass., '98\nFitzgibbons, T. F., Ind., '95\nFitzpatrick, Frank A., Mass., '84\n*Flavin, John T., Wis., '84\nFleming,\nN. Ky.,\nY., '90\nFleshman, Mary\nArthurA., C.,\n94\nFlick, W. B., Ind., '95\nFlickinger, J. R., Pa., '98\nFling, Allen C, Neb., '98\nFloyd, Laura D., 111., '98\n^\nFoerste, A. F., Ohio, '96\nFoos, Anna, Neb., '97\nFoose, L. 0.,Pa., '96\nFooshe, J. Frank, S. C, '98\nFoote. Mary C, 111., '97\nForbes, Alexander, 111., '76\nForbes, John A., 111. '98\nFord, Lyman H., Min..., '97\nFordyce, Chas., Neb., '99\nForesman, H. A., 111.,, '96\nForesman, Robt., 111., '96\nForrest, J. T., Wash., '95\nFort, W, H., Mich., '97\nFoshay, Jas. A., Cal., '93\n.\nFoster, C. E., Tex., '97\nFowler, W. K , Neb., '92\nFox, Wm. F., Va., '94\nFranklin, Geo. A., Minn., '97\nFrazee, Victor, R. I.. '96\nFreeman, J. H., Ill,, '95\nFreeman, John T., D. C, '98\nFreer, H. H., Iowa, '84\nFreer, Paul C., Mich., '97\nFrench Geo. W., N. Y., '95\nFrench, Harlan P., N. Y., '91\nFrench, O. E., Iowa, '95\nFrench, Permeal, Ida., '99\nFriedberg, Wm. B., N. Y., '92\nFriedel, Chas., Ore., '97\nFriedman, Anna E., N. Y., '95\nFrisbee, H. D., N. Y., '99\nFrost, H.H., Mich,, '95\nFrost, J. M., 111., '97\nFruchte, Amelia C, Mo., '96\nFulton, Robt. B., Miss., '94\nFulton. W. L.,Ohio, '96\nFunk, Clara, Ind., '99\nFunk, J. P., Ind., '99\nFutrall, Thos. A., Ark., '87\nGafney. T. M.,N. Y.. '98\nGage, Nathaniel P., D. C, '98\n*Galbreath, L. H., N. Y., '87\nGalbreath, T. C, Md., '99\nGammon, Mrs. M. D., Wis., '97\nGans, W. G., Pa., '95\nGantvoort, A. J., Ohio, '94\nGarin, Paul A., Cal., '99\nGarrett, Mary S., Pa., '97\nGarrett, IV tn. R., Tenn., '86\nGarrette, Irene, Iowa, '97\nGarrison, S. Olin, N. J., '98\nGarvin, John B., Colo., '95\nGass, B. R., Colo., '99\nGastman, E. A., 111., '95\nGates, Elmer, Md., '98\nGates, Howard. Ark., '96\nGates, Merrill E., D. C, '99\nGayer, Cora M., Ohio, '97\nGayhart, Walter C, Nev., '95\nGayley, Chas. M., Cal., '99\nGeary. Grace, Mo., '97\nGeer,\nDdvid\nS., 111..\nGeeting,\nD. M.,\nInd.,'^86\n'95\nGentle, T. H., Wis., '98\nGeoige, Austin, Mich., '95\nGerald, Geraldine, Ariz., '99\n\n"}
{"page": 1249, "printed_page": null, "text": "124I\n\nINDEX\nGermann, Geo. B., N. Y., '98\nGettemy, Mrs. M. E., 111., '92\nGibson, C. B., Ga., '98\nGibson, John A,, Pa., '96\nGideon, Geo. D., Pa., '99\nGiffin, W. M., 111., '9s\nGifford, Jennie, N. Y., '96\nGilbert. C. B.,N.J.,'93\nGilbert, Mrs. M. E., 111., '99\nGilbert, Newell D., 111., '95\nGilday, Mary, Mo., '95\nGillan, Silas Y., Wis., '95\nGillespie, Mary, 111., '97\nGillespie, Nellie, 111., 97\nGillett, Emma M., D. C, '98\nGillman, Daniel C. Md., '96\nGirton, \\Vm. W., S. D., '99\nGladding, A. E., Ohio, \"96\nGlass, E, C, Va.,'94\nGlenn, G. R.,Ga., '95\nGlover, Nathan L., Ohio, \"89\nGminder, A. J., Md., '98\nGolden, H. W., Pa., '98\nGoodhue, Lincoln P., 111., '93\nGoodnough, Walter S., N. Y., '82\nGoodyear, E. F., Cal., '99\nGordon, Jos. C, 111., '97\nGordy. J. P., Ohio, '96\nGordy, W. F., Conn., '98\nGorton, Chas. E., N. Y., '96\nGoss, David K., Ind., '95\nGotwalls, Jos. K.., Pa., '92\nGove, Aaron, Colo., '88\nGower, Hattie F.. Cal., '99\nGraeser, C. A., S. C, '97\nGraham, Hugh A., Mich., '95\nGraham, Jas. D., Cal., '99\nGrandy, Mary A., Mass., '93\nGrant, Miss A. L., D. C, '98\nGrant, H. L., Minn., '96\nGratz, Simon, Pa., '79\nGray, Thos. J., Minn., '95\nGreeley, J. P., Cal., '99\nGreen, Jas. M., N. J., 92\nGreene, John A., N. Y., '93\nGreene, Josephine A., N. Y., '99\nGreenlee, Ida K., Mass., '93\nGreenlee, L. C, Colo., '92\nGreenman, A. V., 111., '97\nGreenwood, J. M., Mo., '86\nGregory, Benj. C, N. J., '94\nGregory, Lyman, Cal., '99\nGienfell. Helen M.. Colo., '99\nGriffin, E. H., Md., '99\nGriffith, E. W., N. Y., '96\nGriffith, Geo.,\nY.,V'93\nGriffiths,\nG. C, N.111..\nGriggs, Herbert, Colo., '99\nGrimsley. G. A.. N. C, '98\nGrindle, H. D., Ohio. '98\nGross, OtisC, Wis., '96\nGroszmann, M. P. E., Wis., '94\nGrove, M. A., Pa., '97\nGroves, Chas. W., 111., '96\nGrupe, Mary A., AVash.. '99\nGrussendorf, D. A., Minn., '98\nGuden, Anna J., N. J., '94\nGuilliams, J. Si., Tenn., '97\nGunn, A. F., Cal., '99\nGunnison, W. B., N. Y., '96\nGuss, Roland W., Mass., '95\nGuttmann, Albert, Wis., '97\nGwynn, Henry B., Md., '98\nHadley, Hiram, N. Mex., '91\nHafford, F. S., Cal.. '97\nHagerty, C. T., N. Mex., \"95\nHaggett, Geo. B., N. Mex., '97\nHaight, R. A., 111., '95\nHailmann, W. N., Ohio, '79\nHale, Geo. D.,NrY., 'gr\nHale, Wm. G., 111., '99\nHall, Caleb G., N. Y., '85\nHall, Dana W., 111., '91\nHall, Edwin H., Mass., '99\nHall, Frank H., 111., '97\nHall, G. Stanley, Mass., '91\nHall, Isaac Freeman, Miss., '93\nHall, John W., Colo., '99\n\nTO LIFE AND ACTIVE MEMBERS\nHall, Loyal Freeman, Pa., '93\nHall, Mary F., Wis., '93\nHall, R. C, Ark., '98\nHallam, Alfred, N.Y.,'96\nHalland, J. G., N. D., '97\nHalleck, R. P., Ky., '97\nHalsey, L. R. 111., '96\nHalsev, R. H., Wis., '95\nHamilton, Jas. M., Mont., '95\nHamilton, R. I., Ind., '96\nHamilton, Sam., Pa., '98\nHamilton, Wm., D.C., '98\nHamlin, Cyrus, Miss., '99\nHammel, J. C, Cal., '99\nHancock, John A., 111., '95\nHand, Laura, Minn., '97\nHand, W. H., S. C, '96\nHanna, G. C, Ky., '97\nHanna, John C, 111., '98\nHannan, Jas., 111., '97\nHanson, Slyra H., Ohio, \"98\nHanus, Paul H., Mass., '95\nHardy, Richard, 1)1., '94\nHari.son. W. B., N. Y., '92\nHarper, Wm. R., 111., '95\nHarrington, C. L., N. Y., '98\nHarris, Abram W., Me., '98\nHarris, Ada Van Stone, N.J., '95\nHarris, Edw. L., Ohio, '94\nHarris, Edwin S., N. Y., '98\nHarris, Henry E., N. J., '93\nHarris Inst. Lib'y. R. I., 'qg\nHarris, Jas. H., Mich., '98\nHarris, Julia A., Ohio, '99\nHarris, Mary E., N. Y., '96\nHarris, T. G., Tex., '95\nHarris, IVm. T.. D. C, '76\nHarrison, Elizabeth, 111., '95\nHarrison, Miles W<, Ind., '96\nHart, Albert Bushnell, Mass., '95\nHartigan, Mary S. L., 111., '95\nHartman, E. M., Ohio, '98\nHartman, Mary, 111., '95\nHarvard Coll, Lib'y, Mass,, '95\nHarvey, G. /,, Mo,, '86\nHarvey, L. D., Wis., '84\nHarvey, N. A., Wis., '97\nHaskins, C. H.. Wis,, '99\nHatch, Ida P., S.D., '99\nHatch, W. E., Mass., V\nHatch, W.H,, 111., '95_\nHaupert, Chas., Ohio, '93\nHaupt, J, G., La,, '96\nHaven, Caroline T,, N. Y., '96\nHawn, Linn Marie, N J,, '95\nHayden, H. B., Iowa, '97\nHayden. P, C, 111., '95\nHayes, Frances C, N. Y., '96\nHayes, H. E., N. Y., '92\nHays, Dudley G., 111., '97\nHayward, Edw., N. Y., '95\nHayivard, Emily A., 111., '84\nHazen, David H., D, C, '98\nHazen, Lillian D., Cal., '99 ^\nHeath, D. C, Mass., '91\nHeaton, T. L., Cal., '99I\nHeermans, Josephine, Mo., '96\nHeidler, S. H,, 111., '97\nHeiermann, F. J,, Ohio, '96\nHeineken,John\nJ. F.\nN. I.,\nHeizer,\nA., D.,\nOhio,\n99 '94\nHelmer, Harry, 111,, '95\nHenderson, Mrs. Kate A., HI., '97\nHendrick, Welland, N. Y.. '95\nHendricks, J. P., Mont.. '98\nHendrix College, Ark., '97\nHenninger, J. W., 111., '96\nHenry, Jas, A., Tenn., '96\nHermanns, Edw. F., Colo., '95\nHerrig, Anna B., S. D., '95\nHershman, W. H., Ind., '96.\nHertel, Chas., 111., '95\nHervey, Henry D., R. I., '96\nHervey, Walter L., N, Y,, '95\nHerzog, Peter, Mo., '97\nHess, Wm. C, N. Y., '96\nHester, W. A,, Ind., '95\nHewes.W. D., N. Y„'96\n\nHewett, Edgar L., N. Mex., '99\nHewett, Edwin C, 111., '84\nHewitt, E. T., Cal., '99\nHicks, Mrs. Mary D., Mass., '90\nHill, Frank A., Mass., '95\nHill, Mary, Wis., '96\nHill, Walter B., Ga., '99\nHimes, Florence B., N, Y., '94\nHmemon, J. H., Ark., '96\nHinsdale, B. A., Mich,, '84\nHiser, W. S., Ind., '98\nHisey, Jos. C., 111., '94\nHitch, R. M., 111., '97\nHitz,John, D. C, '80\nHobe, Augusta IV., Cal., '89\nHodgdon. Miss J. E., N. Y.,'82\nHodgin, Chas. E., N. Mex., '95\nHodgin, Cyrus W., Ind., '95\nHodgson, C, W,, Cal., '99\nHoegelsboerger, Nora, D. C, '98\nHofer, Amalie, 111.. '95\nHoffman, Benj. F., Mo., '97\nHoffman, Gaius, N. J., '94\nHogan, Louise E., N. Y.. '98\nHogg, Alex., Tex., '74\nHogg, Miss F. O., Ark., '98\nHolden, C. C, N. Y., '98\nHollingsworth, J. L., Fla..- '95\nHolloway, J. L., Ark., '95\nHolton, M. Adelaide, Utah, '96\nHomans, Amy M., Mass., '91\nHooper, Sanford A., Cal., '89\nHoose, Jas. H., Cal., '79\nHoover, W. E., N. D., '97\nHopkins, J. G., Minn., '94\nHopkins, L. Grace, Minn., '94\nHopkins, S. N., Okla., '98\nHorchem, B. J., Iowa, '97\nHornberger. J. A., III., '95\nHortvet, Julius, Minn., '99\nHouck, Henry, Pa., '97\nHoughan, Mrs. F. R., Colo., '95\nHouse, L. J.. Ohio, '98\nHoush. W. H., Cal., '99\nHouston, J. R., Ind., '96\nHoward, F. E.. Conn., '96\nHoward, Geo. A., Ohio, '95\nHowe, Agnes E., Cal., '99\nHowe, Geo. H., Mo., '98\nHowe, S. B., N. Y., '95\nHowe. Wilbur W., N. Y., '95\nHowell, Geo., Pa., '96\nHowell, Logan D., N. Y., '94\nHowerth, Ira W., 111., '99\nHoyt, C. O.. Mich., '97\nHoyt, David W..R. 1., '98\nHoyt, Judson\nE., Minn.,\nWis., '90\nHubbard,\nF. V.,\n'95\nHufford, Geo. W., Ind., '94\nHughes, Mrs. Ada M., Can., '95\nHughes, Isaac H., Mo., '98\nHughes, Jas. L., Can., '90\nHughes, John F., N. Y., '98\nHughes, Lemira W., Ohio, '96\nHuling, Ray Greene, Mass., '91\nHull, John, Wash., '91\nHull, Lawrence C, N. Y., '93\nHull, Warren C, Mich., '97\nHulsart, J. H.. N.J.,'99_\nHumke, Albert E., Ind., \"93\nHunt,MaryH., Mass., '87\nHunter, A. D., Cal., \"99\nHunter, Thos., N. Y., '85\nHurd.Geo. B., Conn., '88\nHussey, A.W., Ill.,'97\nHutton, .4./.,Wi.s.,*84\nHutton, Chas. E., Cal., '95\nHyatt, F. H., Cal., '99\nHyde, Mary F., N. Y., '92\nHynes, Etta, N. Mex., '99\n111, State Nor. Univ., '98\nInd. State Library, '97\nIngalls, WillCN. J.,'94\nIrwin, John S., Ind., '80\nJackman, Wilbur S., III., '95\nJackson, Mrs. E. R., N. Mex., '95\nJackson, Jos. P., N. Y., '95\nJackson, Wm. R., Neb., '96\n\n"}
{"page": 1250, "printed_page": null, "text": "1242\n\nNATIONAL\n\nJacobs, Walter Ballou, R. I., '94\nJacob Tome Insti., Md., '98\nJames, Henry M., Ore.. '84\nJameson, H. W., N. Y., '97\nJanney, B. T., D. C, '98\nJenkins, O. P., Cal., '99\nJenkins, Sara D., N. Y.,'95\nJenks, J. W., N. Y., '96\nJesse, Richard H., Mo., '92\nJewett, A. v., Kan., '86\nJohn Crerar Library, 111., '97\nJohnson, Emest Henry, Mass., '93\nJohnson, F. W., Me.. '98\nJohnson, H. M.. D. C, '98\nJohnson, J. A., 111., '97\nJohnson, S. Arthur, Colo., '94\nJohnson, W. H., Mont., '95\nJohnstone, E. R., N. J., '96\nJones, A. Leroy, N. v.. '99\nJones, Arthur O., Ohio, '91\nTones, E. A., Ohio, '84\ntones,\nC. Loyd,\n'97\nTones, E.\nEdward\nN., Wis.,\nN. Y.,%\nJones, Emma F., 111., '97\nJones, Frank L., Ind.,'95\nJones, Herbert J., Mass., '96\nJones, Jane Lloyd, Wis., '97\nJones, J. W., Ohio, '96\nJones, L. H., Ohio, '89\nJones, Lizzie P., Mont., '97\nJones, Mattie, S. D., '94\nJones, Myra, Mich., '92\nJones, Richard, Tenn., '94\nJones, W. W., Wis., \"97\nJordan, Chas. M., Minn., '93\nJordan, David S., Cal., '98\nJoyner, J. Y., N. C.,'98\nJudd, L. C, N. Y., '96\nKamman, C. H., 111., '97\nKane, T. F.,N. Y., '89\nKauffman, P. W., Cal., '99\nKayser, Carl F., N. J., '94\nKeane, John J., D. C, '89\nKeating, J. F., Colo., '95\nKeeler, Harriet L., Ohio, '94\nKellogg, Amos M., N. Y., 90\nKellogg, Mrs. E. D., Mass., '84\nKellogg, S. H., Cal., '99\nKelly, Dorman S., Ind., '98\nKelly, Kate, La., '96\nKelly, Lizzie, La., 96\nKenaston, G. F.. Ind., '95\nKendall. C. N.. Conn., '95\nKendall, F. A., 111., '95\nKendall, F. M., 111., '95\nKenerson. A. H.. Mass., '95\nKennedy, Jas. W., N. J., '94\nKennedy, John, N. Y., '99\nKennedy, Jos.. N. D., '96\nKennedy, P. P., Minn., '97\nKenyon, A. B., N. Y., \"96\nKerr, Wm. J., Utah, '95\nKeyes, Chas. H., Conn., '95\nKeyes, Mary A., Minn., '97\nKeyser, Roland S., N. Y.,'96\nKeystone Lit. Soc., Pa., '98\nKiehle, D. L., Minn., '80\nKilboume, Effie J.. 111., '95\nKimmel, M. A., Ohio, '93\nKincannon, A. A.. Miss., \"96\nKing, Anna H., Ohio, '95\nKing, C. B.,N. C.,'99\nKing, F. A.. Ohio. '96\nKing, Rachel, Conn., '93\nKing, Wm. F., Iowa, '84\nKinney, Burt C. Cal., '99\nKinsley. M. H., N. J., '92\nKirk, John R., Mo., '91\nKirk, T. H., Cal., '99\nKirk, Thos. J.. Cal., '95\nKirkpatrick, E. A., ^lass., '97\nKleeberger, Geo. R., Minn., '95\nKlock,J. E., Mont., '86\nKnapp. Warren E., Colo., '90\nKneil, Thos. R., N. Y.,'95\nKnepper, Geo. E., Idaho, 98\nKnjght, J. A., Ala., '98\nKnispel, Henriette M., 111.. '97\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nKoehler, H. C, Ohio, '99\nKoehler, Miss M. R., N. Mex., \"99\nKolbe, Julia C, Ohio, '95\nKraege, F. G., Wis., '97\nKolbe. Julia C, Ohio, '95\nKrall, G. W., Mo., '98\nKratz, H. E.. Iowa, '90\nKrausBoelte, Mrs. M., N.Y,, '96\nKrecsy. Bela, Hungary, '93\nKroh, Karl J., 111., \"97\nKrohn, Wm. O., 111., '93\nKruse, Edwina B., Del., '91\nKunou, C. A., Cat., '99\nKuykendall, A. C, Ky., '98\nLagomarsino. Cynthia, N. Y.. '94\nLaird, Mrs. Ada E., Ohio, '90\nLaird, S. B.. Mich., '96\nLamar, C. P., Wyo., '99\nLamb, Eli M., Md., '94\nLamb, Rachel E., Md., '94\nLambert, Vashti A., 111., '95\nLamberton, Mary J., Pa., '92\nLancaster, E. G., Colo., '99\n■ Lancaster, G., ^Vash., '98\nLanders, J. S., Ore., '99\nLandrum, L. M., Ga., '97\nLane, Albert G., III., '84\n•Lane F. H.,N. Y.,'96\nLane, Mrs. F. S., III., '94\nLang, Ossian H., N. Y., '91\nLansinger,J. W., Pa., '98\nLapey, Louise M., N. Y., '95\nLargent, S. D., Mont., '99\nLarimer, Henry C, Kan., '86\nLark, F. E., Iowa, '97\nLarkins, Chas. D., N. Y., '95\nLa Taste, Lucien V., Ala., '94\nLathrop, Mrs. C. N., Ohio, 93\nLayers, E. C, Pa., '92\nLawrence, Isabel, Minn,, '94 '\nLaws, Annie, Ohio, '95\nLawson, Florence, Cal., '97\nLawton, Chas. E., N. Y., '96\nLaylander, O. J., Iowa, '95\nLayton, S. Herrick, Ohio, '95\nLazenby, Wm. R., Ohio, '95\nLeach, Cephas H., 111., '97\nLeavell, Richard M.,Miss., '96\nLe Conte, Jos., Cal., '95\nLee, Jas., N. Y., '92\nLe Garde, Ellen, R. I., '96\nLeipziger, Henry M., N, Y., '91\nLeiter, Mrs. Frances W.,Ohio, '96\nLeland Stanford Univ., Cal., '97\nLemon, Anna E., Cal., 'q8\nLeonard, Albert, N. Y., '91\nLeslie, Mi.ss H. S., N. J., '94\nLeviston, Irwen. Neb., '95\nLewellen, John O., Ind., '96\nLewis, Jane M., N. J., '92\nLewis, J. H., Minn.. '99\nLewis, Leslie, 111., '95\nLibrarj', Amherst Coll., Mass.. '97\nLibrary, Athenseum, Minn., '98\nLibrary, Bryson, N. Y., '98\nLibrary, Buffalo, N. Y., '98\nLibrary, Carnegie, Pa,, '99\nLibrary, Chicago, III,, '98\nLibrary, Cleveland, Ohio, '97\nLibrary, Detroit, Mich., '97\nLibrary-, Editors', N. Y., '97\nLibrary, Harris Inst., R. I., '99\nLibrary, Harvard Coll., '95\nLibrary, Jersey City, N. J., '97\nLibrary, John Crerar, 111., '97\nLibrary, Milwaukee, Wis., '98\nLibrary, M. T. Dept. T. Coll.,\nN. v., '99\nLibrary, Newberry, III., 98\nLibrary, New York, N. Y., '99\nLibrary', Omaha, Neb., '98\nLibrary, Philadelphia, Pa., '97\nLibrary, San Francisco, Cal,, '97\nLibrary, Scranton, Pa,, '99\nLibrary, Springfield, Mass., '98\nLibrary, State. Cal., '99\nLibrary, State Hist. Soc.,Wis„'84\nLibrary, State, Ind., '97\n\nLibrary, State, Mass., '98\nLibrary, State, N. H., \"98\nLibrary, Syracuse, N. Y., '98\nLibrary, Univ, of Mich,, '98\nLibrary, Univ. of Wyo., '97\nLibrary, Worcester, Mass., '98\nLight, C, M., N. Mex., '95\nLightbody, Wm., Mich., '96\nLimerick, A. N., Kan., '86\nLincoln Univ., III., '97\nLing, Chas. J., Colo., '95\nLipscomb, Dabney, Miss.,'92\nLittle, Clara L., Colo., '95\nLocke,\nLogan, John\nAnna S.,\nE.,Me.,\nOhio,'95 96\nLoman, John, Minn.. '98\nLon&> j- L., Tex., '96\nLong, R. L., Ariz., '98\nLongan, G. B., Mo., '97\nLook, Frances H., Mass,, '96\nLoos, Chas, L., Ohio, '95\nLord, L. C, 111., '94\nLord, Orlando ^I., Me., '97\nLott, H. C, Mich., '97\nLounsbery. Louise A., N. Y., '96\nLovell, Thomas B., N. Y., '36\nLoveridge, L. E., III., '98\nLow, Seth, N. Y., '95\nLowther, L. A., Kan., '97\nLuckey, Edwin D., Mo., '94\nLuckey, G. W. A., Neb., '95\nLuebke, Emma J., Wis., \"97\nLugg, Mary L., Wis., '97\nLukens, Herman T., Pa., '92\nLyman, E. A., Mich., \"98\nLynch, Chas. P., Ohio, '94\nLynch. Mary E., Minn., '97\nLynch, M. M.. Va,, '98\nLynch, Wm, H., Mo. ,'95\nLyon, Edmund I)., Ohio, '98\nLyon, Howard, N. Y., '96\nLyon, Mary A., N. J., '97\nLyon, P. W., N. J., '98\nLyon, W. F., Mich.,*97\nLyons, G. K., Ohio, '98\nLyser, Albert, Cal,, 'gS\nLyte, E. Oram, Pa,, '91\nMacAlister, Jas., Pa,, '95\nMacdona, Kate P., N, Y., '95\nMacDonald, A, H.. Cal., '^\nMacDonald,John, Kan., '86\nMacDonald, Margaret, III., '96\nMacGowan. W. L., Pa., '96\nMack, Wm. S., III., '95\nMackenzie, David, Mich., '96\nMackey, E., Pa., '01\nMackey, Wm. A.,N. Y., '94\nMacLean, Geo. E., Iowa, '97\nMagee, Hairiett C, Wis., 97\nMagovem. Maiy A., N. Y., '96\nMaguire, Mrs. S. C, Mo., '97\nMaharry, S. H., Ohio, '95\nMaitland, Mrs. Louise, Cal., '98\nMalsbary, Alfred E., Iiid.. '98\nMandeville, Jas. M., Mich., '96\nMankell, Nathalie., N. Y., '96\nMann, Emma, Ark., '98\nManness, S. E.. N. J., '92\n'\nMarble, A. P., N. Y., '80\nMardis. S. K., Ohio, '95\nMark, Cecil W., Cal., '98\nMark, E. H., Ky., '93\nMarlatt, Abby L., R. I., '94\nMarquis, J. S.. S. C, '98\nMarsh, C. O., Wis., '97\nMarsh. Miles E., Ky., '98\nMarshall,\nC, Mich.,\nMarshall, Carl\nT. M..\nW. Va.,'95^7\nMartin, Artemas, D. C, '98\nMartin, Geo. H., Mass., '93\nMartindale, W. C, Mich., '97\nMartineau, J. E., Ark., '98\nMarvin, Arthur, N. Y,, 'giS\nMason, Lizzie, Mass., '99\nMason, Wm. A., Pa., '98\nMassee, J. Edman, N, V., '96\nMassey, John, Ala., '94\nMather, I. F., Ind., '97\n\n"}
{"page": 1251, "printed_page": null, "text": "INDEX\nMathews, Byron C, N. J., '92\nMatthews, A. J., Ariz., '99\nMaurer, G. C, Ohio, '95\nMaxam, Florence, 111., '99\nMaxson, Henry M., N. J., '92\nMaxwell, Wm. H., N. Y., '92\nMaycock, Mark M., N. Y., 96\nMayne, D. D., Wis., '94\nMcArdle, H. W., N. D., '98\nMcBride, J. K., Tex., '98\nMcBroom, Geo. O., Ky., '92\nMcCabe, C. B., Pa., '96\nMcCahan, John E. Md., '91\nMcCallie, J. H., Tenn., '97\nMcCartney, Livingston, Ky., '95\nMcCaslin, E. E., U. C, '98\nMcCIintock, O. P. M., Kan., '94\nMcClang, J. S., Colo., '95\nMcCIure, S. R., Pa., '96\nMcClymonds, J. W., Cal., '99\nMcConathy, W. J., Ky., '96\nMcConnell, J. J., Iowa, '95\nMcCord. W. A., Iowa, '95\nMcCowen, Mary, 111., '97\nMcCulloch, Mary C, Mo., '92\nMcCullough, J. F., 111., '96\nMcDaniel, C. M., lnd.,'96\nMcElroy, E. B., Ore., '95\nMcFarland, Geo. A., N. D., '95\nMcGinniss, Jas., Ky., '93.\nMcGl};nn, J. J., 111., '95\nMclntire, W. ^V., Ohio, '95\nMclver, Chas. D., N. C, '96\nMcKay, F. M., 111., '97\nMcKee. J. Milford, N. Y., '95\nMcKee, Wra. P., 111., '99\nMcKenny, Chas., Mich., '97\nMcKillop, Anna, 111., '97\nMcLauchlin, A. L., 111., '95\nMcMasters, Doris, Ida., '99\nMcMillan, D. A., Mo., '99\nMcMillan, J. V., Ohio, '96\nMcMillan, Mrs. R., Ohio, '80\nMcMurry, Chas. A., 111., '90\nMcMurry, F. M., N. Y., '95\nMcMurry, Mrs. L. B., 111., '96\nMcNaughton, Jas., Cal., '95\nMcNeal, Florence, Mo., '92\nMcNeill, I. C, Wis.. '92\nMcNeill, Mrs. I. C. Wis., '92\nMcNeils, N. P., Pa., '97\nMcVicar, Peter, Kan., '86\nMehan, J. M., Iowa, '92\nMeland, E. C, Wis., \\^\nMeleney, C. E., N. Y., '96\nMerica, C. O., Wis., '97\nMerica, F. M., Ind., '97\nMerrick, H. V., Ohio, '98\nMerrifield. Webster, N. D., '95\nMerrill, Chas. E.. N. Y., '94\nMerrill, Edwin C, N. J., '96\nMerrill, Harriet B., Wis., '96\nMerrill, J. A., Mo., '97\nMerrill, Jenny B., N. Y., '93\nMerrill, J. T., Iowa, '93\nMertz, Henry N., Ohio, '95\nMerwtn, J. B., Mo., '71\nMerz, Heniy, Wyo., 'gs\nMeserve, Alonzo, Mass , '95\nMeskimons, J. R., Ariz., 'gg\nMetcalf, Robt. C, Mass., '92\nMeyer, F. H., Cal., '99\nMezger, Robt., N. J., 95\nMiami University, Ohio, '95\nMichener, J. H., Pa., '98\nMickle, Robt. A., Ala., 'gs\nMiles, Emily H., Colo., '98\nMiller, Miss A. N., Colo., 'gs\nMiller, C. C, Ohio, 'g2\nMiller, Chas. M., Cal., '99\nMiller, Geo. I., Iowa, '96\nMiller, G. R., N. Y., '96\nMiller, J. H.. Neb., '86\nMiller, John C, Minn., '98\nMiller, Kelly, D. C, '98\nMiller, Lewis, Ohio, '80\nMiller, Lola M., Colo., '98\nMiller, Lucia M., Minn., '94\n\nTO LIFE AND\n\nACTIVE MEMBERS\n\nMiller, O. L., 111., '96\nMiller, R. E., Tex., '98\nMilligan, Sarah J., Mo., '97\nMinis, Wm. A., Ind., '96\nMills, Leida H., Kan., '95\nMills, T. B., Wis., '97\nMillspaugh, J. F., Minn., '95\nMilne,\nMilne, Jas.\nJohn M.,\nM., N.N. Y.,\nY., '90\nV\nMilne, Wm. J., N. Y., '92\nMilwaukee Pub. Lib'y, Wis., 'g8\nMinneapolis Athenseum,Minn.'98\nMitchell, B. W., Pa., '99\nMitchell, Clara J., Ind., '98\nMitchell, Mary E., Ark., '98\nMitchell, M. S., Kan., '95\nMitchell. W. R., 111., '97\nMoldstad, John A., Wis., '97\nMonlux. J B., Cal., '95\nMonroe, E. S., Ind., 'g;\nMonroe, Will S., Mass., '93\nMonsarrat, Mrs. L. L., Ky., '77\nMontague, A. P., S. C, 'gg\nMonteser, Fred., N. Y., '04\nMontfort, R. V. K., N. Y., 'g2\nMontgomery, Dora, 111., '97\nMontgomery, H. C, Ind., \"97\nMontgomery, W. S., D. C, '98\nMontrose, Otis, N. Y., '96\nMoon, A. W., N.J., '89\nMoon, Kate E., Ala., '95\nMoon, Schuyler B., Md., '98\nMoore, B. F., Ind., 'g6\nMoore, Dora M., Colo., 'gs\nMoore, E. C, Cal., '99\nMoore, John A., H. I., '99\nMoore, Montgomery, 111., '97\nMoores, Carrie E., Ohio, '95\nMorgan,\nJ. H.,\nWash.,\nMorgan, R.\nT., 111.,\n97 'gg\nMorgan, W. H., Ohio, '95\nMorris, Harriet N., Cal., '82\nMorris, John, Ky., 'g6\nMorris, R. Anna, Ohio, 'gi\nMorrison, Andrew J., Pa., '81\nMorrison, G. B., Mo., 'gg\nMorrison, Rose, Ohio, '37\nMorse, Frank L., 111., '97\nMorss, Chas. H., Mass., 'gs\nMorton, Frank, Cal., '99\nMosher, E. H., Cal., 'gg\nMott, T. A., Ind.. '96\nMower, F. O., Cal., 'gg\nMowry, IVm. A., Mass., '86\nMulford, A. Isabel, Mo.. 'g6\nMumford, Mrs. M. E., Pa., '95\nMunroe, Jas. P., Mass., 'gs\nMurdaugh. E. D., Okla., '98\nMurdock, F. F., Mass., '98\nMurlin, L. H., Kan., 'gs\nMurphy,\nMurphy, Alice,\nEugene,Mo.,\nPa.,'go98\nMurphy, Geo. T., Mo., 'gi\nMurphy, Maggie, Ark., '98\nMurray, May E., Mass., '99\nMurray, Wm. S., N. Y., '98\nMurrey,\nT. P.,\nMyers, Will\nA.,Ark.,\nInd. ,1'0897\nMyrick, H., Mass., '98\nNaff. J. H., Kan., 'gg\nNagel, J. J., Iowa, '95\nNageler, J. G., Wis., '97\nNeedham, O., Wis., '97\nNelson, E. B., N. Y., '98\nNelson, Kate S., Wis., '96\nNewberry Lib'y, III., '98\nNewell, A. C, Iowa, '96\nNewell, Miss C. S., Kan., '95\nN. H. State Lib'y, '98\nNewkirk, C. F., 111., '98\nNewson, H. D., N. Y., '95\nN. Y. Pub. Library, 'gg\nNichols, Fred R., IIl.,'g3\nNicholson, Mary E., Ind., '85\nNicholson, Watson, Cal., 'gg\nNielsen, Carl H., Cal., 'g8\nNightingale, A. F., 111., '86\nNoel, Alex H., Mo., '97\n\nNolen, A. Eugene, Mass., '91\nNor. Sch., Dayton, O., '98\nN. Dak. Ed. Assoc., '96\nN. III. St. Nor. Sth., '99\nN. Ind. Nor. Sch. Library, '97\nNorton. A. W., S. D., '93\nNorton, R. C, Mo., '95\nNorville, Josephine, Mo., '95\nNoss, Theo. B., Pa., '96\nNoyes, Milton, N. Y., '98\nNussbaum, Sophie F. E., D. C.,'98\nNye,_ Ckas. H., Wis., '84\nMich.,\nONykirk,\nBrien, John\nMrs. B.,\nAgnes,\nN. '92\nY., '94\nO'Callaghan, W. F., N. Y., '94\nO'Connor, D. C, Neb., '94\nOgg,\nR. A., R.Ind.,\n'97\nO'Hanlon.\nJ., Wis.,\n'97\nO'Keefe, Mrs. S. J., 111., '96\nOlds, Mary L., Minn., '94\nOldt, F. T., Iowa, '96\nO'Leary, Kate S., 111., '95\nOlin, Arvin S., Kan,, '90\nOlin, John R., Mass., '99\nOliver, Wm. J., N. Mex., 'g8\nOlmstead, Emma G., Pa., '96\nOmaha Pub. Lib'y, Neb., '98\nO'Neill, F. Q., S. C. '99\nOrmsby, F. B., 111., '96\nOrr, J. D., Mont., '91\nOsborne, A. E., Cal., '98\nOsgood,\nOhio,\nO'Shea, Anna\nM. V.,M.,\nWis.,\n'92 '90\nOstrander, Frank, Wis., '97\n*Owen, E. IL, 111., '97\nOwen, Lincoln, Mass., '96\nOwen, W. B., 111., '96\nPacker, Ella L., Iowa, '95\nPaessler, V. S., N. Y., '98^\nPage,\n111-.,Iowa,\n'96 '96\nPalmer,R. A.S.,N.,\nPalmer, Chas. S., Colo., '95\nPalmer, E. D., Mich., '94\nPalmer, Francis B., N. Y., '90\nParker. Alice N., D. C, '98\nParker. Chas. I.. III., '87\nParker, Chas. V., Colo., '87\nParker, C. M., 111., '95\nParker, Francis W., 111., '80\nParker, Henry M., Ohio, '95\nParker, J. W., Ark., '97\nParker, M. M., Ariz., '99\nParker, IV. D.. Wis., '84\nParker, W. S., Mass., '96\nParkinson, D. B., 111., '97\nParkinson, John B., Wis., '84\nParmenter, Chas. W., Mass., '95\nParr, S. S., Minn., '95\nParrish, Celestia S., Va., '97\nParsons, Mrs. G. B., Cal., '99J\nParsons, H. S., Tex., '95\nPassmore, John A. M., Pa., '92\nPatten, Frank C, Mont., '07\nPattengill, Henry R., Mich., '92\nPatton, Cassia, Alaska. '95\nPatton, Chas. L., N. Y., '86\nPayne, Bertha, 111., '96\nPayne, W. C, 111., '96\nPayne, Wm. H.,Tenn., '92\nPayne, Wm. R., Tenn., '98\nPeacher, A. L., Ark., '96I\nPeacock, Mary C, Pa., 'g8\nPeairs, H. B., Kan., 'g7\nPeak, Chas. N., Ind., '96\nPearse, C. G., Neb., 'gi\nPearson, H. C, Pa., 'gg\nPearson, Juliet, N. Y., 'gg\nPeart, Mrs. S. E., Cal.,*g9\nPease, Alvin F., Mass., '91\nPease, N. W., N. J., 'g4\nPeaslee, John B., Ohio, '80\nPeck, A. L., N. Y., 'g?\nPendergast,\nW. W.,\nPennell,\nCalvin\nS., Minn.,\nMinn., '04\n64\nPenniman, J. H., Pa., 'gg\nPerkins Institution, Mass., '97\nPerrine, Lura L., N. D., '95\nPerry, Elizabeth H., Mass., '91\n\n"}
{"page": 1252, "printed_page": null, "text": "1244\n\nNATIONAL\n\nPerry, Wm. H., Ky., \"98\nPeterson, J. P., Wis., '97\nPfeiffer, J. W., Ohio, \"95\nPhelan, W. W., D. C, '98\nPhelps, JVtn. F., Minn.. '70\nPhiladelphian Soc, Wis., '84\nPhilbrook, C. F., 111., '95\nPhilips, Geo. M., Pa., V9\nPhillips, Hattie A., Iowa, '96\nPhillips, H. S., Colo, '99\nPhillips, J. H., Ala., '88\nPhilomathean Lit. Soc., Pa., \"98\nPickard, Josiah L,, Iowa, '86\nPierce, Edw. T.. Cal., '89\nPierce, Mrs. Ella M., R. I., \"96\nPierce, Lovich, D. C, '98\nPierce, Mary R., 111., '97\nPigg, G. L., Okla., '99\nPike, Joshua, 111., '91\nPinkerton, T. B., Ohio, '99\nPlace, Mrs. C. L., Cal., '96\nPlapp, F. W., 111., '97\nPlimpton, Geo. A., N. Y., '94\nPlumer, Geo. M., Ohio, '96\nPoland, A. B., N. J., '92\nPollock, Jessie, Ark., '98\nPollock, Rosalie, N. D., '97\nPollock, Susan P., D. C, '94\nPomona Coll., Cal., \"99\nPosse, Baroness Rose, Mass., \"95\nPotter, Jennie, N. Mex., '99\nPowell, W. B., D. C, '92\nPowell, W. F., D. C, '89\nPower, Gussie, N. Y., '87\nPowers, Jas. K., Ala., '95\nPratt, R. H., Pa.. '98\nPray, Mabel L., Ohio, '97\nPray, T. B., Wis., '94\nPieece, Mrs. Louise, Minn., '94\nPrentiss, H. W., Mo., \"97\nPreston, J. R., Miss., '90\nPrettyman, E. B., Md., '92\nPrich'ard. E. H., Ohio, \"95\nPrichard, Margaret S., Pa., '98\nPrillerman, Byrd, W. Va., '91\nPrince, John T., Mass., '91\nPringle, Wm. J., 111., '96\nPritchard, M. T., Mass., '96\nPritchett, H. C, Tex., '92\nProudfoot, Mrs. A. H.. 111., \"97\nPub. Lib'y of Detroit, Mich., '97\nPut. Sch. TeacherSyVt'is., '84\nPub. Lib'y, Jersey City, N.J. ,'97\nPub. Lib'y, New York, N. Y., '99\nPub. Lib'y, Philadelphia, Pa.. '97\nPub. Lib'y, S. Francisco, Cal., '97\nPub. Lib'y, Worcester, Mass., '98\nPugh, Jas.H., 111., '98\nPurer, Mary I., 111., '96\nPutnam, ^trs. Alice H., 111., \"93\nRaab, Henry, 111., '84\nRace, S. J., Minn., '95\nRadcliffe, Emily H., N. Y., '99\nRakestraw, Chas. D., D. C, '99\nRalston, Jas. M., N. J., '92\nRamsay, Chas. C, Mass., '93\nRamsey, Geo. J., La., '89\nRansom, Frances E., N. Y., \"99\nRandall, J. E., Ohio, '98\nRankin, A. W., Minn., '93\nRapp, Eli M., Pa., '97\nRaschig, H. H., Ohio, '93\nRaub, A. N., Del., '92\nRawson, E. B.. N. Y., '99\nRayman, R. E., Ohio, '95\nRaymond, A. V. V., N. Y., '95\nRaymond, J. H., W. Va., '99\nRaymond, Josephine, W.Va., '99\nRead. J. I., Neb., '98\nReed, A. A.. Neb., '95\nReeder, W. C., Ohio. '98\nReel, Estelle, D. C, '94\nRees, Minnie, Cal., '99\nReese, Mrs. May, Cal., '99\nReeves. C. E., Wash., '96\nReid, Jas., Mont., '95\nReigart, J. F.. N. Y., '99\n<\nReiley, Cynthia E., Mont., '95\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nReinhart, J. Albert, N. Y., '94\nRemington, L. D., Mich., '96\nRennick, Louise D., 111., '97\nRennie, Robt. H., 111., '97\nRequa, M. Augusta, N. Y., '99\nRessler, Edwin D., Ore., '92\nReveley, Ellen G., Ohio, '91\nReynolds, Chas. B., Mo., '95\nReynolds, J. H., Ark., '97\nRhoads, McHenry, Ky., '91\nRice, Emily A.. N. J., '92\nRice, Gratia L., N. Y., '89\nRice, J. M., N. Y., '95\nRice, Wm. N., Conn., \"99\nRichards. C. R., N. Y., '98\nRichards, Mrs. E. H., Mass., '98\n^Richards, Zalmon, D. C, '57\nRichardson, Geo. M., Cal., '99\nRicheson. J., 111., '97\nRickmond , Sarah E., Md., '76\nRiddle, W., Pa., '96\nRider, Andrew J., N. J., '97\nRidge, J. C, Ohio, '97\nRidgeway,\nWm.F.,C,Ind.,\nMo.,98 '98\nRieman. John\nRightsell, J. R., Ark., \"98\nRigler, Frank, Ore., '98\nRiley Co. Ed. Ass.,Y^^'a., '86\nRiley, Mrs. M. E., Mo., '90\nRiste, Ernest, Wash., '99\nRiste, W. G., Kan., \"97\nRivers, W. W., Ark., '95\nRoach, T. IV., Kan., '86\nRobbins, C. W., Mo., \"92\nRobbins, Geo. A., 111., '97\nRobert, Jas. A.. Ohio, '82\nRoberts, Flora, Ind., '96\nRoberts, Hester A., N. Y., '94\nRoberts, H. L., 111., '97\nRoberts. L. D., AVis., '97\nRoberts, AVm. E., Ohio. '98\nRobertson, J. L., 111., '97\nRobertson, P. \"W., D. C., \"96\nRobinson, Albert R., 111., '95\nRobinson, Lucy, W. Va., '96\nRobinson, Oscar D., N. Y., \"92\nRobinson, W. S., Ohio, '95\nRocheleau, W. F.. III. ,'96\nRogers, A. C Minn., '99\nRogers, Dora B., N. C., '96\nRogers, Howard J., N. Y., '96\nRogers, J. N., Ga., '97\nRogers, Jo.sephine E., N. Y., '93\nRogers, Lillian E.. Mass., '97\nRogers, Rovillus R., N. Y., '95\nRoller. F. J., Ohio, '98\nRoof, F. M., Ala.. \"92\nRoop, C. v., Cal., '86\nRose, Geo. E., Kan., '86\nRose, S. L., Ohio, '96\nRoss, M. M., Tenn., '99\nRoss, Pete, Minn., '99\nRoth, Anna C, Ky., '97\nRounds, Chas. C, N. Y., '76 '\nRowe, Alex. M., Minn., '94\nRowe, H.M., Md., '96\nRowe, Mary E., 111., '95\nRowe, Stuart H., Conn., '98\nRowe, W. S., Ind., '95\nRowland, J. H., Ohio, '96\nRoyal, M. G., Wash., '96\nRudolph, Ida, Ky., '96\nRussell, Jas. E., N. Y., '95\nRussell, J. A., Mass., '94\nRussell, \\V. S , 111., '98\nRyan, Geo. G., N. Y., '94\nRyan. Mary E., Mont., '99\nRyon, C. M., N. Y., '96\nSabin, Albert R., 111., '84\nSabin, Ellen C, Wis., \"95\nSabin, Henry, Iowa. '89\nSage, A. H., Wis., \"98\nSage, W. v., Mich., '96\nSale, A. R., Iowa, '97\nSalisbury, Albert, Wis., '87\nSamuel, Wm. H., Pa., '93\nSanders, D. E., Mont., '95\nSanders, F. W., N. Mex., '97\n\nSandison, Howard, Ind., '96\nSanford, F., Cal., '97\nSanford, Heniy R., N. Y., '95\nSanor, S. D., Ohio, '93\nSargent, Dudley A., Mass., '96\nSargent, Elisa A., N. Y., '96\nSarver, J. M., Ohio. '98\nSaunders, Sara A., N. Y., '96\nSaivhill. Thos. A., Kan,, '86\nSawvel, Franklin B., Pa., '94\nSawyer, C. L.. Minn., '97\nSaylor, J. F., Neb., '96\nScarlett, Augustus, N. J., '91\nSchaeffer, Nathan C, Pa., '87\nSchauflfler. Alfred T., N. Y., '95\nSchermerhom, Jane A., N.Y., '95\nSchiller, J. D., Mich., '96\nSchmidt, F. A., N. Y., '96\nSchmucker, S. C, Pa., '92\nSchneider, Henry G., N. Y., '95\nSchofield. Martha, S. C, '91\nScholfield, Bessie M., R. I., '96\nSchreiber, Mae E., Wis., '96\nSchrj'ver, Anna A., Mich., '96\nSchurman. J. G.. N. Y., '96\nSchuyler, Aaron, Kan., '86\nSchuyler, E. H., N. J., '94\nScofield, Bertha, N. D., '97\nScott, Chas. B., P. R., '90\nScott, Edith A., Minn., '99\nScott, E. H., 111.. '95\nScott, F. N., Mich.. \"97\nScott, Harriet M., Cal., '96\nScott, Izora, Colo., '97\nScott, J. B., 111., '99\nScott. Jas. W., Colo., '93\nScott! O. C, 111.. \"95\nScott, W. H., Ohio, '93\nScovel, Sylvester F., Ohio, '97\nScranton Pub. Library, Pa., '99\nScudder, Myron Tracy, N. Y., '95\nScull, Jas. F., Ind., '95\nSeaman, W. W., Cal., '99\nSearle, F. E., Mich., '99\nSearle, Miss S. M., N. J., '93\nSeaver, Edwin P., Mass., '93\nSedgwick, Wm. T., Mass., '99\nSeeley, Levi, N. J., '90\nSeerley, H. H., Iowa, '89\nSellars, D. Francis, 111., '96\nSelleck, W. F. F., Minn., '98\nSewall, May W., Ind., '97\nSexton, E. K., N. J., '97\nShanahan, Rev. J. W., Pa., '95\nSharkey, J. P., Ohio, '90\nSharkley, Mrs. H. B., Cal., \"99\nShaw, A. L., Neb., '97\nShaw, Edw. R.. N. Y., '93\nShaw, Sam., Wis., '84\nShawan, J. A., Ohio. '94\nShear, S. R., N. Y., '95\nShearer, W. J.. N. J., '95\nShearer, W. S., Iowa, '97\nSheats, W. N., Fla., '93\nSheber, Cora, Ark., '98\nSheldon, Geo. M., Cal., '99\nSheldon, lV»i. E., Mass., '57\nShelley, W. H.. Md., '95\nShepard, Geo.\nVa., '97\nShepard,\nIrwin,C Minn.,\n83\nSheppard, L. W., Ohio, '98\nShinn, Josiah H., Ark., '90\nShippen, Edw., Pa.. '79\nShirk, David F., Kan., '95\nShives, Julia. Ark., '98\nShoemaker, W. A.. Minn., '95\nShomey, Geo.\n111., '97\nShrieves,\nEmma,H.,Wis.,\n96\nShull, U. P., Cal., '99\nShumaker, F. P., Ohio, '99\nShutts.Geo. C, Wis., '96\nSibley, Chas. A., Mass., '95\nSiefert, H. O. R., Wis., '95\nSigler, P. N., Ohio, '98\nSilcox, Julia C, Ohio, '97\nSilke, Lucy S.. 111., '93\nSilver, Edgar O., N. Y., '94\nSimerwell, E. A., Kan., '95\n\n"}
{"page": 1253, "printed_page": null, "text": "INDEX\nSimonds, H. A., Wis., '95\nSims, J. F., Ayis., '97\nSinclair, S. B., Can., '91\nSinger, Edgar A., Pa., '80\nSisson, E. O., 111., '97\nSkidmore, Sydney T , Pa., '95\nSkinner, Chas, R., N. Y., '90\nSkinner, \\Vm. C, Ohio, '95 \"\nSlack, H. W., Minn., '97\nSlade.Jas. P., 111., '95\nSlaton. W. F., Ga., '97\nSlaton; W. M., Ga., V\nSlaiison, H. M., Mich,, '94\nSloane, Clyde, 111., '98\nSmallwood, Mabel E., 111., '96\nS>uart,Jas, H ,, Ind., '77\nSmedley, Eva A., 111., '97\nSmiley, \\Vm. H., Colo., 92\nSmith, A. J., Minn., '98\nSmith, Alex., 111., '99\nSmith, Arthur P., Mass., 'go\nSmith, A. Thos., Pa., '93\nSmith, Anna T., D. C., 195\nSmith, Mrs. C. B., 111., 'g\nSmith, E. E., 111., '96\nSmith, E. R., 111. ,'97\nSmith, Euler B., Ga., '87\nSmith, F. P., Kan., '97\nSmith, Geo. M.,S. D., '95\nSmith, Geo. W., 111., '99\nSmith, Harriet E., Wis., '97\nSmith, Henry B., Colo., '99\nSmith, H. J., N. Y., '95\nSmith, J. F., Iowa, '97\nSmith, J. F., Ohio, '98\nSmith, J. Mace, N. Y., '95\nSmith, Jos. R., Pa., '99\nSmith, M. B., Mass., '99\nSmith, Sidney F., Colo., '95\nSmith, Wm. G., Minn., '95\nSmyth, W. S., 111., '95\nSnedden, D, S., Cal., '99\nSnell. Laura R.,N.Y., '99\nSnow, Bo/inie E., Minn., '96\nSnow, Francis H., Kan., '93\nSnow, Mary S.. Me., '98\nSnyder, A. J., 111., '97\nSnyder, Henry, N. J., '94\nSnyder, Jessie M., Ga., '97\nSnvder, J. H., Ohio, '96\nSnyder, J. L., Mich., '89\nSnyder, Lydia E., 111., '95\nSnyder, W. R., Ind., '95\nSnyder, Z. X., Colo., '87\nSnyder, Mrs. Z. X., Colo., '96\nSoldafi, F. Louis, Mo., '77\nSollitt, Alice E., 111., '93\nSomers. E. J., D. C, '98\nSoule, Geo., La., '92\nSouthall, J. W., Va., '98\nSpangler, H. T.. Pa., '94\nSpaulding, F. E., N. J., '96\nSpaulding, Randall, N. J., '92\nSpayd, H. H., Pa., '92\nSpeer, W. W., 111., '96\nSpencer, Catherine, Mo., '97\nSpencer, Pauline W., Pa., '93\nSpencer, Robt. C, Wis., '84\nSpencer, Mrs. Sara A., D. C.,'92\nSpero, Anna /lT. Cal., '77\nSpindler, J. W., Kan., '99\nSpringer, Durand W., Mich., '94\nSquire, Mary V., N. Y., '96\nStanford, Alma B., Minn., '97\nStanley, Edmund, Kan., '86\nStaples, Helen F., Minn., '96\nStark, Joshua, Wis., '84\nStarke, N. C, Va., '99\nStarrett, Mrs. H. E., '97\nState Agri. Coll., Kan., '97\nSt. Historical Soc, Wis., '84\nState Library, Cal., '99\nState Library, Mass., '98\nSt. N. and Ind. Coll., N . C.,'98\nSt. N. Sch., California, Pa., '98\nSt. N. Sch., Cedar Falls, Iowa, '97\nSt. N. Sch., Chico, Cal., '97\nSt, N. Sch., De Kalb, 111., '99\n\nTO LIFE AND ACTIVE MEMBERS\nSt. N. Sch., Ellensburg,Wash.,'97\nSt. N. Sch., Fitchburg, Mass.,'98\nSt. N. Sch.. Greeley, Colo., '97\nSt. N. Sch., Los Angeles, Cal. ,'97\nSt. N. Sch., Mankato, Minn., '99\nSt. N. Sch., Mansfield, Pa., '97\nSt. N. Sch., Millersville, Pa., '97\nSt. N. Sch., Moorhead, Minn., '97\nSt. N. Sch., New Paltz, N. Y., '99\nSt. N. Sch., Normal, 111., '98\nSt. N. Sch., Oshkosh, Wis., '98\nSt. N. Sih., Platteville,\\V\\s.;%^\nSt. N. Sch., Providence, R. 1., '97\nSt. N. Sch.. San Jose, Cal., '98\nSt. N. Sch., St. Cloud, Minn., '97\nSt. N. Sch., Terre Haute, Ind., '97\nSt. N. Sch., Trenton, N.J., '97\nSt. N. Sch., Westfield, Mass., \"97\nSt. N. Sch., Whitewater, Wis, ,'98\nSt. N. Sch., Winona, Minn., '97\nSt. Teachers'' Asso. of III., '90\nSt. Univ. Library, Iowa, '97\nSt. Univ. Library, Ohio, '97\nStearns. J ir.. Wis., '84\nSteele, Wm. L., III., '90\nSteere, E. A., Mont., '96\nStehman, J. H., 111., '97\nStein, F. W., Cal., '99\nStephens, H. Morse, N. Y., '96\nStephenson, Lillie S., 111., '95\nStern, Menco. N. Y., '82\nStetson, W. W., Me., '95\nSte7)ens, Moses C, Ind., '76\nStevens, Plowden, Jr., N. Y., '95\nStevenson, A. L., III., '97\nStevenson, Wm. C, Kan., '90\nStewart, /. JV.. Wis., '84\nStewart, John A., Mich., '84\nStewart, Jos. .S., Ga., '95\nStewart, N. Coe, Ohio, '92\nSteivari, Sarah A., N. Y., '84\nStickney, Lucia, Ohio, '93\nStigall, Oliver, Mo., '98\nStitt, E. W., N. Y.,'96\nStockman, Mary E., N. Y., '96\nStockwell, Mrs. H. H., N. D.,'94\nStockwell, Thos. B., R. I., '91\nStockwell, Walter L., N. D,, '94\nStokes, Horace A,, Ohio, '95\nStokes. Susan G., Utah. '99\nStone, Mason S., Vt., '94\nStone, W. W., Cal.. '99\nStoneroad, Rebecca D., D. C.,'96\nStorm, A. V.. Iowa, '94\nStout, Geo. H., Pa., '84\nStout, Isaac H., N. Y., '90\nStout, J. D., Iowa, '98\nStovall, Anna M., Cal., '99\nStowell, Thos. H., N. Y., '91\nStrachan, Alex., S. D., '97\nStratton, C. C. Ore., '88\nStratton, ¥. E. Minn., '86\nStraubenmiiller, G., N. Y., '97\nStrine, J. H., C al., '99\nStroeter, E. H., Mo,, '09\nStrong, Edwin A.. Mich., '92\nStrong, Jas. W., Minn., '95\nStuart, Giles A.. Conn., '99\nStubbs, J. E.,Nev.,_'95\nStudy, J. N., Ind., \"97\nStuver, E., Colo., '95\nSudi>orough,Mrs. f?.. Neb., \"So\n*Sullivan. Christine, Ohio, '86\nSummers. Alex., V). C, '98\nSuper, Chas. W., Ohio, '91\nSuplee, Etta, Iowa, '95\nSuplee, Fannie, Iowa, '95\nSupt. and Frin. Asso., Wis., '84\nSuter, Anna. Ind., '90\nSuter, Miss H. A.. La., '94\nSutherland, Marg. W., Ohio, '95\nSutton, W. S., Tex., '95\nSuydam, V. A., Wis., '99\nSwain, Jos., Ind. ,\"93\nSwan, Lizzie P., Wis., '97\nSwanger, F. A., Cal., '99\nSwart, Rose C, Wis., '95\nSwett, John, Cal., '99\n\nSwiler, J. W., Wis., '97\nSwingle, W. M., N. J., '98\nSwoboda, Dora. Ky., '97\nSyphax. Carrie\nE., D.N.C.,Y.,'9598\nSyracuse\nCent. Lib.,\nTadd, J. Liberty, Pa., '92\nTait, Elizabeth S., Pa., '98\nTalbot, Henry, 111., '92\nTanner, J. M., Utah. '97\nTapley, Wm. W., Mass., '92\nTappan, David S., Ohio, '99\nTarbell, Horace S., R. I., '91\nTarr, Ralph S., N. Y., '99\nTate, W. K., S. C, '99\nTaubman, Kate, S. D., '94\nTawney, Guy A., Wis., 98\nTaylor, Allyn O., Cal., '99\nTaylor, A. R., Kan., '86\nTaylor, Edw., Ky., '96\nTaylor, Henry J ., Iowa, '84\nTaylor,\nJos. S.,\nN. Y.,\n'94\nT chs^ Asso.,\nCowley\nC(7.,Kan.,'86\nTchs'' Asso., Riley Co., Kan., '86\nTeachers''\nY.. '99 A ssociation. Wis, , '84\nT'chs' Coll., Dept. Man. Tr., N.\nTchs'' Inst.. Phila., Pa., '79\nTempleton, J. C, Ca!.. '94\nTerrel, Harriet E,, Ohio, '96\nTerrell, Mary C, D. C, '98\nTerry, Miss J. L., Wis., '97\nThames, W. I., Miss, '97\nTharpe, F. D., Mo., '91\nThayer,\nF., N.\nTheilman,AdaLouis,\nMo.,Y..'95'96\nThiry.J. H., N. Y., '97\nThomas, Blanche T., Okla., '98\nThomas, D. W., Ind.. '96\nThomas, Emma A., Mich., '96\n•Thomas, Miss M. J. B., N. J.,'96\nThomas, R. S., Ohio, '96\nThomas, \\V. Scott, Cal., '99\nThompson, D. M., N. C, '98\nThompson, E. C. Mich., \"94\nThompson, Fannie E., Ohio, '99\nThompson, H. E., Okla., '95\nThompson, John G., Mass.. '95\nThompson, L. S., N. J., '76\nThompson. O. D,, Mich., '96\nThompson, T. E.. Mass., '97\nThompson. Wm. O., Ohio, \"94\nThomson. Frank D., 111., '95\nThorndyke, E. L., N. Y., ^98\nThorson, I. A., Md., \"98\nThudium, C. C, Mo., '98\nThurber, Chas. H., 111.. '93\nThwing, Chas. F., Ohio, '95\nTibbf ts. Anna, Neb., '94\nTibbetts, A. C, Minn.. '95\nTiltotson, D. C, Kan., '86\nTilton, Chas. S., Wash., '99\nTinker, B. W., Conn., '97\nTitus, Cynthia, Iowa, '97\nTodd, Emma J , 111., '97\nTodd, Samuel B., Wis., '95\nTclman, Henry L., III., '97\nTompkins, A.. 111.. '96\nTormey. J. A., Minn.. '97\nTower, Belle M., Mich., '97\nTownsend, H. S., H. I., '99\nTracy, Frank N., 111., 'gi6\nTrant, Amelia Earle, N. Y., '96\nTrask, H. M., Pa., '95\nTra>en,IraW., N. J., '97\nTressler, A. W., Wis., '92\nTreudley, F., Ohio. '91\nTrotter, J. R., W. Va.. '97\nTrowbridge, G. S., Cal., '99\nTucker, Anna M. P., Ohio, 'g6\nTulloch, Mrs. M., D. C. '98\nTurner, Alfred, Mass., '95\nTurner, J. E., 111., '95\nTurner, J. M., Wis., '97\nTurner, Marie L., Mo., '95\nTattle, Albert H., Va., '96\nTutlle, Wm. L.. N. Y., '99\nTutwiler, Julia S., Ala., ^82\nTwichell, Hattie, Mass., '95\n\n"}
{"page": 1254, "printed_page": null, "text": "T246\n\nNATIONAL\n\nTwining, Nathan C, Cal., '84\nTwiss, Geo. R., Ohio, '94\nTynan, T. T., Wyo.. '99\nUnderhill, Volney, 111., '93\nUniversity, Atlanta, Ga., '95\nUniversity, Columbia, N. Y., '95\nUniversity, Cornell, N. Y., '96\nUniversity, Harvard, Mass., '95\nUniversity, Leland Stanford Jr.,\nCal., '97\nUniversity, Lincoln, 111., '97\nUniversity, Miami, Ohio, '95\nUniversity, West Virginia, '99\nUniversity of California, '95\nUniversity of Georgia, '95\nUniversity of Illinois, '99\nUniversity of Iowa, '97\nUniversity of Michigan, '98\nUniversity of Missouri, '95\nUniversity of Nebraska, '98\nUniversity of N. Carolina, '99\nUniversity of Ohio. '97\nUniversity of Oklahoma, '99\nUniversity of Omaha, Neb., '97\nUniversity of State of N. Y., '93\nUniversity of Pennsylvania, '98\nUniversity of Texas, '98\nUniversity of Utah, '95\nUniversity of VVashington, '98\nUniversity of Wyoming, '97\nUpdegraff, H., Iowa, '99\nUpton, R. R., Ohio. '98\nVail, Henry H., N. Y., '97\nVaile, E. O., 111., '95\nVan A ken, Mrs. C, N. Y., '84\nVance, Sophie, Ohio, '90\nVan Cleve, C. L., Ohio, '96\nVan Cleve, Edw. M., Ohio,'97\nVandyke, J. A., Minn., '96\nVan Liew, Chas. C, Cal., '94\nVan Ostrand. B. D., Kan., '96\nVan Rensselaer, Martha, N.Y.,'94\nVan Sickle, Jas. H., Colo.. '92\nVan Tassel, I. N., Ohio, '98\nVassar College, N. V., '98\nVeatch. Nathan T.. 111., '95\nVert, Edmund J., S. D., '95\nViebakn, Chas. F., Wis., '84\nVirtue, G. O., Minn., '98\nVroom, W. F., N. Y., '98\nWabash College, Ind., '95\nWade, Margaret I., N. J., '94\nWagner, Harr, Cal., '99\nWakeman, J. W., N. J., '92\nWaldo, Eveline A., La., '97\nWalke, Matilda L., Ohio, '92\nWalker, B. M., Miss., '99Walker, E. W., Wis., '97\nWalker, M. Edna, Cal., '99\nWalker, P. R., 111., '90\nWalker, R. E.. 111., '99\nWalrath, M. H., N. Y., '96\nWalsh, J. H., N. Y., '95\nWalter, Mary, Ohio, '98\nWalter, Sarah J., Conn., '98\nWalton, Geo. A., Mass., '92\nWard, Henry B., Neb., '97\nWare, N. E., Ga., '96\nWaring. J. H. N., Md., '98\nWarner, A. B., Iowa, '94\nWarner, Chas. F., Mass., '99\nWarr, J. W., 111., '95\nWashburn, Kirk N., Mass., '96\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nWaterbury, R. A., Wis., '96\nWaterhouse, A. H., Neb., '96\nWaterman, Richard. 111., '96\nWatson, Edith M., Wis., '97\nWatt, W. E., 111., '95\nWeaver, E. W., Ky.. '97\nWebb, Louis K., Cal., '99\nWeber, A. W., Wis., '97\nWeber, H. C, Tenn., '97\nWebster, R. H., Cal., '99\nWebster, W. F.. Minn., '96\nWeeks, C. W., 111., '95\nWeld, Frank A., Minn., '95\nWellers, Meta, 111., '99\nWelles, Frank E., N. Y., '95\nWelsh, J. P., Pa., \"96\nWeldon, Edw., Pa., \"98\nWentz, Etta L., N. Y., '96\nWemick. E. V.. Wis., '95\nWest, Andrew F., N. J., '99\nWest, Claude L., N. J., '98\nWestcott, Edith, D. C., '98\nWestcott, O. S.. 111., '95\nWestern, The, Ohio, '99\nWestervelt, Z. F., N. Y., '97\nWestfall, Mary B., Ohio, '97\nWest Virginia Univ.. '99\nWheatley, Emma, Neb., '95\nWheaton, Ellen F., Minn., '97\nWheeler, Henry N., Mass., '92\nWheelock, Chas. F., N. Y., '95\nWhipple, H. A., Wis., '97\nWhitcomb, Arthur K., Mass., '92\nWhite, Chas. G., Mich., '95\nWhite. Dan. A., 111., '95\nWhite, Dan. H., Cal., '99\nWhite, Emerson E., Ohio, '70\n\\Vhite, Fred. C, N. Y., '99\nWhite, H. C, Ga., '96\nWhite, J. T., Md., '98\nWhite, J. U., Mo., '87\nWhite, Wm. M., Ohio, '96\nWhite, W. S., Mich., '97\nWhite, W. T., Tenn., '89\nWhiteford, J. A., Mo., '95\nWhitehill, O. P., N. Mex., '99\nWhitford, Wm. C, Wis., '84\nWhiting, M. M., Cal., '99\nWhitman, B. L., D. C, '95\nWhitney, Allen S., Mich., '94\nWhitney, M. A., 111., '91\nWhitney, O. C, Wash., '98\nWhitney, S. Emory, Mich., '93\nWhittemore, Henry, Mass., '95\nWhittle, W. R., R. I., '96\nWiard, Louise A., Ky., '96\nWicks, John F., 111., '97\nWicks. M. B., Pa., '99\nWidner, Esther A., Ohio, '80\nWilcox, Jessie B., Wash., '99\nWiley, Wm. H., Ind., '96\nWilkins, A. H., Tex., '94\nWilkinson, J. J., 111., '96\nWilkinson, J. N., Kan., '84\nWilkinson, Warring, Cal., '99\nWillard, F. E., Iowa, '96\nWilliams, Anna L., Cal., '99\nWilliams Coll. Library, Mass., '97\nWilliams, Mrs. Delia, Ohio, '70\nWilliams, J. D., 111., '96\nWilliams, L. W., N. J., '98\nWilliams, M. Ida, Cal., '99\nWilliams, Philo J., Kan., '86\n\nWilliams, Sherman, N. Y., '98\nWilliams, T. E., Ga., '95\nWilliams, Thyrza C, N. J., '97\nWilliams, W. H. Mo., '95\nWilliams, Wm. H., Wis., '97\nWilliams, Wm. J., Neb., '95\nWilliamson, J. E., Iowa, '95\nWilliamson, Martha S., Ohio, '99\nWillis, D. M., W. Va., '95\nWillis, H. B., N. J., '92\nWillis, W.A., Iowa, '84\nWilson, A. H., N. J., '96\nWilson, C. B., Mass., '96\nWilson, Harry G., 111., '95\nWilson, H. E., Ariz., '95\nWilson, J. H.,D. C, '98\nWilson, J. Ormond, D. C, '80\nWilson, Mrs. L. L. \\\\., Pa., '99\nWilson, V. L., Iowa, '97\nWilson, W. B., S. C, '99\nWilson, Wm. E., Wash., '90\nWindate. Ida M., Ohio, '96\nWinne, Jas., N. Y., '92\nWinship, Albert E., Mass., '92\nWinston, Geo. T.. N. C, '96\nWinters, T. H., Ohio, '97\nWinterbum, Rose V., Cal., '99\nWinterton, Jessie M., N. Y., '97\nWinthrop, Nor. Sch., S. C, '95\nWirick. L. A., Kan., '97\nWise, Henry A., Md., '85\nWise, W. J., Colo., '95\nWitchard, J. H., Ga., '96\nWitherspoon, Jas. H., Ark., '99\nWitmer, Chas. K., Pa., '94\nWitmer, Lightner, Pa., '98\nWitter, F. M., Iowa, \"97\nWitter, J. C, N. Y., '98\nAVolfe, H. K., Neb., '96\nWolfe, L, E., Kan., '90\nWood, Court F., D. C., '97\nAVood, Emory M., Kan., '89\nWood, Jas. A., N. Mex., '97\nWood, John A., Ind., '98\nWood, O. M., Mo., '93\nWoodhull,\"!. F., N. Y., '99\nWoodley, O. I., Mich., '96\nWoodmansee, M. A., Ohio, '98\nWoods, Francis M., 111., \"96\nWoodward, C. F., Iowa, '97\nWoodward, C. M., Mo., '87\nW^oodward, F. C, S. C, '99\nWoodward, J. C, Ga., \"97\n%Voody, H. G., Ind., '93\n\"SVooley, L. C, N. J., '93\nWright, A. M., N. Y., '93\nWright, Anna J., Ohio, '94\nWright. Edmund W., Vt., '89\nWright, L.L., Mich., '96\nWright, Lydia H., Ariz., '95\nWright, Wm. R., N. J., '92\nWylie, Mrs. M. J. B., N. Y., '91\nYerby, John D., Ala., '95\nYoder, A. H., Ind., '96\nYoung, J. B., Iowa, '96\nYoung, J. S., Ohio, '95\nYoung, Nathan B., Ga., '96\nYoung, Robert G., 111., '89\nZiek, Mary, Io\\«q, '98\nZillafro, Margaret C, Pa., '96\nZimmerman, C. F. A., Wjs., '95\nZirkle. H. W., Colo., '98\nZook, Mrs, Laura, Mont., '97.\n\n"}
{"page": 1255, "printed_page": null, "text": "CLASSIFIED\n\nMEMBERSHIP\n\nBY STATES\n\nIN THE\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n■ge\n>j=\n\nFOR\n\nTHE\n\nYEAR\n\n1899 — (lOS\n\nANGELES\n\nMEETING)\n~ B\n\n23\nActive Membership\n\nState or Territory\n\n0\n0\n\n^\nMIS\n134\n\nNorth Atlantic Division,\nSoutli Atlantic Division,\nSoutli Central Division,\nNorth Central Division,\nWestern Division,\n.\n\ns\n\n4\n3\n\n144\n297\n\n134\n1,636\n\n9\n\n'\" 14\n116\n6\n\nMaine,\n._ .\nNew Hampshire,\n,\nVermont,\nMassachusetts,\nRhode Island,\nConnecticut,\nNew York,\nNew Jersey,\nPennsylvania,\nSouth Atlantic DivisionDelaware,\n.\nMaryland,\n.\nDistrict of Columbia,\nVirginia,\nWest Virginia,\nNorth Carolina,\n.\nSouth Carolina,\n.\nGeorgia,\nFlorida,\nSouth Central DivisionKentucky,\n.\nTennessee,\n.\nAlabama, _ .\nMississippi, .\nLouisiana,\n.\nTexas\nArkansas,\n.\nOklahoma,\n.\nIndian Territory,\nNorth Central DivisionOhio,\n....\nIndiana,\nIllinois,\nMichigan,\n.\nWisconsin,\n.\nIowa,\n.\nMinnesota, .\nMissouri,\nNorth Dakota,\nSouth Dakota,\nNebraska,\n.\nKansas,\nWestern Division\nMontana,\nWyoming,\n.\nColorado,\nNew Mexico,\nArizona,\nUtah,\n.\nNevada,\nIdaho, .\nWashington,\nOregon,\nCalifornia,\n.\nAlaska,\nHawaii,\nPuerto Rico,\nForeignCanada,\nAfrica,\nHolland,\nGermany,\nHungary,\n.\n\n27\n\n789\n4\n17\n\n3«\n\n471\n8\n\nI\n2\n\n95\n\nI\n\nI\n\n201\n\nI\n\n2\n\n399\n14\n\nI\n126\n\n1,285\n\nl<^\nS^\n\n69\n118\n\n156\n\n8\n8\n9\n6\n\nI\n2\n\n19\n144\n254\n1,011\nI\n2\n\n9\n242\n5923\n\nI\n\n22\n\n100\n\nI\n\n2\n\n26\n\n4\n\nII\n\n2\n\n84 I\n649\n124\n28\n12\n213\n16\n41\n\n2\n\n5\n\n3\n\n2\n\n8\n\n70\n\n2\n2\n\n3\n\n55\n28\n54\n\n3\n20\n\n12\n10\n\n3\n\n15\n14\n\nII\n12\n\n4\n5\n3\n\n55\n30\n\n2\n\n5\n53\n\nII\n\nI\n\n8\n3\n7\n2\n\n3\n10\nI\n\n16\n14\n8\n18\n124\n\n3\n\nI\nI\n\n164\n\n261\n75\n61\n79\n\n12\n\n2\n\n5\n37\nI\nI\nI\n\n3\n\nI\n\n\"3\n\n^^\n\n13\n\n6\n26\n103\n\n7\n3\n\nID\n\nI\nII\n2\n\n3\n5\n\n2\n\n9\n\n6 51\n\n30\n\nI\n\n142\n4\n\nI\n\n2\n\n40\n\n^^\n\n54,\n99\n22\n22\n\n502\n436\n12\n4763\n\n756\n16\n\n10\n\n536\n\n67\n\n136\n\n279\n'33\n\n321\n\n60\n287\n163\n53\n\n0\n\n135\n\n267\n47\n\n1\n39 50 7\n\n46\n\nII\n\n11\n\n66\n673\n\n29s\n\n26 17\n955\n\n27\n\n1,216\n196\n593\n\n188\n606\n416\n\n453\n\n98\n\n144\n580\n86\n96\n\n53\n8\n\n^\n\n75\n532\n\n49\n\n^\n\n465\n\n398\n\n106\n79\n331\n\nI\n\n4.2155\n\n4,3579\n43162\n\n3\n\n72\n\n38\n\n35\n\n3\n\nI\n\n<^\n\n9\n\n39\n\n3\n\n65\n\n203\n\n12\nII\n\n7\n5\n353\n\n35\nI\n2\n\n12\n\n8\n\n2\n\n69\n\n12\n\n33\n4\n\nI\n2\n2\n\nI\nI\n\n181\n49\n79\n33\n\n25\n\n13\n\nS\n\nII\n\n36.\n\n10\n\n4\n4\n5\n\n27\n\n87\n\n.216\n39\n\n8\n\n3\n\n643\n\n^s\n\n|\n|5,190\n\n3\n2\n\n29\n\n154\n15 5,487\n\n15\n\n75\n\n14\n\n294\n818\n24 5,074\n\n12\n\n5\n\n2\n\n■■'i\n\n63\n7\n\n3\n4\n\n21\n\n1 ....\n\nS 1\"\n.915\n4,063\n35\n\n150\n\n153\n\nI\n\n13.656\n\n.2 -a\n\n> u\n\n35\n\n3\n\n17 1,877\n\n11,452\n\"3\n\n112\n122\n\n2\n\n2,204\n\n13\n\n2\n\nNorth Atlantic Division-\n\n2\n•- 6\n\n674\n\nu u\n\nII\n\nForeign\n\nX\n\nu.e-\n\n35\n\n.\n.\n\n205\n\nn *i\n\nv.a\n\nTotal\n\nn V\n14\n\n«\n\nL, J) 8J3\n9\n\n87\n27\n17\n\nI\nI\n\nI\nI\n\nI\n\nI\n\n^\n\n70\n\n"}
{"page": 1256, "printed_page": null, "text": "■3\n\n•55\n\nRECORD\n\nOF MEMBERSHIP\n\nBY STATES\n\"3\n\n*>\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\nFOR EACH\n\nYEAR\n\nASSOCIATION\n5C\n\nFROM\n\n1 884-99, INCLUSIVE,\n\nExcepting for 1893, when no regular meeting was held.\nHeavier numbers show membership\nfrom the state in which the meeting for the year was held.\n\na\nu\n\n0.\n\nifi\na\n\nS\n\nTotal\n\n.\n\n2,729\n\n.\n\nN. Atlantic Div.\nS.Atlantic Div.\nS. Central Div.\nN. Central Div.\nWestern Div.\nForeign\n. ■\nN. Atlantic Div.\n\nMaine\n. .\nN. Hampshire\nVermont\nMassachusetts\nRhode Island\nConnecticut\nNew York .\nNew Jersey\nPennsylvania\n\nS. Atlantic Div.\n\nDelaware\n.\nMaryland\n.\nDistrict of Col.\nVirginia . .\nWest Virginia\nN. Carolina\nS. Carolina .\nGeorgia . .\nFlorida\n. .\n\nS. Central Div,\nKentucky\nTennessee\nAlabama\nMississippi\nLouisiana\nTexas\n.\nArkansas\nOklahoma\n\n.\n.\n.^\n.\n.\n.\n.\n\nN. Indian\nCentralT'yDiv..\n\nOhio . . .\nIndiana . .\nIllinois . .\nMichigan\n.\nWisconsin\n.\nIowa . . .\nMinnesota .\nMissouri\nNorth Dakota\nSouth Dakota\nNebraska\n,\nKansas\n. .\n\nWestern Div.\n\nMontana\nWyoming\n.\nColorado\nNew Mexico\nArizona . .\nUtah . . .\nNevada . .\nIdaho . . .\nWashington\nOregon\n. .\nCalifornia\n.\nAlaska\n. ,\nHawaiian Isls\nPuerto Rico\n\nForeign . . .\n\n1887\n\n16\n\n47\n\n92 176\n267 4067\n1,712\n64\n\n386\n\nIII\n\nII\n\nI\n\n21\n\n132\n1456\n\n43\n\n5,474\n\n104\n\n2,933\n795 4,778\n151\n417\n\n1,074\n7,216\n\n216\n\n13\n\n206\n\n18\n\n35\n28\n5105\n40\n\n5\n6\n3\n5\nII\n\n121\n\n4\n10\n\n40 I\n\n7\n3\n3\n\n4\n3\n4\n\nI\n2\n\nI\n\n30I\n\n33\n\n2\n\n108\n\n8\n2\n1291\n\n8\n\nISI\n\n6\n\n129\n\n8\n5\n\nI\nI\n\nI\n2\n\n22\n22\n\n15I\n\n3\n\nI\n\n7\n\n8\n8\nib4\n\n99\n12\n\n3\n\n41 3\n\n7\n\n12\n\n21\n2\n\n18 30\n\n16\n29b7\n\n10\n\nb2\n6lb7\n\n32\n\nII\n\n55\n\n87I\n\n273\n\n607\n89\n\n5«:\n10\n\n225\n12\n\n8\n\n2046\n\n18\n\n132\n\nII\n\n39\n\n5\n\n3\nI\n12\n\n9\n\n649\n1,'J50\n2\n20\n6257\n18\n418\n1,146\n73 634\nII\n\nII\n4Ib\n2\n2\n\nb\n\n4\n48b\n\n9\n8\n\nI\n\n4\n6\n\nI\n\nII\n\n3\n5\n\n12I\n\n3\n\nI\n\n8\n\n3SS\n666\n\n2ii\n\n147\n275\n\n222\n278\n\n5\n{\n2\n\n15!\n18\n\n45\n204\n\nI\n\n1\n\nVZlt\n\nI\n\nJ\n\n128\n\n49\n\n66\n176\n\n20\n\n114\n\ni6\n126\n\n52\n\n43\n57\n\n5\n37\n\n320\n\n7\n\n6\n7\nS\n\n188\n\n1,11314\n8 1,086\n28\n592\n9\n321\n\n111\n\n3\n\n4\n\n5\n2\n59i\n\n2\n\n26\n1,136\n72II\n\nI\nI\n\nI\n31 2\n\n4\n\nI\n\n32\n\n3\n6\n53\n33\n\n363\n325\n34\n\n26\n\n251\n\n795\n\niiS\n\n591\n\n58\n\n41\n\n361\n\n5787\n\n8\n\n16\n5\n742\n\n37\n16\n9\n10\n\n16\n\n58\n\n454\n847\n39 145\n\"\n1,8523\n\n285\n\n181\n\n395\n824\n\n26\n\n21\n106\n\n536\n136\n46\n16\n\n231\n\n5\n\n232\n802\n\n655\n1,499\n3,322\n436\n\n53\n\n194\n430\n55\n\n36\n\n99\n64\n10\n287\n112\n31 34\n1,686\n221\n1,287\n35\n448\n199\n267\nS14\n86\n19\n13\n44\n60\n47\n27\nII\n4\n\n20\n\n196\n21\n2\n\n3823\n12\n\n50\n\nSO\n\n222\n\n254\n86 5,151\n579\n453\ns8o2 4,679\n204\n4\n334\n3,165\n49 1\n96\n4\n3,326\n158\n465\n\n22\n\n3\n6\nI\n78 7\n\n69\n\n192\n\n406\n\n43\n6\n\n.5=\n\n231\n\n60\n4087\n1.313\n164\n^61\n25\n379 52\n206\n673\n103\n24\n6\n7\n1,340\n343\n354\n196 6,388\n6,025\n31\n11,111\n2\n30 530\n133 98\n7 173\n593\n383 1,216\n14\n98\n45\n223\n2,982\n69\n3,092\n\n10\n\n43\n\n1248\n\n543\n41\n1,S70\n333\n145\n53\n13\n\n41\n177\n303\n\n56 IC\n\n4.\n\n132\n\n28s\n187\n785\n\n413\n589\n\n89\n\n42\n\n2\n\ns\n\n5\nli5\n\n558\n54\n248\n\n36II\n\n327\n\n9\n65\n99\n\n229\n\n756\n22\n\n146\n\n2\n\n25\n25\n\n257\n\n205\n\n31\n357\n\n361\n\n22\n\n10\n\n100\n\n250\n\n2\n10\n\n57\n19\n\n382\n\n9\n\n59\n\n1,171\n9\n4\n\n9\n\n77\n\n1,495 1,174\n5652\n\n435\n990\n220\n\n8\n\n23\n411\n4\n7\n16\n\n193\n15\n\n86\n\n118\n\nII\n21\n\n25 14 84\n\n204\n\nI\n\n51\nno\n127\n\n172\n\n80\n\n99\n83\n\n4\n\n164\n31\n\n509\n\nno\n\n63\n\n129\n412\n\n108\n\n82\n143\n35\n155\n\n3\n4 871\n127\n\n40\n\n40\n\n62\n\n294\n\n2\n\n2S8\n178\n54 2 1\n42\n189\n36\n\n283\n\n653\nII\n\n28s4\n\nI\n\n12\n\nI\n\n37\n\n9\n214\n33\n\n149\n259\n343\n\n64\n\n71\n40 27\n\nS8\n26i\n134\n\n42\n\n21\n\ni:\n\n127\n964\n\n49\n5\n\n57\n\n206\n\n6i:\n16 \\ 99\n7 I109\n572\n10\n\n124\n\n521\n\n124\n\n20\n\n53\n\n60\n\n,61\n933\n443\n\nqbo2\nI\n\n1\n\n133\n\nloq\n\n190\n\nII\n\n57\n222\n\n53\n47\n\n30\n326\n\n3 6\n65 7\n\n366\n\n29\n\n15\n\n294\n818\n\n19\n\n25\n25\n\n51\n\n79\n\n249\n\n304\n\n16\n\n4\n57\n\n39\n\n8\n45\n\n31\n31\n\n29\n\n121\n\n43\n54\n354\n33\n77\n»4tt 23 12\n\n49\n178\n6\n\n18\n\n35\n20\n44\n67\n625\n137\n\n7\n\n969\n323\n\n6,271\n84\n\n13\n457\n123\n5.074\n19\n94,062 3,497\n915\n1,588\n23\n63\n29\n27\n5,487 52,450\n3,440\n7,256\n1,111\n154 13,712\n2,719\n10\n16\n12\n8\n187\n7\n9426\n74\n6\n228\n1\n6,457\nII 3\nII\n5,882\n\n64\n55\n437\n325\n168 2,132\n\n12\n\n611\n\n29\n124\n\n7\n97\n\n123\n\n22\n\n45\n\n14\n\n49\n258 40 2\n10\n20\n35\n\n132\n114\n22 41\n4\n16\n12\n8q\n43\n19\n\n1,492\n159\n1,146\n\n7\n191\n\n3\n\n32\n163\n\n876 8 0\n4 3\n\n836\n8\n\n18\n13\n\nx6\n5\n\n322\n\nI\n\n2\n\n151\n\n38\n\n36\n\n13\n242\n\n2\n\n2\n\nI\n\n7\n3\n\n228\n\n210\n\n1,877\n13,656\n\n1,403\n172\n1,462 9,072\n197\n17\n419\n304\n159\n5.083\n377 7,111\n5,315\n16\n33\n\n212\n202\n\n20s\n\n23\n\n24\n\n13\n\n43\n73\n14\n5 7,211 242 437\n4 8\n7\n35\n15179\n4\n460 1 26\n\n27\n\n290\n\n4\n4\n\n211\n\n159\n\nI\n\n271\n\n<\n\n16,093 1,073\n\n2,940\n\n63 1,711\n3,360 3,357\n\n45\n122 29\n8102\n29\n5 4,974\ni,4S6\n13\n642I\n196\n114\n7,b7i\n-28 4,156\n426\n277\n3\n23\n23\n370\n6s\n708\n13\n5\n117\n231\n7\nII\n9\n5\n11\n17\n4\n103\n4\n10\n\n8\n\n81\n\n309\n\n261\n\n23\n\n5,915\n\nU 229\nV\n14\n\nB\n\nB\n\n15\n15\n\nn\n\n14\n\n15\n\n13\nJ3\n\n655 1. 187\n\n13\n\n143\n\n310\n\n1892\n\n13\n\nV\n\n71898\ns 210,533\n^\n3\n\nn23714\nQ\n11,297 1896\n24\n899\n\n253\n\n25\n1,074\n23 lOI\n128\n\n44\n\n289\n\n<\n\n1890 1891\n\n1,984\n113\n\n155\n\n3\n\n^\n\nM\n\n803\n1888\n9,115\n773\n\n77\n\n^\n\n1889\n\nM\n\n1886\n1.197\n25\n\n19\n\ni\n\n1899\n\n1\n\nJa\n\n189s\n\n1 1894\n\n2\n\n(2\n\nt\n\n^\n\n1884 1885\n623\n\na\n\n0\n\n1897\n\n«\n\neg\n\ni-\n\n1 1\n\n7,\n\nState or T'y\n\n.1c\n\n79\n\n4,3572\n38\n39\n\n37\n211\n426\n9\n741\n\n5.421\n\n21\n21\n\n2,588\n\n106\n331\n\n13\n\n362\nS\n\n402\n\nII\n\n364\n158\nI\n\n312I\n\n2\n\n9\n3222\n\n8,9469\n\n436\n\n7i\n\n70\n\n"}
{"page": 1257, "printed_page": null, "text": "INVENTORY AND PRICE LIST OF PUBLICATIONS OF THE NATIONAL\nEDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION IN THE DEPOSITORY AT WASHINGPrice per\nTON, D. C, JULY I, 1899\n23\nMISCELLANEOUS\n\nPUBLICATIONS\n\nHistorical Sketch of National Educational Association, 1857-91,\n\nREPRINTS\nI89I\n1892\n1894\n\nOF PROCEEDINGS\n\nDEPARTMENT\n\nOF SUPERINTENDENCE\n\nPaper cover, 147 pages\n''\n'\n\n1898\n\nREPRINTS\n1885\n1888\n1889\n\nOF THE\n\n.25volNumber of\nPrices in\nsingle.25\ncopies\nsets, carriage ume, carriage\nin 167\nstock\nnot prepaid\nprepaid\n• 25\n182\n$0.20\n$0.25\n\n237\n^8+\n^94\n\n235\n\n•■\n;;\n'\n\nOF PROCEEDINGS\n\nOF THE NATIONAL\n\n.20\n\n408\n298\n47\n10s\n\n$0.20\n\n127\n\n.20\n\n.10\n.10\n•25\n.10\n.10\n$0.10\n\n142\n\n189s\n\n\"\n\n114\n80\n\n81\n\n\"\n\" \"\n\n98\n\n.to\n\nOF REPORTS\n\nOF SPECIAL COMMITTEES\n54\n\nfReport of Committee of Ten on Secondary Schools, paper cover, 249 pages\njReport\nCommittee of Fifteen on Elementary Schools, paper cover, 2^=; pages\nRepo rt of\nof Committee on Rural Schools, paper cover, 228 pages\n\n.10\n\n$0.25\n\nReport\nEntrance paper\nRequirements\",\npaper cover, 188 pages\n.\nReport of\nof Commhtee\nCommittee on\non CollegeNormal Schools,\ncover, 64 pages\nReport of Committee on Public Libraries and Public Schools, paper cover, 80 pages\n\nPROCEEDINGS\n\n1865\n1866\n1869\n\n\"\n\n1873\n1874\n1875\n1876\n77\n1878\n1879\n1880\n1881\n1882\n1883\n\n1884\n1885\n1886\n1887\n1888\n1889\n1890\n1891\n1892\n1893\n1894\ni8qs\n1896\n1897\n1898\n1899\n\nOF THE NATIONAL\n\nTEACHERS'\n\nPaper cover, 117 pages\n\"\n140\n\"\n\nBOUND\n\n\"\n\n36\n\nVOLUMES\n\n35\n38\n\n\"\n\nOF PROCEEDINGS\n\n194\n\nOF THE NATIONAL\n\nSan Francisco\nNashville\nSt. Paul\nToronto\nSaratoga Springs\nZongr ess 0 Education)\nChicago (International (\nAsbury Park\nDenver\nBuffalo\nMilwaukee\nWashington, D. C.\nLos Angeles\nSubject Index\n* Stock exhausted,\n\n■ 15\n• 30\n$0.30\n\n.20\n.10\n.20\n.10\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n*\n•\n*\n\n1-25\n$0. 0\n1.25\n.50\n\n293\n\nElmira\n..........\nDetroit\nMinneapolis\nBaltimore\nLouisville\n(No meeting)\nPhiladelphia\nChautauqua\nAtlanta\nSaratoga Springs\nSaratoga Springs\nMadison\nSaratoga Springs\n\nTopeka\nChicago\n\n.25\n\n.15\n\n\"\n\n\"\nREPRINTS\n95\n\n•25\n\n$O.T5\n\n242\n\n\"\n\n.15\n.15\n\nOF EDUCATION\n\nPaper cover, 120 pages\n\"\n\"\n73\n\"\n\n1890\nI89I\n1894\n\n$0.25\n•15\n\n.20\n\nCOUNCIL\n\n•15\n•IS\n•IS\n\n8\n\n1-25\n\n.50\nEDUCATIONAL1.25\nASSOCIATION\n\n286\n\n1.25\n$1.25\n\n2o3\n\n1.25\n1. 25\n\n265\n\n1.50\ni^SO\n1.50\n$1.50\n1.50\n1.75\n\n1^75\n\n1.50\n\n1-75\n1.50\ni'7S\n1.50\n\n269\n252\n145\n513\n\n1.50\n\nI-7S\n1.50\n1-75\n1.50\n\n*\n\n»\n\n575\n\n1.50\n1.7s\n1.75\n1.50\n1-75\n1.50\n1-75\n1-75\n1.50\n1-75\n1-75\n1-75\n\n343\n310\n294\n219\n\n107\n\nI.7S\n\n*\n*\n*\n\n2.00\n2.00\n\n723\n483\n448\n476\nSI\n\n40\n\n732\n\nfree\n\n2.00\n2.0O\n2.00\n2.00\n2.00\n2.00\n\ns.oo\nI.OO\n\n572\n360\n\nt The Reports of the Committee of Ten and the Committee of Fifteen are printed and sold by the American Book Co. for 30 cents each, postage paid.\nAll reprints noted above are included in the bound volumes of Proceedings except the Report of the\nCommittee of Ten on Secondary Schools.\nA complete Subject Index of all published proceedings to 1897 has been issued in a separate volume,\nbound in cloth, uniform with the volumes of proceedings. The index will be sent free of charge to those who\npurchase five or more volumes ; to others it will be sent postpaid for $1.00. The index volume will be supplied\nto active members for 25 cents for postage, wrapping, etc.\n1249 Remittances should be made by Draft or P. O.\nAll publications can be obtained of the Secretary,\nMoney Order.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary,\nWinona, Minn.\n\n"}
{"page": 1258, "printed_page": null, "text": "INDEX\n[Names of authors of papers are set in small capitals.\n\nAct of Incorporation, 5.\nAddicott, James E. — Correlation of Manual Training with Other Branches of\nStudy, 923; Secretary's Minutes, Manual Training Department, 905.\nAddresses of Welcome, by Governor Henry\nT. Gage, 47 ; Thos. J. Kirk, 48 ; Elmer\nE. Brown, 52 ; Mayor Fred. Eaton, 53 ;\nJ. A. Foshay, 54.\nAdministration, Normal-School, 864.'\nAdolescent at Home and in School — E. G.\nLancaster, 1039.\nAdvanced Course in French, 746.\nAdvanced Course in German, 741.\nAdvent of the Commercial High School,\nThe— W. C. Stevenson, 1025.\nAids and Guides in Library Work, 513.\nAlbee, George Sumner, \"I\", 233.\nAlfred Memorial Celebration, 40.\nAlgebra, 769.\nAll Along the Line — Mrs. Katherine T.\nBingham, 1165.\nAllin, Arthur — Discussion, 275.\nAmerican Historical Association, Report\nof Committee, 755American Mathematical Society, 764.\nAmerican University, An Apology for the,\n213.\nAmended spelling modified, 43.\nAmended Spelling, Report of the Committee on, 352.\nAmendment to By-Laws, 26.\nAmendments to Constitution, how made, 4.\nAnnual Business Meeting, Proceedings of,\n26.\nAnthropometric Studies in Nebraska —\nWilliam W. Hastings, 1076.\nApology for the American University, An\n— David Starr Jordan, 213.\nAppendix, Report of Committee on College-Entrance Requirements, A, 702 ; B,\n703; C, 705.\nAppendix, Report of Committee on Normal Schools, A, 882 ; B, 884 ; C, 889 ; D,\n891.\nAppendix, Report of Committee on Physical Geography, 793.\nAppropriation for prize essays, 43.\nArdley, Henry T.— Art Instruction in\nthe University, 961.\nAre Educational Journals Educational ?—\nWilliam George Bruce, 208.\nArithmetic, 768.\nArt Education, Department of, 932 ; Report of Committee on, 966.\n\nA t indicates an obituary notice.]\n\nArt in Education — Elmer E.Brown, 112.\nArt Instruction in the University — Henry\nT. Ardley, 961.\nArtistic Rendering, Problems in, 940.\nAuthority of the School Superintendent —\nEmerson E. White, 314.\nAverage Scholarship of the Average\nPupil, The — Frank Rigler, 86.\nBailey, Thomas P., Jr. — Character Study\nin the Kindergarten, 541.\nBaker, James\n\nH. — Discussion, 428, 624,\n\n631.\nBaldwin, Joseph, \"f\", 234.\nBall, Katherine M. — Problems\ntistic Rendering, 940.\n\nin Ar-\n\nBarnard, Frank J.— Let Pupils be Classified According to Ability, 163.\nBarrett, Richard C. — Discussion, 266.\nBashford, James W. — Discussion, 327.\nBaumgartner, Elizabeth, t, 235.\nBayliss, Alfred — The Function of\nSchool Superintendents in Procuring Libraries for, and Their Proper Use in, the\nPublic Schools, 1136.\nBennett, Hampton, t, 236.\nBe R key, J. M. — Course of Study for PuWork,pils 375.\nWho Cannot Complete High-School\nBingham, Mrs. Katherine\nAlong the Line, 1165.\nBiology, 652.\n\nT. — All\n\nBlack, Samuel T. — Discussion, 827.\nBoard of Directors, Composition and duties of, 2 ; List of, 1898-99, 8; 18991900, 12.\nBoard of Directors, 1898-99, Proceedings\nof, 34 ; 1899-1900, Proceedings of, 37.\nBoard of Trustees, Composition and duties of, 3 ; Financial Report of, 20.\nBoltwood, H. L. — Discussion, 631.\nBotany, 653 ; Report of the Committee on,\n800.\nBouton, Eugene — Discussion, 276.\nBoyd, Mrs. Gaston — Discussion, 981, 988,\nBoYDEN,\nAlbert\nG. — General View of\nthe Work of the Normal School, 884.\n993Brown, Elmer E. — Address of Welcome,\n52; Art in Education,\n112; Naughty\nChildren, 564 ; The Study of Education\nin the University, 828 ; Discussion, 394.\nBrown, George P. — The Function of the\nEducational Press, 202 ; Discussion, 395,\nBrown, LeRoy Decatur, f, 236.\n250 529.\n\n"}
{"page": 1259, "printed_page": null, "text": "1251\nINDEX\nBruce,\n\nWilliam George — Are Educational Journals Educational ? 208 ; Quo\n\nVadis, School Board ? 1125 ; Secretary's\nMinutes, School • Administration Department, 11 18.\nBryan, E. A. — The Economic Interpretation of History, 186.\nBuehrle, R. K. — Discussion, 306.\nBuRK, Frederic L. — A Curriculum of Applied Child Study for the Kindergarten\nand Primary School, 105 1 ; The Influence of Exercise upon Growth, 1067 ;\nThe Kindergarten Child Physically, 570.\nBusiness - Course Problem, The — Allan\nDavis, 999.\nBusiness Education, Department of, 998 ;\nin Our Public Schools, 1008; The Evolution of, 1018.\nBusiness Meeting, Annual Proceedings of,\n26.\nButler, Nicholas Murray — Report of\nCommittee on Resolutions, 32 ; The Outlook in Education, 170; Educational\nProgress of the Year, 439 ; Some Criticisms of the Kindergarten, 536By-Laws, 4 ; Amendment to, 26 ; for Library Trustees, 510.\nCalendar of Meetings, 6.\nCarr, J. W. — Course of Study for Pupils\nWho Cannot Complete High - School\nWork, 378.\nCataloging Small Libraries, Hints for, 511.\nChalmers, W. W. — Promotions and Grading, 369Character-Making, [The Unseen Force in,\n276.\nCharacter Study in the Kindergarten —\nThomas P. Bailey, Jr., 541 ; Discussion,\nCharacter,\nThe Religious Element in the\n546.\nFormation of, 121.\nChemistry, 654 ; Report of Committee on,\n794Chicago Section of the American Mathematical Society, 764.\nChildren, Homes of Our Down-Town, 388.\nChildren's Interests in Literature — Isabel\nLawrence, 1044.\nChild Study, Department of, 1031.\nChild Study for the Kindergarten, 1051.\nChild\nStudy\nin Normal\nand\nTraining\nSchools — Gertrude Edmund, 1032.\nChristy, ofAnna\nH. McCombs,\nClaims\nBusiness\nEducation \")\",\nto237.\na Place in\nOur Public Schools, The — J. H. Francis,\n1008 ; Discussion, 1015.\nClark, Frederick H. — Secretary's Minutes,\nSecondary Department, 603 ; Discussion,\n631.\nClark, Mrs. Frances M.— Discussion, 989,\n997Classics,\nThe Spirit of the, 154.\nClassification According to Ability, 163.\nCobb, Charles Newell— Thirty Years'\nProgress in Science Teaching, 1099.\nCole, G. M. — Discussion, 989.\n\nCollege-Entrance Requirements, Report of\nCommittee on, 632.\nCommercial High School, 1025.\nCommittee, American Philological Association, Report of, 678 ; on Amended\nSpelling, Report of, 352 ; on Botany,\nReport of, 800 ; of Chicago Section of\nthe American Mathematical Society, Report of, 764 ; on Chemistry, Report of,\n794 ; on College-Entrance Requirements,\nReport of, 632 ; on Financial Reports,\nReport of, 258 ; of Twelve of the Modern Language Association, Report of,\n707 ; on Normal Schools, Report of, 836;\non Nominations, Membership of, 24 ;\nReport of, 28 ; on Necrology, Report of,\n232 ; on Program of Department of Superintendence, 258 ; on Physical Geography, Report of, 780 ; on Permanent\nPlace of Meeting of Department of Superintendence, 258; on Resolutions, Report of, 31 ; on Resolutions, Department\nof Superintendence, Report of, 256 ; of\nSeven, American Historical Association,\nReport of, 755 ; on Physics, Report of,\n1097 ; on Zoology, Report of, 805.\nConstitution of General Association, i.\nConstructive Work in the ElementarySchools — Gertrude E. English, 917;.\nDiscussion, 922.\nContent and Extent of Music in Public\nSchools — Herbert Griggs, 977 ; Discussion, 981.\nContinuous Sessions in Normal Schools —\nIrwin Shepard, 891.\nContinuous University Sessions — J. H. Raymond, 810.\nConway, Esther — Secretary's Minutes, Elementary Department, 575.\nCoon, Henry Clarke, t> 237.\nCorrelation of Manual Training with Other\nBranches of Study — James E. Addicott,\nCorson, O. T., President-elect — Response\nto'Introduction, 33.\n923Course in Drawing, 950.\nCourse of Music for County Institutes, 994.\nCourse of Study for Pupils Who Cannot\nComplete\nHigh-School\nWork — J. M.\nBerkey, 375 ; J. W. Carr, 378.\nCourses in History, 763.\nCourses of Study in Latin and Greek in\nSecondary Schools, 678.\nCowGiLL, Paul A. — Promotions and Grading, 372Coy, E. W. — Discussion, 421, 631.\nCraktree,\nJ. W. — Should\nArithmetic,\nEnglish Grammar, Geography, and the\nHistory of the United States be Reviewed\nin the High School? 611.\nCraig,\nOscar\nJ. — Secretary's\nMinutes,\nHigher Department, 8x8.\nCrissy, I. O. — The Evolution of Business\nEducation, 1018.\nCriticisms of the Kindergarten — Nicholas\nMurray Butler, 536.\n\n"}
{"page": 1260, "printed_page": null, "text": "1252\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nCulture -Epoch Theory in Education —\nLouise Morris Hannum, 576.\nCurriculum of Applied Child Study for\nthe Kindergarten and Primary School —\nFrederic Burk, 1051.\nDana, J. C. — Report of Committee on\nRelations of Public Libraries to Public\n\nEducational Journals, Are They Educational ?208.\nEducational Policy for Our New Possessions\n— W. T. Harris, 69.\nEducational Press, The Function of the —\nGeo. P. Brown, 202.\nEducational\nin Hawaii — Henry S.\nTownsend, Problem\n79.\n\nSchools, 452 ; The Librarian's Spirit and\nMethods with the Schools, 515 ; Work in\n•Certain Typical Libraries, 525.\nDavis, Allan — The Business - Course\nProblem, 999.\nDay, Luther VV., t, 237.\nDeclaration of Principles, 31.\nDepartment of Art Education, 932 ; Business Education, 998 ; Child Study, 103 1\nEducation of Defectives, 1156 ; Elemen\ntary Education, 575 ; Higher Education\n817 ; Kindergarten Education, 530 ; Li\nbraries, 11 35; Manual Training, 904\nMusic Education, 970 ; Natural Science\nInstruction, 1097 ; Normal Schools, 835\nPhysical Education, 1064;\nSecondary\nEducation, 601 ; School Administration,\n1 1 18; Superintendence, 251.\nDepartment of Indian Education, established, 36.\nDepartment of Manual] Training, change\nof name, 45.\nDepartment of Superintendence, Appropriation for, 45.\nDepartments, List of, i.\nDifferentiation of the American Secondary\nSchool, The — Charles H. Keyes, 412 ;\nDiscussion, 421.\nDiNSMORE, J. W. — Vices of Childhood and\nYouth, 594.\nDo Our High Schools Prepare for College\nand for Life, in Accordance with the\nPresent Requirements of Both? — Gilbert\nB. Morrison, 603 ; Discussion, 610.\nDougherty, Newton C. — Response to\nAddresses of Welcome, 56.\nDo We Need a University Trust ?— L. D.\nHarvey, 424 ; Discussion, 428.\nDrawing in the Early Years — Herman T.\nLukens, 946.\nDutton, Bettie A. — Secretary's Minutes,\nNational Council, 388 ; Discussion, 395,\n\nEducational\nProgress\nMurray Butler,\n439. of the Year — Nicholas\n\n406.\nEastman,\nW. R. — By-Laws for Library\nTrustees, 510 ; Hints for Catalogmg\nSmall Libraries, 511.\nEaton, Mayor Fred. — Address of Welcome, 53.\nEconomic Interpretation of History — E. A.\nBryan, 186.\nEdmund, Gertrude — Child Study in\nNormal and Training Schools, 1032.\nEducational Exhibit at Paris — Howard J.\nRogers, 252.\nEducational Journalism, Ideal and] Practical Considerations in, 210.\nEducational Journalism — Its Tribulations\nand Triumphs — John MacDonald, 196.\n\nEducational Value of Metal-Working, The\n— Vinton S. Paessler, 911.\nEducation and Training of the Blind, 1171.\nEducation, Art in, 112; in the University,\n828 ; of the Supervisor, 989 ; The Culture-Epoch Theory in, 576 ; The Outlook in, 170 ; Place and Development of\nPurpose m, 593; Progress in Public, 176.\nEducation of Defectives, Department of,\n1 156.\nEdwards, Walter A. — The Teacher in\nthe Manual-Training School, 905\nEfficient and Inefficient Teachers — F. I^ouis\nSoldan, 298 ; Discussion, 306\nElective Courses in High Schools, 331.\nElementary\nFrench, 743.Course in German, 732 ; in\nElementary Education, Department of, 575.\nElementary Schools, Constructive Work in,\nEmployment and Dismissal of Teachers —\n917.\nEric\n1 1 23. Edward Rosling, 11 18; Discussion,\nEnglish, Gertrude E. — Constructive\nWork in the Elementary Schools, 917.\nEnglish, Study of, 640.\nEnglish Training College, A Typical, 889.\nEntrance Examinations, 761.\nEstablishing\nLibraries in Villages — F. A.\nHutchins, 498.\nEvolution and Ethics — Sydney T. Skidmore, 136.\nEvolution of Business Education, The — I.\nO. Crissy, 1018.\nExamination\nlege, 747. Papers for Admission to ColExecutive Committee, Composition and\nduties of, 2.\nFairchild, George T. — Discussion, 269.\nFatigue\nSchool Children — Will S.\nMonroe,among\n90.\nFatigue in the Schoolroom, How to Reduce,\n1090.\nFiFiELD, Ella J.— The School Board and\nthe Public Press, 1131.\nFinancial Reports, Uniform forms for, 350.\nFiTZ, G. W. — President's Address, 1065.\nFitzpatrick, F. A. — Discussion, 392/\nFive- Year Latin Course, 701.\nFlag, Presentation of, by Central Woman's\nChristian Temperance Union of Los\nAngeles, 35.\nForeign Languages and Literatures, 647.\nFosHAY, J. A. — Address of Welcome, 54.\nFour-Year Latin Course, 696.\n\n1\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 1261, "printed_page": null, "text": "INDEX\nFrancis, J. H.— The Claims of Business\nEducation to a Place in Our Public\nSchools, 1008.\nFulton, R. B.— Growth of Confidence between High Schools and Colleges, 147.\nFunction of School Superintendents in\nProcuring Libraries for, and Their Proper\nUse in, the Public Schools — Alfred Bay-\n\nliss, 1 136.\nFunction of the Educational Press, The —\nGeorge P. Brown, 202.\nFunction of the Normal School, 838.\nFundamentals in Teaching — L. D. Harvey,\n\nFuture\n93- of the Normal School, The — W. T.\nHarris, 395 ; Discussion, 406.\nGage, Governor Henry T. — Address of\nWelcome, 47.\nGayley, Charles Mills — Letter on Alfred\nMemorial, 40.\nGeneral View of the Work of the Normal\nSchool — Albert G. Boyden, 884.\nGeographical and Historical Variations\nthat Exist in Normal Schools in the United\nStates, 854.\nI\nGilman, Mary L. — Secretary's Minutes,\nChild Study Department, 1032.\nGood Reading, How to Acquire a Taste\nfor, 1 148.\nGood Teachers out of Poor Ones, How to\nMake, 310.\nGove, Aaron — Chairman of Committee\non Nominations, 24 ; Usurpation of Home\nby School, 182; Discussion, 421, 423,\n428, 438.\nGrammar Method of Teaching, 714.\nGrants of Lands for Public Education, 263.\nGreek Courses in Secondary Schools, 685.\nGreene, Miss J. A. — Art Education in\nHigh Schools and Normal Schools, 953.\nGreenwood, J. M. — Report of discussion,\n392; Discussion, 406, 422, 423, 428, 439,\nGregory, John T., f, 239.\n^529Grenfell, Mrs. Helen L. — QuoVadimus?\nGriffith,\nGeorge — Discussion, 275.\n99Griggs, Herbert — Content and Extent of\nMusic in Public Schools, 977 ; Discussion, 981, 988.\nGrowth of Confidence between High\nSchools and Colleges — R. B. Fulton, 147.\nGymnastics, a substitute for recesses, 92.\nHailmann, W. N. — The Place and Development of Purpose in Education, 583 ;\n. Discussion, 546.\nHall, John W.— Professor Rein's Practice\nSchool, Jena, Germany, 882.\nHall, Mary F. — Secretary's Minutes, Kindergarten Department, 531.\nHamilton, Samuel — The School Director\nas a Factor in Education, 336.\nHanna, J. C— List of One Hundred Books\nfor High-School Students, 486.\nHannum, Louise Morris — The CultureEpoch Theory in Education, 576.\n\nHarris, W. T.— An Educational Policy for\nOur New Possessions, 69 ; How . to\nMake Good Teachers out of Poor Ones,\n310; The Future of the Normal School,\n395 ; Preliminary Report of the Committee on School Hygiene, 406; Resolution on Preliminary Report of Committee\non Hygiene, 225 ; Discussion, 393, 406,\n421, 422.\nHarvey, L. D.— Some Fundamentals in\nTeaching, 93 ; Do We Need a University\nTrust? 424; Discussion, 428, 528,\nHarvey, N. A. — The Pedagogical Content of Zoology, 1 106; Secretary's Minutes, Science Department, 1099.\nHastings, William W. — Anthropometric\nStudies in Nebraska, 1076.\nHawaii, An Educational Problem in —\nHenry S. Townsend, 79.\nHayden, p. C— The Ultimate Object of\nMusic Study\nin the Schools, 972 ; Discussion, 981, 989.\nHeermans, Mrs. Josephine — The Spirit\nof the Classics, 154.\nHewett,\nTeacher, E.\n438. C. — Psychology\n\nfor the\n\nHigher\nLife, The School in its Relation to\nthe, 225.\nHigh School, Science in the, 1113.\nHigh Schools and Colleges, Growth of\nConfidence149.between, 147; Co-operation\nbetween,\nHigh Schools, Do They Prepare for College\nand for Life ? 603 ; Elective Courses in,\n331 ; List of One Hundred Books for,\nHinsdale, B. A. — Discussion, 269.\nHints for Cataloging Small Libraries, 511.\nHistory,\nCivics, and Economics, 647. \\\n486.\nHistory, Economic Interpretation of, 186.\nHolt, Hosea Edson,']', 239.\nHome, Usurpation of, by School, 182.\nHomes of Our Down-Town Children —\nLucia Stickney, 388; Discussion, 392.\nHoose, J. 1:L — Discussion, 394, 423, 428,\nHoush, W. H. — Discussion, 610.\nHoward, C. E. — How I Conduct a Busi439ness-Community School, 1002.\nHow May Fatigue in the Schoolroom be\nReduced to the Minimum? — H. E.\nKratz, 1090.\n\nHow to Acquire a Taste for Good Reading— Elizabeth Skinner, 1148.\nHow to Make Good Teachers out of Poor\nOnes — Wm. T. Harris, 310.\nHuTCHiNS, F. A. — Establishing Libraries\nin Villages, 498 ; Securing Libraries for\nRural Schools, 503 ; The Present Condition of School Libraries in Rural\nSchools, 507 ; Improving Poorly Managed Public Libraries, 508.\nIdeal and Practical Considerations in Educational Journalism — Ossian H. Lang,\n210.\n\n"}
{"page": 1262, "printed_page": null, "text": "1254\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nImplications and Applications of the Principles of Self-Activity in Education —\nArnold Tompkins, 320 ; Discussion, 325.\nImportance of a Right Beginning, The —\nHelen Taylor, 1162.\nImproving Poorly Managed Public Libraries— F. A. Hutchins, 508.\nIndian Education, Department of, established, 36.\nInfluence of Exercise upon Growth, The —\nFrederic L. Burk, 1067 ; Discussion, 1074.\nIn Fundamental Civics, What Shall We\nTeach as the American Doctrine of Religion and the State ?— Sylvester F.\nScovel, 616.\nIntermediate Course in German, 741 ; in\nFrench, 746.\nInventory of Publications, 1249.\nIn What Respects Should the Education\nand Training of the Blind Differ from\nthe Education and Training of Normal\nPupils ?— Warring Wilkinson, 1171.\nJenkins, William, f, 240.\nJohnson, Annette — The Manual-Training System of Los Angeles, 928.\nJones, Daniel Winfield, \"f, 240.\nJones, Mary L. — School Reading thru\nthe Public Library, 1143.\nJones, M. Louise — Relation of Libraries\nto Normal Schools, 498.\nJordan, David Starr — An Apology for\nthe American University, 213; Discussion, 827.\nJournalism, Educational — Its Triumphs and\nTribulations, 196.\nJournal of Proceedings, 23.\nJoy, Eleanor M. — Secretary's Minutes,\nMusic Department, 971.\nKeating, J. F. — Discussion, 624.\nKeyes, Charles H. — The Differentiation\nof the American Secondary School, 412 ;\nDiscussion, 421, 422.\nKindergarten, Character Study in the, 541 ;\nMusic in the, 559.\nKindergarten Child, Mental and Moral\nDevelopment of the, 551 ; Physical Development ofthe, 570.\nKindergarten Education, Department of,\n530.\nKindergarten,\nSome* Criticisms of the —\nNicholas Murray Butler, 536.\nKing, Wm. F. — Report of Discussion, 421.\nKirk,ThomasJ.— Address of Welcome, 48.\nKratz, H. E.— Promotions and Grading,\n373 ; How May Fatigue be Reduced to\nthe Minimum ? 1090.\nKraus-Boelte, Maria— President's Address, 533.\nLaird, S. B. — Discussion, 284.\nLancaster,. E. G.— The Adolescent at\nHome and in School, 1039.\nLane, A. G — Report of Board of Trustees,\n22 ; Remarks on Report, 27, 34.\nLang, Ossian H. — Ideal and Practical\nConsiderations in Educational Journal-\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nism, 210; Secretary's Minutes, Normal\nDepartment, 836.\nLatin and Greek in Secondary Schools, 678.\nLatin Courses in Secondary Schools, 689.\nLawrence,\nIsabel\nin Literature,\n1044.— Children's Interests\nLawson, Florence — Address of Welcome,\nLedvard, Mary F. — Relation of Imitation to Originality and Freedom, 547.\nLet Pupils be Classified According to Abil531ity— Frank J. Barnard, 163.\nLibrarian's\nSpirit and Method with Public\nSchools, 515.\nLibrarian, The, and Her Equipment, 517.\nLibraries for Rural Schools, 503 ; for\nSchoolrooms, 527 ; The Relation of Normal Schools to, 488 ; The Relation of\nSchools to, 472.\nLibraries in Villages, Establishing, 498.\nLibrary Department, 1135.\nLibrary Equipment and Organization, 492.\nLibrary Trustees, By-Laws Suggested for,\nLibrary, Use of the, 11 50.\nList510/\nof Active Members, 1179.\nList of Corresponding Members, 1237.\nLists, Reading, 457 ; of Books, 646.\nLiterature, Children's Interests in, 1044.\nLuKENS, Herman T. — Drawing in the\nEarly Years, 946.\nLyman, Frederic Allison, f, 241.\nL3-nch, William H. — Discussion, 610.\nLyon, Alice — Discussion, 981.\nLyte,\nE. Oram,\nAddress,\n64. President, 33 ; President's\nMacDonald, John — Educational Journalism— Its Triumphs and Tribulations, 196.\nManley,\nR. M., \"j\", 241.\nManual Training,\nCorrelation of, 923.\nManual Training, Department of, 904,\nManual-Training School, Teacher in the,\nManual-Training System of Los Angeles,\nThe\n905. — Annette Johnson, 928.\nMarshall, Carl C. — Discussion, 1015.\nMartin, George H. — The Unseen Force\nin Character-Making, 276.\nMason, William A. — President's Address,\nMathematics, 648.\nMcCowen,\nMary — Secretary's Minutes, De9331157.\npartment of Education of Defectives,\nMcMillan, Ruben, \"f, 242.\nMcMurry, Charles A. — The Relations of\nSchools to Libraries, 481 ; Lists of\nClassic Readings, 481-6.\nMcNeill, I. C, Treasurer, Report of, 16.\nMcPherron, A. S. — Discussion, 989.\nMeads, S. P. — The Relation of Physics to\nOther Subjects\nriculum, 1103. in the High-School CurMeetings, Constitutional provisions for, 3.\nMembership, Conditions of, i.\n\n"}
{"page": 1263, "printed_page": null, "text": "INDEX\nMendenhall, T. C. — Neglected Factors\nand Forgotten Facts, 355.\nMental\nand Moral\nDevelopment\nof the\nKindergarten Child — C. C. Van Liew,\nMetal-Working, Educational Value of, 911.\n■\n551Metcalf,\nRobert C. — Supplementary\nReading, 466.\nMethods of Teaching Music — W. B. Powell,\n987 ; Discussion, 988.\nMinutes of Annual Business Meeting, 26.\nMinutes of Board of Directors, 1898-99,\n34 ; 1899-1900, 38.\nModern Languages in the Primary Grades,\n726; in Secondary Schools, 710; Three\nNational Grades of Instruction in, 729.\nMonroe, Will S. — Fatigue among School\nChildren, 90; Play Interests of Children,\n1084.\nMontgomery, Rt. Rev. George — The\nReligious Element in the Formation of\nCharacter, 121.\nMorrison, Gilbert B. — Do Our High\nSchools Prepare for College and for\nLife in Accordance with the Present Requirements of Both ? 603 ; Discussion,\n422, 610.\nMusic Education, Department of, 970.\nMusic in County Institutes, 994.\nMusic in the Kindergarten, 559.\nMusic, Methods of Teaching, 987 ; Study\nof, 972.\nNational Council of Education — Constitutution, 380; Officers, 382-3; Members,\n383 ; Honorary Members, 384 ; Secretary's Minutes, 385.\nNational Grades of Preparatory Instruction\nin Modern Languages, 729.\nNational Units, or Norms, 670.\nNatural Method of Teaching, 715.\nNatural Science Instruction, Department\nof, 1097.\nNaughty Children — Elmer Ellsworth\nBrown, 564.\nNecessary Education of the Supervisor,\nThe — Mrs. Constance Barlow Smith, 989 ;\nDiscussion, 993.\nNeglected Factors and Forgotten Facts —\nT. C. Mendenhall, 355.\nNewcomb, Clarissa S. — Schoolroom Libraries, 527.\nNightingale, A. F. — Presentation of the\nReport of the Committee on CollegeEntrance Requirements, 625 ; Discussion, 610.\nNormal School, The Future of the, 395 ;\nFunction of the, 838 ; Inner Life of a,\n861 ; Administration of the, 864.\nNormal Schools, Department of, 835.\nNormal Schools, Relation of Libraries to,\n488 ; Report of Committee on, 836 ;\nGeographical and historical variations\nof, 854 ; New England State, 857 ;\nMiddle States, Mississippi Valley, 858 ;\nPacific Slope, 860 ; Work of the, 884 ;\nContinuous Sessions in, 891.\n\nObject of Music Study in the Schools, 972.\nOfficers, Constitutional provisions for, 2 ;\nList\n12. for 1898-99, 8; List for 1899-1900,\nOne Hundred Books for High-School Students— J. C. Hanna, 486.\nOrcutt, Hiram, \"f, 243.\nOsborne, George L., f, 243.\nOutline of Laboratory Work in Physics for\nSecondary Schools, 809.\nOutlook in Education, |The — Nicholas\nMurray Butler, 170.\nPackard, Silas Saddler, f, 245.\nPaessler, Vinton S. — The Educational\nValue of Metal-Working, 911.\nParis, The United States Exhibit at, 106.\nParker, Mrs. Frank Stuart, t, 246.\nPearse, C. G. — Resolution on Printing\nReport of Committee on Uniform Financial Reports, 257; Report of Committee\non Uniform Financial Reports, 344.\nPedagogical Content of Zoology, The —\nN. A. Harvey, 1106.\nPerry, Charles S. — Time Allowed for\nthe Public Schooling of Deaf as Compared with Hearing Children, and How\nto Make the Most of It, 1 157.\ntion,\n35. Department of Indian EducaPetition for\nPhilips, George Morris — A Typical\nEnglish Training College, 889.\nPhillips, J. H. — Response to Address of\nWelcome, 60.\nPhonetic Method of Teaching, 718.\nPhysical Education, Department of, 1064.\nPhysical Geography,\n652 ; Report of Committee on, 780.\nPhysics, 654, 809 ; Report of Committee\non, 1097 ; Relation to Other Subjects\nin High-School Curriculum, 1103.\nPlace and Development of Purpose in\nEducation, The — W. N. Hailmann, 583.\nPlace, Mrs. C. L. — Discussion, 922.\nPlay Interests\nof Children— Will S. Monroe, 1084.\nPowell,\nW. B. — Methods\nMusic, 987.\n\nof Teaching\n\nPower thru Music Study, 981.\nPractice\nSchool in Jena, Professor Rein's,\n882.\nPreliminary Report on School Hygiene —\nW. T. Harris, 406 ; of Committee on\nElementary Art Education — Langdon O.\nThompson, 966.\nPresentation of the Report of the Committee on College-Entrance Requirements —\nA. F. Nightingale, 625.\nPresent Conditions of School Libraries in\nRural Schools, 507.\nPresident's Address— General Sessions — E.\nOram Lyte, 64 ; Kindergarten Department— Maria Kraus-Boelte, 533 ; Art\nDepartment— William A. Mason, 933;\nMusic Department — P. C. Hayden, 972;\nDepartment\nV/.\nFitz, 1065.of Physical Education — G.\n\n"}
{"page": 1264, "printed_page": null, "text": "1256\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nPrettyman, E. B. — ^The Public Lands and\nPublic Education, 259.\nPrice List of Publications, 1249.\nPrinciples, Declaration of, 31.\nPrinciples of College-Entrance Requirements, 756.\nProblems in Artistic Rendering — Katherine\nM. Ball, 940 ; Discussion, 944.\nProceedings, Journal of, 23.\nProfessional Sentiment — A. E. Winship,\n229. .\nProfessor Rein's Practice School, Jena,\nGermany— John W. Hall, 882.\nProgress in Public Education — F. Louis\nSoldan, 176.\nProgress in Science Teaching, 1099.\nProgress of the Year, Educational, 439.\nPromotions and Grading — W. \\V. Chalmers, 369 ; Paul A. Cowgill, 372 ; H. E.\nKratz, 373; Discussion, 374.\nProper I'se of School Libraries, 11 36.\nPsychological Method of Teaching, 717.\nPsychology for the Teacher — E. C. Hewett,\n428 ; Discussion, 438.\nPublic Education, The Public Lands and,\n259Public Lands and Public Education, The —\nE. B. Prettyman, 259; Discussion, 266.\nPublic Libraries, Relation of, to Public\nSchools, 270, 455.\nPublic Library, School Reading thru the,\nII43Public Press and the School Board, 1131.\nPublic Schooling of Deaf Children, 1157.\nPublic Schools, Public Libraries and, 455.\nPupils classified according to ability, 163.\nPupil Teachers, Relation of the Library\nto, 488.\nQuo Vadimus ? — Mrs. Helen L. Grenfell,\nQuo99. Vadis,\nSchool Board ? — William\nGeorge Bruce, 1125.\nRacial Traits in the Group Activity of\nChildren — C. C. Van Liew, 1057.\nRansom, Frances E. — Discussion, 959.\nRassweiler, John K., t, 246.\nRaymond, J. H. — Continuous University\nSessions, 819 ; Discussion, 827.\nReading Lists, 457.\nReading, Method of Teaching, 722.\nReading, Supplementary, 466.\nRecesses, Infrequent, 91 ; gj'mnastics a\nsubstitute for, 92.\nRecitation periods. Extended, 92.\nRecommendations\nfoi College-Entrance\nRequirements, 758.\nRelation of Imitation to Originality and\nFreedom — Mary F. Ledyard, 547.\nRelation of Libraries to Normal Schools —\nM. Louise Jones, 488.\nRelation of Physics to Other Subjects in\nthe\nHigh-School\nCurriculum — S. P.\nMeads, 1103.\nRelation of Public\nLibraries to Public\nSchools — Sherman Williams, 270 ; Discussion, 275.\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nRelation of Schools to Libraries — Charles\nA. McMurry, 472.\nReligious Element in the Formation of\nCharacter, The — Rt. Rev. George Montgomery, 121. of Trustees, 20.\nReport of Board\nReporf of Committee, on Resolutions, 31 ;\non Necrology, 232 ; on Uniform Financial Statistics, 344 ; on Amended Spelling, 352 ; on Relations of Public Libraries to Public Schools, 452 ; on CollegeEntrance Requirements, 632 ; of Twelve\nof American Philological Association on\nLatin and Greek, 678 ; of Twelve of\nModern Language Association, 707 ; of\nSeven of the American Historical Association, 755 ; of . the Chicago Section\nof the American Mathematical Society,\n764 ; on Physical Geography, 780 ; on\nChemistry, 794 ; on Botany, 800 ; on\nZoology, 805 ; on Normal Schools, 863 ;\non Elementary Art Education, 966 ; on\nPhysics, 1097.\nReport\nof National\nCouncil to Board of\nDirectors,\n44.\nReport of Treasurer, 16.\nReport, Preliminary, on School Hygiene,\nResolution, accepting Flag, 35 ; to Peace\nConference, 35 ; of Sympathy, 36 ; directing publication of reports, 37 ; appropriating money for investigations on\n406.\nsubject of School Hygiene, 43 ; on distribution of forms of Financial Reports,\n257 ; recommending investigations on\nsubject of School Hygiene, 386 ; defining duties of editorial committee on\nCollege-Entrance Requirements, 674 ; of\nCommittee on Normal Schools, 837 ; of\nLibrary Department on distribution of\nReports of Committee, 1135.\nResolutions, Report of Committee on, 31 ;\nReport of Committee of Department of\nSuperintendence, 256.\nResponses to Addresses of Welcome —\nNewton C. Dougherty, ^6 ; Emerson E.\n62.\nWhite, 58 ; J. H. PhiHips\", 60 ; John Swett,\nReview of Methods of Teaching, 714.\nRichardson, George Mann — Science\nin the High School, 11 13.\nRickoff, Andrew Jackson, t, 247.\nRigler, Frank ^— -The Average Scholarship of the Average Pupil, 86.\nRogers, Howard J.— The United States\nEducational Exhibit at I'aris, 106 ; Remarks on Educational Exhibit at Paris,\n252.\nRood, Wilbur Vernon, \"f, 248.\nRosLiNG, Eric Edward — Employment\nand Dismissal of Teachers, 11 18.\nRound Table of City Superintendents, Department of Superintendence, 369.\nRural Schools, Securing Libraries for, 503 ;\nPresent Condition of Libraries in, 507.\n\n"}
{"page": 1265, "printed_page": null, "text": "INDEX\n\nRussell, James E. — The Training of\nTeachers for Secondary Schools, 285,\nSanders, F. W. — Discussion, 827.\nSghaeffer, Nathan C. — The School in\nits Relation to the Higher Life, 225 ;\nDiscussion, 529.\nScholar and the State, The — R. H. Webster, 143.\nSchool Administration, Department of,\n1118.\nSchool Board, The, and the Public Press —\nElla J. Fifield, 1131.\nSchool Director as a Factor in Education\n— Samuel Hamilton, 336.\nSchool Hygiene, Preliminary Report on, 406.\nSchool in its Relation to the Higher Life,\nThe— N. C. Schaeffer, 225.\nSchool Libraries and Rural Schools, Present\nCondition of, 507.\nSchool Reading thru the Public Library —\nMary L. Jones, 11 43.\nSchoolroom Libraries, 527.\nSchools, Relation of, to Libraries, 472.\nScience in the Grades, 779.\nScience in the High School — George\nMann Richardson, 11 13.\nSciences, 651.\nScience Teaching, Thirty Years' Progress\nin, 1099.\nScovEL, Sylvester F. — In Fundamental\nCivics, What Shall We Teach as the\nAmerican Doctrine of Religion and the\nState? 616.\nSearing, Edward, \"j\", 248.\nSeattle Plan of classifying pupils according\nto ability, 163; promotion statistics, 1 67-8.\nSecondary Education, Department of, 601.\nSecondary Education, Value of Modern\nLanguages inj 710.\nSecondary School, Differentiation of the,\n412.\nSecondary\nSchools, Training of Teachers\nfor, 285; Eight types of, 415; Specialization of aim in, 418.\nSecretary's Minutes, General Sessions, 23 ;\nAnnual Business Meeting of Active\nMembers, 26 ; Meeting of Board of\nDirectors for 1898-99, 34; Meeting of\nBoard of Directors for 1899-1900, 38, 44 ;\nDepartment of Superintendence, 251;\nNational Council, 385 ; Kindergarten Department, 530 ; Elementary Department,\n575; Secondary Department, 601; Higher\nDepartment, 818; Normal Department,\n835; Manual Training Department, 904;\nArt Department, 932; Music Department,\n970; Business Department, 998; Child\nStudy Department, 1031; Physical Education Department, 1064; Natural Science\nDepartment, 1097 ; School Administration Department, 11 18; Library Department, 1135; Department of Education of\nDefectives, 11 56.\nSecuring Libraries for Rural Schools — F.\nA. Hutchins, 503.\n\nSelf-Activity in Education, The Implica\ntions and Applications of, 320.\nShepard,\nIrwin — Continuous\nSessions\nin Normal Schools, 891 ; Discussion, 406 ;\nSecretary's\nMinutes, General\nSessions,\n23; Business Meeting of Active Members, 26 ; Meetings of Board of Directors,\n34, 38, Arithmetic,\n44Should\nEnglish\nGrammar,\nGeography, and the History of the United States be Reviewed\nin the High\nSchool? — J. W. Crabtree, 611.\nSickel, James Fenimore Cooper, \"f, 249.\nSix-Year Latin Course, 701.\nSkidmore,\nSydney\nT. — Evolution\nand\nEthics, 136.\nSkinner, Elizabeth — How to Acquire a\nTaste for Good\nReading, 1148; Secretary's Minutes, Library Department, 11 36.\nSkinner, Wells Hawkes, \"f, 250.\nSleep, Insufficient and irregular hours of, 92,\nSmith, Constance Barlow — The Necessary Education of the Supervisor, 989 ;\nDiscussion, 988, 997.\nSmith, Sam Ferry — Discussion, 11 23\nSnyder, Z. X. — Discussion, 423 ; Chairman, Committee on Normal Schools, 838.\nSoLDAN,\nF. Louis — Progress\nin Public\nEducation, 176; Efficient and Inefficient\nTeachers, 298; Discussion, 394, 406, 529.\nSpirit\nof the Classics,\nThe — Mrs. Josephine\nHeermans,\n154.\nState\n\nNormal\n\nSchools, 868;\n\nMaintenance\n\nState,\nThe, and the Scholar, 143.\n^ of, 873.\nStatistical\nTable of Membership for 1899,\n1247.\nStatistical Table of Membership since 1884,\n1248.\nSteele, W. L.— To What Extent Should\nthe High-School Pupil be Permitted to\nElect His Work ? 331.\nStevenson, W. C. — The Advent of the\nCommercial High School, 1025; Secretary's Minutes, Business Department, 999.\nStewart, Joseph S. — Discussion, 296.\nStickney, Lucia — Homes of Our DownTown\nChildren, 388 ; Discussion, 395 ;\nReport of Discussion, 428.\nStone, Kathryn E. — What Should Constitute a Course of Music for County\nInstitutes ? 994.\nSton«road, Rebecca — Secretary's Minutes,\nPhysical Education Department, 1064.\nStorey, T. A. — Discussion, 1074.\nStovall, Anna M. — Music in the Kindergarten, 559.\nStudy, J. N. — Discussion, 374.\nStudy of Education in the University, The —\nElmer Ellsworth Brown, 828.\nSuperintendent\n\\Vinship, 307. : What He\n\nis Not — A. E.\n\nSupervisor, Necessary Education of the, 989.\nSupplementary Reading — Robert C. Metcalf, 466.\nSwain, Joseph — Discussion, 630, 827.\n\n"}
{"page": 1266, "printed_page": null, "text": "1258\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nSwETT, John— Response to Addresses of\nWelcome, 62.\nTapper, Thomas — What Power Does the\nChild Gain thru Music Study? 981.\nTarbell, H. S. — Report of Committee on\nResolutions, Department of Superintendence, 256.\nTaylor, George H. — Discussion, 988.\nTaylor, Helen — The Importance of a\nRight Beginning, 1162.\nTeacher in the Manual-Training School,\nThe — Walter A. Edwards, 905.\nTeacher, Psychology for the. 428.\nTeachers, Efficient and Inefficient, 298.\nTeachers, Employment and. Dismissal of,\n1118.\nTeachers for Secondary Schools, Training\nof, 285.\nTeaching, Some Fundamentals in, 93.\nTenney, Walter A. — Discussion, 944.\nThirty Years' Progress in Science Teaching— Charles Newell Cobb, 1099.\nThompson, Langdon S. — Preliminary Report of the Committee of Ten on Elementary Art Education, 966.\nThree National Grades of Preparatory\nInstruction in the Modern Languages,\n729.\nTime Allowed for the Public Schooling of\nDeaf as Compared with Hearing Children, and How to Make the Most of It —\nCharles S. Perrjs 1157.\nTompkins, Arnold — The Implications\nand Applications of the Principles of\nSelf-Activity in Education, 320 ; Discussion, 330.\nTo What Extent Should the High-School\nPupil be Permitted to Elect His Work? —\nW. L. Steele, 331.\nTowNSEND, Henry S. — An Educational\nProblem in Hawaii, 79 ; Discussion, 423.\nTraining of Teachers for Secondary\nSchools, The — James E. Russell, 285 ;\nDiscussion, 296.\nTraining Schools — Theses, 845.\nTreasurer's Report, 16.\nTreudley, F. — Discussion, 325.\nTrigonometry, 773.\nTypical English Training College, A —\nGeorge Morris Philips, 889.\nUltimate Object of Music Study in the\nSchools, The — P. C. Hayden, 972.\nUniform Financial Reports, Forms for, 350.\nUnited States Exhibit at Paris, The —\nHoward J. Rogers, 106.\nUniversity, An Apology for the American,\n213.\nUniversity, Art Instruction in the, 961.\nUniversity Trust ? Do We Need a, 424.\nUnseen Force in Character-Making, The —\nGeorge H. Martin, 276 ; Discussion, 284.\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nUse of the Library,The — C. C. Young, 1 1 50.\nUsurpation of Home by School — Aaron\nGove, 182.\nValue of the Modem Languages in Secondary Education, 710.\nVan Liew, C. C. — Mental and Moral Development of the Kindergarten Child,\n551 ; Racial Traits in the Group Activity\nof Children, 1057.\nVan Sickle, James H.— Prefatory Note\nto Report of Committee on Public Libraries, 452 ; Secretary's Minutes, Department of Superintendence, 258 ; Discussion,\n421, 422, 528; Report of\nDiscussion,393, 406.\nVices\nof Childhood\nand Youth — J. W.\nDinsmore,\n594.\nVillages, Establishing Libraries in, 498.\nWebster,\nState, 143.R. H.— The Scholar and the\nWeeks, Ellen G., t, 250.\nWeir, Samuel — Discussion, 327.\nWestcott, O. S. — Discussion, 610.\nWhat Power Does the Child Gain thru\nMusic Study? — Thomas Tapper, 981.\nWhat Should Constitute a Course of Music\nStone,County\n994.\nfor\nInstitutes 'i— Kathryn E.\nWhat\nthe Superintendent\nis Not — A. E.\nWinship,\n307.\nWhitcomb, A. K. — Discussion, 374.\nWhite,\nto, 35-Andrew D., Telegram of Resolution\nWhite, Emerson E. — Response to Address of Welcome, 58 ; Authority of the\nSchool Superintendent, 314; Discussion,\n422, 423, 428.\nWhite, G. W. — Discussion, 827.\nWilkinson, Warring — In What Respects\nShould the Education and Training of\nthe Blind Differ from the Education and\nTraining of Normal Pupils ? 117 1.\nWilliams, Sherman — Relations of Public\nLibraries to Public Schools, 270 ; Public\nLibraries\ning Lists, and\n457. Public Schools, 456 ; ReadWinship, A. E. — Professional Sentiment,\n229 ; What the Superintendent is Not,\nWolfe, L. E. — Discussion, 610.\n307Woman's\nChristian Temperance\nFlag presentation, 35.\n\nUnion,\n\nWoodmansee,\nMary A. — 933.\n-Secretary's Minutes, Art Department,\nWoodward, Miss Gertrude E. — Suggestions\nfor Securing Libraries, 505.\nWork\nCertain Typical Libraries — ^J. C.\nDana,in 525.\nYoung, C. C. — The Use of the Library,\n1 1 50.\nZoology, Report of the Committee on, 805 ;\nThe Pedagogical Content of, 1106.\n\n"}
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{"page": 1271, "printed_page": null, "text": "13\nL\nN3A13\n1899\n\nNational Education Association\nof the United States\nAddresses and proce dings. .\n\nPLEASE DO NOT\nCARDS\n\nOR SLIPS FROM\n\nREMOVE\nTHIS POCKET\n\nUNIVERSITY OF TORONTO\n\nLIBRARY\n\n"}
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