♦^. '"^d^ 4^. ►j!^ T^^fir. >*i> m Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2007 with funding from IVIicrosoft Corporation http://www.archive.org/details/addressesproce1898natiuoft oe. NATIONAL EDUCATIOI^l)aSSOCIATION e-f-'t"lv< Vol. -37 * ^ "''^' JOURNAL OF SPECIAL. PROCEEDINGS AND ADDRESSES 4 THIRTY-SEVENTH ANNUAL MEETING HELD AT WASHINGJON, D. C, JULY 7-12, 1898 -^ft*T-r-;, ;, ;■, -; ^%5S^ Pu»li$i)ea by the Jlssocution L 13 an PRINTED AT Zbe "dniversltis of Cbtcago press CHICAGO u:;: VICES DATfc. ••••if. ^ BUFFALO ^ PUBLIC LIBRABY •• •• CONTENTS PACE Constitution, - - - - i By-Laws, ----.... ^ Act of Incorporation, --.-... 5 Calendar of Meetings, --.-... 6 Officers for 1897-98, ....... 8 Officers for 1898-99, -------- 12 Treasurer's Report, ........ 15 Report of Board of Trustees, --..-- jp Journal of Proceedings — General Sessions, - - - ' - - 23 Minutes of Proceedings of Board of Directors (1897-98), - - . ^y Minutes of Proceedings of Board of Directors (1898-99), " ■ 39 General Sessions — Addresses and Discussions, - - - - 43 Report of Committee on Necrology, ...... 281 Department of Superintendence (Chattanooga Meeting), ' - - - 303 National Council of Education : Constitution, --.------ 489 Officers and Members, ...... 492 • Secretary's Minutes, -..--.-- 494 Papers and Discussions, -----.. 498 Department of Kindergarten Education, - - - - - 5^9 Department ot Elementary Education, - - - - 620 Department of Secondary Education, - - 664 Department of Higher Education, - - - * - - 701 Department of Normal Schools, - ... - - - 728 Department of Manual and Industrial Education, - • - - 757 Department of Art Education, ...---- 787 Department of Music Education, ... - . 832 Department of Business Education, . . . . . . 856 Department of Child Study, ------- 893 Department of Physical Training, ....-- 929 Department of Natural-Science Instruction, ----- 959 Department of School Administration, - - - - - - 985 Library Department, -------- 1005 Department of Education of the Deaf, Blind, and Feeble-minded, 1029 Active Membership List, - - - - - - 1061 List of Corresponding Members, - -•,•'- - 1113 Index to Active Membership List, - • - - ' n 4 Statistical Table of Membership by States' "for 1898, - - - 1126 Statistical Table of Membership since 1884, - 1127 Inventory and Price List of Publications, - -1128 General Index, - - - - - - • - 1129 iii CONSTITUTION OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION PREAMBLE To elevate the character and advance the interests of the profes- sion of teaching, and to promote the cause of popular education in the United States, we, whose names are subjoined, agree to adopt the following CONSTITUTION ARTICLE I— NAME This association shall be styled the National Educational Association. ARTICLE II — DEPARTMENTS Section I. It shall consist of seventeen departments : First, of Superintendence; second, of Normal Schools ; third, of Elementary Education ; fourth, of Higher Education ; fifth, of Industrial Education ; sixth, of Art Education ; seventh, of Kindergarten Educa- tion ; eighth, of Music Education ; ninth, of Secondary Education ; tenth, of Business Education; eleventh, of Child -Study; twelfth, of Physical Education; thirteenth, of Natural Science Instruction; fourteenth, of School Administration; fifteenth, the Library Department ; sixteenth, for the Education of the Deaf, Blind, and Feeble-minded ; and seventeenth, the National Council of Education. .■. Sec. 2. Other departments may be organized in the manner prescribed in this constitution. ARTICLE III — MEMBERSHIP Section i. There shall be three classes of members, namely, active, associate, and corresponding. Sec. 2. Teachers and all who are actively associated with the management of educational institutions, including libraries and periodicals, may become active members. All others who pay an annual membership fee of two dollars may become associate mem- bers. Eminent educators not residing in America may be elected by the Directory to be corresponding members. The number of corresponding members shall at no time exceed fifty. Sec. 3. Any person eligible may become an active member upon application indorsed by two active members, and the payment of an enrollment fee of two dollars and the annual dues for the current year. All active members must pay annual dues of two dollars, and will be entitled to the volume of proceedings without "coupon" or other conditions. If the annual dues are not paid within the fiscal year, membership will lapse, and may be restored only on pay- ment of the enrollment fee of two dollars and the annual dues for the current year. All NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION life members and life directors shall be denominated active members, and shall enjoy all the powers and privileges of such members without the payment of annual dues. Associate members may receive the volume of proceedings in accordance with the usual " coupon " conditions, as printed on the membership certificate. Corresponding members will be entitled to the volume of proceedings without the payment of fees or other conditions. Sec. 4. The names of active and corresponding members only will be printed in the volume of proceedings, with their respective educational titles, offices, and addresses, the list to be revised annually by the Secretary of the association. ARTICLE IV— OFFICERS Section 1. The officers of this association shall consist of a President, twelve Vice- Presidents, a Secretary, a Treasurer, a Board of Directors, a Board of Trustees, and an Executive Committee, as hereinafter provided. Sec. 2. The Board of Directors shall consist of the President of the National Educational Association, First Vice-President, Secretary, Treasurer, chairman of the Board of Trustees, and one additional member from each state, territory, or district, to be elected by the association for the term of one year, or until their successors are chosen, and of all life directors. All past presidents of the association now living (July 10, 1895), and all future presidents at the close of their respective terms of office, and the United States Com- missioner of Education shall be life directors of the association. The President of the National Educational Association, First Vice-President, Treasurer, chairman of the Board of Trustees, and a member of the association to be chosen annually by the Board of Directors, which member shall hold office for one year, shall constitute the Executive Committee. Sec. 3. The elective officers of the association, with the exception of the Secretary, shall be chosen by the active members of the association by ballot, unless otherwise ordered, on the third day of each annual session, a majority of the votes cast being necessary for a choice. They shall continue in office until the close of the annual session subsequent to their election, and until their successors are chosen, except as hereinafter provided. Sec. 4. Each department shall be administered by a president, vice-president, secretary, and such other officers as it shall deem necessary to conduct its affairs ; but no person shall be elected to any office of the association, or of any department, who is not, at the time of the election, an active member of the association. Sec. 5. The President shall preside at all meetings of the association and of the Board of Directors, and shall perform the duties usually devolving upon a presiding officer. In his absence, the first vice-president in order, who is present, shall preside ; and in the absence of all vice-presidents a pro-tempore chairman shall be appointed on nomination, the Secretary putting the question. Sec. 6. The Secretary shall keep a full and accurate report of the proceedings of the general meetings of the association and all meetings of the Board of Directors, and shall conduct such correspondence as the directors may assign, and shall have his records present at all meetings of the association and of the Board of Directors. The secretary of each department shall, in addition to performing the duties usually pertaining to his office, keep a list of the members of his department. Sec. 7. The Treasurer shall receive, and under the direction of the Board of Trus- tees hold in safe-keeping, all moneys paid to the association ; shall expend the same only upon the order of said board ; shall keep an exact account of his receipts and expendi- tures, with vouchers for the latter, which accounts, ending the ist day of July each year, he shall render to the Board of Trustees, and, when approved by said board, he shall CONSTITUTION report the same to the Board of Directors. The Treasurer shall give such bond for the faithful discharge of his duties as may be required by the Board of Trustees ; and he shall continue in office until the first meeting of the Board of Directors held prior to the annual meeting of the association ne?ft succeeding that for which he is elected. Sec. 8. The Board of Directors shall have power to fill all vacancies in their own body ; shall have in charge the general interests of the association, excepting those herein intrusted to the Board of Trustees ; shall make all necessary arrangements for its meet- ings, and shall do all in its power to make it a useful and honorable institution. Upon the written application of twenty active members of the association for permission to establish a new department, it may grant such permission. Such new department shall in all respects be entitled to the same rights and privileges as the others. The for- mation of such department shall in effect be a sufficient amendment to this constitution for the insertion of its name in Art. II, and the Secretary shall make the necessary alterations. Sec. 9. The Board of Trustees shall consist of four members, elected by the Board of Directors for the term of four years, and the President of the association, who shall be a member ex officio during his term of office. At the election of the tru.stees in 1886, one trustee shall be elected for one year, one for two years, one for three years, and one for four years ; and annually thereafter, at the first meeting of the Board of Directors held prior to the annual meeting of the association, one trustee shall be elected for the term of four years. All vacancies occurring in said Board of Trustees, whether by resig- nation or otherwise, shall be filled by the Board of Directors for the unexpired term ; and the absence of a trustee from two successive annual meetings of the board shall forfeit his membership therein. The Board of Trustees thus elected shall constitute the body corporate of the association, as provided in the certificate of incorporation under the pro- visions of the Act of General Incorporation, Class Third, of the Revised Statutes of the District of Columbia, dated the 24th day of February, 1886, at Washington, D. C, and recorded in Liber No. 4, " Acts of Incorporation for the District of Columbia." Sec. ID. It shall be the duty of the Board of Trustees to provide for safe-keeping and investment of all funds which the association may receive from donations ; and the ncome of such invested funds shall be used exclusively in paying the cost of publishing the annual volume of proceedings of the association, excepting when donors shall specify otherwise. It shall also be the duty of the board to issue orders on the Treasurer for the payment of all bills approved by the Board of Directors, or by the President and Secre- tary of the association acting under the authority of the Board of Directors ; and, when practicable, the trustees shall invest all surplus funds exceeding one hundred dollars that shall remain in the hands of the Treasurer after paying the expenses of the association for the previous year. Sec. II. The Board of Trustees shall elect the Secretary of the association, who shall also be secretary of the Executive Committee, and shall fix the compensation and the term of office for a period not to exceed four years. ARTICLE V— MEETINGS Section i. The annual meeting of the association shall be held at such time and place as shall be determined by the Board of Directors. Sec. 2. Special meetings may be called by the President at the request of five directors. Sec. 3. Any department of the association may hold a special meeting at such time and place as by its own regulations it shall appoint. Sec. 4. The Board of Directors shall hold its regular meetings at the place and not less than two hours before the assembling of the association. Sec. S. Special meetings may be held at such other times and places as the board or the President shall determine. NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION Sec. 6. Each new board shall organize at the session of its election. At its first meeting a committee on publication shall be appointed, which shall consist of the Presi- dent and the Secretary of the association for the previous year, and one member from each department. ARTICLE VI — BY-LAWS By-laws not inconsistent with this constitution may be adopted by a two-thirds vote of the association. ARTICLE VII — AMENDMENTS This constitution may be altered or amended at a regular meeting by the unanimous vote of the members present; or by a two-thirds vote of the members present, provided that the alteration or amendment has been substantially proposed in writing at a previous meeting. BY-LAWS 1. At the first session of each annual meeting of the association there shall be appointed by the President a committee on resolutions ; and at the third session of such meeting there shall be appointed a committee on nominations, consisting of one member from each state represented, the same to be appointed by the President on the nomination of a majority of the active members in attendance from such state ; provided, however, that such appointment shall be made by the President without such nomination, when less than three active members from a state are in attendance, and also when a majority of the active members in attendance from any one state shall fail to make a nomination. The meeting of active members to nominate members of the nominating committee shall be held at 2 i'. M. on the second day of the meeting, at such place as shall be announced in the general program. 2. The President and Secretary shall certify to the Board of Trustees all bills approved by the Board of Directors. 3. Each paying member of the association shall be entitled to a copy of its pro- ceedings. 4. No paper, lecture, or address shall be read before the association or any of its departments in the absence of its author, nor shall any such paper, lecture, or address be published in the volume of proceedings, without the consent of the association, upon approval of the Executive Committee. 5. It shall be the duty of the President, Secretary, and Treasurer of the association to appoint annually some competent person to examine the securities of the Permanent Fund held by the Board of Trustees, and his certificate, showing the condition of the said fund, shall be attached to the report of the Board of Trustees. ADOPTED BY THE BOARD OF DIRECTORS The establishment of a special fund from surplus receipts, after the expenses of the association have been paid, to be known as the " Emer- gency Fund," was recommended by the Board of Trustees, submitted to the Board of Directors at Saratoga Springs, N. Y., July 12, 1892, and the following resolution was adopted : Resolved, That there be established, as soon as the current expenses of the associa- tion will warrant, an Emergency Fund not to exceed $4,000. Said fund shall be subject to expenditure by the Board of Trustees in accordance with votes of the Board of Direc- tors at any regularly called meeting. The said fund may be used for the purpose of ACT OF INCORPORATION meeting deficiencies of income of the association, and for such additional investigations and publications as may be determined by said Board of Directors. ACT OF INCORPORATION At a meeting of the Board of Directors of the National Educational Association, held at Saratoga Springs, N. Y., July 14, 1885, the following resolution was passed : Resolved, That a committee of three be appointed to secure articles of incorporation for the National Educational Association, under United States or state laws, as speedily as may be. N. A. Calkins, of New York; Thomas W. Bicknell, of Massachusetts, and Eli T. Tappan, of Ohio, were appointed such committee. Under the authority of the resolution quoted above, and with the approval of the committee, and by competent legal advice, the chairman obtained a CERTIFICATE OF INCORPORATION We, the undersigned, Norman A. Calkins, John Eaton, and Zalmon Richards, citizens of the United States, and two of them citizens of the District of Columbia, do hereby associate ourselves together, pursuant to the provisions of the Act of General Incorpora- tion, Class Third, of the Revised Statutes of the District of Columbia, under the name of the " National Educational Association," for the full period of twenty years, the pur- pose and objects of which are to elevate the character and advance the interests of the profession of teaching, and to promote the cause of popular education in the United States To secure the full benefit of said act, we do here execute this our certificate of incorporation as said act provides. In witness whereof, we severally set our hands and seals this 24th day of February, 1886, at Washington, D. C. Norman A. Calkins, [l. s.] John Eaton. [i.. s.] Zalmon Richards. [l. s. ] Duly acknowledged before Michael P. Callan, notary public in and for the District of Columbia, and recorded in Liber No. 4, Acts of Incorporation for the District of Columbia. CALENDAR OF MEETINGS NATIONAL TEACHERS' ASSOCIATION 1857.— PHILADELPHIA, PA. (Organized. James L. Enos, Chairman. W. E. Sheldon, Secretary, 1858.— CINCINNATI, O. Z. Richards, President. J. W. BuLKLEY, Secretary, A. J. RiCKOFF, Treasurer. 1859.— WASHINGTON, D. C. A. J. RiCKOFF, President. J, W. BuLKLEV, Secretary, C. S. Pennell, Treasurer. i860.— BUFFALO, N. Y. J. W.'BuLKLEV, President, Z, Richards, Secretary, O. C. Wight, Treasurer. 1861, 1862. — No session. 1863.— CHICAGO, ILL. John D. Philbrick, President. James Cruikshank, Secretary. O. C. Wight, Treasurer. 1864.— OGDENSBURG, N. Y. W. H. Wells, President. David N. Camp, Secretary. Z. Richards, Treasurer. 1865,— HARRISBURG, PA, S. S. Greene, President, W. E. Sheldon, Secretary, Z, Richards, Treasurer. 1866.— INDIANAPOLIS. IND. J, P. Wickersham, President, S. H. White, Secretary. S. P, Bates, Treasurer, 1867. — No session. 1868.— NASHVILLE, TENN, J, M. Gregory, President. L. Van Bokkelen, Secretary, James Cruikshank, Treasurer. 1869.— TRENTON, N. J, L, Van Bokkelen, President, W. E, Crosby, Secretary, A, L, Barber, Treasurer, 1870.— CLEVELAND, O, Daniel B. Hager, President. A. P. Marble, Secretary. W, E. Crosby, Treasurer, NAME CHANGED TO NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION 1871.— ST. LOUIS, MO. J. L. Pickard, President. W. E. Crosby, Secretary. John Hancock, Treasurer. 1872.— BOSTON, MASS. E. E. White, President. S. H. White, Secretary. John Hancock, Treasurer. 1873.— ELMIRA, N. Y. B. G. Northrop, President. S. H. White, Secretary. John Hancock, Treasurer, 1874.— DETROIT, MICH. S. H. White, President, A, P. Marble, Secretary. John Hancock, Treasurer. 1875.— MINNEAPOLIS, MINN. W. T. Harris, President. W. R. Abbott, Secretary. A. P. Marble, Treasurer. 1876.— BALTIMORE, MD. W, F. Phelps, President. W, D, Henkle, Secretary, A. P, Marble, Treasurer, 1877.— LOUISVILLE, KY. M, A, Newell, President, W. D. Henkle, Secretary. J. Ormond Wilson, Treasurer. 1878. — No session. 1879.— PHILADELPHIA, PA. John Hancock, President W, D, Henkle, Secretary, J, Ormond Wilson, Treasurer. 1880.— CHAUTAUQUA, N. Y. J. Ormond Wilson, President. W. D. Henkle, Secretary. E. T. Tappan, Treasurer. CALENDAR OF MEETINGS 1881.— ATLANTA, GA. James H. Smart, President. W. D. Henkle, Secretary. E. T. Tappan, Treasurer. 1882.— SARATOGA SPRINGS, N. Y. G. J. Orr, President. W. E. Sheldon, Secretary. H. S. Tarbkll, Treasurer. 1883.— SARATOGA SPRINGS, N. Y. E. T. Tappan, President. W. E. Sheldon, Secretary. N. A. Calkins, Treasurer. 1884.— MADISON, WIS. Thomas W. Bicknell, President. H. S. Tarbell, Secretary. N. A. Calkins, Treasurer. 1885.— SARATOGA SPRINGS. N. Y. F. Louis Soldan, President. W. E. Sheldon, Secretary. N. A. Calkins, Treasurer. 1886.— TOPEKA, KAN. N. A. Calkins, President. W. E. Sheldon, Secretary. E. C. Hewett, Treasurer. 1887.— CHICAGO, ILL. W. E. Sheldon, President. J. H. Canfield, Secretary. E. C. Hewett, Treasurer. 1888.— SAN FRANCISCO, CAL. Aaron Gove, President. J. H. Canfield, Secretary. E. C. Hewett, Treasurer. 1889.— NASHVILLE, TENN. Albert P. Marble, President. J. H. Canfield, Secretary. E. C. Hewett, Treasurer. 1890.— ST. PAUL, MINN. J. H. Canfield, President. W. R. Garrett, Secretary. E. C. Hewett, Treasurer. 1891.— TORONTO, ONTARIO. W, R. Garrett President. E. H. Cook, Secretary. J. M. Greenwood, Treasurer. 1892.— SARATOGA SPRINGS, N. Y. E. H. Cook, President. R. W. Stevenson, Secretary. J. M. Greenwood, Treasurer. 1893.— CHICAGO, ILL. (International Congress of Education.) Albert G. Lane, President. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. J. M. Greenwood, Treasurer. 1894.— ASBURY PARK, N. J. Albert G. Lane, President. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. J. M. Greenwood, Treasurer. 1895.— DENVER, COLO. Nicholas M. Bihxer, President. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. 1. C. McNeill, Treasurer. 1896.— BUFFALO, N. Y. Newton C. Dougherty, President. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. I. C. McNeill, Treasurer. 1897.— MILWAUKEE, WIS. Charles R. Skinner, President. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. I. C. McNeill, Treasurer. 1898.— WASHINGTON, D. C. J. M. Greenwood, President. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. I. C. McNeill, Treasurer. NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF THE UNITED STATES OFFICERS FOR 1897-98 GENERAL ASSOCIATION JAMES M. GREENWOOD President Kansas City, Mo. IRWIN SHEPARD Secretary Winona, Minn. I.e. McNeill Treasurer West Superior, Wis. VICE-PRESIDENTS Charles R. Skinner, Albany, N. Y. L. D. Harvey, Milwaukee, Wis. George J. Ramsey, Clinton, La. W. W. Stetson, Auburn, Me. J. L. Hollow AY, Fort Smith, Ark. Hiram Hadley, Albuquerque, N. M. E. Oram Lyt.e, Millersville, Pa. W. H. H. Beadle, Madison, S. D. James M. Ralston, Asbury Park. N. J. John E. McCahan, Baltimore, Md. Miss Margaret W. Sutherland, Columbus, O. S. T. Black, Sacramento, Cal. BOARD OF TRUSTEES (See A rt. IV, sees, g and lo, of the constitution.') Albert G. Lane Chairman Chicago, 111. Nicholas Murray Butler Secretary New York, N. Y. Nicholas Murray Butler New York, N. Y Term expires July, 1898 AlbertG.Lane Chicago, 111 Term expires July, 1899 J. Ormond Wilson Washington, D. C Term expires July, 1900 F. Louis Soldan St. Louis, Mo Term expires July, 1901 . James M. Greenwood Kansas City, Mo Ex officio EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE (See Art. IV, sec, 2, of the constitution.") James M. Greenwood President Kansas City, Mo. Charles R. Skinner First Vice-President Albany, N. Y. Irwin Shepard Secretary Winona, Minn. I. C. McNeill Treasurer West Superior, Wis, Albert G. Lane Chairman Board of Trustees Chicago, III. BOARD OF DIRECTORS Directors ex offlcio (See Artf IV, sec. 2, of the constitution.) James M. Greenwood, Kansas City, Mo. Irwin Shepard, Winona, Minn. Charles R. Skinner, Albany, N. Y. I. C. McNeill, West Superior, Wis. Albert G. Lane, Chicago, 111. Iiife Directors (See Art. IV, sec. 2, of the constitution.) BiCKNELL, Thomas W., Providence, R. I, Gove, Aaron, Denver, Colo. Brown, Leroy D., San Luis Obispo, Cal. Graham, H. A., Mt. Pleasant, Mich. Butler, Nicholas Murray, New York, N. Y. Greenwood, J. M., Kansas City, Mo. Canfield, James H., Columbus, O. Hall, Caleb G., New Berlin, N. Y. Cook, E. H,, Yonkers, N. Y. Harris, W. T., Washington, D. C. Day, L. W., Canton, O. Hunt, Mary H., Boston, Mass, Dougherty, Newton C„ Peoria, 111. Jewett, A. V., Abilene, Kan. Fairchild, George T., Berea, Ky. Lane, Albert G., Chicago, III. Garrett, W. R., Nashville, Tenn. Marble, Albert P., New York, N. Y. • . DIRECTORS Ijife Ji\TeoX,OT%— continued Marshall, T. Marcellus, Glenville, W. Va. Sheldon, W. E., Boston, Mass. Northrop, B. G., Clinton, Conn. Skinner, Charles R., Albany, N. Y. Parker, Charles I., South Chicago, 111. Smart, James H., Lafayette, Ind. Phelps, W. F., St. Paul, Minn. • Soldan, F. Louis, St. Louis, Mo. PiCKARD, JosiAH L., lowa City, la. Stratton, C. C, University Park, Ore. Pike, Joshua, Jerseyville, 111. Taylor. A. R., Emporia, Kan. Richards, Zalmon, Washington, D. C. White, Charles G., Lake Linden, Mich. RiCKOFF, Andrew J., Berkeley, Cal. White, E. E., Columbus, O. Wilson, J. Ormond, Washington, D. C. Directors by Election North Atlantic Division Maine John S. Lockk Saco New Hampshire Channing Folsom Dover Vermont Mason S. Stone Montpelier Massachusetts A. G. Bovden Bridgewater Rhode Island Gilman C. Fisher Pawtucket Connecticut : F. E. Howard Bridgeport New York A. S. Downing Albany New Jersey Jamks M. Green Trenton South Atlantic Division Pennsylvania S. T. Skidmore Philadelphia Delaware A. H. Berlin Wilmington Maryland Hknrv A. Wise Baltimore District of Columbia W. B. Powell Washington Virginia E. C. Glass Lynchburg West Virginia W. H. Anderson Wheeling North Carolina Charles D. McIver Greensboro South Carolina W. H. Hand Chester Florida Oscar Clute LakeCity South Central Division Kentucky E. W. Weaver Paris Tennessee Wharton S. Jones Memphis Georgia W. M. Slaton Atlanta Alabama John T. Gregory Mobile Mississippi E.E.Bass Greenville Louisiana Warren Easton New Orleans Texas George T. Winston Austin Oklahoma David R. Boyd Norman Arkansas George B. Cook Hot Springs North Central Division Ohio F.B.Dyer Madisonville Indiana Edward Ayres Lafayette Illinois J. H.Collins Springfield Michigan Henry R. Pattengill Lansing Wisconsin Miss Mae E. Schreiber Milwaukee Iowa W. M. Beardshear Ames Minnesota CM. Jordan Minneapolis Missouri John R. Kirk Jefferson City North Dakota W. L. Stockwell Grafton South Dakota A. H, Avery Woonsocket Nebraska C. G. Pearse Omaha Kansas John Macdonald Topeka Western Division Montana J. E. Klock Helena Wyoming Miss Estelle Reel Cheyenne Colorado L.C.Greenlee Denver New Mexico C. M. Light Silver City Arizona Miss Lydia L. HimT San Carlos lo NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION . • Directors by Tilection—conituueii IVestern Division — continued Utah J. M. Tanner Logan Nevada J. E. Stubbs Reno Idaho J. C. Black Albion Washington R. S. Bingham Tacoma Oregon E. B. McElroy Eugene California Elmer E. Brown Berkeley DEPARTMENT OFFICERS National Council CHARLES De GARMO President Swarthmore, Pa. WILLIAM F. KING Vice-President Mt. Vernon, la. Miss BETTIE A. DUTTON Secretary Cleveland, O. B, A. HINSDALE Executive Comtnittee Ann Arbor, Mich. J. H. PHILLIPS Executive Committee Birmingham, Ala. CHARLES H. KEYES Executive Committee Holyoke, Mass. WALTER L. HERVEY Executive Committee New York, N. Y. Kindergarten Miss MARY C. McCULLOCH President St. Louis, Mo. Miss JENNY B. MERRILL Vice-President New York, N. Y. Miss MARY F. HALL Secretary Milwaukee, Wis. Slementary WILLIAM N. H AILM ANN President Washington, D. C. R. H. HALSEY Vice-President Binghamton, N. Y. Miss HARRIET E. SMITH Secretary Milwaukee, Wis. Secondary GEORGE B. AITON President Minneapolis, Minn. Mrs. may WRIGHT SEWALL Vice-President Indianapolis, Ind. E. G.COOLEY Secretary LaGrange, 111. Higher R. H.JESSE President Columbia, Mo. A. T. ORMOND Vice-President Princeton, N.J. HENRY WADE ROGERS Secretary Evanston, 111. Il^ormal H. H. SEERLEY President Cedar Falls, la. Miss ROSE C. SWART Vice-President Oshkosh, Wis. F. B. PALMER Secretary... Fredonia, N. Y. Superintendence N. C. SCHAEFFER President Harrisburg, Pa. F. B. COOPER First Vice-President Des Moines, la. E. H. MARK Second Vice-President Louisville, Ky. W.L.STEELE Secretary Galesburg, III. Manual and Industrial EDWARD O. SISSON President Peoria, 111. WILLIAM R. LAZENB Y Vice-President Columbus, O. JUDSON E. HOYT Secretary Menomonie, Wis. Art Miss HARRIET CECIL MAGEE President Oshkosh, Wis. D. R. AUGSBURG Vice-President Salt Lake City, Utah Miss FLORENCE B. HIMES Secretary Albany, N. Y. Music O. E. McFADON President Minneapolis, Minn. Mrs. EMMA A. THOMAS Vice-President Detroit, Mich. Miss S. LILLIAN BYINGTON Secretary Moline, III. DEPARTMENT OFFICE A'S Business D.W.SPRINGER President..., Ann Arbor, Mich. ji^A. N. PALMER First Vice- President Cedar Rapids, la. Y W.F.LYON Second Vice-President Detroit, Mich. if) D.M.WILLIS 'Secretary Morgantown, W. Va. /rt ALLAN DAVIS Chairman Executive Committee Washington, D, C. Child-Study M. V.O'SHEA President Madison, Wis. M iss SARAH A. STEWART Vice-President Philadelphia, Pa. G. W. A. LUCKEY Secretary Lincoln, Neb. Physical Training C. E. EHINGER President West Chester, Pa. Miss R. ANNA MORRIS Vice-President Cleveland,©. H. B. BOICE Secretary Trenton, N. J. Science P. C. FREER President Ann Arbor, Mich. C. N. COBB Vice-President Albany, N. Y. C. J. LING Secretary Denver, Colo. School Administration JOHN E. BRANDEGEE President Utica, N. Y. KENTON CHICKERING First Vice-President Oil City, Pa. CHARLES QUARLES Second Vice-President Milwaukee, Wis. WILLIAM GEORGE BRUCE Secretary Milwaukee, Wis. WILLIAM S. MACK Chairman Executive Committee Aurora, 111. Ijibrary L. D. HARVEY President Milwaukee, Wis. J. H. VAN SICKLE Vice-President Denver, Colo. Miss MYRTILLA AVERY Secretary Albany, N. Y. Deaf, Blind, etc. JOSEPH C. GORDON President Jacksonville, III. Miss SARAH FULLER '. Vice-President Boston, Mass. Miss MARY McCOWEN Secretary and Treasurer Chicago, III. 0 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF THE UNITED STATES OFFICERS FOR 1898-99 GENERAL ASSOCIATION E.ORAMLYTE President Millersville, Pa. IRWIN SHEPARD Secretary Winona, Minn. I. C. McNeill Treasurer West Superior, Wis. VICE-PRESIDENTS James M. Greenwood, Kansas City, Mo. R. S. Bingham, Tacoma, Wash. W. W. Stetson, Auburn, Me. Frank P. Smith, Lawrence, Kan. E. B. Prettyman, Baltimore, Md. E. B. McElroy, Eugene, Ore. H. C. White, Georgia. McHenry Rhoads, Frankfort, Ky. Joseph Swain, Bloomington, Ind. J. Y. Joyner, Greensboro, N. C. J. R. Rightsell, Little Rock, Ark. S. N. Hopkins, Guthrie, Okla, BOARD OF TRUSTEES (See A rt. IV, sees, g and lo, of the constitution.) Albert G. Lane Chairman Chicago, III. Nicholas Murray Butler Secretary New York, N. Y. Albert G. Lane Chicago; 111 Term expires July, 1899 J. Ormond Wilson Washington, D. C Term expires July, 1900 F. Louis Soldan St. Louis, Mo Term expires July, 1901 Nicholas Murray Butler New York, N. Y Term expires July, 1902 E. Oram Lyte Millersville, Pa Ex officio EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE (See Art. IV, sees. 2 and 11, of the constitution.') E. Oram Lyte President Millersville, Pa. James M. Greenwood First Vice-President Kansas City, Mo. I. C. McNeill Treasurer West Superior, Wis. Albert G. Lane Chairman Board of Trustees . . . Chicago, 111. W. T. Harris Washington, D. C. Irwin Shepard Secretary Winona, Minn. BOARD OF DIRECTORS Directors ex officio (See Art. IV, sec. 2, of the constitution.) E. Oram Lyte, Millersville, Pa. Irwin Shepard, Winona, Minn. James M. Greenwood, Kansas City, Mo. I. C. McNeill, West Superior, Wis. Albert G.Lane, Chicago, 111. Xiife Directors (See Art. IV, sec. 2, of the constitution.) BiCKNELL, Thomas W., Providence, R. I. Dougherty, Newton C, Peoria, 111. Brown, Leroy D., San Luis Obispo, Cal. Fairchild, George T., Berea, Ky. Butler, Nicholas Murray, New York, N. Y. Garrett, W. R., Nashville, Tenn. Canfielu, James H., Columbus, O. Gove, Aaron, Denver, Colo. Cook, E. H., Yonkers, N. Y. Graham, H. A., Mt. Pleasant, Mich. Day, L. W., Canton, O. Greenwood, J. M., Kansas City, Mo. OFFICERS OF THE ASSOCIATION 13 Life Directors— r<)n//M»«//«Kf3 36 51 5t rag 22 log 136 $330 500 100 360 200 440 800 350 800 800 200 SCO 475 400 500 200 310 272 500 500 500 300 100 400 500 $10,337 Rate of interest, per cent. Interest payable Jan'y and July Bond due January, igoo July I, igoi January i, igoi July I, igoi anuary, igo3 July, 1901 July, igoo July, i8g6 July, igoo January, igio $2oo July, i8gg July, i8g5 January, igo2 July, i8g8 $200, igo2 July, igo3 July, igo2 July, i8gg anuary, igoo uly, igoi uly, igo2 July, igo2 anuary, igo2 January i, igo2 April I, igo2 July, 1898 * Interest in default, t Principal in default. KANSAS, COUNTY AND MUNICIPAL BONDS County Kind of bond Bond Nos. Amount Rate of interest, per cent. Interest payable Bond due Cloud, - City of Concordia, 35 to 40 $3,000 6 January and July July I, 1918 Douglass, - Eudora City 7 to 20 1,400 6 M arch One due each year March I Grant,* - County 47.48 2,000 6 January and July February, igzo Hodgeman. County 1 1,000 6 January and July July I, igig Kingman, Aid bonds I to 7 7,000 6 Jan'y 31 and July August 31, igig Lane,* County 11 to 13 3,000 6 January and July July, igi8 Marion,* City of Marion I 1,000 5^ March and Sept. March 1, igoo McPherson, Sharp's Creek Tp., I 1,000 6 January and July Sept. I, igi6 Montgomery, - Caney Tp. City of South I) 2 1,000 6 April and October October i, 1916 Reno,* Hutchinson I> 2 1,000 7 Febr'y and August April, igo8 Seward,f With Bentley & Hatfield. Wichita, Kan. 1,000 Judgment obtained. $22,400 *Interest in default, f Principal in default. REPORT OF THE BOARD OF TRUSTEES 21 MISCELLANEOUS Rate of County Amount interest, per cent. Interest payable Bond due Jackson, Kansas City, Mo., $2,000 5 January and July July 1, 1901 March 10, 1899 Cook, Chicago, 111., - Noblesville,Ind., .... 1,000 6 March and September January ana July 5,000 5 luly I, 1900 April I, iqoo DeKalb. 111., .... 3,000 S April I Cook, Village of Morgan Park, HI., - 3.S00 S March and September September, 1905 Providence real estate, first mortgage. 3,000 6 Chicago real estate, first mortgage. S,ooo 5 May and November May, 1903 Lemont, 111., School, Nos. 4, 6, 8, 12, I Issueid $16,000 14, 16, 18, 20, 22, 24, 30, 32, 6,000 $28,500 S June and December < $1000 due each ( year, J une i RKCAPITin-ATION Kansas bonds $33,737 Miscellaneous bonds and real estate mortgage 28,500 Total investment in bonds $61,237 Albert G. Lane, Chairman. Nicholas Murray Butler. J. Ormond Wilson. F. Louis Soldan. J. M. Greenwood. The foregoing securities were examined at the Merchants' Safety Deposit Vaults, Chicago, July 5, 1898, and I certify that it is a correct statement of the investments belonging to the Permanent Fund of the National Educational Association in the custody of A. G, Lane, chairman of the Board of Trustees. (Signed) Orvhlle T. Bright. JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS OF THE THIRTY-SEVENTH ANNUAL MEETING OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION WASHINGTON, D, C, JULY 7-12, 1898 FIRST DAY'S PROCEEDINGS CONVENTION HALL.— Friday Evening, July 7 The association was called to order by President Henry F, Blount of the Local Committee, Washington, D. C. Rev. Frank M. Bristol, of the Metropolitan M. E. Church of Washington, invoked divine blessing. Music by the Marine Band. An address of welcome was made by the president of the Local Committee, Henry F. Blount, of Washington, who also read the following letter from the president of the United States : Executive Mansion, Washington, July 7, 1898. My dear Sir: I very much regret that the pressure of official duties will prevent the acceptance of the cordial invitation extended through yourself to attend the opening of the convention of the National Elduca- tional Association this evening. It would have been a pleasure to me to have been able to meet the wishes of the association in this respect, and to have welcomed its members to Washington. In the important educational work which the association has done so much to encourage I have the deepest interest, and believe that the best results must come from such meetings, with their inspiration to even greater achievements than have characterized its work in the past. Please convey to the members of the association and to your colleagues my best wishes for a most successful convention. Very sincerely yours, William McKinlev. Mr. Henry F. Blount, President Local Committee, National Educational Association, Washington, D. C. Addresses of welcome were also made by Hon. John W. Ross, member of the Board of Commissioners, Washington, D. C. ; Dr. B. L. Whitman, president of the Columbian University, Washington, D. C. ; William T. Harris, United States Commis- sioner of Education ; Hon. Webster Davis, assistant secretary of the interior, Washing- ton, D. C. The President of the association, James M. Greenwood, of Kansas City, Mo., deliv- ered the annual presidential address. Hon. Charles R. Skinner, superintendent of public instruction, Albany, N. Y., addressed the association on the " Life and Character of Edward Austin Sheldon." President Greenwood appointed the following committee on resolutions : Nicholas Murray Butler, New York, chairman. Andrew S. Draper, Illinois. Livingston C. Lord, Minnesota. Oscar H. Cooper, Texas. Edwin F. Seaver, Massachusetts. James M. Green, New Jersey. R. B. Fulton, Mississippi. J. H. Miller, Nebraska. O. T. Corson, Ohio. E. A. Alderman, North Carolina. 23 24 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION The Secretary read the following announcement : The Board of Directors, at its meeting today, has considered , approved, and unanimously recommended for adoption an amendment to the constitution providing for the election of the Secretary of the association for a term of years by the corporate body of the association, and for constituting the United States Commis- sioner of Education ex officio a member of the Executive Committee. And notice is hereby given that the same will be presented for the consideration of the active members of the association at the business session to be held at the Grand Opera House on July 9, at 12 o'clock m. The audience joined in singing " America," with accompaniment by the Marine Band. Adjourned to meet at 9 : 15 A. M., July 8, at the Grand Opera House and the New National Theater, Washington. SECOND DAY'S PROCEEDINGS GRAND OPERA HOUSE.— Friday, July 8, 9 : 15 a. m. The convention was called to order by the First Vice-President, Charles R. Skinner, of New York. Invocation by Father D. J. Stafford, of Saint Patrick's Church, Washington, D. C. Principal W. F. Gordy, of Hartford, Conn., addressed the association on " The Essentials in. United States History to be Taught in Elementary Schools." President H. H. Seerley, State Normal School, Cedar Falls, la., spoke on " The Essentials in United States History to be Taught in Secondary Schools." Music — "The Star-Spangled Banner" — by Miss Lillian Sefton, of Washington, D.C. Mr. U. G. Palmer, county examiner, Oakland, Md., discussed the paper of Principal Gordy. Principal W. G. Lansdon of the high school. Fort Scott, Kan., discussed President Seerley's paper. The subject of the morning was further discussed by Superintendent R. K. Buehrle, of Lancaster, Pa.; Hon. E. B. Prettyman, of Maryland ; Superintendent L. E. Wolf, of Kansas City, Mo.; Superintendent David K. Goss, of Indiana; Dr. Charles A. McMurry, of Illinois, and William H. Beach, of Milwaukee, Wis. Adjourned. NEW NATIONAL THEATER.— July 8, 9 : 15 a. m. The session was called to order by President Greenwood. Rev. Lucien Clark, of Foundry M. E. Church, opened the session with prayer. President Greenwood then surrendered the gavel to Vice-President George J. Ram- sey, of Louisiana. Dr. Edward R. Shaw, dean of pedagogy. New York University, New York city, read a paper on " The Essentials of English Composition to be Taught in Elementary Schools." Professor C. C. Thach, State Polytechnic Institute, Auburn, Ala., read a paper on "The Essentials of English Composition to be Taught in Secondary Schools." The discussion of the first paper was opened by Superintendent F. S. Hafford, of Prescott, Ariz. Miss Lillian Sefton, of Washington, sang " The Star-Spangled Banner." Adjourned to 8 P. M., >uly 8 GRAND OPERA HOUSE.— Friday, July 8, 8 p. m. The session was called to order by Hon. John R. Kirk, of Missouri. Dr. A. S. Draper, president of the University of Illinois, delivered an address on " American Universities and the National Life." The Committe on Nominations was announced as follows Journal OF PROCEEDINGS 25 NOMINATING COMMITTEE APPOINTED IN ACCORDANCE WITH SBC. I OP THE BY-LAWS N»rtk Atlantic Division Massachusetts Wiliam E. Sheldon, chairman Rhode Island Walter Ballon Jacobs Maine John S. Locke Connecticut F". E. Howard New Hampshire J. A. Russell New York Charles R. Skinner Vermont Mason S. Stone New Jersey H. Prewster Willis South Atlantic Division Pennsylvania. '. Nathan C. Schaeffer West Virginia T. Marcellus Marshall Delaware A. H. Berlin North Carolina Charles D. Mclver Maryland John E. McCahan South Carolina W. H. Hand District of Columbia J. Ormond Wilson Florida W. N, Sheats Virginia William F. Fox South Central Division Kentucky W. H. Bartholomew I^uisiana Miss H. A. Sutor Tennessee W. R. Garrett Texas R. E. Miller Georgia W. M. Slaton Oklahoma D. R. Boyd Alabama J. B. Cunningham Arkansas George B. Cook Mississippi J. C. Fant North Central Division Ohio S.T. Dial Minnesota F. V. Hubbard Indiana David K. Goss Missouri F. D. Tharpe Illinois J. H. Freeman North Dakota Mrs. Helen H. Stockwell Michigan Jason E. Hammond South Dakota A. H. Avery Wisconsin William George Bruce Nebraska J- I- Reed Iowa J. T. Merrill Kansas John MacDonald Western Division Montana J. P. Hendricks Washington O. G. Whitney Wyoming Miss Estelle Reel Utah J. F. Millspaugh Colorado L. C. Greenlee California J. A. Foshay New Mexico Mrs. Elizabeth R. Jackson Indian Territory L. W. Williams Arizona F. S. Hafford Nevada Walter C. Gayhart Oregon E. B. McElroy Adjourned to meet at 9:15 A. M , July II. NEW NATIONAL THEATER.— Friday, July 8, 8 p. m. The meeting was called to order by Dr. E. O. Lyte, Vice-President for Pennsylvania. Hon. William T. Harris, United States Commissioner of Education, spoke on "Our Educational Exhibit at the International Exposition in Paris in 1900." Music by Chicago Quartet Club. Hon. W. W. Stetson, state superintendent of public instruction, Auburn, Me., addressed the association on "The Educational Outlook." The Committee on Nominations, as noted above, was announced by Vice-President Lyte. Adjourned to 9:15 a. m., July 9. THIRD DAY'S PROCEEDINGS GRAND OPERA HOUSE.— Saturday, July 9, 9 = 15 a. -m. The meeting was called to order by Hon. W. W. Stetson, Vice-President for Maine. Music --"Hurrah for the Schools of Ohio "—rendered by a chorus of Ohio teachers, under the leadership of Dr. A. J. Gantvoort, of Ohio. Invocation by Rev. J. G. Butler, of Luther Place Memorial Church. Professor Jacques W. Redway, geographer. Mount Vernon, N. V., addressed the 26 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION association on the " Influence of Topography and Climate on the Historical Development of the United States." Mr, W. J. McGee, vice-president of the National Geographic Society, Washington, spoke on the subject of " The Geospheres." Music — cornet solo. The subject of the morning was discussed by Professor George T. Murphy, assistant superintendent of schools, St. Louis, Mo.; Hon. William Stryker, state superintendent of public instruction, Topeka, Kan.; Professor David W. Hoyt, principal English High School, Providence, R. I. Mr. Luckey, of Pittsburg, offered the following resolution, which, after discussion by T. Marcellus Marshall and others, on motion of Mr. Ossian Lang, of New York, was referred for consideration to the Committee on Resolutions, appointed by the President of the association. Whereas, The commercial interests of the United States with her sister republics on this continent are rapidly increasing in importance, and Whereas, Present occurrences indicate that our trade will soon need fostering in the islands of the sea, and Whereas, All these republics and islands speak the Spanish language ; therefore Resolved, That the attention of the educational authorities is hereby called to the importance of adding the Spanish language to the course of study in all the advanced schools of the nation. Dr. Mary Walker, of Washington, offered a resolution, which, on motion, was referred to the general Committee on Resolutions, Adjourned to 8 P. M., July 9. NEW NATIONAL THEATER.— Saturday, July 9, 9 : 15 a. m. A. S. Downing, supervisor training schools. New York, presided. Prayer by Rev, Frank Sewall, Swedenborgian Church. Dr. W. O. Krohn, psychologist. Eastern Illinois Hospital for the Insane, addressed the association on " Minor Mental Abnormalities in Children as Occasioned by Certain Erroneous School Methods." Music —vocal solo — Miss May Adele Levers, N. A. Harvey, professor of natural science. State Normal School, West Superior, Wis., spoke on " The Latest Practical Discoveries in Biological Science, and Their Bear- ing on Education." Superintendent L. C. Greenlee of School District No. 2, Denver, Colo., led in the discussion. Superintendent R. K. Buehrle, of Lancaster, Pa., offered the following resolution, which was carried : Resolved, That the attention of the Commissioner of Education be directed to the paper of Dr. Krohn, and that he be requested to publish and circulate the same as a circular of information for the people. Music by Miss May Adele Levers. Adjourned to 9: 15 A. M., July II. MINUTES OF THE ANNUAL BUSINESS MEETING OF THE ACTIVE MEMBERS GRAND OPERA HOUSE.— Saturday, July 9, 12 m. In the absence of the President, the meeting was called to order by First Vice- President Charles R. Skinner, of New York. A quorum being present, on the call for unfinished business and under the notice of proposed amendments to the constitution offered by the Board of Directors, Dr. Nicholas Murray Butler, of New York, was recognized, and spoke as follows : JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS 27 Mr. President, Ladies and Gentlemen of the Association : ITie Board of Directors of this association, in regular annual meeting held on Thursday afternoon last, gave consideration to a proposition which I then brought forward, and after full and free discussion they unanimously adopted it and recommended it to the association for incorporation in the constitution. I ask your attention for a few moments in order that I may now explain, on behalf of the Board of Directors and as the mover of the proposition, its scope and character. I shall then move, for your consideration, that this amendment be adopted. The amendment is, in my judgment, one not only of high importance, but of vital interest to the future development of this association, if it is to go forward on the lines that it has recently pursued. I refer to iu greatly increased size, to the succession of large and well-attended meetings, and to the increasing complexity of its business administration, involving time, labor, and special knowledge that but very few of us have in our possession or, having it in our possession, would be able to give. It is an amendment to except here- after from the list of officers to be annually elected by the association the office of Secretary, and to make that officer a paid and permanent servant of the association. By paid and permanent I mean suitably compen- sated for his services and elected for a term of years. This proposition is not new in any sense. It has been before the Board of Directors for many years. It has always been favorably considered in principle, but the moment of its adoption has been postponed for two reasons : first, because the time did not seem to have come when our financial condition made it possible ; and, second, because some of us (I, for one) have steadfastly opposed the creation of this office, at a time when it was being sought by any active candidate. The time, however, has now come when, as I shall show in a moment, our financial development has put us in a position to sustain this charge, and to sustain it to our own ultimate profit. In addition, the time has come (and I say this on my own responsibility) when I am entirely confident that we shall be able to secure, as our Secretary, the one man whose years of service and whose distinguished fidelity to the interests of this association have put his name upon every lip. The constitution of this association was amended at the Denver meeting, after careful consideration. We then entered upon a new policy. The distinction then drawn between active and associate members and the qualifications then established for active membership meant that thereafter the business affairs of this associa- tion, its high reputation as representative of the teachers of the country, and its distinguished service in con- ducting three great educational investigations should not be put in jeopardy by being open to assault from any body of excursionists who might happen to buy our railroad tickets and attend one of our great annual gather- ings. The line was drawn so that new active members have at all times easy admission to our ranks, but they must always be persons engaged in educational work. This policy distinguished active from associate mem- bership, gave dignity to the active membership, and has made it possible to appeal to men and women who have attended one or more of our meetings in the past, and who have been irregular in attendance, to complete the payment of the fee for the omitted years, and to restore their names to the active list and so join our ranks permanently. In addition to that, we have had made a careful and scientifically prepared analytical index of our back volumes of proceedings, thousands of which are stored in our depository in this city, and an effort has been made to distribute these by sale to new and old members. From these sources a steady income is now derived. My object in rehearsing these facts, familiar to some of you, but not to all, is to conclude the discussion of this point by saying that during the last three years we have secured an income for the association of twelve thousand dollars ($12,000) — averaging $4,000 a year — from these sources, by reason of the activity of the Sec- retary, and by reason of the skill shown by the Treasurer in auditing railroad accounts and in collecting coupons that would otherwise have been lost. In other words, we have made $12,000 by good business administra- tion. We have, however, done that at the expense of the gentlemen who have served us. We have asked men to give us time, service, and attention of the most exacting kind, long continued for many months in the year, and we' have voted them a small stipend that is ridiculous in comparison with the work they have per- formed. I shall not pass from this phase of the subject without saying that the National Educational Associa- tion today is indebted to Irwin Shepard and I. C. McNeill, in a way that we cannot afford to overlook or fail to recognize. I have been, thru your kind indulgence, in a position for some years to know something about the administration of our business affairs, and I wish to say, for your comfort and satisfaction, that if there is an honester, a better, and more wisely conducted voluntary association than ours in existence, it has not attracted my observation. But it is undignified, gentlemen, it is unbusiness-like, for us to go on indefinitely, trusting to Providence and to two of his chosen agents. It is necessary that we should act as any other sensible body of business men would act, and put our affairs on a business basis. Therefore, the Board of Directors has con- sidered the proposition that the constitution be amended to make this possible, and has, by unanimous vote, more than thirty members being present, recommended the adoption of the amendments to the constitution, which I shall now read : 1. Amend Art. IV, sec. 3, by inserting in the first line, after the word " association," the words " with the exception of the Secretary." The effect of this, you will see, is to except the Secretary from the officers to be elected annually. 2. Amend Art. IV, sec. 3, by altering the second section so as to make it read: "The officers so chosen shall continue in office," etc. The object here is to make it clear that the limitations imposed by the second section do not apply to the Secretary. These are mere verbal amendments, eliminating the Secretary from the elective officers as they ?8 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION exist at present, and leaving the matter open to be placed in other hands. Then the amended section would read: " The elective officers of the association, with the exception of the Secretary, shall be chosen by the active members of the association by ballot, unless otherwise ordered, on the third day of each annual session, a majority of the votes cast being necessary to a choice. The officers so chosen shall continue in office until the close of the annual session subsequent to their election, and until their successors are chosen, except as hereinafter provided." (Art. IV, sec. 3.) In providing for the election of the Secretary, who shall hold office at a compensation and for a term, it is necessary for us to protect his interests as well as our own. We do not care, I take it, to elect a Secretary who needs an office, or who at this moment would be glad to be sheltered beneath our constitutional protec- tion. We desire to be free to go out and select the man who has demonstrated himself to be the best in the United States, if such can be found, and to ask him to come to us from any other form of educational work in which he may be engaged. To do this means that we must have him elected by a responsible and corporate body, one competent to make a contract, able, if necessary, to sue and be sued, and in control of the funds necessary to make the payment for his compensation. That is so plain a business proposition that I shall not extend my explanation of it any farther. There exists in this association, within the whole range of its organization, but one such responsible body. The Board of Trustees is, by the constitution of the association and by law, the body corporate of the associa- tion. It keeps the seal, it holds the permanent funds, and it alone can make a contract. It alone can sue and be sued. No responsible man would surrender an income-producing position for an election by any other portion of this organization. The President, the Executive Committee, the Board of Directors, the association as here assembled, are all, in a legal sense, entirely irresponsible. That being the case, it follows as a matter of logical necessity and as a business proposition that the Secretary must be elected by the Board of Trustees, The Board of Trustees, as you remember, consists of five men, one of whom, the President of the association, serving for a year's term, is chosen from year to year by this body, on the action or recommendation of the nominating committee. The four elected trustees are chosen, each for the term of four years, one expiring each year, by the Board of Directors, which is chosen by this body on the recommendation of the nominating committee. It is my proposition, which has received the unanimous indorsement of the Board of Directors, that to this body corporate, so constituted, should be committed the task of selecting our Secretary and fixing his compensation and his term of office, providing the term shall not exceed four years. One other point arises. The Secretary of the association is by existing constitutional provision a mem- ber of our Executive Committee. That committee consists of the President, the First Vice-President, the Secretary, the Treasurer, and the chairman of the Board of Trustees. These five men have important duties to perform during the year. Among other things, they virtually select, after the vote of recommendation by the Board of Directors has been had, the place of our next meeting, and they conclude in our behalf all of the difficult and often involved local arrangements. It was suggested in the meeting of the directors that it would probably not be wise to continue the paid Secretary of the association in that responsible position with a vote, while he was an employed officer. At the same time, it was fully understood there that, of course, the Executive Committee could not transact any business intelligently without his presence, his experience, and his skilled personal knowledge. Therefore it is provided in our proposed amendment that the Secre- tary of the association shall also be secretary of the Executive Committee. Another verbal amendment is suggested, striking his name out ot the Executive Committee as a voting member, and inserting a provision for a fifth officer to take his place, making the voting body uneven in order that there may not be a dead- lock at any time. In other words, these ends are met by amending Art. IV by the addition of an entirely new section, to be numbered 11, and which will read : " Sec. II. The Board of Trustees shall elect the Secretary of the association, who shall also be secretary of the Executive Committee, and shall fix his compensation and his term of office, for a period not to exceed four years." As to the fifth member of the Executive Committee, there were two propositions before the Board of Directors. One was that the fifth man should be a representative of the Board of Directors elected annually by that board to serve for a single year. While that section, however, was under discussion, it was amended so as to constitute the Commissioner of Education, ex officio, the fifth member of the committee, and the amendment, as I hold it in my hand, passed in that form, and it is in that form that I now present it to you on behalf of the Board of Directors. Now, gentlemen, I have taxed your patience sufficiently, but I believe in the fullest explanation of any important action that is to be taken, in order that no member of the association may feel afterward that he has been asked to vote upon any proposition without an opportunity being first given to understand it fully. If I have failed in any way to make this proposition perfectly clear, I wish to be given the privilege of answering any questions that any member of the association may desire to ask. Before taking my seat, let me add a word. In my judgment this Secretary, at any compensation that we are likely to pay, will earn an income for this association. We have been appropriating for three years past a small sum to the Secretary to secure his services in the way that I stated ; that sum, as you know from our records and reports, has been $1,500. We have also provided for the payment of $750 to the Treasurer for his services and clerical expenses. It will be possible — and this fact has come out in conference with the present Treasurer — if this amendment is adopted, to put upon the paid Secretary of the association all those matters of detail which have hitherto occupied, and to a certain extent embarrassed, the Treasurer, and leave JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS 39 him simply the bonded officer to hold our current funds and to issue checks against the same in payment of duly audited bills and drafts. We shall, therefore, cease to appropriate the $2,350 now appropriated for him and the Secretary, and the Secretary in return will bring into the association, by working along the lines that I indicated a few moments ago, an increasing annual income, which I am confident will make us better off, from a pecuniary standpoint, than ever before, Mr. President, I have now said everything that it occurs to me to say in order to make this proposition clear. On behalf of the Board of Directors, I move that, after such discussion as members care to offer, this association do adopt and ratify these amendments to the constitution as they have been read, and that they do become part of the same. , The motion of Dr. Butler was seconded by Dr. F. Louis Soldan, of St. Louis, Mo. Upon motion of A. S. Downing, of New York, it was ordered that the proposed amendments be acted upon separately. Upon motion of Superintendent Aaron Gove, of Colorado, the first section of the proposed amendment was unanimously adopted as follows : To amend Art. IV, sec. 3, of the constitution by inserting in the first line, after the word " association," the words, " with the exception of Secretary." Upon motion of Mr. Gove, of Colorado, the second proposed amendment was unani- mously adopted as follows : Sec. II. The Board of Trustees shall elect the Secretary of the association, who shall also be secretary of the Executive Committee, and shall fix the compensation and the term of office for a period not to exceed four years. The Secretary then read the third proposed amendment, to wit : The President of the National Educational Association, the First Vice-President, the Treasurer, the chair- man of the Board of Trustees, and the United States Commissioner of Education shall constitute the Executive Committee. Mr. Cobb, of Massachusetts: I move to strike out the words "Commissioner of Education," and substitute therefor, "a representative to be chosen annually by the Board of Directors, which representative shall hold office for one year." We cannot tell who the future Commissioner of Education may be. Sui'ERiNTENDENT C. G. Pearse, Omaha, Neb. : As a member of the Board of Directors who acted upon this matter, and after listening to many of the views of other directors, I desire to second the motion just made. President A. R. Taylor, of Kansas: I hope that this proposed amendment will not prevail. Mr. Pearse, of Nebraska: I trust that I am not misunderstood. No one has a higher respect for the United States Commissioner of Education than I, but I am in favor of this motion as a safeguard for the future. Mr. A. S. Downing, of New York; Superintendent H. E. Dawes, of Nebraska, and Superintendent C. B. Gilbert, of New Jersey, spoke in favor of the pending motion. President John W. Cook, of Illinois : It does not seem to me this is a matter of such grave importance as some members think. In the first place, the Commissioner of Education will always be a man familiar with details with which we must have a great deal to do. Mr. S. Y. Gillan, of Wisconsin, and T. Marcellus Marshall, of West Virginia, spoke in favor of the pending motion. On a rising vote, the motion of Mr. Cobb was adopted by eighty-one in the affirm- ative and forty-one in the negative. Chairman Skinner : The question now recurs on the adoption of the amendments as a whole. And thereupon the recommendations of the board as amended were unanimously adopted as follows : Amend Art. IV, sec. 2, last paragraph, so as to read : The President of the National Educational Association, the First Vice-President, the Treasurer, the chairman of the Board of Trustees, and a member of the association to be chosen annually by the Board of Directors, which member shall hold office for one year, shall constitute the Executive Committee. 30 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION Amend Art. IV, sec. 3, by inserting in the first line, after the word " association," the words, " with the exception of the Secretary." Amend Art. IV, sec. 3, by altering the second sentence so as to make it read, " The officers so chosen shall continue in office," etc. The amended section would then read as follows : Sec. 3. The elective officers of the association, with the exception of the Secretary, shall be chosen by the active members of the associatian by ballot, unless otherwise ordered, on the third day of each annual ses- sion, a majority of the votes cast being necessary to a choice. The officers so chosen shall continue in office until the close of the annual session subsequent to their election, and until their successors are chosen, except as hereinafter provided. Further amend Art. IV by adding a new section, as follows : Sec. II. The Board of Trustees shall elect the Secretary of the association, who shall also be secretary of the Executive Committee, and shall fix his compensation and his term of office for a period not to ej£ceed four years. Mr. William E. Sheldon, of Massachusetts, chairman of the Committee on Nomina- tions, submitted the report of the committee as follows : REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON NOMINATIONS President E. ORAM LYTE Millersville, Pa. Secretary IRWIN SHEPARD Winona, Minn. Treasurer.- I. C. McNEILL West Superior, Wis. VICE-PRESIDENTS First Vice-President J AMES M. Greenwood Kansas City, Mo. Second Vice-President W. W. Stetson Auburn, Me. Third Vice-President E. B. Prettvman Baltimore, Md. Fourth Vice-President H.C.White Georgia Fifth Vice-President Joseph Swain Bloomington, Ind. Sixth Vice-President J. R. Rightsell Little Rock, Ark. Seventh Vice-President R. S. Bingham Tacoma, Wash. Eighth Vice-President Frank P. Smith Lawrence, Kan. Ninth Vice-President E. B. McElrov Eugene, Ore. Tenth Vice-President McHenrv Rhoads Frankfort, Ky." Eleventh Vice-President J- Y. Joyner Greensboro, N. C. Tivelfth Vice-President S. N. Hopkins Guthrie, Okla. DIRECTORS North Atlantic Division Maine John S. Locke Saco New Hampshire Channing Folsom Dover Vermont Mason S. Stone Montpelier Massachusetts Will S. Monroe Westfield Rhode Island H. S. Tarbell Providence Connecticut F. E. Howard Bridgeport New York A. S. Downing Albany New Jersey James M. Green Trenton South Atlantic Division Pennsylvania George Howell Scranton Delaware A. H. Berlin Wilmington Maryland John D. Worthington Belair District of Columbia W. B. Powell Washington Virginia William F. Fox Richmond West Virgiftia J. N. Deahi West Liberty North Carolina G. A. Grimslev Greensboro South Carolina J. Frank Fooshe. Blackville Florida L. W. Buchholz Tampa South Central Division Kentucky W. H. Bartholomew Louisville Tennessee W. R. Payne Nashville Georgia W. F. Slaton Atlanta JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS 31 South Central Division — continued Alabama John T. Gregory Mobile Mississippi E. E. Bass Greenville Louisiana Warren Easton New Orleans Texas (X H. Cooper Carthage Oklahoma David R. BovD Norman Arkansas J. L. Hollowav Fort Smith North Central Division Ohio C. W. Bennett Piqua Indiana D, K. Goss Indianapolis Illinois E, A. Gastman Decatur Michigan '. ... Henry R. Pattengill Lansing Wisconsin .". L. D. Harvey Milwaukee Iowa W. M. Beardshear Ames Minnesota George B. Aiton Minneapolis Missouri John R. Kirk Jefferson City North Dakota W. L. Stockwkll Grafton South Dakota Frank Crane Aberdeen Nebraska Carroll G. Pearse Omaha Kansas Frank R.Dyer Wichita Western Division Montana J. P. Hendricks Butte Wyoming Estelle Reel Cheyenne Colorado L. C. Greenlee Denver New Mexico Mrs. E. R. Jackson Silver City Arizona F. S. Hafford Prescott Oregon J. H. Ackerman Portland Washington O. C. Whitney Tacoma Utah J. M. Tanner Logan California E.E.Brown Berkeley Nevada J. E. Stubbs Reno Idaho J. C. Black Albion On motion, the Secretary of the association was instructed to cast the unanimous bal- lot of the association for the election of the officers designated in the report of the Com- mittee on Nominations. The Secretary announced that the ballot had been cast in accordance with the motion. Whereupon the chairman announced that the officers named in the report of the Coinmittee on Nominations had been duly and legally elected as officers of this associa- tion for the ensuing year. The newly elected President, E. O. Lyte, of Pennsylvania, being called for, acknowl- edged the high compliment which had been paid to his state and to himself. Superintendent A. G.Lane, of Illinois, chairman of the Board of Trustees: I was somewhat sur- prised, at the close of the meeting in Milwaukee, to read in some of the public school journals statements regarding the financial condition of the funds in the custody of the Board of Trustees. I made several full statements to the Board of Directors, and a complete statement has been published in the printed proceedings of the last two years, and will be printed in the proceedings of this meeting, giving the fullest possible information to the members of this association. Some question has been raised about some of the funds, nota- bly the deferred payments of interest and principal ; but all those were investments made before any of the present members of the Board of Trustees had to do with the funds. They were investments made in good faith at the Topeka meeting of 1886 and the Chicago meeting of 1887. The trustees are using due diligence to collect these amounts. If there are any members of the association who desire information in regard to the condition of the funds of which I am custodian as chairman of the Board of Trustees, I want to give it to them now on this floor. No request for the information offered by Superintendent Lane was made. There being no further business, the annual meeting of the active members of tiie association was adjourned sine die. 32 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION FOURTH DAY'S PROCEEDINGS GRAND OPERA HOUSE.— Monday, July ii, 9: 15 a. m. The meeting was called to order by L. D. Harvey, Vice-President for Wisconsin. Invocation by Rev. Samuel H.Green, of California Baptist Church. Professor Josiah Royce, of Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass., delivered an address on the " Social Basis of Conscience." Music — solo by Miss Eleanore Simonds, of Washington. The subject of the morning was discussed by H. E. Kratz, superintendent of public schools, Sioux City, la.; George J. Ramsey, of Louisiana ; Miss Marsh, of Michigan; Mr. F. B. Brandt, of Philadelphia ; Mr. Ewing, of Ohio ; Professor A. T. Ormond, of New Jersey ; Mr. Rowe, of Connecticut ; Mr. H. R. Sanford, of New York, and Mr. F. B. Dyer, of Ohio. Professor Royce closed the discussion, and the convention adjourned to 8 P. M. NEW NATIONAL THEATER.— Monday, July ii. 9: 15 a. m. Presiding, Professor J. N. Wilkinson, State Normal School, Emporia, Kan. Prayer by Rev. J. Albert Johnson, African M. E. Church. Address, " The Culture Value of the Higher Mathematics," Professor W. B. Smith Tulane University, New Orleans, La. Music — contralto solo — Miss Eleanore Simonds. The subject of the morning was discussed under the following heads : " The Constants in Mathematics," Dr. Edward Brooks, superintendent of public schools, Philadelphia, Pa. "Is the Science of Mathematics Qualitative as well as Quantitative ?" Frank H. Hall superintendent State Institution for the Blind, Jacksonville, 111. "The Practical Value of the Study of Mental Arithmetic," A. S. Downing, supervisor of teachers' institutes and training classes. State Department of Public Instruction, Albany, N. Y. "Educational Value of Geometry," Kelly Miller, professor of mathematics, Howard University. GRAND OPERA HOUSE.— Monday, July ii, 8 p. m. The meeting was called to order by Dr. Elmer E. Brown, of the University of California. Dr. E. E. White, Cincinnati, O., addressed the association on " The Duty of the State in Education." William E. Sheldon, of the Committee on Necrology, presented the report of that committee. REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON NECROLOGY The Committee on Necrology for 1898 begs leave to submit the accompanying report. Of twenty persons who have died since a report was made, we have not been able to obtain reliable information in regard to N. B. Thompson, of Kansas, whose membership began in 1895; L. A. Gray, of Maine, 1893; George R. Fowler, of Massachusetts, 1895, and Anna A. ^ ummins. New York, 1896. Of the sixteen others we respectfully sub- mit brief sketches, in order to pay a fitting tribute to their memory. That these sketches are not as complete and full as could be desired is owing to the fact that it seemed best to the committee to include in this year's report the names of all who have not heretofore been reported upon. This has made the list larger than usual, and has compelled the committee to make short and concise statements. Respectfully submitted, Henry Sabin. E. E. White. W. E. Sheldon, A. R. Taylor. E. C. Hewett. JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS 33 The report was, by general consent, not read, but was ordered filed and printed in the volume of proceedings. Adjourned to g: 15 A. M., July 12. NEW NATIONAL THEATER.— Monday, July ii, 8 v. m. The meeting was called to order by Hon. John R. Kirk, of Missouri. Dr. E. M. Gallaudet, president College for the Deaf, Washington, D. C, delivered an address on " The Deaf and Their Possibilities." Cornet solo by Edwin S. Tracy, Washington, D. C. Hon. John Eaton, ex-United States Commissioner of Education, Washington, D. C. spoke on "Education and Gold in Alaska." The address of Mr. Eaton was translated, as delivered, into the sign language by Dr. Gallaudet, for the benefit of the deaf-mutes in the audience. Rev. A. D. Mayo, of Washington, D. C, addressed the association on "Lessons from American Educational History." Hon. N. C. Schaeffer, state superintendent of public instruction of Pennsylvania, spoke on " Man as the Symbol User." Soprano solo by Miss Fannie At Lee, of Washington, D. C. Adjourned to 9: 15 A. m., July 12. FIFTH DAY'S PROCEEDINGS GRAND OPERA HOUSE.— Tuesday, July 12, 9:30 a. m. Meeting was called to order by Miss Margaret W. Sutherland, Vice-President for Ohio. Rev. S. N. Brown, of Park Temple Congregational Church, invoked divine blessing. Miss Sarah L. Arnold, supervisor of schools, Boston, Mass., addressed the association on " The Duties and Privileges of a Supervisor." Miss Margaret J. Evans, Carleton College, Northfield, Minn., spoke on " Women's Clubs as an Educational Factor." Miss Bettie A. Dutton, principal Kentucky Street School, Cleveland, O., spoke on "Woman as a Supervisor of Women." Miss Sara J. Walters, State Normal School, Willimantic, Conn., addressed the asso- ciation on " Teachers' Course of Study." Miss Lillie A, Williams, of the State Normal School, Trenton, N. J., spoke on " The Teacher as a Traveler." Announcements by the Secretary of the association. The several subjects of the meeting were discussed by Miss Fruchte, of St. Louis. Mo., and Mr. Tracy B. Matthews, of Darlington, Md. Hon. Alexander Hogg, of Texas, offered the following resolution, which was adopted: Appreciating every effort to give woman in her sphere every opportunity for advancement — to give her a fair chance with her brother, intellectually and socially ; therefore be it Resolved, That the National Educational Association heartily indorses the movement lately set on foot to found and endow an institution of learning for the higher education of the daughters of the confederacy — lately undertaken by the patriotic and philanthropic citizens of Texas and other southern states. Adjourned to meet at Convention Hall, 8 P. M., July 12. NEW NATIONAL THEATER.— Tuesday, July 12, 9 : 15 a. m. Superintendent John E. McCahan, Vice-President for Maryland, presided. Prayer by Rabbi L. Stem, Washington Hebrew Congregation. The report of the Committee on Normal Schools was submitted by Z. X. Snyder, president State Normal School, Greeley, Colo., as follows : 34 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION Mr. Chairman : The committee appointed at the last session of the National Educational Association to investigate the subject of normal-school work has no formal report to make at this session. There are two reasons for this condition of affairs. First, on beginning the investigation, we found the subject was larger than we had anticipated, and we did not care to make a report that should not be thoro. Second, the apprd|)riation for carrying on the investigation was not assured us until the meeting of the superintendents in February, and the time since then has been too short to admit of a complete investigation. We have, however, begun the work and shall be prepared to submit a formal report at the next annual meeting of the association. The report was accepted and ordered filed. Edwin P. Seaver, superintendent of public schools, Boston, Mass., addressed the association on " Democracy and Education." Music by Miss A. B. Fisher. Superintendent McHenry Rhoads, Frankfort, Ky. ; Superintendent Richard Hardy, Ishpeming, Mich., and President Charles D. Mclver, State Normal and Industrial College, Greensboro, N. C, discussed the subject of the morning. Adjourned to meet in Convention Hall, 8 P. M., July 12. , CLOSING SESSION CONVENTION HALL.— Tuesday, July 12, 8 p. m. President James M. Greenwood, of Missouri, called the convention to order. Rev. Tennis S. Hamlin, Church of the Covenant, invoked divine blessing. Music by the National Guard Brigade Band, of Washington. The following were the speakers and subjects of the evening's program : Superintendent J. F. Millspaugh, of Salt Lake City, Utah, " Sociology's Demand upon the Schools." Superintendent C. G. Pearse, of Nebraska, " Between Day School and Reform School." Principal G. N. Grisham of the Lincoln High School, Kansas City, Mo., "The Proper Education of an American Citizen." Dr. A. E. Winship, editor of New England Journal of Education, Boston, Mass., " The School of the Future." Principal James M. Milne, State Normal School, Oneonta, New York, " The Per- sonality of the Teacher." Dr. Elmer E. Brown, University of California, " The Larger University Idea." Dr. Nicholas Murray Butler, of New York, chairman of the Committee on Resolutions, offered the following declaration of principles, which was unanimously adopted : The National Educational Association, representing the teachers of the United States at this its thirty-seventh annual convention, makes the following declaration : The integrity of our educational system can be threatened only by ignorance and by political corruption. A sound and intelligent public opinion must be in the future, as it has been in the past, the support of every movement to elevate the ideals and to strengthen the efficiency of our schools, public and private, higher and elementary, general and special. To labor unceasingly to produce such a public |opinion is a main duty of the teaching profession, and to stimulate and instruct it a leading purpose of our professional gathering. We ask our fellow-citizens to give heed to the needs of our educational sys- tem, to protect and develop it, and particularly to guard it from damage thru parsimony and political chicane. The suffering and loss so inflicted fall not chiefly upon the teachers or upon the citizens themselves, but upon the nation's children, who are in due time to assume the responsibility for the preservation of our institutions. To limit their oppor- tunities for a sound education is to strike a deadly blow at the republic itself. We deplore and resent the tendency, manifest alike in cities and in rural districts, to treat the public-school service as political spoils, and to attack the reputation and pro- fessional standing of teachers and superintendents for political reasons alone. Political JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS 35 preferences and religious faith have no place in estimating professional efficiency, and we demand that the selection, promotion, and displacement of school officers and teachers be made on professional grounds alone. We are glad to recognize that the schools exist solely for the education of the pupils, and not as a means of support for teachers ; yet, because of the increasing demands made upon teachers, and the exacting character of their preparation and work, it is in the public interest that their compensation be so adjusted as to encourage them to make teaching a life work, and to secure recognition for long-continued service and efficiency. We invite attention to the dangers to the public health that result from the contact of children in crowded schools, unless both the children and the community are protected from the spread of contagious diseases by constant medical inspection, and the skilled oversight of sanitary and hygienic conditions. It is the duty of every community, par- ticularly of every large city, to make provision for such inspection and oversight. This policy is not only one of true economy, but also of enlightened self-interest. The forward movement in education has our unwavering and enthusiastic support. Education is that social function by which the products of civilization are transmitted and enriched, and in this process the school plays a leading part. Insight into the forces that have shaped human development and the sympathetic study of the growing child are the mainsprings of its work. We urge upon teachers generally the appreciation of this fact, as well as the necessity for so shaping their studies and reading as to increase their knowledge in both of these directions. The accepted division of the work of instruction into elementary, secondary, and higher is a convenient classification for administrative purposes, but it must not be allowed to concealthe fact that intellectual and moral development are constant and continuous, and that all education is essentially a unit. Every type or class of school is affected by the efficiency or the inefficiency of other schools associated with it in the educational system. The best interests of elementary education require association with, and support from, secondary and higher educational institutions that are freely open to the children of the people, in order that the standard of our civilization may be constantly raised by an increasing number of men and women trained for leadership. We welcome every new step in the steadily advancing movement to increase the necessary qualifications of teachers. A high-school education, and at least one addi- tional year's professional study of the history, principles, and practice of teaching, should be the minimum toward the establishment of which we should work. We tender to the president and to the other officers of the government an expression of our sympathy and patriotic support in the unhappy contest in which our country is engaged. Much as war is to be deplored, the teachers of the United States recognize that the present struggle now being so triumphantly prosecuted has been entered upon in the most unselfish spirit, and from the loftiest motives. The cause of freedom and humanity is promoted, and the solidarity both of the American people and of the Anglo- Saxon race vastly increased, by an armed contest conducted in such a spirit, for such purposes, and with such determination and valor. The nation's great army of peace extends to the nation's soldiers and "sailors its congratulations and its grateful appre- ciation for the manifestation of the high qualities of courage and of skill that have won so brilliant a succession of victories for the American arms, both on land and on sea. Dr. Nicholas Murray Butler, in behalf of the Committee on Resolutions, offered the following resolution, which was unanimously adopted : Resolved, That the thanks of the National Educational Association are due, and are hereby inost cor- dially tendered, to all individuals and organizations which have contributed so largely to the size, comfort, and convenience of this meeting. We may in particular express our obligations to Colonel Henry F. Blount, president of the General Committee ; to President B. L. Whitman, D.D., chairman of the Executive Com- mittee ; to William B. Powell, A.M.. superintendent of schools, and to the several chairmen and members of the various subcommittees, the fruit of whose abun4ant labors has been so manifest on every side. To the citizens of Washington for their cordial welcome ; to the newspapers of the city for their full and 36 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION accurate repwrts of our proceedings; to the railroads and transportation companies for their generous and cor- dial co-operation, and to Messrs. Wyckoff, Seamans & Benedict, proprietors of the Remington Standard Typewriter, for generous and efficient service to executive officers and members of the association, we are under obligations that we most cordially recognize. Dr. Butler : I am instructed by the Committee on Resolutions to ask you, Mr. Secre- tary, to put this motion : Resolved, That we tender our retiring President, Dr. James M. Greenwood, this expression of our affec- tion and respect, and our high sense of appreciation of his services to education and to this association. The Secretary put the motion of Dr. Butler, and the resolution was unanimously adopted. President Greenwood : Ladies and Gentlemen : It becomes my duty at this moment to return to you the charge as President of the National Educational Association of the United States which you intrusted to me a year ago. To you, President Lyte, I will say that I trust, during the coming year, the duties of your office will fall upon you as pleasantly as they have fallen upon me. I am sure that you appreciate the responsibility you are about to assume. I trust the members of the association will give you their generous support, as they have given it to me. I trust you will have as good fortune in the selection of the place of meeting and of a local committee in the coming year as I have had in the past. I- do not know of an occasion in the history of this association when the general program, as well as the programs of the various departments, have been as perTect in every respect as they have been here in this beautiful city, the capital of our country. It is no small incentive to remember that there is no such organization in the world as the one that I now turn over to your hands. I trust the year will be a successful one to you as the President-elect of the National Educational Association. President Lyte responded as follows : I appreciate very highly the honor that has been conferred upon me. I appreciate also the responsibilities devolving upon anyone who assumes even a part of the direction of this association, and I promise you here and now to perform my duties to the best of my knowledge and ability. It must be remembered, however, that the highest degree of success can be achieved only by hearty co-operation of all of the officers and members ; and I trust we shall have your co-operation, in order that the next meeting may be a fit successor to the great meeting just closing in this beautiful city, where we have been considering great questions concerning the molding of the educational thought of this country ; where we have, in some degree at least, determined the educational policy of this, the greatest nation in the world — in the language of Dr. Winship, "this imperial republic," a nation without a peer in the intelligence and valor of its sons, and in the virtue and nobility of character of its daughters. It is especially appropriate at this time when the boys of the sunny South laugh at being called " Yankees ;" when the boys from the North fall in line and march to the tuneof "Dixie ;" when the teachers from the North, South, East, and West are all engaged in rubbing out " Mason and Dixon's line ;" when in this country there is no North, no South, no East, no West, but a united land — it is especially appropriate that this great body should adjourn with the national hymn, "My Country, 'Tis of Thee." We shall ask the band, therefore, to lead us in that hymn, after which we shall be dis- missed with benediction by Rev. Dr. Whitman, of Columbian University. The audience arose and sang "America," with accompaniment by the National Guard Brigade Band. Dr. Whitman pronounced a benediction, and the thirty-seventh annual meeting of the National Educational Association was declared adjourned sine die. Irwin Shepard, James M. Greenwood, Secretary. ' President. MINUTES OF THE MEETINGS OF THE BOARD OF DIRECTORS FOR 1897-98 COSMOS CLUB. —Thursday. July 7, 3 v. m. The Board of Directors of the National Educational Association was called to order by President J. M. Greenwood in the assembly hall of the Cosmos Club, Washington, D. C, at 3 p. M., Thursday, July 7, 1898. On the call of the roll by the Secretary, the following named directors responded : James M. Greenwood, Missouri ; Nicholas Murray Butler, New York ; W. R. Garrett, Tennessee ; I. C. McNeill, Wisconsin ; Albert G. Lane, Illinois ; Charles R. Skinner, New York ; Newton C. Dougherty, Illi- nois; Aaron Gove, Colorado; W. T. Harris, Washington, D. C. ; Albert P. Marble, New York; Charles I. Parker, Illinois; A. R. Taylor, Kansas; John S. Locke, Maine; A. S. Downing, New York; S. T Skid- more, Pennsylvania; W. B. Powell, District of Columbia; Mae E. Schreiber, Wisconsin; John R. Kirk, Missouri; A. H. Avery, South Dakota; John MacDonald, Kansas; R. S. Bingham, Washington; W. E. Sheldon, Massachusetts; J. Ormond Wilson, District of Columbia ; F. E. Howard, Connecticut; James M. Green, New Jersey; A. H. Berlin, Delaware; W. H. Anderson, West Virginia; W. M. Beardshear, Iowa; W. S. Stockwell, North Dakota; C. G. Pearse, Nebraska; L. C. Greenlee, Colorado; F. Louis Soldan, Mis- souri; Irwin Shepard, Minnesota. Present, thirty-two. On motion of Director Dougherty, of Illinois, the reading of the minutes of the last meeting of the board was dispensed with, and the minutes as printed in the volume of proceedings for 1897 were approved as printed. Treasurer I. C. McNeill presented his report, and explained in detail the various items thereof. On motion of Director Skinner, the report of the Treasurer was received, approved, and ordered printed in the volume of proceedings for 1898 ; and the thanks of the Board of Directors were tendered to the Treasurer for his fidelity to the interests of the association. In response to an inquiry by Director MacDonald, the Secretary explained that the enhanced cost of publishing the bound volume of proceedings was due to an increase in the amount of matter which became necessary from year to year, owing to the addition of new departments, and also to the larger editions demanded to meet the steady annual increase in the number of calls for the volume. On motion of Mr. Vaile, the Board of Directors, after full discussion, concurred in the action of the committee of the Department of Supermtendence, and approved the adoption of the following amended spellings for use in the proceedings of that depart- ment, as follows : Program (programme), tho (though), altho (although), thoro (thorough), thorofare (thoroughfare), thru (through), thruout (throughout), catalog (catalogue), prolog (prologue), decalog (decalogue), demagog (demagogue), pedagog (pedagogue). On motion of Director Kirk, of Missouri, the following resolution was adopted : Resolved, That in publishing the proceedings of this and other meetings of the National Educational Association, until it is otherwise ordered, the Secretary be directed to use the simplified spellings recommended by the committee appointed at the Indianapolis meeting of the Department of Superintendence. Director Lane, chairman of the Board of Trustees, submitted the annual report of the Board of Trustees and explained the several items thereof; which, after discussion by the directors, was received, approved, and ordered printed in the volume of proceedings for 1898. Director Nicholas Murray Butler presented certain proposed amendments to the constitution of the association, which, after discussion and amendment, were unanimously concurred in and recommended to the general association for adoption. 37 38 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION The proposed amendments, as recommended by the Board of Directors, were as follows : Amend Art. IV, sec. 2, last paragraph, so as to read : The President of the National Educational Association, the First Vice-President, the Treasurer, the chairman of the Board of Trustees, and the United States Commissioner of Education shall constitute the Executive Committee. Amend Art. IV, sec. 3, by inserting in the first line, after the word "association," the words " with the exception of the Secretary." Amend Art. IV, sec. 3, by altering the second sentence so as to make it read, "The officers so chosen shall continue in office," etc. The amended section would then read as follows : Sec. 3. The elective of)icers of the association, with the exception of the Secretary, shall be chosen by the active members of the association by ballot, unless otherwise ordered, on the third day of each annual ses- sion, a majority of the votes cast being necessary to a choice. The officers so chosen shall continue in office until the close of the annual session subsequent to their election, and until their successors are chosen, except as hereinafter provided. Further amend Art. IV by adding a new section, as follows : Sec. II. The Board of Trustees shall elect the Secretary of the association, who shall also be secretary of the Executive Committee, and shall fix his compensation and his term of office for a period not to exceed four years. On motion of Director Butler, the following distinguished educators were unani- mously elected as corresponding members of this association ; and the Secretary of the association was instructed to have prepared suitably engrossed certificates of membership, to be signed by the United States Commissioner of Education, the President and Secre- tary of the association, and transmitted to the respective corresponding members : Miss Dorothea Beale, principal of Ladies' College, Cheltenham, London, England. SiGNOR LuiGi BoDio, direttore generale della Statistica del Regno, Roma, Italia. Professor Ferdinand Buisson, professor of education at the Sorbonne, Paris, France. Gabriel CompayrS, rector of the University at Lyons, France. Sir Joshua G. Fitch, LL.D., formerly her majesty's inspector of training colleges and lecturer on edu- cation at the University of Cambridge, 13 Leinster square, Bayswater, W., London, England. * S. S. Laurie, LL.D,, professor of the history and institutes of education in the University of Edinburgh, Scotland. Dr. E. Levasseur, professor at the College of France, president of the Statistical Commission for Pri- mary Instruction. Friedrich Paulsen, Ph.D., professor of philosophy and education in the University of Berlin, Germany. Michael Sadler, A.M., director of special inquiries and reports, Department of Education, Whitehall, S. W., London, England. Hon. E. Lvulph Stanley, member of the London school board. All business having been completed, the board adjourned, Irwin Shepard, James M. Greenwood, Secretary. President. MINUTES OF A MEETING OF THE BOARD OF DIRECTORS FOR 1898-99. COSMOS CLUB. — Saturday, July 9, 3 p. m. The board was called to order by President-elect E. Oram Lyte in the assembly hall of the Cosmos Club, Washington, D. C, at 3 p. m., Saturday, July 9, 1898. On the call of the roll by the Secretary, the following named directors responded : Nicholas Murray Butler, New York ; James M. Greenwood, Missouri ; Newton C. Dougherty, Illinois ; George T. Fairchild, Kentucky; W. R, Garrett. Tennessee; Aaron Gove, Colorado; Albert G. Lane, Illi- nois; Albert P. Marble, New York; Marcellus T. Marshall, West Virginia; W. E. Sheldon, Massachusetts; Charles R. Skinner, New York; F. Louis Soldan, Missouri; J. Ormond Wilson, District of Columbia ; E. Oram Lyte, Pennsylvania; I. C. McNeill, Wisconsin ; Will S. Monroe, Massachusetts; A. S. Downing, New York; James M. Green, New Jersey; George Howell, Pennsylvania; A. H. Berlin, Delaware; John D. Worthington, Maryland; W. B. Powell, District of Columbia ; William F. Fox, Virginia; G. A. Grimsley, North Carolina; John T. Gregory, Alabama; J. L. Holloway, Arkansas; D. K. Goss, Indiana; H. R. Pat- tengill, Michigan ; L. D. Harvey, Wisconsin ; W. M. Beardshear, Iowa ; George B. Aiton, Minnesota ; Frank Crane, South Dakota; J. E. Hendricks, Montana; Miss Estelle Reel. Wyoming; F. S. Hafford, Arizona; J. H. Ackerman, Oregon; J. E. Stubbs, Nevada; J. C. Black, Idaho. Present, thirty-eight. The minutes of the last meeting of the board were read and approved. The President announced the first business of the meeting to be the election of a member of the Board of Trustees to succeed Dr. Nicholas Murray Butler, of New York. Director Lane, of Illinois, nominated Dr. Butler, of New York, to succeed himself as a member of the Board of Trustees of the association. There being, no other nominations, the Secretary, under instruction of the board, cast the unanimous ballot for Dr. Butler, and he was declared duly and legally elected as a member of the Board of Trustees for the term of four years. President Lyte appointed the following committee to consider names suggested by the board to fill existing vacancies in the National Council of Education : Director James M. Green, New Jersey. Director A. R. Taylor, Kansas. Director A. P. Marble, New York. The committee retired and subsequently submitted the following recommendations for election to the National Council, the term of each to expire in 1904 : Richard G. Boone, Ypsilanti, Mich., to succeed himself. F. Louis Soldan, St. Louis, Mo., to succeed himself. James H. Canfield, Columbus, O., to succeed himself. Frank Rigler, Portland, Ore., to succeed Joseph H. Baldwin, of Texas. L. D. Harvey, Milwaukee, Wis., to succeed Walter L. Hervey, of New York. On motion of Director N. C. Dougherty, the report was accepted and adopted, and the gentlemen named in the report of the committee were declared duly and legally elected as members of the National Council for the ensuing six years. President Lyte called for nominations to fill one vacancy in the Executive Commit- tee, in accordance with the recently adopted amendment to the constitution. The names of Director William T. Harris and Director C. G. Pearse were placed in nomination for election as member of the Executive Committee. Ballots were cast with the following result : For William T. Harris «> ForC. G. Pearse '« 39 40 .NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION Whereupon William T. Harris was declared duly and legally elected as a member of the Executive Committee of this association for the period of one year. S. Y. Gillan presented to the directors a communication from the Educational Press Association concerning the publication of the program and official notices from the officers of the association, which was freely discussed. On motion of Director. Butler, it was unanimously resolved that the Board of Directors take no action on the subject-matter of Mr. Gillan's communication. Director L. D. Harvey, of Wisconsin, offered the following resolution : Resolved, That the sum of $500 be appropriated by the Board of Directors from the funds of the National Educational Association to be used by the Library Department of the National Educational Association in investigating the relations of the public schools and publiclibraries, and in the preparation and dissemination of a report upon said relations ; said fund to be available for use by said department during the year 1898-99. At the request of Director James H. Baker, of Colorado, Director Harvey yielded the floor. Director Baker thereupon read the following communication : The National Council of Education, at its executive session on July 7, appointed the undersigned to pre- sent to the Board of Directors of the National Educational Association the following resolution : Resolved, That the president of the Council be instructed to associate with himself two other members, the three to constitute a committee that shall seek from the Board of Directors of the National Educational Association favorable action on the following propositions : 1. That the said board refer all propositions relating to educational investigations that call for the expenditure of the funds of the association to the Council for its consideration and advice, and that the board refuse to take final action in such cases until the Council has expressed its judgment. Furthermore, that all investigations for which such funds are appropriated shall be conducted under the direction of the Council. 2. That the said board appropriate $250 for the coming year to enable the Council to carry on its work. Charles De Garmo, President of Council. B. A. Hinsdale. James H. Baker. Director Baker moved the adoption of the resolution read, which' motion was duly seconded and, after some discussion, adopted. At this point Director Harvey renewed his motion appropriating #500 to the Library Department, which motion was duly seconded. After discussion, the matter was referred to the National Council of Education for consideration and recommendation, in accord- ance with the resolution previously adopted. Director F. Louis Soldan, of St. Louis, presented a resolution concerning prepara- tions for an educational exhibit at the Paris exposition in i goo, which, on motion of Director A. S. Downing, of New York, was laid upon the table until the next meeting of the board. On motion, the Board of Directors adjourned to meet at the Cosmos Club at 2 P. M., July II, i8g8. COSMOS CLUB. — Monday, July ii, 2 p. m. The adjourned meeting of the Board of Directors was called to order by President E. Oram Lyte, of Pennsylvania. On the call of the roll by the Secretary, the following directors responded : Nicholas Murray Butler, New York ; W. R Garrett, Tennessee ; Aaron Gove, Colorado ; T. Marcellus Marshall, West Virginia ; Charles R. Skinner, New York; J. Ormond Wilson, District of Columbia; A. S. Downing, New York; James M. Green, New Jersey; John D. Worthington, Maryland; J. N. Deahl, West Virginia; D. K. Goss, Indiana; L. D. Harvey, Wisconsin; George B. Alton, Minnesota; John R. Kirk, Missouri; W. L. Stockwell, North Dakota; C. G. Pearse, Nebraska; Frank R. Dyer, Kansas; J. B. Hen- dricks, Montana; L. C. Greenlee, Colorado; Mrs. E. R. Jackson, New Mexico; F. S. Hafford, Arizona; J. H. Ackerman, Oregon; O. C. Whitney, Washington; J. M. Tanner, Utah; E. E, Brown, California; W. A. Caldwell, Indian Territory. Present, twenty-six. PROCEEDINGS OF THE NEW BOARD OF DIRECTORS 4 1 The Secretary announced the receipt of a letter of resignation from Director F. B. Dyer, of Ohio, and, on motion, Mr. C. W. Bennett, of Ohio, was elected as a director, vice F. B. Dyer, resigned. The Secretary also read a letter from Mr. Hand, stating that Mr. J. F. Brown, elected as a director for South Carolina, could not serve ; and, on recommendation of Mr. liand, Mr. J. Frank Fooshe, of Blackville, S. C, was elected a director, vice Brown, resigned. Director Dougherty, of Illinois, called from the table the resolution of F. Louis Soldan, of Missouri, offered at the meeting of July 9, and the resolution was unanimously adopted, as follows : Resolved, That the Board of Directors appoint a general committee, whose duty it shall be to promote in suitable ways the preparation of an exhibit of education, showing its condition and progress within the United States; said committee to be formed in such a way as to represent all educational interests and admit of easy division into subcommittees for special work ; such committee to consist of ten state superintendents, ten city superintendents, ten presidents of colleges or universities and normal schools, ten representatives of private or denominational schools, five librarians of public libraries, and five representatives of public institutions for the education of special classes, including asylums for orphans, the deaf and dumb, the blind, and also state reform schools ; said committee to be appointed by the Board of Directors of the National Educational Association, and to meet in November upon the call of the President of the National Educational Association. On motion of Director Dougherty, the President appointed the following committee, to whom the resolution of Director Soldan and all matters pertaining thereto were referred, with power to act : Director William T. Harris, chairman; the President of the association ; Director N. C, Doiigbcrty, of Illinois; Director C. G. Pearse, of Nebraska, and Director James M.Green, of New Jersey. Director Sheldon made an informal report from the National Council to the effect that the application of the Library Department for the appointment of a committee and an appropriation of ;S5500, in accordance with the resolution of Director Harvey, of Wis- consin, offered at the meeting of the directors held July 9, had been duly considered ; that the Council had voted to authorize the president of the Council to appoint the desired committee and had further voted to recommend that the Board of Directors grant an appropriation of $500 for the expenses of this committee. A motion was made and seconded that the appropriation recommended by the Council be granted. Director E. E. White requested information as to the amounts already appropriated for similar work now in progress. Director A. G. Lane, chairman of the Board of Trustees, reported the following authorized appropriations : For the Secondary Department $500 For the Normal Department 5°" For the National Council '5° Requested for the Library Department 5°° $i,7SO After brief discussion, the motion was unanimously carried. Director L. D. Harvey, at the request of the Wisconsin delegation of active members, offered the following resolution, which was ordered to lie over for one year under the rule : Resolved, That the Board of Directors recommend to the general association that the constitution be amended as follows: Amend Art. Ill — Membership — by striking out sec. 3 and substituting therefor the following: " Any associated member eligible for active membership may become an active member upon the pay- ment of the annual dues for the current year." The board received invitations to hold the next anuual meeting of the association in Los Angeles, Cal.; Salt Lake City, Utah ; Portland, Ore.; and Tacoma, Wash. 42 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL AJiSOCIATJON Representatives from each locality were allowed a limited time for presenting the advantages of their respective cities. The result of an informal ballot on choice of place for the next meeting was as fol- fows : ist choice 2d choice 3d choice Los Angeles, Cal 20 9 6 Salt Lake City, Utah 12 11 14 Portland, Ore 8 14 12 Tacoma, Wash 3 4 3 On motion, the entire subject of place for holding the next convention was referred to the Executive Committee, with power to act. Mr. D. W. Springer, of Ann Arbor, invited the association to meet at Detroit in 1900. Director William E. Sheldon, of Massachusetts, of the Committee on Necrology, stated that Henry Sabin, of Iowa, chairman of the committee, had forwarded the report to him, with the request that it be presented to the Board of Directors, and finally to the association, and Mr. Sheldon moved that, when this report is presented to the association, it be given in abstract by the committee, and that the report be printed in full in the volume of proceedings of this convention. Seconded ; carried. On motion, the Board of Directors adjourned sine die. Irwin Shepard, E. Oram Lyte, Secretary. President. GENERAL SESSIONS OF THE ASSOCIATION ADDRESSES OF WELCOME HON. JOHN W. ROSS, MEMBER OF BOARD OF COMMISSIONERS, WASHINGTON, D. C. Within a decade the people of the District of Columbia have wel- comed and entertained such distinguished assemblages as the Grand Encampment of Knights Templar of the United States, the Grand Army of the Republic, the Knights of Pythias, the Christian Endeavor Asso- ciation of the United States, and many other national organizations. But no event of recent years has excited a more general interest or aroused a more genuine enthusiasm among our people than does the meeting of this great convention. For the first time in its long and honorable history, the National Educational Association comes to the federal capital. During many months past the people of Washington have been preparing for your reception. Our citizens, prominent and influential as educators and in the business world, have cheerfully given time and attention from their own pressing business engagements, in order to make your entertainment worthy of the national capital and in keeping with the dignity of the cause you represent. There is no community in all the land where the public school is more highly regarded than in your capital city. You are, doubtless, aware of the fact that no public money can be used in the District of Columbia, for any municipal purpose, which has not been specifically appropriated therefor by an act of Congress. But the Congress, in response to an overwhelming public sentiment, has provided for the 44,000 children enrolled in our public schools a corps of 1,143 teachers, and has increased the number of school buildings owned by the district to 117. For many years a special feature of our school system has been its instruction in manual training. This system has been so successfully taught under adverse circumstances that the Congress, at the session now closing, has authorized the erection and equipment of a building to be used solely for manual training purposes, to cost $125,000. Whatever of efficiency has marked the methods in vogue in this district may be justly attributed to the wise liberality of Congress in making appropriations for the schools ; to an able, non-partisan school board ; to faithful and effi- cient superintendence ; and, last but not least, to the impartial enforce- 43 44 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General inent of the merit system in the appointment, the retention, and the promotion of teachers. We all recognize the truth that the art of teaching is susceptible of unlimited growth and advancement ; that the teacher can and should be constantly taught new and better methods of instruction ; and that, therefore, such a conference as that now about to begin, involving an interchange of experiences and observations by the able minds her^ assembled, must be of incalculable value to all who are privileged to be present and to take a part in your discussions. In many respects your convention will be one of the strongest incentives to intellectual growth and activity incident to these closing years of the nineteenth century. As educators you are endowed with the great privilege and charged with the vast responsibility of training the minds and molding the characters of the future citizens of a republic which seems destined to enact a new and untried role upon the stage of national achievement. You assemble at the only period in our history when the boys of our homes and of our hearts have carried the flag, under whose protection they were trained in our schools, into distant foreign lands. Within a few short weeks their valor and their heroism have changed the current of human events, and have given to the young republic of the West a new place among the nations of the world. They have won victories, not alone by reason of the justice of the cause for which they fought; not alone by reason of the fact that they come of a stock not accustomed to defeat ; but, also, because they have been trained and disciplined as American freemen in American schools. And if, as now seems inevitable, it is a manifest destiny that our flag shall not be hauled down in the foreign lands where it has been planted, our people will require new lessons in statecraft and new instruction as to the duties which will devolve upon them in their changed relations with the world's great powers. Heretofore we have taken lessons only in the art of governing ourselves. Another kind of knowledge will now be required in dealing with the people who dwell in the islands of the sea. And so, day by day and hour by hour, your responsibilities, educators of America, are broadening and deepening. In your care and keeping are the future presidents, legislators, judicial officers, and diplomatic rep- resentatives of the United States. It follows that, in the whole line of human avocations, there is not one more useful, more influential, or more honorable than that one to which you have devoted your lives. The entire people of the District of Columbia extends to you a heart- felt greeting. May your sojourn in the capital city be to yourselves personally, and to the cause which you represent, fruitful of good results ; and may you carry with you to your homes and to your various fields of labor renewed love for and devotion to the government of the United States. Session^] ADDHESSES OF WELCOME 45 B. L. WHITMAN, D.D., PRESIDENT COLUMBIAN UNIVERSITY, CHAIRMAN OF LOCAL EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE, N. E. A., WASHINGTON, D. C. This is a happy hour for Washington. You will hardly take it amiss if we tell you over and over that you make us happy. Who of us does not sympathize with George Eliot when she says: "I like not only to be loved, but to be told that I am loved. The realm of silence is large enough beyond the grave" ? Our honored commissioner has already assured you that you are welcome. But .one does not quickly tire of being assured that one is welcome, and it is my glad privilege to repeat the word. The nation's teachers are welcome in the nation's capital. The place, the hour, and the man are well met in this convention. By the place I mean Washington. It is the home of the nation. The heart of the patriot thrills at the word. Wherever his citizenship may be, his home as a patriot is here. Because he is a patriot, he will give himself without stint to the municipal and state obligations that rest upon him as a citizen, but he will never forget that the shrine of his devotion and the embodiment of his hopes lie here. There is scarcely a state in the union that has not placed its mark upon the city somewhere — Massachusetts avenue. New York avenue, Pennsylvania, North Carolina, South Carolina, Florida, Wyoming, California avenues, and others by the score. As you walk about, you will find yourselves on familiar ground. It will be hard to find in the city a spot of purely local interest. Upon the same street you will find the homes of citizens from the four quarters of the country. The parks record national history — Dupont and Scott and Thomas and McPhersonand Farragutand Lafayette. The buildings, houses, are not local, but national, enterprises. The tides of interest are not local, but national. Your coming does not increase the number of the elements of which our city's life is composed — every day in the year the states from which you come are represented here. Your numbers simply make the representation more adequate. As you exchange greetings, you illustrate the fellowship of the states in their common center, for- getting time and space and difference. By the map it is forty miles from Washington to Baltimore, and 3,200 from Washington to San Francisco. Sympathetically it is no farther to the Pacific slope than to our sister city, for in both East and West love of country creates kinship which ignores geographical boundaries and makes citizenship a bond of brother- hood under which the interest of each becomes the interest of all. The story of the imperishable things in our national history is recorded here. One bares the head and walks softly in presence of them. Typical of them all is the sacred memory awakened by the city's name, repeated by the shaft that watches by the river he so loved and by whose peaceful waters he now sleeps, pledging the brotherliness of all citizens for all time by the name a nation's devotion gave him — the Father of his Country. 46 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General By the hour I mean the present. " We are living, we are dwelling, In a grand and awful time. In an age on ages telling. To be living is sublime." Behind the flare of rockets and the small boy's din, last Monday, was a spirit seen by no Fourth of July since the nation began to be. Events of the last few weeks have been i;ecording themselves upon the pages of history. More yet, they have been weaving themselves into the warp and woof of a nation's life. Great as they seem to us, it may be questioned whether we appreciate their greatness. We are still too near them to get their proportion. Their greatest significance lies in the development of national spirit. Our country is more completely one, today, than ever before. That means that we are more a nation, today, than ever before. No nation can be strong which reads its history by sections. No nation can be strong that presents too clearly recognizable types. Deplore it as we may that war is in the air, and that blood must be shed — we cannot close our -eyes to the fact that, in its latest undertaking, it is the whole nation that has set its hand to the work. It is not a month since I heard South Carolina men talking about being called Yankees by the Spaniards, and actually glorying in the name. "Dixie" stirs the people today to as wild enthusiasm in Boston as in Richmond. And in every hamlet, by every fireside, grizzled veterans and little children sing the national hymn, as it was never sung before. " My country, 'tis of thee, Sweet land of liberty, Of thee I sing ; Land where my fathers died, Land of the pilgrim's pride. From every mountain side Let freedom ring." And that is the best of it all. Our nation has been discovering itself by the larger discovery of its mission and destiny. Liberty under law is its central idea. For a hundred years we have been at work on that idea. At last it seems to be coming clear. Then only is a man free when he is able to discharge his duty as a man — no bondage without making him physically a tool, and no bondage within making him spiritually a slave. It is with a nation as it is with a man. Independence of external domi- nation and mental and moral self-control alone mark a nation as free. But such freedom destines a nation to be a leader in the world's life. The life of a free man is a call to men everywhere to be free. The life of a free people is a call to peoples everywhere to be free. When the feet of our fathers pressed Plymouth rock, a beacon was raised that ever since has blazed for the whole world. Ever since that moment the Sessions] ADDRESSES OF WELCOME 47 echo of the bells of San Bias has been bearing its message of the new dawn: " Out of the shadows uf night The world rolls into light ; It is daybreak everywhere." That is the secret of the present march of events. That is the mean- ing of Manila and Santiago. We are mistaken if we suppose that we have gone to war to feed and clothe a handful of sufferers in Cuba and the Philippines. We are mistaken if we think that all we desire is to whip Spain. Back of Spain is the power we fight — ignorance and cruelty and defiance to human rights. Back of Cuba and the Philippines are the things for which we strive — liberty for body and soul, truth, and hope for the downtrodden heart of man. The spectacle of unselfish effort for others is so new to political vision that the world does not understand it yet. We scarcely understand it ourselves. Where it will end we cannot yet see clearly. But the hands and minds and hearts which guide our destinies are the hands and minds and hearts of men brave and wise and true. Congress has shown itself worthy of the confidence of the country. A gentleman, a soldier, a statesman, a Christian represents the nation in the White House. Never before in a hundred years have we so nearly realized the immortal words of the farewell address : " Let us raise a stand- ard to which the wise and honest may repair. The event is in the hands of God." The heart of the patriot leaps at the thought that it is pre- cisely the raising of that standard that has given us, in these closing years of the century, the realization of the vision cherished thru all the years — a land unbroken by discord or sectional interest ; no North, no South, no East, no West ; one country, one flag, beneath which the citizen may be proud to stand in the presence of the whole world and say : "I am an American." By the man I mean the teacher. In a republic the influence repre- sented by the teacher is, to the last degree, important. Here personality supersedes authority. More than we think, the personal touch is shaping the life of our nation. The more a nation controls by intelligence and moral weight, the more important are its schools. It is a lesson we have been slow to learn, but we are learning it rapidly in these days, that a nation's greatness lies, not in things, but in men. We need not have been so long in learning it, for our history is full of it. The strength of New Hampshire is not her granite hills, but Webster. Vermont is great- est, not by her green mountains, but by Dewey. Massachusetts takes pride, not so much in her manufactures as in Winthrop and the Adamses and Horace Mann. Pennsylvania is rich, not so much by her oil as by Penn and Franklin. Virginia boasts, not so much her tobacco planta- tions as Patrick Henry and Thomas Jefferson. South Carolina boasts, not her rice fields, but Calhoun. Kentucky's pride is not so much 48 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General in her blue grass and blooded horses and whisky as in Justice Harlan and Henry Clay. Ohio, if asked to name her most precious possessions, would name, not her gas wells, her rolling mills, her wool, but Hayes and Garfield and McKinley. And when the -account of American greatness is made up in the days to come, the pride of the American citizen will rise most, not at the record of boundless territory, teeming population, and uncounted wealth, but at the names that are engraved beyond efface- ment on the crown of American glory — Grant and Lincoln and Wash- ington. If this means anything, it means that we are face to face with the greatest opportunity teachers ever had. The world has discovered that its riches lie, not in material resource, but in life. Material good is good only as it contributes to life. To sound this note until the whole range of human experience answers back to it is our first task. It is all-impor- tant that we get the conception clearly ourselves. We are forever in dan- ger of falling into the error of supposing that educational progress consists solely or mainly in the perfecting of material appliances. It is to be sought rather in improvement of teacher and teaching power. This will particularly appear in larger knowledge of life and acquaintance with its laws — sympathy, insight, skill, tact, adaptability. Our second task is the privilege of securing to common life its heritage. The achievements of genius illumine every page of our history. Such achievements will never be lacking. The pinnacles of fame will never remain long unoccupied. The world is only too glad to accord its meed of praise to Dewey and Merritt and Sampson and Schley and Hobson and Miles and Shafter and Joe Wheeler and Fitzhugh Lee. This is well. But there is merit that never gets into government reports or newspaper dispatches. There are heroes who are never promoted. We must not forget the value of the commonplace. Let us be true to unheralded worth ! Let us, honor the heroes of the picket and of the stoke hole ! Not only so. Our country needs just now emphasis laid upon the fact that patriotism is not confined to carrying a sword. " Peace hath her victories not less renowned than those of war." The peaceful walks of life need to be trod patriotically. There is a patriotism of the counting- house, the factory, the farm, the church, the fireside. To be loyal to the principles of sound government ; to be faithful to the demands of citizen- ship ; to be honest in the discharge of social obligations ; to be clean and pure and true — that is patriotism. Teach that to every scholar, from the kindergarten to the school of philosophy. Out from the schoolroom it will find its way up and down the land. The millionaire will learn it and will administer his wealth as a patriot. The statesman will learn it and will discharge his office as a patriot. The plow boy will learn it and will turn his furrow as a patriot. Fatherhood will learn it and will count it joy to be proved worthy of so holy a task. Motherhood will Sessions] ADDRESSES OF WELCOME 49 learn it and will teach the lips that lisp their evening prayer to frame the name of their country, making of their country and themselves a daily offering to God. So the boyhood and girlhood of today, which your faithful work is preparing for- the larger tasks of tomorrow, will offer to the world the manhood and womanhood that make the strength of nations, and furnish the largest guarantee that our faith in our institu- tions is not misplaced* W. T. HARRIS, UNITED STATES COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION, WASHINGTON, D. C. It is fitting that you hold this annual session at the capital of the nation. You meet here at an important epoch in the history of the country. The annual census of the United States in 1880 showed for the first time an aggregate of over fifty millions of inhabitants. It was a true remark, then made by one of us in a session of the Department of Superintendence, that America had now, for the first time, ascended above the horizon of Europe. We had become visible to Great Britain and its peers on the continent as a nation of equal rank, and to be taken account of in future adjustments of the powers of the world. In that year we had reached the full stature of national manhood, and were as strong as the strongest nations of Europe in numbers and wealth- producing power. After another ten years, in 1890, we found that, in effective size and strength, we surpassed in wealth-producing power and in numbers the largest of them. It has been only a question of time when we should take our place among the nations as a real power in the management of the affairs of the world ; when we should be counted with the great powers of Europe in the government of Asia, Africa, and the isles of the sea. It was a moment to be postponed rather than hastened by the patriotic citizen. When our power of producing wealth is increasing out of proportion with the rest of the world, and when our population is swelled by waves of migration from Europe, why should we be in a feverish haste to precipitate the new era — the era of close relationship with the states of Europe ? For here is the parting of the ways, and the beginning of an essentially new career. Most of what is old and familiar to us must change and give place to new interests. Once the United States enters upon this career, all its power and resources must be devoted to adapting it to the new situation and defending its line of advance. For it cannot move back without national humiliation. And it is this very summer that the hand on the dial of our destiny has pointed at twelve, and for better or worse we have now entered upon our new epoch as an active agent in the collected whole of great powers 50 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION | General that determine and fix the destiny of the peoples on the planet. This new era is one of great portent to the statesmen of America. All legis- lation hereafter must be scrutinized, in view of its influence upon our international relations. We cannot any longer have that smug sense of security and isolation which has permitted us to legislate without con- sidering the effect on foreign nations. Hereafter our foremost national interest must be the foreign one, and consequently our highest studies must be made on the characters, inclinations, and interests of foreign peoples. It is obvious that this study requires a greater breadth of education, more specializing in history, and in the manners and customs of European nations ; their methods of organizing industries, as well as their methods of organizing armies and navies. We must even master foreign literatures and see what are the fundamental aspirations of the people. This points to the function of the system of education in the future of this country. This indicates the vocation of the schoolmaster in the coming time. The new burden of preparing our united people for the responsibilities of a clos.er union with Europe, and for a share in the dominion over the islands and continents of the Orient, this new burden will fall on the school systems in the several states, and more particularly on the colleges and universities that furnish the higher education. For it is higher education that must furnish the studies in history and in the psychology of peoples which will provide our ministers and ambassadors abroad with their numerous retinue of experts and specialists, thoroly versed in the habits and traditions of the several nations. The knowledge required by our members of Congress and our executive departments will make a demand upon higher education for post-graduate students who have con- centrated their investigations upon points in international law and the philosophy of history. I»iplomacy will become a great branch of learning for us. This has been felt for some time, altho it has not been consciously realized. In the past twenty-five years the enrollment in higher education, in college work alone, has increased from 590 to 1,215 in the million; it has more than doubled in each million of people. The post-graduate work of training experts or specialists has been multiplied by twenty-five ; for it has increased from a total of 200 to a total of 5,000 in the nation. The education of the elementary school fits the citizen for most of his routine work in agriculture, manufactures, commerce, and mining. But the deeper problems of uniting our nation with the other great nations, and harmonizing our unit of force with that greater unit, must be solved by higher education, for it alone can make the wide combinations that are necessary. Shallow elementary studies give us the explanation of that which lies near us. They help us to understand our immediate environment, but for the understanding of deep national differences, and KessionsJ ADD/iESHES OP WkLCOME J I for the management of all that is alien to our part of the world, deeper studies are required. The student must penetrate the underlying funda- mental principles of the world history in order to see how such different fruits have grown on the same tree of humanity. We must look to our universities and colleges for the people who have learned to understand the fashions and daily customs of a foreign people, and who have learned to connect the surface of their everyday life with the deep national principles and aspirations which mold and govern their individual and social action. Hence the significance of this epoch in which you are assembled to discuss the principles of education and its methods of practice. There have been great emergencies, and great careers have opened to American teachers, in our former history; but you stand today on the vestibule of a still more important age, the age of the union of the new world with the old world. HON. WEBSTER DAVIS, ASSISTANT SECRETARY, DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR, WASHINGTON, D. C. Mr. President, Ladies and Gentlemen : For many years it has been my pleasure to know personally President Greenwood of your association. No man in the West has done more for the cause of education than he. It was largely thru his efforts that the public schools of Kansas City, Mo., became famous thruout the country for their high standard and excellence. And his countless deeds of charity and acts of kindness toward poor, unfortunate boys and girls, struggling for education in the years of the past, will live in the immortality that blooms beyond the grave. This association is to be congratulated on having such a noble president. Doubtless the reason for my name appearing on the program tonight is because the Department of the Interior is especially friendly to school-teachers. Secretary Bliss, tho a very handsome man, is much older than I, and married, too ; hence he has not the nerve that I have in facing good-looking schoolma'ams. But, nevertheless, he and President McKinley are about the best friends they have in this country ; for not long ago, after putting their heads together for a moment, they concluded to break the record by appointing a western schoolma'am to the distinguished and responsible position of superintendent of Indian schools. And this is all right, for any administration that recognizes woman's right to make an honest living, if she is compelled to, by hard work, and then offers a reward for her honest toil, makes no mistake. I have always had great sympathy for the teachers in our public schools; for I came very near becoming one once, but failed to pass the examination fo? a certificate^ iButs seiiioas^', they '^o" deserve sympathy; for a harder working, more patient lot ot men and women cannot be 52 NATION AL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General found. And they are the poorest-paid laborers, for the amount of hard work they do, in the world's vineyard. I have known good teachers who would walk two or three miles into the country each morning, during the coldest winter weather, to the district schoolhouse, carry in the wood and build the fires, and labor hard all day teaching the good little boys and girls, and thrashing the bad ones, all for the munificent salary of twenty dollars a month, and board themselves. While we honor the noble school trustees, who without salary look after the schools, yet we do believe that all teachers in the public schools thruout our country should be better paid. But we should not be discouraged with our lot in this world, for all things will be better by and by. To be sure, everyone at some time in this life feels that every fond ideal that gleams like a star on life's wave is wrecked on the shores of the real, and sleeps like a dream in a grave. And we often realize that — " In the spring the small boy's fancy Lightly turns to ponds and brooks, With about a quart of angleworms And a nickel's worth of hooks ; Also a ton of patience, And of faith an ample store, To withdraw the wary bullhead From his covert to the shore. And that fancy never leaves us, As we stand beside life's sea. With painted bobs seducing Great results that ne'er can be ; To discover, late at sundown. We have not attained our wish, But have traded off two pounds of worms To get one pound of fish." However, the true, brave-hearted man or woman goes forward, regard- less of the smarting cuffs administered by Dame Fortune in her peevish moments, to meet the demands of the age, the true exponent of common sense, wisdom, pluck, and real grit; devoting their time and talents to the actual needs and necessities of their country and its people. , It is upon the education of the masses that this country must depend for its still greater progress in the future. Not that education whose aim is especially to make experts ; not simply to make a man a great naviga- tor, to be able to plow the waters of unknown seas in search of unknown worlds, and nothing more; or simply to enable him to become a great classical scholar, to have at his tongue's end the writings of those wonder- ful geniuses who are enshrined in history and have been adorned by the poets with their rhythmic flowers ; not to become an expert and exact in chemistry or higher mathematics ; or to become a great geologist, to delve into the recesses of the e:a,vt}i;ai'd read its history ifi Hs* layers of rock, clay, granite, and mineral"; .<5f to become a gi6at ge'o'grapher, and able to Sewions] ADDRESSES OF WELCOME 53 give the dimensions of mountains, plains, or valleys, and the extent of rivers, lakes, and seas ; or to become an expert philosopher, who can with ease read and interpret the phenomena of nature, and place her marvel- ous wonders before the minds of men, and cause her to contribute of her stores to the comfort and happiness of mankind ; or to become a great expert astronomer, whose comprehensive mind is able to scan the universe, whose heaven-aspiring spirit is able to soar beyond the boundaries of time and discover new worlds revolving in the realms of space, to watch them in their journeys, to view them in their grandeur, to tell the story of their past history, and to prophesy of their future. It should not be the object of education to tax to the utmost the tender minds of the young by drilling into them Greek and Latin, compelling them to wrestle with Xenophon's Anabasis and Caesar's Commentaries, before they can read McGuffey's old English second reader ; or require them to master Horace and Livy, Virgil and Homer, before they can understand the pure English of Hume or Macaulay, Shakespeare or Milton, or before they are able to read intelligently the federal constitution and the Declaration of Inde- pendence. Nor is it the aim of education, as Professor Huxley would teach, to make a clear, cold, lo^ engine of a man or woman ; for that always wrecks manhood and womanhood ; or, as Matthew Arnold would teach, to make a man a Greek of the age of Sophocles, to bring in by literary culture that old age of "sweetness and light" and of "sweet reasonableness." No, it is not the aim of education to make of man or woman a shriveled, selfish, dyspeptic, sniveling, hunchbacked, intellectual genius ; but its real object is to develop human power, to make complete, thoroly finished men and women ; to make the intellect the best inspirer of the heart and the servant of the will in all noble work ; in short, to make good, first-class men and women, who are able tg hold their own in the great battle of life. For a nation's wealth consists, not alone in its broad domain and its natural resources, but in the intelligence and virtue of its citizens. Its nobles are not the men of royal birth, but the men of sober thoughts and righteous deeds. ' • In the public schools of this country the men and women must be educated who, under God, are to guide the old ship of state to a still more glorious destiny thru the beckoning seas of the future. That future demands that these schools shall be liberally supported, so that all citizens shall be sufficiently instructed to fit them for the manifold duties of good citizenship. The public school is, indeed, a priceless boon to every poor man, for it will give his children a chance for elevation in our social and political systems. And the American farmer and laborer should realize that it is the very ark of his safety, the bridge across which his little ones may reach place and power and higher planes of usefulness in life. It is, indeed, 54 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General the Aladdin's cave wherein they can find the bright jewels of education that will fit them to be sovereigns and rulers in the grandest of republics. Parsimony to the public schools means death to all the grand hopes of free labor ; death to all the wonderful possibilities in store for the children of those who toil. Liberty is not the child of ignorance, super- stition, and barbarism, but the child of intelligence and of education. The love of liberty is a passion that has been wont to spring in the hearts of men since time began ; so soon as their minds began to expand under education, however crude, in their breasts the fires of liberty began to burn. In all centuries and in all lands that passion has lived and defied rocks and chains and dungeons to crush it. It has strewn the earth with its monuments, and shed undying luster on a thousand fields wherein it has battled thru the night of ages. And there seems to be something in the scenes of nature in this new republic, something in its beautiful landscapes, in its cascades and cata- racts, in its luxurious vineyards, and orchards full of bud and blossom, in its waving fields, and in the dim vistas of its mighty woodlands ; in the beauty of bud, of bird, of tree and flower, and in the pure and exhiliara- ting air of its hills and mountains, that kispires its children with an ardent love for liberty and knowledge. As in the olden days, when the imperial eagle looked down upon a consolidated empire, from the Orient to the Occident all roads led to Rome, so now in the passing centuries, in this new world of vaster extent and more varied interests, all roads lead to this republic ; whatever there is elsewhere of thrift, of energy, of educa- tion, of culture, and of progress — this republic gathers tribute of the harvest. Here is the reservoir of the world's wealth, and of the world's energies. Here are collecting the ■ great intellectual forces of the nations. Why is it that Egypt, with her pyramids and temples, stony records of the dawn of history ; Greece, with her wondrous works of art, her power and renown, with her temples and statues crowning the Acropolis, and the golden splendor of her Athens ; and Rome, with her grandeur and might as an empire, when contrasted with this republic, in this evening of the nineteenth century, dwindle into mere fragments of history ? The answer is to be found in the ever-increasing intelligence of the people, behind whom stand the public schools. With continued efforts to increase the opportunities, and to stimu- late a stronger desire in the minds of the people, for education, what marvelous progress may we not expect of the generations of the future? " Oh, royal mind, nor cease thy flight, While sun and stars dispense their light, And roll in grand array ; And when those orbs shall cease to shine, When suns decay and stars decline, Let onward progress still be thine, And upward hold thy way." Sessions] ADDRESSES OF WELCOME 55 All honor to the noble men and women who toil in these public schools. Let a grateful nation show a due appreciation of their work by cherishing those institutions still more in the future than in the past. And let us love our country and all its institutions more and more as the years are lost in the eons of time. And let us rejoice today that sectional lines have entirely disappeared, and that we are a reunited people in fact as well as in name. For our soldier boys — God bless them ! — the sons of men who marched in ragged blue and tattered gray along war's crimson highways, are now fighting side by side in foreign lands for the same country and the same starry flag. Some of those boys left their northern homes to go to the front sing- ing: " The star-spangled banner, oh, long may it wave O'er the land of the free and the home of the brave ! " And some went away from their happy homes in the sunny South with the sweet melody upon their lips : " Away down south in Dixie, In Dixie's land we'll take our stand. To live and die in Dixie." But when the war is over, and the God of our nation has brought the eagle of victory to nestle with the sweet dove of peace upon the banner of the stars and stripes, our brave boys will return to the land they love, and a grateful nation will join them in a mighty anthem that shall fill the world with melody, until the forest isles will echo the strain, and mountains and valleys reverberate the glorious song ; until it will be heard by the liberty-loving people in the islands of the seas, and will startle tyrants on foreign thrones, as we shout our jubilee : "The union of lakes, the union of lands, . The union of states none can sever, The union of hearts, the union of hands. And the flag of the union forever." 56 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General ADDRESSES PRESIDENT'S ADDRESS BY J. M. GREENWOOD, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, KANSAS CITY, MO, The present educational tendencies in the United States, so far as an active sentiment has formulated them, are fitly expressed by the word "tempest-tossed." They may also be likened to a series of half-finished anatomical sketches, rather than to a gallery of well-arranged and accept- able portraits. All educational movements are felt more as a pervading and permieating force than as a formula of definite convictions, logically wrought out and broadened and deepened by an enlightened process of intelligetit discrimination. Out of this ferment good will come, as the settling-down and purifying process is carried forward scientifically. No American educator has been bold enough yet to clamp copyright on all these collisions. While we may not be very far from the vanishing point of positive knowledge in some directions, yet, by a method that is very simple and very hard, we are certainly striving for knowledge that is very high and very low. Movements and countermovements mark the gen- eral upward tendency on the dial plate of progress. Have we not done wonderful things with coal, iron, the vapor of water — with chemistry to paint pictures, and electricity to talk for us ? Is not the human mind, in all its aspirations, the fabled octopus ? Is it not, also, at times, verging near the unhinged intellect of England's aged king — loosened from all law, delivered from all fear, and asking strange and unbidden questions of Deity himself ? Proverbial as is our genius for invention and adaptation, it is not a matter of surprise, but rather of congratulation, that the thinkers of America should attack simultaneously the same educational problems from different viewpoints. A thousand minds begin at once to examine any new issue as it is raised, oftentimes without taking pains to ascertain whether it be a recent discovery, or an old device under a new garb. It is an inspiring spectacle to see a young and vigorous nation, moving within the domain between ignorance and vast knowledge, impelled by a conviction that somehow the destiny of humanity is borne forward on its shoulders. Such a nation, then, as ours is now becomes the channel thru which a lofty influence is transmitted to other nations. Yet, after a careful analysis of the trend of the best educational thought in this country, it must be admitted that we have settled only a Sessions] PRESIDENT'S ADDRESS 57 very few issues of any permanent value ; but that we are adjusting the child to his new conditions, and yet holding in trust his spiritual posses- sions bequeathed from former civilizations. We are beginning to discern what those possessions are, and how they are adapted to the entire ' circle of human knowledge. Like the swans on St. Mary's lake, " each theory floats double," each birth is twin. But, on matters educational, the American mind too often partakes of the nature of skates — hard to steer. Better thus than where members sit in rows and knowledge flows in uninterrupted streams from worn-out sources. A nation, like an individual, may manifest great energy in many directions, or only in a limited sphere, as did the prophets of old. The general trend of educational thought in the United States has been, with rare exceptions, more in the line of practical affairs and the general level- ing up of the masses than taking into account a very high grade of scholarship of those who would be the recognized leaders in the most advanced departments of intellectual research. The general diffusion of knowledge among all classes has been the means of giving a broader degree of intelligence and a sturdier form of independence to the great mass of the American people than any other course that might have been chosen. As a nation of intelligent men and women, the Americans are probably the most versatile; but width does not always imply depth. Few, comparatively, possess what may be tech- nically called the scholarly instinct. While the nation has displayed remarkable energy in many practical fields of industrial and commercial activity, it has put the educational machinery in motion and left it to run largely by virtue of its own momentum. The argument is usually made that we have been too much occupied in providing the necessaries and a few of the luxuries of life to raise up any considerable number of scholars ; that our brightest minds have turned to other fields that prom- ised fuller and more substantial returns. Such, for instance, as in states- manship ; power to project gigantic enterprises, where immense sums of money are required ; to subjugate nature ; to bring distant countries near together ; to make new discoveries in the applied sciences and industrial arts ; to build uj) a S3^stem of complex institutions, requiring the highest degree of governmental administrative functions ; to shape into permanence a nation of marvelous resources in all the practical details of many-sided life. Disjointed as the words in a dream, yet, when we put the resources of this nation together, their greatness has hardly yet dawned upon us. Whether it be owing to the fact that we have not that' leisure class which can devote its time to thoughtful investi- gation, or an indifference to such subjects, is a question that well deserves more than a passing notice. Possibly in some remote manner this con- dition is dependent upon our form of government. However, the pres- ervation of our own country depends upon that deep, abiding hope, fed 58 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General by a perpetual desire for national immortality, which burns in every Ameri- can heart. On the other hand, there has grown up with our history a sort of practical belief that, unless an education can be converted at once into a pecuniary value, it is hardly worth striving for. It has not been held, until very recently, that the highest order of scholarship was the goal to which the American youth should strive. Our colleges and universities at first did not propose to establish such severe tests as were required in the old world for graduation. This had its influence on the public mind. Then came the era of elective studies — rather an easy way of letting one get a degree somewhat cheaply. Whether this departure is in the direc- tion of sound scholarship will be fully determined by results. As the case was tersely put a year or two ago, " to do nothing, or to do noth- ing hard," is a question of some magnitude. When an American student goes to one of the great European univer- sities, if qualified when he matriculates, he is as capable of doing the work required as any of the young men of foreign birth. Admitting this to be a correct statement as to the natural ability of our young men, then the difficulty lies in what is required in our leading institutions of learning. Whether our higher institutions of learning have not indirectly contributed somewhat to" this condition of affairs by opening wide the doors for the admission of all kinds of students may well be questioned. The tendency at present is to foster more profound investigation, and to secure a higher grade of scholarship. This tendency is regarded as a favorable omen everywhere. How far a still more complex civilization can be ingrafted upon the people of this country, and they continue to retain those elements that have produced our civic and material greatness among the nations of the earth, is a subject that challenges the best thought of this country. Whether a civilization should be something imposed from the outside by external agencies, or the expression of energy inherent within the people themselves — an outburst of their own nature into a substantial growth — marks the broad lines which distinguish national vigor from decay. Historians for centuries have busied themselves in marshaling facts to show what elements had crept into the lives of ancient and modern nations that produced decay and death. Nearly all records preserved of olden times are but a series of guesses at the same great law. Startling theories are advanced in some quarters now, and boldly maintained, that we are deteriorating with a rapidity never before known in the world's history. It would seem that one result is inevitable — to bury the nation and pronounce the funeral oration, according to the philosophy of these pessimists. Such argue that competition is so keen, excitement is so intense, and individual life is so burnt down to aches, pains, and disap- pointments, that nothing is left us but to die decently. From the strained Sessions] PRESIDENTS ADDRESS 59 and broken intellectual and physical relations it is argued that the nation is on the verge of collapse, and national death is written in large letters over the faces of our people. While the external conditions of our people may be changed in many different directions, the social life remains practically unimpaired. But when the social conditions are changed or greatly modified, a complete transformation becomes possible, and serious consequences may ensue. If it be true that the changes which have occurred have uprooted the old vitality which they displaced in the social life of our people, then it will have, if it has not already had, a deleterious effect on the nation at large. Whether a change has been beneficial or hurtful, or will be bene- ficial or hurtful, the simple test is whether it had its origin in the minds of the people themselves, or was it imposed by an outside agency ? The most highly developed systems of civilization are the highly artificial ones — the farthest removed from the natural man. No nation living close to nature has ever borne the burden of a complicated civilization and pros- pered. As a distinguished writer well said : " We may make a dead house and call it civilization." This subject apparently resolves itself into one chiefiy of brain activity and mental comprehension. To state this principle under another form : how much more education can a nation receive than its immediate ancestors ? or, passing to the indi- vidual, how much more education can he acquire than his father had, or was capable of receiving ? This answer will be modified by particular circumstances ; but when it is applied to the mass, the answers would be tolerably uniform. Very careful researches tend to establish that from a tenth to a quarter more ideas may be put into each generation without any appreciable deterioration of mind or body. Granting this to be true, then any attempt to force a large number of ideas into the brains of one generation in excess of that of the previous generation will produce weakness instead of strength, and especially when nearly all the new ideas are of a quantitative nature. What effect our new inventions and improve- ments may produce upon the thoughts and habits of the American people I will not attempt to predict. It is the effect upon the average mind that I am concerned with just now, and the vast majority in this country are average men and women. Whether a nation can be developed in its brain power beyond a cer- tain degree without great danger is a physiological question which is now engaging the attention of specialists everywhere. They will answer the inquiry in due time. Real education, no doubt, can lead the mind out to a natural growth, but what kind of leading this should be in order to preserve the people from weakness is getting to be a very serious matter, which requires the most consummate skill to handle wisely. Is there an education which causes deterioration of brain power ? Can it be judged of by its effects 6o NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General upon those races which are regarded as being lower in the scale of living than are the nations of Europe and their descendants in America? Whatever "accomplishments have been imposed upon them by a supe- rior race -have not materially improved their condition. The contact of European civilization with lower races has proved, in most cases, a detri- ment. This fact is significant. If lower natures copy the faults of the higher ones, and not their virtues, then they have been leveled upward in the wrong direction. If deterioration is produced by putting too great a strain on the mental powers of the lower races, by a like parity of reason- ing, the brain power of the highest and most civilized races will deterio- rate when unduly stimulated beyond the point of effective resistance. Instead of judging other nations by our own standard of civilization, and attempting to have them conform to our ideals, it would be a safer method for us to study more carefully the present civilizations of other nations, and, if they are declining, to ascertain the causes thereof, and then to fortify our weakest lines accordingly. Our civilization is one among many others, and while it may be strong in many directions, and the best one adapted to our needs, it would require modifications before fitting it to others, influenced by different circumstances. Evidently the success of any civilization depends far less upon any preconceived theories than upon the condition and receptivity of the people themselves. Another element of weakness in our educational system, as it is administered, is that of instability ; and, by virtue of the presence of this fact, it is one of the most serious drawbacks to uniform progress, and it results from a lack of standing on a firm basis of authority which intro- duces a certain degree of incoherence into its actions, and prevents the establishment of that kind of an organization which works with regularity, precision, flexibility, and caution. Under such restraints, clearness and precision of will and intelligent guidance of all educational efforts are enfeebled, leading to indecision as to aims and purposes, and hindering that exercise of carefully planned work, and prohibiting and greatly restricting that degree of forethought, which are necessary to eminent suc- cess in all great undertakings. In theory the school represents the whole body of citizens, but this impartiality is, in part, illusory, owing to the very nature of our mode of administering affairs. While the schools are maintained and adminis- tered ostensibly in the interest of the whole, they are largely in the hands of a majority, oftentimes weak, precarious, and variable, and existing con- ditions are always threatened by a rival and tinged by a constant dread of losing what has already been accomplished. Here enter rival claims and conflicting interests, and whichever set succeeds, no difference how high-minded and how far they stand above any purely personal or pecu- niary interest, they can hardly escape making some sacrifices to the party which elevated them into power. Everyone knows how fatal such pre- Sessions] PRESIDENT'S ADDRESS 6 1 carious possession is in any undertaking which requires the very highest qualities of human insight, when it has to deal with an administrative organization designed to affect helpfully large masses of people. When all the interests of society, on^ the one side, are balanced against the prop- erty interests of a division of this same class, on the other, and the interests of all the children are set over against the former class, while the property interests also are guarded^ it is evident that immediate and present interests will invariably overbalance those higher and more important interests which lie somewhat distant in the future. When present interests run counter to future interests, tho the future may be far more desirable as well as more beneficial, except in those rare cases in which educational bodies hold practically a life tenure, as the officers of endowed colleges and universities, a temporary expedient is invariably chosen as the one to bridge over the present emergency. There is one compensating principle, always active, that needs to be considered in all public work bearing on this point, and that is the senti- ment of honor with which many school officers and teachers are inspired. They are aware of the presence of the opposite party, severely critical and oftentimes merciless, and this puts those inside on their best mettle in order to deserve and to hold public confidence and respect. As powerful a stimulant as this motive is, and while it ought to be operating all the time, yet it is not conducive to the development of those scholarly traits which foster sound learning for its own sake. From the foregoing reflections it is inferred that, until the public schools are freed largely from this impediment, clashing of interests will prevail to such an extent as to preclude the highest and completest form of educational work in this country. CIVIC INFORMATION Ought there to be a time for practical, political instruction in the schools of this country, at which time the boys and girls should be taught certain duties in regard to civic life? At the close of the rebel- lion the constitutional side of this question came into prominence, and it still holds its interest. Flippantly we speak of rights', duties, and privileges, without stopping to analyze closely what these terms mean when applied to an individual in a private or public capacity. Each child in America is born into a legally constituted government. He comes more or less in contact with the institutipns popularly called government. As soon as he is able to run about, he meets restraints, and he learns of uses and limitations. At the postoffice he gets a glimpse of the national government thru the postmaster, the letter carriers ; and his knowledge is widened, too, by seeing stamps, letters, postal cards, papers, etc. Thru policemen, con- stables, justices of the peace, judges, 'and other officers, a confused 62 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General notion of the power and the authority of the state — how laws are enforced, 'and how lawbreakers are punished — a vague concept of duty and its responsibilities, is formed in the child's mind. Not far from this period, notions of trespass, larceny, and other crimes, civil and criminal, emerge into consciousness, and from choosing persons to assist him or to work against him in his plays and games a crude knowledge of the formation of political machinery is developed. All these things come to the child by degrees — steps from which he must infer a great deal. At election times he hears much said about this party or that one, this candidate or that one, and this party vote and the other, and so on. But as he advances in years, he may not advance in wisdom in those smaller things which touch life on many sides. He may learn from, the constitution of the United States, or from the constitution of his own state, in a general way, how the Senate and House of Representatives are organized, but as to the actual working of either body he may remain in dense ignorance all his life. Legislative bodies have their methods of working thru commit- tees and otherwise, which the average citizen never understands, much less the child, unless he gets other knowledge than is usually written in books. To illustrate this more fully and forcibly : How widely different are our laws in regard to elections from the actual details in preparing all the machinery, conducting the campaign, selecting voting places, poll-books; appointing judges, clerks, challengers; numbering, distri- buting, scratching, folding, depositing, and counting ballots ! No description can convey this information adequately ; one must go thru it to know it, and familiarize himself with all the details. In parliamentary and legislative matters working bodies should be organized in the upper grades, and a bill pushed thru its various stages till it becomes a law. In short, let the children assimilate this kind of knowledge and convert it into the faculty of doing, remembering, as Emerson says : "When the soul breathes thru the intellect of man, it is genius ; when it breathes thru his will, it is virtue ; when it flows thru his affections, it is love." ART EDUCATION There is a rapid awakening of the American people in all sections of our country on the subject of fine and industrial art education, and this is a hopeful sign of national progress and of permanent prosperity. Its full development will make the lives of our people richer and more enjoyable. We are at the beginning of what will expand into all that the most ardent advocates of art education now regard as remote possi- bilities. As Dr. Deems said upon one occasion, when speaking of what Peter Cooper had done: "It will live in history, it will live in develop- ment, and it will live in transmission ; " and, more than this, it will live in the hearts and homes of our people. Sessions I EDWARD AUSTIN SHELDON 63 It is not too much to hope that industrial and art education will become potent factors in settling equitably the somewhat disturbed social and economic conditions of this country. No thoughtful citizen forgets, for a moment, the ominous so.unds that every now and then come rum- bling to the surface indicative of the spirit of un-est. Certainly it is the part of broad and comprehensive statesmanship to take notice of such* danger signals. Instead of exerting our highest forms of mental energy in attempting to connect the active present and the unknown future with a worn-out past, it behooves us to solve the problems of the present with* reference to their bearing on the future. The life of a century or two ago, except to mark progress, has no great hold on the issues of the present, and the farther back, the less vital is the connection. This cen- tury has been richer and fuller and higher and grander than all the centuries from the fall of Adam to the death of Washington. All the great agencies of modern civilization are of recent origin. To face reso- lutely the future and its possibilities, and stand unfaltering by our country and sustain her honor, stability, and prosperity, is the duty of every educator. LIFE AND CHARACTER OF EDWARD AUSTIN SHELDON BY CHARLES R. SKINNER, STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, NEW YORK When a fellow-laborer in the educational field lays down his burden, it seems fitting that those who live after him, and who have been inspired by his character, should pay a tribute to his memory. My theme tonight is the life and character of Edward Austin Sheldon. One year ago he met with us at Milwaukee. Tonight the waves of lake Ontario sing a requiem to his memory in his eternal sleep in the city in which he did his greatest work. For more than half a century he gave himself, body, soul, and spirit, to the work of education. Courageous, sincere, enthusiastic, patient, persevering, he overcame difficulties, removed obstacles, won victories, where others with judgment less cool, with zeal less intense, would have been disheartened and driven from the field. New York mourns him by the highest right. It was New York state which gave him his great opportunity, but his aims and efforts were so universal, the grasp of his hope so broad, that no local limitations could bind him. We of New York rejoice that these fifty years of service were given to education in our own state, and that we are the inheritors of the fruit of his labors. No man can live a noble life for threescore years and ten, and work in educational fields for fifty years as Dr. Sheldon worked, without 64 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General leaving his impress upon the world, and exerting a powerful influence upon his state and country. His life work was not revealed to him in a vision. His way was not pointed out to him by the finger of fortune; his problem was hidden in the quarries, the solution of which must be drilled by trial and disappointment, and blasted by unremitting effort. He found the law uncongenial, business ventures unprofitable, and the ministry a field too narrow for his ambitions. He found not his work in these professions. Around him were multitudes of the poor, whose con- dition arrested his attention and touched his heart. To help them he organized a school, and on a salary of $300 per year began his first teaching. He had found his work, and he determined to know it. Horace Mann, Henry Barnard, and Edward Sheldon all attempted other pursuits, amid constant disappointments, before becoming what nature intended them to be — educators. Education and its wonderful possibili- ties became the inspiration of their lives. Enthusiasm for and consecra- tion to the purposes of learning gave them fame. Loving friends have told us the charming story of his useful life. They have told us of his Puritan birth, of his home and its congenial surroundings, of his early struggles, his college longings and experience — - how he came to Oswego to meet his first discouragement in business ; how he became interested in the free-school movement which he was compelled to abandon ; how he organized the schools of Syracuse and gave them an impetus they still feel ; how he was called back to Oswego by the free-school party ; how he laid his plans for advanced instruction in the principles and methods of teaching; how, in spite of fierce oppo- sition and ridicule, he steadfastly interested state and country in object- teaching, and established it forever as a mighty force in education ; how, believing in patriotic citizenship, he offered his services to his country to preserve the union which he loved ; how his plans developed into a school for the training of primary teachers ; how the legislature came to his aid in 1862, thru the sympathy of the state superintendent; how, in 1867, the Oswego Normal School was accepted as a part of the great normal school of the state; how for thirty years he worked "like a Her- cules," as Carlyle says, as its principal ; how he resisted tempting offers to honorable fields elsewhere, preferring to finish his work here ; how he was called into other states to assist in organizing method schools upon his plan ; how men and women were attracted from every county and state and country to come within the charmed circle of his influence, and how they became instruments in extending that influence and in organizing similar schools in other states and countries ; how, inspired by his growing success, institutions were founded to uplift the colored people of the South ; how echoes of his influence came from the repub- lics of South America, the Sandwich islands, and from far-away Japan ; how his methods received the indorsement of the National Educational Sessions] EDWARD AUSTIN SHELDON 65 Association — a grand achievement, indeed; how he wrote the books which have helped others and extended his power for good ; how at the great Columbian exposition he was an honored figure in educational deliberations, and received a medal of honor for his beloved institution "for excellence of equipment, method, and wise usefulness;" and how, finally, discouragement gave place to hope, and defeat was crowned with glorious victory. Surely the "end crowned the work," and patient, self- sacrificing service had its reward. Do we ask if such a life, with such a character woven into it, had an influence upon our educational theories and methods ? It was more than influence — it was inspiration. Always holding high ideals himself, he inspired others with lofty purpose and noble ambition. He transmitted to others hope, and faith, and resolution, and many men and women today confess that whatever of success they have attained in teaching children they owe to his inspiration and influence. Dr. Sheldon was distinguished for his purity of character, for his zeal as an educator, and for his persistent, progressive spirit, even to the last day of his life. His good judgment, his simplicity, his earnestness, his devotion to principle, were the bulwarks of his life. What he believed to be right he fearlessly defended in the face of opposition which would have crushed a man who had less faith. He was conspicuous thruout New York state and thruout America, not alone for his scholarship, but for his thoro grasp of sound educational principles and correct methods of teaching, for his power to penetrate an educational proposition and fix the value, for his ability to detect a fault or recognize a virtue in educational method. He did not claim to be a profound student of technical branches of learning, but his education was strong because it was broad, generous, and humane. What he knew he knew thoroly, and he made splendid use of his knowledge and his training. The central thought which moves us now is that he was the first great advocate in the country of the proposition that children should be taught according to certain fixed natural laws which always have governed and always will govern the development of children and determine their pos- sibilities. Believing in the doctrines of Pestalozzi and Froebel, he was their most distinguished representative in this country, and the first to point out the necessity of observing in the training of children certain unchange- able laws of nature which could not be violated without spoiling life. Mythology made nature an enemy and pictured it in hideous forms. It was reserved for modern philosophers and Dr. Sheldon was one of these — to regard nature as a friend and not an enemy — something that should be studied and loved. He believed that every child represented nature as much as a tree or flower, and should be studied and taught by natural methods. He believed that education is a growth, a natural develop- ment— not adding to, but bringing out by proper method; that children 66 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General are not all to be measured by one standard or governed by one law, or their character and usefulness in life determined by the arbitrary rules of per-centum calculations and estimates. He said of his work many years ago : " In this plan of studies the object is not so much to impart information as to educate the senses and awaken a spirit of inquiry. To this end the pupils must be encouraged to do most of their talking and acting." In 1873 he said, in an address to the students at the Genesee Normal School : " I may judge your work by a standard which you do not recognize. I cannot determine the education of a child by its ability to answer questions in a given way. These answers may be learned from books. Rather let me ask a ques- tion to which they have not learned an answer from the text-book, and let them give an answer in their own language, from their own thought." Was this the new education ? Whether new or old, it worked a revo- lution in educational methods — in the proper treatment of the children. When the world became convinced that object-teaching was related to the happiness of its children, when it was certain that it could not be laughed down nor stamped out, this school and Dr. Sheldon's efforts becarne centers of observation. They were the Mecca to all teachers who had been led to believe there was a simpler, better way to' teach children. His work led educators to give attention ; and, when they began to think, conviction came. It was not a momentary flash, a passing thought or fancy, but a settled conviction. He was always in earnest, and, because he was in earnest, he convinced the thoughtful and won victories. He bravely defended the convictions of his own con- science on intellectual battlefields, which he never left except as conqueror. Thru his work and his influence in first attracting attention to this new principle in the education of children he helped to lay broad and deep the foundations of a system which will never again be questioned 01 attacked, but which today recognizes the power and scope and the possi bilities of the kindergarten as a living, vital force in education, and places it within reach of millions of our children. It is no longer an experiment, but a settled fact, and we now know what it means to lead children early to think and do for themselves. Beyond this, the influence which he exerted thru all these years has led our educators into other avenues of thought, and the principles which he advocated have developed well-organized plans of investiga- tion. As a result, whatever is practical or valuable in child-study and nature study, as we find them, comes thru his teaching. If his influence was felt in the proper education of children from a child's standpoint, so it has been exerted for more than a generation over those who taught the children. In all his teachings he believed that in the development of the true teacher there must be, not only broad scholarship and professional training, but behind and beyond all this Sessions] EDWARD AUSTIN SHELDON 67 must be the true spirit of the teacher. He taught his teachers to be inde- pendent and self-reliant — to work out questions for themselves, and not depend upon text-books. In this way his teachers learned to teach inde- pendence and self-reliance to their pupils. We claim today that we have in the common schools of New York state a better knowledge of real educational methods, a better knowledge of correct educational principles, more teaching with heart and soul in it, and less form. If this claim is well founded, we owe much of the excellence of our schools, the spirit of our teachers, improved methods of instruction, to the influence of Dr. Sheldon, exerted upon the men and women whom he taught in this school and whom he led to higher ideals. The reproductive and perpetuating power of a great teacher makes his influence felt for long generations. His methods, aims, spirit, Ii'fe, inspire thousands to like him. His physical power, his mental qualifica- tions and training, his moral culture, his spiritual development, carried out into thought, word, deed, form, character, make life. These fashion the teacher into what he is, and must be. A teacher's influence is what he is impressed upon the pupils, school officers, parents, the community, the state. If the teacher is honest, sin- cere, true, upright, manly, noble, his influence partakes of his nature. If the teacher is pure, loving, virtuous, pupils consciously or unconsciously catch the teacher's spirit and become like him in motive and life. If the teacher is earnest, progressive, seeks always high and worthy aims, pupils go out from his teaching to perpetuate his methods and to reproduce his character and example in themselves. Dr..Sheldon's influence will live and be powerful for years, when even his name may be forgotten. Teachers whom he taught will have visions of what he never saw, and will teach other teachers to whose sight even better things will come — a progressive and stimulating vision whose beauty and usefulness shall never end. Dr. Sheldon's quiet, peaceful, loving spirit, his patience, his courage, his consecration to his work as an educator, will live in the history of his pupils and in their devotion to duty. He was emphatically a teacher of those who taught teachers and made others realize the value and dignity of a true teacher's life. Behind his profession, behind his work, stood the man. His sterling manhood shone out in all he did thru his whole professional life. As an author of educational works he breathed his sympathetic spirit into his books, and the influence of his thought and personality went wherever his words were read ; and who can tell the power of a written word, conceived in the hope of helping others? Thru the printed page he multiplied his influence over teachers and pupils, and perpetuated his power. His advanced thought, his clear statement, his mastery of the subject, and his conscientious purpose made him as successful in touching the lives of his readers as in personal contact with those he taught. 68- NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General In the educational associations of the state and country he was always welcome, and took a deep interest, not only in promoting their objects, but in the discussions which they furnished. Even if his associates differed with him, they admired his rugged sincerity, his earnestness of purpose, and the courteous bravery of his gentle speech. He was everybody's friend ; he had no enemies in the educational field, and was never pro- voked in debate beyond the bounds of kindly firmness. The influence which he exerted in these associations was always in the direction of higher standards. His last educational visit was at Milwaukee, where his face, like a loving benediction, smiled upon those who gathered in the National Educational Association, a most familiar figure ; and my last look upon my friend was as he mingled happily with the vast concourse of educators which gathered there. We speak of great centers of light and heat, and their influences upon what they touch — upon nature, upon man, and field and flower. Dr. Shel- don was one of these great centers. The light of his life penetrated the atmosphere of many a life which touched his own, and this light will shine on for years and ages, and be transmitted to bless generations which he will never see. We who are left should rejoice that our friend did not outlive his work. He died with his armor on, and entered into the pres- ence of the God he loved and worshiped with soul still stirred with affec- tion for the institution which he builded and to which he had given so bountifully of mind and hand and heart. Surely he must have entered upon that higher life with blessed memories of work here which has given him so much happiness. His last days were occupied with plans and hopes for further useful- ness to the institution with which he had long been identified. If a per- sonal allusion may be pardoned here, let me say that these hopes formed the subject of my last conference with Dr. Sheldon. He discussed plans for raising the standards of admission and establishing a higher course of study with all the zeal of a man who still had faith in the future, and his good heart was full of hope in anticipation of still grander achievements and greater usefulness in his profession. The fifty years which lay behind him were an inspiration rather than a memory. His face was always toward the rising sun. His ideas will not perish. They have taken too deep root. It is for us, then, as we feel the influence of his life, his work, and his friendship, to carry on the labor for education and humanity which he left unfinished. We who knew him well, and were with him in spirit and heart, must fol- low him in the path made easier and more luminous for his zeal and enthusiasm. That which Frederick Douglass said of the immortal Lincoln may be repeated of our associate : " He could receive counsel from a child, and give counsel to a sage. The simple approached him with ease, and the learned approached him with deference." Sessions] EDWARD AUSTIN SHULDON 69 He loved his work and put into it all the strength of his calm mind, tender heart, and trained understanding. His enthusiasm for his profes- sion was so infectious that no one whose privilege it was to counsel with him could fail to be strengthened and helped. His greatest charm was his simplicity. Modest in his estimate of his own abilities, he was upheld and sustained at all times by the sincerity and integrity of his own aims and principles. With the lapse of time his fame as an educator will grow greater, and his name will stand among the masters of learning who have given the best service of their lives to the uplifting of humanity thru education. There are two classes of educators — the worker and the inspirer. Dr. Sheldon was both. It was a touching tribute to his memory published on the day of his death: "The life he lived is nobler than anything that could be said of him. If we would correctly measure the man, we must measure the things he loved. He loved his home, he loved the children, he loved his country, he loved nature, and he loved his God. "His love for these things — home, humanity, God — explains our love for him. He was kind and gentle and pure. His life was rounded and benign. In his teachings he kept step with civilization, progress, education, and virtue." He builded his own monument while he lived, and his truest epitaph is written on the hearts of those who knew him best, as husband, father, preceptor, and friend ; who were aided and inspired by his daily example and his beautiful life. The brave, patient, high-hearted man no longer walks with us in the pathways of learning. He can now give to the fulfillment of his own work only the hallowed inspiration of his memory. His associates who witnessed his struggles will cherish the memory of his devoted life, and the younger generations of teachers who have been inspired by his example will long sound his praise. Proud as we are of his fame in his own city and state, we rejoice that the great work of his life was in no sense local or limited ; that it was as large as liberty and as broad as humanity. His name and fame, therefore, are not the treasures of New York state only, but the possession of the nation. The historian tells us that, when William of Orange died by the assassin's hand/ the little chil- dren cried in the street. The children of New York, whose school days have been brightened and made happier by the work of Dr. Sheldon, are not crying, perhaps, but they are putting their pennies together to build a monument to him who was pre-eminently the friend and helper of children. When we meet next year, I hope to be able to report that the first public monument ever erected to the memory of an educator in the Empire State has become an accomplished fact, and bears the honored name of Edward Austin Sheldon. 70 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General We who knew him will cherish the memory of the great soul that dwelt in a form so gracious; the sustaining strength of personal friend- ship ; the achievements for education with which his name must be ever blended; the consecration of a life in tender sympathy with mankind — all these are far too precious to be lost from our memories, or permitted to perish from our traditions. We who are gathered together in the name and cause of education — confessing the benediction and blessing of a life like his — may well pledge ourselves to higher effort, that we may approximate more nearly the moral courage, the spotless integrity, the all-embracing humanity, the unselfish devotion of personal powers to ethical ends, which were the living glory and will be the lasting fame of that great educator, and friend of little children, Edward Austin Sheldon. THE ESSENTIALS IN UNITED STATES HISTORY TO BE TAUGHT IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS BY WILBUR F. GORDY, SUPERVISING PRINCIPAL, HARTFORD, CONN. The great aim of education is to reveal physical and human life to the individual, to the end that he may understand his relations to them. All-important questions for every individual to answer are these : What am I ? What is the meaning of the world of physical and human nature surrounding me, how am I related to it all, and what are the possibilities of my life ? From early childhood to the end of life we seek the answer to these questions in order that we may learn how to live rationally. We are ever seeking more life, and we truly educate others when we impart life. A pertinent question for this paper to answer is, How does history aid the individual in understanding himself, his rights, and his social obligations to his fellow-men ? In other words, What practical value has history in elementary schools ? To answer these questions we need merely call to mind the true nature of history. It is a study of the human will, of 'which actions and events are but the expression. Events are the material facts which constitute the real truth of history. These material facts are nothing more than the language of the feelings, thoughts, inclinations, and motives of men, acting individually or collectively. Were the men honest, noble, and true ? Had they worthy ideals — high conceptions of life? What were their joys and sorrows, their successes and disappointments, their hopes and aspirations ? His- tory concerns itself with men's ideals, and records the never-ending con- flict of these ideals. Sewions] UNITED STATES HISTORY IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 7 I In these considerations we see the educational — the practical value of history to the individual life. We study the lives of men, as such lives are revealed in history, in order that we may learn how to live ourselves. Their lives furnish us a "vicarious experience," illuminating our path- way and serving as means of warning or inspiration. We study the past that we may interpret the present and prepare for the future. The function of both the writer and the teacher of history, therefore, is to explain the meaning of human life by means of the language of actions and events. Each event aids to get an impression of the under- lying truth, the character of the impression depending upon the character of the event. It follows that much depends upon the selection of facts. The historian, even when writing for adult readers, must select his facts with the nicest discrimination. With far greater care must the teacher of history in the elementary school select typical facts which shall aid the pupil to get correct impressions of the truth. The guiding principle of the teacher, then, should be the nature of the facts rather than their number. We have already seen that this principle must be adopted by the historian, even when writing for the purpose of developing thoro scholarship on the part of the mature stu- dent. But the development of thoro scholarship thru the acquisition of a considerable body of facts should not be a dominant motive in ele- mentary schools. In these grades only a short time is devoted to the study of history, and during this time many other studies are also pur- sued. Under such conditions a large knowledge of United States history cannot be acquired. Higher aims than mere scholarship should claim serious attention. If, for example, the pupil acquires an interest in his- tory; if he learns to read it in such a way as to appreciate its meaning ; if, in a word, he so learns to interpret the meaning of events as to live.in imagination amid the scenes of the past and make its heroes his com- panions and teachers ; if such results follow his study of history, he has at his command the means of a continuous self-education of far more value than any number of mere facts indiscriminately memorized. From these considerations it follows that only typical facts should be selected for use in elementary schools, and should be treated with suf- ficient fullness to make their meaning easily grasped. Then history becomes interesting because it is vital — because it enriches the life of the pupil. But the vitalizing power of history is not secured by the mere selection of typical events. The writer and the teacher of history should be just as careful in so grouping them that their causal relations may be readily seen. Yxoxn one point of view events are causes ; from another, effects. If the logical connections are made prominent by intelligent grouping, important events can be given due prominence, unimportant ones can be dropped out, and history as a growth can be easily understood. 72 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General With these principles to guide us, we may now consider a little more in detail the essentials in United States history to be taught in elementary schools. Only a very little need be done with the early discoveries — just enough to indicate how America came to be discovered, how it received its name, and how it was proved to be a distinct continent. When, however, America had been discovered and named, the great struggle on the part of the leading commercial nations of western Europe for control in America began. The four nations most prominent in this struggle were the Spanish, the English, the Dutch, and the French. Pertinent questions to be answered in the study of this interesting strug- gle are such as these : What were the aims and ideals of the parties to this struggle for control of the territory now belonging to the United States ? Why, in the end, did the Spanish, the Dutch, and the French fail and the English succeed ? To answer these questions only a'small number of typical events are needed. If these are grouped about promi- nent leaders like De Soto, Raleigh, Hudson, and La Salle — all of them representing the aims and ideals of the countries they served — the story will be a thing of life appealing to life. If the principle of selecting truly typical events be adhered to, the narrative may be made brief and simple. Before taking up the most important chapter in this struggle for con- trol in what is now the United States, however — I mean the long series of intercolonial wars between the French and the English- — life in the Eng- lish colonies m_ust be considered. It is a waste of time to study all of these thirteen colonies in detail. A just allotment of time urges the use of typical facts in representative colonies for the three groups. Virginia and Maryland may represent the southern group, Massachusetts and Connecticut the New England group, and New York and Pennsylvania the middle group. The all-important thing to keep in mind is that we wish the pupil to realize something as to what kind of people the colon- ists were, and what kind of lives — social, industrial, political, and religi- ous— they lived. What were their manners and customs, their dress, their houses, their modes of travel and communication, their industries, their religious worship, their attitude toward education ? How did soil, climate, and physical conditions influence their lives and occupations ? In short, what kind of people were they, and what were their views of life in their new homes in America ? This special study of life in the colonies may be well made to cover the time from their settlement to 1689. ^J the use of three groups of representative colonies, the pupil can study the three parallel streams of colonial history without being lost in the mental confusion that must result from a strictly chronological treatnient of the thirteen colonies considered separately. Then, too, by comparison and contrast of the life of the people in one group with that in the others, certain Sessions] UNITED STATES HISTORY IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 73 definite and peculiar cKaracteristics of the people in each group may be distinctly traced. At this point I would emphasize the value of the study of some care- fully selected facts in the history of the pupil's own state. For many reasons, which space limitations forbid me to discuss here, I would earnestly recommend the teaching of local history in our elementary schools. Having followed the history of the English colonies to 1689, we may well pause to consider the significance of this date, which marked a turn- ing-point in American history. Up to this time there was little but a narrow, provincial spirit in the colonies. In a large measure each had selfishly gone its own way, without much regard for the others. But after 1689 three sets of historic forces — Indian wars, troubles with the French, and difficulties with the royal and the proprietary governors — by degrees brought the colonies into more sympathetic relations and prepared them for union. At this point, then, we may logically intro- duce the Indians and may wisely confine our attention to those east of the Mississippi. A few well-chosen facts about these people and their manner of life will prepare for the intelligent consideration of their influence upon the colonists, especially as the outcome of the fur trade and wars. The Pequot war and King Philip's war will suffice for illus- trations of the nature of the Indian warrior, and of the general character of all their wars with the whites. Just before entering upon the study of the struggle between the French and the English for control in America, the logic of history calls for a consideration of French explorations, especially in the St. Lawrence and the Mississippi valleys. The vital relation to this struggle of the Iroquois Indians, whose friendship and fur trade were secured by the Dutch, and whose bitter enmity was, thru Champlain's unfortunate gunshot, secured by the French, should be made conspicuous. These remarkable Indians played a very significant part in the conflict between the two great European rivals for empire in America. To explain the real meaning of this struggle, only the last of the four intercolonial wars — the last French war — need be studied. Its causes, a few of its significant military events, and its lasting results should claim attention. Why Braddock failed, and why Pitt and Wolfe led England on to victory, suggest moral lessons of untold value to students of human life. Pitt and Wolfe were great leaders, because they represented the highest and best in the people they led ; they represented the noblest ideals of all England. Since those ideals were higher than French ideals, France was forced to give way to England in America. In the study of the royal and the proprietary governors, attention should be mainly concentrated upon Berkeley in Virginia and Andros in New England. These men, earnest in their efforts to carry out the wishes 74 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Genera of their royal masters and truly representing in America the Stuart tyranny in England, were important forces in preparing the English colonies for united resistance to England in the Revolutionary War. In studying this war we shall wisely do more with causes than with military details. "George III. and Personal Government," "William Pitt and Taxation without Representation in England," and " George III.'s Attitude toward the Americans " are highly suggestive topics. So are "Samuel Adams and no Taxation without Representation" and " Patrick Henry with His Stirring Words, ' Give Me Liberty or Give Me Death.'" In discussing the causes of this momentous revolution, we should clearly bring out the truth that it was not so much a struggle between two peoples as between hostile principles in each of two countries. No more important truth can be taught than this, that there are two sides to every question. Certainly, in teaching this war, we should try to present the facts as they were, and not as they have been so often misrepresented. We shall wrong the young if we appeal to their prejudice rather than to their sense of justice. Only a part of England was opposed to us in the American revolution. As to battles, a small number, like Lexington and Concord, Bunker Hill, Long Island, Trenton, and the principal events leading to the sur- render of Burgoyne and of Cornwallis, will suffice to explain the real character of the struggle. Washington's trials and difficulties and the suffering soldiers at Valley Forge may well be made to teach lessons of the highest moral value to the life of every boy or girl. After learning the results of the revolution, the pupil will be led to see why the confederation broke down. He should carefully note the lack of power in Congress, which constituted the central government. A few salient topics will serve to bring out this important fact and will pre- pare him to appreciate the need of the constitution, and also its funda- mental principles. He might well give special attention to a few of the important differences between the articles of confederation and the constitution. Thus far we have been studying the question. How did the United States come to be ? The revolution brought independence, but not union. The constitution brought union, but not that strong, compact union that exists in 1898. The young republic was weak — so weak that it had not the respect of the great powers of Europe. For twenty- five years after the constitution went into effect, the United States was engaged in a struggle — mainly commercial and diplomatic — with Eng- land and France. No large number of facts need be taught that the pupil may know what this struggle meant. Of course, it culminated in the war of 181 2, which resulted in our political independence of Europe and prepared the way for the Monroe doctrine, containing an outline of the foreign policy of the United States. Sessions] UNITED STATES HISTORY IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 75 But while the struggle was going on with foreign powers, there was an equally significant one going on at home between two political parties, with hostile theories as to the true meaning of the constitution. Shall the federal government be supreme over the state ? Shall there be a liberal construction of the constitution, so as to grant large powers to Congress and to the president? Hamilton said, " Yes ;" Jefferson said, " No." Each of these men was sincere, and each was truly representative of a large political party. When these great political leaders passed away, they left behind them these same hostile political ideals, each strug- gling to overcome the other. But other leaders came to the front and bore aloft the standard of their followers. These leaders were Daniel Webster, who took the place formerly occupied by Hamilton, and John C. Calhoun, who took the place formerly occupied by Jefferson. These giants fought with mighty energy, using in the struggle the weapons that had been forged by their predecessors. In time Webster and Calhoun passed away, and Abraham Lincoln and Jefferson Davis stood at the head of their respective armies of followers. Under the new leaders argument and persuasion were dropped. Each side rushed to arms and engaged in a terrible civil war. Of course, after 1820 slavery bore a most important part in all this struggle and should receive a due share of attention. How it came to have a place here, its industrial value in promoting a more rapid develop- ment of the South, its civilizing effect upon the negroes, its moral aspect, and its influence in leading the South to engage almost wholly in pro- ducing the great staples of cotton, rice, sugar, and tobacco — all these phases of the slavery question, as helping to explain the causes of the Civil War and as aiding the pupil to appreciate the great race problem in the South today, should be presented briefly and simply in American grammar schools. Such questions are not difficult to understand. In connection with the considerations of slavery, much should be made of the influence of soil and climate upon the course of history. The rapid development of slavery in the South, under the impetus of cotton growth and the use of the cotton gin, is a most striking example of the intimate relations between physical conditions and industrial, social, and political institutions. Another noteworthy illustration of the intimate relation existing between man and the physical conditions surrounding him is to be found in our westward development. It has been well said that up to 1890 American history was largely the colonization of the West. Certainly the bitterness between the North and the South was about the question of extending slavery into territory lying west of the Mississippi. Now, in the West, the prairie lands, so fertile and so easily brought under cultiva- tion, invited the laborer to begin life anew, where he could get a good farm for almost nothing. The railroad encouraged westward emigration 76 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General by making the transportation of emigrants and goods rapid, easy, and inexpensive. It is interesting to observe that nearly all of this westward emigration was from the North. Moreover, when these western people began to find a market for their corn, wheat, and other produce, they traded with the North, because the North had what they needed. The North and the West found mutual profit in trade, and, having common interests, they soon found themselves having common sympathies, com- mon political aims and purposes. Very naturally, when the clash of arms came in 1 86 1, the West united with the North to preserve the union. The part played by the West in the Civil War and the reasons therefor are most vital to a right understanding of our national history. Con- nected with the development of this significant movement, prominence should be given to western settlement, western life, the difficult prob- lems of connecting the East and the West, the influence of the plains, of canals, rivers, alid railroads, and so on — all of which can be put so simply as to be made very interesting to the pupil. The importance of the Civil War is not likely to be overrated, but the character of the fighting may be easily understood by the study of typical military events, such as the battles of Bull Run, Shiloh, and Gettys- burg, the naval duel between the " Monitor" and the "Merrimac," and the capture of Vicksburg. The influence of the emancipation proclamation, and the relations between the North and England and France, are of vastly greater significance than military details. The manhood of the nation, as evidenced by the heroism on the part of both the Blue and the Gray, is worthy of special consideration, because it will prepare the youth of today for the sturdy, manly work always required of true Citizenship. But for this purpose a few typical events, made interesting, are worth far more than thousands of insignificant skirmishes, battles, and other mili- tary minutiae. Only a brief space remains for the discussion of the years intervening between the close of the Civil War and the present time. The Civil War abolished slavery ; it declared the nation to be supreme over the state. But new and difficult problems required solution in the days of recon- struction. The American boy should know some of these problems, for they will aid him in understanding the meaning of the South of today — the new South — a topic which should be presented with a due apprecia- tion of its importance. There is a new West also. What is that, and how has foreign immi- gration affected it ? And how do the arid region and irrigation affect it and the country at large ? But there is more even than a new South and a new West. There is a new union, very different from the union that was sectionalized by slavery. What is that new union, as brought about by the Civil War and as largely modified by important events since the war ? I admit that the Sessions] UNITED STA TES HISTOR Y IN SECONDAR Y SCHOOLS 7 7 difficulties of getting at the truth here are very great. We are too near the history of these years to get a right perspective of the events that crowd them, 'But we are certain of the significance of some events, because of their intimate relation with present problems. Grant's peace policy of dealing with the Indians may well be used in connection with some study of the reservation system and the Indian problem of today. Something should be done with such topics as the great exhibitions, as bringing out the wonderful advance we have made in art, invention, wealth, and education; something with the meaning of, and progress made in, civil-service reform ; something with the labor strikes, as indica- ting the strife between labor and capital ; something with the ballot- reform movement, in the interests of a better understanding of the rela- tion between honest voting and good government; something with the tariff question, as one of the vital issues of the hour; something with silver legislation, as an aid to an understanding of what money really is; and something, also, with the foreign relations of the United States, especially in connection with the England-Venezuela controversy and arbitration. For the coming voter, and the coming woman as well, will serve their country with greater intelligence if they get even a few meager ideas of the relation of the United States to other nations. American boys and girls should learn that the country of which they are a part has, like themselves, moral responsibilities and duties, and that it can never realize a high destiny in the world by a mere increase in popu- lation and advance in material prosperity. With considerations like the foregoing before him, the pupil is brought face to face with some of the vital problems of the hour, and of his relation, as a citizen, to the right solution of these problems. And here we reach the goal of all the study of his country's history. He has learned what his country has done for him. Is he willing to make a suitable return in loyal, obedient service ? Has the legacy left by Wash- ington and Jefferson, Webster and Lincoln, enriched his life by giving him nobler ideals of citizenship ? In a word, is the sum total of his life larger because of the in-pouring of other and greater lives ? If so, he has indeed realized in himself the true spirit of history. THE ESSENTIALS IN UNITED STATES HISTORY TO BE TAUGHT IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS BY PRESIDENT HOMER H. SEERLEV, STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, CEDAR FALLS, lA. The statement of the topic assigned for discussion announces that the form and character of United States history, as a branch of study, are such 78 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General that it is necessary to select the more important parts for assignment to the course of study for secondary schools. The quantity of matter pos sible to be used is so great and the quality so varied in value, as a neces- sary part of a liberal education, that it is very desirable to determine, if possible, the features that should be deemed as characteristically promi- nent in educational value. The determining of these so-called essentials has been attempted by competent and authoritative scholars and educa- tors time and again the past few years, only to be soon reopened for rediscussion and readjustment. This association has also attempted several times to solve some of these problems, and has published great reports as conclusions on these public educational questions, only to find its ideals and notions either rejected or disregarded by those in control of affairs — the educational world apparently going along the same as before the documents appeared. It is certainly discouraging to find these proclamations as to policies and plans unrecognized and unacceptable, even if not unknown and unappreciated. No doubt, these great reports have had marked effect upon public education, yet it must be acknowl- edged that, considering the greatness as educators of the persons selected to do the assigned work, and considering the very excellent way in which their work was done, these reports have not had the expected effect upon present-day courses of study, since those in authority d.o not see fit to depart from custom and put into use the wise suggestions. These generalizations, when published, still need, of course, to be practically and prudently worked out — a most difficult task ; indeed, so difficult that it is not to be wondered at that public sentiment still seems to be in sympathy with a condemned public practice, and that the views of the philosophers of the present are, as those of yore, ahead of their time and unable to be put to use by the practical people among whom they live. The fact that progress and reorganization, in so huge a movement as public education in America, are necessarily very slow and tedious is often overlooked. That much can be effected in readjustment and in modifi- cation during one generation cannot be reasonably expected. Reform movements in education which expect to accomplish great things in a few years must always be disappointing, as such results are impossible in a country where the people finally determine all things, and where even educators are recognized as being only a little wiser and more trust- worthy, even on educational problems, than are school officers and com- mon men. Now, the course of study in the schools of America is the voice of the common people, and is not, in fact, the opinion of the educators. The sooner this truth is recognized and accepted, the better for all concerned, as the problem of reform and improvement could then more easily be solved in a practicable and possible way. United States history came into the public schools by common consent after the great national controversies of 1850-65. The people believed that the boys Sessions] UNITED STATES HISTOK Y IN SECOND AR Y SCHOOLS ^ 9 and girls of this great republic would be more in harmony as men and women on the true principles of freedom, and also the functions and meaning of government, if they rightly knew the history of the founding, the developing, and the protecting of these free institutions. It was believed that patriotism could be developed thru acquaintance with the story of the sacrifices made by the forefathers, the triumphs accom- plished by the past heroes, as well as the sufferings entailed by strife and discord. The public demand became so strong that, in a few years, almost all public schools gave some attention to the teaching of United States history. It has been continued regularly since, tho greatly modi- fied in form and object in many important particulars. The first histories prepared for public schools, at the beginning of this reform movement, forty years ago, were based on the idea that the chief function of such history teaching should be to show that it cost much in life and treasure to establish, preserve, and maintain republican institutions. These early authors of school histories were closely in touch with the public spirit of the times, and their books had one supreme object, the indoctrinating the pupil with such parts of the nar- rative of men and events as would make prominent the story of trials, sacrifices, and accomplishments. As a consequence, much attention was given to the early days of colonization, the perils of the primitive settle- ment far removed from civilization, the meaning of abandoning Europe and making a home in the wilderness, the struggle with the savage popu- lation under adverse conditions, and the wars and strife with the mother country, as well as the victories of the new ideas of liberty and individual- ism that were promiaent among a people far removed from the influences of a different civilization, and the old ideas of government and law. Therefore, the war idea, the struggle idea, the sacrifice idea, the patriotic idea, was paramount in these early histories, and the essentials became centered around much that was story, nmch that was interesting, and much that was inspiring. The idea of making history scholars, critical students of policies and problems, was not the end and object sought. These lessons were not made up of acquirement of facts and dates ; they were not full of economic, civic, and social problems; the examination idea was entirely subordinated to the spirit idea, and the end to be sought was accomplished, if the emotions were touched keenly, if the heart was trained to beat sympathetically, if the inclination was prominent to feel the claims of the country upon the life, if the enthusiasm was apparent to stand for home and government and native land. This system of instruction may have been barren in scholarly fullness, it may have been unsatisfactory in scholastic tests, it may have been lacking in power of discipline ; but it had its prominent redeeming features that the present teacher of history, as well as the present writer of school text-books, can well afford to consider thoughtfully, and to some extent employ. 8o NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General Following this early work, after the public dictation had subsided, the schoolmaster and the chronicler came upon the stage and began an inside revolution. The scholastic notion assumed more control, and history was assumed to be an end in itself, not alone a means to an end, such as the first treatment had accorded it. The texts were revised to suit the new plan, and there began in the schools a learning of isolated facts and dates and events that was really a retrogression from the spirit of the beginners in history teaching. Classification, analysis, and outlining became empha- sized, and the learning of these characteristics became a passion that is rarely excelled for blind submission. The essentials became then the names of men, the exact dates of specific occurrences, such as admission of states, inauguration of presidents, battles fought, legislation passed, and important measures undertaken. The test of a good student was no more responsive feeling, like patriotism, but ability to remember exactly the encyclopaedic facts and state them in exact order. The good teacher became, not the one that could inspire and encourage, that could arouse interest and enthusiasm, that could develop patriotic conceptions; but the one that could so arrange devices and outlines, and so secure dis- cipline thru marks and personal exactions, that the pupils would become encyclopaedias ready to be consulted by anxious inquirers — prepared to say who, where, when, how, what, without end. Since the time of John Sturm, at least, the teacher's province seems chiefly to have been, not to question the province of a branch in the course of study, not to try and find the function of education in civiliza- tion, but to invent some cunning and powerful methods and management whereby the greatest amount of subject-matter could be taught in the least time with the least labor. Of course, such a treatment of a living subject could have no less an effect upon public opinion than, after a time, to produce a reaction and finally compel a complete readjustment. It is certainly acknowledged today by the mass of thoughtful people that such an object in history teaching is unworthy of public approbation, and that a more reasonable and useful selection of the essentials is necessary, or else such study must fall far short of doing for the child what the Ameri- can public sentiment actually regards as the supreme end. Out of this chaos of dissatisfaction has developed recently an attempt to retrieve the past twenty years and again return to first principles, seek- ing patriotic citizenship and living enthusiasm as the true end to reach in all history teaching. From this reaction has come, therefore, a great expansion in the field of United States history work, until the narrative in the text-book is required to cover civic, economic, sociologic, philo- sophic, and educational studies. History work today attempts, not only to tell the story of civilization, but also to interpret the problems involved, to ascertain the ethical content concealed, to portray the philosophical trend of thought in the body politic, and to point out the way to govern- Sessions] UNITED STA TES HISTOR Y IN SECONDAR Y SCHOOLS 8 1 mental safety, reform, and reconstruction. The aim is, therefore, not only to have history study make good patriots in times of great national danger and develop good citizens in times of peace, but also to make good men, good thinkers, and good scholars out of the pupils who pass thru the public-school curriculum. This makes the essentials so many in number that the old course of study cannot admit them ; this calls for such lines of differentiation and correlation that the time able to be granted will not be absorbed in needless facts and unimportant details ; this demands such discretion on the part of the teacher that special preparation to teach the subject is an absolute necessity. The old way of selecting any fair scholar to teach history will not now suffice. The very indefiniteness of the things to be taught calls for the most careful con- sideration, while the manifoldness of the object to be attained upon the life of the pupils makes the task a great one. What the essentials ought to be in the present-day course of United States history for secondary schools depends, therefore, entirely upon the quality of the teachers that do the work. If the teacher does not possess the real historical spirit, if he does not have himself the proper civic emotion, if he does not himself possess the genuine patriotic disposition, if he does not acknowledge and feel the sincere ethical object of human life, he cannot teach properly and successfully the detailed essentials so that the actual work planned is accomplished. There is no other branch in the course of study that calls for as much originality of conception, that needs as much individu- ality of interest, that requires as much wisdom of insight as to means and methods, that exacts as much breadth of knowledge united with a keen discrimination as to differences in values of thought and conclusions from the teacher, as does that of history. The possibility of such a variety of courses in history is so great, the ways of conducting the progress of the work can be so many, the things to be accomplished can be so different at the same stage, the choice of materials and method is so important at all stages, that the teacher, the guide thru this maze of civilization, should be able to rise to this greatest of great privileges in educational work and become a master, indeed, of all the gifts of personality, insight, and judgment, so that the work may become a real inspiration to the pupil and produce in charac- ter, in tone of life, and in supreme affection the inclinations and the tend- encies that are a true response to the public demand for genuine educa- tional results. There must be much variation in the essentials to be taught, as there are essentials and essentials, as there are teachers and teachers, and classes and classes — there being, indeed, no one selection of essentials that can be able properly to supply the universal need of the pupils to be educated. Since this is so, the necessary curriculum can only be satisfactorily determined when the class status is known and the teacher determined, and, until the public recognizes the need of a history 82 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General teacher being a specialist of specialists, the work of teaching history and the results of teaching history in secondary schools will be very unsatis- factory. Outlines, plans, and methods, the mechanism of the school, can- not be a substitute for the thoughtful, critical, inspiring teacher; and the mistake of modern effort in many educational lines is the attempt to sub- stitute organization and some form of supervision or direction for prop- erly balanced and qualified instruction. Uniformity of matter, or of method, or of plan of development, or of scheme of instruction, may give a beautiful and attractive system, but no one, nor even all of them, can insure the necessary spirit, the real character, or the required effi- ciency. On the scholarship, the skill, the training, and the ability of the teacher alone must depend the final solution of the assigned problem. DISCUSSION U. G. Palmer, county examiner, Oakland, Md. (discussing Principal Gordy's paper). ^ — The theoretical is often far from the practical ; and equally as often is it impos- sible to make the theoretical practical. And yet, if there were no .theoretical, if there were no ideals far beyond, and perchance out of reach of the real, how commonplace would the real become ! My desire is to enter into the discussion of this subject, as it practically affects the great mass of common -school teachers of our broad land — that class of teachers with whom I have directly to deal, and who make up the rank and file of our great teaching fraternity. On the objects of teaching United States history depend the essentials. If we wish to master the facts of history simply for the sake of the mastery, then, in my judgment, his- tory becomes to the school curriculum what the skeleton is to the study of physiology — a mass of dry bones. History is the study of the motives and inspirations of men, as manifested in their deeds and actions. There is a cause for every event of history. The events are the results. TheteacheV of history must trace back from the event to its cause, and the student should be directed properly in doing this work. There were motives in the minds of men for these causes. Behind all, something prompted all things. If we can grasp the primary motives, how simple it becomes to master the events ! They are the logical sequence. No other events could follow such causes. The teacher of history must be versed in human philosophy. It needs a mind of greater discernment successfully to teach elementary history than it does to instruct in Greek or mathematics. History is a science. It should be taught as such. But perhaps it is not necessary to prove this to pupils. Man is the unit in this science, as hydrogen is the unit in chemistry. Out of the mind of man sprang all history. A century ago the institution of human slavery was prolific in our soil. The Puritan and the Quaker increased and multiplied. American history became a series of compro- mises between the exponents of an absolute right on the one hand, and the Old Testa- ment advocates of the sunny South on the other. Right will always prevail. " The sun in his course across the continent no longer rises on a master or sets on a slave." The motto of the American mind today is, "Onward and upward." We not only banish oppression from our own shores, but we are practically answering the question, "Am I Sessions] DISCUSSION ON UNITED STATES HISTORY 83 my brother's keeper ?" to the end that every throne in Europe, before the close of another century, will have problems too difficult for its solution. The history of human slavery for the century ending with the rebellion is the history of the South — its career and develcJpment. The agricultural and commercial develop- ment of the mighty West for the past decade is the history of the American people. Environment in both instances has played an important part, and is a factor in all cases on which history- making depends. The nation — the composite citizen — has its infancy, youth, manhood, and old age, the same as the individual. Our infancy is the period of exploration and discovery. The colonial period is our childhood. These epochs are of importance to us in teaching the essentials of United States history only in the light of their bearing on our youth and manhood ; and only such things are necessary to be taught. The teacher can rivet the attention and sharpen the appetite for history by setting forth in bold perspective the marvelous things in the exploration, settlement, and expansion of our country ; and too much importance cannot be attached to the educational value of the creation of a thirst in the pupil for a comprehensive understanding of the philosophy of history. Scholar- ship and culture are the result. From a purely national standpoint our country was born in 1776. She came forth like Minerva when she sprang from the brow of Jove — of mature years and development, fully equipped for her mission. All before was prenatal culture, altho extending thru infancy and childhood. Then began our wonderful growth in expansion and develop- ment, only temporarily impeded by wars, panics, and internal dissensions. What a phe- nomenal development the student of history has to record — industrially, socially, and commercially ! The history of this development is the history of our country. Man is the prime factor ; environment his assistant. We read of the administrations of the various presidents, the wars with Great Britain, Mexico, and the Barbary states, of the panics of 1837 and 1873, of the purely national topics of politics and finance. But they are to the great stream of industrial, social, and political development what the rivers running thru the land are to the mighty ocean — only the merest tributaries. All hail the teacher who can, with cultured eye and generalizing mind, grasp the whole field of history and, looking beyond the mere events of a day or a place, lead the student to comprehend the purpose for which our nation was born and why she lives, and teach the broad principles of history, the events of which are but natural results. God speed the day when our common-school teachers of history may " trace clearly the relation of cause to effect, appeal constantly to the reason rather than to the memory, and from the first lead the pupil to see and to understand the philosophy of history." Somebody has said that the three eyes of history are geography, chronology, and biog- raphy. The eye is the surest avenue of knowledge. Hence the map should be the teacher's vade mecum in the history recitation. Geography and history go hand in hand. The former exerts an untold influence on the latter; therefore it must be taught with it. And there are some dates which constitute the A B C of history. The student must know them. What would we be today if there had been no 1492 and 1776? Inasmuch as men make history, and the lives of men and history are identical, how fascinating and essential become the biographies of the leaders among men! History without great men is impossible. History surely has three most effectual eyes in geography, chronology, and biography. One of the paramount duties of the teacher under republican institutions is the teaching of patriotism — love of country. And what a land this is for that purpose! The intelligent subject of no prince, king, or potentate on earth can breathe the pure air of this land of liberty for a twelvemonth without being imbued with its freedom-inspiring principles. The subject of a monarch who changes his citizenship to that of another monarchy never loses his love and sympathy for home and fatherland. Not so with the 84 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General man who comes to us and becomes an integral unit in our political system. For example : My nearest neighbor was born and educated in Germany. He was drilled in the kaiser's army. He is a veteran. He served in the Franco-Prussian war. He was at the siege of Metz. But he is an American citizen. When Germany congregated her seven warships at the Philippines, his prayer was that Commodore Dewey might send them all to the bottom of the Pacific. And with all the means and material we may use we must not lose sight of the pupils. There is an inspiration for them, inciting them to the highest ideals, in letting them know that they are the best the world ever produced. They are the product of 6,000 years of existence. In their veins courses the blood of kings and queens and bards and sages — the greatest the world ever saw. They are the lineage of Adam and Noah. Their forefathers were the kith and kin of Caesar and Alexander. It behooves these boys and girls that they act as their noble heritage demands. They are the blossom and the fruit of the world's best endeavors. We must see that they know and appreciate these facts and govern themselves accordingly. W. C. Lansdon, principal of high school, Fort Scott, Kan. (discussing President Seerley's paper). — In my judgment the essentials of American history in secondary schools may be discussed under about four heads : the spirit, the method, the subject- matter, and the results. From the study of American history in secondary schools, in the spirit that has been advocated here before you, we gain a broader and more general view of the subject than at any time heretofore in scholastic experience. No secondary school should undertake the study of American history without the assistance of a thoroly equipped library ; with the assistance of the library, the methods of the labora- tory may be applied and the desired results obtained. In determining the subject- matter there is a considerable problem before the teacher. If the details of history have been well studied in the elementary school, the pupil is ready to investigate the principles that underlie the development of the political institutions of the republic. My own custom is to take up the constitutional and political history of the republic, deferring for the time being, except as incidents, the study of the wars that have occurred ; for, after all, the wars are but the results of disagreement upon political ques- tions, and we can get a better conception of the meaning of the political principles over which men have quarreled by studying the principles than. by the study of wars. The political institutions of America are not ready-made for this continent, but have their roots away back in the history of the human race. A few days or weeks may be profitably employed in studying the origin and develop- ment of the system of local government, out of which has sprung the federal govern- ment which we enjoy today. After the preliminary study of fundamental principles of democratic government, the next essential subject to which the pupil in the secondary school should be directed is the history of the formation of the union. The secondary school should trace thru all its stages the development of the principle of federation, which resulted in the adoption of the constitution in 1787. The New England federa- tion ; the plan proposed by Franklin during the French and Indian wars ; the Stamp Act ; the first and second continental congresses ; the articles of confederation, which suc- ceeded the close of the Revolutionary War and preceded the adoption of the federal constitu- tion ; the formation of the constitution, its coinpromises, the discussion of it, and the result finally reached -by the adoption of that instrument — these, in their turn, it is essential that the student of American history should carefully study in the secondary school. From that time forward the political history of the United States, until i860, and all of the great political questions that disturbed our people, and caused turmoil during that period, hinge about a special question as to whether that constitution that was framed in 1787 should be interpreted broadly or strictly. Out of that grew two or three other questions. When Washington became president of the United States and Hamil- Sessions] DISCUSSION ON UNITED STATES HISTORY 85 ton secretary of the treasury, and the first cabinet was orKanized, there was practically no division along political lines ; but in the very first administration the people drifted into political parties, and there was much discussion of the financial plans pro- posed by Hamilton. When we study the financial history of the United States, and the history of this republic as related to the institution of slavery, we shall discover about all there is to know concerning the development of political institutions, and the separation of people into political parties. From Hamilton's time to i860 the people of one section of the country believed in the doctrine of strict construction of the constitution, not because they had any previous prejudices in that direction, but because it was to their interest to believe that way. People in another section believed in a liberal interpretation of the constitution, because it was to their interest to believe that way. So this apparently fundamental difference among the people of the United States as to constitutional interpretation, in a primary sense, in my judgment, grew out of different and conflicting interests that were largely due to one or two institutions. Trace thruout this, period from 1789 to i860 all the various changing political views, and the wars as incidents, and the pupil will get some adequate conception of our his- tory during that period. This method of study that I have briefly suggested for the pupil of the secondary schools will give all of the history desired, and, in addition, the culture that a student acquires from the study of history. The scientific method of studying history does not consist in the acceptance by the pupil of everything laid down in his text-book. The investigation of questions in history by reading a number of books, of those who have made the study of the subject, inevitably leads the pupil to compare systems and analyze them as to their worth, and finally to reach a higher intellectual plane in his generalization, and to think for himself. The future citizens of the republic must be better qualified to deal with the great political questions, and, unless the study of history clothes the pupil with this power, we have, in my judgment, almost totally failed in our object. From i860 until the present time the history of the republic is much more largely industrial, social, and sociological than political, and it requires a higher type of study to grasp these subjects than the political questions which arose prior to that time. I have examined courses of study from secondary schools from every part of the republic, and you have no idea what a large number of them consider it not worth while to study American history. The high schools have just begun to awaken to this subject. I believe the gospel of American history should be preached by this associa- tion, and its importance urged upon the secondary schools thruout the republic — that they may see that this subject should have its proper place, and is given a proper amount of time, in the course of the study in the secondary schools. If this is done, there will be no trouble in educating patriotic citizens. When the pupil leaves the public school, he should have a broad and adequate conception of the origin, the development, the struggle for supremacy, and the final triumph of the principles of con- stitutional, political, and social liberty embodied in the constitution of the United States and exemplified in the institutions of this great republic. Mr. CoRLEY, of Pennsylvania. — I desire to call attention to two points. One is the partial method in which United States history has been written — exclusively from the New England standpoint. I think the most dangerous lie is half a lie— just enough truth in it to make it pass current. What is said from the New England standpoint is true, but it is not the whole truth, and the suppression of the other part renders the history inadequate. A great deal is said in history about the purchase by William Penn from the Indians, but not a word is said about the colony established in Delaware, where the Indians were paid for their land. I should like to emphasize the fact that there was a governmental restriction upon immigration to these political colonies on the Delaware of persons of good moral character. It was not permitted to make these American 86 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General colonies a dumping-ground for criminals, as the English government did ; and the Dutch are entitled to great credit for that policy. How little there is said of the Dutch, except that the English finally conquered them ; that seems to be an important fact with regard to the Dutch. Nothing is said of the oppression of the Dutch by the English. Nothing is said about the Germans, who were a bulwark against the Indians, and who kept and saved the land along the shore. Very little is said of the freedom of religion, so prominently made a cornerstone in Pennsylvania. Now, fellow-teachers, if we are to teach history, let us teach the truth ; let us say that the German Quakers of Germantown were the first people on this continent who insisted that slavery was wrong and should be abolished, and not because of climatic reasons, as Daniel Webster put it, but because it is wrong, and because a negro is a man and deserves to be paid for his labor. For that reason the protest was made in 1688 in the Quaker meeting that slavery should not exist in Pennsylvania. Then let us realize that there were thirty-six years of our national existence, during which Virginia furnished presidents for thirty-two of those years. Let us forever give credit to John Marshall for his masterful interpretation of the constitution. Much has been said here about the philosophy of education in the secondary school, but it has no place in elementary schools. It seems to me the time has come when we should learn that the teaching of history in elementary schools should be biographical, as the only method for the child up to fourteen ye9.rs of age. Let the children see life as it is illustrated in the biographies of eminent men, and it will have a moral as well as historical value. E. B. Prettyman, state superintendent of public instruction, Baltimore, Md. — In view of what has been said, I desire to say to this audience of thinking people that the history of my state of Maryland is totally unknown to the people of the nation. It is only thru the system suggested by our friend from Kansas City that the history of the different states can be molded into a great harmonious whole. Now, I assert that the state of Maryland, in its colonial time, established three great principles that have never been acknowledged or known thruout the country. We recognize that our New Eng- land friends wrote the histories that went into the schools, and naturally they wrote those things about which they knew most, that were local, and about which they cared most ; and we honor them for it. When we go thru New England, we see that every spot is historical, and we glory in their local patriotism. But the glorious history of Maryland, as evidenced by the Maryland historical societies and their archives, should be published to the world. Maryland, in the first place, is the land which gave the world the right of ownership of land. Lord Baltimore was the absolute owner 'of every foot of land by grant from King George. Nevertheless, this great and good statesman and Wallace Colbert directed his brother Leonard to pay the Indians for their land, which they did. It was here in Maryland, first of all on this continent, that land was purchased from the Indians, in 1634, at old St. Mary's. It was here that religious liberty was first proclaimed and established, and a law enacted that every man should be allowed to worship his God as he pleased, according to the dictates of his conscience, without molestation. Superintendent L. E. Wolfe, Kansas City, Kan. — I am firmly of the opinion that history, as an inspiring story, should come very much earlier in our school curriculum than it now comes. A very large per cent, of our schools do not touch history below the eighth grade or the grammar school. The essential thing in education is the relation of education to conduct, to action, to deed. History is the record of events, of deeds, where men have had two courses before them and have chosen one and stood by it, and poured out their blood, whenever necessary, for principle. Now, the great question is how to teach history that the pupil will feel all the time that he is upon a great historical field, where he can learn how to decide questions cor- Sessions] ENGLISH COMPOSITION FOR ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 87 rectly, as pupil in the school, as member of a family, as member of the church, and as citizen of the state. I would emphasize the fact that no one ought to be content with the study of United States history alone. How the history of our country carries us back to the history of the Anglo-Saxon people ! We ought not to hate England. The Lord knows we owe much to dear old England. We should understand how civilization roots itself back in all the past. David K. Goss, Indianapolis, Ind. — If there is any purpose in teaching history in schools, it certainly can he profitably taught before the eighth grade. All over western Europe we find the special studies in history and political science have been pursued and have equipped the children for an understanding of the affairs of life. If the American student' would go into one of their seminaries, he would be surrounded by boys and young men far better trained than he in history, and possessing far more general information. It is true the American teacher, in general, is not ready to become a teacher in western Europe. The only thing to do is to begin with what we have, to lay down courses of study, and gradually to fit teachers to carry on this important work. Every line, every sen- tence, every word of history has a meaning, and that is the end to which the history taught in our public schools must tend. There is a great deal to be learned from the history which we are making now. Dr. Charles A. McMurry, Normal, 111. — We people who live in the Mississippi valley are beginning to believe we are a very important part of this great country. We have discovered recently that more than half of the people of the United States live within the boundaries of the Mississippi valley and the lake states just a little to the north. The boys and girls of the Mississippi valley, that great central empire of North America, will constitute a large part of the future teachers of our land, and so it is that Illinois, Michi- gan, Minnesota, Indiana, Kentucky, Tennessee, Louisiana will have a great contribution to make to the cause of education — perhaps more than Pennsylvania or Maryland. I believe the time is coming very quickly when a great educative influence upon our common schools will come to us thru these biographical pioneer studies. I should like to Suggest that we not only have all this material which has been col- lected, but that we begin to use it; that our teachers— and especially those who arc teaching in the third, fourth, fifth, and sixth grades in the Mississippi valley — shall get hold of these stories, and shall not only get hold of them, but shall learn how to use them. What effective work can be done by a teacher who can stand before a class and tell one of those stories of the early life of Lincoln, in the third, fourth, or fifth grade, and tell the story in such a way as to inspire the pupil with a desire to emulate that great man ! There is an abundance of historical material in the Mississippi valley which is never used. The place where American history is to be brought to bear upon the boys and girls in our schools is in these earlier grades, where biographical stories, if bandied with skill by enthusiastic teachers, will produce useful and permanent results. THE ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH COMPOSITION FOR ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS BY PROFESSOR EDWARD R. SHAW, SCHOOL OF PEDAGOGY, NEW YORK UNI- VERSITY Under "The Essentials of English Composition for Elementary Schools " I shall comprehend every means that contributes to give a 88 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION f General pupil the fullest and freest command of English it is possible to give in the elementary school. More can be done, I am confident, than has been generally attained in this direction. The error of the past has been the loss of time and the waste of effort in teaching English from its formal phase, largely as an end in itself. The first essential of English composition to be secured in the ele- mentary school is correct spelling. There is abundant evidence on every hand to show that the method generally pursued today in teaching spell- ing is not a method which gives satisfactory results. Some spelling can, of course, be taught incidentally, but in so difficult and arbitrary a matter as English spelling a definite time must be set apart for it in the school program, when spelling shall be pursued as a regular exercise. The first point to be considered in this connection is the gradation of words. The plan of leaving to the judgment of the teacher the selection of words for her grade is altogether too haphazard a one. This plan may be permitted to some extent, but it ought not to be the exclusive method \ for under such conditions there is very little guidance as to the vocabulary, its extent, or what range of words shall be given in the vari- ous grades. With such a plan it is difficult to know what the omissions are. I believe, therefore, in a carefully selected list of words suited to the various school grades. Such a list could be determined very easily in any school system by a simple investigation. There are, I believe, words that may best be learned in the second and third grades, words which would best be learned in the fourth and fifth grades, and so on for the various grades. A list of this kind would include words which children are likely to miss and words which may be most easily acquired in the various grade periods of school life. Such a list would constitute the best kind of spelling-book, a spelling-book, moreover, which ought to be made by every system of schools. In the absence of such a list, I stand for a spelling-book and regular work in it. But after we have determined the collection of words, the way the pupil is to be led to learn those words is of great importance. The appeal to the eye in learning to spell, which supplanted an old method that grew out of the best judgment of decades of repeated test by schoolmasters, is a method which the best pedagogy of today cannot sanction as a complete method of teaching spelling. If we are to obtain better results in spelling, that which I put as the first essential of the ele- ments of English composition, we must adopt some of the wisdom which showed itself in the method of the old schoolmaster, and which we for the past generation and a half have thrown aside. If we require the pupils, in learning new words, to study these first orally, pronouncing each word at the start, then each syllable and the syllables cumulatively, and ending with the pronunciation of the whole word, we are appealing to more avenues of mental approach, and are, therefore, making easier and Sessions] ENGLISH COMPOSITION FOR ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 89 firmer the associations out of which that word is to rise when the pupil summons it. In such a way we are appealing to the eye, to the ear, and to that part of the motor mechanism which is connected with speech. We have here, then, the aid of three strong sensory avenues instead of one — as, for instance, when we appeal to the eye. After the pupil has prepared his lesson in this manner, we may then bring in the written practice upon this basis of preparation, and employ again the eye and combine with this the motor mechanism which lies in the hand and arm. With such a method I believe that very little time would need to be given to spelling in the seventh and eighth years of the grammar grades — the time when it is generally found so necessary to spend as much time as possible in spelling drill. Thus time may be saved in these grades to devote to the rules for spelling and to the etymology of words. Ety- mology should not, however, be taken up in the routine and uninteresting manner so common, and which calls for not much else than sheer, dull effort in verbal memory. It should be treated in connection with com- position and should serve to add variety to the pupil's language study. To lead into this, begin with words with some point, of interest in their history or whose derivation is easy to be traced, as : fortnight, good-by, furlong, topsy-turvy, volcano, mountebank, calculate, astonished, sincere, trivial, capricious, charlatan, etc., and then gradually work out to the more formal analysis of words. All this need not follow any alphabetically arranged list of roots, prefixes, and suffixes, but advantage should be taken of the recurring occasions when the pupil's attention may be directed to words that become the center of opportune interest. By leading the pupil to seek out for himself the connection of thought, and also to trace causal connection in analysis, he acquires a power to help himself, and an interest is awakened because more phases of mental activity are thereby aroused, and the study lifted out of dull, spiritless, mechanical memory. The second essential to be secured is what I may term " feeling for English." If I were required to make a choice between technical knowl- edge of English and what I may term " feeling for English," I should unhesitatingly choose the latter. This " feeling for English" is a subtle sense, transcending psychological analysis, and leading those who possess it to use English with an appreciation of its genius. How, then, shall we develop in pupils this " feeling for English " ? We may do this by giving them selections from the masters of English literature, and requiring that these selections be learned by heart, so that pupils may be able to repeat them and to transcribe them. In every grade, from the first year thru the eighth, certain standard poems, selected with reference to the emo- tional status and intellectual appreciation of the pupil, should be memo- rized— at the very least, half a dozen poems for each year. Children derive pleasure from 'learning and repeating the best literature, as it meets 90 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General a natural want in satisfying their sense of rhythmic expression. They may not recall all this literature in later years, but it leaves behind it that subtle aesthetic sense of "feeling for English." The selection of the pieces which are to be memorized involves a very large and a very important question, namely, their ethical import. But that is a question aside from the purpose of this paper. There should be, then, for each grade a certain number of poems which each pupil should memorize, and with such a degree of perfection that he could rise and repeat the poem, or take pen and paper and transcribe it correctly as to spell- ing, punctuation, capitals, and form. In the sixth, seventh, and eighth years pupils should be given an opportunity to choose from a small collection the poems they would prefer to memorize. For instance, if six poems were required of each pupil in any of these years, twelve or fifteen poems might be given to him to read and make his own selection from. The object of this plan is to provide for the child's individuality of choice, as influenced by his individuality of experience, and by his individuality of emotional tone. But poems in themselves are not sufficient to develop this "feeling for English." Many of our courses of study furnish lists of poems that are to be memorized in the several grades, but I do not recall a course of study where excerpts of fine prose are required to be memorized. In the days of a generation ago this " feeling for English " was developed by those splendid selections of oratory which boys were required to memo- rize and speak at the rhetorical exercises then periodically held. We must not forget, in the multitude of newer things pressing upon our attention, all the good in the past. Hence there should be provided in each grade a number of prose selections suited to the understanding and capacity of the pupils, each a unit in itself, which pupils should memorize, so as to be able to repeat these orally or to transcribe them, as has been recom- -Tiended with reference to the poems. The third essential is that the formulation of the principles and usages of English composition shall come to the pupil by easy inference, after abundant exercise in the use of English, and not be forced upon him by definitions illustrated by a few formal examples. What is needed is ability to use English well, and not principally an acquaintance with its formal aspects. The regarding of the formularies of composition as the principal thing, and the inability to see the larger thing, the real thing, to which the formal statements must ever be secondary, is where the cause of our failure in teaching English lies. Most text-books, official syllabi, and examinations emphasize the formal aspects of composition, instead of showing how they may be sub- ordinated. The teacher is thus misled and her attention directed to these things as the end of her teaching, and so she* comes to rest in the Sessions] E.NGUSH COMPOSITION FOR ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 9 1 opinion that the ability of her pupils to set forth these things in examina- tion is the test and proof of her success in teaching. My objection, you will recognize, is not a new one. These formal statements and examples to illustrate them become ends and are pursued as ends, and thus the teaching of composition becomes dry and barren of results. The fundamental requisite, then, from first to last, in the teaching of English composition in the elementary school, is abundant and continued expression of the pupil's thought and feeling growing out of some activity, some experience, some observation, some intercourse, some imaginative construction on the part of the pupil. What is to be insisted on, therefore, is some positive underlying con- tent in the pupil's mind, which he is led to express either in oral or in written language; and out of this expression all the formal aspects of composition are to issue. The formularies are not to be omitted. They do not, however, lead the way, they are not important ends, but are sub- ordinated to the real thing, the essential thing — something expressed. Upon this expression as a basis we may teach the more obvious gram- matical and rhetorical matters incidentally. In the lower grades many phases of capitalization and punctuation, the formation of plurals, pos- sessive cases, the forms of comparison, correct forms of verbs, etc., etc., may be taught — the teacher shaping the composition exercises so that sufficient opportunities shall arise to reveal to the pupil the necessity for such knowledge, and also to give him sufficient practice in using it cor- rectly. Dictation exercises may be employed as one means of giving practice in correct forms, but each piece so dictated should be some com- position exercise which the class as a whole has criticised, corrected, and amended. Each pupil has then some special interest in it. Letter writing, to be taken up toward the end of the third school year, will also afford another means toward the accomplishment of the ends just mentioned. Here, however, care must be exercised that there shall be content in the pupil's mind before he is required to compose a letter. Business letters first which are orders, then the replies to these ; next may follow letters of inquiry, of direction, of application, of informa- tion, etc., thus gradually enlarging the scope to letters of friendship, invitation, acknowledgment, etc. I have insisted, in all composition work, that there sTiall be content in the pupil's mind, when' he is asked to compose ; in other words, that bricks shall not be required without straw. Fortunately, today, nature study and science work furnish something tangible and near at hand for the pupil to express. And so as much com- position writing as possible should grow out of "nature study and science work. Then there is also the history study, which may be used to this end. While, however, the pupil easily finds something to say when 92 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION • [General required to write out his observations and knowledge gained from nature study or science work, we must not lose sight of the fact that, even with a great amount of such writing, he would remain deficient in skill and knowledge of certain important matters of English. By such writing he learns to arrange his thoughts, to analyze more fully his general ideas; he enlarges his vocabulary, and he acquires facility in setting forth his thought. But to lead the pupil thru this kind of composition to an appreciation of sequence and transition of thought as effected thru sentence construc- tion, and to an appreciation of literary form and unity, would prove a most difificult undertaking, and to seek to accomplish this upon nature study and science composition would be to disregard mental economy. Mental economy points out a different plan. The appreciation of literary form and unity, and of the various ways that language may be employed in securing sequence, transition, and con- nection of thought, is best and most easily attained by reading to pupils selections within their appreciation and understanding, and then calling for the reproduction of these, sometimes orally, but principally in writ- ing, especially in the higher grades. Such reproduction exercises should begin in the third school year and be continued in each succeeding year. There is, however, one danger to be guarded against in this, and that is a haphazard and unskilled choice of selections. Here pedagogical insight is most requisite. The use of the written reproduction will afford excellent opportunity for the careful treatment of the paragraph, not with reference to a defini- tive, formal statement of what the paragraph is, and the rules for the formation of paragraphs, but a knowledge of how to shape and constitute a paragraph in writing. The next essential is a knowledge of grammatical analysis of sentences — this leading to a knowledge of the parts of speech and the grammat- ical rules for their collocation. Good English may be acquired without a knowledge of technical grammar, but there is no plan yet at hand to guide teachers in securing such a result. And were there one, a longer time would be needed. It would not be the way of economy in teaching. One who has a knowledge of the grammatical structure of language pos- sesses many adva'ntages over one who has not this knowledge, tho the latter may use English with a fair degree of correctness. I will not go into the educational value of the study of grammar. That alone would entitle it- to a place in the elementary-school curriculum, even if it did not equip the pupil with knowledge directly available in the use of Eng- lish. The study of grammatical analysis may well be begun in the sixth school year, and carried on thru the seventh and eighth years. In this grammatical analysis it is far better not to put into the pupil's hands an Sessions] ENGLISH COMPOSITION FOR ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 93 elementary grammar with sentences selected from all the four winds of literature, and the remainder made to order — detached sentences which the pupil cannot relate to any piece of literature. Every sentence set before the pupil should be the expriession of some thought he has before met in some literary production studied by him. Each sentence then relates to some whole which has stirred the pupil's feelings and given him new ideas and new experiences, and he recognizes what thought in that whole and what shading of that thought the sentence set before him serves to express. Every sentence he deals with tends, therefore, to draw after it some fraction of the tide of feeling aroused by the study of the literary production. The detached sentence carries no such substrate with it. The first work in analysis might be based upon Longfellow's " Bell of Atri," an excellent selection for literary study in sixth-year classes. Sen- tences may be taken from this, and some sentences adapted. It is not necessary to begin with such absurdly simple and unattractive sentences as "Bells ring," "Dogs bark." The pupil can easily deal with sentences of some length, and can understand the office of a group of words amount- ing even to a clause, when used as a modifier, as easily as beginning with modifiers of one word. In other words, he may be led, as the principle of economy would suggest, to deal with sentences of usual length, as to subject and predicate ; to deal almost at. once with the three forms in which the modifier occurs, as word, phrase, or clause, and in the same manner with the direct object ; and so gradually extending the analysis. The order is not the order of the text-books, but it is a pedagogical order. The method to be employed in unfolding this grammatical knowledge is that of the skillful questioning of the living teacher. It is to be prin- cipally analytic rather than descriptive. Now, while the knowledge of grammatical structure is growing, not upon detached sentences, but upon sentences taken from some literary whole that the pupils have studied, the rhetorical positions of the elements of a sentence may be treated. These two things, then, grammatical structure and rhetorical positions, may be closely interconnected, and the one made to aid the other. Side by side with grammatical analysis may be taken up variety of expression, as, for instance, the transforming of an infinitive to a participle, a participle to a clause, replacing the active form by the passive, an imperative mood by the conditional, a clause by an infinitive, and so on. Variety of sentence form may also be treated. All this is to find continued application in the composition exercises which go forward at the same time, making it all a living reality to the pupil. As soon as the pupil's knowledge of the parts of speech and their modifications and relations will admit of it, I should bring him face to face with specimens of incorrect English to set right, giving' the best rea- sons therefor that may be adduced. 94 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General The literature study in the seventh and eighth years upon such works as " Snow-bound," " Evangeline," " The Legend of Sleepy Hollow," " Rip Van Winkle," and " The Lay of the Last Minstrel," etc., may be closely interconnected with the composition writing, affording excellent oppor- tunity for a simple study of diction. I have insisted in this paper upon the actual use of English in writing, and a great deal of it, instead of study upon how English should be used, or how it may be used. Let me, in closing, add one qualification, and that is : at no point shall the teaching be such as to develop a fatal facility to use words at the expense of content of mind and definiteness of thought. THE ESSENTIALS OE ENGLISH COMPOSITION TO BE TA UGH T IN SECOND AR V SCHOOLS BY C. C. THACH, STATE POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE, AUBURN, ALA. Unquestionably within the last few years there has been marked improvement in the teaching of English, both as to subject-matter and methods — as great progress, perhaps, as in any other department of col- lege and school work ; certainly as great as could reasonably have been expected under all the perplexing circumstances that "necessarily attend the introduction and systematizing of a new teaching subject. And yet, it must be admitted by all thoughtful observers that there still remains much to be desired in the work of this great department of education. Certainly, judged by the test of results, that is, by the prac- tical skill attained by the average student in the use of his native tongue, something is radically wrong in the system of instruction now given. Anyone who is familiar with the English composition of hundreds of young men applying for admission to college well knows that there is immense room for improvement. The reports of the Harvard Committee on Composition and Rhetoric are an epitome of the college-entrance examinations thruout the land — that is, so far as bad English is con- cerned. It is difficult to believe, at times, that many of the writers of college- entrance papers are English-speaking boys. In the most mechanical points of execution — in hand-writing, spelling, punctuation — a large number are deficient to an appalling degree. They have no vocabulary; words do not appeal to them, or have for them the least significance Any strength of thought or vividness of feeling that may occasionally struggle for utterance finds but one vent — slang. Unity or coherence of thought is seldom exhibited. Long chains of unrelated ideas are tacked Sessicis] ENGLISH COMPOSITION FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 95 together in a slack-rope sentence, pages long, with a lot of "ands," when a lot of "buts" would be equally exact. Paragraphing is seldom attempted, unless after the fashion of one student who systematically indented the lines in blocks of five. And, worst of all, there is rarely to be found evidence of power of thought or range of reading, such as one ought reasonably to expect in young men of seventeen or eighteen, who regard themselves as ready for college work. But that tale we all know. The vital question for us to consider is: How comes it that school life has passed over these youths and accom- plished so little toward improving their taste or affording them any skill or ease in the use of their mother tongue ? Can the matter be remedied, and if so, what is the remedy ? Truly, these young men are often intelligent and industrious; the teachers faithful and diligent, and, not infrequently, accomplished English scholars ; the cardinal fault, in so far as the secondary schools are responsible for the miserable preparation in English, being the fault, I take it, of subject and method ; the fault of the manner in which Eng- lish is taught. I say so far as the secondary schools are responsible ; for, while I would not shift from them their due weight of obligation, in the premise, it should ever be borne in mind that they occupy a peculiar position in the scheme of education. That position is a relative one, and the answer to the question as to what essentials of composition, or any other subject, are to be taught by them can receive only a relative answer. The second- ary school takes such grist as is offered from the elementary school below, and must, in the main, grind it into those brands demanded by the college above. As to this latter demand, I am firmly of the opinion that one of the greatest injuries wrought to the thoroness and efficiency of all high-school and academy work is the needless multiplication of studies required for admission to college. It is a well-established psycho- logical truth that content varies inversely as the extent; which is another way of saying: The more you spread your butter — educationally speaking — the thinner it will be. On the other side, the influence exerted by the eight-years* training in the elementary grades cannot be easily overstated. In the struggle for a better English the elementary school is the strategic point ; and unless effective work is accomplished here, the effort for improvement in the higher grades, tho not necessarily futile, will be rendered immensely more difficult. By thirteen or fourteen years of age the speech of the pupil is well-nigh crystallized. Ungrammatical expressions, faulty spelling, defective or vicious taste that characterize the pupil at this age will generally stick, like the, shirt of Nessus, thru life. Until very recently two distinct methods have been pursued in the effort to inculcate a good English style. The first method— the trans- 96 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Genera lation of the ancient classics — has long been regarded, and by many is yet regarded, as the open door to our mother tongue. As a matter of experience, it has been generally true with me that the students of the classics have been the best English scholars. The exercise of translation from languages so logical and severe as Greek and Latin may afford a most excellent training in English composition. But the main defect of this method, as has been frequently pointed out, is that- the student is confronted with a twofold difficulty; he is attempting to interpret a language of which he knows little into another language of which he knows only a trifle more. Too often the result is an English that never was on sea or land, i. e.,"that lazy, mongrel English— 'translation Eng- lish.' " And, surely, the average boy gets none of the subtle aroma of the classics as literature, " bottled up " as it is to him behind inflectional endings, subjunctive moods, and paradigms. However, much benefit to the students' English may be accomplished by requiring oral translation into smooth, idiomatic English; while a still greater degree of benefit may be had from the practice of making a cor- rect written translation of at least a portion of each recitation. The work may be slow, but quality is certainly to be preferred to quantity. Education does not consist in galloping over so many square acres of printed matter. The second method of learning to write English consists in the fruit- less practice of studying about English rather than studying English itself ; elaborating the whys and hows and wherefores of style, but never putting into practice the fine-spun theories that are so painfully swallowed and that are never digested. From the examination of the schedule of studies in a large number of secondary schools (especially rural and village schools) I am confident that a vast deal of energy and faithful teaching in English is utterly spoiled by the worthlessness, from the practical standpoint, of the subjects taught ; a great part of the work done being but little more pertinent to developing the effective use of English than is the work of any other department in the school curriculum. Much too often the subject is taught as a science and not as an art. Theoretical grammar and rhetoric are the staple subjects, and what, I ask, are grammar and rhetoric but metaphysics applied to language and style? As disciplinary subjects, as whetstones for the mind, they are not to be surpassed, taking rank with mathematics, logic, or the severest of the exact sciences. But their method is conscious analysis, the method of science and not of art. "Formal grammar and rhetoric," says Professor Hinsdale, "should play no part in the early stages of composition teach- ing." Certainly, many of the world's most vivid and vigorous writers have known but little of phonics, inflections, and syntactical systems, not to mention coherence, mass, and the aesthetics of style. They knew how to use the tools, tho they knew not their names. ' On the other hand, I Sessions] ENGLISH COMPOSITION FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 97 aru confident that there are hundreds of thousands of people all over this land today who had the possibilities of becoming fairly easy and graceful writers of their native vernacular; but alas! the tender motions of whose young pens were paralyzed by this grammatico-metaphysical specter of the schoolroom. What is needed, then, in our entire school work in teaching composi- tion is less psychology and more practice ; more of the method of the gymnasium, of the studio, and of the laboratory; i. e., the method of learning to do a thing by doing it. As one learns to talk by talking, to walk by walking, to dance by dancing, so one must learn to write by writing. Is skill at tennis, for instance, or at baseball, or at any sport, acquired by mere study of rules ? Rather, is it not acquired by watching the game and taking a hand ? Is one to learn to swim by locking himself up in a room with a bowl of water, and wrangling over the anatomy of the human body in all of the ponderous nomenclature of physiology, together with the principles of hydrostatics and the properties of floating bodies? Well, equally absurd, it seems to me, is the effort to learn the practical use of English solely by the processes of grammatical analysis, and the classifying of the disjecta membra of style. Doubtless, were we to practice talking as little as we do writing, we should be as clumsy with our tongues as we are now with our pens. Our experience in learning foreign languages is much to the point. For instance, after an hour a day for a year or two in Fasquelle, what is the ability, even of the most intelligent man, to write a French letter or to chatter with a Parisian cabman ? Moreover, of all the arts, that of writing well is certainly the most difficult. Fluency and good style are not a fairy gift, but are obtained only by the most strenuous labor. In praise of the art of the world's greatest literary genius it was written : " Who thinks to write a living line must sweat .... and strike the second heat Upon the Muse's anvil, Or for the laurel he may gain a scorn, For a great poet is made as well as bom." A most excellent legend, this is, to hang in the department of Eng- lish composition. But even practice in writing fails of the best results, unless attended by another important factor that is recognized as an essential element in all good work. I mean interest. An essential which, if it cannot be taught, can at least be cultivated. Mere writing for the sake of style soon becomes irksome to the average boy. He has not yet arrived at that high state of development that enjoys art for art's sake. Certainly, without interest in one's essay— in the subject as well as in the expression — there can be no fluency, no spontaneity of utterance. " No man or boy," says 98 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General Professor Carpenter, " can write well, unless he writes for the purpose of expressing thought." One must have something to say, and want to say it, before he can say it — that is, with expressiveness. " It is a notorious fact," it has been said, *' that the dullest and stupidest and most muddle- headed girls and young men, who are apparently incapable of expression, will once in their lives write well. They can each and all write a good love letter. If a man or a maid is really in love, and not shamming, he or she will be sure to write well. The reason is plain: for once in their lives they have something to say." Now, often the great difficulty with very many young people in composition work is that they are set to write on themes of which they are entirely ignorant. They are expected, as it were, to draw water out of a dry well, or, like the spider, weave a web out of the inner self. Such subjects as " Spring," " Birds," "Flowers " are possibly suggested, and the youngster is expected to produce some sentimental, milk-and-water reflections suitable to the theme ; or, maybe, he is invited to present his mature and practical views on " Success for the Brave," or " The Dangers that Threaten the Republic," or " The Silver Question," or some other equally arid abstraction. The boy know- ing nothing and caring nothing about these things, the outcome is a failure, and a feeling of abiding disgust for composition as an accomplish- ment fit only for a literary dude. To get the best results, the pupil should never be assigned abstract subjects, but rather should be assigned the subject in regard to which he knows the most and feels the keenest interest. Concrete, live subjects of everyday experience — games, athletic contests, school exercises or incidents ; scenes, characters, and plots of books read- — ^ subjects such as these provoke a young person's enthusiasm, and will, therefore, call forth all the resources of his vocabulary. The subject should never be allowed to assume the form of a vague generality that embraces the earth, but should be severely narrowed to one point of view. This practice is much the most suggestive of accurate thought. The composition should be brief, and at least one should be written each day thruout the first half of the period of secondary work. And this can be accomplished without adding unduly to the "mule work" of drudgery with which the teacher of composition is already sorely burdened. The written recitation offers a fruitful field for composition work. The incidental or co-operative method of teaching the writing of English will doubtless grow in favor with the schools, and, when properly system- atized and adjusted, will be, I think, the solution of the English problem. In my estimation it is the method par excellence; indeed, without it I do not believe that the standard of English in any secondary school can be materially elevated. The teacher of English alone can accomplish but little in one hour toward resisting the practice of bad English in every department of school work. In an institution in which I am acquainted written monthly reviews are Sessions] ENGLISH COMPOSITION FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 99 required, and it is astonishing what readiness in writing frequently results from the practice, even with boys of ordinary capacity. To sum up, the first aim of secondary-school work in composition, as I see it, is to develop fluency of expression in the pupil ; to teach him to write as he talks; to aid him in overcoming that sense of artificiality inhering in the art of writing; and to bring him unconsciously and gradu- ally, by familiar practice, into an easy and natural command of his pen that will enable him to put to ready use whatever stores of words and ideas he may possess. Now, next, when the pupil's freedom of utterance becomes somewhat securely established, criticism of his technique should become more rigid ; tho correction should never be nagging, or merely tearing crude, immature work to tatters. As far as possible, the work should be done in the class-room, together with the class. Only a few simple, practical rules and principles, however, need to be taught, but the gospel of thoroness, it seems to me, should obtain in regard to these. From the first, spelling, punctuation, and capitals should be insistently emphasized, and the greatest possible accuracy secured in their use. While certain ' vagaries in spelling are compatible with vigor of expression, and while punctuation is a very delicate and difficult art, yet they are integral parts of composition, and flagrant violations of them indicate a slovenly habit of mind. You have doubtless heard of the A. B. who had to take a postgraduate course in spelling. I once knew a teacher who applied for an increase in salary, but failed to secure it solely because he spelled salary " salery." Letter writing, solecisms, clearness and unity of sentence structure, the paragraph, the essay, the different types of prose composi- tion, and figures of speech seem to me the other salient elements of style that should be attempted in high-school work. As will be seen, these elements enumerated are chiefly mechanical and intellectual, properties of style that can be learned by any pupil of fair intelligence. Leave severely alone the elements of force and elegance. They depend almost entirely upon native aptitude and bent of mind ; or are gradually and unconsciously developed with the growth of the pupil's mind. Generally it may be remarked that in this work of criticism the young student should not be confused with a multitude of nice details that are mooted points even with critics— e. g., the split infinitive; but preferably his attention should be directed to the common errors of everyday occurrence in the school and on the playground, or in his own themes. The principles of the paragraph should be taught with much greater care than is usual in the ordinary schools. A great many pupils are left in the state of mind of the boy who defined the paragraph as a " gob " of sentences. The paragraph is the essay in miniature, and illustrates, in little, all the structural elements of a.complete composition. Its brevity recommends it as the norm of all early composition work. Facility in paragraph analysis is indispensa- lOO NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General ble for that wider mental view which is necessary for the grasp of the general significance and structure of a piece of composition. For the sake of systematic and continuous presentation, it were best that this small body of simple precepts should be codified in book form. It would be a very thin volume. Tho the Committee of Ten recommends to the contrary, to my thinking the study of words should be pursued as an independent study. Much has been accomplished for a boy's linguistic training when a tender conscience for words has been awakened. Pottering about words may not always give a good style, but without this pottering there can be no good style. It is not etymology, or the history of words, or the inflection and composition as ends in themselves for which we should care, but rather as means for developing in the young student's mind an abiding, joyous sense of the delicate shades, the phantom-like suggestiveness, the haunting melody of these little elements of that matchless medium of human thought, our own English tongue. As a rule, words are ideas ; precision of word and precision of thought are practically interchangeable terms. I once knew a student who, instead of the dictated sentence, "An opossum is an animal with a prehensile tail," wrote somewhat irreverently, " An apostle is an animal with a pencil tail ; " while " The synod was held in South Carolina" came out, "The sinner was helled in South Carolina." The Harvard Committee records the instance of one boy who wrote of the story of the three " caskets " in " The Merchant of Venice " as the story of the three "coffins." And so for many their native English is well-nigh an unknown tongue, and knowledge, therefore, is to them a book that is forever sealed. Trench, and a good work on synonyms might be used ; and the pupil should learn " to trot to the dictionary whenever the propriety of a word is broached." Says Oliver Wendell Holmes : " When I feel inclined to read poetry, I take down my dictionary. The poetry of words is quite as beautiful as that of sentences." Thackeray frankly confessed to a practice of studying the dictionary in order to improve his vocabulary. Especial pains should be taken to cultivate an abhorrence of the use of grandilo- quent language, as "steed" for "horse," "the devouring element" for " fire," " purchase " for " buy," " welkin " for " sky," and the rest of the list. The habit finds its roots in mental pretense or downright dishon- esty. On the other hand, we should cultivate, or at least tolerate, graphic idioms, and even provincialisms, if expressive. Perhaps, tho, the line should be drawn at " Where am I at," and " I want that you should do it." Like all arts, the art of composition is largely mimetic, and all good writers testify to the pcrwerful influence exerted upon their style by an intimate acquaintance with good models. And so the concurrent course of literature in high schools may, if properly taught, be made to -con- tribute richly to the pupil's powers of writing. Indeed, someone has Sessions] ENGLISH COMPOSITION FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS lOI forcibly said that grammars and rhetoric, without literature itself, are ships of war with the guns thrown overboard ; a feast of husks and rinds peeled from the rich fruit that seems to be as inexorably forbidden by some teachers as were the apples of Eden. In committing strong and beautiful passages to memory, words, sen- tences, and ideas are absorbed that pass into the very warp and woof of one's thought and language. The old practice of declamation is of great value as a means for increasing the pupil's vocabulary. Paraphrasing, too, is useful, tho it does lead into grotesque mutila- tions of the originals. Matthew Arnold was perhaps justly horrified at the transformation by a pupil of " Canst thou minister to a mind dis- eased ? " into " Can you give medicine to an invalid lunatic ? " The main object of paraphrase, however, is not to better nor to equal the original, but to test and develop a student's own power of expression. The principles of structure and the making of outlines can be best taught in the study of concrete examples of literature, and here, too, can be best explained the different types of prose and poetry. Some of the selections in the usual required course of high-school study seem to me illy adapted to the intelligence of the average pupil. Lycidas, for instance, is for many boys very enigmatical reading, while the majesty and sweep of Burke's great oration are far beyond their grasp. More- over, there are needed in many cases a simpler method and a more practi- cal aim in the presentation of English literature. If genuine good is to result to the pupil's style from the course in literature, the teachers of secondary English must adopt more the methods of their coworkers in Latin, Greek, French, and German ; there must be less of vague appre- ciations of aesthetics, and dreamings of authorship, and more close work on language and form. The lesson in literature need not sink into a lesson in parsing and second-hand philology, but the casket of literature opens its rich and glorious treasures only to the key of accurate scholarship. Success in any department of school work, we know, is largely depend- ent upon the teacher himself. But to a peculiar degree, it seems to me, is this true in regard to the teaching of English. The instructor, to be sure, need not be a prodigy of parts, breathed upon from the shrine of the Muses ; he need not even be one who could gain a livelihood with his pen ; but he should at least be an accurate scholar, and a model in the practice as well as an instructor in the theory of good English. All the grammars and rhetorics in Christendom cannot impart a correct use of English, if, unfortunately, the teacher himself be addicted to slipshod and ungrammatical English. Bad English is as infectious as yellow fever, and there are no immunes. One of the chief obstacles to securing a more effective use of English is, I greatly fear, the indifference to that skill on the part of many teachers, especially in our rural schools. Beyond question, this indiffer- 102 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General ence prevails widely with parents and pupils. Like Dogberry of old, the average American citizen thinks that reading and writing came by nature, and that if one has anything to say he can say it, and that any way of saying it will do. Practical subjects are the popular ones. Something that will pay — arithmetic, for instance, tho many people fail to put to very wide use their knowledge of interest, and bank discount, and cube root. As a matter of fact, there is no more practical art than that of composition, the ability to express oneself in clear, forcible language. It is of daily use with everyone. It is a distinct aid to the pupil in all of his educational work, and offers a true index to his progress, for only what he tan express can in any true sense be called his ; while in active business life, in scien- tific and technical pursuits, as well as in the learned professions, that man enjoys a distinct advantage who commands a facile use of language, who can with his pen present the matter in hand in an orderly, perspicuous, convincing manner. The great apostle of good English, President Eliot of Harvard, truly says that only he that can speak and write his own language can be called an educated man. Now, the development of this great and desirable power must be largely the work of the elementary and secondary schools. Here is the place to learn to speak and write correctly. A better higher English is impossible without a good lower English. Unless pupils have been thoroly and properly grounded in all the minute details of elementary language and composition work, fine-sound- ing college courses will be so much waste paper, and teaching, however enthusiastic and laborious, will be as firing in the air, or beating a bag of feathers. There is but little real good to be achieved in polishing and tinkering the apex of a pyramid, if the base is laid in slipping sand. DISCUSSION F. S. Hafford, superintendent of schools, Prescott, Ariz. — I have a very pleasant memory of a little country school in the backwoods of Ohio, where I was a boy teacher. One afternoon in February, when the spring sun was melting the winter snows, my school had spent an hour in a maple grove watching the boiling of sap and the making of maple syrup into sugar. On our return to the schoolroom the question was put : " What shall we have for a pleasant occupation this Friday afternoon ?" To my surprise I heard an almost unanimous exclamation : " Let us write compositions, and tell how maple syrup and maple sugar are made." I never had seen a composition exercise in my own school days. My pupils had seen but one — a crude attempt that we had made a month or two pre- vious. At that time I was inclined to think that their request reflected credit on my work as a teacher, but I have long since abandoned that idea. I had only found them in a natural state, not spoiled by wrong methods of teaching. Sessions] AMERICAN UNIVERSITIES AND THE NATIONAL LIFE 103 We wrote the compositions and read them ; then some good genius suggested that I ask them to make me as perfect copies as they could, for I should like to preserve them. Now came the opportunity for suggesting a change of punctuation here, a capital there, a division of this sentence, a paragraph here, etc., until each pupil had produced as perfect a copy as he was able. The original copies, then, without any mutilation what- ever, were decently buried in the waste basket, and the mourners were soon comforted. Ah ! those sweet little essays, all dripping with maple syrup and sticky with great lumps of maple sugar. I believe I still have them preserved in some old box in the gar- ret, for I am keeping the promise made to the children. They are of no value as litera- ture ; I never told the children that they were of any value as literature, but the fact that they were of some value to somebody, for some reason, was of infinite value to them in encouraging them to further efforts in writing. We love to call our little one, when she is learning to talk, the prattler, the chatter- box. Ker crude efforts at speech, her baby words and quaint phrases are very entertain- ing. We parents sometimes set her strange examples. We speak to her in a different key, in distorted sentences and ungrammatical expressions, thinking she will learn English easier by imitating these. We teachers do not do such things ; I am only making a confession for parents. Of course, the child does not imitate us. We sometimes repeat her first crude efforts, and perhaps flatter ourselves that we have taught them to her ; but the child, on hearing us or others using more correct forms of speech, soon lays aside the baby expressions in spite of us. On the other hand, when we first attempt to teach children the written speech, we set for them models of excellence which we ourselves may be unable to imitate, and unspa- ringly criticise their efforts and ridicule their failures. I may be asked : " Would you set before a child who is first learning to write examples of misspelled words and distorted letters and ungrammatical expressions ? " I answer, it might be better to do even so than to pass upon their crude attempts such severe criticisms as will tend to deter them from making further efforts. I have in mind another scene, of which I am not so proud. I overheard two girls discussing their essays, which had been returned to them after passing under my red-ink pen. One said to the other : " Did yours catch the scarlet fever today, or did it get off with an attack of the measles ?" Then I took my lesson in peda- gogy. It is a principle of international law that the victorious warrior must not mutilate the dead bodies of the fallen foe. It ought to make one number in every teach- er's decalogue : Thou shalt not mutilate the warm and living creations of the children's fancy. One other essential of English composition that it seems to me should be emphasized is, that every child should be taught an uncompromising regard for truth. One sentence of his own ideas, his own opinions, or his own fancies is worth whole pages of fools- cap of quotations, extracts, paraphrases, or plagiarisms. He should never forget to love the story and to revere the memory of him who " did it with his little hatchet." AMERICAN UNIVERSITIES AND THE NATIONAL LIFE BY PRESIDENT ANDREW S. DRAPER, LL.D., OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS Mr. President, and Ladies and Gentlemen : The natural world is in unceasing, universal, rhythmic, periodic motion Matter moves in circles, and there is some reason to suppose that the succeeding circles are upon continually advancing planes. I04 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General It is SO with thought. The advanced and sustained thought of the world may easily be marked off into cycles, and the succeeding cycles show wider scope, greater power, larger freedom, ami more rational reasoning; and they are laid off upon higher and yet higher planes of intellectual progress. What is is the child of what has been and, in turn, becomes the parent of what is to be. Like begets like, but the qualities of the parent are intensified in the offspring. It is so in nature, and it is so in thought. Institutions are the concrete products of common thought. They advance as rational thought moves forward, and, in turn, they react upon the thought of the multitude to make it more virile, more logical, more free. The educational institutions of a people measure its progress. They are at the point where the lines of its history converge, and they contain the elements which will determine its destiny. And among a people where thought is free, where the representatives of the people exercise the sovereign power and set up institutions at their pleasure for the good of all, the worth of educational institutions is measured by the grade and the scope of the most advanced of them. The elementary schools are not the forerunners and the supporters of the advanced schools, but the institutions which are disciplining the world's thought and contributing to the sum of the world's knowledge must provide the teachers who will stimulate the activities and initiate the work which will add to the accomplishments of the schools below. If the destiny of a self-governing people is to be ultimately determined by. its public educational system, it is to be essentially determined by its colleges and its universities; for these above all others of its creations will point out the high-water mark of its thought, and give force and direction and scope to its energies in the succeeding years. So believing, we may call up the history of our colleges and universities with pride, we may witness their wonderful development in the present generation with great satisfaction, and look for their influences in the coming years with high confidence. THE ORIGIN OF UNIVERSITIES The influences were many, and widely different, which produced uni- versities in the old world. Students followed the footsteps and hung upon the words of great teachers, and where the leader paused, there the students gathered, and a university resulted. The monasteries gave the initiative to universities, and so did the old-time learned professions. Religious sects set up universities to propagate their creeds ; monarchs created them to fortify their thrones and oppress the masses ; and, in turn, with the advance of democracy in government, the people established them in celebration of their victories over the kings. Sessions] AMERICAN UNIVERSITIES AND THE NATIONAL LIFE 105 AMERICAN COLONIAL UNIVERSITIES » The earlier American colleges sprung from the purposes of the col- onists, and were projected upon the lines already laid down in the mother country. The earlier educational system of New England was very like the educational system of old England. The colony of Mas- sachusetts, following naturally the very common theories and sympathies of that great party in English politics and in the English church with which her people were allied, founded Harvard College to promote the ideals of the Puritan theocratic state and the Puritan governmental church in New England. Those ideals were exalted, but they were narrow in that they were not democratic. Political and religious, rather than educa- tional, differences put the people of Massachusetts at odds with the person and the party of the English king. These differences produced a colonial college, but, so far as the plans and purposes of that college were con- cerned, it might as well, have been set up in old England as in New England. If the relations of Massachusetts with the king were a little strained, the people of Virginia needed no introduction to the English court. If Harvard was the representative of the Puritan, William and Mary was of the cavalier. It had a royal charter. It was well endowed by the crown. It sympathized with the king's party in English politics. It wore vestments. Its professors subscribed to the " thirty-nine articles," and it stood for the idealism and the extreme ceremonialism of the con- formists in the English church. Of course, if colleges were to be instru- ments for the propagation of creeds, then the nonconformists as well as the conformists must have colleges. Yale was set up by Connecticut and the Congregational or Independent church ; Princeton by New Jersey and the Presbyterians; Columbia was opened in the interests of the nobility and with the purpose avowed of preventing the spread of republican ideas, which, by the middle of the eighteenth century, it was said, had become far too common in the colony of New York. Of course, its name was not then Columbia, but " Kings." Of the four other institutions estab- lished in the colonial days, and which have since grown into colleges or universities, Pennsylvania stood for the Quakers, Queens (Rutgers) gave sustenance to the Reformed (Dutch) church. Brown to the Baptists, and Dartmouth to the Congregationalists. It is seldom recalled now that the latter was prevented from becoming a state university in name and fact by the pleadings of Webster and the elaborate opinion of Marshall in the famous charter suit. All these institutions were, at the beginning, state colleges, but, of course, in no such sense as attaches to the term now. Nearly all of these colonial colleges had behind them, in some mea- sure, and ordinarily in combination, the three influences which have given the initiative to substantially all of our .American colleges, viz.: ecclesi- astical zeal, governmental authority and support, and private benevolence. io6 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General They have, most of them, drifted from their original moorings, because they found it necessary to do so in o&der to be of service to a wider con- stituency. They were established at a time when the accepted theories required the state to encourage, but not to assure, the facilities for educa- tion, and they have for the most part, and very naturally, become inde- pendent of government aid.- Save in one conspicuous instance, they have generally maintained their religious alliances. In that instance the ideals were so narrow and the proceedings so strained that advancing thought revolted. All have become more and more dependent upon private bene- factions, and, as wealth has been increased and their children have multi- plied, these h'ave been so generous as to enable the most of them to enjoy large prosperity, and some of them to develop into leading American universities. These universities, whose origin goes back to the colonial days, for what they stand and for the influences which they have exerted, must always hold a warm place in the gratitude of the nation. They spoke the nation .into independence, and have been the centers of our national culture in mind and spirit from the beginning of the national career. Their graduates were the inspiration of the revolution and the framers of the most remarkable scheme in democratic government that the intelli- gence and courage of the world have produced. The spirit of the minute man at Lexington, the spirit of the continental congress, and the wisdom of the first constitutional convention came from the men of the colonial colleges. From the revolutionary days till now their sons have inspired and limited and directed the nation in the years of its greatest growth and severest trials. It is a satisfaction to know that in nearly every case their own prosperity has kept pace with the national progress, and that their future is as bright as their work- has been elevating and far-reach- ing. COLLEGES OF THE NATIONAL PERIOD National independence ushered in an educational revival, and very soon there resulted a prolific crop of new colleges. For a hundred years the number has been augmenting. Far oftener than otherwise they have been set up to advance the work of the religious denominations. The most complete list of which I know shows 415 institutions in the United States claiming college or university grade. Of these upward of forty are distinctly state institutions. Of the 375 remaining about 275 publicly declare that they are under denominational control, and doubtless the greater number of the rest are really so. If it should be learned in certain quarters that some — like Oberlin, Beloit, Hamilton, Amherst, and Princeton — thought they were not so, their condition of mind would surely call forth the prayers of the church and congregation, and it may well be surmised that early steps would be taken to bring Sessions] AMERICAN UNIVERSITIES AND THE NATIONAL LIFE 1 07 them to a realization of some things which it would be deemed important for them to know. With the exception of Princeton, which certainly has gained it, the best of these institutions lay no claim to university stand- ing, altho some of the poorer of them frequently do. While a few institutions of high grade and without sectarian leanings have recently come into considerable prominence thru their wealth and the munificence of benefactors, the fact unquestionably is that outside of the state universities the overwhelming number of American institutions of advanced learning have resulted from the efficiency of church organiza- tions and the penetrating power of religious thought. THE DENOMINATIONAL COLLEGES These denominational or Christian colleges, as they are called, have been a very potent factor in advancing higher education. They have been well adapted to pioneer conditions and have been effective educa- tional pioneers. Some have had sufficient support to enable them to meet the needs of wider constituencies and older communities. The strongest of them have dropped, or assumed to drop, their denominational characters in order to attract students from outside of their denomination. But very commonly their endowments have been inadequate, and as the educational advantages about them have become enlarged and improved, they have been unable to keep abreast of the progress of educational events. Many are languishing, and the lights of some have gone out. The question as to what is to become of the denominational colleges is much thought of and frequently discussed. It is impossible to consider it with any thoroness here. It seems clear to me that they must stand or fall upon their merits, and upon their merits from the standpoint of higher education rather than from the standpoint of sectarianism. Everyone wishes them well. But the trend of progress is inexorable. The standards of higher education in this country are going to advance and become more firmly fixed. The time is rapidly coming — in some parts it has now come — when no one can lower those standards or hinder their advance without being discredited. A weak college on a private foundation ought not to stand in the way of a good public high school. On the other hand, I have no thought that the high school is to become the college of the future. At least until the time when our territory is very much more thickly settled than now, there is reason to believe that the high schools will do less advanced rather than more advanced work than they are now trying to do. The colleges need have no fear of being without a field or of being robbed of their oppor- tunities. They may do a work which the sentiments of average com- munities will not support the high schools in doing, and which it is either not practicable for the universities to do or which large numbers of students cannot go to the universities to secure. The colleges which are lo8 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General able to adjust themselves to the new conditions and occupy this field will continue to be supported ; such as pretend to hold university grade, and such as rest their claims to support wholly or mainly upon sectarian grounds, will go the way the old-line academies in the eastern states have gone; for differences in creeds are not sufficient bases for systems of education equal to the support of free institutions, and the people of this country have deliberately determined that there shall be a general system of education in America, commencing at the bottom and reach- ing to the top, to which every son and daughter of the people shall have free access, without regard to the religious, political, or social differences of their fathers. THE STATE UNIVERSITIES The founding of state universities was a distinct advance in American education. It has become the most significant educational movement of the last half century. It came when the mind of the nation began to realize. that self-governing states did not exist for security or for fighting power alone, but for the intellectual and moral progress of their citizens ; that the opportunity to make the most of himself was the inherited right of every child of the republic ; that education was a matter of public even more than of private concern ; that it was a function of the state, not merely to encourage, but to insure the best educational facilities which the world's experience had evolved ; that the college and university were legitimate parts of the public educational system ; and that it was incum- bent upon the state to commit the leadership of its educational work to universities supported and controlled by the people. To that great movement, which has already supplied by far the larger number of lead- ing universities to the country, I am justified in giving considerable space. These universities rest upon stable foundations. Most of them have had the advantage of the land-grant acts; and their perpetual support by the states is a matter of inviolable contract between the nation and the indi- vidual slates. No state could break the contract if it would, and certainly none would desire to do so. The state universities have their roots in the constitutions of many of the states, and these have been adopted by the people and can be changed only by the people. Better even than that — they are a part of the policy and the history of their states. They have shared in the public lands of the states; many have a special state-tax levy. They constitute a very important part of the free-school systems of their states ; they are articulated with the secondary and elementary public schools as no other higher institutions of learning ever can be. Their graduates* are scattered over their states, are apostles of higher education upon a free basis, and are already numerous and influential in the public life of their states. The people believe in them ; they have invested in them ; they have done it with deliberation, to the end that Sessions] AMERICAN UNIVERSITIES AND THE NATIONAL LIFE 1 09 their children and their grandchildren may have the benefit, and their state the security and the glory, of it. In a word, the state universities are as stable as the states th.emselves, and infinitely more so than any institution upon private or ecclesiastical foundation can ever hope to be. Of course, the whims of new legislators in their freshman year will cause a little commotion now and then ; but criticism upon a state university is only helpful, and a move to abolish such an institution would start as much fun as a motion to annul the constitution and go back to a nomadic life. In characteristics the state universities are much alike. They have had similar origins, and their hearts have been stirred by the same enthusi- astic, warm-hearted constituencies ; they have all been under about the same influences, and they have all aimed at substantially the same ideals. They have been moving along the same lines, and with a force and rapidity which are unprecedented. Many of them are farther along than Harvard was after 225 years and up to the time of President Eliot. There are not ten other institutions in America doing work of as much diversity and as high grade as twenty of these state universities are doing. Forty of them have 2,700 instructors, 33,000 students, 60,000 graduates, $22,000,000 of productive funds, and annual incomes aggregating $6,000,000. Ten ef them have 175 buildings, 1,800 instructors, and 18,000 students in collegiate and professional courses. Their entrance requirements are on a level with those of Yale. Taking their literary, scientific, engineering, and agricultural lines together with their work in the fine arts, with their schools of medicine and of law, and their graduate schools, and their articulated relations with the public schools of their states, and their university extension work — and surely they are coming to be well abreast of, and in some ways have a great advantage over, the half dozen leading universities of the East ; and outside of these there are none to be compared to them in resources and in multiplicity and character of work. CLASSIFICATION OF UNIVERSITIES. American colleges and universities may be separated, so far as origin is concerned, into three classes, viz.: (i) ecclesiastical institutions ; (2) pri- vately endowed institutions, which are frequently, but not always, of the first class also ; (3) state institutions. So far as aim and purpose are con- cerned, they may perhaps be placed in two classes : (i) institutions which nourish learning, in order that it may promote a cherished and ordinarily a righteous cause ; (2) institutions which extend learning for learning's sake, follow its lead, no matter what interest it supports, and love it because they know it contributes to the liberation of God's infinite truth. The English universities have been very representative of the former class, and all of the earlier American institutions have very naturally 110 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General followed the English thought and copied the English plans. That thought was right, so far as it went; but it was illiberal, for it was the thought of the aristocracy; those plans were well, so far as they were matured; but they were incomplete, for they were lacking in provision for the poor, and made no attempt to carry the higher learning into the life and the vocations of the millions. And they were accordingly unequal to the support of American institutions. THE SPIRIT OF THE NATION The spirit of a nation fixes the character of its schools. Before the Civil War some of the states had begun the development of state univer- sities. In the very darkest days of the fratricidal conflict, when filled with anxiety and bowed down with anguish, the nation entered upon the general policy of carrying the higher learning into the homes and fields and workshops, as well as into the offices and the pulpits, of the people. It was a great step in the complete evolution of the American public- school system. It supplied a unique educational system with a unique and inspiring crown. ADAPTING UNIVERSITY PLANS TO AMERICAN NEEDS The new movement adopted the different features of the older institutions, so far as they were adaptable to American life and American needs, and rejected the rest. What was then lacking it supplied. It took the culturing work of the English scheme and discarded its illiber- ality. It seized the spirit of scientific research, the methods of instruction thru doing, and the love of universal learning so characteristic of the Germans; but it refused their administrative and official indifference to the habits of life and the ethical worth of their students. Realizing that the one system labored for the man more than for the student, and that the other system labored for the student more than for. the man, it selected the elements of both which could be utilized for the highest development of the man and the student in the same person. It took as the cornerstone of its foundations the sound pedagogic principle that intellectual virility, moral heroism, and industrial skill combine in the evolution of the deepest student and the strongest man, and are natural yoke-fellows in a democratic state. It not only came to the help of the people, but, as it was designed to do, it soon began to assert itself in the affairs of the state. It put away all intolerance of religious opinion ; it welcomed woman ; it began to energize and uplift the common schools below it ; it ushered in a new era in educational thought ; it did it by sovereign authority; it broke out new roads with majestic tread ; it began to supply instruction of higher grade to every applicant who came pre- pared for it, in whatever studies he desired to pursue. And it did it all at a minimum of cost. Sessions] AMERICAN UNIVERSITIES AND THE NATIONAL LIFE 1 1 1 It goes without saying that this mighty movement has had a telling influence upon the great states west of the Ohio. And what a change this new upbuilding in the West has produced in the East! Harvard and Yale and Princeton and Columbia entered upon the elective system and undertook to stop purely dogmatic assertion and catechetical instruction. Of course, they think they did it upon their own motion ; indeed, they sometimes say that they invented the new plans. It is a self-satisfying and harmless delusion. The new plans came directly from a versatile and vigorous people. The oldest eastern universities changed their plans, after the University of Michigan had led the way, and under the influences of the fresh breezes which began to blow from the prairies and the mountains of the north central states. Others followed in their wake, as far as the conditions and traditions would allow. New institutions copied, as far as funds would permit. Some have languished under changed and inevitable circumstances, to which they were either unable or unwill- ing to adjust themselves. The result is a revolution in educational proc- esses almost complete. REACHING THE HOMES It was the original intention that this movement should bring the higher learning to the very hearthstones of the common people, and it is doing so. The road from the primary school up to the university is continuous and easy. Many have already passed over that road. A very much greater number will follow it, for in every comfortable western home the boys and girls of high-school age are thinking about going to college. What they are seeing and hearing is firing them with the zeal for learning and for conquest. Of course, it brings together a freshman class lacking some of the graces of dancing masters and some of the diplomacy of corporation managers; but it gathers one which brings good, rich, new blood to the aristocracy of learning, which soon finds the point of equipoise between the field and the shop, on the one hand, and the swallow-tailed coat, on the other, without being afraid of either, and which certainly is not lacking in the qualities which are most capable of attaining the stability and the progress of the nation. THE CURRICULUM If the cosmopolitan and democratic policy of the student body is a feature of the state universities, the breadth of their foundations and the multiplicity of their courses, with the largest liberty of selection, are no less so. The central thought of the congressional legislation to which the most of them owe their origin, tho not the greater part of their support, is that the industries of the nation shall be lifted up to the plane of the professions, and that a national system of higher education broad enough for all, with arms reaching out so as to embrace the employments 112 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Genera of all the people, should be evenly and harmoniously developed. It is true that the purpose has been sometimes misapprehended, and perhaps sometimes misrepresented. It was not to make less of the humanities — that is, the languages, literatures, belles lettres, etc. — unless less were need- ful to the harmonious evolution of all the human powers ; but it was certainly to make more of the branches particularly applicable to the circumstances and life of the people. The languages, ancient and modern; the literatures of the world, with all their treasures; history, with all its inspiration; mathematics, with all its exacting discipline, continue and will always continue. They continue with less superstitious idol-worship, but even with keener relish; for the stomach is robust, and the food is treated with more philosophic judgment and more discriminating sense. Law and medicine are not only being placed upon foundations of learning and advanced to the plane of college and professional work, but they are being given new life and power thru research and discussion, through dissection and demonstration — the method so characteristic of the new. scientific spirit in the world. And how this scientific spirit dis- tinguishes the state universities ! They did not get it from either old England or New England, but it is breathing thru all their work and leading them into endless fields of which our fathers never dreamed. It gives intensity and fascination to the study of the universe, and brings the processes and forces of nature to the study of man and his affairs. THE SCHOOLS AND THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS Perhaps no feature of the state universities is more characteristic than the extent to which they are applying scientific principles to the advance- ment of the industrial arts. If a people is to grow great, its schools must support and shape its industries. No nation can be strong which is not a nation of workers. Work is education. Education is the product of the contacts and experiences of life. The application of scientific principles improves the work, and the improvement of the work uplifts the worker. It not only uplifts the worker, but it uplifts his wife and the home she manages, and his children and the schools they attend, and the society of which they are all a part, and the nation to which they give their loyalty and their love. On the night after the awards in the department of industrial arts at the world's exposition of 1878 a company of English manufacturers and statesmen met in Paris, in humiliation and chagrin, to consider what might have been. They had been accustomed to secure the major part of the awards, but this time the honors had gone to others. This and that reason was assigned. Some questioned the fairness of the judges. Sir Lion Playfair put a shot in the bull's eye when he said : "Gentlemen, it is better that we undeceive ourselves. It is the polytechnic schools of the continent that are beating us. We shall lose our primacy irretrievably Sessions] AMERICAN UNIVERSITIES AND THE NATIONAL LIFE II3 unless we do much more for the technical schools than we have been doing." And Britain has been profiting by the lesson. The intelligence of the British empire is agitated upon that subject today as upon no other phase of popular education. And the conditions call more irresistibly for attention to the subject in the United States than in Europe. Between 1840 and 1890 the population of Europe increased 50 per cent., from 240,000,000 to 350,000,000; but their manufactures advanced 300 per cent., from 55,500,000,000 to $15,000,000,000. In the same time the population of the United States went up 370 per cent., from ■ 17,000,000 to 63,000,000, and our manufactures advanced 1,800 per cent., from $500,000,000 to $9,000,000,000. In other words, the growth of our manufactures did not keep pace with theirs when population is con- sidered. Notwithstanding the volume of our agricultural products, and notwithstanding the greater needs of people in new homes, and our much- vaunted genius at invention and construction, the balance of our foreign trade in raw and manufactured merchandise has been against us more years than otherwise since 1840. The mixture of races — the general shaking up — should have produced — and, we believe, has produced a brighter, — a more versatile and vigorous people here than is left there. Doubtless, upon the average, they live better, are more evenly educated, and are more ambitious than the people of Europe. Our resources of fields and mines and waters are much greater than theirs. We should have advanced in manufactures more rapidly than they. We, as well as Great Britain, must face the inevitable. If this nation is to stand strong and great among the nations, it must pay serious attention to the training and diffusion of engineering talent; it must have a scientific system of industrial schooling extending from the university to the primary grade, to the end that we mdiy produce more per capita than the people of other nations. Nothing else will assure this, unless an evenly balanced system of education will do so. Possibly most of us believe that we may make laws capable of affording some assistance in this matter, but in the end we shall find unquestionably that the quality, and doubtless the volume and value, of our products must depend upon our schools much more than upon our laws. The man must always remain greater than the machine. In spite of the application of steam and electricity and the use of all manner of mechanical devices, the personal element must remain the dominant factor in production. It was, indeed, a wise statesmanship which, by the side of the old-time classical and linguistic studies, established scientific training in the agricultural and mechanical arts as a distinguishing feature of the great national system of advanced schools which was called into being by the Morrill act. A system of education which omits the scien- tific treatment of soils and orchards and the animal industries, and which has no direct and practical application to architecture, to civil, electrical. 114 NA TIONAL ED UCA TIONAL ASSOC! A TION LGeneral mechanical, sanitary, mining, and railroad engineering, may be all right as far as it goes, but certainly it is a very one-sided system. It is idle to grow emotional over a college education for boys and girls from the farms and the factories, unless the sympathies of the college for the farm and the factory are real, and unless the curriculum of the college connects with the thought and the work which prevail there. Learning and labor must walk together. Learning must keep labor upon her feet; labor must hold learning upon the earth. Neither is to grovel or soar. They are to walk uprightly in the dignity of true manhood and woman- hood, with faces to the rising sun, and with hearts keyed to the music of the skies. When that union is complete, it will be the schools, rather than the, laws, which will make it so. The great effort to complete it is one of the distinguishing features of the state universities. The results are already beginning to be apparent. The association of the work in the humanities with the work on the experiment farms and in the drafting- rooms, the shops, and the great engineering laboratories of our state uni- versities is turning the educational thought of the country. It is true this work is but just begun, but it is already giving a great uplift to labor ; and it is already giving more breadth and robustness to learning. It is doing much more. When laying foundations which will enable Ameri- can products to command American markets and have a fair chance in the markets of the world, it promotes the best and highest education thru the association of the strongest qualities of the human race ; and it cements the common brotherhood when it opens the way for the play of that wondrous harpsichord of nature which finds a home in every human breast, and which, if given a chance, will make the wide world kin. PUBLIC QUESTIONS As the coming of a broader era in ethical thought, and of new economic and social conditions, led self-governing and rapidly growing states to set up state universities, it might well be expected that those uni- versities would be distinguished at an early day for their work in the field of philosophic thought as applied to what may well be called " public questions." The expectation has in some measure been realized. Public questions are not lacking either in urgency or in number, and the state universities are attacking them with an independence of judgment and an inherited aptitude for scientific methods of investigation which are most encouraging. Let us take an example. Recent years have witnessed a very marked change in the composition of the American people, and practically a complete disappearance of the economic conditions upon which the com- mon thought of the nation has been predicated from its birth. Indeed, it is not too much to say that we are at the point of juncture between two of those mighty epochs which mark off the history of the world into Sessions] AMERICAN UNIVERSITIES AND T/IE XATIOS'AL UPE \\$ cycles. A government made and administered upon the basis of manhood suffrage, the like of which the world never saw before, is trying to pass this danger point in safety. It is a sublime spectacle. We are encoun- tering unprecedented perplexities. The dangers are many. Other nations have perished in less perilous breakers. Because the good ship's crew is an American crowd, and proverbially confident and good natured, it is not wise to put aside the sufferings and the protests of our fellows with indifference or derision. The well-being of every citizen is a high concern of democratic government. The new use of physical forces and the marvelous evolution of machinery are preventing men who want work from getting it, or from getting so much as they need. Vast aggregations of capital are concentrating industries and economizing construction so as to control the markets of the world, and this cuts wages and paralyzes individual enterprise. Then the wage-earners combine in a heroic strug- gle for more work and better pay. Great labor organizations cover the land. Tho calculated to attract the shiftless, they are characterized by a large measure of self-restraint and a very systematic procedure. While all this is coming to pass, thousands of men have accumulated millions of money in so brief a time as to forbid the belief that energy and pru- dence have been the only factors in the gathering of their estates. It is a common belief that these monstrous fortunes have resulted from laws that are not even-handed, from unlawful business practices, and from undue grants of public power. Worse still, it is the common conviction that these great aggregations of wealth and power are used improperly and effectually, thru the political machinery of the country, to exact fur- ther legislation in their own interest and to control the officers whose duty it is to construe and execute the laws. And all this has shaken the traditional belief that all men stand equal before the law, on the one hand, and has sensibly diminished the common respect of the multitudes for officials, and that common confidence in the acts of the government which is the inviolable life-principle of a constitutional state. It will not do to pass such matters by with the superficial thought that in some way we have shuffled thru troubles in the past and shall doubtless do it again. If the old, proud boast that an American child who is at the bottom of the ladder today has an even chance with every other child of being at the top of it tomorrow is even doubted, then it is to be made good beyond peradventure. If old laws do not apply to new economic conditions, then new laws are to be made which do. It is the function of the state to teach historically the priceless value of organ- ized society and to prove objectively that civic institutions are of equal value to all. Thrift is to be encouraged by respecting and rewarding it, but overreaching is to be limited rather than promoted by law. The rich must pay for the safeguards which community life has thrown around the property which community life has enabled them to acquire. The Ii6 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General poor are to be given education, and all the other concomitants of demo- cratic government, in kind and quality, which will take hold upon their manner of life and assure them a rightful share in the present benefits and the ultimate destiny of human society. The movement for securing these great ends will have to rest upon research that is reliable as well as upon reasoning that is philosophic; and such movements will have to be sustained by schools which are neither disposed to coddle the people because they want their votes nor fawn upon the patrons of enormous wealth in the hope of favors yet to come. This is only an example, but it is sufficient to show that the political science of a cosmopolitan and self-governing people may well have the leavening and leveling influence of independent and democratic universities. CATHOLICITY OF SPIRIT Catholicity of spirit is a distinguishing feature of the state universi- ties. Out of this fact, altho it is a chief element of their strength, has grown the main, if not the only, criticism which has been brought against them. It is high time that anyone who is in the" road of the irresistible trend of American common life should find it out. Superstitious reverence for creeds is passing away. Much of the best blood of the world has been shed in religious wars, but it will not be so hereafter. We have about passed thru a religious revolution without bloodshed. It is, perhaps, the first peaceful religious revolution in history, and, better than that, it is one which makes for future peace. Life is greater than dogma. As patriotism is above party, so oneness with the God of the universe is not in the keeping of synods and assemblies. The followers of the union flag and of a common Lord will be glad to affiliate with and support a denomi- nation, but they are going to live in common association without so much reference to denominations, and the education of their children is not going to be limited by the peculiar plans of prophets, priests, and kings, i happen to be a member of the Presbyterian church, with pride in its history and interest in its destiny. There are three times as many members of that church in the student body of the University of Illinois as in the two Presbyterian colleges of that state put together, and, unless revolutions move backward, their number is going to increase. They are being more broadly, thoroly, and wisely educated, because educated in association with Methodists and Baptists and Roman Catholics, and in association with every branch of learning and every higher interest of a cosmopolitan people.- To suppose that these students, men and women grown, are going to permit their mingling with the multitude to lead them away from the Presbyterian fold is to suppose that the arms of that church are weaker than they are, or that the moral character of her young people is less substantial than it is. 'i'hey are not going to separate from Sessions] AMERICAN UNIVERSITIES AND THE NATIONAL LIFE 117 the church, unless in cases where" they would in any event, but they are going to draw the dominant powers of that church closer to the heart of the national life. To characterize a state university as a godless and irreligious institu- tion would be the same as characterizing an American state as a godless and irreligious state, or a state educational system as an irreligious sys- tem. It would be a thoughtless and unjustifiable aspersion, for both the state and its university are the creations o7 people whose history, sym- pathies, and intuitions are all based upon the fundamental principles of the Christian religion. As well said by Judge Storey, we have no estab- lished religion, and never will have ; .we have no written law to connect church and state, and never will have ; but the Christian church and American institutions are so closely interwoven that an attack upon one is an attack upon the other. It is a great mistake, and an altogether too common one, to think that the necessary exclusion of denominational teaching from the state institutions, because of denominational differences and zeal, naturally means the exclusion of spiritual culture altogether. The separation of the world's people into different religious parties was altogether natural and desirable. It has counted heavily for the spread of religion and the advance of civilization, and it will doubtless continue to do so; But people are not thinking as they once did. There is a great mass of people — doubtless nine-tenths of the intelligent citizens of this country — who, in the twilight of nineteenth-century intellectual progress, while glad to cherish the denomination which suits them best, or into which they have come by chance, will yet refuse to believe that the mere matters of form or ceremony or theological mysticism, which are in difference between the teachers of religious sects, constitute all, or any considerable part, of religion. The state uni-versities will not live in anybody's ruins, and they are very ready to let alone the religious differ- ences and the theological disputations in which the experts have such splendid times. But they will teach all the rest of Christianity, and they will continue to illustrate the fact, that entire toleration of religious opinion does not deaden religious thought, but, on the contrary, and in pre-eminent degree among scholars, it promotes the freedom of discus- sion, it enlarges the outlook, it broadens and sharpens the sympathies, and it makes for the fuller expression of the higher qualities of human nature in noble acts which must always continue to control sects and states alike. Such education, in such associations, can be made better by nothing so much as by that readjustment in plans to which it inevitably leads. If the denominations will come, in full measure, into sympathy with the thought which permeates this great work; if they will take for their chil- dren such parts of the general education, which the state is so willing and able to give, as will qualify them for their work in life; if they will reserve their own resources for such purely sectarian and theological Il8 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General instruction as they may think well to give, and will maintain their special schools in mutual and helpful relations with those of the state — they will show worldly wisdom, for they will enlarge the efficiency of their special schools ; they will find their pulpits in closer touch with life, for the teachings of their ministry will be more attractive to the multitude, and they will give the help which is needed and which they may give easily to shape the course and quicken and direct the feelings of the universities. PATRIOTIC AIMS All educational institutions may be presumed to exist for patriotic aims, but with the coming of the l^nd-grant institutions there came into the higher educational work of the country new elements which were to contribute much to the organized strength of the nation. Scientific principles were not only to be applied to mechanics, so that all the resources would be developed and all the industries directed, in the con- fidence that this would multiply the work and enhance the prosperity of the people, but scientific principles were to be applied in liberal measure to those particular branches of mechanics which relate to effectiveness in war. The result is plainly evident in the strength and effectiveness of American arms in the war with Spain. But very much more than this was undertaken, and the result of that is evident also. The congressional act to which most of the state universities trace their greatest inspiration, if not their origin, became a law in the very darkest hour of the nation's maturer life. It was just at the close of the series of melancholy military defeats in the memorable campaign upon the James river, in which 15,000 citizen union soldiers had died in battle that the nation might live ; it was when the national capitol was uncovered and the very continuance of the government in doubt, that the greatest of the presidents used the same penful of ink to sign the call for 300,000 more men for the army and to sign the act providing for the endowment of state universities. Is it any wonder that the act carried a provision that every institution it spoke into existence, "to promote the liberal and prac- tical education of the industrial classes in the several pursuits and profes- sions of life," should also maintain a department of military science ? Since then many boys have wished it were not so, but many boys have wished many things which were not good for them. It helps their phy- sique, it gives them elasticity of step and manliness of carriage, and, perhaps better than all, it is an object-lesson in obedience without com- promise. But all this was not the sum of the purpose of the congressional requirement. The distinct purpose of that requirement was to train edu- cated young men for officers in the army of the United States. It has fulfilled its purpose so well that regiments and batallions rivaling the one at the United States Military Academy upon the Hudson have become Sessions] AMERICAN UNIVERSITIES AND THE NATIONAL LIFE no distinguished features of the state universities. Not long ago I heard General Merritt — who was for several years commandant at the United States Military Academy, and is now leading our armed forces across the seas to co-operate with Dewey and take possession of the Philippines, at least until the time when Spain shall pay us roundly for her deviltry at our doors— say that a certain university cadet regiment was the most perfect cadet organization he had ever seen. These young, scientifically trained mechanics and soldiers are exerting their powers in the army and navy. The result was seen at Manila and again at Santiago. It will be seen in larger measure hereafter, whenever and wherever it may be neces- sary to send the armed forces of the United States to discharge the God- imposed functions of a Christian nation and command the peace of the world in the interests of free institutions and the universal progress. THE INFLUENCE OF STATE UNIVERSITIES If I have dwelt at some length upon the distinguishing features of the state universities, it is not more because of my familiarity with them than because of my belief that they represent the latest and greatest and the most unique step in the evolution of popular education, and have exerted a revolutionizing influence upon all of the higher educatiorial work of the country. Springing from ajl the people of a state, they have ministered to the higher life of all the people of the state, and their marvelous growth has shown the older universities the course which they must take to attract a wide constituency in all the states. The older universities have taken that course, so far as they can. They have taken it so generally as to make that course the course of a national system of education. It is idle to debate the details of this great movement or assume to parcel out the credit of it. It was a movement of the people. It came along in the Almighty's time, just as the other movements have come along which have shaped the thought and molded the life of the nation. It came because it was necessary that a vast enterprise in free government should have a system of education with the elements which would enable a free people to become a great and well-balanced people. If the needs of the nation have produced universities and determined the characteristics of the educational system, the life of the nation is in turn being quickened and directed by them. History is here repeating itself. The histories of the universities and the histories of the nations are more closely related than we are accustomed to recall. The distin- guishing features of the English universities are easily traceable to the formative period of English life. The early development of religious freedom and civil liberty in middle Europe has had much to do with the free and scientific spirit of the German schools. The universities of the older American states inherited their organization and plans, their philos- oi)hy and ideals, from old England. They grafted upon them their own 120 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General theological views, and their colonial life exerted some other inconsider- able influences upon them. But the old English universities, the German universities, and the earlier American universities sprang from the world's progress and radiated the influences which have broken out the roads for still further progress. We are advancing to the time when the general* unlocking of the truth shall make the whole world free. Institutions are not the ends ; they are only means. It is with institutions as with men. They do their work, and then, if they cannot do the higher work which is to be done, they give way to others which can. The glory and the hope of the world are in the fact that its succeeding cycles are upon con- tinually advancing planes. All classes and all institutions will have to recognize the inexorable logic of events.* Freedom has been making headway in the intellectual life of the world, and more rapidly in this country than in any other. There has been a great and a distinctive movement in higher education in America, and it will have to be reckoned with, and it ought to be. It has been, initiated by the people. It is now widespread and strong. It has become a part of the national history and an inspiration in the national life. It is a broad and beneficent movement. It appeals to every intellectual, every spiritual, every material interest of the nation. It is thoroly American. It is aiming at general results. It is opposed to no enterprise which accords with the common well-being of the people. It will aid every individual and stimulate every right interest willing to accept it. It necessitates recognition and the readjustment of plans. True wisdom will see this, and true policy will support this great move- ment, make it as strong as possible, and get all the help which it can give, for it has become the backbone of a national system of education which is equal to the support of free institutions. THE DISTINGUISHING FEATURES OK AMERICAN UNIVERSITIES The life in our American universities is very typical of the life in our American states. The life in our universities is in very large measure a realization of the aspirations of the life in our states. That life is thoroly democratic. Every language and creed and social condition is represented. Swallow-tailed coats are somewhat con- spicuous in the East and, perhaps, somewhat conspicuous by their absence in the West, but the greater number are learning the uses of the swallow- tail, on the one hand, and paying larger respect to the manual industries, on the other. Students who must leave college at times to earn money with which to finish work side by side with others who never earned a dollar in their lives. Men and women meet upon an equality in their work, and mingle freely in social life. The whole body is stronger and better for it. By reason of this the West has been saved from much of the innate foolish- ness which centers in the female seminaries of the East. Every phase of Sessions] AMERICAN UNIVERSITIES AND THE NATIONAL LIFE T2l life end thought is the subject of discussion. Differences of birth or sta- tion or of lines of work count for little; character and scholarship count for much. If one lacks moral fiber, he soon suffers from it ; if he takes a position, he will have to defend it; if he is lazy, wealth and keenness will not save him. Pretense is of no avail. There is no favoritism. Univer- sity opinion and the term examinations are inexorable. Everyone soon finds his level. The prevailing traits are steadiness, seriousness, enthusi- asm, and cheerfulness. Animal spirits run high. Ambition is strong. The freshman longs to be a sophomore, and the sophomore to be a junior, and the junior glories in the fact that he will next year be a sen- ior; and as the senior sees the happy vision fleeting from him, he wishes he was a freshman again. It is the survival of the best and the strongest, but the best and the strongest form the larger part of the whole student body. All the influences make, riot for the polished nobleman, whether he is a scholar or not, as the English universities do ; not for scholarship with indifference as to manhood, as the German universities do; not for enlarging upon or perpetuating the artificial differences of life ; but make for both manhood and scholarship, for toleration of opinion, for affinity of feeling, and for the best ideals of American citizenship. The universities of this country which are going to endure and exert a decisive influence upon our great public educational system, and so upon the life of the nation, have not been imported. They have resulted from our conditions, our ideals, our aspirations. They have been set up by an earnest, hardy, pioneer people, ready to labor, to give, and to wait in order that their children might fare better than they, and in order that the faith which brought their fathers over the sea might be certain of a fruition in the largest and the most beneficent results. The people were not willing that the institutions of higher learning should rest upon mere dif- ferences in creeds, be left to the precarious support of the wealthy, or be permitted to fall under the control of a class. They followed a great national impulse, an impulse which laid foundations for new universities and changed the characters of older ones. They followed no pattern. They took whatever seemed good and proved adaptable to American life, wherever they could find it, and added new features from their own experiences and their own thought, and those features were neither few nor insignificant. What they did is giving the nation its chief glory. It is making the highest learning more popular and free in these states than anywhere else on the globe. It is raising' the standard of living. It is training col- lege men and women, not for study alone, but for life; it is educating them to engage in all the activities and lead the thought of the crowd, and not educating them away from the masses, as of old ; it is maintain- ing the equilibrium of interests in the nation, holding the people to the foundation principles of free government, and carrying to coming genera- 122 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General tions the guarantees of the great charters of English liberty and popular freedom. It is doing this by teaching and exemplifying the doctrine that constitutional states exist not for the few, but for all ; not for security and power alone, but for freedom and the just rights of everyone ; not for ribbons, and gold braid, and armies, and shows, but for individual opportunity and the common progress. It is insuring all this by pur- suing learning for learning's sake, by dignifying skilled labor as well as intellectual study, by associating the powers of the brain and heart and hand together, by giving every son and daughter of the people an equal chance, and by paying the highest respect to those who go the farthest and accomplish the most for themselves and for the race. OUR EDUCATIONAL EXHIBIT AT THE INTERNATIONAL EXPOSITION IN PARIS IN igoo BY W. T. HARRIS, UNITED STATES COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION In view of the approaching world's fair, soon to be held in Paris, commencing April 15, 1900, and closing on November 15 of the same year, I have ventured to bring before the National Educational Associa- tion the suggestion of the appointment of a general committee, whose duty it should be to promote in all suitable ways the preparation of an exhibit of the educational condition and progress within the United States. Such a committee ought to be a large one and formed in such a manner as to represent all educational interests, and divide easily into subcommittees for special work. Such a committee, for example, should be composed of ten state superintendents, ten city superintendents, ten presidents of colleges, universities, or normal schools ; ten representatives of private or denominational schools, five librarians of public libraries, and five representatives of state and other institutions for the education of special classes, including asylums for orphans, deaf and dumb, blind, state reform schools, and the like. This would make up a committee of fifty or more persons, who should be appointed by the Board of Directors of the association, and be called together in November next to organize and begin their work. This committee would be of great service to the commissioners or other ofificers appointed by the president to take charge of the exhibit of the United States. It would stimulate action in all parts of the country, and assist all who seek light as to the best modes of showing educational material. One of the most important functions of the committee would be to appoint a commission to report on the French and other educational Sessions] EDUCATIONAL EXHIBIT AT PARIS EXPOSITION 123 exhibits as found in place at Paris, and to study their relation to the social and political ideals fostered by the several states that prepared these exhibits. Perhaps the most noteworthy movement in the history of the past twenty-five years is the rise of German productive industry under the direct influence of the German imperial government. It would seem that the annual wealth production of that nation has increased within the period of a quarter of a century extending from the epoch of the Franco- Prussian war by something. near 40 per cent., and that it will soon be 50 per cent, greater than it was before the victory at Sedan. Is the French nation fully aware of this tremendous movement to enhance German power, not directly by military preparation, but by productive industry ? If so, what are its methods of national defense ? And what are the English and the Russians and the southern European powers doing in the meanwhile ? Germany is the leading country, since the time of Frederick the Great, in using the school as a great instrument of political progress. Prussia was before all nations in directing its national housekeeping by the systematic results of intelligence. Under the influence of Prussian statesmen, it is found, for instance, that the German people do not consume as much sugar as England and France, and yet, having a northern climate, it should have the benefit of the more carbon which sugar furnishes. Looking farther, it notes the world is depending on the inhabitants of tropical and subtropical countries for the supply of this useful article. Why should not a method be found by which the people of Saxony and Prussia and Bavaria can produce their own sugar ? The commission not only asks this question, but it sets a series of experiments in operation, under the charge of agricultural chemists and scientific farmers. The most available plant for the purpose seems to be the beet, and bounties are offered by the government to encourage beet raising and sugar manufacture, adding a round sum to the price of all that is exported. To the astonishment of the world, in a few years the beet-root sugar of the world has come to exceed the cane sugar in the ratio of 9 to 7, There were 4,500,000 tons of beet-root sugar to 3,500,000 tons of cane sugar. German political' economy knows that the people that produces the raw material is not the richest people. To be the richest people it must become a great manufacturing people, and also a great commercial people. What are the higher commercial schools of Germany teaching their pupils ? What are the schools of chemistry teaching the youth that are to direct German manufactures ? It is not at all likely that we know by direct inspection. We can, however, see the importance of those schools by their results. Could not a well-appointed commission learn much by studying the Paris exposition in 1900? It would scarcely 124 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General gain entrance into the government schools where new processes are developing, but it could learn, by outside inquiry, separate items which can be pieced together and made very suggestive. The secret methods used in industrial processes in Germany, France, or England can be learned by other nations, and, in fact, soon become well-known devices. The conceited nations who are not anxious to adopt new inventions, nor to educate their people in directive power, soon find themselves lagging behind in power of national defense. There never was an educative lesson taken more to heart than that of Koniggratz, except the similar and greater one of Sedan. The great advantage of studying education at an international exposition is found chiefly in its bringing together the educational side by side with the industrial exhibit. The most advanced civilization of our day has entered what may be designated as a third epoch of industrial history. The first epoch is one wherein little or no division of labor exists, and wherein most of the combination is in the interest of the protection of life and means of subsistence from the foes of the state. In" the imperfect political forms existing, the citizen cannot devote his best energies to productive industry — the best talent must be devoted to the state in its military aspect ; and the consequence is that slaves and women are compelled to attend to the industries, and to provide food, clothing, and shelter for the necessities of life. Under such circumstances division of labor and combination are not possible to their full extent. When the state becomes settled, and its limits have extended so as to include under one govern- ment the many smaller tribes and principalities that were never able to live in peace when independent, but were f6rever entering as factors into a process of mutual hostility — then settled peace comes, and division of labor is possible, where productive industry becomes recognized as a function of free men. The second e})Och of industry is this one of division of labor as the supreme principle. " Divide and conquer " is its motto. It limits the training of the laborer to a single simple function or activity, so as to secure thereby the greatest possible skill and rapidity of production. Such concentration of individual energy upon the parts of a process is possible only where combination can be easily effected between the different kinds of workmen, and thus 'the finished product turned out by the association working as a single individual. This second phase of industry is not accompanied with the corresponding enlightenment of the individual laborer. It aims at infinite specialization, at concentrating the entire energy of the laborer upon the simple move- ment of the body, and thus reduces the human being to a machine, and tends to narrow his intellect correspondingly. But out of the second class of industry, by a sort of dialectic neces- sity, proceeds the third. The ultimate tendency of the division of labor Sessions] EDUCATIONAL EXHIBIT A T PARIS EXPOSITION 1 2 5 is to subdivide each process for the sake of acquiring skill, until a maxi- mufn of simplicity is reached. It is here that the aid of machinery comes in. The simpler the movement, -the easier it is to find a mechanical process that can be substituted for that of the human hand. When a number of simple mechanical processes are discovered, the directing mind of labor begins to invent combinations of machinery, and with this enters the third epoch of industry. Machinery continually grows more complex in this epoch, and tends continually to invade the province of the mere hand laborer, and to render him useless by providing cheaper and more certain means of accomplishing his work. To the narrow, simple mind of the mere hand laborer the avatar of machinery appears as a direful portent, all-destructive of his means of subsistence and of his very raison d'etre. But the Divine Providence uses machinery as the instrument of individual freedom. The appliance is twofold : 1. The first effect of machinery is to increase very largely the pro- ductivity of the individual, and to cheapen the products of industry. Thus, when things are readjusted, the former hand laborer finds himself producing more, and able to purchase his private supply with less money. The social whole gets better fed, sheltered, and clothed, with less labor than formerly, and has, therefore, surplus time to produce ornament and to educate itself. 2. The second effect of machinery is to elevate the laborer by demand- ing of him a higher quality of labor. Mere hand labor required the minimum of brain effort. But when man is set to directing machinery, he becomes less a hand laborer and more' a brain laborer. He must understand the combination of movements in his machine, and. must exercise watchfulness and forethought. The epoch of machinery continu- ally tends toward the production of more and more complex machines, combining many formerly separate trades in one machine, and, as a con- sequence, requiring of the director of the machine greater power of com- bination. Each laborer now comes to stand where the overseer or supervisor stood before. The tendency of machinery is, therefore, to remove the laborer as far as possible from mere hand work, and to demand of him alertness of mind and versatility — exactly opposite traits of mind from those produced by mere divisioh of labor. Mere brute force being in abeyance, it is noticeable that woman becomes more equal to man in the third epoch of industry, and a sharer with him in all forms of labor. Whereas the principle of mere division of labor tended toward the complete reduction, of the laborer to a hand or a foot — a brute force — and demanded of him the minimum of brains, and therefore did not stimu- late or encourage school education, the new principle of labor-saving machinery makes a direct demand for directive intellect, and therefore 126 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General encourages education as a means to secure it. The type of this highest phase of human industry may be studied in the Springfield arsenal, in the Waltham watch manufactory, in the latest machines for printing newspapers, manufacturing pins, weaving ribbons and carpets, etc. This form of industry requires general intelligence in the workman as an indispensable basis, and the school education which is thus rendered necessary reacts again upon the industry, making new and subtler combi- nations of machinery, and continually emancipating the laborer from drudgery. If, in the state of barbarism, only one in a thousand can be spared for the work of ornament, in the stage of the division of labor at least one in a hundred can be reserved for the production of the beautiful, and in the epoch of machinery the number devoted to art and culture increases one in ten, and, prospectively, beyond that. From these considerations it is obvious how pertinent will be the studies of our teachers upon the products of machinery in the world expositio-n as directly related to the progress of school education. Wherever there is evidence of versatility of skill in the individual workman, or evidence of high directive power, there is equal evidence of school education or its equivalent. This correlation of productive industry with education has heen recognized in world's fairs. In the Paris exposition of 1855 there was a subdivision devoted to primary education, and again in that of London of 1862 the class "education" appeared in the schedule. The primary schools of France made a show in the exhibition at Paris in 1867. At Vienna, in 1873, we all became interested in the educational department, and prepared to do a much greater work in our own international fair, the then approaching centennial anniversary of the birth of our nation. In the Paris exposition of 1889 education in France received a won- derful illumination. Its thoroness and its penetration to all classes of society were demonstrated. The fact that the United States had only a small rudimentary exhibit there was a source of regret then and since, not only on the part of Americans, but also on the part of France and other nations, as was shown by their oft-repeated comments. In the Columbian exposition, so fresh in our memory, education occupied a much larger space than in any of the fairs that had preceded it, and the grand impression it made is still fresh in our minds. The French, it is well known, are eminent for their ability to make an exhibit tell its own story. As ^sop taught the animals to speak like rational beings, so the French have taught the art of arranging things in such a way as make them talk. Hence it has happened that more useful hints are to be derived from a French educational exhibit than from any other as regards the illustration by means of object-lessons. The American method of instruction has not been that of object-les- Sessions] EDUCA 7 ZONAL EXHIBIT A T PARIS EXPOSITION 1 3 7 sons. It has leaned rather to the side known as the text-book method. But educational methods are gradually undergoing revolution all over the country, so far as instruction is concerned, so as to adopt the "method of investigation" in place of the old method, which is spoken of contemptuously as the "cramming text-book method." The new method is all-worthy of adoption, but the old, perhaps, is not sufficiently valued. Hence we have extremes and unnecessary one-sidedness in the newest devotees of the method of investigation. The tendency is, of course, to neglect the printed page and the critical comparison of authori- ties, and to confine teaching too much to individual experiment and original investigation. It must never be forgotten that the school has its chief work in initiating the pupil into the accumulated wisdom of the race as a preliminary to his original additions to the same. Unless he knows what has been thought, observed, and done, he runs the risk of traveling round in a narrow circle of his own, and wasting his life in repeating discoveries long since made. Hence, in early life, there pre- dominates the assimilating stage of education ; in maturer life, the stage of original acquisition. And yet, even in this characterization of the difference between the school and practical life, we are apt to underrate the assimilative stage. For inasmuch as all human life is vicarious and all mankind is made by means of spoken and printed language to live for each individual — so that each individual is able, thru language, to participate spiritually in the experience of the race without being obliged to suffer the terrible throes — the agony and sweat of blood — that that experience has cost in the aggregate — it follows that the greater part of life is, after all, the participation in the life of the race and its assimilation, rather than exclu- sively original. The race transcends the individual almost in an infinite potency. What are the senses of one scientific man to the aggregate senses of all scientific men ? What is the thinking of one philosopher to the thinking of all philosophers ? The physical labor of one man is insignificant compared with that of his community; still less potent is the unaided might of the individual thinker, experimenter, or literary man. Genius is the ascent of the individual into the vision and will- power of the race — so that he is guided by the universality of mankind, and is a fit guide for others. Without this participation in the common mind and experience of the race, the individual cannot achieve anything except erratic and negative endeavors. He conspires against humanity. He mistakes idiosyncrasy for originality, and his life is a profitless attempt to dispense with sunlight and to see the world by the shine of his own eyes. The outcome of such seeing is hallucination and the specter world. For these reasons we must take care not to undervalue the old peda- gogic method of critical sifting of the text-book lessons as an initiation 128 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION (General of the pupil into the method of availing himself of the experience of mankind. Its compass did not include all, but, if a choice must be made, it included what should be first chosen. The study of a nation's text-books is for these reasons of importance, and every educational exhibit ought to have such books fully represented. It has been felt from the beginning that it would be impossible to show up the products of education as the products of the farm and work- shop are presented. Education produces cultured human beings, and these cannot be placed on exhibition like grain or cloth. Neither can the methods of education be shown to advantage, except in the school- room. Only the physical appliances can be well shown. These are the buildings, furniture, apparatus, and books. These appliances do not have so direct a relation to their product as the plow and the reaper do to the grain, or the spinning-jenny and the loom do to the cloth. But, as buildings and furniture have a very serious influence for weal or woe on the health of children, these, at least, are of value as items of exhibit. In the first attempts to exhibit the results of education in a world's fair, the teacher naturally resorted to the use of examination papers, and the work of classes and grades on prepared questions was bound into volumes, but without exciting that degree of interest and inquiry that had been expected. It required too much time to examine them. It is almost incompatible with the idea of an exposition to present its material in the form of books, and to require a minute and careful exami- nation in order to form a comparative estimate of its value. It is true that a special commission, sent to report on education, might, in the course of the summer, go thru, with some degree of attention, the thou- sands of volumes of pupils' work presented at such an exposition, and report the. relative merits. The most profitable investigation would still remain to the commission ; it should proceed to visit the localities that sent the best work, and study the methods of instruction there practiced. For it is not the knowledge of the fact that this or that place excels in its .work which is of value, but the knowledge of the method of its accomplishment. It has happened, therefore, that the exhibit of education has drifted more and more toward what can be presented in a graphic form. Instruction in penmanship, drawing, and map-making can be best shown. The photograph has come more and more into requisition. It may show the school architecture at a glance, and also the personnel of teachers and pupils. Photographs of interiors may show the furniture and apparatus. An exhibition of photographs showing every school building in the state, with its pupils and teachers in front of the building, would be the most unique attraction ever presented at an international exposition. For it would show the countenance, stature, costume of f .Sessions I EDUCA TIONAL EXHIBIT A T PARIS EXPOSITION i 2 9 pupils and teachers, the degree of importance which the communitv placed upon the school by its costliness and its improvements. After the photograph comes the large chart showing items of com- parative population, school attendance, number of teachers, length of annual session, finances as regards state aid and local taxes. We all remember the remarkable series of charts showing the statistics of Harvard College and its history at the Columbian exposition. They are reproduced in General Eaton's report of that exposition printed by the Bureau of Education in the Annual Report for 1892-93. What a valuable exhibit of higher education could be made with similar charts of each college and university in the United States ! When we consider the object of school education, we are not surprised at the amount of room given to new and often slight departures from the current traditions of education. A new system of map-drawing or a new object-lesson will receive more attention than a large display of solid work in the regular lines. And yet, this is not so strange when we compare this with the history of school methods. For a fact that strikes us as a great paradox, when we look over the history of education, is that nearly all of the reforms in pedagogy have come from radical, negative men — men who were idio- syncratic, and who departed from the beaten paths of society to such a degree as to amount to a deformity. Such were Pestalozzi, Basedow, Jacotot, and a host of reformers that emanated from the school of Rous- seau. Altho the work of the teacher would seem to be that of initiating the pupil into the conventionalities of civilized life, the school of Rous- seau theoretically taught that the end of education is to restore the child to nature. The grain of truth in this spirit of protest against the forms and prescriptions of society lies in this : education is to make man con- scious of the necessity of the conventionalities and usages which he is to wear about him — the clothes, as it were, of his inner spiritual self — thru life. And all consciousness begins with negation. Analysis is a process .of tearing to pieces, and the fabric of society is thus torn to shreds as preliminary to seeing its necessity by synthesis. Hence education, more than any other art, lives by new departures. Its growth resembles a vegetable organism rather than an animal organ- ism. It grows by the sprouting out of new life upon the old, and the old becomes in this way the soil and support of the new. Each new branch or twig or leaf is a new individual, rooting in the old as its soil. The animal's limbs are not separate individuals, but in each one he is at home and at one with himself. The animal is one organism in all his mem- bers, and has the psychological faculty of feeling, while the plant is a bundle of individualities, and cannot feel, but only live. Education develops in the child a new thought or trains him to do a new act. Then by endless repetition it reduces the new activity to habit. 1 3 o NA TtONAL ED UCA TIONAL ASSOC! A TION [General Repetition. is essentially deadening — the reduction to habit is the reduc- tion from a stage of conscious spontaneity to a state of unconscious, involuntary activity. And yet, all spiritual life depends upon this con- version of spontaneity into use and wont. But the process of convert ing a free activity, a new thought, into an unconscious habit is, after all, the process of freeing the will and the intellect from its concentration on a lower activity, in order that it may energize anew upon a larger S3'n- thesis. Without habit it can make no progress. O'er its dead self it steps onward and upward to higher things, says a poet. But the work of the teacher is in perpetual danger from this source. It treads always upon the brink of the abyss of dull routine and mechan- ical, soulless, unconscious repetition. Hence the necessity for, and the actual occurrence of, negative and one-sided reforms for the sake of relief from the soul-killing monotony. The circle of pedagogical change and reform ever revolves. Its general movements are : 1. From teaching the entire complexity of a thing to teaching its simplest elements; i. e., from exhaustive treatment to that of smattering. 2. From beginning with the elements of a thing to beginning with its final results. 3. From concentration on the intellectual technics to concentrating upon the practical. 4. From emphasizing the humanities and hastening the initiation of the child into all human combinations and into conscious communion with the spiritual life of mankind, to emphasizing the natural sciences and mathematics, and hastening the initiation into mechanic art and the means of combination of material objects. 5. From a striving to give a clear consciousness of every step taught, at once, to a blind obedience to prescription — learning formulas with only a practical end in view. But let us return from these considerations of the detail of an educa- tional exhibit and take up once more our chief reason for making elabo- rate preparation for this Paris exposition. Our interest in the exposition in Paris and in all subsequent world expositions in Europe is not the same interest that it was in i88g. Since then we have risen out of our isolation and the Monroe doctrine, and have taken our first step to become one of the number of great powers that assume to direct the course of civilization and decide for the rest of the world its destiny. We shall probably count our seventy-five millions of people by 1900, the time of the Paris exposition. Considering our wealth-producing power and the enrollment in our schools, we may easily claim to be the most powerful nation in the world. That is to say, we may claim to have the strength on the whole, tho we are not using it to form great armies or navies. We are using it chiefly in productive Sessions] THE EDUCATIONAL OUTLOOK I3I industry. Our claims will be recognized by the united powers of Europe, and we shall be allowed our place in their councils. But we never can avail ourselves of the advantage, unless we as a nation become familiar with the political aims and aspirations of the several nations constituent in that great unity. We must know thoroly their history and their present purposes — not only the conscious purposes of their governments, but especially the more or less unconscious purposes in the popular instinct. For we must learn to interpret the words of rulers thru their actions, and their actions thru their convictions. To learn to understand the wishes of other nations, and the means by which they make them valid, is the first lesson of diplomacy. And we as a nation are now fairly launched upon the era in which diplomacy will become more and more necessary to our success in obtaining the consid- eration that is due us. World expositions are the grand object-lesson in which our people may best begin this study of our great contemporaries, the nations of Europe. THE EDUCATIONAL OUTLOOK BY HON. W. W. STETSON, STATE SUPERINTENDENT OK PUBLIC SCHOOLS, AUBURN, ME. We are provincial and cosmopolitan, sectional and patriotic, individu- alistic and homogeneous. Our provincialism is apparent to anyone who studies the persons gathered in any great national assembly. From one section come those who are conscious of possessing the prestige of age and tested systems. They know the past, delight in its record, and give much time to reciting its glories. They place too high a valuation upon what we have, and overestimate its usefulness in doing the work of today. From the next division we meet those who have all the strength and dignity, as well as the sustaining confidence, that come from large material possessions. They are self-poised, and strong in the strength of their holdings. They are subject to the evils which come from relying too much upon the visible and measurable, and are developing a commercial spirit where a higher motive should be supreme. We have with us representatives from those newer empires where the molders of thought are distinguished for their conservative, level-headed qualities. They have their feet on the ground and see things in their normal light. They have adopted the most of the best the ages have developed. They are graced by but few halos, and their skies are not 132 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General arched with many rainbows. Their peculiar dangers lie in the direction of drill, formalism, and repression of the aspiring, ideal qualities. In their neighbors we meet strong men from a section noted for alert- ness, eagerness, and an ardent hospitality for new ideas. Their heads are in the clouds, and they think they are not extravagant when they assert that "from the tops of their mountains," and the pinnacles of their theo- ries, "they can tickle the toes of the angels." They are our pioneers, and not only feel the pulse of the world, but seem to have unseen wires connecting with the ends of the earth. Their mistakes are made in attempting to reduce iridescent dreams to sound pedagogic science. They have a tendency to perform too much of the experimentation of the world, and hence time, effort, and money are spent in producing unwholesome conditions and an unwise unrest. From the far distance come those who have a system elaborate in all its details, supported by opulent appropriations, and supplemented with luxurious physical surroundings and appointments. Their system starts in the kindergarten and ends in the special departments of the university. They have the splendid strength given by brains and great force of char- acter. Their errors are made in unduly exalting the machinery of the school, and unwarrantably expanding the powers of the state. Too high an estimate is placed on the serving power of money, the usefulness of physical means, and the value of paternalism. The last in the group have a great problem to solve. They have to battle with indifference and contend with hostilities. They possess in their leaders men of wonderful earnestness, unusual capacity, marked devotion, together with a rare inheritance of culture and refinement. They will err if they attempt to reform the world tomorrow, because they will have a-world on the next day which will not have stiffening enough to hold itself straight. The strain which is made to force progress may leave it without the power to proceed. Our cosmopolitanism is shown in that peculiar facility with which we meet and mingle with others, adopt and adapt new ideas, make for our- selves congenial homes and alliances wherever fate or fortune domiciles us. Our sectionalism is proved by the fierceness with which we contend for legislation for our individual hamlets, and our apparent inability to comprehend that the highest good of all is the greatest good of the com- munity. Our patriotism is vindicated by the ardor with which we stand as one man whenever a great crisis lifts the nation into the field of danger. Our individualism is found in every community, and has its represen- tatives from the ends of the earth and the islands of the sea. It is shown in costume, reading, thought, action, motive. We more largely than any other people have a citizenship with each counting one and representing himself. Sessions] THE EDUCATIONAL OVTLOOA* 1 33 Our hoinogeneousnes3 is manifest in the common highway we travel, the spirit which animates us, the conmion destiny which consciously and unconsciously we are working out, and the final goal toward which we are tending. We are old enough to see all this and to realize that we have reached a point in our national life where, above all things, we need to have souls that are well born. We are discovering that these we cannot have until we are willing to put more than one generation into the "horning." A sentiment which is less than a generation old fails at times of the greatest strain, and is not controlling because it does not exert its power uncon- sciously. We are in a stage of our advancement where we can comprehend that "we have been living our Iliad; the time has come when we must write it." But it does not require great astuteness to discover that our civili- zation and prosperity cost too much if they deprive our young people of the sturdiness that characterized those who lived in a simpler way. The log house and the little red schoolhouse have furnished their full share of the leaders of the nation. A pioneer and poor people can live uninjured by rude surroundings, and under trying conditions produce great men, but a poor people in an old country cannot remain uncon- taminated by a degrading environment, or breed the best type of man- hood. Conditions that were, at least, not harmful in early days are becoming sources of poison in this age. Certain experiences gave us the peculiar ruggedness of the past ; but the day of chores and homely cares has disappeared with other reluc- tantly departing systems. We must find new ways of developing old qualities. These facts are beginning to influence the educational thought of the day, and modify the teaching in our schools. The children must have homes which are centers of attraction, promoters of soberness of thought and fixity of purpose, and nurturers of ideals. Their food must be satisfying and nourishing, rather than stimulating and irritating. Their dress must not occupy too much of the attention of the wearer, and be worn for the purpose of attracting the admiration of the beholder. Their amusements must be wholesome and helpful instead of demoraliz- ing and belittling. Parents have been putting too much of their vitality into their work and dissipations, and are endowing their offspring but sparingly with this gift. The control of the children in the home has been slight, fitful, and unnatural, and hence the greater need of that firm intelligence which secures unhesitating obedience in the schools, and thus saves authority from being defied. We have been breeding in the children a Bohemian spirit and tone that are peculiarly unwholesome. The desire for striking apparel, the ambition to be before the public, and the anxiety to be enter- tained have become so strong in many young people that they have lost 134 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Genera all the sane ideas they may have had of what life is. If we can breed in them the desire to be responsible for some service, they will travel the streets less ; they will be found in the home more ; they will be less restive under restraint, more willing to obey directions, less devoted to excitement and frivolities, and have a larger interest in study, thought, and work. They will place a proper estimate on knowledge, wisdom, virtue, and have some sense of the serious duties of life. They will learn thru reading, study, investigation what things are to abide, and what are for but a moment. In schools, as well as in factories, the machinery of a past age cannot be used to do the work of the present time. When a system is perfected, it must go. It was a blessing while growing, but proves a curse to teach- ers and children when grown. In the olden time the cares of the home, farm, and shop were means of grace, and an opportunity for training, which gave our people their great capacity for work and endowed them with those marvelous staying powers which have made them the wonder of the world. May we never reach the day when the pressure of a button will lift the boy from his bed, induct him into his clothes, pass him to the dining room, introduce the food into his stomach, transport him to school, furnish him with knowledge in a digested form, and graduate him, wanting in those quali- ties which are necessary to strong, righteous manhood ! There have been -too many units or centers around which the work of the school has been grouped. We are discovering that it is harmful to the child to have his attention and thought divided between eight or ten different subjects in any one day. The routine of the school is being simplified, the work of the children is being improved, as we select a smaller number of subjects, push them clearly and strongly to the front, and group the incidental work which we are trying to do under a few heads. Many things can be done, and well done, if in the doing we con- nect them with the things to which they belong, and do not give them undue . promi nence. We have too long misconceived the scope and purpose of the com- mon school. We are beginning to see that its work lies along a few well- defined lines. If the child can read, in a true sense of that term ; write, in the large sense of the word, and perform computations with facility, he has developed more power and knows more things worth the knowing than many children possess after passing thru and having passed thru them the elaborate and confused mass of details which go to make up the outline of work in many of our schools. We are evidently close to a day when we are to sober off, recover our sanity, and realize that children are injured by being rushed thru things and rushed from one thing to another. It is becoming clear that a child needs the opportunity and training which will give him poise. Sessions] THE EDUCATIONAL OUTLOOK 135 skill, strength. He cannot get these in a school where he does a little of everything, and never does much of anything. He is to get it in the schools where he has an opportjunity to settle down to the deliberate, con- tinuous, and close study of a few subjects, follow these out in their tribu- tary lines, and in these tributaries get the training necessary to breadth, vision, and a cultivation of all those powers which we are seeking to evolve thru the studies which have come into the schools within the last third of a century. We have also been making the mistake of thinking that the average child can profit by the intricacies of the Hegelian philosophy and the transcendental mysteries of the Herbartian pedagogy during his gram- mar-school course. We are coming to see that involved abstractions belong to maturer years, that it is possible to imbecile children by anaes- thetizing them with facts and ideas beyond their powers of comprehen- sion, and beyond their capacity to hold in solution. It is evident that we are seeing the evil effects of too many studies, too great elaboration of details, and too intricate and difficult investigations. In a word, the children need less theoretic philosophy and more practical activity. I trust we shall soon place a proper estimate on the value of quiet, seren- ity, steadiness, and shall see the evils of irritation, excitement, restlessness. We know somewhat of the harm which has come to us from being every- thing by turns, and nothing long. We feel the need of those strong qualities which come as a result of repose, meditation, thoughtfulness. We are learning that what we have has been acquired by effort, that what we are to attain we must conquer in the same way; that the best thing which we have gotten from the six thousand years of struggle is the strength which has come thru experience. We are giving so much instruction that the children are incapable of learning. We do so much work for them that they are losing the desire and capacity to labor. I hope we are discerning that it is not a part of the teacher's duty to furnish brains for the pupils, and that he does harm rather than good when he presumes to do their thinking; for children, like other human beings, do their best work when they have some incentive and responsi- bility. It is dawning upon us that their personality must be respected, their judgment recognized, and their aptitudes considered, if they are to grow into what it is possible for them to become. We are gaining cour- age for our work by seeing mofe years into the future than the records tell us we have lived. The best instructor of youth is he who has the fine perspective of the historian, the rare astuteness of the annalist, and the calm vision of the poet. The good day cannot be far in the distance when we shall help chil- dren to feel the subtle life that quivers on the canvas, breathes from the printed page, and pulsates in bird, and flower, and gem. Their eyes will be so opened, their hearts will be so much in tune, that "they will lose 136 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Oeneral no opportunity to see anything beautiful, for beauty is God's handwriting, a wayside sacrament. They will welcome it in every fair face, every blue sky, every tinted flower, and thank Him for it who is the fountain of loveliness, and drink it in simply and earnestly. To them it will be a charmed draught, a cup of blessing;" and thus they will grow to feel a just sympathy with all worthy effort, a true harmony with all life, a full recognition of all beauty, and a prompt hospitality for all revelation. The faster we move in the direction of making the school the intellectual and art center of the community, the sooner shall we do one great serv- ice for the people. The teacher of today is learning that she must help her pupils to see that hatred, jealousy, untrustworthiness, make those who are guilty of these offenses small, mean, and ignoble in thought, feeling, and life ; that he who is sympathetic, glad of the success of others, ready to add to their joys, and eager to promote their prosperity will receive a greater blessing than he bestows ; that he is best who believes and says the best of others ; that gentleness, uprightness, and thoughtful sympathy bring to their possessor the sweetest joys known to this life. Our children are to have a chance to learn that altruism results in happiness, as selfishness ends in misery, and that one cannot afford to spend in unworthy rivalries the strength which should be given to winning honest success. The controlling sentiment of the school is beginning to condemn the act of the wrong-doer. We are ceasing permanently to injure the children by being consciences for them. They no longer feel that the right way is always to be pointed out, and that so long as they do not run against barriers set by their instructors, they are on the safe track. It is dawning upon us that it is unfortunate for children to be old beyond their years; to know things which it is unwise for them to know; and to be thinking of sex relations long before such thoughts should enter their minds. It is equally harmful to lose their relish for, and interest in, the duties which make up a large part of their lives, and to be more anxious to fill an inferior place in some store than they are to continue their education and fit themselves for useful places in society. We are seeking for teachers whose manners, tone, carriage, and speech are in harmony with those found in our cultured homes. We no longer desire a tyrant or look for a czar. We are trying the experiment of conducting our schools on the same principles on which intelligent and refined parents direct their homes. We are discovering that children who are familiar with the conventional forms of good society have one more reason for respecting themselves. Experience has taught us that self-respect helps to save the child from temptation and stimulates him to live righteously. Awkward movement and uncouth expressions have Sessions) THE EDUCATIONAL OUTLOOK *37 prevented some from entering good society and driven others from such associations. The child of the future is to have the advantage of associa- ting with a person who is a gentleman. We are learning that "a gentle- man is a gentleman the world over; loafers differ." We read of an age when it was the work of the scholar to study books. We are enduring the horrors incident to a furor about the study of things. A few have faith to believe that we are approaching an era when we shall exalt the study of life to a commanding place. Experience and a larger wisdom have reversed 95 per cent, of the decisions of reason, and con- firmed an equal proportion of the prophecies of the poets. Pope, Emer- son, Balfour, and Kidd unite in teaching the value oi intuition as a guide in discovering ourselves, revealing others, and making the most of the best in both. We are becoming wise enough to regret the effort made in the school of today in appealing to the senses, and training this quintet of modern deities. So much time is given to this work that the invisible is not seen, its existence is often denied, and its champion is scoffed at by those who are so small that the places they are supposed to occupy are vacant before they leave them. It is becoming clear that we must take in, as we take in the breath of life, the prophecies and revelations of the poet and the artist. It is life's greatest work to appreciate life. What the masters have given us furnishes food for the soul. Using these means, life will be enlarged, made abun- dant, and without them we are dwarfed, crippled, starved. Schoolroom instruction, as well as conceptions of life, are beginning to have perspective. A fine perception of the fragrance, color, delicacy, and unwritten wisdom of the flower is worth more than a scientific knowl- edge of the seed from which it grew, and the minutest knowledge of the stock, branch, and leaf which hold its life. Self-control, concentration, endurance, application, appreciation, insight, receptiveness, responsive- ness, are being recognized as on a higher plane than a knowledge of insignificant towns, unimportant dates, and meaningless definitions. We have spent many years in developing the head, training the body, giving skill to the hand. During all these ages the heart has been left to seek its own nourishment, and we have done but little to stimulate, mold, or use the great emotions of youth. The poets of this century have voiced the feelings, told the story, of the heart. Like all things in this world, the revealer of life comes when he is most needed. We are awakening to the fact that it is not what we know, but what we feel, that makes life worth living; that he lives most who loves most ; that, while we can live without money and honors, we cannot live without love ; that worthy desire is a disinfectant, saving us from narrowness of thought and the evil influence of degrading surround- in2:s. 138 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General We are coming out into the clear, and our heart and eyes are being opened. We are beginning to stand foursquare to all the world and every wind that blows. It is being revealed to us that, while the intellect is the engine, feeling is the steam which makes it go. We are beginning to realize that we are not educated until we can appreciate instinctively, and hence unconsciously. The teacher of today feels that she has not done her full duty when she makes the pictures in a great poem " stick out," but unconsciously the child must be led to recognize the divine within and above him. Literature is beginning to perform this great service. Art is beginning to do this great work. The emotions are coming to be recognized as filling a large place and exerting a noble influence in our lives. We are beginning to understand that dis- orderly and uncomely school yards, caricatured outbuildings, and unsightly schoolhouses are a means of moral poison and mental degradation ; that when these surroundings are fit and inspiring, our children will under- stand the fine sentiment which caused the old Scotchman to remove his bonnet every morning, as he stood in front of his cottage and bowed his head reverently in the presence of the scene that unfurled its beauty before him. We have reached a point in our progress where we are willing to spend less time on permutations, foreign exchange, cube root, location of unimportant towns in Africa, imbeciling definitions, stupefying details, and belittling non-essentials, and give more intelligent effort to develop- ing in the children a love for home and kindred by studying Hovenden's "Breaking Home Ties" and Whittier's "Snow Bound; " a love of coun- try by reading the speeches of Patrick Henry, Webster, Lincoln, and Sumner; an old-time reverence and devotion by studying the Madonnas, " Crossing the Bar," " The Recessional," the fifty-third chapter of Isaiah, the ninetieth Psalm, the twelfth chapter of Ecclesiastes, and the revela- tions of St. John. We are gaining a respect for labor by drinking in the wisdom of Millet's "Sower," in which he shows that the laborer can be a prince and nobler than he who rides at the head of a troop of cavalry. Such pictures as the "Angelus" tell us the history of a great church and its usefulness in developing reverence, devotion, « tenderness, gentleness, attuning the hearts and giving grace to the bodies of its devotees thru centuries of training ; and we are seeing that all this can be told more clearly thru form and color than in word and paragraph. Love of our kind and sympathy with their trials are coming to us thru the "Chapel of the Hermits," "The Day is Done," "The Present Crisis," "Eternal Goodness," "The River Path," and "The Cotter's Saturday Night." We are learning to read the wisdom of fragrant nature thru the daisy and mousie, the primrose and daffodil, as found in the field and glorified by the poems of Burns and Wordsworth. We are Setsions] INFLUENCE OF ENVIRONMENT ON HISTOR Y 1 39 beginning to feel, if not see, that all this means more and better for the children than the eternal grind which is responsible for much of the hatred of school by the children, and the imbeciling influence of not a little of our teaching. There is coming again into the hearts of the people that sentiment which was a controlling power in the earlier days, when the parents are willing to make great sacrifices that their children may be trained to fill better and larger positions than those into which they are born. They are willing to stay in the valleys while their offspring climbs to the heights, and they take pride in holding the foot of the ladder steady while the child is climbing to the top. Experiment and experience convince us that, as soon as we do as well as we know, we shall breed children who will live up to Channing's high ideal : To live content with small means ; to seek elegance rather than luxury, and refine- ment rather than fashion ; to be worthy, not respectable, and wealthy, not rich ; to study hard, think quietly, talk gently, act frankly ; to listen to stars and birds, to babes and sages with open hearts ; to bear all cheerfully, do all bravely, await occasions, hurry never — in a word, to let the best, unbidden and unconscious, grow up thru the com- mon : this is to be my symphony. In the meantime let us repeat reverently: " Lord God of hosts, be with us yet, Lest we forget, lest we forget." INFLUENCE OF ENVIRONMENT ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF UNITED STATES HISTORY BY JACQUES W. REDWAY, F.R.G.S., MT. VERNON, N. Y. Man may rise superior to his environment, but environment is none the less potent in modifying the man. When for the first time Froude sailed along the coast of Norway, he exclaimed: "The whole history of the Norse people is now before me." The deep fjords, with their sinuous passages; the rugged, island-girt coast; the inhospitable climate — all these, standing out in panoramic array before the student of history, formed a most magnificent object-lesson. The surroundings had made the character of the people. The features of the landscape were all on the most stupendous scale. The towering crags and pinnacled islets were washed by swift, treacherous currents and beaten into shape by gigantic storm waves. Tempestuous tides ebbed and flowed thru the sheltered fjords, and the walls that girt them were frowning battle- ments fitted alike for offensive or defensive strategy. Behind them there I40 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General lay a coast slope, timber-covered here and rocky there, but everywhere traversed by lofty ridges and gashed by deep canons. Environment had made the Norse people just what history has described them. That magnificent region was not an area in which the arts of peace could develop, and, indeed, the surroundings were not of the kind that encourages dilettante pursuits. It was a struggle for exist- ence between barren rocks on the one side and battering storm waves on the other. And what a race of giants was born of such conditions ! We speak of them almost contemptuously as pirates and sea robbers now- adays, but each man of them, pirate and robber tho he may have been, was every inch a king. Such surroundings make neither effeminates nor cowards; it is an environment whose products are always men. The " wicks " of Great Britain bear testimony to the time when blood and Danegelt were alternatives. The name " Russia" carries us back to the time when Rurik and his hordes overran the land of the Sclavs ; in fact, but a small part of the northern lands seems to have escaped the ravages of those murderous hordes. Now turn southward across the Baltic : where can there be a stronger contrast ? Marshes, shoals, and shifting sand dunes are the only relief to a surface so flat that the sluggish streams can hardly push their way along the beds of slime and ooze. Storm clouds, pouring forth torrents of rain, divide their power with the fierce north wind that covers the sea with white caps and drives the flying scud miles inland. Mud hovels are scattered along the banks of the streams, and in them, herding like swine, is a fair-skinned people, clad in pelts. They are Teutons like the Norse, and of them. They are a gluttonous lot. Look at them in their huts — Saxons, Danes, Angles, Jutes — lump them all together in one, for they are one : they are hardly a remove higher than the swine with which they herd. But the wild boar is not to be despised. He has brawn and endurance ; he has courage and fights till the pike pierces his heart. The Saxon, too, knows no alternative but victory or death. Slash him, pierce him, disembowel him — he utters not a sound ; he simply fights on. The wild boar has cunning; the Saxon churl has all this, and a gleam of intelligence beside. The powerful animal is there, and there is good soil in which resides the germ of an intellect. South of the Balkans another people is emerging from barbarism into civilization. They have acquired an alphabet, and another thousand years shall behold the most wonderful intellectual development the world has yet seen. Turn the pages of history quickly. Troy has fallen ; Ath- ens has become the center of a great civilization. The little band of ^neas has grown to be a mighty people that possesses the whole Mediter- ranean basin — the great circle of the lands. And a magnificent people they are. To the intellectual growth of their Greek ancestors they have added the science of war and the arts of peace ; better yet, they have Sessions] INFLUENCE OF ENVIRONMENT ON HISTOR Y 141 evolved from their inner selves both the science and the art of a constitu- tional law that in later years shall govern the civilized world. But their territory is too spall for them, and they turn northward. Across the Alps are broad, fertile plains that, under the skill which goes with civilization, shall become the foremost granary of the then known world. Warlike Teutons guard that plain, and resist encroachment. For over five hundred years they are driven back again and again ; but the wild boar can be killed only — never conquered. Under his Roman tutors the germ of intellect is developing ; his time has come ; there is another awakening, and a new epoch of history is begun. Turn the wheel of time another and still another thousand years : the Greek republic and the Roman commonwealth have passed away, and with their passing there comes out«of Judea a little spark that shall kindle the whole world. To Greek ethics and philosophy, to Roman education and constitutional law, there are added the gentle teachings of the Nazarene. The spark falls within the breast of the Saxon swineherd, and the wild beast becomes a man in the image of the Son. Twenty-five hundred years have rolled by ; and when the curtain goes down at the close of the nineteenth century, two Saxon empires are dominating the world — one the old, the other the new. In each one the scepter is pointing to the words of the Nazarene : " All things whatsoever ye would that men would do to you, do ye even so unto them." Great Britain and the United States — they are the only commanding nations on the face of the earth in which the people themselves are the sovereigns. The old order has been reversed. The people are no longer servants of the king ; the king is the servant of the people. The building of a nation may be grouped roughly into two periods — that of territorial growth and development, and the more important period of adjustment to environment. The two processes may be more or less concurrent, but, as a rule, adjustment is the consequent process and comes only when a sparsely settled region becomes one of dense population. Moreover, adjustment is the outgrowth, not of political, but of geographic conditions. In other words, the industries and economics of a people must be adjusted to geographic environment, or a certain amount of friction of necessity results ; and friction in adjustment to surrounding conditions is only another name for history. By a very natural process, and one to be expected, the original colonies of the country became, states, and the federated colonies the United States. Their boundaries were laid off without regard either to topographic or climatic conditions — and, indeed, under the circum- stances, the importance of these factors could not have been foreseen. When our territorial expansion had brought us to the Pacific, sooner or later it became necessary to subdivide the acquired areas into territories, or embryo states. The question of environment was again, of necessity. • 42 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General overlooked, and the divisions were made in much the same manner as tho a 2 X 4 plank were pushed against a buzz saw, first longitudi- nally and then transversely. In the period of colonial history each colony possessed not a little political independence, and, as a result, a certain amount of individual sovereignty has been the heritage of every state. And inasmuch as we have laid off state boundaries without refer- ence either to climatic or topographic conditions, it is easy to understand that, in many ways, a state sovereignty may increase the friction that comes with adjustment. Critics often tell us that our forefathers should have made the lines of separation pass between the natural divisions of the country. True, but who is to determine what these natural divisions are — and how can one solve off-hand a question that requires, perhaps, a century for solution ? There is, for instance, a New England plateau, and also an Alleghany plateau. Topographically they are a part of one and the same highland. No distinct line of demarkation separates them ; yet their economic industries are such that, altho each is a region of manufacture, even if they were a thousand miles apart, they could not have a greater diver- sity of social conditions. At one time commerce and the industries connected with shipbuilding were practically the only business of the coastward part of the New England plateau region. Why ? Consult the topography of the coast, and that shall be the answer. The fjorded coast line of the New England states, extending into deep water, has provided an abundance of natural harbors. On the other hand, the gently sloping plain of the South Atlantic states, extending out beyond the shore line, is a barrier to all approach. The one invites commerce ; the other forbids it. Thus, commerce went to the North Atlantic coast. Then, too, back of the Maine coast there was an abundance of pine timber unsurpassed for shipbuilding. What could have been a wiser plan than to have built their industries as they did ? But one cannot always look far into the future. Who could have fore- seen that embargo that came with the war. of 1812, with the tremendous store of capital thrown into idleness, and the great fleet of ships rotting at anchorage ? Or who could have peered deep enough into the bowels of the earth to see the hidden beds of coal in Pennsylvania, or the iron of Michigan that was to be fashioned into the ships of the present day? The man had adjusted himself to his environment; but, thru no fault of his, the conditions had changed, ah^ a readjustment was necessary. So the idle capital sought the aid of water power, and the New England plateau was quickly dotted with factories. This time the boundaries were considerably enlarged, and for years the adjustment to new condi- tions was eminently satisfactory, until changed conditions should demand a better one. The New England plateau became the great center of manufacture devoted to products requiring great manual skill. The Sessions] INFLUENCE OF ENVIRONMENT ON HISTOR Y 1 43 Appalachian plateau, from the coal fields southward, became the great region for the manufacture of iron and steel. Natural boundaries, there- fore, circumscribed the two regions. Into the latter an army of' Huns, Poles, and Czechs were drawn — about everything, in fact, unfitted for citizenship that a dragnet could enmesh from the most unenlightened part of Europe. The labor required was applied to the shafts and dumps of the coal mines. The great mass of it was fit only to swing a pick or shovel ; and had it been of a higher grade of intelligence, it would have been unfit for this. But in the New England region, on the other hand, the great majority of laborers were skilled citizens, trained in the best schools and colleges the country could produce. Is it strange, therefore, .that the historic development of the two regions has been unlike ? Yet it was purely a question of environment. The barrier line, the boundary between the two, was one neither of climate nor of topography, but it was more potent in molding the history of the two regions than tho it had been a Himalayan range. I am inclined to think we do not always apprehend the full meaning implied in the terms boundary and barrier. The Mississippi, for instance, is a natural boundary between various states, but it is not a barrier. The Cascade mountains are a barrier between eastern and west- ern Oregon, but not a boundary. The Chilean Andes are both a boundary and a barrier, while the Ural river that is supposed to separate Europe from Asia is neither one. The 2,000-feet contour in the western United States, altho an imaginary line, is practically the physical boundary between the food-producing and the arid region of the West. The Sahara, and not the Mediterranean sea, is the true boundary and barrier between Europe and Africa ; and the high, arid plateau surmounted by the Hindu Kush in the same manner forms the true boundary and, at the same time, a barrier between Europe and Asia. These desert regions separate Aryan and Semitic peoples from the black race, in the latter instance, and occidental from oriental civilization, in the former. The regions themselves are marked here and there by political bounda- ries, it is true, but the desert barriers themselves are natural boundaries that the energies of man can never annihilate. But not all natural boundaries, so called, are effective as means of separation. A body of water is rarely effective as a barrier, and if il happens to be a navigable river, it is a very poor boundary. River boun- daries have almost wholly disappeared from the map of western Europe. So long as the Rhine lay between France and Germany, just so long was strife between them inevitable. The right and the left halves of its basin form a unit, and the river joins rather than separates them. Not half, therefore, but the whole of the watershed must belong to the one or the other. Even a wide sea does not always form an effective barrier. Inter- comnmnication, like water running from a higher to a lower level, is apt 144 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General to follow lines of least resistance. Hellenic civilization could not readily push northward of the Balkans, but it easily crossed the ^gean sea and intruded upon Asia Minor. A generation ago the Atlantic ocean was four weeks wide. Now, with the help of Bessemer steel, and twin screws, and triple expansion engines, it is less than six days wide. Thus we see that, with the great progress in methods of communica- tion, some of the most formidable barriers to intercommunication little by little have been surmounted, and with their storming has come the friction of readjustment, and new epochs of history are beginning. The western half of our own country presents an aspect that is not found in any other part of the world — if we read from the maps only. Where else in the world shall we find a map of political divisions whose boundaries are fiat lines drawn along parallels and projected on meridi- ans ? And when we read below the surface, what do we read ? Simply undeveloped history. There they are — along category of events, each one tacked firmly to a geographic cause. The population is sparse, at present, and the resources are either lying idle or going to waste. Here and there, however, with the vanguard of settlement, clashes are occur- ring, and almost always the clash is over water rights. Water is scarce in this region, and its equitable distribution must be the basis of agricul- tural economics. The impounding and storage of storm-water streams presents no great difficulties. But suppose the torrential part of the stream where the storage reservoirs must be built is in one state, while the cultivable part of the watershed is in another — a resulting conflict is inevitable, and the-number of them is constantly increasing. The moral is obvious : fiat boundaries are only temporary expedients, and when the economies of this region have been adjusted to produce the best results, the new boundaries will follow the divides between the adjacent watersheds, and the latter, properly grouped, will become the units of political organization — in other words, political organization must become subordinate to topographic and other conditions of envi- ronment. A casual inspection of a map of the United States shows a number of well-defined areas, each an economic region of more or less importance. A more careful study, however, shows that these regions are resultants of natural causes — climate, topography, or resources; as, for instance, the Alleghany plateau, with its coal and iron ; the New England plateau, with its topography suited both for light manufacture and commerce; the arid region, restricted to mining and grazing; and the Pacific coast region, fitted for almost anything under the sun. Then we have the broad central plain, with a domain so great that it will hold nearly a quarter of the world's population, and a soil so productive that it will feed them. Let us consider this great area. Already, in round figures, it has Sessions] INFLUENCE OF ENVIRONMENT ON HISTORY 145 made a record in economic history. It produces one-quarter of the wheat, four-fifths of the corn, and nearly five-sixths of the cotton product of the world. The carcasses of nearly one hundred million animals are yearly converted into meat, and of this amount more than forty million go to feed the people of foreign lands. It is flanked on the east by fields that produce one-third of the world's coal and iron ; on the west by rock veins that yield one-third of the world's supply of gold and silver. The enormous yield of food stuffs has a certain interpretation, namely, great density of population ; the coal and iron ore quite another, namely, unlimited power. The topography of this region has resulted in many surprises. When grain farming was restricted to the hillsides and valleys of the eastern states, the old-time cradle was good enough as a harvester, and the hand flail could easily thresh the grain. But the broad prairie farms of the West required something better, and when the westward movement of population had filled the Mississippi valley, mowers, reapers, self-binders, headers, stackers, threshers, followed one after another in quick succes- sion. They were simply outgrowths of topographic conditions. There is no economy except economy of time, and so steam-gang plows sup- planted the old plow. The railway service proved insufficient, and so the Bessemer steel rail supplanted the iron rail ; the eighty-ton locomotive that of forty tons ; the automatic brake the hand brake. Sailing vessels were too slow ; the wheat, cattle, and other food stuffs grew faster than they could be carried to foreign shores. So the steamship was pressed into service. But the old-fashioned steamships were likewise too slow and too small ; so we made them twice or thrice, or even ten times, as large ; built them first of iron, and then of steel ; put in steel boilers that would stand 160 pounds' pressure, instead of forty; put in a screw instead of paddle wheels, and if one screw did not drive her thru the water fast enough, we added another. And why? It was fortuitous topography and climate ; man was talking advantage of environment. From the great lakes to the gulf this broad area possesses a likeness of topography that is marvelous. From north to south it is a plain hav- ing a slope of but a few feet — a stupendous farm, in which groves of young timber alternate with cultivated fields. North, south, east, and west all the conspicuous features are monotonously alike. Yet, in spite of the unity and continuity of the surface, there was to be erected a bar- rier that in time should reach from the Atlantic to the Rocky mountains — the barrier, at first, scarcely more of an obstruction than an imaginary line, because a very ugly fiat line, and, finally, an obstacle that almost wrecked the nation. Two factors were concerned in it— fortuitous cli- mate and the steam engine on the one hand, topography on the other. The adaptability of the soil and climate to cotton culture is easily under- stood : for the part of the steam engine we must look across the water to 146 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General ancient history. From a period long antedating written history, Aryan peoples have been famous as weavers and spinners, and the English people were no exception to the rule. The long-drawn battle between the feudal system and the factory had practically been over for a century, when a new power appeared in the field — a power that was destined in a century to revolutionize the social and economical status of the whole world. This was no more nor less than the application of steam to the development of energy. In 1765 Watt made the first successful steam engine. Prior to this time the English people held a monopoly in the manufacture of woolen and linen textiles; with the invention of the steam engine there came into the field an enormous increase of power, with no work for it to accomplish. But cotton cloth had already been brought from India to England; and it was worth about fifty cents a yard — hand-woven and hand-spun. John Bull is very long-headed, and very capable. He wrested that industry from its natural habitat and carried it to England. Nowhere in the history of economics has there been another such remarkable disloca- tion as resulted in this case. The mills were built in England; the cot- ton fields were moved to the United States. There was some trouble in finding a way to separate the cotton from the seed, but Yankee ingenuity 'overcame that. This accomplished, there was now a region called the southern states. Climatic conditions had prepared the ground, and the foundation stones of the barrier were laid. But with eastern competition, and labor worth from two to five cents per day — the wages then paid to Hindoo coolies — the rivalry of neces- sity must be sharp. In order to compete with eastern labor we imported the native African, making a slave of him. The experiment seemed to be highly successful, but human slavery was obnoxious to the freeman, so at the same time we added several courses to the barrier that was fast grow- ing higher. The man was apparently superior to his environment ; he was building up the barrier more unwisely than lie knew. All the while the energies of the people were so actively engaged in circumscribing the cotton -growing area, a train of events was bringing about certain important results in the states north of Mason and Dixon's line. Topographic conditions — and again the man was governed by his environment — had almost shut out every employment except manufac- ture and commerce. As a result, a highly trained, skillful, and well- educated people became the body politic of the northern states. Their skill is attested by the fact that, whenever foreign-made and home-made articles came in competition, all other conditions being equal, the latter took precedence because of their merit. But in the public eye merit cannot or will not successfully maintain itself against inferiority ; more- over, cheapness of price is usually the criterion of success. The New England manufacturer was, therefore, confronted with a problem : he ScMions] INFLUENCE OF ENVIRONMENT ON HISTORY 1 47 must compete with goods made by operatives working at a lower rate of wages. He must, therefore, either lower the rate of wages paid his own employes or induce the government to protect them against foreign competition. That protection of some kind or other was necessary there can be no doubt ; every government owes that much to its people. In this case, however, the protection took the form of a tariff on imports. Whether this form of protection was the most wisely chosen is a question the discussion of which is out of place. It certainly had the effect of building up and increasing the manufactures of the country to a marvel- ous extent ; it was likewise a grievous burden upon all sections of the country in which the pursuits were strictly agricultural. As a result the unnatural barrier grew, until it practically separated the two regions into hostile camps. All the legislation, no matter how well intended, sooner or later reacted in a way to increase the bitterness. In intensifying the animosity growing out of social causes the absence of railway communi- cation exerted not a little influence. A casual examination of a railway map of that period discloses a remarkable condition. Practically all the trunk lines extended east and west; a gridiron of roads was there, true; but something different was wanted. Reading between the lines, such an arrangement allows but one interpretation — there was a woeful lack of intercommunication between the two sections ; the barrier had served its purpose only too well. It had reached a condition where nothing short of catastrophic results could follow its destruction. The time came. The barrier was shattered to its foundations ; but in the wrecking of it there went out almost a million of lives, and it cost over six billions of dollars to extinguish them. We are apt to refer to the Civil War as a result of slavery. That such an abhorrent thing had much to do with it as an exciting cause cannot be denied. We may also thank the God who led Israel out of bondage that slavery was wiped off the continent > when the war ceased. Let us look a little deeper under the surface : was slavery and its extension the real cause? The student of history tells us better; behind the slavery question there was the more potent one of tariff, and in this question lay a main issue of the controversy. Let us probe still deeper : was the tariff question the real cause? Most certainly no; behind the tariff was a factor still more potent. It was environment. Topography had made the one section a region of manufacture ; climatic conditions had made the other one of cotton growing. So diverse were the two that legislative enactments which encouraged the one were apt to be hurt- ful to the other, no matter how they were applied. On both sides the man showed himself inferior to his environment, and for a long time it seemed as tho in neither case would he be able to adjust himself to it. It was again the old story : friction to adjustment was making history. 14S NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General The Civil War was not the end of the barrier ; it was merely the shat- tering force that made removal possible. A train of causes put slowly into motion was required for the latter. The southern extension of the Appalachian highland entered the cotton-growing area in the form of a wedge. This highland, not being a cotton-producing section, was rather against than in favor of disunion, and, at the close of the war, was very quickly " reconstructed" in all respects — save possibly the proper observ- ance of the internal-revenue laws. From this region the wreckage was easily cleared away ; and the reasons therefor, it may be seen, are due to its topographic character. In various parts of the South there were considerable areas that, so far as cotton is concerned, were worn out. They were not unproductive, however, to wheat, and for this reason a northern industry not only invaded the cotton region, but it found a vigorous existence there. With it there came an increasing acquaintance between the two peoples. The northern mudsill farmer proved to be a very well-disposed fellow ; the southern, fire-eater carried a warm heart just above his revolver belt. Thus still more wreckage was swept away. Then came the discovery of coal and iron in the southern Appa- lachians, and in a trice the whole country began to rub its eyes — Atlanta, Birmingham, Anniston, Lynchburg; the smoke is pouring from hun- dreds of stacks, and out of the huge molds white-hot ingots of Bessemer steel are dropping. There is no time for war talk ; the Yank and the Reb are now working side by side, making steel rails and machinery instead of cannon and armor plates. The wreckage has been cleared away from a wide swath, and the stream of commerce is flowing thru it as if at flood tide. But the hum of the cotton mill is growing louder and louder in Dixie. It is getting southward from the New England states, and with each turn of the master wheel more and more wreckage of the barrier is swept away. It was a great dislocation of an industry when cotton manufac- ture went from India to England ; it was quite as bad when it went from the cotton fields of the South to the New England states, because, by the very nature of things, the mill and the plantation should not be far apart. The man is discovering his error of environment, and each day finds him adjusting himself more wisely to it. Almost forty years have come and gone ; compare the railway map of today with that of four decades ago ; the gridironing is no longer apparent ; it is a chequer-board development now ; and each north-and-south line has swept away its share of barrier wreckage, bringing the people closer together. Topo- graphic conditions invited them long ago, but the man was not so wise then as now ; wisdom has come with bitter experience. Social conditions have also softened under the mellowing touch of time. Even the campfire reunions are changing. Formerly it was Sessions] THE GEOSPHERES 149 either all blue or all gray ; now it is both blue and gray. Churches are responding to the word of the hour, and the distinction " North " and "South" is gradually being buried, never to wake to a resurrection call. So, year after year, the wreckage was swept away, until its existence lingered only in the memory. But memories even are sometimes bitter. It needed a time and a cause to take the bitterness of memory away. They came suddenly, like a thunder squall out of a clear sky. It was again a war for humanity's sake ; and with the blast of the bugle there came for the first time in our history a united nation — no North, no South — just one great country. THE GEOSPHERES BY VV J MCGEE, VICE-PRESIDENT NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY, WASHINGTON, D. C. Perhaps it is my first duty, as it is a privilege, to offer you a word of welcome on behalf of the society which I have the honor to represent — one of the institutions of the national capital engaged, in its own way, in educational work. Speaking for that society, Mr. President and ladies and gentlemen of the National Educational Association, I bid you a cordial welcome to Washington, and place at your disposal all the facilities which are ours. Before leading you away from the earth's surface, which has been so admirably described by the last speaker, I wish to confess that I labor under a certain embarrassment. In the first place, I am attempting' to speak for another man, and on his subject. The subject was chosen by Major J. W. Powell ; first an educator like most of you, next a soldier who left an arm at Shiloh, next the explorer of Colorado canon — the boldest piece of exploratory work in the history of our country — then a geologist and long director of the United States Geological Survey ; at the same time an ethnologist and founder of the Bureau of American Ethnology ; and from first to last a philosopher, one of the most vigorous thinkers America has produced. It is but natural that I should shrink from discussion of a subject developed by so vigorous a thinker, and selected by him for presentation before you in his own inimitable way. Again, I belong to the class of knowledge-makers who most-feel their own limitations in appearing before those who assimilate and apply knowledge, placing it within reach of the people, and thereby performing the real work of raising humanity from plane to plane as time goes on ; 1 apprehend that my ideas may seem vague and my expressions obscure, but I confidently appeal to your intelligence to aid in making the ideas 15° NA TIONAL ED UCA TIONAL ASSOC I A TION [General clear and useful to the multitude of American youth for whom you stand sponsors. First, as to definitions — definitions rendered the more necessary for the reason that the essential ideas which I wish to express have not yet found their way into the dictionaries. Since early in the history of knowledge, men have recognized the atmosphere, i. e., the body of air above the earth. At first the recognition was vague ; it became more and more definite as time went on ; and now educated men and women and children know the atmosphere as a gaseous envelope surrounding the solid earth, an envelope composed of a complex mixture of substances, chiefly oxygen and nitrogen. This atmosphere is one of the geospheres the outermost of four. Since the beginning of knowledge, too, men have perceived the waters of the earth ; and, as time has gone on, they have recognized more and more clearly the substantial unity of the standing waters of ocean and bay and lake, the running waters of springs and rivers, and the solid waters of arctic and antarctic snows and the glaciers of mountain and pole ; and they are coming to extend the unity to include the aqueous vapor of the air, one of the constituent gases of the atmosphere. Water is a definite mineral substance existing in three forms as solid, liquid, and gas, tho chiefly in the second form; it constitutes a hydrosphere — the second of the four geospheres — covering the greater part of the solid earth and covered by the greater part of the atmosphere. Human knowledge began with recognition of the solid earth ; as time passed, the knowledge became definite thru the endless interactions between human mind and human environment; and today most intelli- gent people recognize a terrestrial sphere, beginning with the soils and rocks beneath their feet, passing beneath river and lake and ocean to the antipodes, and extending from equator to pole in a spheroidal mass forming the visible, solid part of our planet. Now, it is only the super- ficial portion of this spheroidal mass which lies within reach of observa- tion ; this is the rocky crust of the earth, the object-matter of the science of geology ; it consists of a wide variety of mineral substances, mainly com- bined in rocks of a specific gravity, averaging about 2.70. This earth- crust forms the lands of the earth and the basins of the oceans ; all of the geographic and topographic features so well described by Dr. Redway are built up or carved out of it ; the continents, the islands, the valleys, the mountains of the world represent this vast mass of rock matter, which it is convenient to call the lithosphere — the third of the four geospheres. While observation of terrestrial things ends with the atmosphere and hydrosphere and lithosphere, definite thinkers find it necessary to form some idea of the constitution of the interior portion of the planetary mass at depths below the reach of direct vision. Now, knowledge of the earth's interior is gained, not thru geology, but thru the sister science, I Sessions] THE GEOSPHERES 151 astronomy. You are aware that, within recent years, astronomers have reduced to system our sun, the planets and asteroids which circle about it, the satellites which follow the planets, and the long-mysterious rings of Saturn — the various constituents of our solar system; and the paths of the planets and satellites have been surveyed, while each of the bodies has been measured and weighed so that their volumes and densities are known with considerable accuracy. Let me indicate the accuracy with which this astronomical work has been done by saying that sun, planet, and satellite have been weighed with an accuracy no less than that of the grocer in dealing out sugar and tea, and that the orbits of planets, satel- lites, and asteroids have been surveyed as accurately as the roadways, and even the railways, of the earth's surface. The earth itself has been weighed, with somewhat less accuracy than the other planets, it is true, yet with sufficient accuracy to indicate that its mean density is nearly six times that of water (5.6 ±), or more than twice that of the known lithosphere. Accordingly it is known beyond peradventure that the earth has an interior portion much denser than the known exterior; and this some- what vaguely defined part of the earth may conveniently be called a cen- trosphere — the innermost of the four geospheres. In the light of these definitions, you will understand that my object in coming before you is not so much to say new things as to try to estab- lish a new point of view. Knowledge progresses in two ways, which are interrelated, yet fairly distinct ; the first is analysis, and the second is syn- thesis ; the sum of knowledge is increased by analysis, while its quality is improved by synthesis. I am now attempting, not to bring new facts before you, but to put old facts together in a new way, and thus to carry you to a higher plane in the synthesis or generalization of a wide range of observations ; and I am seeking to do this in such manner as to reflect the workings of another man's mind — the mind of the real author of this address. Let us now consider the relations between the geospheres. In the first place, the matter of the geospheres is unlike in state or physical condition. The atmosphere is almost wholly gaseous; the hydrosphere is for the most part liquid, tho in part solid and in small part gaseous ; the lithosphere is almost wholly solid, tho a minute part is gaseous (chiefly as impurities in the air), while a small part may be liquid, under temporary and local circumstances ; for the present the centro- sphere may be considered a transolid. Thus the four geospheres repre- sent the three well-known states of matter, together with a fourth state which is not certainly known from direct observation. It is the marvel- ously delicate interrelation between the three exterior geospheres that gives character to the earth as the theater of life and the home of humanity ; for plant and beast and man are alike dependent on the litho- sphere for the solid part of their bodily substance, on the hydrosphere 152 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General for the greater part of their sustenance, and on the atmosphere for the breath of life. In the second place, the exterior geospheres at least are, despite the differences in physical conditions, in some degree intermixed. The greater part of the atmosphere floats over the waters and lands of the earth as a thin mantle, growing more and more tenuous outward ; an early estimate of its thickness was forty-five miles, but the American physicist Woodward has recently shown that the outer portion is much less dense than at first supposed, and that the total thickness of the mantle exceeds the radius of the solid earth, A small part of the atmosphere is intermixed with the waters of the hydrosphere, especially the running waters of rivers and brooks ; another part pushes down into the litho- sphere, filling interstices in the rocks and playing an important role in the chemical and physical changes ever proceeding in the earth-crust. In like manner, while the greater part of the hydrosphere exists in the oceans, lakes, rivers, snowfields, and glaciers, a considerable volume rises far into .the atmosphere in the form of aqueous vapor, and a much greater volume permeates the lithosphere as ground water, or in still more inti- mate combination with the solid earth substance. So, too, the material of the lithosphere is in small part dissolved or suspended in the waters or afloat in the air ; at the same time there is an obscure interrelation between the lithosphere proper and the centrosphere, manifested in volcanic and other phenomena, and perhaps in the presence of the metals among the rocks ; for there are certain reasons (which cannot now be set forth) for regarding the centrosphere as an aggregation of metalloid sub- stances, much as the lithosphere is an aggregation of lithoid substances. The blending of the exterior geospheres is especially intimate where the three are in normal contact, i. e., about the terrestrial surface on which men live and with which geographers deal ; and the soils, the plants which subsist on the soils, the animals which consume the plants, and the crowning human organism which dominates all the others are products of the commingling. Just as the geospheres are intermingled in material, so they are, in some measure, interrelated in normal movements. The atmosphere is an aerial ocean, ever astir with currents due primarily to the rotation and revolution of the sphere, i. e., to movements depending on the density and volume of centrosphere and lithosphere ; the waters of the ocean are evaporated into the atmosphere, carried far in its currents as aqueous vapor, and then precipitated to flow back again as fresh water, while the body of the ocean is enlivened by currents set in motion by the ever- moving atmosphere, as well as by tides produced by rotation and revolu- tion ; the lithosphere is constantly destroyed and reconstructed by the moving waters of the hydrosphere, while the earth-crust is warped and continents are lifted and sea bottoms depressed by the obscure but potent Sessions) THE GEOSPHERES 153 movements of the centrosphere. So the normal movements of the geo- spheres are interrelated, and most of them, from the rhythmic rise and fall of the earth-crust thru which continents are built and destroyed to the trade winds and oceanic currents, may be traced to the motions of the centrosphere. Let us now consider for a moment how the conditions and motions of the exterior geospheres would be affected by circumstances which at first sight might seem trivial ; for thereby we may see more clearly how delicate are the interrelations on which terrestrial life and human activity depend. Suppose the temperature of the earth were raised, say, 200" F., what would follow ? Your common sense, born of experience, tells you that much or all of the hydrosphere would cease to exist as such and become a part of the atmosphere; that the atmosphere would thereby be multiplied in volume and density, changed in substance, and modified in movements; yet that the lithosphere would remain substantially unchanged, save that some of its substance would be dissolved in the densified atmosphere. Probably the centrosphere would not be greatly affected ; yet, even so slight a change in circumstance as an increase of temperature by only 200^ would remove the hydrosphere from the earth and greatly modify the atmosphere. Let us next consider the effect which would follow the reduction of the temperature of the earth by, say, 400° F.; something we shquld have been unable to do a generation ago, but which we can now do so easily by reason of recent experiments and discoveries in physics. You will remember that about a score of years ago Cailletet, of France, and Pictet, of Switzerland, began to liquefy different gases by the application of pressure at low temperature. Many of you know that this line of experi- mentation was continued by the distinguished chemist and physicist of London, Dewar, who liquefied one gas after another, until every gaseous substance known to man, including hydrogen, has been reduced to the liquid state ; and, I am sure, many of you know that the American Tripler has recently improved on the work of our European cousins, and has learned to liquefy air in large quantities at low cost by the skillful application of pressure and artificially reduced temperature. Tripler's work, by the way, is worthy of more than passing note ; for his advance has given mankind a new hold on the powers of nature, with a promise of practical applications yielding benefits much greater than were promised by electrical control when inventors first began to utilize electricity for mechanical and other purposes ; but this is a digression. Now, liquid air is a little lighter than water, and boils, or evaporates, at about 312° below zero F. So we know that, if the temperature of our planet were to be reduced by 400°, the atmosphere would cease to exist as such, and would shrink to one-eighth-hundredth of its present bulk, and be converted into a hydrosphere. We know, too, that long before the reduction was com- 154 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General pleted — indeed, when the temperature fell to a maximum of 32° above zero — the hydrosphere would cease to exist as such, and would become a part of the lithosphere ; for the waters of ocean and lake would be con- gealed (as we know from Tripler's experiments) into a dry, powdery mass of crystals, crumbling under blows' or pressure, just as granite and limestone and other rocks crumble at our present temperature ; the waters would become rock, added to the rock which now exists. By this transformation the volume of the lithosphere would be augmented by that of the present oceans, the present sea level would become sea bot- tom, and a lighter sea of liquid air (only a dozen or a score of yards in depth) would wash the frozen globe, leaving continents and islands rising above its surface in a geographic configuration differing not greatly from that of the present. Over this globe no air would float, save possibly a light vapor scantier than the aqueous vapor now borne in our atmosphere, and no man or beast or plant, no trace of life, could exist. Consideration of the profound modification in the exterior geo- spheres, necessarily following changes in temperature which can only be considered' as slight in comparison with the wide temperature range even of our solar system, aids us in understanding something of the conditions which attended the early stages in the development of our planet. The earth, as a whole, is apparently a cooling body, tho the rate of cooling may be — indeed,- must be — almost infinitesimally slow. So the planet primeval must have been warmer, a greater part of its water must have been afloat as vapor in its atmosphere, which must have been heavy with vapors and the fumes of solids soluble in hot water. In like manner the changes necessarily produced in the geospheres by diminished tempera- ture enable us to take a long look. into the future and foresee the fate which awaits the aging planet — unless, indeed, this fate may be averted by aid of human ingenuity. There are many indications that the mechan- ism of the solar system — and, indeed, of the stellar system — is running down. We know that the water of the earth is going into new combina- tions from time to time as a constituent of the rocks of the lithosphere. We know that the water area of the globe is diminishing from age to age, as the eons run, for the clastic deposits with which geologists are most concerned were laid down in water, while those now forming are largely, if not mainly, accumulated on land. There are deserts on every conti- nent today, while the record of geology indicates that during the car- boniferous and earlier ages all the lands of the earth were fertile and humid. And just as the hydrosphere is going into the lithosphere by chemic absorption, as well as by interpenetration, so the commingled oxygen and nitrogen of the atmosphere are slowly separating and com- bining with the substances of the lithosphere, and probably also with the substance of the hydrosphere. The changes yield a glimpse of planetary history; they suggest a time when the now deep-buried centrosphere was Sessions] THE GEOSPHERES 1 5 5 enveloped only by heavy atmosphere, with no iithosphere save possibly its own scums and slags, and no hydrosphere save possibly viscid lakes of its own substance half liquefied by relief from pressure, like the lavas of later time ; they raise visions of slowly segregating waters and accumulating rocks formed thru interaction between the.condensing atmosphere and the cooling centrosphere ; they indicate the differentiation of the geo- spheres in nice adjustment to temperature and other conditions. The changes, indeed, give a threat of ultimate absorption of air and water into the rocks, leaving a dead planet of centrosphere and Iithosphere only, swinging helpless thru space like our frozen moon ; yet there is a faint promise in a fifth geosphere produced thru delicate interaction among the three exterior spheres of the earth, lying about the common boundary of the three, dependent on all, yet able (at least in some meas- ure) to control their relations — a psychosphere, comprehending the scanty, but potent and ever-growing, mantle of thought which today envel- ops the world. Just a few words more, if you please, concerning general relations among the geospheres. The atmosphere is a body of gas conditioned primarily by temperature; the hydrosphere is a volume of liquid condi- tioned by temperature and gravity ; the Iithosphere is a shell of rock con- ditioned by temperature, gravity, and a more complex chemic affinity than is found in the mixture air or the compound water; the centrosphere is a transolid and probably metalloid body, conditioned in ways that are not well known. The several geospheres combine to form a planet condi- tioned by temperature, gravity, chemic affinity, and perhaps other factors, which extend to other planets and satellites and suns of the cosmos. So the features of the geospheres, i. e., the characteristics of our planet, are largely determined from within ; yet it is not to be forgotten that each geosphere contributes to the making of the others, and thus to the mold- ing of the planet, and in some measure to the shaping of the cosmos. This has already been indicated incidentally. Let us now proceed to consider a few of the interrelations among the geospheres which affect cosmic economy. We have good reason for sup- posing that the earth is a cooling body ; that some of its primeval heat is constantly passing into space to affect (howsoever infinitesimally) other bodies ; but do we know why the temperature of the earth is not lowered more rapidly — why the lowering is so slow as not to be detectable by the observations of history ? We know that, if the earth were simply a ball swinging thru interstellar space, and cooling by the radiation of its heat into space, it would soon be refrigerated. We know, too, that in this case the temperature of its surface would be determined solely by two factors, viz. : (i) the temperature of the ball itself, and (2) the temperature of the interstellar space. Now, on examining our planet as an actual thing, and not as a figment of the imagination, we do not find that the temperature 156 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General of its surface is determined, or even perceptibly affected, by its own proper heat. We do find that the temperature of the external earth is determined by the heat received from the sun. It follows, of course, that the earth is not merely a cooling ball suspended in cold space. On examining more critically the- conditions determining our temperature, we find there are two, viz.: (i) insolation, or accession of solar heat, and (2) conservation of a considerable part of this heat for a time by a terrestrial mechanism. This mechanism resides chiefiy in interrelations among the exterior geospheres. The most important conservative agency is the aqueous vapor of the air, which not only stores quantities of heat to be given off on condensation, but serves to check radiation from the earth into space. When the sun shines on the ocean, a film of water is evapo- rated, to be borne high in the clouds and carried far over the mainland ; when it is condensed, a part of its heat is employed in raising the tem- perature of surrounding air, water, and rock ; so that water, chiefly in the form of vapor, stores heat more effectively than any other substance with which we are acquainted. Still more efficient is aqueous vapor as a blanket checking evaporation ; dry air is diathermous, but vapor-laden air checks radiation from the earth, as a garment checks radiation from the body. Since there is no part of the earth, even on the deserts and polar icefields, in which there is not an appreciable quantity of aqueous vapor in the air, this substance forms a clothing for the earth, determining its temperature, rendering it habitable, and making it what it is today, the stage of human activity. There is another class of interrelations between the geospheres which I should like to bring before you, partly as a new discovery. As before pointed out, the rocks of the earth-crust or lithosphere are permeated by water in the form known technically as ground water or phreatic water. Now, one of our most distinguished geologists. Professor Van Hise, of the University of Wisconsin, has recently shown that this ground water plays an important role in changing the texture and structure of rocks, especially at depths where the pressure is great and the temperature higher than at the surface. It is a well-known property of water to dis- solve certain substances, and its efficiency in dissolving many rock sub- stances is greatly increased when the substances are subjected to pressure and heat; and, under these conditions, it also ionizes complex sub- stances, i. e., separates them into their simple components, or ions. Accordingly, when moist rocks are subjected to strong pressure at high temperature, as is frequently the case deep in the earth-crust, the rock matter is dissolved at the points and planes of greatest pressure, and pre- cipitated or red.eposited at neighboring points and planes of less pressure ; so that, for example, a crystalline cube of wet, hot rock matter may be permanently distorted by long-continued pressure on opposite faces, the crystals gradually yielding to the stress in the direction of the pressure. I Sessions] THE GEOSPHERES 157 and elongating themselves in the orthogonal directions. Thru its property as a dissolving and ionizing agent, that portion of the hydro- sphere which penetrates and suffuses the lithosphere has determined the texture and structure of most of our rocks ; it has transformed the muds and sands and slimes of original deposition into shales, sandstones, and limestones; in some instances it has reconverted or metamorphosed these rocks into schists, quartzites, and marbles; still more significantly it has aided in remetamorphosing deep-seated rocks into lavas and other crys- tallines. This extreme effect of water is peculiarly instructive in that it reveals something of the character of the centrosphere, whose dense materials are brought within reach of observation only by water as a sol- vent and sublimant in the form of lavas, vein-stones, and other rocks of hypogean origin. There is reason for regarding the atmosphere as a differentiating and dissipating factor, and the hydrosphere as a unifying and conserving factor, both interacting with the centrosphere in such manner as to develop the lithosphere and convert it into the terrestrial home of humanity ; but this relation need not be pursued for the present. Yet it is worth while to note a curious relation between lithosphere and centrosphere which is apparently controlled by the waters both of the surface and the depths. The two inner geospheres are in unstable equi- librium ; this is shown by the occasional escape of the deep-seated mate- rials from the foundation of the lithosphere (if not from the centrosphere itself) in the form of extruded lavas and sublimated vein-stones; it is shown also by the interminable heaving of the centrosphere manifested in continental oscillation and, to some extent, in the uplifting of moun- tains; it is indicated further, in still more interesting, tho obscure, fashion, by the apparent reduction of loose-textured solids to the denser transolid condition in provinces subject to loading thru deposition of exceptional volumes of sediment — e. g., the gulf of Mexico, the world's most notable province of loading, whose configuration suggests a hypogean " slump," which may be imitated experimentally by pouring a few drops of heavier and cooler liquid into a viscid liquid at the critical (or boiling) point; but this most interesting relation may also be passed over for the present with the simple suggestion — made by many phenomena — that the solid lithosphere and transolid centrosphere appear to be interconvertible at a critical point of temperature and pressure, much as the atmosphere and hydrosphere may be considered interconvertible in state and in substance on passing a critical point conditioned by the same factors, and that the hypothesis of interconvertibility explains some of the most puzzling facts in geology. There are other interrelations between the geospheres, interrelations innumerable ; time will not permit me to mention a tithe or even a hun- dredth part of them ; yet there is one more relation which appeals strongly to those geographers who, like myself, always see the lands and IS8 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General the waters from the human standpoint, and I beg your indulgence for the three minutes required to set it forth briefiy. My predecessor, Dr. Red- way, has admirably defined for you the natural provinces of America, and shown you that the features of the land, formed during the ages by the work of running waters, shape the character of our people ; I trust he will permit me to add a word to his theme, as well as to that of the thinker for whom I am speaking: In what we call the western hemisphere the land and the waters are so related as to form a broad continent, the North American continent, mainly in the North Temper- ate zone ; during the ages the centrosphere has heaved and sunk, accord- ing to its wont, and has interacted with the atmosphere and hydrosphere in such manner as to produce a lithosphere of far-reaching formations, crumpled here into mountains, stretching there in broad plains, modified everywhere at the surface into fertile soils, charged often at the depths with mineral treasures — the whole a rich patrimony wasted on unintelli- gent aborigines until men of thought and action came to claim it. Then, since the- lands were broad and fertile, agriculture spread more rapidly than ever before, more rapidly than would be possible under other con- ditions ; next, the magnificent distances and rich produce compelled improved transportation facilities, and steam was harnessed more effec- tively than would be possible under other conditions. Meantime the broad problems presented by a broad land widened the views of men already inspired by political freedom, and America became a nation of inventors, a people of applied science; geography was studied more broadly than would be possible in a petty province ; it grew into a science of geology, inspired by the breadth of the formations and their wealth in resources, guided by intelligence broad as the land, and today the geolo- gists of this country lead the world in their science. The sister sciences were invigorated by the association ; I have said that the solar system has been weighed and measured with unparalleled accuracy during recent years, and may now add that the work was done by American genius, and that today the shipping of the civilized world is guided by nautical alma- nacs based on this American work. Another science regenerated in America by reason of favorable conditions is anthropology. We have had better opportunities than the students of other countries for research concerning mankind ; we have in Washington and in other cities repre- sentatives from every important country on the face of the earth, repre- sentatives of every living race, of every blood in human veins ; then we have a wider range of culture constantly before us than any other nation, a range running from savage aborigines thru barbarous tribes up to the representatives of the kingdoms and empires from other countries, and finally to our own enlightened people, standing on the highest plane which mankind has ever attained — the plane on which social organization is based on intellectual freedom. We have every stage in human culture Sessions! THE GEOSPHEKES 159 I before us,and hence have been able to develop a broader and profoundei science of anthropology than the world has seen before. Especially during the last half century our country has sprung forward in the race for intel- lectual attainment, surpassing all other nations ; and our application of scientific principles has kept pace with our development of knowledge. Today, if English promoters in Egypt want locomotives furnished on short notice, they send to America, knowing that, despite the doubling in distance, the order can be filled more quickly than in England; today, if a bridge is to be built more rapidly than the engineers of other countries can do it, American engineers are called to the task. Our progress in application has combined with our progress in knowledge to strengthen individual character, to produce a free and forceful individuality greater than other countries know — an individuality splendidly expressed in the faces before me. This exalted individuality is displayed in more perfect co-ordination of thought, in more complete union of hand and brain, than the world has ever seen before ; it is revealed in moral uprightness and strength of character, in personal courage, even in that splendid marksmanship — the highest expression of co-ordination between mind and muscle - — which is America's latest revelation to the world. The individual character of Americans gives national character to America ; our patriotism, the spontaneous product of free minds, is broader and deeper than any sentiment brought out by royal edict ; no other country could match the recent impulse which prompted the millionaire club- man of New York and the roving cowboy from Arizona to stand shoulder .to shoulder in a war for humanity's sake. It is the unequaled individu- ality of free citizens, united and controlled by a dominant idea, that forms the basis of our indomitable social organization, a social organiza- tion faintly expressed by that co-ordination in army and navy which over- whelms opposition. Complete as is our co-ordination in military matters, it is much more perfect in civil life, in that unceasing conquest over nature toward which our deepest thoughts are bent ; and our seventy mil- lion individuals, each a tower of individual strength, are kept in touch by telegraph and telephone and press, united in thought and purpose, knit into the strongest social and political fabric the world has seen. It is this social fabric, the expression of thought and purpose, which I have in mind in referring to the psychosphere, most delicate, yet noblest, of the geo- spheres, which seems to be enveloping our planet and commencing the control of the rock sphere, the water sphere, and even the air sphere for the good of humanity.. And it is this conquest of the powers and resources of the exterior spheres, inspired by intellectual freedom and guided by liberal education like that which you dispense, that has placed America in the foremost rank among the nations of the earth. l6o NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General DISCUSSION George T. Murphy, assistant superintendent of schools, St. Louis, Mo. — Professor Redway has given such a clear and comprehensive view of the influence of topography and climate on the character of the people of our country that no words of elucidation are needed. The presentation of the subject was so masterly that praise would be idle flattery. It is but repetition to say that man, especially in his animal nature, is more or less influenced by physical environment. His natural surroundings, also, necessarily play some part in his menial development. How this is true may be measurably compre- hended ; but the why of it is a mystery as fathomless as the mystery of life. That man may, and sometimes does, transcend his physical surroundings there can be no doubt. Nature teaches the survival of the fittest. An eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth is the rule. But as the spiritual nature, led by intellect, feeling, and will, grows strong, it scorns the old Mosaic law and grasps the extended hand of the Man of Nazareth. The history of the races and peoples of the earth points unmistakably to the fact that man moves on to his destiny in channels fixed by the iijimutable laws of God. Nations and races differ one from another always for cause. In America, with our brief history and our comparative freedom from inherited restrictions, the influence of topography and climate is most clearly seen in our national development. Perhaps nowhere on earth does man more readily harmonize with nature. And wherever the growth of man meets with least resistance, there will be found the most rapid progress toward a higher and better civilization. The strong forces which aid our growth, and have so aided it thruout our short career as a people, are the favorable climate and inviting contour of the land in which we live. The variety of relief and a most salubrious climate are such as develop a hardy, independent type of manhood. Great plains and valleys, we are told, have a tendency to create despotic forms of govern- ment ; but this tendency is balanced, in our land, by the elevated regions on the west and the highlands to the east, inclosing on two sides a vast empire in extent and in all that nature offers to incite man to greatness. The magnificent valley of the Mississippi will never wield its power despotically. Mountains, always the homes of freemen, are in such close proximity to this spreading valley that their influence on the temperament of the people is most perceptible. We, the inhabitants of this great interior plain, with the psalmist " lift up our eyes unto the hills from whence cometh our strength." In no country on earth is the formation such that the people may intermingle so easily. Look at Eurasia ! Broken into small valleys by transverse mountains, we hear a babel of tongues and behold a diversity of interests. They seem to be unable to cross natural boundaries, while we, with the hardihood inherited from our forefathers and encouraged by the general relief, press onward over mountain and plain till we occupy the best part of North America. The sturdy mountain type of man mingling with the brave son of the valley ; the hardy, calculating north type mingling with his impulsive, but courageous, generous brothers of the southland, make a combination of brain, blood, and brawn unsurpassed in all the world. All thru our history, topography and climate controlled in our development as a nation. Physical relief rendered independence possible ; the Ohio led us beyond the Alleghanies ; the Mississippi river made necessary the purchase of Louisiana ; the climatic limitations of the North and the greater fertility of the South developed diverse labor systems and consequent political antagonism ; the mines of California turned the I Sessions] DISCUSSION l6l scales for the freedom of the slaves ; the greater strength of the North triumphed ami settled the secession question once and forever. Diversity of natural resources develops variety of industries ; this |)laces a premium on ingenuity and inventiveness, stimulates traffic, and causes division of labor, which in turn results in the rapid growth of cities and towns, and brings prosperity thruout the land. The tendency to divide the people upon parallels of latitude no longer prevails. The great waterways and the greater railways have no regard for sectional lines or the prejudice of man. It is easy to procure food, clothing, and shelter, and the era of art and the cultivation of all the refining influences is at hand. In the United States, as nowhere else on earth, there is unity of design in the creative idea which brought forth its broad valleys and high plateaus, its lofty mountains and boundless plains, its inland seas and winding rivers, to be an ideal home for man. Of all the countries of the earth none is so well fitted for the home of one people. Wherever our flag floats, it brings harmony and prosperity. On whatever distant isles it may be planted, there let it remain. No fear that the traditions of our fathers will be ruthlessly trampled under foot. The unity of our people and the unifying influence of the press will modify all conflicting interests. As our boundaries are extended, we shall change with changing influences ; but each step brings us nearer to a common tyi)e. David W. Hoyt, principal of English High School, Providence, R. 1. — We are for- tunate that we meet in such a city as Washington. It is in itself an educational influence to inspect the work of the Coast Survey, the Geological Survey, and the various other scientific organizations which have their headquarters in the nation's capital. Still better, it is an inspiration to meet and listen to the men who have given their lives to the advancement of science. As teachers we stand between original investigators and the public. We must explain their work to the rising generation before it can have its full effect upon the nation's life. The subject assigned me for discussion has been so well and so fully treated that little remains to be said upon the main topic. The tendency of the times is to teach, not simply facts, but the reasons for those facts. Nowhere is the relation of cause and effect more plainly to be seen than in the influence of physical features upon the history of a country. Perhaps the best I can do, in the brief time allotted me, is to call attention to some ways in which the ideas presented can be practically applied in teaching the history of the United States. It seems to me that topography and climate, in the last analysis, depend upon two conditions— latitude and altitude ; hence it is important that the pupil should understand the effects of each. It is true that other influences appear, and have been well illustrated in the discussion this morning ; but most, if not all, are the result of these two conditions. Mountain chains and table-lands are directly the result of elevation. The rivers of the United States, so important in its historical development, their size, direction, swift- ness of current, waterfalls, and navigability are determined by the divides which bound their drainage areas, and the difference of level between their sources and their mouths — all the result of difference of elevation, modified, of course, by the amount of precipita- tion. The rainfall itself, which may determine whether the land shall be desert or fertile, is largely the result of the presence or absence of mountain chains and table-lands which wring the moisture from the prevailing winds. Temperature, too, which modifies the fer- tility of the soil, directly results from latitude and altitude. The coast line of the United States — another most important feature — its gulfs, bays, harbors, all are the result of differences of elevation. A change of a few feet in the altitude of the continent would greatly modify or obliterate these features. Consider the progress of the white man in settling this continent. His first colonies were necessarily on or near the coast. Next he proceeded along the rivers. The gulf of 1 62 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General Mexico, the Atlantic coast, the great lakes, the great rivers like the St. Lawrence and the Mississippi, mark his early explorations and settlements east of the Rocky moun- tains. Take the settlement of New England as an illustration. From a few centers, like Plymouth, Salem, and Boston, the white men start many plantations along the coast. Then they gradually pass up the Merrimac, the Charles, the Connecticut, and other rivers, where they find easier transportation and more fertile lands than in other direc- tions. Even western Massachusetts and Vermont were settled, in part at least, by a stream of migration which went from eastern Massachusetts southward along the coast, and then up the Connecticut river. Another stream from New York, along the Hudson and Champlain, entering Vermont from the west, explains the peculiar early history of this state. The Merrimac river fixed the site of the present capital of New Hampshire, while that river caused it to be considered, at first, a part of Massachusetts. The Indian tribes in their raids, whose object was to destroy the white settlements, traveled along the Connecticut river. They came from Canada across Vermont and New Hampshire, along the smaller streams and down the Merrimac, following the same lines as the white settlers. The influence of these natural features is necessarily still felt. Where are the white man's railroads, his waterfalls and mills ? Along the same lines today, for the most part. Outside of New England, the Hudson, the Mohawk, the St. Lawrence, and the great lakes are full of historic interest. Not only the settlement of the country, but the French and Indian and revolutionary wars, can be intelligently studied only by associating the events with the physical features of the regions concerned. At a later date, after the main water courses had been followed up, another method must be employed in settling the country. After crossing the Appalachian chain, the white race set its face toward the West, driving the Indian before it. New England farmers and southern planters needed more fertile land. When the treeless and level lands were reached, the " prairie schooner" took the place of the canoe and the "dug- out." The settlers migrated to regions of approximately the same latitude and climate as they had left, and, therefore, yielding substantially the same agricultural products, but those on a scale as much larger as the prairies are larger than the New England fields. Time does not permit us to speak of the influence of the arid region of the West, the gulf coast, the Pacific slope, and many other features which might be discussed. MINOR MENTAL ABNORMALITIES IN CHILDREN AS OCCASIONED BY CERTAIN ERRONEOUS SCHOOL METHODS BY DR. W. O. KROHN, PSYCHOLOGIST, EASTERN ILLINOIS HOSPITAL FOR THE INSANE, KANKAKEE, ILL. My discussion of this subject is based upon four distinct premises or propositions, each of which is a clearly proven and fully demonstrated truth in some of the various particular sciences. It is not my purpose to endeavor to substantiate any particular theory of education. We are not trying to bring forth evidence in favor of any " fad" or "ism." It is an unwelcome fact, but a fact nevertheless, that mental abnormalities do exist in school children. To what is this seeming mental disintegra- Sessions] MINOR MENTAL ABNORMALITIES IN CHILDREN 163 *"" - tion due ? We know that in a large measure these mental abnormalities are the direct result of erroneous school methods — the logical attainment of a pseudo-education. The present paper is not at all concerned with the physical ills of the child, many and serious as they are, due to improperly appointed school- rooms. "Schoolroom diseases" do exist, and the fact that they do exist is a stigma that we should all hasten to eradicate. That a healthy, laughing, romping child entering our modern school may be doing so at the prob- able expense of health is a sad commentary upon our modern educational methods. Can you wonder that a parent sometimes hesitates to give his child to the modern school, when he knows from observation that his dearly beloved child may come back to him at the end of a few years broken in health ? Must the parent of today take along with the modern school, possessing as it does so much that is excellent, utilizing as it does so many of the best educational facts and forces — must he needs take also those factors that make against, rather than for, the child's health ? Can you criticise the parent for sometimes halting at the schoolroom door and repeating to himself the question: "What will it profit my child if he gain the whole world of knowledge and lose his health ?" But in these latter days reforms are being made in regard to seating, ventilation, lighting, and heating, as well as provisions for exercise, recesses, and recreations ; all of which goes to show the steadily growing belief of parents, teachers, and school officers in the dictum that "a ton of knowledge gained at the expense of a single ounce of health is far too dearly paid for." Our schoolhouses are being better built, better equipped, and better appointed, so that, as time advances, the physical child — his health — will be more and more conserved. But the mental abnormalities of school children, resulting from erro- neous, misfit methods, have occupied the thought and evoked the sym- pathy of comparatively few, and for that reason I shall devote the entire time of this paper to the discussion of these mental abnormalities', their causes, and how they may be eradicated. My first premise I take from the domain of the science of biology, and it is the law of heredity, in which we believe to a greater or less degree. I mean the law of hereditv only in its more restricted, but fully estab- lished, sense — namely, the acquired characteristics of the parent are not transmitted to the child. A strong belief in heredity has become so general and so widespread that the direct results of descent are looked for with supreme confidence. The good parent is supposed to have a good child, and the brilliant parent a brilliant child. Yet this is too sweeping, for goodness and brilliancy are qualities purely functional and not structural. They are the result of friction, struggle, social conditions, environment. The question of the underlying physical structure of the child is quite different. Bone, muscle, nerve, in their distribution, are 1 64 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General governed largely by heredity. But there is a difference between natural inheritance of structure and artificial acquirements. The father may be deaf and the mother a deaf-mute, but the child of these parents will have normal hearing and speech. I have made personal observation of one family in which both parents were deaf, yet their five children are per- fectly normal as to hearing and speech. A man may have his nose pushed to one side and the woman he marries may have suffered the same deformity, and yet the children born to them will have perfectly straight noses. Both father and mother may be "star" mathematicians — the result of acquisition and study — but the children born them may be unable to go beyond the "rule of three." Acquired characteristics are not transmitted. They are functional qualities rather than organic attributes. As Dr. Oppenheim says in his recent and most excellent book: "The doctrine of heredity, as commonly held, not only is falsely applied to human descents, but also renders the wisest and best efforts of training unnecessary and useless. For, if at birth the child's bodily and mental organization is complete, if the characteristics of parents are handed down to offspring, then there the matter ends. Every remarkable parent would have equally remarkable children, and every deficient person would curse his descendants with a like deficiency; work, training, striving after noble ideals would be useless and silly." All individual efforts at self-improvement would be worthless, every individual impulse would be incapable of realization, every endeavor of parent or teacher would be at an end. Not a single educational fact, not a single educational force, but would fail of fruition. But education is not a matter of such utter hopelessness. Pedagog- ical efforts are not doomed to such complete barrenness of results. To such a hopeless philosophy this world would be a dull blank and man little more than a grinning skull. If one really observes the laws of growth and mental development, as they become actualized in every child, he will see that there is a more wholesome, roseate philosophy of educa- tion. Happily, then, the child does not grow according to some hard and fast rule that has been implanted in him before he was born. The old Calvinistic form of pedagogy, called heredity by Darwin, has been gradually giving place to the counter-dogma of liberal-minded men. For example, Rousseau says : " Everything is good as it comes from the hands of the Creator; everything degenerates in the hands of man." While both of these dogmas are too extreme — both the old Calvinistic and the more recent liberalistic — the sum of the whole matter is that entirely too much dependence has been placed upon heredity in its com- monly accepted significance. Parents and teachers educate the minds, train the bodies, and develop the morals of the children under their care, "not so much by what their ancestors were, but what they themselves do and think." In the meantime, in any case of mental abnormality in the Sessions] MINOR MENTAL ABNORMALITIES IN CHILDREN 165 child, the teacher will sHft the blame on the parent, and the parent in turn on the teacher, until finally, with their utter lack of co-operation, the psychopathically disposed child really becomes mentally disintegrated and quite degenerate. In how far does the school help to develop mental and nervous abnormalities, when they could and should be checked and obliterated ? In how far does the school give rise to new evils that affect the mental power of the child — evils that would be entirely unnecessary, were the courses of study, the daily programs and schoolroom methods more fitting and better adapted to the child ? In light of the true conception of the doctrine of heredity we are warranted in saying that we have usually taken too much for granted in believing that the child at six years of age, as he knocks at our schoolroom door, is more developed than is really the case. We certainly take too much for granted with reference to the knowledge possessed by the children we are called upon to educate. There is, in fact, next to nothing of real educational value, the knowledge of which it is safe to assume at the beginning of school life. The child does not inherit in any form the knowledge acquired by his parents, and we must proceed in his education by bringing into exercise all methods of appeal to the child's mind. We must be prepared to educate the whole child, and not take for granted that a certain segment of the* circle of his intellectual life has been measurably formed, fashioned, or developed by heredity. We must so place our array of educational forces that every form of the brain activity may be aroused, and that appeal be made to every mental potency. If we take for granted that a certain parcel of knowledge is bestowed upon a child as an heirloom, by his ancestors, we are creating a possibility for mental abnormalities to appear in the particular child thus partially neglected. My second premise I take from the domain of genetic psychology. It is also a firmly established, clearly demonstrated principle — an ulti- mate fundamental truth — in the science that has given it its being. This principle is: Mental development in the child occurs by stages, by periods. Just as the entire body is not growing at any one time, so all the mental powers are not unfolding and growing at the same time. In bodily development growth settles for a while on one set of muscles, one set of organs, and then another, and another, until the entire body is developed. Likewise there is a nascent period for each mental faculty. The first mental power to develop is sensation. At birth a child possesses but two senses — touch and temperature. They are the only windows of the soul open to receive the impressions that Mother Nature has to bestow upon him. A few hours after birth, vision is added, then hearing, and, after some days, taste and smell, followed by the muscle and other senses in turn. The second epoch in the mind's process of unfolding is the memory l66 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIAriON -' [General stage. This is the period when the child is characterized by a prodi- gious power of remembering detail. A single hearing of rhyme or rule of song or catchy phrase is sufficient to insure its correct reproduction. We are all aware how much more difficult it is for us to commit rhymes or rules now than it was during our second or third year of school life. The third epoch is the period of the growth of the imagination. Children love to live in a world of make-believe ; they love to play circus, church, or school. How easy it is for the child to assume the role of Davy Crocket, Daniel Boone, Robinson Crusoe, or Buffalo Bill. During this period there is developed a mania which frequently occasions grave concern to parents. I refer to children's lies. Now, the lie of the child, it must be remembered, is by no means the same despicable moral offense as is the deceitful lie of the adult. It grows largely out of his desire to excite wonder. It is a bit of incipient research. He tries it, and, if it works, he tries it again ; if not, he quits. But in these rovings of the imagination he is not attempting primarily to deceive. The -fourth period is characterized by the peculiar activity of the powers of judgment and comparison. This in turn is followed by the period of curiosity. No child whose curiosity is throttled and starved will ever become a good reasoner. He must first ask questions and reasons of others in order to be able to ask questions and reasons of him- self. I have thus outlined the periods of mental development for the purpose of showing that a well-organized course of study must be in harmony with these processes of development in order to be successful. More depends upon the order of studies assigned than upon the con- tents of the studies themselves. You have heard of the experiment made some years ago by four teachers in the city of Paris, in the Lycee (the school for boys), who asked permission of the minister of education that each of them might give to his twenty-five pupils the same studies pre- scribed in the required course, but in a different order, an order believed by them to accord with the natural development of a boy's mind, rather than in the arbitrary order demanded by cast-iron law. These boys com- pleted all of the required studies in this natural order in three and one- half years, instead of seven years, the time assigned for the completion of the course as regularly given in the Lycee. Upon examination they were found to be equally proficient mentally, and above the average in physical development, as compared with those who had spent seven years iif going over the same ground. As teachers we should have constant regard for the great principles of mental waste and mental economy. The course of study should fit the child ; the child should not be jammed into an arbitrary curriculum, sustaining no relation to the natural order in which his powers of mind and body unfold. In some of our schools seven or eight years are still devoted to the Sessions] MINOR MENTAL ABNORMALITIES IN CHILDREN 1 67 study of arithmetic; yet we know that all of arithmetic can be taught the child, and better taught, in the years between seven and one-half and ten. This is admirably done, to my personal knowledge, in at least 150 schools, saving much time and energy, and making room for important studies which would otherwise be crowded out. Now, we all know that the time to educate any mental capacity Is the time at which that particu- lar mental power is most rapidly growing. The. time to educate memory is when memory is most rapidly developing ; the time to educate the senses is when the senses are most alert, i. e., when they are rapidly unfolding. We should not have "diseased imaginations" in our school children, if we would only properly cultivate imagination when it is most rapidly growing. A host of mental abnormalities in school children can be traced directly to the fact that the course of study is not formed to correspond to the child's various periods of mental development. If at any period of mental development the proper mental food — the proper school study — is not given, then the mental faculty that would otherwise grow so rapidly and unfold so perfectly (had it been properly fed and exercised) will be stunted in its growth and in all probability atrophy. The child's whole mental development will thus be impaired, and a whole life of mental abnormalities will present itself at a time too late for their complete eradication. Especially serious are the mental abnormalities which result from improper and insufficient training of the senses. All of the "raw material" of thought comes thru the senses. All of the raw material acted upon by memory, imagination, judgment, comparison, and reasoning is gained thru sense experiences. It can be said without fear of successful contradiction that, if the education of the senses be neglected, all subsequent education will partake of a vagueness, haziness, insufficiency, which will never admit of complete cure. From any sense error any other conceivable error may arise. And yet, how many methods of instruction there are so inopportune and inefficient that they really dwarf the senses ! Train the senses of the child, and the rest of the mental development will almost take care of itself. The truly successful teacher is the sense teacher, for she is not merely trying to impart knowledge, but also to develop mental force. In cultivating the powers of sense of the pupil we accomplish four things for him, each one of which is vitally important : 1. We make his knowledge more accurate and clearly defined. 2. We make his knowledge more comprehensive and complete. 3. We develop his mental power. 4. We make his acquisition of knowledge pleasant and delightful, because the natural order is followed, " first the blade, then the ear, then the full corn in the ear." , My third premise I take from the domain of abnormal psychology. It is this : The process of mental disintegration attacks the higher, more 1 68 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General complicate, and more recently developed faculties first, and the simplest and those earliest developed are the last to be affected. This premise requires but brief discussion, for its application is at once seen. It teaches us that, when mental disintegration once sets in, it is the finest mental faculties that first fall prey. How serious, then, are these minor abnormalities from the very beginning ! They may not be observed and ascertained until terrible havoc has been wrought. Reason, both deductive and inductive, may have crumbled and fallen into decay, and imagination, memory, and the powers of sense be as perfect as afore- time. It is necessary to be constantly on the alert for even the minor mental abnormalities in children, so that mental disintegration of the highest mental faculties may not proceed too far before remedial measures are sought and applied. If the closest observation is not maintained in reference to pupils in whom minor mental abnormalities are even merely suspected, the loss may become irreparable. Inasmuch as fatigue is the most common source of danger in this connection, close watch should be made for fatigue signs. Overstrain at school, by producing fatigue, may be the occasion of destruction and disintegration of bodily tissue, and also cause serious and permanent mental defect. The best period of the entire day, both with respect to mental quickness and mental vigor, is between the hours of 8 and lo: 15 o'clock in the morning; the worst is between 11 and 12 o'clock. The period between i and 2:30 o'clock in the afternoon is the third best, while that between 3 and 4 o'clock is the second best. The heaviest school work should be assigned to the hours when the child's mind acts most vigorously and with the greatest quickness, and the lightest work should be so arranged as to come at the period of greatest mental deple- tion. The teacher and parent should be especially observant with reference to "abnormal nerve signs," as occasioned by fatigue, misfit methods, and inopportune studies. The more common abnormal nerve signs that pre- sage danger are disturbance of balance, twitching of hands and face, eye movements, postures of the head and hands, irritability, inattention, excitability. If the child slouches and shows no exact symmetry of balance ; if the voice is of poor tone ; if he cannot fix his eyes well, but looks about by moving the eyes and not the head ; if there is a bagginess of the underlids of the eyes; if he be inattentive and devoid of interest in the usual school occupations; if his response in action be slow and uncertain, one may be assured that such a child is fatigued to the point of danger. Again, since we know the order in which the mental faculties disin- tegrate— and we do — we may know how far the mental disintegration has proceeded. If reasoning only be affected, the child is not suffering as much from mental abnormality as if the memory, judgment, or imagina- 1 Sessio.i»J MINOR MENTAL ABNORMALITIES IN CHILDREA 1 69 tion be diseased. His mal is not so deep-seated as it would be in the latter case. This is a point of much value, for if we know just how far the processes of mental disintegration have proceeded, we know best what occupations and methods we are to employ in order to counteract the disease. My fourth and last premise is taken from the province of physiological psychology. It is the principle of localization of brain function. By this we mean that not all parts of the brain surface respond to the same stimuli and give birth to the same kind of sensations. Neither are all parts of the brain cortex concerned in sending forth motor impulses of the same group or class. We know, for example, that any excitation of the nervous elements in the back part of the head give rise to visual sensations. It makes little difference whether they come thru the eye or not — a slight mechanical jar at the back of the head is sufficient to cause one to see "stars." The brain center concerned in moving the finger is entirely distinct and separate from the one concerned in moving the arm. The outer gray rind or cortex of the brain is, therefore, a very complex organ, or, rather, it is more like a very complicated keyboard, the responses coming in from those parts of the body that are in direct rela- tion to certain specific forms of sensation. As Professor Hering, of Austria, says : "The different parts of the brain hemispheres are like a great tool-box, with a countless variety of tools. Each single element of the cerebrum is a particular tool. Consciousness may be likened to an artisan whose tools gradually become so numerous, so various, so specialized that he has for every minutest detail of his work a tool that is especially adapted to perform just that precise kind of work very easily and accurately. If he loses one of his tools, he still possesses a thousand tools with which to do the same work, tho under disadvantages both with reference to adaptability and the time involved. Should he happen to lose the use of these thousand also, he might retain hundreds with which to do the work still, but under greatly increased difficulty. He must needs have lost a very large nurtiber of his tools, if certain actions become absolutely impossible, but the loss of a single tool is in every case just that much of a disadvantage." This quotation translated from Hering states very clearly the exact physical basis of education. If the child is to have full use of all the nerve cells of his brain cortex, they must be developed — educated — by use, by activity. If they are not brought into action by occupation, sense experiences, mental employ, they atrophy. Now, at birth the child possesses all the brain cells it will ever have. Brain cells do not proliferate after birth. If they are not exercised, they entirely drop out of existence — they die. The problem before us is to educate the entire brain of the child ; it is given him for that purpose. AVe can give him this complete education only when we approach him 170 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General thru every one of his avenues of sense and educate him into a wide range of motor activity. Life is growth. A brain cell that does not grow is dead. A brain cell cannot grow save thru exercise and use. All the brain cells can be made to grow only when the school and home environment of the child is such as to appeal in every possible way and with sufficient energy to arouse the child's many-sided activity. If a certain group of nerve cells is uneducated, is allowed to die, then the child becomes mentally and nervously abnormal in just so far. Brain disorderliness is due more to one-sidedness of methods of education than to any other possible cause. Before closing I wish to make reference to certain specific cases. H is a boy of fair complexion, ranks twenty-fourth in his class, and is continually losing his hold on school work. l"he signs of nervous exhaustion were: over-mobility — he was decidedly fidgety; fullness under each eye, indicating that he was a sufferer from headaches. These were the most noticeable, tho other "nerve signs" were present. It would be a mistake to leave a weak boy like that to do nothing all day, merely waiting for him to grow stronger. Such children are especially in need of education and training — but suited to their condition and capacity. "A detailed study of abnormal nerve signs in the child will give assistance of practical value to those in charge of nervous and delicate children. They will reveal certain points to be aimed at in physical training. A knowledge of the brain disorderliness indicated by the signs will give plain hints as to the form of mental disorderliness likely to be met with in the pupil."' For instance : wandering eye movements lead to inac- curacy in copying work and in arithmetic. Children with twitching finger movements have spontaneous thoughts arising that lead to mental con- fusion and inaccurate answers to questions ; also interfere seriously with memory. The child slow in all movements and slouching is apt to be dull in mental action, until his posture, attitude, and response are improved upon. "Want of facial expression, grinning, frowning, protrusion of the tongue, ill-balanced hand postures, "want of motor control are all cardinal' signs of brain disorderliness." The parent and teacher must patiently labor to remove such abnormal nerve signs and the brain disorderliness corresponding. Closely observing the circumstances under which each of the given signs most frequently subsides, one is enabled to carry on the best form of brain training. Nature study, in that it naturally calls all the child's mental powers into activity, is of much more value as a cor- rective and educative force than books alone. How "The Barefoot Boy " jof Whittier is to be envied in this regard. Oh for boyhood's time of June, Crowding years in one brief moon, When, all things I heard or saw Me, their master, waited for. ' Francis Warner. Sessions] MINOR MENTAL ABNORMALITIES IN CHILDREN 1 7 » I was rich in flowers and trees, Humming-birds and honey-bees ; For my sport the squirrel played, Plied the snouted mole his spade ; For my taste the blackberry cone Purpled over hedge and stone ; Laughed the brook for my delight Through the day and through the night, Whispering at the garden wall, Talked with me from fall to fall ; Mine the sand-rimmed pickerel pond, Mine the walnut slopes beyond, Mine, on bending orchard trees. Apples of Hesperides ! Still as my horizon grew. Larger grew my riches too ; All the world I saw or knew Seemed a complex Chinese toy. Fashioned for a barefoot boy ! By nature study, in the best sense, however, is not meant teaching science, but scientific teaching. I cannot refrain from calling attention to the very considerable danger arising from home study, especially in young children. In the so-called "study" at home the child becomes accustomed to certain irregularities of work that should never be cultivated. We should find out how much the child can do in a school day; let the child do such work at school, and let it feel that it leaves the school as the business man would his desk, with the business of the day done and the satisfaction of well-deserved rest. Moreover, as Dr. Meyer has pointed out, "work at home creates that martyr spirit with which the abnormally conscientious pupils pride themselves on having so much work to do and on having to avoid com- pany and society; these children are craving for admiring sympathy, and do this later in life to the disadvantage of those who live up to more rational and sanitary rules." Further, I must say that I have never seen a case of brain disorder- liness that was not benefited by physical training. Evidence is avail- able on this point from the comparison of a large number of pupils of schools with and without physical training. Physical training of the right sort, properly adapted to the child, tends to improve his brain condition, either preventing or removing disorderliness in motor and in mental action, and promotes healthy activity in both connections. This is absolutely true of children well made in body, as well also of those in some slight degree below normal. A case in point. You may have in your school a child whose mental processes are slow and limited, tho fairly accurate. You ask him a question. His answer is slow in coming. You can best quicken the mental processes of such a child by quicken- ing the interaction of his eye, ear, and hand by games of competition, 172 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General such as baseball or tennis, where the action must be quick or failure result. I have thus briefly considered some of the causes of nervous and mental abnormalities, how they could and should be checked. The school is not alone guilty, but only accessory. It is, indeed, distressing to the patriot and humanitarian to perceive how the mass of nervous evils, and at the same time mental and moral weaknesses and sins, increase among the people, and how many are followed by these abnormalities from the cradle to the grave. DISCUSSION THE LATEST PRACTICAL DISCOVERIES IN BIOLOGICAL SCIENCE AND THEIR BEARING ON EDUCATION BY N. A. HARVEY, PROFESSOR OF NATURAL SCIENCE, STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, WEST SUPERIOR, WIS. All educational theories must conform to psychological laws. To claim psychology as a department of biology would have seemed preposterous a few years ago. With the old pyschology, dealing as it did with the mind, without reference to the brain, biology has nothing to do. But modern psychology, dealing particularly with the brain as the essential physical organ of the mind, is properly drawn into the domain of biological science. I think it is easy to claim for biology too high a place in pedagogical science. We must remember that biology is very young yet — scarcely forty years old in its modern form ; and its application to psychological principles is very much more recent. As it appears to me, the function of biology has been so far the verification of pedagogical principles rather than the formulation of new theories. It has shown itself capable of sifting the doctrines of pedagogics separating the good from the bad. In this field it reigns supreme. A pedagogical doctrine, when brought to the bar of scientific investigation, stands or falls, and from this decision there is no appeal. But biology has not revolutionized the doctrines of pedagogics. Much that is good in education was wrought out and thought out before biological science in its modern form began to be. Localization of brain function is one of the discoveries of biology whose truth has passed beyond the stage of discussion. By dissection, by experiment on living animals, and from pathology evidence has been accumulated that particular parts of the human brain are in some way associated with correlative mental activities. Important conclusions inevitably follow. Since each part of the brain has its own func- tion, it is evident that all functions must be exercised, if the whole brain is to grow and the man reach the limit of his possible stature. The advocates of general education are, therefore, justified by the tenets of biological science. In brain no memory center is found. There is no such thing as the memory in the sense in which it was formerly understood and upon which all our old psychologists so fondly dilated. Memorizing words for the sake of training the memory is no longer admissible, and the futility of great feats of remembering is now generally recognized. Biological science, by its investigations upon the centers of sense perception, emphasizes the importance of the senses in education ; not, indeed, for "training the senses," but for SessionsJ DISCUSSION— BIOLOGICAL SCIENCE AND EDUCATION I73 furnishing to the mind the only material it can utilize in its growth. The atrophied cen- ters of vision in the blind, the abnormalities existing m the brains of persons having other senses defective, show, with a clearness never before exhibited, how absolute is the depend- ence of the mind upon the senses. Uence follows inevitably the emphasis imposed upon scientific subjects, and especially laboratory work. But I would have it understood that those who see in scientific subjects only the facts to be learned, and not the mind to be trained, are a snare to the unwary and are bunglers in the work, discrediting science and charming its votaries. So, too, from the dependence of the mind upon the external activities of the body — which is not a discovery of biology, but a verification of previous conclusions — the advo- cates of manual training are furnished with an irresistible weapon of offense and defense, which they abandon only when they differentiate the work of the sexes, thereby leaving the educational ground and adopting that of utility. Biological science establishes, in a way never before attempted, the absolute dependence of mental activity upon bodily and physical conditions. Periodicity of physical growth, evident from the first in vegetable organisms, but found equally true of all animal structures, explains the varying aptitude of children for mental work. Mental activity and physical growth have an inverse rela- tion to each other. Now we have an explanation for facts of obtrusive generality of which the old psychology and previous pedagogical theories took no account. The several climaxes of bodily growth, the various periods of brain development, are each characterized by remarkable mental phenomena, each demanding its own treatment, and formerly neglected entirely. Having said so much concerning the conclusions drawn from the work of those most ingenious and accurate investigators who, with tireless energy, have contributed to our knowledge of the nervous system of man, I trust it will not be considered derogatory to them, if I point out, in a spirit of fairness, some limitations necessarily attending upon their work. In the first place, biologists from purely biological studies have never yet demonstrated the effect of education upon the organs of mental activity. No difference has been discovered between an educated and an uneducated human brain. So far as any conclusions can be suggested from their work in this direction, nature has much more effect than education upon the development of the brain. As a teacher of children I am unable to concur with the low estimate of education which, at present, from purely biological demonstrations, we are compelled to put upon it. One of the most conserva- tive of biological writers upon this subject has recently said : "Connections between the exercises of formal education and brain change have not been demonstrated. It is not known how a year's schooling affects the central system, and it is not probable that we shall soon arrive at facts of this sort." Such being the case, it seems to me unwise to attempt to base our educational theories upon purely biologfcal evidence. It would be unwise to take biology as the basis from which to work. This is nothing discreditable to biologists, but merely a recognition of existing conditions. Biology is very young yet. It has all the future before it, and some time the limitations that now exist may be removed. L. C. Greenlee, superintendent of schools. District No. 2, Denver, Colo, (dis- cussing Dr. Krohn's paper). — We as teachers are especially fortunate. If a pupil does well in his studies, we receive all the credit. If he does poorly, he gets the blame. There are those who do, and are able to do, much more — three times as much as others. We expect it of them ; the pupils know that we expect it of them. This is as it should be, because they are able to do it. If a pupil does only one-third as much as he is able to do, it will lead to mental disintegration. In laying out the work for the pupils, we must take into consideration their mental ability, their power of application, and their physical strength. Not every child has inherited a sound physical organization, and our courses of study should be arranged for the weak as well as the strong. In every school, especially 174 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASS0CIA7I0N [General in our city schools, every provision siiould be made for plenty of physical exercise. This problem will take care of itself in the rural schools, for the children who attend these have plenty to do before and after school hours. While proper food and correct dietetic habits are of the greatest importance to the welfare and happiness of mankind, the quality of the air which we take into our lungs is, if possible, of greater importance. Man can live on one fneal a day and enjoy good health ; he can limit himself to the simplest and plainest kind of food and work hard all his life, and live his three-score years and ten ; but let the supply of oxygen be cut off, and see what happens in a very short time. I believe in the old-fashioned outdoor recess. Plenty of pure air and properly regulated outdoor exercise are necessary to give nerve force ; to stimulate the respiration and the circulation of the blood ; to develop the muscles ; to throw off or destroy the poisons constantly accumulating in the blood; to strengthen and calm the mind, and to produce the best moral development in persons at any age. The toxins which have been accumulating in the blood poison, weaken, and tire the brain, and, as a consequence, mental results are unsatisfactory, because impressions made on a tired brain do not last, and a moral nature is depraved, because pure and generous thoughts cannot long exist in a foul body. Most brain workers are fond of physical exercise ; fond of hunting and fishing. Not so much for the game they bag as for the health they seek. If the •children of this land are to have sound bodies and sound minds, they must work. Our pupils are capable of doing much more than we think, and some of our teaching is the merest kind of nonsense. A little girl, six years old, came home from school with a pumpkin seed in her hand and informed her mother that the teacher had given them a lesson on the pumpkin, and that they had been taught that the seed is white, but the pumpkin is yellow. The mother asked: "What color are the vines?" The six-year-old replied that the teacher had not taught her that. " But you know, don't you ? You have seen them growing in the garden." " Of course I have, but we are not expected to know anything until we have been taught." If any one thing will lead to mental disintegration, it is that of giving the child something to do that requires no effort on his part. It seems to me that it is worse than giving him that which is beyond his ability and his comprehension. This, we all know, is bad enough. When it comes to a discussion of methods, I am reminded of a little incident that came to Sidney Smith. He and his friend were walking thru one of the narrow streets of Edinburgh, where the houses seem to lean toward each other. Two women were bickering and quarreling from opposite windows, filling the streets with their clamor and noise, and attracting the attention of the passers-by, when his friend said : "Why don't those two women agree?" Sidney Smith replied : "Because they argue from different premises." We shall never agree on methods, because we argue from different premises. Any wrong method will lead to mental disintegration. Who is the authority that would dare to say that his method of developing the child is the correct one, and that all others are wrong ? To argue that there is but one way is to argue against all private study and self-help. It is to argue against originality of any kind whatsoever on the part of the teacher. That which best develops the mind is the most practical. ■ The mind grows in its own way. The teacher's task is not to devise, but to discover, this way. All ends pro- duced by human agency are produced by the use of some means. Success in attaining ends depends upon two things — upon the use of the right means and upon using them in the right way. Those who have no definite methods to use have no definite ends to attain. All teaching worthy the name has its own ends to accomplish. An effort to cram defeats its own ends. " Hurry retards." Crowding the memory with words weakens it for thought. Filling the mind with the forms of language that Sessions] DISCUSSION— BIOLOGICAL SCIENCE AND EDUCATION 175 convey no thought is like filling the stomach with husks. No digestion follows. More than this, the mind overburdened with this crude material loses all power and inclination for real work. It is possible for a teacher to become so thoroly saturated with school doctrines, so loyal to school practice, and to stand so much in reverence of the " big guns," that simple, plain, and sensible ways of meeting school problems may be ignored. Common-sense views of teaching and managing should never be thrust aside for the figments of mere professional suggestion. Good sense is always of commanding value in any sphere or in any calling, and it is nowhere more needed or more efficient than in the business of teaching. If we are looking for and expecting to find the method, the only method, we are face to face with an insoluble problem. It is not so much wrong methods as the misuse of methods that we must guard against. Every child must meet and master the difficulties of learning for himself, and a right method is that which stimulates children to encounter and master difficulties. To implant vigorous aims and incentives in children is the work of the teacher. R. K. BuEHRLE,. of Lancaster, Pa., offered the following resolution, which was carried : Resolved, That the attention of the Commissioner of Education be directed to the paper of Dr. Krohn, and that he be requested to publish and circulate the same as a circular of information for the people. H. E. Kratz, Sioux City, la. — I have understood from the paper of the morning that the definite statement was made that there was no seat of memory, and was inter- ested in the references that had been made to attempts to improve memory. I want to ask this question : Does this fact change the work of the average teacher in the school- room, and, if so, in what way ? Dr. Krohn. — The statement quoted was made by Mr. Harvey, and I thoroly agree with him. We have a distinct seat for every organ, such as the eye and ear, etc., but there is none for the memory. We must educate the memory thru the only channel in which we can approach it, viz., thru some of the organs. The old idea that memory was a great storehouse, into which were placed facts in abundance, has been disproved. Memory is not a general function. Rote learning and merely memory exercises for the purpose of training the memory have no educational value. Memory enters into every exercise of the child, but not as a distinct fact. It does not increase his mental efficiency. Our methods of education must be modified to suit this changed condition. Mr. Harvey. — I made the statement quoted rather boldly. I have thought it over thoroly. I wanted it to stick, and am of the opinion that it will. Mental processes are accompanied by certain actions of the brain. Memory is the repeating of changes that have once occurred in the brain. When it is possible to repeat any series of changes in the brain, then we can remember. Any part of the brain takes part in the process of memory. That was the sense in which I used the statement. Memory is not a distinct organ. A. R. Taylor, State Normal School, Emporia, Kan. — I should like to ask a (juestion : What do you mean by memory ? Mr. Harvey.— To answer that question directly would involve a statement not intended. When we remember a thing, the same series of changes of brain occur as did the first time. The changes do not cause us to remember, and the memory does not bring about the changes. They are reciprocal. Mr. Kratz. — I am still in doubt with regard to the second part of my question. If we accept the statement made, does it affect the practice in the schoolroom ? Can we continue teaching in the same way as we did when accepting the old theory ? Mr. Harvey. — In answering that question as to whether we must change our 176 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General methods of pure memory training, I should say, yes. But in so far as the memory is used in acquiring tools for future work, no. I still have a great respect for the multipli- cation table, and I believe there are certain things which we must acquire in the same old way, simply for their future value. Charles C. Ramsay. Fall River, Mass. — The function of the man of science is to discover new truth. This adds great responsibility to the teacher. There are many difficulties in the way. The demand is largely made for more individualized instruction. This cannot be granted except as the people are convinced of the value of the demand. We need a large supply of the best-qualified teachers, buildings of the most improved pattern and supplied with all the necessary appliances. If the men of science are to help us secure these things, they must speak with greater accuracy than they do today. The desirability of giving the study to the pupil at exactly the right time is acknowledged, but the difficulty of making a course of study is correspondingly great. We must take teachers and pupils when we can get them. The men of science, while showing us these defects, do not give definite remedies, and I infer that we are expected to work out our own devices. I am not in sympathy with the statement that, in secondary schools and in the upper grades of the elementary schools, home study is an evil. From the standpoint of the practical teacher I affirm that it is worry and not work that kills. The complexity of our modern social life, the economic and industrial conditions of our people, have more to do with the abnormalities indicated than have legitimate school labor, and the home tasks which may be imposed upon the pupil by the teacher. Dr. Krohn. — I submit that the work done at home is done in a very irregular way. We have been told that it is worry and not work that kills. I ask, what can worry a child more than the thought, on going home, that he has certain lessons to get for the morning ? He cannot go home with the same freedom of mind as does the merchant. The child must necessarily worry when there is held up before him certain penalties if he does not bring in the work on the following morning properly prepared. The children become martyrs to their condition. What we need in this world is strong men. The teachers place tasks upon the students that are too great. Each specialist thinks his is the most important work, and the result is that such an amount of work is accumulated that worry is the inevitable result. The children become broken in health because they are imposed upon. We should develop them into the best type of citizenship. We cannot do this, unless we have a sound physical basis upon which to build. Mr. Ramsay. — The rational method of education has the tendency to make the acquirement of knowledge pleasurable. The remedy for overcrowding our curriculum' is in the elective system, which has been adopted in most of the New England states. The trouble is from without and not from within, and the responsibility for certain evils should not be laid upon the teachers, but rather upon society, where it belongs. James H. Van Sickle, superintendent of North Side schools, Denver, Colo. — I should like to ask of Mr. Ramsay if the elective system which he refers to as having been adopted in New England has been included in any of the schools below the high school. Mr. Ramsay. — Perhaps the statement is slightly misleading, but I would answer yes, that in some of the schools we have the optional system in the seventh, eighth, and ninth grades. We have nine grades in the elementary schools. Mr. Leibig, of Kutztown, Pa. — I am greatly disappointed in the fact that the paper which was to have been presented by Dr. Coulter has not been given. We have not heard concerning some of the recent discoveries of late years. We had hoped to hear something definite. It is certain that some well-known discoveries have been made. There is a certain relation or co-ordination between the mind and the body. In this light our knowledge of the outside world comes to us thru the organs of the sense, and as it is our duty to reach children thru these organs, it becomes our duty to know all we can concerning these things. Of the school physiologies that are now on the market I hardly know a single one that is correct in its statement of the architecture of the nervous \ Sessions] DISCUSSION— BIOLOGICAL SCIENCE AND EDUCATION \11 svstem. Instead of the old idea that the brain cells were connected, we now know that they are single units. I plead for a closer and better and more up-to-date study of biology. G. W. FiTZ, Harvard University,-Cambridge, Mass. — I protest against some of the statements of this morning's discussion. It is high time that each teacher should stop and ask himself the question, What is best for me to do in order that I may carry on my work successfully ? What influence should my study have on my teaching ? We are told that memory work should not enter so largely in the training of a child. What is the legitimate outcome of that statement ? Is it not that some of our work in arithmetic must be laid aside ? Is it not a suggestion that the most of education must come from observation ? Does it not mean that nature study shall take the place of the arithmetic displaced ? That will give him material for observation. The child should secure the power to reason in all possible ways. Motor activity is necessary for the child. In some of our schools we expect the child to keep still for about five hours a day. One teacher was complaining that the children coming to her from kindergartens gave her the most trouble, because they were getting up and asking all sorts of curious questions. But, said she, that only lasted about a month. After that they were docile enough. W^e are too apt to ignore the fact that physical activity means more to the child than anything else. Childhood is the only time when humanity has the freedom from professional lines and has the opportunity to devote itself along the lines of physical activity. The amount that a child can repeat is not a criterion as to the amount of knowledge which he pos- sesses. We are apt to require too much. If he does not read and cipher with a certain amount of ability, we complain that he is not progressing as rapidly as he should. The child should be given the work which he will enjoy. Dr. Chaney, Cortland, N. Y. — The discussion of the morning confirms the idea that it is not easy for schoolmen to agree upon a question. We recognize the conditions as they exist, but do not agree as to their cause and remedy. This has been an inspiring and helpful discussion, and we can take home with us much that will help us. The great danger in this country is that of putting too much work upon the child. One cause for this is that those in charge of our higher institutions of learning are responsi- ble for this talk which we hear of enriching the forces of the grammar and high schools. The university throws back upon the high school work which it formerly did. The high school, in turn, delegates to the grammar school some of its previous work. The grammar school, to make room for that, is obliged to force something back upon the primary teacher. The primary teacher has no place to retreat, and the result is that our elementary curriculums are crowded. The remedy for this condition of affairs is for those who have led the way in the past, viz., the higher institutions of learning, to do so again. But it will not be done until it is thoroly understood that the lower schools are in danger. Then there is the reaction upon the teacher himself, which we are apt to overlook. The child worries over his work and comes back to school with it half done. The teacher feels the impress of the student's condition, and his patience becomes exhausted. His sympathy is lost, and, as a result, a great harm is done to school life. We ought not to put so much upon the primary teachers in this country. Dr. Fitz. — ^The charge just made with reference to the crowding of the work into the lower schools is hardly just. While the universities have attempted to enrich the lower schools, and have claimed that the work should be begun earlier, they have made their efforts to enrich by taking away some of the work in the elementary and secondary schools and putting in its place that which will enforce the child's power of observation. The important point is not to crowd, but to give that which will uplift. Not to teach him to memorize, but rather to see, to feel, to hear. The child should be made to study the organs rather than the science. Mr. Ramsay. — I wish to defend the Harvard movement in so far as it has been misunderstood. The standard of admi.ssion to the university was as high before that 178 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General movement began as it has been since. The aim has been to give a variety of electives rather than to increase the amount of the work. The motive has been to make democratic education for a democratic people. It has been to offer those studies which will be of interest to the child. They have had in mind at all times the improvement of the ele- mentary schools. Dr. Krohn. — Coming back to the subject from which we have wandered, I offer the suggestion, in the first place, that we can by observation make the child's mind more of an open page than we have ; and, knowing the child better, we can educate him better. All children grow in^ the same order, tho not at the same rate. This being a fact, we can so employ the student that each special power will be educated at the proper time. Our aim should be, not to make the child fit the course of study, but rather the course of study fit the child. THE CULTURE VALUE OF HIGHER MATHEMATICS BY DR. W. B. SMITH, PROFESSOR OF MATHEMATICS, TULANE UNIVERSITY oW OTi dvaros iyu (cat iatJLepoi' dXX' orav darpuv fiacrrevu) irVKivas a/itpiSpofiovs eXt/cas, ovKer'' ivixf/avb) yaii^s iroffiv, dWa Trap' dvT(p Zrjvi 9eoTpe. JBtrDsep (3rant Vlortbrop, XX.I). [prepared by EMERSON E. WHITEJ Rev. Birdsey Grant Northrop, LL.D., was born in Kent, Litchfield county, Conn., July 18, 181 7. His boyhood was spent on the farm, but he early desired to follow the example of his grandfather, Amos Northrop, who graduated from Yale College in 1762. He prepared for college at Ellington, Conn., and was graduated from Yale in 1841. Four years later he graduated from Yale Theological Seminary. He taught school several terms, while pursuing studies. After graduating from the theo- logical seminary, he was pastor of the Congregational Church at Saxon- ville, Mass., for ten years. His earnest and intelligent interest in the improvement of the schools of the town, while pastor, attracted the atten- 284 • NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General tion of the Massachusetts board of education, and in 1857 he was appointed agent of the board, and, for ten years, he filled the office with marked efficiency and acceptance. In 1867 he was called from this position to be the secretary of the board of education of Connecticut, his native state. He filled this important office with great ability for nearly sixteen years, and his labors resulted in a fnuch-needed improvement of the schools. He was tireless in his efforts to arouse public interest in school progress. He held teachers' institutes and educational conventions in the different towns and cities, furnished the leading papers with school information, and enlisted the colleges and academies in the improvement of the common schools. During his administration legislation was secured against the employment of young children in factories and stores, the rate fee was abolished and the schools made .free, the school term was lengthened, and the qualifications of teachers raised. Dr. Northrop also gave special attention to methods of instruction and discipline, the improvement of schoolhouses, and the beautifying of school grounds. His efforts to suppress the sale of bad literature were as heroic as they were successful. Not content with the suppression of the sale of bad books, he disseminated needed information concerning good books, and earnestly promoted the establishment of town and district libraries. The results of these efforts were most beneficent. Dr. Northrop retired from the office of secretary in his sixty-sixth year, receiving the high commendation of the state board for his impor- tant services. In this quarter of a century of successful school administration, he had also won a high and honorable place among the educators of the country. He was president of the American Institute of Instruction in 1864-66, of the National Superintendents' Association in 1866, and of the National Educational Association in 1873. He was one of the board of visitors of West Point Military Academy in 1863-64; was one of the original trustees of Smith College ; and for some years was a trustee of Hampton Institute, Va. In 1872 Williams College honored him with the degree of LL.D. During the remarkable transition in Japan, Dr. Northrop became deeply interested in the educational movements in that empire, and members of the Japanese embassy opened negotiations with him to go to Japan to inaugurate the proposed system of public education. These negotiations did not issue in his undertaking this great work, but he accepted the guardianship of the Japanese girls who came to this country to be educated, and had also the supervision of the education of most of the Japanese young men, as well as of many Chinese youth — a responsi- bility which he cheerfully assumed and which he met with praiseworthy fidelity. It was largely thru Dr. Northrop's efforts, continued for nearly Sessions! MEMORIAL ADDRESSES 285 ten years, that Japan received the Shimonoseka idemnity from the United States. In grateful recognition of- these and other unselfish services, the Japanese government presented Dr. Northrop with a costly set of china, and, on the occasion of his visit to Japan in 1895, received him as the guest of the nation. A reception was given him at Tokyo, attended by official representatives of the empire, and by many leading citizens. The addresses delivered by Marquis Saionji and Mr. Kanda, who spoke on behalf of Japanese students in America, expressed the highest esteem and gratitude. A noble and characteristic incident in Dr. Northrop's visit to Japan was his successful efforts to secure the release of Captain Choy Ting Kon, the leader of the Chinese torpedo fleet, who was captured by the Japanese and held as a prisoner at Osaka. Learning that Captain Choy would be put to death if returned to China, Dr. Northrop pleaded for him before the Japanese officers, and he was secretly permitted to escape. The letter of the former Chinese student in America to Dr. Northrop on his release is a most touching expression of gratitude. "A father," says Choy, "could not have done more for his son." While in Japan, Dr. Northrop delivered in various places, chiefly in colleges and schools, some forty addresses. He was everywhere recognized as a benefactor of Japan. The closing years of Dr. Northrop's life were devoted to the improve- ment of American homes, and for this noble service he will doubtless be most widely remembered and honored. "It has long been my desire," he wrote at four-score, "to help improve the homes and home life of the American people. In every land the homes of the people tell their condition. The wigwam means savage life." He early took a deep interest in tree planting as a means of beautify- ing villages and towns; and, in 1877, he visited Europe officially to examine, not only its industrial schools, but especially its schools of forestry, and the experiments in progress for the reclaiming of waste lands by tree planting. He returned with a fund of valuable informa- tion, which was made public in his annual report, and later in a volume entitled Forestry in Europe. He was quick to recognize the value of "Arbor Day," which, at the suggestion of Hon. J. Sterling Morton, had been adopted by Nebraska, and to Dr. Northrop more than to any other man belongs the credit of its wide adoption by other states. In 1876 he started the scheme of a "centennial tree planting," which spread across the country. At the meeting of the American Forestry Association in 1883 ^is resolution in favor of Arbor Day in schools, already celebrated in Cincinnati and several other cities, was adopted, and he was appointed chairman of a conimittee to push the movement, and has been reappointed every year since. Arbor Day has been adopted in nearly all the states and 2 86 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION LGeneral territories; also in Canada, Australia, several European countries, and in Hawaii and Japan. Millions of trees wave their banners of leaves in honor of this eloquent apostle of tree culture. It should be added here that Dr. Northrop's objective point in the advocacy of Arbor Day in schools was the beautifying of school grounds and the homes of the people. He took little interest in showy celebrations of the day that left the school premises treeless and barren. Arbor Day was but a factor in a larger movement for home and village improvement. The last fourteen years of Dr. Northrop's life were largely devoted to village improvement, in which he had been long interested. His model in this beneficent work was the pioneer society of Stockbridge, Mass., which had made the town famous. In advocacy of village improvement he visited over forty states and territories, and thru his labors hun- dreds of "village-improvement societies" have been organized, and scores of villages and towns have been greatly improved. His zeal in the good cause was unabated at four-score, and his last illness is attrib- uted to overwork and exposure in a series of lectures in the South. It must be added that Dr. Northrop's entire public service was inspired by high ideals of human life and an abiding faith in the possi- bility of an indefinite improvement of the moral condition and happiness of the race. He saw in the humblest child large possibilities of growth and service ; and the home, the school, and the library of good books stood for opportunity and helpfulness for children. The rights of childhood were to him sacred and inviolable. This made him a civilizing force, and the movements he set in motion will live after him. . He wrote several books, including Education Abroad, Forestry in Europe, and Lessons in European Schools, and numerous pamphlets and tracts. He was also a frequent contributor to educational, religious, and other papers. Dr. Northrop was married in 1846 to Miss Harriette Eliza Chichester, and their home life was happy and beautiful. The writer well remembers the first time he was a guest in their New Haven home before the sad death of a promising son. Mrs. Northrop died February 20, 1892, and Dr. Northrop passed away April 27, 1898, his death resulting from heart disease. Two children survive — Harriette, wife of Principal Dwight Holbrook, of Clinton, Conn., and Henry E., professor in the Brooklyn Polytechnic Institute. ObxQ. IRebecca H). IRicftoff [prepared by miss bettie a. dutton] Died January 4, 1898, at her home, 374 Central Park West, New York city, Mrs. Rebecca D. Rickoff. Buried in Cleveland, January 20. ScHsions] MEMORIAL ADDRESSES 287 Among those who have passed from our membership within the year is Mrs. Rebecca D. Rickoff, since 1880 a life member of this association. This tribute must necessarily be too brief to allow any full mention of those qualities of character which endeared Mrs. Rickoff to her friends and made her a valued member of this body. We can only trust that it may be helpful in recalling to those most familiar her most stimulating educational work, and in suggesting to others some of those forces which gave value to her life. Entering the school before she was five years old, she completed the course of study in the schools of Cincinnati, graduating from the Hughes High School at sixteen with special honor, and entering two years later upon her work as a teacher of little children. Her marriage to Mr. Andrew J. Rickoff, then superintendent of instruction in Cincinnati, followed ; and from this time her interest in edu- cational work broadened and intensified, until she stood in the front rank among students of educational problems, and one of the most heroic in making possible their practical solution. She had a brilliant mind, rare conversational gifts, and was a felicitous writer. Her contributions to educational literature are a part of the treasured history of this associa- tion, and her readiness in address has often served to vitalize its discus- sions. She was one of the first to recognize the value of the kindergarten and to take active measures for its introduction into the city of Cleveland ; was quick to discern the need for a high-class literature for the school- room and to devise means for its attainment ; was earnest in her belief in all wise educational forces ; and thru the fifteen years of Dr. Rickoff's superintendency of the schools in Cleveland was the trusted helper in his professional work. It was her custom to visit the schools for the younger children, to take for a day, often for a longer time, the teacher's place, sending the young "school mother" to see the work of associates or to her home for the needed rest ; and, on occasion, carrying on this service of love for weeks, her sole compensation the joy of making others glad, thus saving choicest teachers to further work. Few who are not responsible in supervision have given to its most deli- cate problems such wealth of study and of personal care ; and much that is best in the schools over which her husband presided still bears witness to the permanent value of her work. Mrs. Rickoff had a rare appreciation of childhood, and was a firm believer in very early entrance upon school life. Her plea for the child's freedom in the expression of its own understanding of the literature of the reading lessons, her suggestions on the transition from home to school, and her discussion of the needs of the young colored people of the South, the latter based on her observations while living for two years in 288 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General the Carolinas, are among her most characteristic contributions to studies in education. Mrs. Rickoff was much attached to this association, and was a strong factor in its social life. Endowed with personal ^beauty and with grace of manner, she easily attracted to herself those who, on close acquaintance, became her lifelong friends. Anticipating the Congress of Education in Chicago, in 1892, the Elementary Department chose Mrs. Rickoff as its president, believing that she would represent effectively and graciously its membership and its ideals. But this meeting at Saratoga Springs proved her last in attendance with us, as, following the meeting at Saratoga, she joined her husband in a journey to the Pacific coast, to spend a few months with their only son, who had nearly two years before preceded them. Letters from the northland were soon received, full of the enthusiasm and delight of the mother, happy in her loved ones, and of the poetic and imaginative traveler amid scenes of entrancing beauty. A year of these happy associations was followed by an immeasurable sorrow in the sudden death by drowning of the manly son. The shock was severe, the prostration too great for full recovery ; and, with broken health, she returned to the home in New York city, where, tenderly watched over by her husband thru the months of suffering, she passed beyond the shadow. In a word of farewell, and with the possibilities in an untried journey vividly in mind, our friend repeated familiar lines, which come back to us today with tender interest : " I know not where His islands lift Their fronded palms in air ; I only know I cannot drift Beyond His love and care." Samuel /ID, llnglis [prepared by EDWIN C. HEWETT] On June i, 1898, his friends and the people of Illinois were startled at the telegraphic announcement that Samuel M. Inglis, the state super- intendent of public instruction, had died suddenly at the Pennoyer Sani- tarium in Kenosha, Wis. Superintendent Inglis' health had not been good for some months, and, by the advice of physicians, he had gone to the sanitarium, hoping to recruit for the active duties of the institute season. From time to time very favorable reports of his condition reached his friends, and he was confidently hoping soon to return to Springfield and resume the active duties of his office. But, on the evening of June i, while chatting and laughing with friends on the SesslonsJ MEMORIAL ADDRESSES 289 veranda of the sanitarium, he was suddenly stricken and died in a few minutes. His remains were brought to Springfield, where imposing funeral services were held in the state capitol. The flag over the building was placed at half-mast, elaborate and beautiful floral tributes decorated the walls and bier, the public ofifices were closed for the day, and a large con- course of state officers, leading educators, and friends from various parts of the state joined in the services. Attended by a large number of rela- tives, state officers, and other friends, the body was removed the same evening to Greenville, the home of Mrs. Inglis' father. On Saturday, aft£r further elaborate funeral ceremonies, it was followed by almost the whole population of the city to the beautiful Montrose cemetery, and interred in the family lot. Samuel Martin Inglis was born in Marietta, Pa., August 15, 1840. His father. Rev. George S. Inglis, was a Presbyterian clergyman, and Superintendent Inglis himself was an earnest and active member of that Christian communion during his life. While a boy he removed- with his father, first to Ohio, then to Illinois, settling in Henry county. He graduated with the highest honors from the Mendota Collegiate Institute in 1861. The next year he enlisted in the One Hundred and Fourth regiment of Illinois volunteers, and was commissioned as second lieu- tenant by Governor Richard Gates ; but, on account of his ill-health, he did not long continue in the service. In the fall of 1894 he was elected state superintendent of Illinois, receiving a majority of 130,000 on a popular vote. His term of office would have closed in January, 1899. In 1897 he was an active member of the National Educational Association. Superintendent Inglis was twice married. His first wife was Miss Anna L. Jackson, of Hillsboro, 111., who died in 1892. Three years later he married Miss Louise Baumberger, of Greenville, 111., who lives to mourn his great loss. He leaves no children. His educational career was long, varied, and successful. It began in 1856 as a teacher in the district school of Hickory Grove, Henry county, at $28 a month. It included work in country schools, grammar schools, academy, as superintendent of city schools, professor in a normal school, and terminated in the highest educational position in the state. It was a continual movement upward, with growing advance in position, power, and compensation till the end. And it is said that he never applied for a position or for an increase of salary. In 1865 he was made principal of the Academy at Hillsboro, IlL, where he remained two years. He then became superintendent of schools in Greenville, 111., where he remained fifteen years, accomplishing an excellent work in grading the schools and putting them on an efficient basis. During his stay in Hillsboro he read law in the office of Judge Rice ; but he never 29° NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General entered the profession. All his subsequent life was given to educational work. In 1881 the governor appointed Mr. Inglis as one of the trustees of the Southern Illinois Normal University at Carbondale. Two years later, at the request of his fellow-trustees and members of the faculty, he accepted the chair of mathematics in that institution. After three years of successful work he was transferred to the chair of English literature and rhetoric, which he continued to fill till he was chosen to the office in which he died. In the spring of the present year he was talked of as a candidate for renomination to the office of state superintendent ; but on April 12 he was unanimously chosen by the board of trustees of the Eastern Illinois State Normal School, about to be opened in Charleston, to be the president of that new institution. He accepted the trust, expecting to enter upon the discharge of its duties next year. Some years since, Blackburn University conferred on him the honorary degree of A.M.; and, the day before his death, it followed this with the degree of LL.D. He never heard of the latter honor. In person Superintendent Inglis was a man of good presence, pos- sessing a physique that promised a life of more than fifty-eight years. In manner he was kindly, earnest, and sincere. He was a man of clean and honorable life, a genial and faithful friend, and true in all life's rela- tions. That he was an earnest patriot was shown by his early enlistment in the military service of his country. His last word for the press, written May 15, was in commendation of the patriotism of the boys of a school who had just raised an American flag over their schoolhouse. Since the death of Superintendent Inglis, the tributes paid to his manly character have been many and warm. At his funeral in Spring- field, Rev. D. T. Logan said: "Public office of itself confers nothing upon a human character. It cannot make a bad man good, nor can it make a good man bad, a fact which needs to be emphasized in these days of wholesale and indiscriminate criticism of public men. But when the character is there, its influence is intensified by the prominence of the station. As a man is, so is his strength. What he is in his personal relations to his fellow-men he will be in his relations to his public duties. Samuel M. Inglis would not have been faithful in the performance of every duty, from the day he began to teach in the Old Hickory school- house at Andover till the day he was called suddenly to lay down the office of state superintendent of public instruction, if he had not been a man of sterling integrity and consistent Christian character. The son of a Presbyterian minister, trained from infancy in the principles of right- eousness, his name adds another to that already long list of sons of the manse who have attained an honorable prominence in business, profes- sional, and political life." On the same occasion, Hon. Richard Edwards, his predecessor in the Sessions] MEMORIAL ADDRESSES 29 1 office of state superintendent, said : " He has been an efficient officer. But we believe that a grander thing than this is true of him. In the grammar school he was a good teacher ; in the Southern Normal, an efficient exponent of the laws of pedagogy; and in all these positions his clean, manly character, his pure motives, his high ideals of life, were an inspiration to all who came within reach of his personal influence. And here, we think, is the man's crowning glory." The board of trustees of the Charleston State Normal School, at a regu- lar meeting on June 8, 1898, passed memorial resolutions, in which they say : " In his relations, as teacher in the public schools, as superintendent of city schools, as professor in the normal school, as state superintendent of public instruction, and as a member of the various educational boards of the state, he was always industrious, honest, earnest, and faithful in the discharge of his duties Thousands of men and women are better men and women because Professor Inglis lived. And a better monument than can be made from bronze or marble exists for him in the love and respect for his memory in the hearts of thousands of his surviving pupils." prcsi&ent 5. C. 61lcbrt0t [prepared by henry sabin] Born in Allegheny City, Pa., May 20, 1831. Educated at Antioch under the care and guidance of Horace Mann, whose memory he held in great reverence. In i860 he took charge of the seminary at California, Washington county, Pa., and was instrumental in converting it into a normal school. He was for a time president of the Fairmont Normal School, in West Virginia. In 1871 he came to Iowa to engage in insti- stute work, and was chosen superintendent of the schools at Mason City in 1873. I^ 1876 he was elected president of the State Normal School, then just established at Cedar Falls. He continued in this position for ten years, and during that time laid broad and deep the foundations of solid learning and high scholarship upon which the school rests today. He was afterward president of the Northern Iowa Normal School, at Algona, and later dean of the normal department of the Northwestern University, at Sioux City. He filled all these positions creditably and with usefulness to the cause of education. He died at Laurens, la., August 12, 1897. One who knew him well writes of him : "President Gilchrist was an enthusiast — bold, defiant, impulsive, sometimes pleasantly obstinate. Talleyrand would have us ' beware of the enthusiast,' but I never thought there was a particle of the enthusiasm in the make-up of him whose memory we this night honor that an honest man need beware of. His 292 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General enthusiasm never carried him off his feet, nor turned his^head, nor detracted from his usefulness as a teacher or his manliness as an associate of men and women." Another who was associated with him as a teacher for ten years pays this tribute to his memory : " As a teacher he magnified his office. Teaching was to him 'a high and holy calling, worthy of the ambition of the best minds.' He held before his pupil-teachers, as an ideal, the pla- cing of their vocation among the learned professions. To him the teacher's mission was second to none ; its aims were not temporal, but eternal ; its rewards not human, but divine." And yet another, who often counseled with him concerning the inter- ests of education : " When I saw him for the last time, the same old spirit was within him. His body was failing him, he had lost something of his vigor of mind, but the great light of hope burned as bright as ever in his heart, and he was planning as broadly for the education of teachers and the improvement of the schools as tho he expected to work in the ranks for another fifty years. In the breast of a great man hope and courage go hand in hand, and when they die, his life work ends." It is proper to add that, as a Christian believer, he was liberal in his convictions, but was ardently attached to the church of his choice, the Methodist Episcopal church, of which he was a consistent member, and in which he was an able minister. However arduous his duties in the schoolroom, he was never too busy to accept a call to preach the gospel of salvation in the pulpits of his own denomination, or of others, and so acceptable was his ministry that such calls were frequent and continuous. /IDrs, Susan ©. ipatterson [PREl'AR^D KY W. H. BOWERSj Mrs. Susan Given Patterson died September 12, 1896, at St. Paul, Minn. She had gone to that city, during the vacation months, for the purpose of regaining her health. She was stopping at the home of her sister. She graduated at the University of Wooster, O., in 1876, with the highest honors of her class. She was a teacher of science in the Wooster High School .for nine years, where her strong personality made a lasting impression. She was married in 1886 to George E. Patterson, a graduate of Wooster University. After eighteen months of married life, her husband died. With the energy of her character, she obtained a position as teacher in the Union City, Ind., public schools. Here her work was very successful, and for several years she ably filled the position of principal of the high school. She removed to St. Paul, and taught for one year in the schools of that city. She was recalled to Union City, f Sessions] MEMORIAL ADDRESSES 29.^ Ind., to fill the position of superintendent of schools. This position she filled for two years with honor to herself, and much credit to the schools. The esteem in which she was held and her influence as an instructor are fully expressed in the following testament of appreciation which was adopted by. the teachers of the city schools : We, the teachers and board of education of the public schools of Union City, Ind., desire to give expression to our sense of loss in the death of our beloved superintendent, Mrs. S. G. Patterson, and to testify as to her excellent life and character. In the death of Mrs. Patterson we have lost a leader, whose qualities of head and heart made her the successful teacher and ideal superintendent. Balanced, self-poised> able to command her resources, with a mind not only well stored, but systematically well trained, she was not only intelligent, but educated in the truest sense of the word. In discipline she was gentle yet firm ; self-disciplined, she ruled without seeming to rule. Her methods developed the moral possibilities as well as the intellectual. Full of tact, she led many a one up to a larger faith in God and to nobler views of human living. She brought to her responsible position not only high intellectual and general culture, but those high moral and spiritual qualities by which she brought to us each day a fuller appreciation of the dignity, worth, and responsibility of our profession. We feel that the influence which she exerted in our midst will continue with increas- ing power, giving us better, nobler aspirations in the work which she so much loved and adorned. As a friend, Mrs. Patterson was kind, generous, self-sacrificing, and sympathetic ; ready to assist not only by her wise counsel and encouraging word, but always ready with willing heart and skillful hands to assume the burden itself. We feel that our loss is not a professional one alone, but to each of us a personal loss. Were a star quenched on high, For ages would its light. Still traveling downward from the sky, Shine on our mortal sight. So when our great one dies. For years beyond our ken, The light she leaves behind her lies Upon the paths of men. C, IP. IRooers [prepared by henry sabin] C. p. Rogers was born in Kingston Center, O., June 22, 1844. He was a member of the One Hundred and Forty-fifth regiment Ohio volun- teers during the war of the rebellion. His regiment was stationed on the plantation of General Lee, at Arlington Heights. He graduated from the State University of Iowa in 1869. He was superintendent of the Marengo schools 1869-74, and of the Marshalltown schools 1874-96. Mr. Rogers was an earnest man, who gave himself without reserve to the work of teaching. He was prominent among the ranks of Iowa teachers, wise in his counsels, and strong in his leadership. They honored 294 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General him with the highest professional ofifice in their power to bestow, and his untimely death filled many hearts with sorrow. Under his fostering care the schools of Marshalltown rose to a position of prominence unexcelled by any in the state, if, indeed, by any in the Northwest. One who had known him from his youth wrote this of him : "Iowa's educational history, if it commends the deeds and ability of any of this generation, can never be silent concerning the career and the professional accomplishments of the lamented Commodore Perry Rogers." m. XT. pointer, H),2). W. T. Poynter was born in Montgomery county, Ky., August 14, 1838, the son of Thomas and Angeline Poynter. While he was yet a child, his parents removed to Franklin county, near Frankfort, the capital- of the state, where he grew up a strong, vigorous, and industrious boy. He was educated at Frankfort by Mr. B. B. Sayre, one of the most distinguished educators of the country, leaving school at the age of seventeen, and two years afterward marrying Miss Pattie Poston, of Win- chester, Ky. At the time of his marriage he was principal of the Win- chester Academy, one of the oldest institutions in the state, and by his thoroness in discipline and instruction made for himself, even at that early age, a reputation which most men acquire only after years of patient and laborious effort. In 1867 he connected himself with the Kentucky conference. Four years at Winchester, four years at Millersburg, four at Paris, and a single year at Carrollton completed that portion of his life which was devoted to the pastoral work. It was while at Carrollton that he made the purchase of the famous Science Hill Female College, which, under the fifty years of the presidency of Mrs. Julia A. Tevis, had become one of the most prominent educational institutions of the country. His death occurred on Thursday, July 30. Funeral services were held Saturday morning in the chapel of the college, conducted by Revs. W. F. Taylor, John R. Deerings, Victor Savage, and T. J. Dodd, the latter of whom preached the funeral discourse. The chapel was crowded to its utmost capacity by friends from far and near, prominent among whom were not a few of those who had been Dr. Poynter's sturdiest opponents upon the field of controversy and debate — all now come together, equally testifying their sincere regard for the many distinguished virtues of the great man who had been taken from their midst, all equally sorrowing that their friend and brother was now no more. Since 1879 l^J"- Poynter had been the president of the female college known for nearly three-fourths of a century as Science Hill, at Shelby- Sessions] MEMORIAL ADDRESSES 295 ville, Ky. As a teacher he was earnest and thoro, and in turn he required thoroness of every worker in his school, whether student or assistant. He was a cordial hater of pretense or show. His teachers were graduates of the best institutions in the country, and the work done by them in the education of young ladies was of the highest order. This is shown conclusively in the fact that students bearing his certificates were admitted into the places for which they were recommended, in the very best insti- tutions of the North and East. Says one who knew him as a personal friend : He was. a man of honor in the largest, most exalted meaning of the word. From the earliest manhood we had known him, had been admitted to his intimate friendship, and had understood him as we have understood but few, and we can say deliberately that we can recall no instance in the long lapse of years of his having done a dishonorable deed or acted from a sinister motive ; and we have no recollection of such deed or motive ever having been ascribed to him. 3osepb C. 5ones Joseph C. Jones, who died recently at his home in Chicago, was a man well known among educators in this country. He was born near Adrian, Mich., about fifty-seven years ago. His parents were New Eng- landers, who had but lately immigrated to what was at that time a com- paratively wild and unsettled region. His early education was acquired partly at the district schools, but chiefly at the Friends' Seminary, in Raisin Valley, near his home. During the winter of 1864-65 he taught in the village school at Dundee. The next year he attended the high school in Detroit, and in September, 1866, he entered the University of Michigan, at Ann Arbor. Circumstances prevented his remaining long in college at that time, and so, at the beginning of the following year, he returned to Detroit to accept the principalship of the Houghton School in that city. After a successful experience of two or three years in the capacity of school principal, he resigned and again entered the university, from which he was graduated in 1872. He had scarcely received his degree when he was elected to the superintendency of the Pontiac schools, a position which he retained with distinguished success until 1877, when he was called to a similar, but larger, field of labor in East Saginaw. He remained eight years in East Saginaw, bringing the schools of that city to a very high degree of efficiency, and placing them on a level with the best schools of the entire country. Thru his efforts the first high school in that city was estab- lished, and a training school for pupil-teachers was organized, which has since accomplished incalculable good. The free text-book system in Michigan owes its existence to Mr. Jones, his schools in Ea.st Saginaw 296 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General having been the first to adopt and make trial of it. His influence during those eight years was felt not only as a school superintendent of rare abilities, but as a citizen and man of affairs having a high standing in the community of which he was a member. In 1885 Mr. Jones resigned his position at East Saginaw in order to become manager of the educational department in the publishing house of Harper & Brothers, in New York city. In the performance of his new duties he proved to be as energetic, efficient, and successful as he had been in the superintendency of schools. Apart from the professional or business side of his life, Mr. Jones was a man of varied attainments. His conversational powers were of the highest order. There were few subjects with which he was not in some degree familiar. " He was a manly man in the truest sense of the word," says his school board at Saginaw ; and everyone who knew him will repeat the assertion. He was generous to a fault, and willing to sacrifice every- thing for the good of his friends. His heart was tender to every appeal for right and justice. He was always ready to shoulder more than his share of a load ; to give the largest half of any good thing to his friend, reserv- ing less the a moiety for himself; to suffer discomfort, if by so doing he could increase another's enjoyment. His life was a practical illustration of altruism in its best sense. "Be brave, be true, be unselfish" — this was the rule of conduct which he tried to impress upon the young people with whom he came in contact; and in his own character he presented the best exemplification of this teaching — for he was a living illustration of courage, truth, and devotion to others. Such men are few in this world, and they can ill be spared. In his death not only have his family and friends suffered irretrievable loss, but the cause of education, to which he gave his life, loses more than can ever be known or estimated. 5obn lb. Uear John H. Tear was born in McLean county, Illinois, in 1856. He grew up on the farm, attending the district school, and later attending the vil- lage high school. After attending the State Normal University, at Normal, 111., for a term, he began teaching a district school in the fall of 1874. In 1877 he again took up work at the Normal University, graduating from there in 1881. After graduating he had charge of the schools at Astoria, 111., for two years, going from there to Delavan, 111., where he remained four years. In September, 1887, he came to Chicago, taking the principalship of the Von Humboldt School ; two years later he was transferred to the Wash- i s,>Mon>J MEMORIAL ADDRESSES 297 ington School, where he remained till his death, which occurred February 15, 1897, after one week's illness of pneumonia. Some years before his death he received the degree of Ph.B. from the Illinois Wesleyan University, taking the non-resident course. At the time of his death he was working at the University of Chicago for the degree of Ph.D., going there in the afternoons after school to recite. In his school work he made a specialty of philosophy and pedagogy. He served as president of the Northern Illinois Teachers' Association, as president of the Chicago Institute of Education, and was at the time of his death vice-president of the Chicago Principals' Association, the superintendent of schools always serving as president. Mr. Tear was a student of educational systems and principles. He was practical, and measured the value of all theories by what they would do for children. He was progressive, and tested methods before adopt- ing them. He was honest, earnest, patient, modest, charitable, faithful. His teachers respected, trusted, honored him. His pupils loved him. His associates in the Principals' Association, in the Institute of Educa- tion, in the State Teachers' Association, and in every department of edu- cational work, recognized his stability of character, his untiring energy in his profession, his clear perception of the true ends of education, and his hearty co-operation in all movements for great efficiency. His life was an illustration of the motto which he often urged upon his pupils : " To be thoroughly in earnest is everything, To be anything short of it is nothing." Solomon palmer Solomon Palmer was a native of Blount county, Alabama. His whole life was identified with the interests of that state. He was a gallant soldier in the war and was promoted to the rank of major. In 1884 he became state superintendent of education, and in that position stamped his name and fame indelibly upon Alabama history. His superintendency was an era of progress and reform in Alabama education. During his administration state institutes were held all over the state, and wonderful advancement was made by the body of teachers. He was a man of genial presence, and was usually present at meetings of the teachers wherever held in the state. For many years he was presi- dent of the Alabama Educational Association. He founded, in 1890, the F^ast Lake Atheneum, in which he met with marked success. He was a frequent attendant upon the meetings of the National Educational Association and represented his state upon many important 2y8 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General committees. He was a pleasant, honorable gentleman, of thoughtful ways and quiet demeanor, yet full of earnest zeal in the cause of popular education. ■QXaalter S. pertp Walter S. Perry was graduated from the State Normal School at Ypsi- lanti in 1856, and from the University of Michigan in 1861; received the degree of Master of Arts from the university in 1871, and of Master of Pedagogy from the normal school in 1890. He was superintendent at Mar- shall from 1861 to 1864, and at Coldwater from 1864 to 1867. While at Coldwater he founded the Weekly Republicati, in 1866, being its first editor. He was county superintendent of Branch county for 1867-68. In the spring of 1868 he became principal of the Toledo High School, com- pleting the school year, when he was called to the presidency of the Prairie. Du Chien College, Wisconsin, which position he held for two years, when, in 1870, he was appointed superintendent of the Ann Arbor city schools. This position he occupied with distinguished success until his death, December 15, 1897, a period of over twenty-seven years. He was president of the Michigan State Teachers' Association for 1876. The following resolution, passed at the last meeting of the Michigan State Association, expresses the appreciation and love of his fellow- teachers : Resolved, That we hereby express our deep sense of loss in the removal from us by death of our friend and colaborer, Superintendent Walter S. Perry; that we feel his life has been a constant stimulus to that which was good and true in all who have been brought into contact with his pure, unselfish, and noble character ; that in this associa- tion, of which he was a member almost from its organization, and in which his presence and his voice have been features most familiar and enjoyed, he has been an efficient officer and trusted counselor in all its affairs ; that in the shaping of the elementary and secondary educational systemi of Michigan we recognize him as one of the strongest forces working through the past thirty years. Filled with sorrow by his death, we yet rejoice in the life he has lived — simple, yet vigorous ; scholarly, though unpretentious ; gentle, yet manly and uncompromising when any question of integrity was at stake ; a life which has been an incentive to the truest manhood in all who have personally known him. jBuaene H). Baaen The death of Eugene D. Bagen came with a severe shock to his asso- ciates and friends. He was born in New York city, in 1 85 1 . He attended, as a boy, Grammar School No. 20, of which Mr. Alexander Morehouse is now principal, and from this school he went to the city college. He was a Sessions] MEMORIAL ADDRESSES 299 member of the same class of '81 in which were Commissioner Charles Strauss and ex- Commissioner Livingston, and Wallace F. Lyons, princi- pal of Grammar No. 91. A few weeks ago a dinner was given to the class by Mr. Lyons, at the Hotel Endicott, at which Mr. Bagen and many of the members were present. Mr. Bagen did not graduate from the col- lege, but he left after two years, taking a course of civil engineering in the University of the City of New York. He was interested in architec- ture and took up the study of that profession, but other circumstances led to his appointment as a teacher in Grammar No. 20 ; from which, after several years, he went to No. 7, of which Mr. Townley is principal. His knowledge of business details made him a valuable member of the Teach- ers' Mutual Benefit Association, and a few years ago, when the teachers' fair was held, Mr. Bagen was one of its most active workers and pro- moters, giving his services largely without remuneration for that work. He has since been interested in the many plans for increasing and adding to the efficiency of the work of this association. No one of its members has, probably, given more of his time in its behalf. He was also financial secretary of the Teachers' Building and Loan Association, where all the loans and investments of the association were made under his super- vision. His nature was gentle and unassuming, and his friendships were formed on all sides by those with whom he was known in the course of his official or social duties. He was one of the youngest of the staff of assistant superintendents, and none were more earnest and conscientious in their work. •fcenri? W,* JSlafte News of the death of Henry W. Blake came upon ipost of his friends as a surprise and shock. Few outside of his family and those closest to him knew that he had been dangerously ill with pneumonia since Friday. Never of robust health, he had been overworked, and it was feared from the first that his constitution might not withstand the attack. This is the end of a life upright, honorable, and useful in an exceptional degree. Henry Wolcott Blake was born in Coventry, Conn., July 20, 1848. He was the son of Rev. Henry B. Blake, now dead, who is well remembered in western Massachusetts. The father was a graduate of Williams College and received his theological training at East Windsor, Conn., and his first settlement was at South Coventry, where he remained from 1845 to 1855 ; then for ten years he was settled over the Congregational Church in Belchertown, where the son, Henry W., passed some of the pleasantest years of his life, and where he married his wife at a later period. Rev. Mr. Blake was, for some years after 1868, engaged in missionary and 300 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General educational work in Wilmington, N. C; and then came north and preached in West Springfield and other places. Henry W. Blake attended Monson Academy and entered Williams College, where he was graduated with the class of 1871. Among his classmates and friends were Judge Dunbar, of our superior court ; Professor Terrett, of Hamilton College, and Frank Foxcroft, of Cambridge. Mr. Blake displayed a fondness for writing, and contributed to the Williams Quarterly. After leaving Wil- liamstown he taught in North Carolina for a year or two, and was for a time with General Armstrong at the Hampton (Va.) Institute. But his bent was toward newspaper and literary work, and about 1877 Mr. Blake became a member of The Republican staff. His earlier work with the paper was as a news-gatherer up and down the Connecticut valley in Hampshire and Franklin counties, and he made many friends in that region. There were some whom he especially esteemed, like the Champ- neys, of Deerfield, while the best people of two county seats came to know and value him. Later on he did more work in Springfield, and came to largely direct the work of the local department. His work was done with the utmost faithfulness and conscientionsness, and he was greatly respected by his employers and associates. After about ten years of this service, Mr. Blake withdrew, in 1888, to establish an advertising agency in company with William P. Derby. The business not meeting his expectations, Mr. Blake, within a year or two, made an engagement with Milton Bradley, and, for seven years until his death, was the head of the educational department of the Milton Bradley Co., and editor of the Kindergarten News. His training had especially fitted him for this work, and it was to his liking. He gained a broad knowledge of educational matters and a wide acquaintance with educators, while the kindergarten monthly publication gave him the field in which to indulge his fondness for writing. All who have read it will agree that the Kinder- garten News was edited with exceptional taste and care, while his own contributions were always of value. Mr. Blake was always regardful of his duties as a citizen. His was a religious nature, and during his life in Springfield he was identified with church work, first at the Memorial Church and of late with Park Church, where he was one of the deacons. malter /ID. 5as On September 2, 1896, our beloved brother and fellow-worker, Walter M. Jay, was called to his reward. He was born April 25, 1857, at Elm- wood, Peoria county. 111. Graduating in the high school at that place, he entered Knox College at Galesburg, 111., completing the full classical Sessions] MEMORIAL ADDRESSES 30 1 course four years later. He entered a law office and was admitted to the bar in 1878. After practicing law for about a year, he accepted the superintendency of the Avon city schools. In August, 1883, he married Miss Grace Townsend, immediately moving to Wellington, Kan., serving as superintendent of city schools there for four years. He again resumed the practice of law at Van Buren, Ark.; but later he accepted the super- intendency of the Beloit, Kan., schools. In August, 1890, he was elected headmaster and bursar of St. John's Military School, at Salina. From the moment he assumed the duties of his new office his friends recognized his eminent fitness for the place. His education and experience enabled him to adapt himself at once to the great work of building up and enlarging the influence of the school. His fine social qualities and his readiness as a public speaker gave him recognition wherever he went, and at the time of his death the school had entered upon an era of great promise. The purity of his life and nobleness of his aim, and the devo- tion with which he consecrated himself to the discharge of every trust confided to him, awakened the profoundest respect and the hearty co-operation of young and old. One who knew him well says : " He was great in honest, earnest purpose. One of his cardinal virtues was his unselfish devotion to the good of others." JEOwin H. Cbarlton Edwin Azro Charlton, eldest child of Walter and Mindwell Charlton, was born in Littleton, N. H., September 29, 1828. Died November 14, 1897. He graduated from Dartmouth College in the class of 1854. Under the administration of President Lord, class honors were not in vogue, but Mr. Charlton's record placed him in the first third of the class, num- bering fifty-seven, giving him election to the honorary Phi Beta Kappa Society. The next fall he became principal of the Haverhill Academy, then resuscitated after a long lapse, and remained there one year. In September, 1855, he went to Gilmanton, N. H., and was preceptor of the academy one year and a term, returning to Claremont in the beginning of 1857 to take up the study of his chosen profession, law, in the office of Freeman & McClure. Early in April, 1857, he was called to Lock- port, N. Y., to take the principalship of the Union School. Here he remained for four years, teaching with such marked success, and so enjoy- ing the work, that he abandoned all thought of the law. From this position he was called to the vice-principalship of the Union School in Schenectady, N. Y., where he remained until the summer of 1862. In March of that year he was married to Helen Elizabeth, daughter of Judge Alfred 302 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General Holmes, of Lockport, N. Y., and in the fall returned to Gilmanton to again assume the duties of preceptor of the academy. However, he remained only one year; the board of education of Schenectady offering him the place of city superintendent of schools, he returned to that city and resided there for five years. Receiving an urgent call to come to Auburn, N. Y., as city superintendent of schools and principal of the high school, he accepted it, but the climate did not agree with him, and after two years of successful and agreeable work he was peremptQrily bidden by his physician to try another climate. Being invited to the presidency of the First State Normal School of Wisconsin, at Platteville, he resigned his position in Auburn and went west in the fall of 1870. He remained in this school eight years and a term, when he permanently retired from the teacher's profession. In the spring of 1879 ^^ purchased the Brod- head Independent, a weekly paper published at Brodhead, Wis., and con- tinued to edit the paper till the time of his death. Tho not engaged in the actual work of the schoolroom, Mr. Charlton did not lose his interest in education. How highly his work was esteemed is shown by the fact that, in 1884, his former pupils in the normal school made him a life member of the National Educational Association. His evident literary taste was shown the first year after his graduation in the preparation of a book entitled New Hampshire as It Is, which met with reasonable success. Owing to the pressure of professional duties and a lack of physical strength, he performed but little literary work in the later years, except in occasional addresses, school reports, etc., but his writings are all marked by the use of "classic English," and he was highly esteemed as a critic for his candor and his scholarly ability. DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE CHATTANOOGA MEETING SECRETARY'S MINUTES FIRST DAY MORNING SESSION.— Tuesday, February 22, 1898 The Department of Superintendence was called to order at 10 : 30 A. M., in the New Auditorium, by the president, N. C. Schaeffer, of Harrisburg, Pa. Hon. E. Watkins, mayor of Chattanooga, delivered an address of welcome on behalf of the citizens of Chattanooga. Hon. Price Thomas, state superintendent of public instruction, Nashville, Tenn., extended a welcome on behalf of the state. Hon. Henry Houck, of Harrisburg, Pa., replied to the words of welcome in the name of the department. C. J. Baxter, state superintendent, Trenton, N. J., read a paper on " The Township High School," which was discussed by J. Q. Emery, state superintendent, Madison, Wis.; W. W. Stetson, state superintendent, Augusta, Me.; A. K. Whitcomb, city superintendent, Lowell, Mass.; R. K. Buehrle, superintendent of schools, Lancaster, Pa.; W. W. Pen- dergast, state superintendent of public instruction, Hutchinson, Minn., and John Mac- Donald, editor Western School Journal, Topeka, Kan. The department then adjourned. AFTERNOON SESSION The afternoon was devoted to a conference on the educational problems in the South, conducted by G. G. Bond, superintendent of city schools. Athens, Ga. The first topic considered was : " What Kind of Normal Training Should the Com- mon-School Teacher Receive ? " It was discussed by E. C. Branson, professor of peda- gogy. State Normal School, Athens, Ga.; W. N. Sheats, state superintendent, Tallahassee, Fla., and W. F. Slaton, superintendent of city schools, Atlanta, Ga. " A Plan for the Better Supervision of the Common Schools " was the second topic, and was presented by Charles D. Mclver, president Normal and Industrial School, Greensboro, N. C, and dis- cussed by Otis Ashmore, Savannah, Ga.; Superintendent Sheats, Tallahassee, Fla.; Captain George Le Roy Brown, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tenn.; J. S. Wilson, St. Elmo, Tenn.; Hon. R. J. Guinn, Atlanta, Ga.; Superintendent J. H. Phillips, Birm- ingham, Ala.; W. B. Thompson, Chattanooga ; J. N. Rogers, Sandersville, Ga., and Superintendent Pendergast, of Minnesota. " What the Negro Gets from Common-School Education in the South and What He Gives to It " was the third topic, which was dis- cussed by G. R. Glenn, state superintendent, Atlanta, Ga. < By resolution of the Department of Superintendence at its meeting in Indianapolis, Ind., February 17, 1897, the Secretary was directed to use the following amended spellings in all publications of the department, viz.: Program — (programme); tho — (though); altho — (although); thoro — (thorough); thorofare — (thoroughfare); thru — (through); thruout — (throughout); catalog — (catalogue); prolog — (prologue); decalog — (decalogue); demagog — (demagogue); pedagog — (pedagogue). 304 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chattanooga The conference of state superintendents on the " Minimum Preparation for Teaching," conducted by Grace Espy Patton, Denver, Colo., met in the Chamber of Commerce. Hon. Price Thomas, of Tennessee, presented a paper on the subject, which was discussed by Hon. O. T. Corson, of Ohio. EVENING SESSION President Schaeffer called the meeting to order and appointed the following com- mittees : COMMITTEE ON RESOLUTIONS Charles R. Skinner, Chairman. L. B. Evans. A. G. Lane. W. H. Anderson. E, W, Mackey. J. F. Millspaugh. COMMITTEE ON NOMINATIONS G. R. Glenn, Chairman. W. W. Stetson. O. T. Corson. E. O. Lyte. F. Louis Soldan. The report of the Committee on Elementary Schools, prepared by Dr. John Dewey, Chicago, 111., was, in his absence, read by Dr. W. N. Hailmann, Washington, D. C. A violin solo was rendered by Professor Joseph Cadek, of Chattanooga. Martin G. Brum- baugh, professor of pedagogy. University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa., read a paper on "The Mission of the Elementary School," after which the department adjourned. SECOND DAY MORNING SESSION.— Wednesday, February 23 The department was called to order at 9 : 30 by President Schaeffer. Rev. Dr. J. W. Bachman, of Chattanooga, offered prayer. The subject for this session was : " What Can Child-Study Contribute to the Science of Education ? " Papers were read by Professor J. P". Gordy, Columbus, O., and Profes- sor R. P. Halleck, Louisville, Ky. The subject was further discussed by Professor Charles O. Hoyt, Ypsilanti, Mich. BUSINESS SESSION Professor Ossian H. Lang, New York city, as chairman of the Committee on the, Minimum Standard of Professional Requirements of Teachers, asked that the committee be given at least one year more for the completion of its plans and recommendations. On motion, this request was granted by the department. Dr. Hailmann called up the resolution offered by the Committee on Elementary Edu- cation and asked for its adoption by the department. On motion, it was laid on the table, to be considered at the business session of Thursday. The selection of a place for holding the next meeting of the department was then taken up. Invitations were received from the following cities : Columbus, O.; Albany, N. Y.; Asheville, N. C; Detroit, Mich.; Austin, Tex. A vote of preference was then taken, with the following result : Columbus, 75 ; Detroit, 17; Austin, 12 ; Albany, 5 ; Asheville, 3. The session then adjourned. AFTERNOON SESSION The afternoon session was devoted to a conference on " School Hygiene," conducted by Superintendent G. V. Buchanan, Sedalia, Mo. Superintendent Carroll G. Pearse, Omaha, Neb., read a paper prepared by Dr. W. A. Mowry, Hyde Park, Mass., on " Lighting and Seating of Schoolrooms," after which it was discussed by Superintendent F. Louis Sol- \ Superintendence] SECRETARY'S MINUTES 305 dan, St. Louis, Mo.; Superintendent J. R. Preston, Water Valley, Miss., and Mr. W. A. Bell, Indianapolis, Ind. On motion. Dr. Soldan's time was extended, and he closed the discussion. A paper on " Ventilation of Schoolrooms," prepared by Superintendent A. P. Marble, New York city, was read by Hon. H. R. Pattengill, Lansing, Mich. The subject was further discussed by Superintendent S. M. Inglis, Springfield, 111., and Superintendent J. L. Holloway, Fort Smith, Ark. Superintendent T. A. Mott, Richmond, Ind., read a paper on "Contagious Diseases." Superintendent B. C. Gregory, Trenton, N. J., continued the discussion. Superintendent J, H. Snyder, Tiffin, O., was absent, but he sent his paper, which, for want of time, was omitted, but was submitted as a part of the record. In the conference of state superintendents, Z. X. Snyder, president of the State Nor- mal School, Colorado, read a paper on " Reciprocal Recognition of State and Normal- School Diplomas by Other States." A paper was also read by Superintendent W. B. Powell, District of Columbia, on "Medical Examination of Children in the Public Schools." EVENING SESSION Professor A. J. Gantvoort, College of Music, Cincinnati, O., read a paper on "The Influence of Music and Music Study upon Character." President Schaeffer introduced Dr. S. F. Scovel, president of the University of Wooster, O., who discussed the subject briefly. Mrs. Pratt, of Chattanooga, favored the department with a vocal solo. Dr. W. T. Harris, Commissioner of Education, Washington, D. C, then read a paper on " The Value of the Tragic and the Comic in Education." Superintendent Carroll G. Pearse was allowed to introduce the following motion, which was adopted by the department : That the president of this department, at this meeting;, be authorized to appoint a committee of seven, which shall consider the matter of the classification of receipts and expenditures of state and city school sys- tems, and recommend to the department forms of financial reports suitable for use by all state and city schools ; and that the Board of Directors of the National Educational Association be requested to appropriate a sum of money sufficient to pay for the printing of the report of this committee, so that the report may be in the hands of the members of this department at the next meeting. The department then adjourned. THIRD DAY MORNING SESSION.— Thursday, February 24 The department was called to order by President Schaeffer, and Rev. Thomas V. Tobin, rector of Sts. Peter and Paul Church, of Chattanooga, offered prayer. Principal Richard Waterman, Jr., Chicago, 111., read a paper on " Vacation Schools." Irwin Shepard, president State Normal School, Winona, Minn., read a paper on "Con- tinuous Sessions of Normal Schools." These papers were discussed by Superintendent A. T. Barrett, of Chattanooga, Tenn.; Superintendent R. K. Buehrle, Lancaster, Pa., and Superintendent D. L. Ellis, Asheville, N. C. Here Bishop Goodsell, of the Methodist Episcopal church, who was honoring the department with his presence, was introduced by President Schaeffer and briefly discussed the subject under consideration. BUSINESS SESSION Superintendent R. K. Buehrle introduced the following resolution, which was adopted : Resolved, That, in view of the great progress already made in the amendment and simplification of Eng- lish orthography, as shown by 'the dropping of the final letter or letters in ax, program, etiquet ; of one of the double letters in traveler, worshiping, and woolen ; of the a in pedagogy and phenogamous ; of the o in 30b NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chattanooga economy, the w in honor and labor; and many similar changes and words ; a committee be appointed to con- sider the advisability of certain additional changes to be advocated, looking toward the further and more rapid amendment and simplification of English orthography, said committee to report at the next regular meeting of this department. A. C. McLaughlin, of the University of Michigan, chairman of the Committee of the American Historical Association and the Study of History in the Secondary Schools, spoke of the nature of the work of his committee and asked the co-operation of the mem- bers of the department. The following resolution on elementary education, referred to in this section, was then called up by the president: Resolved^ That the present president of the Department of Superintendence appoint a committee of four, to be known as the Commiteee on Elementary Education, whose duty it shall be to collect and collate data in accordance with the proposition of Dr. Dewey's report ; That this committee be empowered to complete its organization by the appointment of nine additional members, in accordance with the recommendation of the same report ; And that the officers of the Department of Superintendence are hereby instructed to petition the Board of Directors of the National Educational Association, on behalf of the Department of Superintendence, to appro- priate a sum not exceeding $i,ooo for the year 1898-99, and a sum not exceeding $1,500 for the year 1899-1900, to be placed at the disposal of the Committee on Elementary Education for the purposes named in Dr. Dewey's report. Upon motion, action was postponed for one year. The following Committee on Uniform Reports was named by the president : C. G. Pearse, Omaha, Neb.; W. W. Stetson, Augusta, Me.; D. M. Geeting, Indianapolis, Ind.; John R. Kirk, Jefferson City, Mo.; C. A. Babcock, Oil City, Pa.; E. B. Prettyman, Balti- more, Md. The Committee on Nominations reported the following names for officers of this department for the ensuing year : For President — E. H. Mark, Louisville, Ky. For First Vice-President — G. H. Conley, Boston, Mass. For Second Vice-President — A. T. Barrett, Chattanooga, Tenn. For Secretary — J. H. Van Sickle, Denver, Colo. The report of the committee was accepted, and the persons named declared officers for the ensuing year. AFTERNOON SESSION The session was devoted to a conference on " Grading and Promoting with Refer- ence to the Individual Needs of Pupils," conducted by Dr. Edward R. Shaw, School of Pedagogy, University of City of New York. Dr. John T. Prince, agent of the Massachusetts board of education, read a paper on " Some New-England Plans and Conclusions Drawn from a Study of Grading and Pro- motion." This paper was discussed by Professor W. S. Sutton, School of Pedagogy, University of Texas. A general discussion followed, in which the following took part: Superintendent E. Coleman, Le Mars, la.; Dr. W. T. Harris, Washington, D.C.; Superintendent R. K. Buehrle, Lancaster Pa., and Dr. C. C. Rounds, New York city. Superintendent James H. Van Sickle, Denver, Colo., read a paper on the " Plan of the North-Side Schools of Denver." Superintendent William J. Shearer, Elizabeth, N. J., read a paper on "The Elizabeth Plan." The discussion was opened by Superintendent R. H. Halsey, Binghamton, N. Y., who was followed by Superintendent George Griffith, Utica, N. Y.; Supervisor George Martin, Boston, Mass., and Superintendent J. M. Green- wood, Kansas City, Mo. EVENING SESSION The Committee on Resolutions made the following report, which was adopted by the department : The members of the Department of Superintendence express their grateful appreciation of the efforts of i Superintendence] SECRETARY'S MINUTES ^ the local committees of Chattanooga, municipal and educational, and of- its citizens generally, to provide for our comfort and entertainment, and for their cordial and fraternal greetings. The profit of this meeting has been enhanced by the privilege of viewing the scenes where conflicts were waged that are memorable in the history of the nation and of the world. Tho memorials of strife and of valor stand upon the fields of Chickamauga. Missionary Ridge, and Lookout Mountain, there has been no bitterness in our hearts as we have discussed measures designed to promote the permanent prosperity and to secure the peace of the republic. Let us hope that education everywhere may teach the sentiments of humanity, and that henceforth all differences between nations may be amicably settled thru the peaceful means of arbitration. We heartily appreciate the courteous attention and the full reports which the press of Chattanooga has given the proceedings of the department, and accept its intelligent, comprehensive reports as an assurance of the efficacy of the press as an educational factor. May the example of the press of Chattanooga inspire jour- nalism everywhere to give closer attention to educational problems, and to lead in the solutions of questions which concern the development of intelligence and character among the people. The progress of educational affairs in the South during recent years is a cause for congratulation and encouragement. This progress is evidenced by the larger enrollment, the longer school terms, and the improved equipment of schoolhouses, but more particularly by the greater interest on the part of the people, and the increasing enthusiasm on the part of school officials. We learn with gratification of the improved con- dition of the negroes, the sympathy between the educators of both white and colored races, and express our confidence in the ultimate moral and intellectual elevation of the negro race by means of proper education. This department approves of the plan of creating a committee whose duty it is to make or cause to be made a scientific determination of the factors involved in the subjects of seating, lighting, ventilating, and heating of school buildings ; and to this end prepare and present to this body, at the meeting in 1899, a pre- liminary report setting forth the nature of the problems involved and its recommendations for the further prosecution of the inquiry — said committee to consist of nine members, as follows: the United States Commissioner of Education, two state superintendents of instruction, two presidents of normal schools, two city superintendents, and two other persons. We commend intelligent child- study, but believe that great caution should be observed in using the child as a subject for psychological experiments, particularly by those not familiar with the essential principles which should be regarded in such investigations. We recognize the force of utterances made in favor of closer and more intelligent supervision of the instruction given in our schools ; the importance of selecting the best supervisors at adequate salaries ; of pro- fessional training, and the determination to make our schools more useful by making them more attractive, by quickening in them an educational spirit, and by the adoption of proper courses of study and insisting upon the best methods of teaching. We favor the further consideration and discussion of plans for continuous sessions of normal schools. We indorse all suitable efforts that may be made to secure uniform qualifications for teachers' licenses for the different grades of school work, to be accepted in any state in the union ; and we also favor a permanent tenure of service for worthy teachers who hold such licenses. The department expresses its obligations to all railroads which have given unusual special rates for this meeting. The thanks of this body are hereby tendered to the retiring president for his work in the preparation of the program which has been furnished ; for the firm, courteous, and dignified manner in which he has presided over our deliberations, and in general for the successful conduct of the meeting now closed. Charles R. Skinner, Albert G. Lane, E. W. Mac KAY, L. B. Evans, W. H. Anderson, J. F. Millspaugh, Cotninittee. Mrs. Watson, of Chattanooga, favored the department with a vocal solo. The closing address was then delivered by Dr. S. F. Scovel, president of University of Wooster, Wooster, O., on "Realizing the Final Aim of Education." The retiring president, having expressed his gratitude for the courtesies shown him during the meeting, introduced the president-elect, E. H. Mark, who thanked the mem- bers for the honor conferred upon him, and declared the department adjourned. W. L. Steele, Secretary. ADDENDA President Schaeffer reserved the right, before adjourning the department, to name the committees on school hygiene and spelling reform at a later date. The president has appointed these committees as follows : 3o8 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chattanooga SPELLING REFORM Superintendent R. K. Buehrle, Lancaster, Pa. Superintendent T. M. Balliet, Springfield, Mass. Hon. W. T. Harris, Washington, D. C. Mr. E. O. Vaile, Oak Park, Chicago, III. Dr. C. C. Rounds, New York city. SCHOOL HYGIENE Hon. W, T. Harris, Washington, D. C. Superintendent A, P. Marble, New York city. Hon. Frank A. Hill, Boston, Mass. Dr. E. Oram Lyte, Millersville, Pa. Hon. John R. Kirk, Jefferson City, Mo. Professor W. E. Watson, Providence, R. I. Superintendent F. L. Soldan, St. Louis, Mo. Professor W. L. Bryan, Bloomington, Ind. Professor W. A, Mowry, Hyde Park, Mass. W. L. Steele, Secretary. PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS THE TOWNSHIP HIGH SCHOOI BY STATE SUPERINTENDENT C. J. BAXTER, TRENTON, N. J. Conspicuous and predominant among the educational needs of the United States today is the need for extending our high-school system. A plea for the township high school is, because of existing conditions, a plea for the rural high school. It should be established I. AS A MEASURE OF JUSTICE TO OUR RURAL POPULATION Many of our towns, nearly all of our cities, and some of our larger villages already enjoy a very liberal development of this system, and the youth in these centers of population are able to acquire an education that fits them for the ordinary duties of life. The fully equipped high school, in addition to some purely commercial lines of work, gives its students an intelligent appreciation of our literature, a good knowledge of American history ; lays a good foundation for both a mathematical and a scientific education ; teaches the art and establishes the habit of speaking and writing good English ; is prepared to give such instruction in the languages as our colleges require for admission ; and, last but not least, it should instill a love of knowledge for its own sake and a purpose to per- sist in its acquirement ; also continue the social development, the char- acter-building, and example in manners and morals that are begun in the true kindergarten and which are characteristic of it. If equal to these requirements^it furnishes the pupil with the master-keys of knowledge, and performs the important function of connecting the grammar school with both the world and our higher institutions of learning. Tho many of the so-called high schools fall below this standard, still our present high-school education is a fairly comprehensive system, whose provisions SuperintendenceJ THE TOWNSHIP HIGH SCHOOL 309 are liberal, whose results are good, and whose aims are distinctly high and important, because tending to elevate the standard of average intelligence, and to advance our people along the lines of enterprise, culture, and morality. Up to the present time this valuable provision for larger development has been enjoyed only by those who reside in, or near, our centers of population. The many whose lines are cast outside these centers, on the farms, in the forests, in the mines, and who are connected with various other industrial interests located of necessity where towns and cities are impossible, are denied the privileges and benefits of the system. Our provisions for public education, primarily designed to be of equal benefit to all our youth, are today, because of the development of the high- school feature in the towns, tending to divide our citizens into two dis- tinct classes: first, those for whose training and development a fairly suitable provision has been made ; and, second, those* whose advantages are confined to the rural school, with its limited curriculum and still more meager equipment. That these two classes will show marked and unde- sirable contrasts is as certain as that effect follows cause. The urban-bred citizen will be more alert, more progressive, more polished, more resourceful, more capable of discerning or creating opportunities within his environments, or of seeking them beyond, and thus far better fitted to fight the battle of life. The rural-bred citizen will be far less capable of handling new questions or treating complex subjects, less capable of adapting himself to new conditions when forced out of his accustomed sphere, or of making the most of any environment, because natural powers, fully the equal of those of his more favored urban contemporary, have not been so well developed. Tho our past history affords us shining examples of those who have broken away from conditions most unfavorable, who have risen supreme above every difficulty, and made for themselves a name and fame that are world-wide, this does not disprove the fact that the contrast in culture, enterprise, thrift, and general intelligence between any two communities corresponds with the difference in their educational facilities. Inequality of opportunity does not become a nation which disavows all class dis- tinctions, whose antecedents are democratic, and which professes to be such in principle and practice. II. EDUCATIONAL EQUALITY IS ESSENTIAL TO PROGRESS AND DOMESTIC HARMONY Differences such as I have endeavored to portray are too important to be overlooked. They mean the radical division of a free people along the lines of educational and intellectual inequality. This division is not fanciful. It exists today, to an unfortunate and ofttimes embarrassing extent, in every commonwealth of this republic. It shows itself in the 310 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chattanooga adjustment of matters purely local, in the administration of the affairs of the county, the state, and the nation. We see progression on the one hand, and jealousy and obstruction on the other. Elements so diverse in thought, feeling, and motive refuse to harmonize and co-operate, and important public interests are thus sacrificed. Some of this diversity of opinion and purpose is frequently attributed to conflicting personal or sectional interests ; but deeper rooted and more potent for right influence, because more closely allied to the higher and nobler self, are the character and the measure of development of the sovereign voter or legislator him- self. If these shall come up to the full measure of his responsibilities, he simply seeks to learn wherein lies the greatest and most enduring good to the body politic, and, intent upon securing this, he reaches a right con- clusion as to the measures he should support. Not only in our own, but from all other civilized countries we hear murmurings "of discontent, of the need of greater harmony and a closer identity of interest between capital and labor, of a widening breach between the rich and the poor. Educational inequality will tend to increase and intensify this unfortunate antagonism, and the most certain and effective means of counteracting it is to place all communities and classes, in the matter of public education, upon an even footing. III. A MORE LIBERAL PUBLIC EDUCATION IS IN THE INTEREST OF ECONOMY In the cities and towns where a more liberal educational policy has long prevailed it is found that the tax rate is lowest. The common council of the capital of my Own state recently voted to erect a high- school building at a cost of g 150,000. A committee was appointed to visit other cities and towns for the purpose of learning the most modern and desirable plans of construction, and among the things incidentally learned is the fact that an adequate provision for public education is not only in the interest of morality, enterprise, and social advancement, but is also a measure of economy. A higher standard of intelligence tends to a larger average of personal and family possession. This means a greater total aggregate of wealth ; and the larger the assessable value of any district or municipality, the lower the tax rate required to secure a definite sum. Whatever promotes prosperity lessens the demands of charity and the cost of maintaining government. It is far wiser and more humane to give $5 to the cause of education than to pay twice this amount for the support of almshouses, penitentiaries, and courts of justice. The one city of my acquaintance most niggardly in the support of its schools is most heavily burdened with the care of its poor and the control of its criminal element. This is, however, not offered as the supreme motive for an adequate support of a civilizing and elevating force whose highest, most certain, and most enduring rewards are i Superintendence] T//£ TOWNSHIP HIGH SCHOOL 31 ' capacity for higher enjoyment, for larger service, for right living, and which are inherent, and neither incidental nor accidental. We hear much of the claims of poverty upon wealth. Many believe that no one has a moral right to hoard millions within hearing of the cry of distress, of the pleadings of starving children. The broadest, truest, and most effective charity is the humane foresight which so trains the head, the hand, and the heart as to give the masses right views of life, makes them valued and valuable members of our social fabric; which causes them to be self-reliant and self-helpful, and makes them good citi- zens. This is the right conception of public education, is its high pur- pose, and is what it should aim to accomplish. This is the debt that wealth owes the commonwealth which gives it protection and which has made its accumulation possible. It is its first and highest obligation, which, if higher motives shall not prevail, it yet should cheerfully meet for its own sake. IV. BETTER EDUCATIONAL ADVANTAGES ARE REQUIRED TO MAKE OUR RURAL POPULATION MORE CONTENTED AND ITS ENVIRONMENTS MORE ATTRACTIVE The products of the soil not only furnish our entire support, but con- stitute the basis of our national prosperity. Their cultivation, manu- facture, and distribution provide employment for more than three-fourths of our population. Foresight, judgment, and personal culture are quite as much in place on the farm as in other pursuits, and intelligent, well- directed labor will always be the most remunerative. Thru the schools and the influence of our teachers, both in and out of school, we should endeavor to correct the popular impression that only the most rudi- mentary education is required for agricultural pursuits, that learning unfits our youth to engage in them, and that it is quite unnecessary for them to spend much time in school, unless they purpose fitting themselves for one of the so-called learned professions or wish to engage in some employment which they regard as njore congenial and genteel. Views thus erroneous are adverse to progress and culture in the rural com- munity, cause its youth to appear at a humiliating disadvantage when brought into contact with those who are urban-bred, early engender a dislike for country life and a desire to get away from it. Because of this feeling the attendance of many rural schools is greatly diminished, others are attended only by the children of the farmer's tenants, and some are closed ; while the school boards of our cities and towns are finding it more and more difficult to provide adequate accommodations. Our rural interests are so vitally important that it behooves us to fur- nish educational advantages that will promote their highest development and materially add to the attractions and advantages of rural life. Instruction is needed that will instill a love of nature, introduce more 312 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chattanooga intelligence and culture into the rural home; that will beautify it and its surroundings, and thus bring city and urban life into closer touch. V. THEY ARE DEMANDED BY THE TIMES From the close of the great Civil War to the present time our popula- tion has nearly doubled, and our great industrial interests have so multi- plied and grown in magnitude, have become so diversified and complex, that there is today, not alone a demand for experience and skill, but for intelligent, self-directing labor. This is not peculiar to any single indus- try, but is a palpable want that is everywhere met, from the carpenter shop to the counting-house. A contractor recently said: "What a blessing it would be could I find workmen competent to execute the plans placed before them without constant oversight and direction. If supervision is withdrawn, even for a short time, then work wrongly done has to be torn down, and time, labor, and money are lost." A higher order of intelli- gence is needed on the farm. Farming along the old lines has in many localities ceased to be remunerative. A knowledge of plant life, of the soil and its elements, is essential- to the adaptation of means to ends. Tho the school may fail to impart this special line of knowledge, it should at the least develop an intelligence that will make it easily acquired. These higher demands are not peculiar to our industries, but include the so-called professions as well. Pupils who have acquired but the sim- plest rudiments of an education are no longer welcome to our leading divinity, medical, law, and dental schools. Many of our state boards of medical and dental examiners decline to examine applicants for license who cannot present a diploma from a college or an accredited high school as evidence of preparation to enter upon the professional course of study required. The same, or an equivalent, demand will ere long be made upon all who seek admission to our normal schools and teachers' training classes. VI. ESSENTIAL TO A SAFE STANDARD OF CITIZENSHIP Our so-called elementary or common schools do not prepare the great majority of our youth for the duties of citizenship. Any pupil of aver- age ability can, under a good school system, easily complete the usual common-school studies by the time he reaches thirteen or fourteen years of age. He is then graduated, not educated, and sent adrift into the world unprepared for its experiences, unfitted for its duties, unfortified against its temptations, and this at the most receptive period of his life — just when best prepared to learn. There is not a teacher of extended experience who has not" seen many pupils of this age, who have been given further school advantages, make more substantial progress in a single year than during any previous three years of their school life. Without the secondary or high school, the pupil is deprived of the instruc- k Superintendence! THE TOWNSHIP HIGH SCHOOL I'il tion to which all his past life has led up and prepared him to receive ; deprived of the instruction needed to enlarge his mental horizon, that is required to carry his thoughts beyond the environments of home and community to the interests of the state and nation ; denied the advantages that would introduce him to a higher manhood, and which would count for so much in his future career as a social and civic factor. Not until this stage of development is reached is the teacher, however skillful, able to lead the pupil to discern and acquire a taste for what is best in litera- ture, permanently to interest him in the affairs of state, and successfully instruct him in the duties of citizenship which it is his birthright ere long to assume. ^ We as educators cannot, and no fair-minded citizen should, close his eyes to the fact that the education which our elementary schools now provide is not broad enough and strong enough for a sov- ereign people. VII. WILL PROMOTE ENTERPRISE AND PUBLIC SECURITY Go where you will, you will find that the village, town, or city- that stands pre-eminent in intelligence holds pre-eminence of rank and is regarded as an example for emulation. You will also find there the greatest business enterprise, the best churches, schools, libraries, and homes, and also the greatest security to person and property. It has been grandly said : " Intelligence is the life of liberty." It is its soul aind safeguard. In the intelligence of its people lies the safety of the state. Enlightenment is far more efficacious in promoting the security of a peo- ple than military safeguards. Could the large amounts expended by the several states for such safeguards and the maintenance of their expensive accompaniments be diverted to the broadening, strengthening, and upbuilding of their public-school systems, this republic would be without a peer in educational facilities, and within its confines disorder and rumors of disorder would soon be gloomy specters of the past. Many, with much regret, have noted that, according to our last census, there were in the United States in 1890 6,324,702 persons above ten years of age who could neither read nor write. It is a matter for still greater regret that we have far more than this number who, in point of intelligence, are hardly one whit the superior of these illiterates, and who have good reason to be far less innocent. Tho they can call words, they either read not at all or read that which is trifling or corrupting. Their thoughts revolve in the same narrow circle, and their feet tread in the same aimless, unaspiring, monotonous round of life. They took the initial steps to an education, but were not long allured in the way. Mainly in this class have the agitators, trouble- mongers, and demagogs found their following and the corrupt politician his purchasable votes. Not comprehending the high privileges conferred, and the great responsibili- ties entailed, by the elective franchise, it is only charitable to assume that 314 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chattanooga many who thus sell their birthright do not fully realize the seriousness and the enormity of the offense. This is the class of citizens that would be indefinitely multiplied were the advocates of the "three-R" school curri- culum able to dominate and direct our educational policy. In this age of enlightenment and progress, it seems almost incredible that any citi- zen of any state should insist that our public schools should be tied down to imparting the merest rudiments of an education. No state can expect a higher order of fealty and service than it qualifies its citizens to render. The dangers which threaten us originate among the ignorant. Their blind acceptance of the political and industrial heresies so constantly promulgated, and consequent tendency toward socialism and anarchy, can be counteracted and restrained only by the uplifting influence of educa- tion. As a nation we are vitally interested in the masses. The children of the plain people constitute the great majority. They will furnish our future voters, legislators, and rulers, and will, just as we shall elect, become either a scourge to threaten and plague us, or a power to dignify and bless. VIII. ESPECIALLY NEEDED FOR THE IMPROVEMENT OF RURAL SCHOOLS While it must be admitted that important concessions have been made in many states to the rural population, as regards the levying of school taxes and the apportionment of school funds, it is equally true that the conditions have been such that the rural schools have been operated at a great disadvantage. Tho no material with greater capabilities can be found, such schools have also in the matter of elementary education failed to keep in line with those of our cities and larger towns. The spirit of our institutions and the vital principle of our government demand equality under the law. The indispensable concomitant of equality under the law is equality of opportunity, and this is the central idea of popular education. Every citizen whose intelligence and manhood serve to dignify the title, while acutely alive to local interests, is at the same time capable of regarding the matter of public education from a high and unselfish stand- point. Our several states support and control systems of public schools in which over 90 per cent, of our youth receive their only equipment for life. Therefore the state is the true educational unit, and to it must we look for a remedy for existing inequalities. Such remedy is the town- ship high school. It will give the rural schools the supervision they have so long needed. It is their only hope of deliverance from the rut into which they have fallen. Much time and money, and a large measure of the golden opportunities of school days, have been lost to the youth of our rural communities because their schools have been without professional supervision. Such a high school would add to their character and efficiency, because they would be compelled to adapt themselves to Superintendence] THE TOWNSHIP HIGH SCHOOL 3 ' 5 its requirements. It would stimulate purpose in their pupils by holding up to them a measure of attainment, and induce them to remain in school that they might graduate at the end of the course. It would be a spur to their ambition by placing before them a goal to reach. With the child the standard of attainment is always the one in sight. Such high schools would relieve our ungraded and some of the so-called graded schools of pupils who have outgrown the opportunities they have to offer. Every rural school with whose conditions I am familiar has several such pupils. They are so far in advance of the others that separate classi- fication is necessary, and the attention they receive consumes an undue proportion of the teacher's time and energy. Tho the instruction given them is in some cases of doubtful benefit, there is no question as to its detriment to the lower grades. The law very graciously extends to these advanced pupils the privilege of attending school, but fails to pro- vide educational advantages adapted to their needs. It would do better were it to close the doors of our elementary schools against them and welcome them to the township high school, which, together with the kindergarten, is required to round out and complete a public-school system. IX. WOULD PROVIDE A LARGER RANGE OF SELECTION FOR SERVICE If mental endowment were confined to fortune's favored few, to those who have at their command educational advantages and all other good things which wealth will procure, then the desirability of. a higher stand- ard of popular education would not be so apparent. But the sturdy children of the day-laborer sometimes furnish far better material for development than the offspring of his wealthy neighbor. Not all the children of the poor were ordained to be " hewers of wood and drawers of water." There is no broad-minded democratic teacher who fully realizes his equal measure of obligation to each pupil, and who sincerely desires for each all the good the world has to offer, but has many limes earnestly wished that this or that bright child might have educational advantages beyond its parents' means, and be delivered from its hard and ofttimes debasing environments. How often has he regretted that so much of good seems placed beyond its reach, and thought how much more life could be made to mean to it than is ever likely to become a reality! And not alone, how much of light, and joy, and good, exists in vain so far as such child is concerned, but how much is lost to the com- munity and the state ! The state has need of all the gifts that can be brought into- its service, and, thru its failure to develop these gifts, to marshal all its available forces, falls far short of securing the high order and full measure of service that is its privilege. 3i6 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION | Chattanooga X. AS A MATTER OF NATIONAI, I'RIDE When history and all human experience prove to us that a state or a nation becomes strong, safe, and prosperous in the ratio that it advances in intelligence, it would seem that further reasons for promoting such intelligence need not be adduced. But there are some subjects of abid- ing interest not easily divorced from sentiment. In the world's onward march we as educators cannot endure to see our country fall behind. Her reputation is so dear to us, and so closely allied to our own, that we cannot avoid anxiety for that which makes or mars it; cannot avoid feeling deeply concerned for the interest with which we are connected, which we profess to serve, and which it is our high prerogative to advance. It would be a reproach to us should the United States fail to keep in line with the most progressive of the nations. DISCUSSION J. Q. Emery, state superintendent of public instruction, Madison, Wis. — In what I have to say on the topic under discussion I keep in mind the intimation of the president of the department, when inviting me to take part, that the experience of Wisconsin would be the contribution expected from me. In 1874 the then state superintendent of Wisconsin, in his annual report upon the conditions and needs of the schools in the state, strongly urged the adoption of a system of township high schools, and in his report clearly, forcibly, and eloquently outlined his ideas of what the character of these schools should be. He showed that his purpose in advocating this measure was not to provide a "few long ladders by which to climb to the solitary peak whence all the wisdom of the earth is under view, but rather many short ^nd convenient and inexpensive ones by which to climb to the broad and fair and whole- some table-land of secondary culture." He did not urge the schools that he would have established as preparatory schools, in the sense primarily of fitting pupils for higher edu- cation, but rather as supplementary schools, which should afford facilities for instruction in the secondary branches better and more systematic than could be obtained in the district schools, which were then largely overcrowded. * * * * * . * * Following his recommendations, that were strong, urgent, and enthusiastic, the legis- lature enacted a law which authorized the formation of high schools by towns, cities, villages, or school districts. They were to be aided in their maintenance by a direct appropriation of ^$25,000 from the state, giving to each not to exceed one- half the amount paid for instruction, and not to exceed, in any case, J5500 in any one year. To secure state aid, these schools were to be maintained at least thirteen weeks each year. * * If any state has made a strong and persistent effort to promote a township system of high schools, that is true of Wisconsin. The leading teachers and educators everywhere were heartily in sympathy with the movement ; a system of normal schools had been established, and they, too, were in sympathy with it ; and it has received the cordial sup- port of the state department all these years. The clause in the original law which authorized villages, cities, and districts to organize these high schools was soon discovered to be a feature that could be used to their own great advantage. Very quickly free high schools began to be organized in cities SiiperintendenceJ THE TOWNSHIP HIGH SCHOOL 31? and in village districts, in connection with the graded schools already existing. In many places where graded schools were not sufficiently organized, efforts were made to bring them into conformity with required conditions, that they might also have a high-school department under the state system. These schools continued to increase. Their value as a part of the school work of these places was recognized, and they became very popular. After some years a state superintendent called the attention of the legislature to the fact that cities and villages had so largely utilized the proffer made by the state for aid in supporting high schools that they had absorbed all the appropriation without being able to receive one-half of the amount paid for instruction, as originally provided, even with the low minimum of S500. He recommended that* the state appropriate an addi- tional $25,000, to be used exclusively for the maintenance of high schools in towns where no graded schools existed, thus making a specific and direct appropriation for the encour- agement of township high schools. This law was enacted by the legislature, and has ever since been on the statute book. Every state superintendent has urged towns to take advantage of the law. * **»**•**•• In the course of legislation several features have been added to the original law. Provision has been made that in the regulations for the organization of these schools not less than twenty-five pupils must be found resident of the high-school district organizing the school, who can pass a satisfactory examination in the common-school branches. When the high school is authorized and established, it must be taught by principals who are university, college, or normal-school graduates, or who hold state certificates. A course of study approved by the state superintendent must be administered. Another of these additions in recent years is that, when the second $25,000 appropriated for schools in towns where no graded schools exist is not called for by that class of schools, it is per- mitted to divide the fund among the high schools of the other class. These schools have also been placed under the direct supervision of the state super- intendent, and, as assistant to the state superintendent, a state inspector of high schools has been provided, who is paid a generous salary, and who spends his time in inspecting the schools, advising the teachers, inspiring the communities with a good sentiment toward high schools, and in enforcing the laws and regulations relative to the qualifica- tions of ?issistants and principals. The qualifications of each principal and of each assist- ant must be approved by the state superintendent. ••**•* Notwithstanding the purpose of the original law, all the efforts of the leading edu- cators and teachers' associations of the state, of the state department of education, and the direct aid proffered by the state, the people of Wisconsin have not made the township the unit for organizing high schools. . They have readily seen the value and acknowledged the worth of high schools, and have established and maintained them liberally ; but they have been organized in connection with the district unit rather than the township unit. So they have beeh organized very largely, almost universally, in connection with our graded-school system. We have three schools in the state that are maintained by towns in which no graded schools exist. No more than four such schools have ever existed at any one time. Different schools of this class have, from time to time, changed their basis of organization from the township to the district unit. While we must admit that the original and continued effort to establish and main- tain township high schools has not resulted as anticipated, and that their advantages, in the indirect way, which were hoped to be produced upon the rural schools, have net been secured, still Wisconsin has developed a free high-school system of which she is proud. »•»♦»»♦*♦*«»** * The Wisconsin free high schools, as now organized and administered, are a great power in the state educational system. They furnish the requisite academic preparation for the admission of their graduates to the state university, the state normal schools, and the college. They are the chief reliance for preparing the great body of teachers ren fad to a valuable custom. Experience, too short, perhaps, to give much value U) the statistics gathered from the records of the schools in our city, has led me to believe that 388 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chattanooga oiled floors have had a perceptible influence in decreasing the amount of absence because of sickness among both teachers and pupils. It seems to me, in view of all the health boards are doing in our cities, that the most important work for school officials is to see to it that abundance of sunlight, properly admitted, be allowed to do its work in cleansing the rooms and in destroying the germs of disease ; that rapid change of the air in the room may carry away the impurities resulting from this destructive work of the sun ; and, as so many of the contagious diseases originate in conditions of filth, that most stringent regulations, based on the principle that " cleanliness is next to godliness," be enforced in the admission of pupils to the schools. B. C. Gregory, superintendent of schools, Trenton, N. J. — It occurred to me, immediately after my invitation to discuss the paper on contagious diseases, that there was really little to add to the main presentation, and certainly nothing to which exception could be taken. There is a collateral phase of the subject, however, on which statistics in my possession throw a little light, which may deserve a passing notice and engage a feeble interest. I do not take issue in the slightest degree with the demand for greater sanitary precautions against the spread of disease. And I concur with especial heartiness in the increasing demand for medical inspection. Nevertheless, a plea may be made in favor of present conditions, not to prove that they are good enough, but to show that they are not so bad as supposed. If any apology were needed for essaying such. a purpose, it might be found in this possibility : that the constant raising of the danger cry may alarm the public to such an extent as to lead to the withdrawal of children from schools. It is necessary, of course, to know how bad affairs are, but it can serve no good purpose to view them as worse than they are. For a number of years I have collated the absence of teachers and pupils from sick- ness, and have obtained some statistics of death. Some data which would have been valuable in this discussion I have been unable to put in shape for want of time. I submit, however, certain figures which seem interesting, and offer a few— perhaps crude — inferences. In the year 1895-96 we had in the city of Trenton a very serious epidemic of diph- theria and measles. On a total enrollment of 8,083 we had thirty deaths, fourteen of which were from diphtheria, four from measles, and two from typhoid fever. Last year, and also during the year 1894-95, we were free from epidemics. I am thus able to compare an epidemic year with the preceding and the following years. The numbers of days' absence of pupils from sickness during the three years under consideration were, respectively, 60,009, 92,437, and 58,145. That is to say, the absence during the sickly year was 154 per cent, of the absence of the year preceding, and 160 per cent, of that of the year following. This means an enormous increase of absence, and a great waste of school expenditure. Stating the facts otherwise : In the epidemic year 463 pupils, or over nine classes, were absent the entire year. During each of the two healthy years there were six classes of pupils absent the whole year. There is a rhythm in the absence of pupils from sickness. January has always been high-water mark, except last year, when the maximum absence occurred in February. The regularity of this rule is rather interesting. If we compare September with January during the three years under consideration, the effect of the epidemic becomes very apparent. To make the comparison we must reduce the totals of absence in each month to a uniform basis of twenty days. Having done this, we find that during the epidemic year the absence in January was 670 per cent, that of September, against 300 and 425 per cent, in the two other years. Comparing the three Januaries, I find the absence that month during the epidemic year to have been 243 per cent, of that during the same month of the preceding year and 228 per cent, of the following year. S„,,rrin.enclen..| CONTAGIOUS DISEASES IN SCHOOL 389 I have gone with perhaps tedious detail into this statistical inquiry, because I want to compare the figures with some others of a different character. The inferences which seem to lie on the surface of the foregoing data are that contagious diseases impair the health of the school children to an alarming extent, and that the schools communicate contagion with fearful rapidity. These are the inferences usually made, and in my opinion they are utterly at variance with the truth. For the statistics show that the absence of teachers during the epidemic year was also very great, and that it bore the same relation to the previous year and the following year as was the case with the children ; in some cases the state of things was worse. But no teacher died of the contagious disease, and, to my knowledge, not a teacher was sick from diphtheria. In fact, as you well know, that disease does not often affect adults. Now, if the same abnormal degree of absence is perceptible in the epidemic year in the case both of pupils and teachers^ it is not logical to assign a reason that does not account equally for both, and the contagion theory meets only one class of cases. The following, briefly, are the facts : Absence of teachers from sickness during the epi- demic year, 194 per cent, and 172 per cent, of the other two years respectively. The figures in the case of pupils were 154 and 160. Relation of month of highest sickness record to September, 1,811 per cent, in the epidemic year, against 336 and 304 in the two other years. Figures in the case of pupils, 670, 300, and 425. Relation of month of greatest absence in epidemic year to same in other years, 184 and 222. Corresponding figures in the case of pupils, 243 and 228. If the absence of the pupils had been heavy and that of the teachers light, I should have been sure that the contagion had been spread in the schoolrooms, but the teachers' absence was also heavy, and this absence was not due to contagious disease. What cause can be assigned for the abnormal absence of both classes during this year ? One more consideration throws a little light on the subject. I have called attention to the rhythm of absence among the pupils. The rhythm is as evident in the rebound of the pupils' health after January as in the retrogression before January. They recover as quickly as they lose ground, and this is as true in contagious years as in healthy years. The absence in April and May corresponds very closely to that in October and November. That is to say, the closing months of the year are about as healthy as the beginning months ; not infrequently they are a little better. I may say, by way of parenthesis, that this fact gives little ground for the supposed exhaustion that pupils suffer during the year. When you turn to the record of teachers' absences, the figures tell a different story. It is less easy to discover a rhythm in this absence. There is a maximum of absence, how- ever. It occurs, on the average, in March. In 1894-95 it was in April, in 1895-96 in March, in 1896-97 in February. Furthermore, there is little or no rebound. I could give figures, but they would weary you. Suffice it to say that in the epidemic year the absence of teachers in April and May was equal to the total absence in October, November, December, and June. The teachers do not recover their health. There are some serious deductions to be made from the data relating to teachers' absences, but they would not be germane to the present discussion. The quick rebound in the health of the pupils, contrasted with the failure of teachers to recover, indicates that the cause of absence of both classes should be sought, to a considerable extent, outside of school sanitation. The pupils' record follows the weather, follows the season's changes, and must be due to colds and other complaints consequent on exposure, changes of temperature, insufficient clothing and food, wet feet, and unsani- tary homes. The teachers suffer to some extent, but less, from these causes, and also from the steady lowering of vitality that goes on thru the school year; but the data in no way indicate that the school building is a serious factor. It does not follow, of course, that the adoption of additional sanitary precautions would not reduce the sickness record. Of course it would, just as improvement in home sanitation, better clothing, etc., would reduce the record. My contention is that the school is not responsible for the 390 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chattanooga great sins laid to its charge. My opinion is that for many of the children the school is the healthiest place they find during the day. The absence during the contagion year was very great, but the curve of absence follows the curves of absence of other years. It rises higher, however, from the base line. To account for this we have, in my judgment, to consider only three causes : (l) our sanitary precautions keep out a great many children who live in infected houses, and are not sick at all; (2) parents in epidemic years hasten to withdraw their children on the occurrence of slight colds or other disturbances, which ordinarily would receive scanty consideration ; (3) the scare more than anything else depopulates our schools'. It is against that scare, and not against proper precautions, that this paper is aimed. I sincerely believe that our modern schools have very little to do with spreading con- tagion. We ought not to destroy our school attendance by unnecessary alarms. We divert the attention of the public from other possible channels for conveying contagion, which should be equally considered if the school is to receive so much inspection. I refer to Sunday schools and children's parties, in which sanitation is never thought of. During the epidemic in Trenton the health board concentrated its attention on the schools, but never in a single instance considered the Sunday schools. Children came freely from infected houses to Sunday school, and parents who kept their children from school for fear of diphtheria sent their children to these same Sunday schools to sit by these same children. I had desired to indicate the bearing of the data on systems of artificial ventilation and dry closets, but time does not permit. THE INFLUENCE OF MUSIC AND MUSIC STUDY UPON CHARACTER BY PROFESSOR A. J. GANTVOORT, COLLEGE OF MUSIC, CINCINNATI, O. Every great reform in education has been inaugurated by the recog- nition of some new ideal, which had been more or less clearly conceived. A new curriculum in which some studies received more and others less attention, in accordance with the importance of their supposed bear- ing upon the attainment of the desired ideal, has always been the natural consequence. Confucius, Plato, Aristotle, Loyola, Rousseau, Kant, Hegel, Herbart, and many others, including the members of our own now famous Com- mittees of Ten, Twelve, and Fifteen, all have had (and the living ones of course still have) some ideal which they have deemed the most desirable state for man to attain. All these ideals have had one common tenet — the establishment of the true relationship which should exist between man and the universe. They have all differed only in their conception of that relationship. This relationship between man and the universe around him depends upon the place which he himself occupies in the moral order of things, and is shown by his habitual, everyday conduct toward all things animate and Superintendence] MUSIC AND MUSIC STUDY 391 inanimate. This conduct, being the expression of the estimate which he places upon himself and all things in the moral or divine order of economy, is the expression of what we term his character, the expression of what man is at heart. We judge a man's character by his conduct, but we also judge what a man's conduct will be under given circum- stances by our estimate of his character. That character is always growing is shown by the gradual alteration in the conduct of children during the process of genuine soul and heart education. Childhood is the most favorable time for character formation, because at that time the character consists only of a number of tenden- cies or emotions. These emotions are the springs which move the child to actions. These actions, oft-repeated, form habits. The habits of action acquired during childhood grow into everyday conduct, and this conduct results finally in character for the man that is to be. The direction which this growth of character will take is dependent upon the indulgence on one side, and the restraint on the other side, which the emotions receive in this formative state. The rapidity of the growth will depend upon the environment, that is, the sunshine of approval, the shadows of disapproval, and the food which the emotions receive. The emotions which form the character of the child may be divided into two large classes, according to their natural order of devel- opment. The first of these classes consists of the egoistic emotions, in which the importance of self predominates ; the second, the altruistic emotions, in which the soul strives to burst the imprisoning bars of self- exaltation, m order that it may expand and be free. The egoistic emotions — fear, hatred, sullenness, cruelty, despair, antipathy, stubbornness, etc. — are the opposites, the enemies, of the altru- istic emotions — courage, love, cheerfulness, kindness, hope, sympathy, docility, etc. The archenemy of soul expansion, above all these, is fear. When fear is driven out, the soul expands into courage, which is a sense of the soul's triumph over its escape from the prison of self, in which it had lain captive. What is fear but the preponderance of self ? What is cour- age but forgetfulness of self ? What is anger or. violent temper but the feeling that the self has not been accorded the place which it feels it deserves ? What are sullenness, stubbornness, despair, antipathy, and all the egoistic emotions, but assertions of the self ? Can music dispel these, can it cast them out, and thus help the soul in escaping from the narrow prison of self ? Can music lift the soul out of and above the confines and limitations of self, into a realm of soul expansion and soul activity, where it will have the benefit of the sunshine and air and room necessary to its fullest growth ? If so, surely it deserves a place on the annual programs of this and every other body of educators. If so, surely it 392 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chattanooga deserves a permanent and more prominent place in the school cur- riculum. If, then, I can show you that music produces such a soul expansion that the base emotions are driven out and supplanted by beautiful, noble emotions, may I not hope that it will receive hereafter greater attention from this association as a body and from its members individually ? May I not hope that the future committees of ten or twelve or fif- teen will give much more attention to the subject of music ? There is hardly one in this audience who will deny to music the sim- ple power of recreation. But what is true recreation ? Is it not the living of the soul during a short period in a more ideal world, where it is freed from all the material cloggings and hindrances and debasing causes which affect it in everyday life ? Anyone who has ever observed the effect of a song, the effect of music, on a child who is temporarily governed by one of those egoistic emotions, must have noticed that when the child took part in the song, or even listened to it actively, those baser feelings, those assertions of the ego, were driven out, and that at the close of the song he had lost his hatred, his sullenness, or whatever egoistic emotion was dominant in him before, and that in its place the opposite emotion had taken possession. He had been lifted out of himself, his soul had temporarily lived in an atmosphere whose air and sunshine were the result of nobler, better emotions ; and in breathing that air, in being gladdened and warmed by that sunshine, he had been recreated. To restrain these egoistic emotions by preventing their outbreaks because of fear of punishment is not sufficient ; to cast them out is not sufficient. They must be supplanted by nobler, better emotions ; for do we not remember that, when a devil was cast out from a certain man, he was straightway possessed by seven other devils ? The restraints placed upon emotions do not destroy the emotions themselves, but only tem- porarily cover up their manifestations. The emotions are still there. The soul itself must act and throw out the baser emotions, and by its own expansion fill the void just created with a nobler emotion. The archenemy of soul activity is fear. If music can dissipate fear, it is a strong agent for soul activity. When fear is driven out, the soul expands in courage, whrch is a sense of the soul's triumph that the prison bars of self which had inclosed it had been burst asunder and the soul had become free. Who has not noticed the boy who, when crossing a dark street or passing a cemetery at night, whistled with all his might ? Why does he do this ? Who has not noticed the girl who, when she was compelled to go down the dark stairs or into a dark room, quieted her fears by singing, humming, and sometimes even whistling some melody ? Why this almost, if not wholly, unconscious musical utterance ? Because he or she was alone and felt the need of company, of society, to drive back the assertion, the preponderance of self. They had somehow or Superintendence) MUSIC AND MUSIC STUDY 393 Other learned, consciously or unconsciously, that musical sound would repress that self assertion, would open the prison bars which self had placed around the soul, and would give the feeling of company, the whistle or the voice being company. Who has not noticed or read of times of panic in theater or public hall, when some dire accident was threatening, when people were becoming blind with fear, when self and the preservation of that self ruled, when men were likely to trample over women and children, how a strain of music has quieted their fears, or at least helped them in self-restraint, so that order was restored and a panic avoided ? We can all recall such occurrences. Is it not strange that at such times the ear is not closed, but is ready to receive definite impres- sions ? Who does not remember the occasion of the Samoan disaster, when the captain of one of the ill-fated vessels caused his band to play dur- ing the storm, and thus quieted in a measure the fears of passengers and crew ? What is the purpose of the band in time of war ? Who does not remember occasions in history where the drummer boy or the fifer rallied the panic-stricken soldiers into a re-formation of the ranks, which oft- times resulted in a victory ? The word of command at such time was absolutely useless, but the music went straight to the soul and cast out fear. Who does not remember the army of Gustavus Adolphus, in the war for religious liberty ? How the soldiers always knelt upon the bat- tlefield for prayer, and then, starting into the conflict, yea, in the very heat of it, sang that glorious battle-hymn of the Reformation, " Ein' feste Burg ist unser Gott " ? Who does not remember the stories of the martyrs who died at the stake, and how in song they lost all sense of fear and were endowed with a courage which was almost divine ? The song with them led to a soul expansion such as could not be equaled by any- thing except religious faith. Numerous other cases might be adduced to show that music can supplant all the egoistic emotions, but in prov- ing that it can overcome the most potent of them, fear, it seems hardly necessary to give instances beyond those already given. Sound is the social agent, and musical sound the soul agent par excellence. Pain or sorrow or pleasure, expressed in music, moves us far more than the same emotions expressed in gestures or by the face. Somehow or other we recognize by the tone of voice the genuineness of the emotion far better than by words or by any other expression than that of sound. It is especially so with instrumental music, which does not contain words, but which has absorbed very largely the emotional, the expressive, elements of language. Go and hear the finale of Beetho- ven's " Eroica Symphony," and listen to the torrent of tumultuous joy which it expresses. Listen, also, to the immortal funeral march from the same symphony, and you will hear such an expression of grief, and 394 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chattanooga Christian grief at that, as will move any soul into sympathy with that grief. Music addresses itself directly to the emotions in a language under- stood only by the emotions. The modern development of music is a response to the need of humanity for an expression of these emotions, those soul feelings, which cannot find utterance in words, and for a medium which will calm those emotions or exalt them far beyond the power of words. Man was endowed with the power to sing, and surely that power was given him so that the squI might expand and lift itself far beyond the confines of the natural world which surrounds it. Holy Writ contains many examples of how music exalts the soul and lifts it above all earthly surroundings into a purer, more ethereal atmos- phere. I will cite but one case: In 2 Kings, chap. 3, we read the account of Elisha's being asked to prophesy. He declines at first, but, when finally prevailed upon, notice what he asks: "Bring me a minstrel, a singer." And the fact is related that during the singing of the minstrel the spirit of God came upon him, so that he was enabled to prophesy. Does that mean nothing to you ? Is not that an evidence of God's use of the power of music — to prepare man for the reception of whatsoever is divine, and also of the preparation given by music for the performance of the most supreme acts? Is it not an evidence that thru music's power Elisha was transported far above his surroundings, nearer to heaven and to God ? And if it is, dare you as educators in a Christian land, whose education is based upon the precepts of Holy Writ, neglect or omit it in your systems of education, and give the very last and least consideration to an art which bears the very stamp of God's approval ? Can you expect to see the children in your charge attain to the ideal which you have, when you neglect or allow to be abused such a power for soul expansion as the art of music? Music is the most popular of all arts. It can reach and move the unified impersonal soul of a crowd, and move it to noble deeds, and calm even the violent emotions of fear in a crowd. It cannot move to ignoble deeds. Music cannot express ignoble emotions. It can only express those which mankind should treasure. The love of labor, the reverence for duty and analogous emotions, the love of country, the love of nature — all these can be expressed in song. We, therefore, have songs of labor, of plowing, of spin-ning, of sowing and reaping. Those are emotions which should receive culture, which mankind needs. Songs of that kind exalt labor, exalt duty, exalt patriotism. That is one of the powers which music possesses — that power of exaltation of even the everyday common things of life, which in themselves contain the seeds of desirable emotions. IgnQble emotions cannot be expressed in songs. Who ever heard of a song about making money? Who ever heard of a song in praise of foreclosing mortgages, a song praising theft, or robbery, Superintendence] MUSIC AND MUSIC STUDY 395 or cruelty? Those emotions cannot be expressed in song. The joy of making money is a joy which is the result of an egoistic emotion, which glorifies self alone ; and so it is with the others. It is the idealizing power of music, the opportunity for soul expansion thru the right kind of emotions, that makes music possess such a beneficent influence upon character formation. Take, for example, the national songs of different countries. Take even our own national song, "America." You may recite it, you may hear it recited, and it will have some influence upon you ; but if you hear it sung, every word, every thought becomes intensified, and moves you to action ; but if you sing it yourself, when your owti soul expresses those thoughts, then you begin to realize the full meaning of the words: "My country, 'tis of thee; Sweet land of liberty. Of thee I sing." So much, then, for the effects of music upon the growth of character. Now, as to the influence of music study. Music study, when rightly conducted in the schools, should have a very strong and favorable influ- ence upon the formation of the right kind of character, but it can only do so when it is based upon the thought that music should enrich the capacity for enjoyment, for soul expansion, which man naturally pos- sesses. It can only do so when the singing of beautiful songs, and the study of the contents of such songs, are the end and aim of music study. But alas, such is not the case in very many instances. The aim of many of those in charge of the musical instruction of the children seems to be the acquirement of a knowledge and understanding of all the different signs in music, rather than the contents of music itself. A great deal of the music instruction tends to the principle of public exhibition of how much the children know about the signs and characters of music, and their interpretation, instead of the enjoyment and the consequent feeling of soul expansion, which is the result of musical instruction if it be well con- ducted. Many of these instructors seem to be possessed by a haunting fear that, unless the children learn all the characters in which music is expressed, in the very first years of school life, they have failed in their duty. But oh, the mistake of all this ! The earliest instruction should awaken a love for music. It should make the child susceptible to the soul expansion which will be so much to him in after-life. He should not be burdened with the numerous signs. These should come slowly, as the desire for knowledge, which comes of a love of the art, is awak- ened. The music study, which in the earliest years of school life forces upon the child many of the dry husks of music instead of its soul, cannot result in anything like the soul expansion which should be the possession of the child after the first two or three years of school life, and I plead, therefore, for a more rational way of musical instruction, which shall give freer play to the noble emotions which finally should make up the charac- ter of the child. 396 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chattanooga When music study, in our schools, becomes based upon the fact that music is one of the greatest, if not the greatest, of all powers for soul expansion in the whole curriculum, because it lifts the child out of himself, because it etherealizes all earthly things, because it makes the noblest emotions more intense, and casts out the baser emotions, which cannot find expression in song — then music and music study will have, a most beneficent influence upon the formation of character. THE EDUCATIONAL VALUE OF THE TRAGIC AS COM- PARED WITH THE COMIC IN LITERATURE AND ART BY DR. W. T. HARRIS, UNITED STATES COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION, ' WASHINGTON, D. C. It passes for a commonplace observation to say that the proper study of mankind is man. From the version of the Delphic oracle, "Know thy- self," down to the sententious maxim in Pope's essay, the dictum has passed with the ready acceptance given to a proverb, or axiom. The poet Tennyson believed that, if we once thoroly knew " the flower in the crannied wall," we should know all that is and all that God is. If this be so, surely to know all that man is will be to know all that nature is. Indeed, man as an immortal being stands on the highest round of the ladder of nature and connects nature with the divine spirit. He, therefore, contains in himself the explanation of the purpose of the chain of beings rising from the senseless clod thru the plant, and animal, as far as the first stage of human history. But this purpose originates in the divine purpose. Hence human nature is a revelation of the will of the Highest, if we take it in the comprehensive sense suggested by Ten- nyson's poem. Doubtless, the knowledge of human nature, once fully reached, will explain the inorganic as well as the organic phases of nature; the external process of causality as well as the internal process of motives and deeds. Then mathematics will be read in the light of psychology; so will geology and botany. At present, however, we lay more stress on the difference between human nature and material nature than upon their identity. Sometimes, too, we restrict the use of our term " human nature " to the aims and aspi- rations, the emotions and convictions, of man, and exclude the common, rational elements of his mind, such as we find treated in logic and psy- chology. In this restricted sense we not only separate the humanities from the nature studies, but we take a special province of the humanities, Superintendence] EDUCATIONAL VALUE OF THE TRAGIC vs. THE COMIC 397 namely literature and art, and consider only its contents as revealing springs of action. In the course of study we place on one side all the studies that belong to mathematics, physics, biology, and astronomy, and we add to these the studies of language and history. We then place on the other side the single branch of study known as literature. We speak of the numer- ous studies in the first group as relating to nature and mind in general, but we contrast all these with literature, and assert that the branch of study set by itself over against that group, namely the gems of poetry and belles-lettres, is the one that does more to give us a knowledge of human nature than all the others combined. Thus, in old age, a man is apt to say of his studies in the elementary school : " What I learned of arithmetic, geography, grammar, and his- tory has been useful to me, but it has not proved to be so thoroly practical as the selections from literature which I read in the school read- ers. For in them I learned to observe and express the feelings and emo- tions of the heart. I learned to trace these mere feelings in their growth into convictions and clear ideas. They became principles of policy, and finally inspired and guided the acts and deeds "of my life. In conning our reading lesson we learned how a blind instinct becomes an emotion, then a well-reasoned thought ; later on a conviction, and then an action, and last of all a habit. We noted all this in the lives of others, and also in ourselves. We came to know human nature in this important respect." No matter how well equipped we might be as mathematicians or scientific experts of any kind, if we lacked the power of seeing this gene- sis of actions out of feelings in our fellow-men and in ourselves, our lives would become a chaos of misdirected endeavor. We never could adjust ourselves to our human environment ; we should take offense where none was intended, and make collisions with our associates. For we should first misunderstand their motives ; next seize on the wrong means of persuasion and conciliation ; finally end in misanthropy. With regard to ourselves, we should be equally powerless to control our passions and desires, not knowing whither they tended nor where they were to be repressed. The narrow life can be lived thru without much knowledge of lit- erature. Intuitive practice in reading the feelings of one's fellows, and in noting their effect on their actions which follow, fit the individual for his narrow sphere. But there is as much difference between the knowl- edge of human nature that rests entirely on individual observation of the people of one's environment and that founded on an acquaintance with the best literature as there is between an Indian doctor's acquaintance with plants and the lore of a skilled botanist. Let us make this plain by inquiring into the essential characteristics of the literary mode of portraying human nature. 398 . NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chattanooga First we will note that there are two currents, or courses, of feeling and action, that of the particular individual and that of the social whole of the community in which he lives. There may be harmony or there may be discord between these ; it depends upon the individual. When at harmony with the social environment, the individual does not reveal the limits of his individuality nor the all-conquering might of the institutions of society. It is only in the collisions between the indi- vidual and the social order in which he exists that the whole of human nature is revealed in both its phases, as individual and as social whole. Thus we have tragedy and comedy as the two educative forms in which human life is served up for us in literature. For the collision of the individual with the social ideal takes one of two forms. Comedy shows us the individual arrayed against some settled way of acting or thinking, some ideal of society, and the discomfiture of his plans thru self-contradiction, but without destruction to the individual himself. The social organism in which man lives is of such a character that it converts his negative deeds into self-refuting or self-annihilating deeds. This occasions amusement to his fellows, when they see that he is not seriously injured by his irrational deed. The comic character has mistaken the limits of himself. He has not noticed how the institutions of the social whole reinfore him and render effective his individual deeds, if they are rational ones. To be rational, a man's deeds must not only tend to his own interest, but to the interest of the family, the civil com- munity, the nation of which he is a part. His smaller self must rein- force his greater self, or else his greater self will reduce his efforts to zero. But this comic side needs further discrimination from the tragic. Tragedy arises from a serious attack on the social whole and the recoil of the deed on the doer, so that he perishes thru the return of his deed. This is not all. There must be the justification of the individ- ual's deed by the adoption of a principle from a social order different from that of the social whole which crushes him. He must act in the name of a greater self, or else his action will not be dignified enough to be called a tragedy. The death of the bandit Karl Moor, in Schiller's Robbers, is a tragedy because it is not mere personal gain, mere selfish interest, that causes the collision, but a revolt caused by a tyrannous social whole whose rulers have done real or imagined injustice. We do not respect the mere thief, or the mere highwayman. But we respect the patriotic remnant who struggle against a usurping social whole, even tho we may feel satisfaction in their defeat by a more reasonable world- order. The Children of the Mist are described by Walter Scott, in the Legend of Montrose and in the Heart of Mid Lothian, as the remnant of a once powerful people among the western highlands of Scot- land, never tamed by their many defeats at the hand of the encroaching Anglo-Saxons who had obtained the rich and fertile lowlands. They Superintendence] EDUCATIONAL VALUE OF THE TRAGIC VS. THE COMIC 399 fiercely defended themselves to the last, like the famous chieftain Kocheeis of the Indian tribe (Apaches) in Arizona a few years ago. We respect the Children of the Mist, but we feel the necessity of their subjugation by a more rational" civilization. But we do not respect the burglars that hide in the slums of our great cities. The tragic character makes a collision with his social order in the name of another social order, it may be of a less advanced world-order or of a more advanced one. Antigone defies the [law of the king and offends against the state. But she obeys an older world-order which requires the burial of a dead relative by the living member of the family. This collision is made stronger by the art of Sophocles. He interests in the noble unselfishness of Antigone, while he casts suspicion of selfish ambition on the character of Creon, the king. So, too, we are excited to pity and terror by the events which bring CEdipus into dreadful crimes thru ignorance. He, too, attacks the exist- ing world-order by a newer one. There is the tragedy of the life of Socrates, also, who holds up a new world-order to the Athenians, the first teacher in the world of the right of private conscience as against the established church of his time. Before Socrates there was no individual moral right — everyone was expected to obey implicitly the social custom without questioning it. This tragedy, however, is called by Hegel the tragedy of Athens, rather than of Socrates. He drank the hemlock, it is true, but it was a triumphant death, for his was the entire future of the world history. Since his time there Has been unceasing growth of the right of individual conscience among nations. The tragic, we repeat, must have this collision of the individual against the social whole in which he lives, but he must be backed by the principle of another social whole, either a perishing world-principle or one of the future just beginning its career. A mere attack against the state from motives purely selfish is criminal, but not tragic. The commission of crimes, and the capture, conviction, and punish- ment of the criminal, make a story that interests us. But if we do not discover a moral principle in the mind of the criminal, we are liable to injury in dwelling on the details of the story. The Police Gazette is justly excluded from the family, because it educates toward crime rather than away from it. The story of Jack Shepard, as told by Ainsworth, arid the other stories of like character, idealize the mere selfish revolt against the civil order. They are written from the standpoint of mere selfish individualism. The individualism that Socrates initiated was that of a moral individualism. Spend your life in the inquiry for what is right, and do not refuse the hemlock if it is your reward for preaching the right. 400 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chattanooga The death of Socrates was the tragedy of Athens. But the death on Calvary was the world-tragedy. But the world learned and learns its deepest lesson from that tragedy : not merely the right of individual con- science is taught by that, but the worship of sorrow, the sacrifice of the self as mere selfishness for the emancipation of other selves, the prin- ciple of divine charity, the missionary spirit. Tragedy reveals the depths of human nature, while crime does not, because it shows us the struggle between two social ideals, an older and a newer, an earlier and a later. These are revealed in their fullness in the struggle. As tragedy demands that the tragic character must be the bearer of a diverse principle of social order, so, too, does comedy require something more than mere capricious difference from prevailing custom, and some- thing more than mere self-seeking at the expense of the social whole. Spanish Cervantes has depicted for us the attempts of Don Quixote at resuscitating knight errantry. Knight errantry had been, a few cen- turies before, a very serious affair for all Europe. Chivalry was an essen- tial epoch in the history of Europe, and there is no epoch in the evolution of modern civilization more important than it. For it was the desertion of the classic ideal for the Christian ideal — it was the celebration of this abandonment of the old ideal and the adoption of the new. The ideas of love, honor, and fidelity were consciously set up as the expression of the new freedom that dawned on the mind of Europe as a result of the world-view of Christianity. Each soul has an infinite destiny beyond the grave. All that is secular is secondary to this religious principle. There were three crusades made as a result of this new consciousness : First, the conquest of the land containing the holy sepulcher — this was the outward crusade against Islam. Secondly, the inner crusade, the refutation of the Arabian interpretation or Aristotelian philosophy by the great thinkers, marshaled by such scholars as Alexander of Hales, Albertus Magnus, and Thomas of Aquino — this was the scholastic crusade. After these outer and inner crusades came, a little later, the dis- covery of America, the third crusade ; against the darkness of outlying heathenism. Queen Isabella contributed her jewels to fit out the fleet of Columbus in the name of the holy church. Knight errantry was a passing phase of one of the most serious of spiritual movements. And when we laugh at Don Quixote's adventures, we do not laugh at him as a madman or lunatic, but at the ineptness of the old-world form seriously set up in the midst of a comparatively modern world. Its mediations seem absurd when deprived of the prin- ciple of chivalry and its social order on which they had been established. Just so in Walter Scott's story of Woodstock, and especially in that of Old Mortality, the excesses of Protestant individualism, both of Inde- pendents and Presbyterians, are found in comic situations, because brought Superintendence) EDUCATIONAL VALUE OF THE TRAGIC vs. THE COMIC 401 against a more advanced or matured theologic view. They furnish comic and not tragic situations, because they do not involve the characters por- trayed in destruction for their views, but only in futile acts and endeavors, endless self-contradictions. Aristophanes ridicules, not the older world-views striving for re-estab- lishment in his time, so much as the products of the new movements put forward by the Sophists and the freethinkers of that time. He took Socrates as his type and model of a Sophist. He ridiculed anything and everything that was offered as a substitute for the old customs, the Greek morality that had come down from the good old times. Nothing could stand up against the inextinguishable laughter kindled in the Clouds, the Wasps, the Frogs,2iXi^ his other comedies. The bad went down altogether, and the good went down temporarily, in the person of Socrates. But Aris- tophanes did not save Athens from " the newness," after all. Alexander the Great, the pupil of Aristotle, the pupil of Plato, the pupil of Socra- tes, had to save Athens from the good old times incarnated in Spartan conservatism. The great, grand pupil of Socrates in the person of Alex- ander marshaled Grecian yOuth to war on Persia, and his conquests extended to India and Bactria, and Greek kingdoms took the place of Persian satrapies. We see how serious were the elements entering the most comic of all comedies, those of Aristophanes. He had serious intentions, but he did not show the deeds of the individual returning upon him to destroy him. His dramas showed only the futility of plan and purpose undermined by inherent self-contradiction. We have in later comic writers, say Swift and Sterne, the production of comic situations by means of importing one nation's customs into another nation. Seen thru the eyes of one land or native country, the daily habits of another land or country seem absurd. The French word outre expresses it. Swift is an Englishman who goes to Ireland and acquires a habit of looking critically on the ordinary manners and customs about him. He does not ridicule the Irish, however, but his own countrymen, the English, and writes the voyages to Lilliput and Brobdingnag, everywhere showing up the inconsistencies and absurdities in the social and political life of England in the first part of the eight- eenth century. Sterne shows French and Belgian life thru English spectacles. Our own Mark Twain shows us borderland life thru the eyes of the urban life of the Atlantic slope ; and in turn he makes his most comic situations by showing us the borderland traveler, with his local prejudices and ignorance of the history of culture, making his journey thru the museums and art galleries of Europe. But in all these examples we have one serious national order against another, the French against the English, or the American against the European, or the earnest pioneer life against the life of culture. 40 2 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION |Chattanooea A definition of comic and tragic situations may be made as follows, using the distinctions of content and form : content standing first for the temporary, or transient, the local or individual interest, the less sub- stantial side. When it is placed under the form of the permanent, the ethical or universal or substantial interest, it is seen at once as ridicu- lous. The form is a world too large for the shrunken importance of the content to fill. The special interest is given the dignity of the general interest, the local and provincial puts on the airs of the world-culture, and we cannot help but laugh at it. We have within us the psychologic reaction of making up our minds for a serious and universal interest, and then suddenly encountering the local and insignificant. We collapse with laughter — for laughter is the physical counterpart to the inner col- lapse of our ideas descending from the great to the small. On the other hand, the content may be a serious matter — a collision of world- ideas. The person bearing the new or old ideal, and with all seriousness setting it up against the established usage, proposes a new content for which the existing form has no place. It would shiver that old form to admit it. The established form must destroy it and its bearer. We may act against the new content and kill the messenger that brings it, but we do it in pity and terror, for it is a tragedy. The new substance is too ample for the old form. The new idea and its bearer cannot yet be tolerated. His time is yet to come. It must be a tragedy under the present circumstances. We take courage, however, in this thought, that new forms are on their way which will permit, without danger to the social whole, a greater freedom in the adoption and promulgation of new or old ideas. There will come a larger tolerance and fewer tragedies. In concluding our survey of the tragic and comic, we may ask ourselves whether they belong to the sublime or the beautiful, one or both. We are disposed to call the tragic the sublime and to see in the comic its opposite, which is said to be the ridiculous. So the opposite of the beautiful is the ugly. Certainly the comic or ridiculous contains the elements of ugliness, but in contrast with what? Certainly not with the sublime. It is the irrational overcome by the rational. But the beautiful is defined as the spectacle of the rational overcoming the irrational. It is a presentation, not to the reason or the intellect primarily, but to the senses. To the senses primarily, and only secondarily to the intellect or reason. Nevertheless, both activities, the sense and the reason, must participate in the perception of the beautiful. To the reason alone the beautiful becomes simply the true. " The beautiful is the splendor of the truth," said Plato — it is the glory of the truth seen by the senses. Just so the truth presented to us thru the will is the ethical, or rather the good. .\s the reason must be present and co-operate with the senses s,.p«:riiitcndenccj EDUCATIOXAL VALUE OF THE TRAGIC vs. THE COMIC 403 in the perception of the beautiful, so the reason must be present and co-operate with the will in the good. The beautiful certainly includes the works of art in which the tragic and the comic, one or both, are presented. The sublime, therefore, may be considered as falling under the concept beautiful, if it is to be applied to tragedy. But it is better to make the sublime a separate idea co-ordi- nate with the beautiful, and not containing or contained. The sublime is properly applied to that whose content and form are not commensurate or in harmony with each other. The Old Testament descriptions of God's power often make nature so inadequate that it is seen to be no adequate revelation of God's omnipotence. The result is an idea of sublimity, but not of beauty. The vast things of the earth, its mountains and seas, the sky and the rocky foundations of the earth, these, together with the sun, moon, and stars, are such inadequate manifesta- tions of Jehovah that we conceive sublimity rather than beauty. The beautiful is an adequate manifestation, something in harmony with that which is manifested in it. The sublime reveals the spiritual as not reveal- able — that which is to manifest the spiritual is made very distinctly to manifest its incapacity to manifest — hence, we have an aesthetic contra- diction, art refuting itself. We now see, or may see, the educative function of the tragic and comic. For all art must treat as its best subjects the tragic or the comic phases of human nature. In each of these it makes us conscious of the eternal elements of human nature — the divine-human in some contrast with the finite and transitory. In no way can the individual learn to know the practical problems of human nature so effectually as thru art and literature. He learns to see how the deeds return upon the doer to bless him or to curse him. The individual learns to know his greater self, the social. The world-view of a people gets its utterance in the national poets, and hence the great works of art, such as have been furnished by Homer, ^Eschylus, Sophocles, and Aristophanes for the Greeks ; by Virgil and Dante for Italy, Moli^re and Cervantes for France. and Spain, by Shakespeare for England, and Goethe for Germany, contain a vicarious experience. The types of character presented give the people their apperceptive material under which to classify the people they meet with in their lives and the deeds which they see performed. We learn best the lesson of the deed which we see others perform. Without making the experience ourselves, we profit by seeing others make it. The experience of the poet thus becomes our own vicariously. Human nature recoils against direct advice and does not like to have personal applications made. But, as Aristotle said, the spectacle of the drama purifies the beholder. The lesson is more impressive and whole- some because it is accepted by us in our freedom and not imposed upon us by external authority. 404 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chattanooga VACATION SCHOOLS BY RICHARD WATERMAN, JR., CHICAGO, ILL. The vacation school is no longer an experiment. In New York, Boston, Chicago, and other large cities, it is recognized as one of the strongest forces for good in the summer life of the crowded districts. What, then, is a vacation school ? The term as used in this paper means a free school which children between the ages of four and four- teen may attend during the summer months. Wherever such schools have been estab- lished, they have come to be recognized as a valuable ally to the regular public schools, and in many cities, notably New York and Chicago, there is a growing public opinion in favor of making them a part of the public-school system. Thus far, however, the vaca- tion schools established have been supported, in nearly every instance, by private contri- butions. The school authorities have granted the use of the necessary buildings and equipment needed for manual training, but the salaries of the teachers and the cost of the materials used have been paid from special funds provided for the purpose. Thfe one exception to this statement is Newark, N. J., where the board of education established vacation schools as a part of the school system in 1 886, and since that time has carried on the work each summer. In advocating the establishment of vacation schools, the friends of the movement reason in this way : In a great city the children should not be excluded from the schools during one-fourth of the entire year. In Chicago, for example, there are 225,000 children in the public schools. Why should all of them be turned out of the school buildings in the latter part of June and kept out until the first week in September ? Some of them can leave the city during the summer months, but the greater number must stay at home. In the poor and crowded districts, home is not an attractive place thru July and August. Therefore the children swarm into the streets and come into contact with all sorts of demoralizing influences. Is it not poor economy for the city to spend millions of dollars of public money in the erection of buildings for the use of the children and then to allow these buildings to remain unused for months, while the children are running the streets, forming bad habits, and losing a great part of that which they have gained in the public schools during the previous year ? Can cities afford to have their children go backward during the summer months, when they might be going forward ? Is it right that children who must leave school at a very early age should be deprived of an opportunity that could so easily be offered to them ? There are many people who believe that not only the children in crowded city dis- tricts, but also children in the wealthier parts of large cities and in small cities, and even in country districts, ought to have the opportunity to attend vacation schools, where their activities could find an outlet along healthful, profitable lines. In support of this view they quote the plan followed by the children at Chautauqua, where each day, under intel- ligent direction, they study nature in the woods and fields and on the shores of the lake, under conditions that make it pleasant as well as profitable. This phase of the summer- school movement is, however, outside of the field of the present discussion. It seems desirable to consider here only those schools which have been conducted in large cities for the benefit of children of elementary-school age who would otherwise be on the streets, in the midst of those demoralizing influences which are especially strong during the summer months, or in crowded tenement houses. The pioneer in the vacation-school movement was Newark. In 1886 the work in that city was started on a small scale, and it has grown steadily, until in 1897 there were SuperintendenceJ VACATION SCHOOLS 405 nine schools, employing seventy-three teachers and having an average daily attendance of over two thousand pupils. They are all primary schools, having one session daily for six weeks and basing the work very largely upon nature study. Boston soon followed by establishing vacation schools similar to those in Newark, but under private auspices. Since that time philanthropic people in Boston have con- tributed the funds needed each year to support vacation schools and playgrounds, where the children could find amusement and recreation, as well as helpful teaching in various industrial and artistic branches. The industrial work is not confined to mere technical training, but includes a careful study of the materials used by the pupils in their sewing, basket-weaving, leather work, cabinet-making, and other occupations. In 1893 the New York Society for Improving the Condition of the Poor conducted three vacation schools in New York city. The board of education provided the build- ings and equipment, and the society paid the salaries of the teachers and bought the materials used. By 1897 the number of schools had increased to ten, and there was an average daily attendance of over six thousand pupils. The subjects taught included drawing and modeling, sewing, woodwork, and printing, nature study and map-drawing, music, dancing, and military drill, language, commercial bookkeeping, and various plans for self-government and training for citizenship. Nearly all of the teaching was carried on without the use of books. In 1896 the Civic Federation of Chicago conducted a vacation school in one of the most crowded foreign districts on the west side of that city. The board of education gave the use of a fine public-school building, in which there was a very complete equip- ment for teaching woodwork. The Chicago Record gave the entire school an excursion to the country once each week. The work of the school was grouped around this excur- sion as a center. The subjects taught were nature study, woodwork, sewing, music, gym- nastics, drawing, and modeling. Only 300 children could be admitted to the school, and nearly four thousand had to be turned away for lack of room. In 1897 a vacation school was conducted in the heart of the Stock Yards district of Chicago, under the auspices of the University of Chicago Settlement. Here again the enrollment was limited to 300, but the number of applications was far in excess of the accommodations. The subjects taught were woodwork, sewing, housework, nature study, drawing, music, and physical exercises, and a very practical form of training for citizen- ship was given thru the penny savings bank and the Clean City League. P'requent excursions to the country were made a prominent feature of the work. These two schools in Chicago have aroused so much interest in the vacation-school movement that a number of public-spirited women have agreed to provide the money needed for the support of several schools during the coming summer. The school authori- ties take a great interest in the work. At the end of the first summer the president of the board of education recommended in his annual report that vacation schools be made a part of the public-school system. This recommendation has not yet been acted upon, because of certain defects in the Illinois school law, but as soon as these are corrected a strong effort will be made to place these schools under the direction of the board. Among the other places where vacation schools have been established are Cleveland, Brooklyn, Indianapolis, and many smaller cities. The plan followed in each of these cities was similar to that described above. If we examine carefully the work which has been done in the large cities named, we find that there is a marked difference in the several plans followed. In Newark the schools have been carried on only in the primary grades, and the work has been based largely upon nature study. In New York the subjects taught have included a consider- able number of industrial occupations, and the chief aims have been, first to interest the children to attend such a school, and then to develop some technical skill which would give their work an industrial value. Children of both primary and grammar-school age have been admitted. In Boston the motive has been largely philanthropic, and tliere has 4o6 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chattanooga been no concerted effort to make the schools a part of the city system. The main object seems to have been to keep a few children off the streets during the summer and to keep them interested. In Chicago the chief aim has been neither industrial nor philanthropic, but educa- tional. The teachers have tried to gather in as many children as possible, between the ages of four and fourteen, and, while using the freest methods, to make a systematic effort to develop them on all sides. They have made a careful study of the children enrolled, and have tried to help them at the point where help was really needed. Many of the pupils did not know the common animals by sight, had never seen Lake Michigan, and had never picked a flower in a field. They were taken to the lakeshore or to the country every week, were encouraged to observe and ask questions, and were allowed to gather materials that could be studied afterward in the schoolroom. Many of them were foreigners and knew almost nothing about the city and the country in which they lived. So they were given instruction in civics and were encouraged to perform some of the duties that devolve upon every good citizen. The boys were eager to "make things." They were taken into the shop and taught how to use the wood- working tools, how to read a drawing, and how to use their hands. Many of the girls came from homes which were not comfortable and were not attractive. Every day they were taken into a class-room divided by screens into several smaller rooms, each of which was furnished with the things needed for teaching the care of some room in the home — the bed room, the dining room, the living room, or the kitchen. They were taught how to care for the home and how to make it attractive, and some of them learned for the first time in their lives that in housekeeping there is some- thing besides mere drudgery. Some of the children had a passion for color, but had never before had an oppor- tunity to use chalks or water colors. In the vacation school they found this opportunity, and they made the most of it. Their teachers were delighted with the results, and many children, supposed to be almost hopeless in the regular schools, produced really strong drawings in the vacation school. Nearly all of the children showed an interest in music, and, after spending an hour every day for six weeks in the singing classes, the school, as a whole, was able to do good chorus work. In planning the work done along each of these lines, the interests of the children ' were studied very carefully, and each day the methods used, as well as the materials pre- sented, were chosen in direct reference to the interests and the needs of the pupils. If the vacation-school movement can be developed along educational lines rather than along those which are industrial or philanthropic, it will come to be recognized as an effort to do something more important than increasing the industrial skill of a few com- munities, or attempting to help a few poor children here and there to have a good time in the summer. It will be recognized as a movement intended to develop in our cities a social institution that has become a necessity. In the early -part of this century only 8 per cent, of the population of this country lived in cities. Today nearly 35 per cent, live in cities. At that time foreign immigration did not threaten to fill our country with people whose education was defective, whose traditions were different from our own, who had very little in common with American citizens. Today immigration brings thousands of such people to our shores, and a large proportion of them settle in cities. They form communities in which one could walk for blocks without hearing a single word of English. Can we afford to neglect any opportunity for bringing these people into touch with all that is strong in American civilization ? In seeking for an answer to this question, the vacation schools which have been con- ducted in Chicago have had some very definite results: (i) they have exerted a marked influence on the social conditions in the communities where they were established ; (2) they have had ;i hel])ful influence on the work of the Chicago public schools ; (3) they Superintendence] VACATION SCHOOLS 4° 7 have helped to create a strong public opinion in favor of some of the newer ideas in education. Since the results achieved in the two Chicago schools were very similar, strong illus- trations might be taken from the report of either of the schools. For the sake ot unity, however, the illustrations given here will be drawn entirely from the report of the Seward Vacation School, conducted in the Stock Yards district during the summer of 1897. First, the influence on social conditions in the neighborhood of the school. The Seward school building is located in a neighborhood where, altho Germans and Poles, Jews and Bohemians, Italians, Scandinavians, and Irish live side by side, they are not always on the best terms with one another. When the teachers in the vacation school tried to find a starting point for their effort to train the children to be good citizens, they discovered that there was no feeling of brotherhood between the several races. In many cases the relation between families, or between the various groups of families, was, at best, an armed neutrality. So the teachers said : " Let us first prepare a statement of what we believe is the true idea of the duty of every citizen, and let us form some organization that will realize this idea among the children, if possible." The idea was expressed by Miss McDowell in what she called a " civic creed." Every morning all of the teachers and the pupils gathered in the school hall for opening exercises. They sang a patriotic hymn, saluted the American flag, and then repeated the civic creed, as follows : " God hath made of one blood all nations of men, and we are his children, brothers and sisters all. We are citizens of these United States, and we believe our flag stands for self-sacrifice for the good of all the people. We want, therefore, to be true citizens of our great city, and we will show our love for her by our works. " Chicago does not ask us to die for her welfare ; she asks us to live for her, and so to live and so to act that her government may be pure, her officers honest, and every corner of her territory a place fit to grow the best men and women who shall rule over her." The children learned to feel that the sentiment expressed in the patriotic hymn, and in the creed, should find some practical realization, and that no citizen is really loyal who does not " show his love by his works." So they organized a " clean city league." All of the older children, both boys and girls, belonged to the league, and all pledged themselves to do their part in trying to keep the school premises and the neighborhood clean and free from litter of all kinds, (l) by not throwing down papers and refuse that would make it dirty, and (2) by helping the city to see that it was systematically cleaned. One teacher gave her entire time to the work of the Clean City League. On the first day she talked with the children about the condition of the neighborhood, and asked them if they were satisfied with the appearance of the streets and alleys, and yards and garbage boxes. At first they seemed to be perfectly satisfied, but soon they learned to observe more carefully, and they reported a great many things that were not as they should be — sidewalks broken, ^treets dirty, alleys filled with refuse, etc. The teacher gave them systematic instruction, based on the city ordinances providing that the city shall be cleaned by contractors who are employed by the city authorities and paid with money contributed by the taxpayers. She also explained that, if a contractor fails to do his work, it is the duty of every good citizen to report the failure to the city authorities ; that, if a contractor accepts the money and neglects the work, he is cheating the tax- payers. As soon as the boys in the neighborhood were convinced that the people were really being cheated, they became very eager to stop the cheating at once. Some of them made twenty-five or thirty complaints a day of violations of the ordinances. They watched the work of the contractor in that ward so closely, and made such prompt reports of his shortcomings, that he could not shirk, and before the end of the summer there was a great change in the appearance of the neighborhood. Streets were swept, alleys cleaned, garbage boxes emptied, and sidewalks mended, where all had been neglected for months at a time before the league began its work. The children and their parents realized for 4o8 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chattanooga the first time that they had a right to go directly to the city hall and demand that their neighborhood be cleaned. They learned that every citizen has rights that must be respected by the city authorities, if the citizen demands it. The children also learned that there is a close relation between the cleanliness of the city and the health of its citizens. In the league they dealt with some of the conditions which affect public health, and in the housework department with some of the home conditions which affect the health of individuals and families. Every child was taught the value of personal cleanliness, and the school maintained three showers and a tub all summer, and found good use for them. . The penny savings bank was also an influence for good in the community. The children were helped to form habits of thrift and economy, and encouraged to save their pennies instead of spending them for immediate personal indulgences. Since the vaca- tion school closed, the bank has been maintained by the settlement, and each week many of the children who were in school go to the settlement and make their small deposits. The school also exerted an important influence on the home life of the community thru the teaching of housework. The girls practiced in their homes what they learned in the school. It was very encouraging to the teachers to feel that they were influencing the life of the neighborhood in the very place where their influence would be the most helpful — i. e., in the home. So much for the results in the community. ' The second definite result mentioned above was the influence on the regular work of the public schools. This was exerted in a number of different ways : (i) The public-school teachers who visited the vacation school were helped to gain a clear idea of what may be accomplished by the study of nature in a school where it is taught with illustrative material instead of thru the medium of books. (2) They were able to observe the effects of school excursions in which the pupils gained new experiences, gathered fresh materials to be studied in the class-room, drew directly from nature, and learned to observe carefully and to record the results of their observations. (3) They were given a practical illustration of the educational value of bench work in wood in every school year from the kindergarten to the high school. In the Chicago public schools manual training has not yet been made an organic part of the curriculum. It is true that seven thousand boys in the sixth, seventh, and eighth grades of the public schools spend an hour and a half each week working with tools, but the manual training has not been developed on the basis of a sound psychology, nor has it been brought into close relations with the other subjects in the curriculum, and it has been confined entirely to the upper grades. The vacation school gave a practical demonstration of some of the educational aspects of manual training : its value in teaching number to the first-grade children ; its value in the study of fonn and developing a sense of proportion and skill in measurement ; its value in forming good habits of thought and of action. Many teachers realized for the first time that manual training really means mental and moral develop- ment, and that, instead of being an isolated special subject, it is a method that may be applied in every grade of school work. The work done with boys who were not interested in study had some very marked results. The regular teachers in the Seward school say that some of the boys who had been especially troublesome during the previous year are now showing a real desire to do good work. This seems to indicate that the vacation school, by developing the children on all sides, aroused in them a keener interest in their regular school duties and an ability to perform these duties better than would otherwise have been possible. It is, therefore, safe to say that the vacation schools have exerted a very helpful influence on the regular public-school work. They have helped pupils who were hard to reach by the usual methods ; they have helped teachers who wish to come into touch with Superintendence] VACATION SCHOOLS 409 new ideas in education ; they have helped school authorities who were glad to see an edu- cational experiment station testing some of the newer plans for school work. The third definite result mentioned above was that they helped to create a strong public sentiment in favor of some of the newer ideas in education. This result was largely due to the way in which the daily papers supported the move- ment and described in their columns the work that was being done. It was also due, in part, to the favorable impression made on people who visited the school. Nearly every visitor felt that, when the pupils in a school are so deeply interested in what they are doing that they pay no attention to the people who are coming and going all the time, and when the teachers in that school can give their time entirely to teaching, instead of largely to discipline, there is something in the work of this school that is worthy of careful study with a view to more general adoption. The following are a few of the conclusions reached after making such a study. They merely serve to emphasize the fact that the organizers of a vacation school, however free in defining their methods and in outlining their curriculum, must recognize the same principles of psychology and the same laws of individual and social growth that should be recognized in planning the work of every school : 1. That interest is at the foundation of good discipline and good work in school. 2. That in dealing with troublesome boys manual training may be made %^ very important factor. 3. That the success of any school depends less on the use of books and a fine building and a complete and expensive equipment than on the skill and interest and enthusiasm of a strong teacher. 4. That housework may be so taught in a school as to be truly educational, and at the same time to exert a very helpful influence on the home life and social conditions in the neighborhood. 5. That the study of the laws of public health and of private hygiene, and the direct application of this study in the affairs of everyday life, can and should be made a part of the education of every child. 6. That in the study of the world in which we live (usually grouped under the heads, "geography" and "nature study") far more can be accomplished by intelligent obser- vation of nature herself than by trying to study her thru printed descriptions. 7. That the work in civics and the training for citizenship may be so planned as to be a living force in a school, and not merely an iivtellectual exercise in the principles of popular government. 8. That music is one of the most essential elements in the course of study — not the music which confines children to the reading of notes and the singing of exercises and scales ; but the music that gives them an opportunity for the free expression in song of the feelings, desires, and aspirations which represent the highest and truest part of their natures. 9. That manual training, carefully planned, may be made the strongest educational factor in the work of a school, i. e., the element in the school curriculum which is most important in training the minds of both boys and girls and in developing their charac- ters. The manual training that appears to be most successful with boys of the elementary- school age is bench work in wood. The manual training that has produced the best results with the girls (especially those of grammar-school age) is housework and cooking. Both forms may very profitably be made a part of the work done in a vacation school, if the equipment can be obtained. In outlining the plans for a system of vacation schools, the next question to be answered is : Should they have a well-defined curriculum, and, if so, what should this curriculum include ? It may be well to mention first some of the elements the curriculum should not include. It should not cover the same ground as the regular course of study in the public schools, since it is not the function of the vacation school to educate the 4^0 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chattanooga bright child beyond his grade, nor to bring the backward child up to his grade. It should not provide for a purely industrial training, since the vacation school is neither a pro- fessional nor a trade school. It should not cater to the whims of the children, since what- ever is put into the curriculum will interest them, in any event, if wisely planned, and they are really unable to choose for themselves that which be best for their development. In planning the curriculum the organizers of a vacation school should take into considera lion : 1. The special aim which they desire to accomplish. This will depend in each case on the character of the community and on a number of purely local conditions. 2. The possibility of using museums, parks, and excursions to the country as aids in the work of the school ; and 3. The feasibility of providing equipment enough to give every child some form of manual training every day. The subjects to be taught can then be chosen with reference to these conditions. If possible, every child should have manual training, nature study, drawing, music, physical exercises, and some form of training for citizenship each day, and an excursion to the country or to some other place of interest every week. The teachers should be chosen with great care, and paid enough to make it possible for th^m to do this work in place of part of the work of the regular school year. The buildings and equipment should be provided by the board of education, and the schools should be supported by the board. These recommendations are based directly upon the experience already gained in several of our large cities. In each of them the movement is growing steadily, and in each the vacation school, as we find it today, seems destined to become an important part of the public-school system in the near future. CONTINUOUS SESSIONS, WITH SPECIAL AFFLICA TION TO NORMAL SCHOOLS BY IRWIN SHEPARD, PRESIDENT* STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, WINONA, MINN. The public-school system of the United States, in its organization, subjects of study, methods of teaching, and discipline, embodies the relics of many customs and conditions which have ceased to exist. The extent and force of these traditional elements appear in such features as the continuance of the district as the unit of school organization ; the limita- tion of the school term to little more than half the year; the general closing of schools for the long summer vacation, and the persistence of the three R's as the essentials of an elementary training. The conservative force in our national system of education is the strength of tradition. This conservatism often binds the teachers more strongly than the people, for it frequently happens that the former have progressed more slowly than the latter, and have yielded tardily to the advanced demands of public opinion. The traditional close classification of the graded schools, with its rigid system of annual promotions, altho long since condemned by public Superintendence] CONTINUOUS SESSIONS IN NORMAL SCHOOLS 411 sentiment, still quite generally prevails ; or at most has yielded only to the extent of substituting biennial for annual promotions. The method of determining qualification for promotion by written examinations alone was generally retained long after the people dis- trusted its efficiency and even demanded its discontinuance. The three months' annual vacation season has come to be regarded by most teachers as a necessity as well as an inalienable right, and any disposition to lengthen the school year is generally looked upon as an unjustifiable encroachment upon this right. It requires some courage to suggest, even in a convention of progress- ive superintendents, that other seasons than summer time may be equally profitable for vacation purposes, and that the intellectual work of the schoolroom may be as well done in summer as the intellectual work of other callings. The average school year for the United States is about seven months. In many places, especially cities, it has been extended to ten months in answer to popular demands. It is not entirely clear why the extension should stop here. In fact, very good reasons can be given why the schools should be open as continuously as the factory, the workshop, and the store. If it is replied that pupils and teachers need two or three months annually for rest and recuperation from the intense strain and pressure of the year's work, it may be questioned if a system which produces strain and pressure so near to the point of exhaustion is not unwise and inde- fensible, and if a distribution of the same work over a longer period would not be wiser, tho it involved longer, or even continuous, sessions. It is certain that the point of efficient work on the part of both teacher and pupil is passed long before signs of strain, over-pressure, or exhaus- tion appear. The annual vacation itself, deemed so essential for rest, contributes in no slight degree to the burdens of the already overtaxed year which follows, by the necessity for recovering the loss incident to the breaking down of intellectual habits and the waste of acquired knowledge during the long vacation, even if no more serious results appear. There may be certain valuable compensations for the long school vacation, when the pupil can turn to some helpful occupation, as may usually be done in rural communities ; but this is seldom the case in cities, or even small towns ; therefore the question of continuous sessions versus short school years and long vacations belongs rather to the graded than to the rural schools. The profitable employment of the time of children of school age dur- ing the long summer vacations is often the most serious and perplexing problem that confronts parents living in cities and towns, even under the most favorable circumstances ; while in the case of children living in 412 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chattanooga crowded districts of large cities, or in the saloon-cursed village, it becomes a question of vital importance to society as well as to the family. It is not difficult to conceive of such an adjustment of school work, rest, and recreative occupations that continuous attendance upon school may not only be free from overwork or strain, but may furnish the most healthful and enjoyable life that a child can live ; especially if vacations may be taken, without prejudice to progress, whenever needed or when- ever the time could be otherwise more profitably spent. The ideal school life is that of the most healthful living, and does not admit the necessity for recuperation from overtaxing or unhealthful requirements. However, the plan of continuous sessions does not necessarily involve continuous attendance on the part of the pupils or continuous service by the teachers. It means, rather, continuous opportunities to the pupil for attendance on regular school sessions, and relief to the teachers from enforced vacations, always annual and always at the same season. In view of the growing demands for vacation schools, especially in large cities, it is important to determine whether these schools shall be preventive and sporadic, without organic connection with the school system; or shall be constructive, progressive, and so adjusted as to con- tribute to advancement in the regular courses of the schools or propor- tionate relief from the daily requirements of the following year. A division of the present school year into three quarters of twelve weeks each, with quarterly promotions, would be the first and most important step toward the organic connection of vacation schools, as a regular part of the school year, with the work accredited as such. The question may be asked if as much work can be accomplished in the twelve weeks of a vacation quarter as in any other quarter of the year. We have come to understand that the ability of anyone (children espe- cially) to do intellectual work is dependent upon individual vitality rather than atmospheric temperature. We know that the vitality is lowest in winter and early spring, and at its maximum in late spring and sum- mer. The general experience of summer-vacation schools confirms the belief that as much and as effective work can be accomplished in summer time as in any other part of the year if the early morning hours are sub- stituted for the afternoon session; while the opportunities to pursue the various forms of nature study excel those of any other season. If, however, continuous attendance is not desired, continuous sessions, with the quarter of twelve weeks as the promotion unit, would make pos- sible the distribution of vacations thruout the year and the relief of crowded rooms to a corresponding extent ; or, in other words, would increase the school accommodations by 33^ per cent. Is it a wise policy for a city whose enrollment exceeds its seating accommodations to close its buildings for three months of the year, if by any plan of administration these buildings may be made available to } SuperintcndcnceJ CONTINUOUS SESSIONS IN NORMAL SCHOOLS 413 relieve the excessive demands of the other nine months ? Under the pressing necessity everywhere for greater school accommodations, is it justifiable that the common-school property of the nation, valued at $500,000,000, should be permitted to lie idle from three to five months annually ? Compulsory school attendance and compulsory exclusion from school during the long vacation are antagonistic policies. The general tendency of the educational world to " hibernate " in summer time is contrary to all of the analogies of nature as well as of life in other callings. The great increase in the number, importance, and attendance of summer schools is not more significant than the fact that this attendance is largely made up of teachers in regular service, who are pleased to devote no small share of a meager salary and of the annual vacation to professional advancement. The reports of the United States Commissioner of Education show that 75 per cent, of the teachers of the country enter upon their work without any special training whatever, while the training of a large share of the others is much less satisfactory than is required in any other profession. Few who continue in teaching resign to make further prepa- ration. Therefore the training of the teacher while in service is a prob- lem of the utmost importance. This problem would seem to be not difficult of solution when we reflect that the school year for the entire country averages but seven months and rarely exceeds forty weeks. No other calling affords such generous vacation leisure for self-improvement. The difficulties of the problem lie in the fact that the three to five months of enforced vacation include or coincide with the annual long vacation of the normal schools and all higher educational institutions. Teachers' institutes and the summer schools are designed to supply the demands for vacation opportunities for professional improvement not offered by the normal schools and colleges ; either because their doors are closed, or because their courses of study and term arrangements do not enable a teacher to use with profit the long vacation periods. While summer schools and institutes have accomplished much, they do not by any means solve the problem of the efficient training of the teacher in service. The state of Minnesota has led all other states in the establishment of vacation training schools for teachers. From forty to fifty of these schools are in session every summer, for four weeks each, with a total attendance which usually equals or exceeds the entire teaching force of the state; while, until last summer, all of the four normal schools of the state, equipped at an expense of more than, a million dollars, were closed, their laboratories and libraries deserted,'and their faculties scattered, suppos- edly taking much-needed vacations, but many of them in reality teaching 414 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chattanooga in these same summer schools, often under most adverse conditions as to surroundings and appliances. In September, 1895, when the faculty of the State Normal School at Winona reassembled after the annual vacation, during which half of the members had been teaching in the summer schools, a series of special meetings were held to consider the relation of the normal schools to these summer schools. A few conclusions were soon reached : 1. That the phenomenal growth of summer training schools for teachers indicated a demand which the normal schools had not met. 2. That these summer schools were creating new demands which only normal schools could efificiently meet. 3. That, under the existing conditions for admission to teaching serv- ice, it is quite as much the proper function of the normal schools to pro- vide for training teachers in service as to furnish a preparation for enter- ing such service. 4. That the rural-school teachers, with an average vacation of five months each year, furnished at the same time the most needy and the most available constituency for such training. 5. That it is an indefensible policy to close the normal schools during that period of the year when teachers are most at leisure to attend school. 6. That the terms of normal schools should be so adjusted in time that the usual long vacations of teachers could be utilized for further preparation, and that the courses so provided should not be special, but regular and progressive, and should constitute organic parts of the full courses offered. It was decided to recommend, and if possible secure, the adoption of the following general plan : 1. The school year should be divided into four quarters of twelve weeks each, commencing respectively January i, April i, July i, and October i. 2. The courses of study should be organized by quarters — the work of each quarter constituting a full unit on which credit should be given whenever completed. 3. Classes should be graduated at the close of each quarter and new classes organized at the opening of each quarter, if necessary. 4. Special classes should be organized for graded-school teachers for the first six weeks of the summer quarter (July i to August 15), and this work should apply upon regular courses with provisions for^i^omplet- ing the quarter's work by non-resident study during the ensuing school year by correspondence. 5. Since the chief aim of this plan was to bring the normal schools into more helpful relations to the rural schools whose interests thev were primarily created to serve, the quarters should be so arranged that a rural- school teacher could teach the usual winter term of four or five months — Superintendence] CONTINUOUS SESSIONS IN NORMAL SCHOOLS 4 ' 5 which would always come within the autumn and winter quarters (October to April) — and attend a normal school pne or both of the remaining quar- ters, with a reasonable vacation ; or he could teach the entire school year (October to July) and attend one full quarter each year (July to October). In this way progressive courses of normal-school work could be com- pleted without withdrawing from rural -school service. This alone would be a distinct gain to the teaching supply of the rural schools. Incidentally this plan would prove a boon to hundreds of self-sup- porting young men and women, from whom the best teachers of the state are drawn, who would be enabled to work their way thru the normal- school courses, with little difficulty and with little, or no, loss of time from teaching service. It was believed that the advantages of training received while alter- nately teaching and attending school would also commend the plan. The plan was subsequently approved by the presidents and faculties of the other normal schools of the state and presented to the state normal board for adoption. After full consideration for a year, it was unanimously adopted and steps taken to secure the needed appropriation for putting the plan into operation in all of the normal schools of the state. It was estimated that an increase of 25 per cent, in revenue would cover the expense of the proposed increase in the length of the school year by 33^ per cent. The teachers generally thruout the state approved the plan and gave it active support. Sixty-two out of eighty of the county superintendents, and almost an equal proportion of city superintendents, joined person- ally in urging upon individual members of the legislature the advantages of the plan. No more popular educational measure ever came before the legislature of the state. The year 1897 was not a favorable one in which to secure appropriations for new or untried measures. The avowed policy of the legislature was to grant sparingly appropriations for the actual necessities only of the state institutions, but nothing for enlargements. Yet, so great was the confidence in the plan, and so ear- nest was the general demand for it, that the full appropriation asked for the two older schools — at Winona and Mankato — was granted, a larger increase than had ever been granted for extension of normal-school rev- enues in any one year in the history of the state. On July I, 1897, these two schools entered upon the new plan. Duplication of the work of the summer schools was avoided. Students were not admitted for less than a full term or quarter. Those only were admitted to the six-weeks' special courses whose schools would begin before the close of the quarter. Rural-school teachers were not admitted for less than the full quarter of twelve weeks. At Winona the standard of admission was radically advanced to the point of admitting only gradu- ates of high schools or teachers actually in service. 4l6 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chattanooga » Altho the announcement of the plan was not made until late in May, and forty county summer schools, enrolling 7,000 members, were in session thruout the state, the attendance during the summer was all that could be desired in numbers and surprisingly good in quality. Five hundred were enrolled in the two schools. At Winona 15 per cent, of the enroll- ment were former graduates of the school, all occupying important posi- tions as teachers in the state, who had returned to avail themselves of this opportunity to enter upon the work of the recently extended advanced course; 40 per cent, were graded- and rural-school teachers; 40 per cent, were high-school graduates. Only 5 per cent, did not belong to one of the above-named classes. The average age was twenty-three years and the average teaching service four years, varying from one term to twenty years. It was predicted by some that the model or training schools could not be maintained during the summer months ; but here again the suc- cess was marked, notwithstanding the fact that these are tuition schools. Many parents have transferred their children permanently to the model schools because of the evident advantages of continuous sessions. In the model schools promotions occur quarterly. Vacations of one quarter may be taken any quarter of the year, either semi-annually, annually, or biennially ; or the pupils may attend continuously, taking full or partial work with corresponding advancement, if such attendance is deemed advisable. The advantages of these various options are quickly seen, and varying plans are chosen to suit individual pupils. The work of last summer's quarter was not more exhausting to teachers or pupils than that of any other quarter, nor has it appeared to be less efficiently done. No year in the history of the schools has shown so large an increase in enrollment as the present. While the lengthened year will show a proportionate increase in results in graduates and numbers instructed, the most evident advantages appear in the large number of teachers in service who are preparing to take up regular courses while continuing their work in teaching; while many students who formerly could not see the way to complete more than the short elementary course now choose the full advanced course under the facilities offered for vacation attend- ance. Continuous sessions do not necessarily involve continuous teaching service by the faculty. Vacations are granted as heretofore, with the difference that any quarter may be selected, subject to the approval of the management of the school; or, by continuous service, vacations may be accumulated to enable a teacher to secure a longer leave of absence. Additional teachers will be employed as assistants in the various depart- ments who will be competent to take the classes of the absent teachers. A proposed plan, which is favored by many, provides that each Superintendence! CONTINUOUS SESSIONS IN NORMAL SCHOOLS 4J 7 teacher may serve four consecutive quarters and take the fifth quarter for a vacation. This would bring each successive vacation of any teacher at a different season of the year. Students are not expected to attend continuously, except by permis- sion of the faculty. It is already found that they are not so averse to stopping for rest when it is needed, since work may be resumed at the opening of the next quarter. Similarly, students are more willing to repeat work that has been imperfectly done than under the usual plan of classification, which imposes the penalty of a year's delay if the work of a single quarter is lost or repeated. Under the usual plan, normal-school graduates are annually thrown upon the market in the month of June, just when the graded-school authorities are seeking teachers to fill vacancies for the following year, The natural result is that the supply is exhausted before the rural-school authorities are ready to act on the employment of teachers for the schools to begin later, in October or November. Hence, only the undergraduate supply is left for the rural -school service. Under the Minnesota plan the classes graduating in September, December, and March will be available for rural-school service. Even tho this service shall be brief, because of the competition of the graded schools offering a longer year, more certain tenure of appointment, and higher wages, it will be a distinct gain to the rural schools, as well as to the teacher, if he is able to say: "My first teaching service after gradua- tion was in a rural school." The plan was presented to the Committee of Twelve on Rural Schools at its meeting in Chicago, and received its indorsement and approval in both the report of the general committee and of the Subcommittee on Supply of Teachers. The i6o state normal schools of the United States, equipped with buildings and appliances at an expense of over $17,000,000, graduate about eight thousand teachers annually, which is a small proportion of the needed supply; and yet all of these buildings are closed during three months of the year. An additional expenditure of only about S6oo,ooo would open every one of these 160 state normal schools for the additional three months of each year, and afford fifty thousand teach- ers annual vacation opportunities for professional study, in addition to all of the advantages of continuous sessions. DISCUSSION Superintendent R. K. Buehrle, Lancaster, Pa. — Swayed chiefly by motives of economy, continuous sessions have been held at the Winona Normal School, and the 41 8 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chattanooga experiment is reported a success. The utilization of the plant, the saving in the cost of fuel, and in the students' expenses, is very desirable, and, when regarded only from the financial side, the plan deserves commendation. It is also claimed as an advantage that continuous sessions would enable professors, if they prefer to do so, after several years' service, to obtain a vacation of an entire year at a time — an advantage over a few weeks, or even months, every year — and that three or four graduating classes a year would enable the directors of rural schools to secure graduates as teachers for their schools, which they cannot do when there is but one class a year. Finally, it is suggested that, if successful, the holding of continuous sessions might extend itself into the schools generally to great economic advantage. It is natural that this suggestion of change should emanate from the West, which is less restrained by precedent, where social custom and tradition are less strong than in the East, and where freedom and audacity consequently flourish. Yet efforts in this direction have been made at Harvard, where Professor Shaler reports that it was found necessary to increase the length and frequency of vacations. It must be confessed at the outset that the simian motive is still too powerful in the educational field, and that imitation is never productive of the highest art, and that the challenging of that which is and requiring it to give a reason for its existence is, there- fore, a hopeful sign of intellectual and moral life. It is not expected of me that I should point out the advantages to be gained by these changes. That has been sufficiently attended to in the paper just read. It is expected of me rather to attempt to peer into the future, and from reason and experience to demon- strate the evils to be apprehended when the change has done its perfect work. "Almost thou persuadest me " that these changes should be made at once in as many of our normal schools and higher institutions of learning as will best accommodate the teachers in actual service who desire to attend during their vacation. A short summer session — a special course of study adapted to the wants of practical teachers, both arranged, as far as possible, in such manner and under such conditions as will justify the graduation in due time of such vacation students — would seem to have much in their favor. Such changes would fulfill all economic requirements as regards utilizing the plant, with- out depriving the regular professors and students of their much-needfed rest and recreation. It would not disturb the regular normal-school work, brought to its present state of excel- lence by long years of study and experiment. But even thus the change is not wholly desirable, for it will most likely 6ause teachers to enter their profession with less preparation,, in the hope and expectation of gradually adding to their literary qualifications in those summer schools, and it would seem that normal schools especially ought to regard it as incumbent on them to do all in their power to render this less possible. It also suggests too much mental application while teaching. There is a limit to mental exertion which should be borne in mind by none more than by the teacher, whose energies are severely taxed by his daily, mentally exhausting labors, and who, when true to his calling, gives away his life to perform his task ; for all sympa- thetic action demands liberal expenditure of energy. From his inmost heart rises his God-given force, the sacred celestial life-essence, breathed into him by Almighty God ; hence it is inevitable that exhausted nature will find relief in routine, and that the element of lively sympathy, on which the real value of the service depends, will be lost ; and lassitude will be visible on the teacher's platform — all the greater because of the increasing preponderance of women in the profession, whose application to books, whose sympathy, is greater and more readily responsive, but whose energy is less, and less persistent. It is no reply to tell us that this has thus far not been experienced, for the experiment has not been in operation sufficiently long to manifest these effects. There is always a reserve force to meet special needs, but by and by this will also be expended, and then these effects will be very sure to make their appearance. Even where summer schools have been most successful, as judged by the time of their Superintendence] CONTINUOUS SESSIONS IN NORMAL SCHOOLS 419 continuance, as at Harvard and at Lake Chautauqua, they have provided largely for social intercourse, for open-air and experimental and lecture courses, and only sparingly for study from books ; and the studies which made the greatest demand on the reason, as, for instance, mathematics, were pursued by small classes, if at all. The fact is that too much importance has come to be attached to schools and books as creators of character. "Among the Greeks, to whom we are yet going to school in philosophy, in literature, and in art, the number of readers, even in the educated classes, was not large." " Men remembered and thought about what they heard." " Education is not the imparting of knowledge, but the teaching to think." It should be constantly remembered that one's calling is to serve him, and not he the calling ; that work is a means, whose great end is the creation of character. Hence the man or the woman must not be lost sight of in the teacher. To him or to her, above many others, is the need of association with men conversant with the great affairs of the world imperative. Accustomed to command, to look down upon inferiors at least in intellect, the coming in contact with superior minds acts like a tonic. " The heroes of mankind are the mountains, the highlands of the moral world." "Surely if the worst of men were snatched into paradise for only half an hour, he would come back the better for it." The sin of our age is haste ; we live too fast — indeed, we pride ourselves most on our speed ; no cathedrals consuming centuries in their completion for us. The study of mind which Socrates began with men, children finish with us ; but behold the difference in the character of the work. Lack of moderation is characteristic of youth and the curse of America. Hence the department store, overwork, overtime, Sunday work, the strike, and the tramp culminating in the commonwealer. Not more work, but more work- ers, is the need of the hour. Continuous sessions would make it very difiBcult to maintain our large, interesting, and inspiring educational meetings of teachers, now so generally held during the long summer vacations, and whose success is to a great extent due to the presence and active participation of normal-school principals and teachers. Perhaps the chief consideration that still demands attention is the climate. Suppose, for the sake of the argument, that continuous sessions are a success in the serene atmos- phere of the height of land, that would not prove that the same, or any, measure of suc- cess would crown a similar course in other parts of the country under less favorable climatic conditions. All over the world physical circumstances control the human race. Isothermal lines modify the thinker and the thought. Our union is almost the size of Europe, where school laws and regulations recognize difference of climate in fixing the time of vacations. Must we not do the same here? Moreover, with us this difference is intensified by the various components which enter into our population. We are all Americans, but we have not been able to lay aside the constitution derived from the fatherland with our allegiance to it. Hence, what may be salutary to the citizen of Minnesota, compounded of Scandinavian, German, and English- man, will not be adapted to the citizen of Louisiana, boasting of French and Creole blood. The time of our vacations might, no doubt, profitably receive our serious consideration. Is the cold of winter the best time to keep our schools open? Should the older and the younger pupils attend during the same time of the year? Should the vacation occur at the same time of the year in the city and in the country? Should common schools be opened for men and women at certain seasons of the year, when little or no work is to be had, not only in the city, but also in the rural districts? Is there to be much of mediaevalism surviving even as regards our vacations? Has the time as well as the duration been fixed by monks best acquainted with the sunny lands of Europe, and hence best adapted to that climate? Finally, is a rearrangement of the course, so as to graduate four classes a year, economy? Will not the evils resulting from the disturbances and excitements of four commencements instead of one — -small classes, lack of interest and regularity in entering 42 o NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chattanooga and departing from the school — more than counterbalance the advantages promised from the work of the few additional weeks of the previous vacations, even the mental energy and vivacity remained unimpaired? Nor are continuous sessions at all necessary in order to supply graduates for the rural schools. There is another way of accomplish- ing this, namely : let the directors of these schools engage their teachers while yet in class, conditionally on their graduation. But I imagine — and the reader of the paper grants this — that the supply is not equal to the demand, and so the rural districts, less attractive financially and socially, cannot secure them. Now, increasing the number of classes will not necessarily increase the number of graduates. This will be done only when more per- sons enter and remain in the classes until they graduate, and they will do this when greater inducements are offered in the profession. D. L. Ellis, supervisor of public schools, Asheville, N. C. — There seems to be some confusion as to what is meant by " vacation schools," judging from the papers read by the distinguished gentlemen who preceded me. It is my purpose to discuss the topic as I understood it, i. e., the vacation school for teachers, and not for pupils of the public charge. Here, in these states of the South, our needs are peculiar and urgent for some sort of training or culture schools for the better education of those who assume the great and momentous task of instructing our youth. This need will be apparent to you when I say that 90 per cent, of our teachers are scholastically, not to say pedagogically, ignorant. To determine accurately the facts among my own teachers, numbering 150, I sent out recently an " information blank," and the result showed about ten of that number had received some sort of college or normal training ; the others only the culture of the " old field schools." We ought not to wonder at this, in view of the fact that the sta- tistics show that our average school year is only sixty-three days, and the average salary of teachers is only $23 per school month. What is true of this one county in North Carolina is approximately true of the whole rural system of all our southern states. Now, the remedy for this woeful condition must be found in some sort of training schools, so located as to be accessible to the majority of those who teach, and of such length of term as shall make it possible for a regular course of study, in which these pupil-teachers shall do the work themselves, under expert supervision and direction. We have for a score of years wasted precious time and treasure on the so-called weekly county institutes, at which " windy " theories and impossible conditions were talked at the hungry victims of this stupidity, and the poor teachers went home either vague in their conceptions of the teacher's work, or else totally discouraged. The "state normals" could not reach the teachers, for the expense of attending these widely separated schools precluded the possibility of many of the teachers attend- ing them. Hence, I am frank to urge that the only solution of the question is to bring these schools to the teachers in the counties themselves. At least two of these schools, of two months' session, should be located in every county in the state, officered by the very best and most skillful women teachers to be had. I say women teachers, Mr. Presi- dent, advisedly. Ninety-nine per cent, of the work of our rural schools is of the lowest primary sort ; hence, logically, the training must lie along those subjects of primary schools, and only women are competent to do this work in its truest and best aspect. These schools must be located in the country, and not in the towns, where a low rate of board, not exceeding $5 per school month, can be secured. Let us remember that these teachers are miserably poor, and not able to pay for anything ; yet there is no other equal number of men and women more courageous and heroic than these ; they are worthy our best efforts to help them to a higher power, and, helping them, we shall raise all our children to that noble state of life which is the birthright of an intelligent citizenship. Bishop Goodsell, of the Methodist Episcopal church. — Tho I entered the assembly without the slightest thought of making an address, I should have a colder heart than I have if I were not moved by this opportunity, and a duller mind Superintendence] CONTINUOUS SESSIONS JN NORMAL SCHOOLS 421 ihan I have if I were not stirred by what I heard here this morning. You will permit me, as a resident of Chattanooga, to add to the welcome you have already had, and to express my great pleasure that our city is honored by such a distinguished body of instructors. It has been a joy to me to meet among you some loving and loved friends and to renew acquaintance with some "whom I knew in former days, but of whom my knowledge has, of late, been, as scientific men say, in a condition of " arrested devel- opment." Referring to the subject under dliscussion, I wish to express my warm sympathy with those who have here advocated periods of rest for teachers and taught. , '" Hewho worketh always, Working without rest, Never thinks his greatest. Never does his best." The Master whom I serve found it needful to go into a desert place to rest awhile. His human nature was refreshed by communing with that other nature which as a God he had created. We, his children, have greater need of the same refreshing influence. The man who scaled " the iced mountain top, where birds dare not build nor insects' wing flit o'er the deathless granite," is a mightier and broader man for his climb. We must not forget that the greatest seers and the greatest poets have been men who chiefly breathed the country air. A city street is a limitation. From its pavement one sees but a narrow lane of God's stars ; but a ribbon-width of heaven's blue. The city poet is apt to sing pleasant ditties to " My Lady's Eyebrows." But the poet of the country, or at least he who refreshes himself with nature, sings of God's greatest forces and of his greatest works. He who cannot sing can yet feel ; and he who feels little can yet absorb somewhat. It has been my lot to work in every state in this union, in every country in Europe, in Japan, China, Corea ; but in no country have I found myself beyond the law of rest for inspiration. The emptied pond must have time to gather power for the wheel, else speech issues into vacuity and labor into senility. Especially do these vacation periods stand related helpfully to you in your great service in assimilating our diverse peoples into one potent nationality. I salute you for the great part you have in this mighty, this difficult, but as yet successful task. More than forty years ago the poet Saxe perceived its weight where he catalogued the strains of blood which are woven into our national life : English and Irish, French and Spanish, German, Italian, Dutch and Danish, Crossing their veins until they vanish In one conglomeration ! So subtile a tangle of blood, indeed, No heraldry -Harvey will ever succeed In finding the circulation ! But all teachers. Christian and secular, are finding that circulation. The churches, the schools, all the appliances of our civilization, are doing great things in this great work. The proof is at hand ; it is passing beyond prophecy into fact that a new people of special genius is now to be formed. You are helping form it. Under your ileft fingers comes the plastic matter of young life. From this young life is to come the larger life under richer conditions of the republic. Our genius is not to be the genius of any.one nation, like that of the Greeks for art, but a summary of the special genius of all the nations which contribute to our life — that genius you are to tutor. May you be enriched for your work. 42 2 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chattanooea GRADING AND PROMOTION WITH REFERENCE TO THE INDIVIDUAL NEEDS OF PUPILS [remarks introductory to following PAPERSI BY PROFESSOR EDWARD R. SHAW, SCHOOL OF PEDAGOGY, NEW YORK UNIVERSITY The subject before us for discussion this afternoon is not only an important one, but it is also a timely one, inasmuch as various attempts are being made in different parts of this country to advance pupils as fast as possible, instead of holding them for regular yearly and semi- yearly promotions. This is not the first time that this problem has been before the Depart- ment of Superintendence. At its Boston meeting, in 1893, Superintend- ent Cogswell presented a most suggestive and commendable plan for the completion of the grammar-school course in three different periods of time and in four ways. At the meeting of the department at Cleve- land, in 1895, another plan was presented. The presentation of plans here today will be much larger than the department has heretofore had the pleasure of listening to. In all attempts at grading and promotion with reference to the individual needs of pupils there are certain conditions which must be reckoned with and which must, on no account, be lost sight of. The problem must be considered from two points of view — the needs of pupils, on the one hand, and, on the other, the demands imposed by the course of study and the school system itself. With reference to the needs of pupils, the superintendent must first take into consideration the different degrees of natural ability on the part of the pupils who compose the school. Secondly, he must consider the rapid and slow stages of mental growth that occur in nearly every pupil. The third factor in the problem, from the standpoint of the pupil, is the matter of the absence of pupils from school and some means of making up the time lost by such absence ; this absence arising either from sickness, or from an embargo laid by the board of health upon homes and localities where infectious diseases have been prevalent. With reference to the second point of view, the problem must be con- sidered with reference to the demands of a proper course of study. The newer conception of what should constitute a course of study must not be sacrificed or violated in any scheme for the irregular promotion of pupils. It is not a difficult matter to move pupils on thru the grades at irregular intervals when the acquirement of so much book knowledge in a formal way is all that is required. The problem becomes a much more Superintendence] GRADING AND PROMOTION 423 serious and difficult one when constant provision is made for the thought side of education as above the formal side. The real test, then, of any plan of promotion with reference to the individual needs of pupils must lie in its power to satisfy our newer conception of the course of study and our newer ideas of teaching. Considered with reference to the school system, the value of any such plan of grading and promotion depends upon whether that plan can be transmitted and carried out by a superintendent's successor. Unless this is possible, the plan will not satisfy. A system or plan of promotion that is a paternal one — in other words, one that has to be cared for from week to week according as exigencies may arise — is not a plan that will com- mend itself to the minds of progressive and yet conservative schoolmen. The problem, then, of grading and promotion to meet the individual needs of pupils is a large problem, and one that must be considered care- fully and conservatively. SOME NEW-ENGLAND PLANS AND CONCLUSIONS DRAWN FROM A STUDY OF GRADLNG AND PROMOTION BY DR. JOHN T. PRINCE, AGENT MASSACHUSETTS BOARD OF EDUCATION There is no question of school organization at present more important than that of a proper adjustment of conditions to the needs of individual pupils. The assumption upon which most courses of study seem to be based, that just so much ground must be gone over with equal thoro- ness by all pupils in the same time, is the greatest bane of our public- school system. The courses in use are probably intended to meet the needs and capacity of pupils of average ability. Such is the difference of ability, however, between the brightest third and the dullest third of almost every class of pupils that the work thus required is enfeebling to one part, while it is discouraging or unduly excessive to the other. To neither group is there the stimulus of success with effort. To one group there is success without effort ; to the other there is effort without success. The difficulty, it is feared, is enhanced by the want of ability or inclination on the part of many teachers to adapt each lesson's requirements to the capacity of individual members of the class. There are some signs of reaction against a system which encourages or permits a dead uniformity of ability and effort. The only fear is that the opposite extreme of individualism will be sought as a remedy. As between the practice by which forty or fifty pupils of all degrees of ability are required to do the same work with nearly equal efficiency, and a return to individual teaching such as was carried on in ungraded schools forty 424 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chattanooea years ago, there is but little choice, altho the ill effects of the two practices must be felt in widely different ways. But a choice between these extremes of practice ought not to be necessary. No more useful service can be rendered the public schools than that of devising ways by which the benefits of a class system of teaching will be secured, and at the same time such an adjustment of work be made as will permit pupils of varied abilities to do the most for themselves. To this task many edu- cators have given much time and effort of late. Out of all the plans that have been devised there should be found some which can be readily adapted to any conditions that are likely to exist. It is evident that no one scheme will do for all. A classification which can be made in large schools should not be made in small ones, and a system of promotions that is feasible in small ungraded schools would be wholly inoperative in large graded ones. In response to letters of inquiry to prominent school superintendents thruout the country, concerning plans of classification and promotion, over eighty replies have been received, from which the following facts and conclusions are gathered. It is pleasant also to record the fact that in only four cities is the determining element for admission to the high school the superintendent's examination alone. The teachers' judgment alone generally determines the class in which the pupils of the primary schools are placed. Promo- tions from grade to grade in the grammar schools of about two-thirds of the places reported are based upon the combined judgment of the class teacher and that of the superintendent, or principal. In a few instances the examination by the superintendent, or principal, is made the determin- ing element in all doubtful cases only, or cases in which the teacher is not able to decide. The intervals between classes or grades, in about two-thirds of the cities and towns reporting, are one year. In the other third the intervals are one half year or less. In the report of the Commissioner of Educa- tion for 1890-91 returns from 465 cities and towns of over 4,000 inhabit- ants show the proportion of short intervals to be much greater than this. Several places report shorter intervals for the primary schools than for the grammar schools. The methods of promotion will first be considered of those places in which the intervals between the classes are one year. In about one-half of the cities and towns reporting, special provision is made for individual promotions or promotions out of course. Where no such provision is made, there are reported either few individual pro- motions or none at all. Quite a number of superintendents report that the matter is left with teachers, with the request that pupils be promoted whenever they are qualified ; but in such cases there is either no report of the number of individual promotions, or else the number of such pro- Superintendence! GRADING AND PROMOTION 425 motions is so small that they may be said to be rare exceptions. A few superintendents seem opposed to double promotions, on the ground that some portion of the course is either done slightingly or else entirely omitted, or, as one superintendent says, "good pupils are spoiled by being advanced beyond their depth, merely because they are bright." Where special provision is made for advancing pupils out of course, the widest difference of practice and of results is reported. In some cases the teachers are asked to report all pupils who by superior scholarship or by maturity are deserving of promotion out of course. A list of such pupils is kept by the principal or superintendent, and special facilities are afforded those who desire to be advanced. A few superintendents cause each grade to be divided into two sections, according to scholarship, thus enabling pupils to pass more easily from one grade to another dur- ing the year. In the primary schools the pupils of a single class or grade are sometimes divided into three sections or groups in the same way. In one city where the latter plan is followed a modified form of the mon- itorial system is followed, in which pupils from the highest grades often hear pupils of the lower grades in reading, either individually or in groups of two or three. Several cities and a few towns report the opening of an ungraded school in each of the large graded-school buildings. In this school are placed backward pupils or pupils who cannot be readily classified in exist- ing classes. Here, too, are pupils who are trying to get into a higher grade. The superintendents in their letters and reports speak in unquali- fied terms of the great good accomplished by the establishment of these ungraded schools. In some places the same end is reached by one or more assistants going from school to school in a building to assist back- ward pupils or pupils who are trying to get into an advanced division. A number of superintendents whose schools haVe the one-year inter- val between the classes report a plan of dividing the classes into small sections in two or three essential subjects, and of permitting pupils who do especially well in those subjects to be pushed forward. Elizabeth, N. J., is a conspicuous example of this kind of classification. Of other plans followed in schools having one-year intervals between the classes, a few will be given somewhat in detail. The plan pursued in Cambridge, Mass., deals only with the grammar- school course, which is supposed to cover six years' time of pupils of average ability. A few weeks after the pupils enter the grammar school in September, they are separated into two divisions according to ability, one division called Grade A and the other division called fourth grade. The pupils of Grade A move forward with the aim of completing the prescribed grammar-school course in four years, succeeding grades being called B, C, and D. The pupils of the fourth grade go forward more slowly, aiming to do each year only one-sixth of the work prescribed for 426 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION LChattanooga the grammar school. The grades of these pupils in succeeding years are known as fifth, sixth, seventh, eighth, and ninth. At the beginning of the second year the pupils of what was Grade A, now called Grade B, go into a room with pupils of the sixth grade. During the first part of the year the pupils of the sixth grade are in advance of the pupils of Grade B, but, owing to the superior ability of the latter division, they all come together during the latter part of the year. At the beginning of the third year precisely the same conditions exist as existed at the beginning of the first year. The pupils of Grade C recite with the pupils of the seventh grade for a few weeks, when a readjustment is made, the abler pupils moving on at a pace sufficiently rapid to finish the course in two years, leaving the others to finish it in three years. The fifth-grade pupils are alone in a room under one teacher, during an entire year. The same is true of the eighth-grade pupils. In all other rooms there are two grades or divisions, one belonging to the four-years' course and the other to the six-years' course. A pupil who begins with the fourth grade and remains in the slower division to the end of the course will graduate in six years, unless he has to repeat. A pupil who begins with Grade A and remains in the more rapid division to the end of the course will graduate in four years. A pupil at the end of the sixth grade or of Grade B may go on with the slower or more rapid division and complete the course in five years. Thus it will be seen that the entire course of study may be finished in four, five, or six years, depending upon the strength or ability of the pupils, and all without the omission or repetition of any part of the course. All promotions, both from the grammar to the high school and from grade to grade, are made by the class teachers, under the direction of the principal and superintendent. No preannounced examinations are given, but there are frequent written reviews given by the teacher, the results of which help to determine the fitness of the pupils to go forward. One feature of the plan which has helped it to succeed is that of the employ- ment of a special teacher in each building whose business it is to assist pupils who are behind in their classes in any studies, or who are trying to get in an advanced class. This assistance, however, is no essential part of the plan. It may be used with advantage in carrying out any plan. Of the 467 grammar-school graduates in the year 1896, 8 per cent, completed the course in four years, 33 per cent, in five years, 49 per cent, in six years, and 10 per cent, in seven or more years. One good evidence of the benefits gained by the plan is the kind of work which is done by the pupils after leaving the grammar school. The record of pupils in all grades and courses of the high schools during the past three years shows that those who finished the grammar-school course SuperimendcnceJ GRADING AND PROMOTION 427 in four and five years had a higher standing than those who took six or more years in finishing the course. To the criticism that this plan of classification can be used only in large systems of schools, or in large buildings, it may be said that in one of the Cambridge schools, where the plan is in full and successful opera- tion, there are only 330 pupils, distributed in six rooms, one room having eighty pupils, with two teachers. Of the present graduating class, num- bering fifty pupils, four will probably have completed the nine-years' course in six years at the time of graduation, twelve in seven years, six- teen in eight years, fifteen in nine years, and three in ten years. Added testimony to the adaptation of this plan to a small system of schools is found in Middleboro, Mass., whose enrollment of pupils is about 1,100, the enrollment in the three buildings where the plan is in operation being 474, with eleven teachers. Of the present graduating class, numbering fifty, about fifteen will complete the course in one year less than the prescribed time. In Woburn, Mass., a plan of "double promotions" has been in opera- tion for some years, and has been attended with good results. In the primary schools the interval between classes is made short by dividing the pupils into small sections. As there are three or more sections in each room, the class intervals are so short as to permit frequent changes, the section rather than the grade being the unit of promotion. The nominal -time for the completion of the primary-school course is three years, but many complete it in much less time. In each of the grammar grades the essential features of the entire work prescribed for the year are taken dur- ing the first half year, and those pupils who have successfully performed the work, especially in language and arithmetic, at the end of the half year, are promoted to the next higher grade. During the second half year a more minute study of the topics in language and arithmetic already pursued is made, by which an opportunity is afforded for new pupils to do the work of the grade, and for those who have done it imperfectly, to review it. By this plan bright pupils are given the opportunity of pass- ing thru two grades in one year. The number of pupils who won mid-year promotions last year in the grammar grades was 129, of whom 104 received a second promotion at the end of the year. The number of mid-year promotions in 1895 in the same grades was 315. Of this number all but seventy-eight were again promoted at the end of the year. The present total enrollment in the ninth grade is 145 ; of these three have completed the nine-years' course in six years, ten in seven years, thirty-three in eight years, and ninety-nine in nine or ten years. In Keene, N. H., a plan has been in operation for three years which embodies some features of plans already described. Its resemblance to the Cambridge plan consists in the division of two grades into A and B 42 8 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chattanooga sections, one of which goes forward at a more rapid pace than the other, with opportunity for pupils to cover a six-years' course in four or five years. Its plan of reviews at stated times for the convenience of those who omit some portions of the work, as well as for those who need more drill in the subjects reviewed, resembles in some respects one of the essential features of the Woburn plan. In the Keene plan, the A or advancing divisions do not work ahead in all subjects, but only in those subjects in which consecutive work is necessary, as grammar and arithmetic — thereby resembling in one important respect the plans followed in Elizabeth and Woburn. There are other features of the Keene plan which are unique and show the value of skillful planning and careful oversight. There are ten grades below the high school. Of 1,056 pupils belonging last year, forty-eight special promotions were made during the year. In the present graduating class of sixty four in the grammar school, fourteen will have completed the course in nine years, four in eight years, and one in seven years. The reports of plans of promotions in schools having short intervals between the classes are almost as varied as those already referred to. In nearly all of these schools the reported number of double promotions during the past year far exceeds the number reported from schools where class intervals are one year in length. The percentage of such promo- tions, based upon the number of pupils enrolled, ranges from 3 to 30 per cent. In a majority of this class of schools there are twenty- week intervals between the classes, regular promotions being made twice a year. When two sections twenty weeks apart recite in one room to the same teacher, transfers from the lower to the higher division are said to be comparatively easy to make. Sometimes the classes, especially when they are large, are separated into two or more divisions, making the intervals between the divisions only ten or twelve weeks. This arrangement is not unlike that which is made in several cities and towns, by which all the pupils are divided into small sections according to attainments, with provision for promotions at the end of eight, ten, or; twelve weeks. There are some differences in the details of plans followed, but, in general, the principle recognized is the same, which is to make as short intervals between the classes as possible, with frequent promotions. This principle was applied in the classification of the elementary schools of St. Louis, twenty-five years ago, .under the direction of Dr. Harris, now Commissioner of Education.' Of the cities in this country which have adopted this plan, in whole or in part, Dayton, O., may be mentioned as a conspicuous example. Of the plan in Dayton, Superintendent White writes : The aim is to have from thirty to thirty-five pupils in each room. The work is assigned for the year by grades. The pupils of each grade are assigned to rooms, as before stated, commencing with the one having the highest standing, and so on down to 'See report of the St. Louis school board for 1871-72. Superintendence! GRADING AND PROMOTION 429 the end. In districts where there are several rooms of the same grade it makes classifi- cation very close and enables the teacher to present the work to each class in such a man- ner as to be within the comprehension of each individual child. Each of these rooms is again divided into two classes, according to standing, and the work is presented to the two groups separately. When the work "for the ensuing year is completed, the pupils of any group, or any particular pupil in the group, may be advanced to the next higher grade at any time within the year. It is asserted by some that this plan is only adapted to the schools of large cities, or to schools of large size. Two cities of small size report that they are following the plan essentially with success — Le Mars, la., and Centralia, 111. Of the work in Le Mars, Superintendent Coleman writes : Our class intervals are short. In the primaries they are from six to eight weeks, in the grammar grades from eight to twelve. At intervals varying somewhat, each class is reviewed back to the next lower class ; but all pupils very strong in the work, as indicated by the recommendation of the teacher, are excused from said review, and are promoted to the class that reviews to meet them. Our rate of progress between these reviews is determined largely by the ability of the stronger members of the class, as we expect the others to review soon. This is our sixth year on this plan, and we find an increasingly large number of pupils ready for the promotions. We have admitted three classes into our high school this year — one in September, one the first of November, and one in December. There are forty-nine pupils in these three cla.sses ; five of them took ten years to complete their preparation for the high school ; five took nine years ; eight took eight years ; thirteen took seven years ; fifteen took six years ; two took five years ; and one took four years. In the Centralia schools, 425 pupils of 1,374 — the whole number belonging — were promoted out of course last year, or over 30 per cent. Of the plan pursued Superintendent Mather says : Our system of promotion has to do largely with the individual pupil. Each grade is divided into A and B sections. No grade in the system is more than six weeks, or seven, beyond the next lower. When a pupil, in the judgment of the teachers, is able to do the work of the grade beyond, he is promoted to it. With my strong teachers — those of good judgment— I permit the recommendation to take the place of an examinatioii. Every month and many times every week pupils are promoted. By keeping the grades thus far apart, the school is not disorganized, and sufficient encouragement is given to all pupils. Thus far I have given, somewhat in detail, the plans of grading and promotion culled from letters and reports which are in actual operation in this country. They express in forcible terms the feeling of opposition quite generally felt in progressive centers to the lockstep marching by platoons from grade to grade, which still characterizes the practice of grading and promotions in many schools of both hemispheres. In all the examples given there is doubtless much that is good. It is evident, owing to varied circumstances, that no one plan is suited to all places; and yet it is possible to select certain common elements of excel- lence and from them derive some principles of value to all who are seek- ing to solve the difficult problem of making such grading and promotions as will give individual pupils the largest measure of opportunity. To 430 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [ChattanooBa these principles I will add some conclusions of my own, based upon experience and observation, and upon opinions from trustworthy sources. 1. As to length of intervals between the classes, it is significant that, altho in my recent inquiry only about one-third of the places reported shorter intervals than one year, and in the investigation made by Commissioner Harris in 1893 the proportion of places having short intervals was but a little greater, the opinions of superintendents, as shown in the latter investigation, very generally favored the shorter interval ; only sixty-five out of 425 reporting as being in favor of the one-year interval. I place, therefore, first among the principles of grading the making of as short intervals between the classes as circumstances will permit. In a collection of children numbering one hundred or more the gradation should be of such a kind as to permit intervals of one-half year or less in at least two branches of study, and where the number of chil- dren is more than two hundred, such intervals may profitably exist in nearly all the required studies. Where the numbers warrant it, as in buildings having four hundred or more pupils, the intervals should be nine or ten weeks in all subjects, and may be less than that in some subjects. Where the number of pupils covering the entire course must be placed under the charge of two teachers, their distribution will depend upon circumstances, such as the relative number of advanced pupils, number of beginners, etc. But generally it may be said that a little more than half of the work usu- ally assigned to the course should be given to the primary teacher and the rest to the grammar-school teacher. An arrangement of classes in both rooms should be made by which the intervals are less than one year between classes in sequential subjects, like reading and number in the lower grades, and arithmetic and grammar in the upper grades. With such classification pupils should be permitted to recite in advanced divi- sion in any one or two subjects, whenever they show ability to do the work of that division, with a view of working up into a higher grade in all subjects. 2. Where the work of one teacher must cover the entire course, close gradation in all subjects should be avoided. The pupils may be heard together, or in two or three divisions, in all subjects whose parts are not closely dependent, like language, nature study, geography, history, and literature. In other subjects, as arithmetic and grammar, and some parts of reading, the school should be divided into four or more divisions. Pupils should be permitted to recite in any division or in any subject in which they can do the most for themselves, and be permitted to pass from one division to another whenever they show that it is for their advan- tage to do so. The more advanced divisions in some subjects may be heard two or three times a week, with correspondingly long lessons assigned if they are full-time subjects. The number of daily recitations in rural schools will depend upon circumstances, but should not exceed twenty. SuperintcndenceJ GRADING AND PROMOTION 43 > 3. The course of studies as far as possible should be made so as to assist the teacher in adapting the work assigned and called for to the abili- ties of all pupils in every class. This can be done by designating impor- tant or principal features which must be taken by all for a proper under- standing of the subjects, and by suggesting supplementary work that may be done profitably by pupils after they have acquired the necessary por- tions, and while they are waiting for others who have not acquired them. 4. Regular times of grade or class promotions are desirable, with special arrangements for the promotion of individual pupils, or of sec- tions of pupils, whenever they show_ their ability to perform the work of a subsequent grade. A specific plan for irregular as well as for regular pro- motions should be made and carried out by the principal or superintendent. As a rule, merely general directions or a reliance upon the judgment of the teacher to promote pupils out of course is not sufficient to meet the requirements of all cases. 5. " Double promotions," where the intervals between the classes are one year or more, and where there is no arrangement by which the work in sequential subjects of all grades is covered, may be a benefit to some pupils in the saving of time, but are likely to be attended with dangers that do not offset the benefit gained. If the course of studies is what it should be, there is in "skipping " a portion of the work a loss which can- not be easily made up. 6. Pupils should not be heard in recitation together in all subjects, but should be separated into two or more divisions, one division of pupils being given an opportunity for study while others are reciting. In some exercises, all the pupils of a grade may recite together, as in penmanship, and some kinds of language and nature study, in the lower grades, and in some forms of written and oral reviews in the upper grades. In some subjects, like arithmetic and grammar, at least three divisions of a class may with profit be made. In large buildings the divisions may be dis- tributed in the rooms on the basis of those subjects in which the shorter interval is made; that is, two or three divisions in arithmetic, constituting one class or grade, may be placed together in one room. 7. Promotions from grade to grade should not depend upon examina- tions made by a person other than a class teacher. In general, the class teacher should determine the promotion or non-promotion of all pupils whose ability or non-ability to perform the work of the subsequent grade is unquestioned by her. The place of all other pupils should be determined by the principal or superintendent, by means of exanfinations and such other evidence of their ability as is attainable. 8. Provision should be made in the course of studies for reviews at such times and in such subjects as will permit rapidly advancing pupils to lose no part of the work outlined in the course. 9. Whenever it can be done, the help of one or more assistant teachers 432 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chattanooga should be secured, whose special work will be to give assistance to back- ward pupils, or to pupils who are endeavoring to work up into a higher division or grade. 10. For the purpose of knowing the characteristics and needs of individual pupils, a teacher should be in charge of the same class of pupils for at least one year. In some cases where pupils are promoted out of course from one room to another, the time of such pupils with one teacher might be less than a year. 11. Altho the number of pupils to a teacher has not been a special object of inquiry in this investigation, it has been brought out inciden- tally that attention to the needs of individual pupils demands that in no case should there be more than forty pupils to a teacher, and that, where the ages and attainments of pupils are widely different, as in so-called ungraded schools, no teacher should have more than twenty-five pupils. DISCUSSION W. S. Sutton, professor of pedagogy, University of Texas. — In the problems relating to the grading and the promotion of pupils the whole field of education is involved. In this discussion will be given only a brief statement concerning each of the conclusions reached by Dr. Prince. Concerning his first conclusion, that the intervals between classes should be short- ened, there can be no disagreement. Where the interval is one year, there is little oppor- tunity for the bright pupils to exercise their ability to make greater progress than that which is made by those of only ordinary capacity. It is next to impossible for a pupil, without injury to himself, to skip a whole year's work, or in hours outside of school and during vacation to do the work of a whole year as it should be done. The undertaking is one of such magnitude that but few have the courage to make the attempt. The conse- quence is that in any system of schools where regular promotions are made but once a year the pupils that complete the course of study in less than the time regularly prescribed is very small indeed. One must commend Dr. Prince's suggestions, that, when the pupils in all the grades or classes must be placed under the charge of two teachers, little more than half of the grades should be given to the primary teacher ; that the arrangement of classes taught by both teachers should be so made that the intervals between classes in sequential subjects like reading, arithmetic, and grammar shall be less than one year ; and that pupils be permitted to recite in higher divisions than those to which they regularly belong, in case they show ability to do the work of the higher divisions. I see no objection to the use of this same principle in city schools, for that matter. According to the Cambridge plan, this policy is used with exgellent effect so far as the pupils of the sixth and seventh grades are concerned. This plan, if good for the pupils of the sixth grade, should be extended to pupils of other grades. Dr. Prince's suggestion in regard to grading and promotion in the rural schools is in harmony with the report of the Committee of Twelve, in that he says : " In the rural school having only one teacher, close gradation is to be avoided." Whenever the circumstances in a rural school are not favorable for grading it, to grade that school is to commit a most grievous fault. Superintendenccl GRADING AND PROMOTION 433 Second : " The course of study," says Dr. Prince, " should be made to assist the teacher in adapting the work assigned and called for to the abilities of all pupils in every class." He says that this can be done by designating important features of the work, and by suggesting supplementary work for the brighter pupils. In my opinion, a course of study should not be arranged for bright pupils or for dull pupils, but it should be arranged for all pupils. It is not advisable that, in a single class, only the mediocre pupils or the dullards, or pupils of exceptional capacity, be found. Ideal conditions obtain when pupils of var)'- ing degrees of intellectual quickness are classified together. The dull pupil is inspired more certainly and more effectually by the effort of his more favored fellow-pupil than he is by the encouragement or compulsion of his teacher. He sees his classonate performing easily and beautifully the work assigned, and he himself determines that what his class- mate does he himself ought to do, and he can do, and he will do. But the bright boy can be of great service to others and at the same time serve himself. In his daily work he can be brought to teach his slower companions ; and he who teaches a fact, or truth, or subject, reaches a better understanding of it. The bright pupil, by observing the struggle of a duller mind to reach the truth, gains an insight into human nature. He learns by practical experience how difficult it is for man to apprehend and comprehend the truth. He learns that one of the great functions of the intellectually strong is to teach the intellectually weak, and to be patient during the process. Third : I commend especially ther suggestion that, in addition to regular promotions, there be a specified plan for making promotions at any time. I suggest that test ques- tions, questions which deal with the application of general truths, questions that call for independent and, to some extent, original thought, be occasionally given to the teacher by the superintendent or the principal, with the instruction that especial attention be given to those pupils whose answers may be satisfactory. Fourth : I agree with Dr. Prince in the statement that " Double promotions are likely to be attended with dangers that do not offset the benefits gained," and that," If the course of study is what it should be, skipping a portion of the work is done at a loss." If a course of study is really well planned, if a close sequence of topics in the several subjects and a close sequence of subjects obtain from beginning to end, skippers are not to be encouraged. The schools of America in a determined manner should set their influence against haste in education. Fifth : The separation of pupils into two or more divisions I have already anticipated. Sixth: "The promotions from grade to grade should not depend upon one or more examinations by a person other than the class teacher," says Dr. Prince. I should be glad to see him go a step farther, and say that promotions should not depend upon one or more formal examinations held by anybody. If the teacher is not able at the end of a year of hand-to-hand struggle, as it were, to make an intelligent decision as to the intel- lectual strength of her pupils, it is extremely doubtful if she herself, or a superintendent, or a principal, can decide the matter by the single round of a written examination. Dr. Prince's seventh conclusion is that provision should be made in the course of study for reviews, at such times and such places as will permit rapidly advancing pupils to lose no part of the work outlined in the course. I take it that he intends that these reviews shall be of an educative character ; that they shall not be mere repetition for the sake of repetition. Reviews should, at times at least, be written. It is astonishing how fluently the majority of people can talk about all subjects, and yet how little they can write well upon any subject. It is almost alarming to discover how little one knows about pedagogy when he attempts to put it down in cold black-and-white. Writing not only makes one state his thoughts exactly, but it also breeds conciseness of style — a virtue too little known in conversation or in the oral recitation. I believe there should be a period every day when a written lesson should be given. During this period neither teacher nor pupil 434 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chattanooga should utter a single sentence. Silence, the soil out of which thought grows, has an edu- cative value the modern schoolmaster too frequently neglects. Dr. Prince's eighth conclusion is that, wherever it can be done, the help of one or more assistant teachers shall be secured. It occurs to me that these assistant teachers, while in many instances they would be of great service, are not really necessary when the regular teacher has not more than forty pupils under his instruction, and when the intervals between the grades are not longer than three or four months. Dr. Prince's ninth conclusion is one to which I heartily subscribe. Every teacher should have under his control a class of pupils for at least one year. If boys and girls were to change mothers as often as they change teachers, I am persuaded that, while it would often result in much relief to the several mothers, the children themselves would evidence lamentable results from the rapid rotation of the maternal office. The last conclusion stated by Dr. Prince, that a teacher should not have more than forty pupils, all schoolmasters approve. Yet this fact should be continually presented to school boards, and the question should continue to be agitated until it is settled properly. In closing this discussion, I wish to state three cautions which have already been incidentally mentioned. 1. In any plan seeking to provide for the rapid promotion of bright pupils, great care should be exercised to prevent them from galloping thru the grades. 2. In encouraging rapid and irregular promotions of the bright pupils there is danger that the" instruction of the teacher will hit the course of study in the high places only. 3. It is well not to sacrifice the individual in order to serve the general good ; but it is better not to sacrifice the general good for the sake of the individual. The ideal school is one in which the good of the great majority and the good of the individual are both subserved. GRADING AND PROMOTION WITH REFERENCE TO THE INDIVID UAI NEEDS OF PUPILS PLAN OF THE NORTH-SIDE SCHOOLS OF DENVER BY JAMES H. VAN SICKLE, DENVER, COLO. Local conditions cannot be ignored in a scheme of promotion. Conditions affecting the problem in my.district are as follows : Large, centrally located buildings, enrolling eight grades; buildings of four to six rooms tributary to the large buildings for the convenience of small children for whom the long walk would be a hardship. The Chicago plan (each building a law unto itself in the matter of promotions) could not be applied where such an interdependence exists all along from third to sixth grade. The Cambridge double track, or long-and-short-course plan, would unduly com- plicate the machinery. The separation of a class into small, independent groups with separate lessons involves a loss in the scattering of the teacher's effort for which the rapid movement of the strongest group is no adequate compensation. Our circumstances permit promotion in lower primary grades without regard to fixed dates, but about the third grade we find it best to work toward fixed dates, The half-year interval between classes has proved most SuperintendenceJ THE DENVER PLAN OP GRADING AND PROMOTION 435 serviceable after the fourth grade. We admit two classes to the high school each year. As far as possible, adjustments needed between Sep- tember and June are made within the room, so that a change of teacher may not be necessitated. The classes or divisions in a room vary in number and relative size. They change in both these respects from time to time according to circumstances. It will be seen that this plan, so far, is practically the plan recom- mended in Circular of Information No. 7, published by the Bureau of Education in 1891. After an exhaustive discussion of the class intervals used in seventy cities, we find on p. 20 of this circular this statement: "Of the three class intervals above considered (the year, the half year, and the term or quarter), the half year seems to possess the most advantages and the fewest objections, and this is specially true in grades below the high school, possibly excepting the first and second grades, where a shorter Interval may be desirable. This interval is sufficiently short to permit needed promotions of individual pupils, and it is sufficiently long to prevent a too frequent readjustment of classes and class work." This plan is easily understood and easily administered, and therefore likely to be handled by the average school principal with greater effec- tiveness than a more complicated one. A class interval so long as to prevent frequent reclassifications and irregular promotions and brief reviews is not now generally defended. My contention is that the short and varying interval in the primary grades, with the half-year interval in the grades above, is a sufficient development of the mechanism of gradation to safeguard individual interests, so far as any mechanism can safeguard them ; that, instead of introducing further complications into the machinery of school organiza- tion, we shall find ^ more hopeful field for effort in devising plans for greater flexibility in class management, especially in the grammar grades. Even if the members of a class could have at a given time equal knowledge, which is impossible, they would still differ greatly in quick- ness of comprehension and in working power. This would be equally true of a class of fifteen and of a class of fifty. These differences would manifest themselves in varying degrees according to the changing order of studies during the day. The child who is strong in arithmetic may show less strength in language, while" another good in both may need more time in geography or history, and so on in infinite variety; while the average strength of the individuals composing the class may not vary greatly. No matter how carefully we grade, we find these differ- ences. . A recitation, as ordinarily conducted, attempts to secure the attention of all individuals in the reciting class during the entire twenty or thirty or forty minutes assigned to it on the program. All members of the class attend to the same thing at the same time ; tho often badly mated in point of speed, they must move at the same pace ; the quick 436 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION | Chattanooga wait patiently for the slow ; if the pace is rapid enough to keep up the keen edge of interest in the quick, the slow are fairly dragged over the ground ; so a compromise is arranged which fits neither. At the first subtle signs of lessening interest the teacher redoubles her exertions in order to chain the wandering eye and check the budding yawn. If she is a teacher of ability, she generally succeeds in this, but at too great a cost in vital force, for the energy put forth by the teacher is out of all propor- tion to that put forth by the pupils. The pupils are kept in motion too much by the will-power of the teacher ; the force is external and tem- porary, rather than internal and permanent ; it tends to produce fitful and spasmodic effort. The pupils attend out of respect for the teacher, and from a desire to conform rather than from any feeling of need. Those naturally quick easily become satisfied with an effort far less than their best. Their time might be employed to better advantage than in listen- ing to repetitions of what they already understand, or in spending thirty minutes on what they might do in twenty. Such management makes dawdlers. The" individual plan does not offer an altogether satisfactory remedy, even in schools with a smaller assignment of pupils to a teacher than is possible with us. Is it not possible to retain the manifest advantages of the class recitation so often set forth by Dr. Harris, and yet, as the reci- tation progresses, allow individuals to drop out and do other work more profitable than simply maintaining the semblance of attention ? Feeling that we ought not to put a premium upon the mere act of sitting thru a recitation, I have watched with some care for the past three years an experiment in this direction tried in two of our larger buildings. It is an effort to do in a systematic w^y what a few good teachers here and there have done occasionally. It is, therefore, not an invention, but an adaptation. Some of the purposes kept clearly in view are these : to secure better use of time ; to fit each pupil to rely upon his own judgment by often allowing him to share with the teacher the responsibility of deciding what he had better do at a given time ; to secure, by means of this individual responsibility, willing effort even on the less agreeable studies, thus keeping the pupil fairly even in his work ; to secure more study time in school, where conditions favor concentration, and thus to do away with the necessity of "keeping after school" (staying after school is quite a different matter); to enable a pupil to demonstrate his fitness for special promotion ; to secure conditions favorable to enthusiasm in the pursuit of efficiency and knowledge by emphasizing these as ends, instead of placing emphasis upon marks, special seats, or rewards of any kind. The central thought is individual responsibility . While no two teachers work in exactly the same manner, the plan fol- lowed may be stated in a general way as follows : All pupils are held for" definite minimum requirements. (In order to afford facilities for SupcrintendenceJ THE DENVER PLAN OF GRADING AND PROMOTION 437 greater attainment, each room is provided with its sets of supplementary books and a carefully selected reference library of from fifty to seventy- five volumes.) While those pupils for whom the minimum requirement in a given subject is sufficient are mastering a given assignment in that subject, others capable of doing more, tho not yet strong enough in all studies to be able to skip a half year, are, by a process of natural selection, detaching themselves temporarily from the class in order to work on some study in which they are weak, or for broader or deeper study of the topic by means of the reference books, gathering illustrative material, or following out some line of interest approved by the teacher. Those excused may at any time be required to rejoin the recitation to give needed help to others. They are thus continually held responsible for the work in hand. Failure to respond satisfactorily at any time, either in advance or review, is understood to be evidence that the pupil in ques- tion had not attained .that degree of proficiency which would warrant diverting his attention from the minimum requirement from which he had been temporarily released, and his release is canceled. A few experiences of this kind improve his judgment and make him cautious. He strives to make his acquisitions permanent, not merely for the day. He had better make mistakes early in his estimate of himself, and correct them, than to be acting so wholly under prescription that there is no chance for a mistake in this respect. Without this opportunity for self- measurement there is danger that some will develop vanity and conceit, and others excessive timidity, rather than self-respect and confidence. The pupil is in the truest sense educated thru occasions for choice. A pupil may at a given time find the work in arithmetic and geography all that he can do, while at the same time he is making fuller study, than some of the rest, of a period in history. This he considers a privilege which he works energetically to secure. Another, not so able in history, may get this liberty in some other subject. There will come a time when he may give to the class the benefit of his skill or of his research ; thus he has an immediate motive, partly selfish, but not wholly so. He is giv- ing to others. His success awakens a desire in others to be able to make creditable contributions of the same kind ; thus all are stimulated to do independent work in spare moments and to find spare moments for inde- pendent work. They learn how to find things in books. This is perhaps the most useful single accomplishment that we can cultivate in a child. Books must always be his chief reliance after leaving school. In a class fairly well graded each pupil will have some study from which it will be safe to release him partially now and then. Thus all get some encouragement from the plan. It secures energetic work without stimulating a hothouse growth. The motive it holds out is a permanent motive and a worthy one. It is not a plan for hurrying pupils thru the grades. This class 438 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION LChattanooga presents an even front when entering upon a new division or lesson unit of any study. The development work is done with the whole class. One goes no faster than another, but he gets more. One describes a larger circle than another, or, to use an agricultural expression, cuts a wider swath. It is not so much to the pupil's advantage to go thru the grades rapidly as to get all that he is capable of getting while he is going thru. The plan tends to even up the pupil in the various studies, since making pleasant excursions in favorite studies is conditioned upon fair attainment in all studies. It secures for the pupil so much additional study time in school that much less work needs to be carried home, and thus it helps to do away with the idea, prevalent in many homes, that the parents are expected to do the teaching, and that the only duty assumed by the teacher is to check up the work and pass judgment upon its quality. It allows the teacher to devote time to the less able pupils without robbing the others. The less the brighter pupils depend upon the teacher, the better. The aim should be, as rapidly as possible, to make all pupils self-reliant. It affords opportunity for the development of latent strength, and gives the teacher a safe basis for determining the fitness of individuals for working with the division a half year in advance. We find that the ■child irregularly promoted invariably makes an enviable record in the higher class. One hundred and forty-two such promotions have been made in our schools since September last, or 4^ per cent, of all promo- tions. Five and three-tenths per cent, of all pupils now in the grammar grades are where they are by special promotion. In the eighth-grade class this year, four have finished, or will have finished, the eight-year course in less than six years, seven in six and one-half years, twenty-one in seven years, and twenty-four in seven and one-half years. Able pupils are not kept marking time, but are advanced whenever they show the requisite strength. The half-year interval does not prevent this. The year interval would add materially to the diffi- culty. In the two buildings in which this plan of class management has been systematically tried there has been apparently greater attention to indi- vidual needs than in the other buildings. One hundred and sixty-one pupils finish the work of the eighth grade this year in three buildings. In one building, 57^ per cent, finish in eight years or less; in another, 62^ per cent.; and in the third, the one pursuing the ordinary plan, only ZIVt, per cent. I do not mention any of these figures as showing progress at all remarkable, for, by force of circumstances, in all three of these buildings the school day is cut short for all first-year pupils, each child attending but one-half day. Thus a reasonable allowance would be eight and one- SuperiniendenceJ THE DENVER PLAN OF GRADING AND PROMOTION 439 half years to complete the course. The figures seem to indicate, how- ever, that in two buildings the plans are more favorable to individual advancement than those used in the third, since I know of no other con- ditions affecting one school more favorably than another, such as strength of teaching force, nature of the population, etc. It is not denied that this plan requires more thought and broader preparation on the part of the teacher than the ordinary class plan. But a teacher whose attention is thus directed constantly toward individual needs inevitably gains so much in skill that after a time, all things con- sidered, the work seems easier than before. There is ample compensation for the energy spent in planning work for those temporarily excused from recitation. These are the active spirits who ordinarily find means to divert themselves at the expense of the good order of the room. Kept fully occupied with self-imposed tasks, they cease to be a disturbing fac- tor. The spirit of the room soon comes to be one of self-control and industry. Repression is no longer needed — only direction. A difficult pupil, new to the plan, soon learns that he cannot afford to go counter to public opinion. It is not the teacher, but the spirit of the room, that causes him to settle down to earnest work. Teachers are hampered by their own training. They have not been accustomed as pupils to any freedom in these directions ; hence it does not occur to them that it is possible to give their pupils any freedom. They have little faith in the ability of the pupil to use wisely any freedom. If, as we glance into a schoolroom, it seems to be in perfect order, every child looking at his book, no one whispering, faces all to the front, teacher's desk and pupils' desks models of neatness, we are pleasantly impressed, and we are inclined to say to ourselves: "That is a good school." Whether it is a good school or not depends upon how these appearances are secured. If every choice of occupation and every move- ment are dictated by the teacher, the school is a very poor school. The pupils must necessarily grow less and less self-reliant. Unfortunately, we superintendents, by commending these surface indi- cations, and pronouncing those schools good which have them and little else, have encouraged a vast amount of formalism that absolutely pre- vents freedom to do the best thing possible for the individual. We thus oblige teachers to cultivate that whole brood of artificial incentives so common everywhere, instead of natural and worthy ones. In the evolution of our schools, those teachers who most carefully observed these outwards forms were counted most successful ; they were, therefore, most in demand, and hence the type has persisted. Most of us, and most of the teachers associated with us, have been brought up under" the system ; hence it is hard to break away from it. It is so easy to measure a teacher by this standard, so hard to take less tangible things into account. 446 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chattanooga I regard it important that the class interval used in the grammar grades shall be used at least in the earlier years of the high-school course. If the grammar-grade interval is one-half year, and yet pupils are admit- ted to the high school only in September, a large number must be held back at a time when it is very important that they should move forward. A larger number of those promoted in January enter the high school than of those promoted in June. They leave the eighth grade on Fri- day, and begin the work of the ninth on the following Monday. No long vacation, with its many opportunities for a change of purpose, inter- venes. Ninety-five per cent, of those promoted last month at once took up the high-school work. Only 80 per cent, of those promoted last June registered in the high school in September. We find the plan no more expensive than the plan of annual admission, since the classes are so large as to require division. Fewer pupils drop out thru discour- agement, since failure in any study means only a reasonable review of that one study. Besides carrying the half-year interval thru the twelve grades, we attempt to care for the interests of the individual in the high school by making a large number of studies optional. Any pupil not a candidate for graduation may study any subject which the daily program will per- mit. All pupils, to quite an extent, make their own courses. Certain studies are required of all pupils alike if they wish the diploma of the school. Aside from this list, which is relatively small, pupils may choose, with the advice of parents and teachers, those studies which appear best suited to their several needs. Fixed courses, in which all must do the same amount of work in the same time, do not take account of differences in mental and physical strength. Those who can carry all of the work stay in school : others, becoming discouraged, drop out. We aim to provide for all: " the men- tally strong and the mentally weak, the physically strong and the phys- ically weak, the permanent and the transient." Those who cannot carry four studies may take three ; those who cannot carry three may, without the slightest loss of self-respect, limit themselves to two. The official course of study is an inventory of the studies authorized to be taught, with a statement of the aims of the school, suggestions as to the amount of work a pupil should undertake, the subjects character- istic of certain courses, the proper grouping of studies, etc. At the close of each half year each pupil receives a certificate showing the studies successfully pursued and the number of periods per week devoted to each. When he gets enough of these certificates to show that the official requirements have been met, he receives the diploma of the school, which bears on its face a record of the subjects pursued and the time devoted to each. Each pupil may work according to his strength by choosing just the Superintendence] THE ELIZABETH PLAN OF GRADING 44 J number of studies that his physical and mental ability permits. He may take as long a time to earn his diploma as he needs — five years if neces- sary ; or, if possessed of sufficient physical and mental vigor, he may eanh it in three and one-half or three "years. The aim of the pupil's effort is the mastery of distinct subjects of study rather than the maintenance of a general average. The pupil does his work more enthusiastically since the studies are largely of his own choosing. His course may not differ materially from one that would be chosen for him by his teachers, but it makes a vital difference in the spirit with which he undertakes it whether he loads himself with work or is loaded by another. The plan has been in operation in our school for three years. We have noted that the pupils do more work and better work than formerly. More pupils remain in school to complete a course. The development of natural talent is encouraged. Of 102 graduates (three classes) no two have pursued exactly identical courses. RECAPITULATION A class interval less than a half year is' desirable in the lower grades. The class interval may be longer as the pupils become older and able to work more independently. In the grammar grades and in the high school the half-year interval is satisfactory. As the mechanism grows more rigid, owing to the necessity of con- solidating classes at fixed dates, freedom to make class management flex- ible steps in to the rescue of the individual. The pupil is educated by a gradual increase of responsibility, and the accompanying necessity of choice, till finally a most important choice that of his high-school course, is intrusted to him in part. THE ELIZABETH PLAN OE GRADING BY WILLIAM J. SHEARER, SUPERINTENDENT OF .SCHOOLS, ELIZABETH, N. J. Of the many difficult problems which confront those who are respon- sible for the organization and administration of the schools, no other one is more perplexing than this one of grading. No other one affects more vitally the present and future welfare of the pupils in the schools. No other one is of such interest to the parents who are solicitous for the prog- ress of their children. No other one is of more immediate interest to the principals and teachers who have been compelled to work under the 442 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION (Chattanooga present mediseval plan, which has long since outlived its usefulness. No other one is such a source of worriment to conscientious superintendents who realize that the system of grading, which was intended faithfully to serve the children, has become their tyrannical master. All must admit that teachers vary greatly in knowledge, power, skill, and many other ways affecting their efficiency. None dare deny that the children of every grade differ widely in age, in acquirements, in aptitude, in physical endurance, in power of attention, in their rate of mental development, in the time of entering school, in the regularity of attend- ance, and in many other ways influencing their progress ; yet, because of the manner of grading and promoting, the graded school tends to keep all of the same grade in intellectual lock-step, not only month after month, but year after year for their whole school lives. Children are not alike in ability or in any other way, and God never intended that we should be held responsible for making them alike. Why, then, should we put them in so-called "educational mills" and attempt to grind them outalike, crush- ing out that individuality which he meant should be a guide to their educa- tion and usefulness, and not a hindrance thereto ? Is there any reason why we should labor to produce uniformity of tastes, of character, of aspi- rations, of ability ? Is not individuality of more importance than even- ness of grading ? Is it not the divinity of the child ? Should it not be watched for and discovered, that it may be carefully studied and lovingly guarded ? Does not biography teach us that those only have become distinguished who have developed a love for work along cer- tain lines ? Is it not time we stop finding fault with teachers because, in spite of all these mentioned differences and many more unmentioned, but not undiscovered ones, they cannot produce "symmetrical nonen- tities" ? Should the teachei, limited in power and by conditions, be criticised because she cannot overcome the differences predetermined by the Almighty ? Surely it is time that the friends of our grand public schools, which are growing in efficiency at an ever- in creasing rate, should speak plainly of the defects of the present system and earnestly work for its improve- ment. The Elizabeth plan is not an individual plan, but is the result of an attempt to work out a system which will so combine the advantages of class, group, and individual teaching as to make it possible to suit the instruction to the needs of the individuals and enable each to go just as fast as the work can be done well, and no faster. It is no mere theory, but is a plan which has stood the test of a ten-years' trial, and the claims for which are based on the good results which have followed its adoption in several cities, under varying and unfavorable conditions. The plan described is in use in every class in the city of Elizabeth, as well as other cities. Superintendence] THE ELIZABETH PLAN OF GRADING 443 CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES In place of basing the promotion of pupils, in whole or in part, upon a promotion examination, it is determined by the teachers' careful esti- mate of the pupils' ability to do advanced work. A premium is put upon the character of the work done day by day, rather than upon the amount of "stuffing" which can be done in preparation for the examination. Thus the pupils are furnished a moderate and continuous stimulus instead of an excessive and spasmodic one. The teaching test is a necessary part of all true teaching, but the promotion examination prevents broad and intelligent teaching, makes out of the teacher a grind, and turns out machine pupils. It is not a good test either of the ability of pupils or of teachers. It is a great temptation to deceit and causes many mental wrecks. Pupils are promoted to advanced work whenever ready for it, instead of being promoted at a time arbitrarily determined. Surely, there is no good reason why the time of year should determine a pupil's promotion to advanced work. All must agree that it should be determined by acquired ability, rather than by lapse of time. That, under this plan, it is entirely feasible for pupils to go forward at any time is shown by the fact that, during the past year, 60 per cent, of the pupils did so. But for this plan, all these would have had to mark time until the rest were ready to go forward. Instead of having pupils roughly sorted into large, loosely graded classes, in which the classification must grow more and more unsatisfac- tory as time passes, those of very nearly equal ability are placed together in a room. In the essential branches the classes are still more accurately graded, according to ability, into small divisions. Extra divisions are made when necessary, and are not continued longer than they are needed properly to provide for the important differences in the pupils. This is done in such a way as not to greatly increase the work of the teachers. The number of divisions in a grade varies with the number of rooms of the same grade in the building, with the importance of the subject, with the efficiency of the teacher, and with other limiting conditions. The number of divisions in each subject, as well as the places for indi- vidual instruction, is also determined by these conditions, after a careful consideration of the subjects in each grade, and the records of several thousand pupils in the different grades. The number of pupils in each division also varies with the conditions. The larger the number of pupils to select from, the larger the number that can go together for a time without injury. The aim is to have pupils with others of about equal ability, for the nearer the pupils of a class are in ability and attain- ments, the better can the instruction be suited to their needs, the greater is the power of emulation, the larger the number that can successfully be taught together, the eaiser it is to hold the attention and fix it upon the 44-1 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chattanooga subject to be presented, and the better the mental training that can be given. While the usual plan provides for but eight divisions below the high school, this method has from thirty to sixty. In his paper read at the last meeting of the National Educational Association, Dr. Harris, our educational philosopher, who stands without a peer, said : "Thirty classes between the first and the eighth years are possible in large schools in cities. That all cities do not avail themselves of this possibility is one of the most serious defects in American supervision." Under the usual plan; the distances of the classes from each other, and other unfavorable conditions, make it almost impossible for pupils to pass to higher classes, save at the regular moving times. Yet authorities agree that reclassification is the only way of saving the pupils from the evils of the graded schools. Statistics prove that, sooner or later, nearly all of the pupils suffer because of this inability of the teachers to reclassify them. Under this plan, pupils can easily pass from one division to another at any time, when they are found to be either ahead or behind their companions. The need of reclassification, as well as its feasibility under this plan, is shown by the fact that, during the past year, almost 70 per cent, of the pjipils were moved to other divisions between the regular times for promotion. This year an epidemic of measles, etc., has caused not less than 30 per cent, of the pupils to lose time. Under the usual plan all these would have to dangle at the foot of the class and lose a year. Under this plan they return and take up the work where they left it, and up to February 16, 1898, 54 per cent, had been reclassified, tho but a small proportion (about 10 per cent.) of these had changed teachers. This was done in such a way as not to hinder, but greatly facilitate, the work of the teachers. Instead of compelling teachers to take all pupils over a given amount of the course by a given time, this plan allows teachers to advance just as far and as fast as the ability of the pupils will enable them to do the work well, and no faster. Not only do teachers vary greatly in efficiency, but pupils and classes differ in many ways, as before stated : therefore it is an out- rage to require the same amount of work of all, regardless of the different conditions. Surely this making of the time limit the same for all is the greatest mistake of our schools, both public and private. Why should any teacher be criticised because she cannot furnish the brain cells, health, or conditions which some need to keep up with their more gifted com- panions ? In place of almost entirely losing sight of the individual, this plan demands attention to the peculiar needs of each. Under the usual plan, as the pupils are crowded into large classes, and all are expected to cover the same amount of the course in a given time, the poor teacher is forced to forget that the class is composed of fifty individuals, and to think only of the fact that all must be at a certain place by the time fixed for all to Superintendence] THE ELIZABETH PLAN OF GRADING 445 move; therefore she dare not think of the needs of the individual pupils. Under fear of criticism, she tries to stuff all with the same amount of indi- gestible matter, in the hope that they will appear big enough to pass the useless examination for promotion. Fortunately, the Almighty has pro- vided the children with good forgetters, and that which would be a mental burden and would result in great injury is soon forgotten. Under this plan attention to the individual is not only encouraged, but required. In the essential branches pupils work in small classes, and also work as individuals at those points where experience has shown there is greatest need of individual work. Thus the teacher comes into close contact with each pupil, than which nothing is more important. For proper mental development, there must be this contact of the mind of the teacher with the mind of the pupil ; the separate study of its needs and the separate ministering to the needs which are peculiar to it. Only thus can the strong mind of the true teacher come into life-giving contact with the weaker mind of the pupil for the purpose of restraint, guidance, and development. But while the effort is made to secure all the advantages of attention to the individual, care is taken to retain the many advantages of class and group instruction. Pupils are generally moved forward by companies, and no record of their ability, acquirements, or mental, oral, or physical peculiarities is sent with them. Before the new teacher learns these, many of the pupils become discouraged because they are not understood, and, for this or other reasons, quit school or get but little benefit therefrom Under this plan, such a record is sent with the pupil that, after a short study, the new teacher has the benefit of all that the previous teachers have been able to learn of the pupil. The record shows, not only what the pupils are worth in each branch, but also any defect of vision or hearing, and any other fact which may have a bearing on the character of the work which may reasonably be expected of each. Difficult cases receive special atten- tion, and suggestions as to their management are given for the assistance of their future teachers. I have mentioned, but briefly, ten characteristics of the plan in use in the city of Elizabeth. Time does not permit even a brief consideration of the individual records of pupils, the extra promotion blanks, the pupils' reports, the record of work done, the report of principals, management of periods for individual instruction, arrangement of pro- grams, certificate of time gained, means of making sure of thoro work, and many other devices, which ten years' experience with this plan has proven to be most valuable aids in securing results without asking too much of teachers and without unnecessary risk to the superintendent. The proper consideration of any one of a score of points mentioned would have required at least as much time as is devoted to this paper. Having spoken brieflv. I have necessarily spoken subject to misunder- 446 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chattanooga Standing, misrepresentation, and criticism. However, at this time I can do no more than mention some of the beneficial results which have fol- lowed the adoption of this plan, since its introduction into this particu- lar city a little over two years ago. A FEW OF THE BENEFICIAL RESULTS The instruction is accurately suited to the needs of the pupils of each division. That the instruction should be suited, both in matter and method, to the ability and attainment of those to be taught is a funda- mental pedagogical axiom, upon which all others depend, and with which all others should be in harmony ; yet, all know that it is violated in each recitation of nearly every school of our land, for the extremes of the classes cannot be benefited by the same instruction. Accurate adjust- ment of the instruction is possible under this plan, for the reason that pupils of nearly equal ability are always together. The most careless observer of children knows that they love to do what requires a reasonable amount of effort. In idleness only is there misery for pupils and teacher. When the pupils were so closely graded that work suitable to all could be assigned, the tendency to idleness almost vanished, and the need of punishment was greatly diminished in all classes, and entirely disappeared from many. Under the usual plan, all know that the brighter children are not kept busy ; therefore they get into mischief; for the idle brain is still the devil's workshop. Under the usual plan, pupils are not thoro in the work passed over, tho they spend far more time than should be required to do more work well. That they should be thoro in the essential work none dare deny. That many are not thoro most teachers of experience are not slow to admit. Under this plan, all other things are secondary to thoroness in the essentials. This is easily secured, for teachers are not expected to take pupils faster than they can do thoro work. It is no longer won- dered why pupils went to school so long and knew so little when they stopped. All know that, under the usual plan, the bright are injured mentally and morally by being held down to the pace of the slowest ; the plodders are likewise injured by being continually driven over the work faster than they should go. By this plan the brighter pupils are allowed to move forward as fast as they can do the work thoroly. The slower ones go no faster than they have the mental ability to do the work well. The men- tal and moral benefit resulting from this can scarcely be overestimated, and it is, perhaps, the most valuable result of this plan. Statistics prove that a much larger proportion of the pupils remains in school until the higher grades are reached. In every grammar school in the city there has been an increase in the proportion of pupils in the higher grades, the average percentage of increase for the different Superintendence] THE ELIZABETH PLAN OF GRADING 447 districts being about lo. Surely this is an important matter, for in some cities 90 per cent, of the pupils do not reach the grammar grades, and the reports show that 81 per cent, of all the pupils in the graded schools of this country are in the four lowest years of a twelve-years' course. On all sides much regret is expressed that so few pupils reach the high school. Less than 2 per cent, get to the highest grammar grade. Since this plan of grading was introduced, two years ago, the number attending the high school has more than doubled, the the course of study has been strengthened. All deprecate the fact that pupils entering the high school are from one to five years older than they should be. During the past two years the average age of those entering the Elizabeth High School has decreased more than one year, while the classes about to enter will still further reduce this average. As the schools are generally managed, if any but the very brightest fall but a short distance behind the class, they must stumble along at the foot of the class and lose a year, when but a month or two behind. Because of sickness, or some of a hundred other reasons, nearly all of the pupils do lose time, and therefore fail to keep up with their companions. Statistics gathered in different cities show that 80 per cent, of the pupils lose from one to four years ; and for every one hundred pupils in the schools examined, there had been from one hundred to three hundred years lost. Under this plan, if pupils fall behind their class, they drop into a class but a short . distance behind the one left. As promo- tion may come at any time, this lost ground is easily recovered. The records in Elizabeth show that, except for absence, very few lose any time. As under the usual plan it is very hard for pupils to go to advanced • work at any other than the time for regular promotions, it is readily understood why but few pupils gain time. Most of those who seem to do so really lose the time later, because they have omitted much essential work. Under this plan, 90 per cent, of those who go thru the primary grades, or farther, will gain from one to four years. The teachers' rec- ords of several thousand pupils show that, during the past year, over 80 per cent, of the pupils in Elizabeth gained from one to seven months' time; while the average gain was over three months. This they did without any urging and almost without their knowing it. In most schools pupils recite nearly all of the time, and there is but little time left for the preparation of lessons in school, where most of the lessons should be prepared. For this reason, either the lessons are not prepared, or they are prepared under the direction of the parents, who should not have to instruct their children, even if they are qualified to do so. With this plan the pupils have more than one-half of their time in 448 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION LChattanooga school for the preparation of their lessons. Thus they may be prepared under the direction of the teacher, who is best qualified, both by knowl- edge and experience, to give the pupils the assistance which they should have, and whose duty it is to relieve the parents of this task. Time is provided, both morning and afternoon, for individual help. Intelligent principals and teachers realize the weakness of the usual plan. More than 90 per cent, of the principals and teachers who have worked under this plan have given, in writing, their reasons for preferring it to any other. As published, these opinions show that the benefits to the teachers are as many and as marked as those reaped by the pupils. When the plan was started, all were opposed to what they thought the plan would be. On all sides interested parents have expressed great satisfaction with the results obtained. If pupils receive the same amount of instruction as they wotild under the usual plan, they would get it in much less time. Pupils now average a loss of about two years. Under this plan they will average a gain of not less than two years. Thus there would be saved to the district what it would cost to instruct a pupil for that time. When this is multiplied by the number of pupils, the financial saving becomes apparent. Add to this the amount saved by the lengthening of the pupils' productive lives, and the gain is enormous, tho not to be compared with the gain in improved mental habits. MINIMUM PREPARATION FOR TEACHING BY HON. PRICE THOMAS, STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, NASHVILLE, TENN. It will be excusable, I hope, if this paper is confined largely to a dis- cussion of this subject from the standpoint of the conditions existing and the changes needed in Tennessee and the South. The preparation of teachers contemplates the existence in each state of a system of schools uniting harmoniously all those classes of schools which have their part in the training of teachers. Those should be : 1. The primary schools, under teachers holding primary certificates, with a uniform course of study, preparing pupils to enter the secondary schools. 2. The secondary schools, under teachers and a principal holding sec- ondary certificates, preparing pupils to enter the state normal college or freshman class of the state university. This school should be centrally located in the school district, which should, with few exceptions, be Superintendence] MINIMUM PREPARATION FOR TEACHING 449 coextensive with the civil district. Its principal may also be the district superintendent. 3. The state university and bona-fide colleges of equal grade. 4. The state normal college ar a department in the state university, issuing primary and secondary certificates. 5. The state teachers' institute, issuing primary and secondary cer- tificates. The minimum requirements for a primary teacher should be equiva- lent to those necessary to obtain a primary certificate from the state nor- mal college. The requirements for entrance into the state normal college for a primary certificate should be the satisfactory completion of the primary and secondary courses of the public schools. For a primary certificate from the state normal college one year's course of study therein should be requisite ; for a secondary certificate there should be required a diploma from the academic department of the state university, or a college of equal rank, and a two-years' course in the state normal college. The course of study necessary to obtain a certificate from the state normal college should be purely professional. It should consist of : 1. A course of professional reading, including text-books on methods, pedagogics, school management, psychology, and history of education, and some standard school journal. 2. Essays on professional subjects and the reproduction by the stu- dent of the lectures of the instructors. 3. Daily observation, with professional explanation of model primary teaching. 4. Practice in teaching primary classes under the direction and criti- cism of the normal instructor. Practice in teaching under the direction and criticism of the college instructor, and the observation of model teaching, are necessary for the correction of false ideas of instruction which may have been imbibed from former teachers, and which it requires practice and time to eradicate. These are too apt to be unconsciously adopted by the young teacher, when thrown upon her own resources in her initial performance in the schoolroom, unless that first teaching be under the direction of her tutor. But when correct methods have been observed daily for months, and practice has been had in such methods, the teacher will have had them so impressed upon her mind, and will have so "learned to do by doing," that she will be at home with her work on the fatal first day as an inde- pendent teacher. The model school is the teacher's laboratory of the teacher's training school, where the normal student can see and have explained the method, its reason, object, and result, and where she does her laboratory work in mind study, child study, and character study. 45° NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chattanooga There are several reasons why the normal-school course should be purely professional. There are hundreds of schools in each state where subjects can be learned as well as in the normal college, while few states have more than two or three bona-fide normal colleges. The entrance requirements should be such that the normal colleges should be relieved of the work of teaching subjects. Their resources could then be all expended in giving to the teacher the professional training which many so much need. The best results are reached by illustrating methods by teaching sub- jects familiar to the pupil, and subjects which the student will afterward teach. The child studies subjects with the view of learning facts — of obtaining knowledge, while the true teacher idea is the development of the mind — the growth of the powers of perception, reason, and resource. The child must always have learned the elementary subjects in a more or less superficial way. It is best that the normal student review these subjects from a different standpoint, with the view of teaching them, with the idea of giving reasons, with the purpose of becoming master of them. The child follows the author of the text and the teacher blindly. The teacher in training should study from the standpoint of equality with the author — should get at the foundation, and should be able to teach without a text-book, if necessary. To "know how to teach" it is not only necessary to "know how to study," but to know also the purpose of study and its results, and to know the subjects from the top and from the bottom — from the pupil's standpoint and from the teach- er's. It is true, not only that the "methods of teaching can best be illus- trated by teaching," but by teaching again to teachers, as teachers, what they have formally learned while children, as children. I conclude, therefore, that normal schools for primary teachers should teach only pri- mary subjects, and these only for purposes of illustration of methods and reasoning; and, for the same reasons, primary normal students should observe only primary model teaching and should practice teaching with primary classes only. One of our troubles in Tennessee lies in the fact that "practice teach- ing under criticism" and "observation of good teaching" cease with graduation. We need that the county superintendent should continue in the secondary schools, and the district superintendent in the primary schools, the work of the model teacher and the critic teacher of the nor- mal school. Our city schools, and a few districts in some of our counties, profit by this critical supervision. In this we have most satisfactory results, while in the country schools generally they are poor. It may be argued that the standard for the country teacher should not be as high as for the city teacher. I think it should be. The country school ought to be as well graded, as well taught, and in every other way as good as that of the towns and cities. Superintcndenc?] RECIPROCAL RECOGNITION OF DIPLOMAS 45 1 It is a calamity that the best people in the country are moving into town to educate their children. The country communities suffer from the loss of their more intelligent and progressive citizens. The cities and towns are crowded by non-producers, unfit for town life and unhappy in the change, while their children are surrounded by influences in the towns which are not so wholesome as those of the country life to which they were born. But the state normal school cannot supply our schools with profes- sional teachers. The state and county institutes must make up the defici- ency. These institutes should be devoted to purely professional training, such as has been suggested for the state normal college. The require- ments for entrance to these institutes should be the same as those neces- sary to enter the state normal college, with the addition of the careful study of the subjects, above mentioned, in pedagogics, psychology, his- tory of education, etc. Primary certificates should be issued by these institutes only upon satisfactory examination of these subjects, and on the subjects taught in the primary and secondary schools. The object aimed at in fixing the standard for primary teachers should be the improvement of our country schools, especially, and as a prerequi- site thereto the creation of a body of professional teachers. This will bring about the following results : Professional teachers will do better work and thereby increase the interest in education ; the school fund will cease to be used for pensioning incompetent relatives and friends of school directors and politicians, and wasted in many other ways ; the proper use of the funds, the increase in the interest and efficiency of the schools, and the growth of the intelli- gence and morality of communities will be accomplished ; the people will demand that the state and counties provide for the proper education of the people in the country, as well as in the towns and cities ; and the teacher, doing the work of a master workman, and not that of an appren- tice, will receive a master workman's wages. RECIPROCAL RECOGNITION OF STATE AND NORMAL- SCHOOL DIPLOMAS BY THE STATES BY Z. X. SNYDER, PRESIDENT STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, COLORADO In opening this discussion, we present some data taken from the report of the committee of the Normal Section of the National Educa- tional Association at Milwaukee. The data are taken from the investigation of Inquiry 9, " Recognition of diplomas of other state normal schools in other than the state in which they were issued." 452 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chattanooga 1. Are diplomas from normal schools of any other state than your own recognized in your own state? Answer : Yes, 15 ; no, 21 ; condi- tional, yes, 5. 2. If so, to what extent ? If all states are not recognized, name those that are. Answer : Michigan recognizes Pennsylvania, New York, Indiana, Delaware, and Wisconsin ;. Wisconsin recognizes New York, Illinois, Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, Kansas, and Michigan; New York recognizes reciprocity. 3. If none are so recognized, state reasons why. Answer : No law, 14 ; unequal standard, 6 ; no need, 4; reciprocity, 2. 4. Do you think it would be well to have comity of states in this matter ? Answer : Yes, 31 ; no, 3 ; no answer, 14. 5. If such a plan were adopted, would it not be necessary for the normal schools in the several states to have courses of study approxi- mately equivalent ? Yes, 36 ; no, 4 ; no answer, 10. 6. What plan would you suggest to make normal-school diplomas national in their significance and legality ? Answer: Legislation, 4 ; controlled by National Educational Association, 2 ; reciprocity, 4 ; not answering, 29. The above data were gotten from the state superintendents of the forty-eight states and territories. (i) It would seem that there is a majority of the states that do not recognize diplomas from other states. (2) There are states in which the law forbids recognition, and a number in which the law is silent. (3) There is a general feeling that there should be recognition. It may seem strange that a representative of Colorado should argue the affirmative of the proposition. Colorado is a very exclusive state. No credentials whatever can be recognized under the present law. It is because of these conditions that we are led to feel that such a law is in a large degree absurd. It is not because we are anxious for our diplomas that we urge the matter. It is because of your diplomas. Few of ours leave the state ; many of yours come. It makes no difference what the qualifications of an individual may be, were he to come to our state he would have to undergo a petty examination. It seems that there are a number of reasons why there should be national recognition of the state diplomas. It would be a great convenience to the individual who held a state diploma to have it recognized in any state. It is a matter of no little concern to an educational man to be subjected to an examination. An individual who has been devoting his best self to his work of teaching is very properly disqualified to pass the ordinary technical examination. Such an ordeal chagrins him, makes him hate his business. It has driven good men out of the business. It would be about as Superintendence] RECIPROCAL RECOGNITION OF DIPLOMAS 453 consistent, in the selection of a college professor, to require him to pass again the entrance examination. Not one in twenty who has been out in life twenty years could pass it.. It is to his credit not to be able to pass it. It is a courtesy that should exist among the states. There seems to be a lack of faith in each other's work. It sometimes seems that it is the teaching fraternity itself that stands most in its own way. The war- cry seems to be examination. As Sir Thomas Browne says : " It is a practice that savors much of pedantry." Let us believe that other states do good work. National recognition would tend to raise the standard of many schools. Especially would this be true were there a minimum require- ment. It would inspire schools that now have meager courses to enlarge, expand, and enrich their work, that they might receive national recog- nition. No school under the control of the state would want to be cast out of recognition. It would tend to professionalize teaching. Professional spirit would become more organic. It would tend to vitalize the great army of teachers. This matter of disregarding the work of other educational men, ignoring training that is at par with the best, tends to deprofes- sionalize. It has been said that educational men are slow to move, and that all great educational movements have been forced by laymen. Be this as it may, the teaching fraternity in this country would be more respected, would be more professionalized, by a national recognition of preparation for teaching. It would tend to develop the notion that we have a common country, common interests, common fortunes. It would tend in general to nationalize. There is considerable tendency to provincialize. This tendency follows somewhat the geographical political divisions. This tendency to localize interests is seen in the bitter sentiments expressed on various political issues. It seems that everything possible should be done to bring about homogeneity of sentiment among the American people. Out of such only can grow the strongest patriotism. This must come thru education. If it is to come thru education, there must be such sentiment among the educational men of the country. There must be a recognition of the labor, scholarship, and worth of a man as determined by his fellows where he has worked, and not by a petty examination, which only tends to chagrin and mortify him. It is said that General Grant expressed himself that, if the national university had been founded when Washington made his donation, the Civil War could not have occurred. It would have developed such a homogeneity of sentiment for man's freedom that long before the Civil War we would have had a free people. If this country is to work out her mission, it must be done thru her 454 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chattanooga educational system. The facilities must be American ; they must be national. While this matter of professional recognition may seem but a small one, yet it is one of the factors which tend to nationalize our system of education. Summing up, we would urge that the educational men of the country lend their support to bringing about a recognition of state diplomas of all the states, by all the states: (i) because of the effect upon the indi- vidual ; (2) because it is common courtesy ; (3) because it would tend to raise the standard of the schools ; (4) because it would professionalize teaching ; (5) because of its general effect upon the nation. While we may all agree to a national recognition of diplomas, it might be difficult to accomplish it. Some have suggested equivalent courses, some uniformity of courses, in training schools. It would seem that a similarity of training would furnish the best criterion by which to determine the product. As most of the state normal schools are at the present time,^ no state would suffer materially from difference of product. Should a minimum course be adopted by the state normal schools and a minimum examination for state diplomas, it would help to solve the difficulty. As to its regulation, it would have to grow out of legislation. The states reserve the right, as they should, to regulate their own school affairs ; yet the educational men of the country can do much to bring about such legislation as will further the organic unity of the national life. MEDICAL INSPECTION OF SCHOOLS BY W. B, POWELL, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, WASHINGTON, D. C. To make life safe and to secure health and happiness to those who are governed are among the most important duties of government. Life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness may not be restricted by gov- ernment directly without inducing disrespect and even contempt for that government. But it is equally important, and is imperative from a moral point of view, for the government to see that rights, privileges, and blessings are not curtailed or endangered by carelessness or shortsighted- ness on its part, or by any lack of effort on its part to prevent curtailment and danger. Sickness and disease restrict physical liberty and prevent the pursuit of happiness. It is unwritten law that privileges increase responsibility, and that responsibility is increased by power and authority. Complex conditions of human society multiply the duties and responsi- bilities of government, and, while increasing privileges, they impose k SuperintendenceJ MEDICAL INSPECTION OF SCHOOLS 455 restrictions on the individual. Restrictions imposed by government increase the obligations of government to protect the governed from those ills that logically result from such restrictions. Prevision and supervision, prevention and formation, are talismanic words in the vocabulary of human interests. The school, the public school especially, by dealing with people in masses, has developed the value of the activities in human society named by these four significant words. By prevention and formation, which can be secured thru broad, intelligent prevision and supervision, both the mind and body of the child may be symmetrically, if not perfectly, developed, and a healthy condition given to both. Correspondingly is this true of the community and the state, which are made of individuals. Not only does a govern- ment derive its just power from " the consent of the governed," but it gets its character from the same source. There can be no doubt in the mind of any well-informed person that a large percentage of the phys- ical ills of a community may be prevented by intelligent prevision and appropriate care in formation. The signal service of the government saves to the people by-preventing loss that would equal many times its cost. This benefit of the service, however, is insignificant when compared with that of saving life and preventing accident to human beings. By effort of government, local and national, in the summer of 1892 cholera was prevented from getting a start on this continent. What dark evils were thus averted may only be guessed ; they can never be known. The value of quarantine is so well understood and appreciated that argument is not needed to cause it to be employed by government in cases of apparent wide public danger; it rests on the principle of prevention. It is customary now in all intelligent communities to quarantine cases of certain kinds of disease, as small-pox and diphtheria. But he who knows, as does the superintendent of schools, the conditions existing at the time of quarantine in many cases knows also how much more effective and perfect would be such quarantine, and how much of con- tagion and harm would be prevented, were the prevision earlier, more accurate, and more intelligent. Most of the cases of quarantine in our communities come too late to prevent entirely the spread of the disease which they are intended to check, thus causing much distress and hard- ship. The exercise of power in the enforcement of school attendance or of effort in securing it is dangerous, and therefore unwise, unless it is accompanied by a conscientious appreciation and an adequate exercise of the duty of seeing that the assembling of pupils may be had without physical or moral harm. Not only is it the right, but it is the duty, of the community or school authorities to know when pupils assemble that the rooms in which they work shall be, not only well, but properly lighted; not only well, but properly warmed and ventilated ; not only well, but 456 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chattanooga properly seated; that contagion is not only not imminent, but that it is not possible. This condition of affairs, however, can be secured only by intelligent, expert prevision, which prevision is not possible by the present ordinary means ; that is, thru the school as it now exists. There are not appliances for determining now. There is not expert knowledge. Skill to see and wisdom to determine are not possessed. We have not yet acquired these, except in small degree. We know only partially of lighting, warming, ventilating, and seating. We know little or nothing of the evidences of approaching disease of any kind. There is no doubt that in the significant movement now going on, resulting already in making school better and more effective, the larger share of such benefits or improvements has resulted from increased knowledge on the part of teachers and school officers; but we have not yet knowledge enough to do that which advancing society demands of the school. The increased, accurate knowledge that scientific investigation has given us in recent years makes it possible to prevent much of human suffering and danger, and thus is added a corresponding duty to the work of the school. Increased knowledge of the laws of sanitation, sources of phys- ical evil, and causes of contagion makes prevention the most important function of the health department of government. Contagious diseases are not the only ills against which to provide. These are not the only diseases to which to apply prevention, guided by broad and intelligent prevision. There are diseases not known as acute, sporadic, infectious, or contagious, whose premonitory symptoms, or whose beginnings at least, can and ought to be detected in time to pre- vent development. The expert physician will not only know these beginnings promptly, but he will know their causes, also. If the causes exist in the schoolroom, they can be removed ; if they exist at home, something, at least, may be done toward removing them. Diseases of the eyes, the ears, and the lungs ; heart troubles and numerous other ailments, have their beginnings, in many cases, in heredity, but in quite as many instances they result from the conditions of environment, the form- ative agencies of life after birth. They may be found in the home or in the school. The way pupils are allowed to sing, the way they are allowed or forced to write, the way they are allowed or forced to study and recite, the way they are compelled to sit, may be harmful. Conditions may exist in the schoolroom or school yard which will lead to the impairment of lungs, or will produce rheumatism or other ailments that may develop during the formative period and become chronic, yet the teacher, the principal, the superintendent, or other school authority, be ignorant of their existence. Dirt and cleanliness have meanings from the standpoint of health differing widely from those commonly given to them from the standpoint of neatness in housekeeping. Dirt from the point of view of the bacteriologist has a more significant meaning in relation to human Superintendence] MEDICAL INSPECTION OF SCHOOLS 457 interests than it has irora the point of view of the most careful janitor or the model housewife. To be clean from a sanitary point of view is to be free from that which will cause disease. This kind of uncleanliness can be detected only by the expert. "Only he who has learned to do the right kind of seeing can do this work right. If the state which locates, lays out, and prepares a highway over which people may travel is responsible for accident or harm occasioned by neglect to repair damages or breaks in such highways, or breaks in bridges forming parts of such highways, it must be that the state which provides places of meeting, or allows places of meeting to exist, and compels or allows the assembling of children, yet neglects to provide by intelligent prevention against conta- gion or any cause of disease whose evidences can be detected by expert seeing, will be held responsible for sickness thus induced. It is certainly responsible from a moral, if not from a legal, standpoint, and if it is responsible from a moral standpoint, the state has proved itself fair enough thru just interpreters of law to assume the legal responsibility. THERAPEUTIC ASPECT OF THE QUESTION I have shown in the foregoing the value of prevention rather than that of cure or therapeutic effort. I have pleaded for the "ounce of preven- tion." The subject under consideration is important enough to deserve attention from the standpoint of therapeutic or curative benefits. Many children are defective other than those who are blind, deaf, or feeble- minded. The state takes care of the blind, deaf, and feeble-minded by the most approved methods in costly institutions. Why should it not, with equal justice and propriety, care for those who show beginnings of spinal curvatures, symptoms of pulmonary troubles, defective eyes or ears, symptoms of nervous weakness of various kinds ? A large percent- age of these persons showing only the earliest stages of defective condi- tions when sent to school may be promptly benefited by application of easily found remedies, or perhaps chiefly by change of manner of living. To detect these conditions, however, requires the skill of an expert. Many children have difficulties with one or both eyes of which the parent is entirely ignorant. But these difficulties, being at first very slight, can be cured at small cost. The trouble may be checked by the use of prop- erly adjusted glasses. The therapeutic or curative value of the work of which I now speak is based on the idea of " a stitch in time." This "stitch in time" would save many an eye and many a pair of eyes, many an ear and many a pair of ears, many a throat and many a pair of lungs. Some children ought not to come to school at all until they have had definite medical treatment, or at least expert technical treatment, for ail- ments that are rapidly leading them to early graves. These ailments are more than likely to be aggravated by the conditions and restrictions imposed by school life. In very many instances these require, to prevent 458 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chattanooga their further development, only a slight change in the manner of living, on the part of the afflicted, respecting eating, sleeping, or dressing. It would be a greater blessing to the boy, and if to the boy to the com- munity or state, to have saved for use during a long life of activity two eyes, than to give him a modicum of school instruction and thereby either ruin bis eyes for life or so aggravate their condition as to make them an annoyance to him while he lives, and prevent him from acquiring knowl- edge and making himself a useful man by one of the chief instrumentali- ties of knowledge-getting. It is perhaps fortunate, if our own happiness is considered, that we do not know the number of incipient spinal curva- tures that are aggravated by. school life and developed into permanent and serious deformity. By how slight an effort, from the standpoint of expert knowledge, such serious results may be prevented, every school officer should consider with profound, if not solemn, attention. From the humanitarian standpoint alone the discovering of congenital diffi- culties and incipient ailments induced by wrong living, pernicious envi- ronment, or the wrong use of those things that affect and make life in the formative period, and the judicious giving of direction or advice to parents or guardians for the application of simple but correct methods for curing or improving conditions which may be easily effected, are pri- mary and emphatic duties of public-school authorities. It is no less the duty of the state to care for these incipient cases of disease than it is its duty to care for those whose misfortunes are more pronounced. The rela- tion that the public school sustains to government in a democracy makes it imperative that the physical care of the future citizen shall not be neg- lected, because it is certain that it cannot be neglected without menace to citizenship, which, to be of highest value, must* be pure and phys- ically sound. By how slight an obstruction at the right place the falling rain is directed toward one or the other side of the continent ; by how slight a beginning a break in the dam, undiscovered and unchecked, results in untold destruction of property and human life ! These but poorly illustrate the menace there is to human society in incipient disease among the ignorant. I ask you to recall Johnstown and the Conemaugh dam. The proprietor who fails to discover, or, having discovered, fails to check, the widening breach in the structure which holds a great body of water, with its untold possibilities of damage, is accounted criminal by public sentiment. This same sentiment recognizes the responsibility of the state to the citizen, who is a part of the state, respecting all matters that may influence the moral and physical conditions of the individual. THE ECONOMIC VIEW OF THE SUBJECT From a financial or economic point of view, the school can well afford the care that has been suggested from the standpoint of prevention as well as that suggested from the standpoint of therapeutics. The loss of Superintendence] MEDICAL INSPECTION OF SCHOOLS 459 time occasioned by sickness and disease resulting from school attendance that might be easily prevented is of money value greater than that which it takes to support the school as it now exists, if the calculation be not restricted to school life alone, but be made to include the value of time lost by parents and nurses, and others involved and affected. But in a more restricted sense there would be economy in first caring for the health of the children, because the teaching could and would be more rapidly and more effectively done. The growing child not in good health is ill prepared for the psychic building or making which correct school methods are intended to secure. The psychic self is not its true self except in perfect health. The teaching, no matter how attempted or how well done, will, by force of circumstances, be ineffectual, and, more than this, it may be pernicious in psychic effect, and, indeed, is likely to be so ; that which is intended to be accomplished may be taken wrong by the child, and, if taken wrong, the psychic effect will be the opposite to that which it was intended to be. Who, then, is to know whether that which is attempted in the schoolroom may not result in the wrong thing, or at least be ineffectual or of little avail ? The teacher should know the child physically better than he does. But this first con- dition of requirements the teacher does not possess. THE SUBJECT VIEWED IN THE LIGHT OF SCHOOL GOVERNMENT From the standpoint of school government alone, the police side of the management of schools, it would be profitable and businesslike, and in accordance with the way business matters in human society are gen- erally managed, when managed successfully, to see to it that the children are in healthy condition, and that they are so situated that health, and therefore physical conditions conducive to physical happiness, are assured. Truancy would in a large degree be prevented, because, by teaching healthy children, the teaching exercises of the school would have the effect of giving pleasure and gratification, thus insuring against pleasure- seeking in truancy, as well as in other misconduct. It were better to prevent truancy and dislike for school than to try to cure them by reformatory measures. This would be prevention from the standpoint of control or government, and because, what the child is in the school he is practically when he leaves school ; this alone would compensate the state or the community for all the trouble and expense that medical exam- ination and supervision might cause. MEDICAL INSPECTION A VALUABLE EDUCATIVE INSTRUMENTALITY The most important argument in favor of medical inspection of schools and school children is the educational benefit it would be to the community at large. Its direct and naturally aggressive tendency would be to make knowledge of the common laws of health universal and to 46o NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chattanooga create an interest in the study of social life. Intelligence respecting the effects of modes of living on length of life, on happiness of life, and on cost of living, is very meager, especially among the lower classes of society. The school has reason to know and to understand the disad- vantages of this condition economically and morally. Knowledge of these subjects would grow rapidly if the school would take hold of the matter purposively and would cause people to begin knowledge-getting in experience. Medical inspection would result in giving knowledge of conditions and causes, and would suggest changes in modes of living, with reasons for the same. These would cause thought and would give information to satisfy the same, which, with the purposive effort induced in the realization of suggestion, would educate in the most effectual way. This experience would create interest, which, in turn, would insure fur- ther knowledge-seeking by means of reading, attending lectures, by inquiry, and in many cases by original investigation and experiment. Is it not the duty of the school to arouse society to intelligent thought on the importance of better modes of life ? By no other means can this be done so effectively. Is it not the duty of the school to train people to live better ? Is not this the true purpose of the school ? The logical place to begin this is with the physical life of society, the one phase of life that has been most ignored by our educational methods, because least thought about, and until now least understood. One of the most valuable products or important benefits to society resulting from public-school effort in education is that which comes from individual contact of pupils having different degrees and various oppor- tunities of experience. The less fortunate element of society gets the benefit of culture and knowledge possessed by that portion which has much to give, because it possesses much ; it has received much by the cir- cumstances controlling it. It should be the purpose of the school to use every instrumentality of possible possession to broaden the child's view of life and of society. The school in many localities has done much for society, beside instructing the children in attendance, by this unobtrusive and generally unobserved influence. It is the crowning value of the public school, and the most assuring reliance of republican government, that its most fortunate children may be educated with those possessing the least desirable advantages in their surroundings, without a social or moral harm. This assuring fact is the patriot benefactor's anchor of faith in free and compulsory education. The man who controls public affairs will yet be brought to see that the three R's do not, cannot, educate for intelligent citizenship. He will yet see that they do not make even the beginnings of broad, safe citizenship. In many cities homes have been changed by the instrumentalities of. day school. The addition of music to the school work has resulted in f \ iiupcriniendence] MEDICAL WSPECTlON Ot^ SCtlOOLS 4^1 taking music to the homes of thousands where before it was not heard. Beautiful, refined rote songs on subjects that are themselves elevating and inspiring have changed the homes for younger children and for parents as well. The introduction of drawing into the schools has been the means of carrying art — crude, indeed, in its beginnings, but valuable in its influ- ence— to homes without number which had before felt nothing of such influence. The effect of song and art on the homes and people who especially need song and art to make beginnings of influences that would result in better and happier lives has compensated the state a thousand fold for all the cost of these so-called fads. The subjects to which art has drawn the attention of pupils, where art has been properly taught, has effected untold benefit to children and parents. The philanthropic worker in the degraded or slum portion of the ward will tell you that the establishing of the primary school in that locality has changed, not only the conduct of the children, but has changed also the lives of the mothers and fathers, and the character of the homes of that locality. The beautiful song is heard in the doorway now, where before slang, profanity, or sounds of sorrow or anger were heard ; and the drawing of the child or cheap chromo may be seen now on wall^ which never before had known any attempt at ornament of any kind. These are evidences of the beneficial results of school effort to him who knows how to see; who knows what influences effect better lives and better living. The introduction of domestic science, into the school of the cities especially, has had its influence, not only on those who are taught, but on thousands of mothers and older sisters. Evidence that is unmistakable in character, and that is voluminous in amount, assures us that the sew- ing, and the cooking, and various other economic lessons learned in con- nection with them, affect thousands of homes, making them better and more comfortable, thus producing wiser, better, and more contented citi- zens. The dollars that the community spends for cooking schools, manual training schools, sewing schools, are insignificant in value com- pared with the increased happiness, the broader-minded citizenship, and resulting safety secured to society. He who looks on these things and sees them in an opposite light looks only from the standpoint of dollars. If he will look and see from the standpoint of humanity or good govern- ment, he will never again speak of them as fads, or regret the increased expense of the school, or criticise the multiplicity of kinds of work that the child is caused to do because of them. There is a more important, a farther reaching, and more potent instru- mentality yet to be brought to the schools than has yet been introduced, except in a few places : that of medical inspection. That it is by means of which the people may learn how to live better, may learn how to detect imminent evil, and how to prevent it. That it is by means of which the people will be induced to study their own environment and the 4^2 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chattanboga influences that have made them what they are, and are continuing to affect and fix their condition. The school must ally itself more with society, and make itself felt more as an instrumentality in society for bene- fiting the individual and making society better. One of the most fruit- ful ways of doing this is to interest the intelligent, educated, scientific element of society in its welfare ; to learn from this element, and to invoke its aid in every particular in which it can give benefit. The benefit to be derived from this wise and competent source of informa- tion and suggestion is that exact kind of influence that always goes from the school to the home, just as the effect of domestic science goes from the school to the home to change it and make it better, and just as the instrumentalities of kindergarten methods and of the best primary- school methods have gone from the school to the home, affecting not only younger children at home, but mothers and fathers as well. The day will come when the community at large, even the lower element of it, knowing something of sanitary law and sanitary appliances, will seek to know-more and to understand better how to live; and the instrumentality thru which it shall be brought about is the public schools, allied with the educated portion of society. IDEALIZING OUR FINAL AIM IN EDUCATION BY SYLVESTER F. SCOVEL, PRESIDENT OF THE UNIVERSITY OF WOOSTER, O. "Realizing Our Final Aim in Education " is, of course, logically sequent on having a final aim. This address should properly be preceded by another on " Character as Final Aim in Education." The discussion of our end or object is becoming a very frequent and familiar one, and I must be pardoned a word on that which is fundamental to this. We are fortunate to have really found a final aim, since Aristotle could say as to the confusion then existing the following : " What, then, is edu- cation, and how are we to educate ? For there is yet no agreement on the point. All men are not of the same opinion as to what the young should learn either with a view to perfection or to the best life. Nor is it agreed whether education is to aim at the development of the intellect or of the moral character. Nay more, from the ordinary standpoint the matter is quite confused, and it is not clear to anybody whether we are to train in what leads to virtue, in v/hat is useful for ordinary life, or in absolute science. All these alternatives have their advocates." And so far as I can judge from the able and scholarly paper of Pro- fessor Gordy, there yet seems to be uncertainty as to the end of education among us. There can be little dissent from his general Superintendence] REALIZING OUR FINAL AIM IN EDUCATION 463 postulate that the end of education will be determined for each individual by his conception of man : that Plato would educate for dialectic, intui- tive power ; Aristotle for the intellect's supremacy ; certain religious teachers for the capacity to believe certain doctrines ; Dr. Dewey solely for society; Herbartians for such " interest as would invariably impel the individual to certain kinds of conduct ; " Davidson for "rational living" by the four elements of knowledge, discipline, cultivation of the emo- tions, and will-training. While we must all heartily agree with the general conclusion of the valuable paper concerning the limits of genetic psychology, I do not share the uncertainty which it seems to convey concerning the final aim in education. It is not incomprehensible, because the main elements and outlines and meanings of human nature are not incomprehensible. The drift of the world's thought today is in the direction of the value of the man's nature as a moral being. And he is, therefore, in himself (and necessarily in his relations), as a moral being, the first end of his own education. There is no difficulty in unlocking a door with a master- key which fits all the wards ; and the supremacy of the moral in man is that which brings all individuals; all society, and all history into harmony with the surrounding universe, and with the God who made it and is now immanent in it. I may beg leave to add just here that I know of no religious view of man which ever found expression in an education so narrow as to be com- pleted in man's belief of "certain doctrines.". On the contrary, the world's education is an ethical progress toward an ethical end, driven by the sanctions of one divinely ordained and authoritative system. Creed and deed are never divorced in Christianity. This is abundantly proven by the history of civilization, and nowhere better exemplified than in America, where our education of every grade has been predominantly and almost universally Christian — and remains so today. Moreover, it may be noted that Aristotle is by no means committed to the supremacy of the intellect. On the contrary, he holds that the moral conditions the intellect. Hear his words in the Ethics: "It is by the gradual perfection of the moral nature, and by this method only, that we are brought into that state in which the intellectual principle is able to act purely and uninterruptedly. The improvement of our moral and intellectual faculties will go on parallel to one another. Every evil habit conquered, every good habit formed, will remove an obstacle to the energy of the intellect and assist in invigorating its nature." Parallel with this the noble utterance of Erasmus D. MacMaster (once president of Hanover and of Miami University, in Ohio): "Nothing, nothing, but the predominating influence of high moral rectitude as the governing power in man can give that enlargement and capacity to the intellect, that force of thought, that vigorous tone of sentiment, and that 464 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chattanooga firmness and consistency, which are essential to the highest order of mind." (Hanover, 1844.) There can be no controversy over the assertion that our view of the end to be sought in education will be determined by our view of the nature to be educated. That is simple common sense, and the founda- tion of all scientific inquiry into the lesser facts of our mental structure and history from childhood up. But the wonder is that there should be any controversy as to what the great leading, dominant, distinctive char- acteristic of our nature is. That fixed, the end of our education is fixed. There are many indications of this broad and deep view of our nature being held. John Stuart Mill says : Education includes whatever we do for ourselves, and whatever is done for us by others, for the express purpose of bringing us nearer to the perfection of our nature. In its largest acceptation it comprehends even the indirect effect produced on character and human faculties by things of which the direct purpose is different (e. g., laws, arts, government, industry, social life, physical environment). The same broad view of man's nature and relations appears in the definition of education's aim as given in the charter of the Leland P. Stanford, Jr., University : The object is not only to give the student a technical education, fitting him alone for a successful business life, but it is to instill into his mind an appreciation of the blessings of this government, a reverence for its institutions, and a love of God and humanity, to the end he may go forth and by precept and example spread the great truths, by the light of which his fellow-men will be elevated and taught how to attain happiness in this world and in the life eternal. There are implied our whole nature and our sublimest relations and the underlying truth that, character once made the appropriate end, con- duct will be sure to follow. So Froebel r " Education consists in leading man as a thinking, intelligent being, growing into self-consciousness, to a pure and unsullied, conscious and free representation of the inner law of Divine Unity, and in teaching him ways and means thereto The object of education is the realization of a faithful, pure, inviolate, and hence holy life." For us the perplexity is over. Education is itself so great that only character is a target large enough for its final aim. But character is peerless. It is the sum of our moral attributes. It is greater than circum- stance, as the underlying geometrical truth is greater than the chalk lines on the blackboard. It is the true measure of our worth, the stand- ard of intrinsic human values, and of that judgment which this world is constantly making up, and which the next world will but complete and exhibit. Character is being, and it is nobler to be than either to have or to know. Character is the indispensable first need of man for himself, and the equally indispensable first requisite for every combination in which man must live — family, church, or state. Superintendence] REALIZING OUR FINAL AIM IN EDUCATION 465 Every view of education which has made anything less than character its final aim has proven seriously defective. Materialism has endeavored in vain to destroy the connection, between the two by denying our ability to form character, and making both mind and morals absolutely depend- ent on external conditions and antecedents. The unthinking multi- tude which regards "a living " as the end of an education is much more influential in preventing the accomplishment of the final aim; but civili- zation knows that merely a living is not all that man needs. And they who think of learning as the end of education are giving way to better things. Men must know how to manage what they learn. And even those who have striven to substitute power for learning, and talked long and earnestly about " leading out " the powers and faculties, are discovering that everlastingly leading out things is only to dissipate the power you create. Now the point of rest is sought. The point is demanded where power and learning, living and the physical basis of life, shall all be tributary to character; and where the man — thus to be formed — shall be made the chief end of all his education. The first defective view regards only the physical conditions of education ; the second looks at the money in education ; the third says the knowledge is the education ; the fourth thinks of mental skill and discipline. All are seen on the instant of comparison to be far below the true view in dignity, in comprehensive- ness, and in practical value. The view which makes character the end of education proposes to stop nowhere short of that which is highest and noblest in man. Education will not linger in the outer courts, it has a message to the king ! The true view holds it to be well-nigh self-evident that the culture of the living powers is valueless (in the best sense of man's value), and even dangerous, if it be robbed of that which must go before it and come after it — the culture that gives the trained body and dis- ciplined mind to the care and control of an educated conscience, and a wide-awake but well-controlled will, and a matured and symmetrical character. The world began with its Tubal-Cains and Vulcans and Jubals and Mercurys to educate its fingers and its senses. But the very process made it avaricious, and knowledge systematized and written and transmitted became the temporary end of education. But the living powers are always more than any of their contents, and to educe them rose in its turn to the supreme place. But there was motion, and motion implies direction and end, and now the fair, full ideal begins to gain acceptance everywhere. The pendulum swings no more from body to mind, but rests on soul, into which (as a great center) flow all the forces from either side. With this we are ready to proceed to that most natural of inquiries introduced by the announced theme. The object is a great one, but what opportunities are there in the ordinary course of school and college life for developing character ? There is a savor of making bricks without 466 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chattanooga Straw in this high demand — confessedly the highest possible demand — made upon those the very condition of whose employment would seem to constrain them to do something else, and to do that with all their might and main. The teachers say : " The points to be made in the intellectual plane are so definite and so difficult to attain that the moral plane remains practically inaccessible. So much time is given to the technique of edu- cation that we cannot do much in looking after the spirit of the matter. We are in a measure forced to be martinets in training ; the morale of our troops must come from some other source. Examiners who test our work do not question on morals ; and all work done in that line would not amount to a row of naughts, as to our advancement in the profession. Even parents do not send their children to us to be made good, but to be made smart. The first thing they will take care of themselves (tho we notice they fail in it sometimes). You demand the impossible. The theory is fine, but practice evaporates it." The scholars and students say: " You tax us so much intellectually ; 'give us a rest' on the morals. We have too many knotty problems to wrestle with to waste any time in speculating either about what we are going to be or ought to be; the main thing now for us is to know — and to know to the dot — and to know both outlines and details, and to show that we know in quick "answers. We have too many Latin and square roots to grub to be looking away into the stellar spaces for large inspirations. We are here to learn arithmetic, and not behavior, and to get on in this world, not to get ready for another." And so on you shall hear in great variety, with many side voices of like tenor, from those who are afraid something Christian will be done in the schools, or from direc- tors who are determined on the highest intellectual product at any cost, or from the natural restlessness and impatience of our American spirit. The point of unity in all the cries will be this : However desirable character-making may be, it is not feasible thru the ordinary processes of our educational institutions. But for all this, while acknowledging frankly every difficulty in the case, I hope to show that in and thru our school and college work there lie abundant opportunities to form character of the completest and highest grade. The means, I dare to say, are ample, and the opportuni- ties the very best the world affords. The opportunities are both direct and indirect. Along the line of immediate and daily duty lie these possibilities, and thick in all the interstices of busy educational inter- course are hidden a thousand more which may be developed by care and watchfulness. And in this claim I have the gracious sense of defending your work and mine from the most damaging accusation ever cast upon our educational life, viz., thai it does not and cannot make a high type of character. Superintendence] tiEALlZlMC OUR PIMAL AIM IN EDUCATION 46? Foreigners have openly made the charge, and there are those who urge it at home, and there are other thousands who are tremulously fearing that there may be some color for thecharge, and beginning to wonder why we have not better generations as well as more highly educated ones. To all, of all classes, we desire to make answer that teachers, and boards, and parents, have no defense to offer of any system of education which either prevents or fails in making character. For one, so convinced am I of the ample opportunities given us, and of the certainty of their improvement, on the one hand, and so profoundly convinced that no possible result can atone for the want of character-making power, that I am ready to say distinctly: If our system hinders or destroys character, or simply stands in place of another that can make character, then it may, can, should, and must go! You see, then, fellow-teachers and parents and patrons, where at least I land myself, if I fail to make it evident that there are very good — I might say sufficient — opportunities (if well improved) for character-making, in our educational processes. ' I. To begin, then, with the simplest possfcle proposition. The formative period of character is the school and college period of life. Up to entrance, consciousness is but barely developed, and consecutive thought and philosophical memory are nearly unknown, and power to comprehend moral distinctions is exceedingly rudimentary. In such a state of case it cannot but be that the whole series of educational influ- ences— the schoolroom, the recitation room, the examination days, the practice hours, and the playground — will be admirably situated to make character impressions. What more could be desired as to period ? Earlier were of little use, and later of no use. Almost the whole forma- tive period (I embrace, of course, from kindergarten to professional and technical school) is covered with the network of these influences. More waking time is spent under them by this nascent immortality, this potter's clay, this shooting-twig life, than under most other influences combined. The modern school idea, taken by and large, is immensely aggressive, and there are not wanting those who think that it creeps slowly toward Plato's Ideal Republic suggestion of stealing the children entirely and giving them over to the school-teachers. (See papers at Basel Evangelical Alli- ance in 1879.) These ceaseless hammer-strokes fall on metal thin enough to be battered into any shape the hammer will give it, and hard enough to retain the embossment forever. These influences in such a situation of things must either make character or spoil the material. The opportuni- ties are boundless, and the responsibility is incalculable when you remember that, ere that handling ceases, the plasticity has gone forever ! The time at which we work — common as the thought is — is the thing that underlies both our opportunity and our responsibility. We are carving in stone like that strange western variety which can be wrought with hand- saws and chisels when first.quarried, but once built hardens like granite. 468 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chattanooga Character-making lies pre-eminently in their domain whose work deter- mines the future by oversweeping the present. What ! fellow-teachers ! No opportunities to make character between three and twenty-three ? Then has spring no power to rule the summer's blossoming or to fructify the autumn. 2. A step closer, and we discover that the mere submission of this material to general methods must exercise an immense influence upon character. The school and college are the apostles of the common life. The toning down and subduing effects of the painter's blending brush all come this way. Here false individualism is checked, and the larger life is taught as it cannot be elsewhere. School and college life, as differing from the narrower life of home, has some lines of character to cultivate that are peculiarly its own, and without which a symmetrical character is hardly conceivable. Children and youth are sent to school and college for this very class of effects, just as smaller castings are put into boxes in Pittsburgh machine-shops and rolled about to knock the rough edges off. School and college life ^ives the first principles for social life, and fur- nishes the stepping-stones to much that lies farthest on in perfecting character. There is no danger here, either, to a true individuality. The general methods are modified by special traits — as the one rain is absorbed by each plant thru the soil and atmosphere — according to its own nature. Variety is not destroyed, while a certain healthy uniformity is secured. There is only a just correction of a false individualism. It cannot but be that the submitting of each student to the same general methods will have a powerful effect in establishing general standards of right, in removing effects of injudicious parental partialities, and in enforcing respect for all who live under the same regulations. No longer is John mamma's darling, or papa's prospective candidate for president, but sim- ply No. 79 of room No. 8; or A ist, or B ad. Here is the beginning of much more than is easily seen at first glance. Here is the way to the " moral unity " which has been such a desideratum in the recent French educational discussions and changes. Here is that force which makes so decidedly, both in school and army, against junkerdom and aristocracy in Germany. Even great traits of national character come hereout. Certainly the teacher who sits beside this polishing barrel and by no crank-turning, but by faithful administration, and even individual inspection, seeks to make the most of this power committed to him, is in a "coign of vantage" for character-making. It would be simple stupidity to deny this. We may well add, then, the effect of general methods to the oppor- tunities given us by the peculiar state of the material presented for manipulation. General methods are not mere economies; they are like the military methods which are essential to the safety and morale of the army and condition the military virtues. Superintendence] REALIZING OUR FINAL AIM IN EDUCATION 469 3. And when we look more narrowly into the very subjects of study with which we are disposed to think the time is so exclusively to be spent as to preclude the moral work -desired, we shall find that they possess character-making power in no inferior degree. Let me note again, before entering upon this point, an opinion of one whose opinion I must always respect. Professor Gordy has said that " the Herbartian doctrine that the school course may be made a means of revealing moral ideas, and consequently a means of moral training, is not only false but pernicious." Let me put beside this that of a teacher in the Cincinnati Central High School, Professor Bishop, I think : "The exer- tion of moral force must find place in every recitation. Character- building is the real object The ethical element must not be absent from anything taught. The teachers are ready and willing to make a noble response to this demand that they give greater prominence to the ethical element." (i) First and chief among the subjects of study we must think of the philosophies, mental and moral, coming in their own time and way. That which teaches self-knowledge cannot fail to teach something of self- control. That which tells us what we ought to do must certainly bear firmly upon what ought to be. He is put into the peristyle of character's temple who is taught to reflect perseveringly upon the laws and activities of his own being. You have read, perhaps. President Oilman's admirable plea for philosophy as a force in this direction. Says he : It is by the study of the history of opinions, by the scrutiny of mental phenomena, and by the discussion of ethical principles, that religious and moral character is to be developed The hours of reflection are redeemed from barrenness when • they are pervaded by the perennial currents which flow from the lofty heights of philoso- phy and religion Above other educational subjects in importance, stands philosophy, the exercise of reason upon those manifest and perplexing problems of existence which are as old as humanity and as new as the nineteenth century. For its place in education no substitute need apply. {North American Review, 1883, pp. 536, 537.) And that which is true of other philosophy must certainly be true a fortiori of ethics. Can that be less than a powerful aid to a sincere teacher in making impressions for good that shall be as lasting as they are profound and accurate ? To have the ground of morality fixed ; to have the history of the world's progress and failures in morals described; and to have its relation to God (and God manifest in humanity) settled ; to know something of the great executive, the will, and something of the philosophy of motive — all this (and there is more in ethics) must help those whose ambition it is to teach well. And he only teaches well who inculcates the right as the choicest of all knowledge, and the doing of it as the noblest possibility of our nature. Allow me to recall a word from Professor Halleck's valuable paper : Observation of children has certainly contributed to the science of education some- thing in regard to the teaching of morality. Such observation has shown that those who 47° NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chattanooga try to teach morality by word of mouth waste their efforts. Morality concerns itself with action alone. Where there is no action there can be no morality. Children of ten receive more training in both thought and morals from their own games than from books. But I beg leave to observe on this whole doctrine that there is nothing in the world which is so naturally and necessarily taught in the form of precept — "by word of mouth" — as morality. To this agrees our con- science with its categorical imperative. To this agrees the moral code of Sinai; and equally well its compression into two great commands to love. Moreover, we know that moral nature comes before moral action, and can be cultivated. The illustration only proved that some of the children on the playground had been well taught previously. And let me venture to put against this opinion that of Superintendent F. Louis Soldan, whose absence we all regret. As against the idea that training in moral character must be by concrete instances alone, he is reported as • opposed to the doctrine that you must not give an order to a little child without a lengthy explanation ; simply doing makes morality a part of the child's being tending to habit. Silence, punctuality, regularity in attendance, have not much force, but they are forcible when they lead to purpose. Every school should be a source of purposes, the final end of which is morality as found in the institutions of man. Ethical lessons are given once a week in our schools, in place of the language lessons in the lower eight grades. These are told or given in adapted literature. They cover two points : rights of other children ; duty to home and parents. The teachers have primary texts on ethics, to be-able to present the work in an orderly way. (2) And what of the classics ? Were they not of old time called the "humanities," because they civilized people ? And at this point of their influence they scarcely exceed the similar power of modern languages. What a broadening of consciousness as a whole race — experience flows into the mind and acquires a new language ! How can we avoid the culture of our characters when we come by patient labor and minute study (the very nature of the process heightening the result) into sympa- thy with the classics in which the writers have expressed and enshrined their own characters? Learning thought we learn to think; studying models in literature we are drawn to imitation in inner and outer life. (3) Then there is the history. Magnificent field for character-making, because the largest field of display for character already made ! What is history but the play of individual, and occasionally of national, char- acter ? Without this element it is a dumb pageant, as gaudy and as empty as a Punch and Judy show — and much less amusing. How can history be taught without the sharpest analysis of motive and keenest scrutiny of conduct ? How can the "world history" be the "world judg- ment" (according to Schiller's fine saying), unless taught as a tour- nament of character ? And how can you teach it so and not make character ? (4) Then comes politics, or civics. It is erected upon history, but deals with history in the civic and national plane. Necessarily dignified Superintendence] REALIZING OUR FINAL AIM IN EDUCATION ' 47 » is it by the numbers in view, the permanency of its- results, the width of its areas, and the sweep of its inductions. Lofty is the true polit- ical effect in character. Zr88s R. W. Stevenson 1893 Eli T. Tappan 1888 Charles O. Thompson i88s James P. Wickersham 1891 494 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [National SECRETARY'S MINUTES FIRST DAY MORNING SESSION.— Wednesday, July 6, 1898 The Council was called to order in the auditorium of Columbian University at 9 : 30 A. M. by the president, Charles De Garmo. After a welcome by Principal Charles S. Clark, chairman of the local committee of the Council, and response by the president, the program of the morning was introduced by an address by Dr. Edward M. Hartwell, of Massachusetts, on " School Hygiene — What It Is and Why We Need It." "Literature — Bibliography," by Professor William H. Burnham, Clark University, was presented by Elmer E. Brown, of California, and ordered printed in the report of the proceedings. "School Architecture — Heating, Ventilation, Lighting, and Sanitary Arrange- ments "was presented by F. Louis Soldan, of St. Louis, and Dr. D. H. -Bergey, Uni- versity of Pennsylvania. " School Furniture — Seats, Baths, Blackboards, Maps, etc.," was presented by Superintendent Charles B. Gilbert, of New Jersey. Questions were asked and sugges- tions made in discussion of the subject by John W. Cook, J. M. Green, F. Louis Soldan, Professor G. W. Fitz, Harvard University ; Edward R. Shaw, Professor Delos Fall, of Michigan ; W. E. Sheldon, and J. H. Van Sickle. Dr. Hartwell closed the discussion. AFTERNOON SESSION President De Garmo called the Council to order at 2 : 30 and named the following committees : COMMITTEE ON NOMINATIONS John W, Cook. Edward R, Shaw. F. Louis Soldan. COMMITTEE ON MEMBERSHIP Nicholas Murray Butler. James H. Baker. James M. Green. The subject of "School Diseases and Medical Inspection " was presented in a paper by Professor Delos Fall, of Albion College, Michigan, and " Medical Inspection of School Children," by Dr. Severance Burrage, Purdue University, Indiana. The papers were briefly discussed by B. A. Hinsdale, John W. Cook, and others. The next topics were "The Hygiene of Instruction," including reading, writing, arithmetic, etc., and " Studies of Fatigue," presented in papers by Professor G. W. Fitz, of Harvard University, and Edward R. Shaw, of New York. A general discussion followed. Adjourned at 4 : 30 p. M. to meet at 8 P. M. EVENING SESSION The Council convened at 8 o'clock. The subject for the evening was "The Relation of Psychology in Its Various Aspects to Education," by Professor Josiah Royce, of Harvard University. Council] SECRETARY'S MINUTES 495 The second paper was presented by Dr. William T. Harris, United States Commis- sioner of Education, Washington, D. C, on " Rational Psychology for Teachers." The last paper of the evening was presented by Lightner Witmer, of the University of Pennsylvania, and was entitled " Experimental and Physiological Psychology." At 10 p. M. the Council adjourned. SECOND DAY MORNING SESSION— July 7 The Council assembled at 9 : 30 o'clock. The session was devoted to a discussion of the report of the Committee of Twelve on .Rural Schools, which was taken up under the following topics : "School Maintenance," by Andrew S. Draper. "School Supervision," by Newton C. Dougherty and N. C. Schaeffer. "Supply of Teachers," by John W. Cook and C. B. Gilbert. AFTERNOON SESSION The discussion of the report on rural schools was continued by R. G. Boone, in a paper on " Instruction and Discipline in Rural Schools," under the following theses : 1. The advantages arising from grading small country schools are more than counterbalanced by the disadvantages of teaching together pupils widely separated in ability and requirements. 2. Whenever practicable, the pupils of small outlying districts should be transported, at public expense, to the town center; this plan may embrace all the pupils of the school, or only the older and more advanced. 3. With the limitations suggested in the report, the monitorial system can be employed to advantage in rural schools. 4. Where rural schools are maintained, written examinations for the older pupils should be held at stated times in town centers by the county superintendent or other competent officer, adequate records of the results of the examination being preserved for future reference. 5. For those who have left school, " school extension," in the form of recommended home, reading, under the care of the teacher of the district, should be organized and directed by the town or county superintendent. A general discussion followed. At 4 : 30 the Council went into executive session. EXECUTIVE SESSION Thirty members present. President De Garmo called for the report of the Committee on Reorganfzation. REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON REORGANIZATION OF THE NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION Your committee, appointed to suggest plans for changing or modifying the present organization of the Council, begs leave to submit the following report: I. DEFINITION OF THE WORK OF THE COUNCIL 1. It is recommended that the Council, from to time time, shall undertake to initiate, conduct, and guide the thoro investigation of important educational questions, such as the National Educational Association has undertaken in the past, or may hereafter desire to undertake. 2. It is suggested to recommend to the Board of Directors of the National Educational Association that it recognize the Council as the body thru which all such investigations ordered by the National Educational Association should be carried on. 3. The work of the Council shall also include the consideration and discussion, of Individual papers, as set forth in another part of this report. 11. COMMITTEES OF THE COUNCIL 1. It is suggested that the plan in use at present, of conducting investigations and discussions thru the reports of a fixed number of permanent standing committees, be abandoned. 2. As a new plan of work, it is recommended to the Council that it shall, from time to time, designate certain subjects for investigation by committees appointed for this special purpose. 496 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [National 3. In the appointment of these special committees, and in the selection of writers and speakers, it shall be the privilege of the Council to appoint such experts, whether members of the Council or not, as it deems best qualified to conduct such investigation. III. PREPARATION OF INDIVIDUAL PAPERS 1. It is recommended that, at least six months before each session, the president of the Council send out a circular inviting the submission of volunteer papers by members, and requesting them to suggest names of other persons, not members of the Council, whom they believe willing and able to present valuable contri- butions to educational literature. 2. It is further recommended that ihe Executive Committee shall have power to determine what papers so offered shall be read at the meeting of the Council. The rejxjrts and papers to be presented to the Council shall be printed and placed in the hands of the members at least four weeks before the session. The papers so printed shall be discussed, but not read in full, at the meeting. Whenever the printing of the paper is not feasible, an abstract or brief of each paper, if possible in the form of theses, shall'be sent to the members of the Council at least a month before the meeting. IV. STANDING COMMITTEES I. There shall be three standing committees, an executive committee, a committee on membership, and a committee on educational progress. EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE 2. The Executive Committee shall be composed of the president of the Council, and of three other mem- bers, whose term of office shall be so arranged that one new member may be chosen each year. 3. It shall be the duty of the Executive Committee to provide an annual program by selecting, whenever feasible, subjects for investigation, and appointing committees to conduct such investigations. It shall be the duty of the Executive Committee to carry out the provisions contained in this report referring to volunteer and invited papers. It shall be the duty of the Executive Committee to provide a place on the program for the report on any investigation which may be ordered or referred by the National Educational Association. COMMITTEE ON MEMBERSHIP 4. The Committee on Membership shall be composed of the president of the Council and six other mem- bers, whose terms of office shall be so arranged that two vacancies may be filled every year. 5. It shall be the duty of this committee to secure the best possible nominations for the vacancies to be filled by the Council. COMMITTEE ON EDUCATIONAL PROGRESS 6. There shall be appointed annually a committee of one to submit, at the next meeting, a report on "Educational Progress during the Past Year," in which a survey of the important movements and ev.ents in education during the preceding year is given. This committee need not be chosen from the members of the Council. « V. ROOMS FOR MEETINGS The meetings of the Council should, for the most part, be of a " round table " character. The objects to be attained by the meetings of the Council are promoted, not so much by discussions appealing to large audiences, as by a quiet exchange of opinion among the members of the Council. Largely attended meetings are not conducive to this purpose. It is, therefore, recommended that the Council instruct the officers and committees in charge of the pro viding of rooms for the meetings to be guided by these principles. VI. It is recommended that a committee of three be appointed to revise the constitution of the Council, and to embody such provisions of this report as may be approved at this meeting. F. Louis Soldan, Chairman, Nicholas Murray Butler. Charles B. Gilbert. James H. Baker. James M. Greenwood, The report was read by F. Louis Soldan, and was discussed — article by article — by Messrs. Draper, Cook, King, Hinsdale, Maxwell, Baker, Seerley, Sheldon, Green, Brown, Millspaugh, and Marble. W. F. King moved the adoption of the entire report, which motion was carried, and a committee of three, to be named later, appointed to do the work recommended in sec. vi. Council] SECKE TARY'S MINUTES 497 Mr. Dougherty moved that the chair appoint a committee of fifteen, the majority of whom shall be members of the Council, who shall investigate the entire subject of the establishment of a national university, and report to the Council. Carried. The following committee was subsequently announced by President De Garmo, viz.: President William R. Harper of the University of Chicago, chairman. President Edwin A. Alderman of the University of North Carolina. President James B. Angell of the University of Michigan. Professor Nicholas Murray Butler, of Columbia University. President James H. Canfield of Ohio State University. Dr. J. L, M. Curry of Washington, D. C, agent of the Peabody and Slater Funds. Superintendent Newton C. Dougherty, Peoria, HI. President Andrew S. Draper of the University of Illinois. President Charles W. Eliot of Harvard University. Professor Edmund J. James, of the University of Chicago. Superintendent William H. Maxwell, New York, N. Y. Professor Bernard J. Moses, of the University of California. President J. G. Schurman, of Cornell University. Superintendent F. Louis Soldan, St. Louis, Mo. President William L. Wilson of Washington and Lee University. The Committee on Membership reported as follows : REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON MEMBERSHIP To the National Council of Education: The undersigned members of the committee appointed to nominate members to fill vacancies occurring in the Council at the present time, thru expiration of term of service, and because of absence from two consecutive meetings of the Council, report the following names : Andrew S. Draper, of Illinois ; William H. Maxwell, of New York ; James H. Van Sickle, of Colorado; , B. A. Hinsdale, of Michigan ; Newton C. Dougherty, of Illinois; all to succeed themselves, their term to expire in 1904. To succeed William A. Mowry, of Massachusetts, Paul H. Hanus, of Massachusetts, term to expire in 1899. To succeed W. L. Bryan, of Indiana, Lightner Witmer,of Pennsylvania, term to expire in 1901. To succeed Euler B. Smith, of Georgia, Edwin A. Alderman, of North Carolina, term to expire in 1902. To succeed Earl Barnes, of California, George T. Fairchild, of Kentucky, term to expire in 1903. Respectfully submitted, Nicholas Murray Butler, James H. Baker, James M. Green, Committee. The report was adopted, and the persons named were declared duly elected to mem- bership. The Committee on Nominations reported the following nominations for officers of the Council for the ensuing year : Yor President — A. R. Taylor, Emporia, Kan. For yice- President — James H. Van Sickle, Denver, Colo. For Secretary — Miss Bettie A. Dutton, Cleveland, O. The report of the committee was adopted, and the above-named nominees were declared duly elected as officers of the Council for the ensuing year. The Council adjourned at 6 o'clock p. m. to meet Monday, July 11, at 9 o'clock A. M. EXECUTIVE SESSION — r(?«A««^ Schulgesundheitspflege, I, Nos. 6 and 7, pp. 167-83, 201-15. 152. Hintrager : Der Bau und die innere Einrichtung von Schulgebauden fiir offent- liche Volks- und Burgerschulen. Wien, 1887. 153. Fortschritte aus dem Gebiete der Architektur. Erganzungshefte zum Hand- buch der Architektur. No. 8 : Die Volksschulhauser in verschiedenen Landern. I : Volksschulhauser in Schweden, Norwegen, Danemark und Finnland. Darmstadt, 1895. Pp.179; with 270 cuts. 154. Hippel : Uber den Einfluss hygienischer Massregeln auf die Schulmyopie. Gies- sen, 1889. 155. Hitchcock and Seelye : An Anthropometric Manual, Giving the Average and Phys- ical Measurements and Tests of Male College Students and Methods of Securing Them. Amherst, Mass., 1889. Pp. 37. 156. Hittenkofer: Der Schulhausbau in Bezug auf konstructive Gestaltung und prak- tische Gesundheitspflege. Leipzig, 1887. Pp. 240. 157. Hochsinger : Gesundheitspflege des Kindes im Elternhause. Leipzig und Wien, 1896. Pp. 228. 158. Hodge: "A Microscopical Study of Changes Due to Functional Activity in Nerve C&Ws," Journal of Morphology, Boston, 1892, Vol. VII, No. 2, pp. 95-168. An epoch-making study. Council] BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SCHOOL HYGIENE 513 159. Hodge : Experiments on the Physiology of Alcohol. Made under the Auspices of the Committee of Fifty. Reprinted from the Popular Science Monthly, 1897. Pp. 26. 160. Hodgins : Hints and Suggestions on School Architecture and Hygiene, with Plans and Illustrations. Prepared under the Direction of the Hon. the Minister of Educa- tion. Toronto, 1896. Pp. 135. 161. Hoffmann: Lehrbuch der Schulgesundheitspflege fiir Lehrer und Seminaristen. Langensalza, 1891. Pp. 118. 162. Holmes: "The Fatigue of a School Hour: Studies from the Psychological Laboratory of Leland Stanford, Jr., University," Pedagogical Seminary, Vol. HI, No. 2, pp. 213-34. 163. Hoose : "Report of Committee on Hygiene in Education. Recess or No Recess in Schools," Proceedings of National Educational Association, 1885. See also Pro- ceedings for 1884. 164. Howell : American Text Book of Physiology. By Drs. H. P. Bowditch, J. G. Curtis, H. H. Donaldson, W. H. Howell, F. S. Lee, W. P. Lombard, G. Lusk, W. T. Porter, E. T. Reichert, and H. Sewall. Edited by Wm. H. Howell. Philadel- phia, 1896. Pp. 1052. The standard American authority. 165. Hard: "Some Mental Disorders of Childhood and Youth," Boston Medical ana Surgical Journal, Sept. 20, 1894, Vol. CXXXI, pp. 281-5. 166. Ireland : The Mental Affections of Children, Idiocy, Imbecility and Insanity. London, 1898. Pp. 442. 167. Jackson, J.: The Theory and Practice of Handwriting. London, 1893. Pp« 10, 160. 168. Jackson, John P.: "School Hygiene, Ventilation, Heating, etc.," Pennsylvania School Journal, April, 1898, pp. 429-34. 169. Jacob: Ventilation and Warming. London, 1894. Pp. 14, 124. A very convenient outline. 170. Janke : Grundriss der Schulhygiene. Hamburg und Leipzig, 1890. Pp. 96. 171. Korperhaltung und Schriftrichtung. Langensalza, 1889. Pp. 32. 172. Die Hygiene der Knaben-Handarbeit. Hamburg und Leipzig, 1893. Pp- 8, 105. 173. "Wider die Steilschrift," Pddagogische Blatter, 1894, No. 6, pp. 561-77. 174. "Ueber Ermudung und Ermiidungsmessungen," Pddagogische Zeitung, Nos. 32, 33. 35, 36, 49. SO, 1897. 175. Januschke : "Einige Daten zur gesundheitsmassigen Regelung unserer Schulver- haltnisse," Zeitschrift fiir das Realschulwesen, XIX. Jahrgang, 11. Heft, pp. 641-666. 176. Javal : Hygiene des ^coles primaires et des ^coles maternelles. Paris, 1884. Pp. 140. 177. "L'dcriture droite et I'^criture pench^e," Revue pedagogique, 1893, Tome XXIII, pp. 497 seq. 178. Physiologic de I'^criture. Paris. Pp. 31. 179. Jeffreys: Color-Blindness : Its Dangers and Its Detection. Boston, Houghton, Osgood & Co., 1879. Pp. 312. 180. Report of the Examination of 27,927 School Children for Color-Blindness School Document No. 13. Boston, Rockwell & Churchill, 1880. Pp. 9. 181. Johnson: "Contributions to the Psychology and Pedagogy of Feeble-minded Children," Pedagogical Seminary, Oct., 1895, Vol. Ill, pp. 246-301. 182. "Education by Plays and Games," Pedagogical Seminary, 1894. 183. Jones: The Health of the Senses. London, 1884. 184. Kafemann: Schuluntersuchungen des kindlichen Nasen- und Rachenraumes. Dan- zig, 1890. Pp. 29. 185. Keen: Medical Inspection of Schools. Reprint from the Philadelphia Medicos Journal, 1898. Pp. 12. 5 14 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [National 1 86. Keller: " Padagogische psychometrische Studien," Biologisches Centralblalt, Nos. i, 2, 9, 1894; No. 12, 1897. 187. Key: "Die Pubertats-Entwickelung," Verhandlungen des internationalen medizi- nischen Congresses zu Berlin, Band I, 1890, pp. 67 feq. See also No. 46. 188. Kemsies : Arbeitshygiene der Schule auf Grund von Ermiidungsmessungen. Berlin, 1898. Pp. 64. 189. Kimmins : The Chemistry of Life and Health. London, 1892. Pp. 167. 190. Kingsley : Health and Education. New York, 1884. Pp.411. 191. Kirk: "The Rural Schoolhouse," North Western Monthly, July, 1897, PP- 68-71. 192. Klassen : Grundriss-Vorbilder von Schulgebauden. 1884. Pp. 272. Reviewed in Pedagogical Seminary, Vol. I, p. 427. 193. Kotelmann : "Ueber Schulgesundheitspflege." Mit zahlreichen Abbildungen. Hand- buch der Erziehungs- und Unterrichtslehre fiir hohere Schulen, herausgegeben von Dr. A. Baumeister, 2. Band, 2. Abteilung, pp. 260-397. The best German introduction to the subject of school hygiene for teachers. 194. Kozle : Die padagogische Pathologic. Giitersloh, 1894. Pp. 11,492. 195. Kraepelin : Ueber die Beeinflussung einfacher psychischer Vorgange durch einige Arzneimittel. Jena, 1892. Pp. 258. 196. Ueber geistige Arbeit. Jena, 1894. Pp- 26. . Zur Hygiene der Arbeit. Jena, 1896. Pp. 30. 197. Zur Ueberbiirdungsfrage. . Jena, 1897. Pp. 40. 198. Krohn : "Habitual Postures of School Children," Child- Study Monthly, Oct., 1895. 199. "Nervous Diseases of School Children," Child-Study Monthly, April, 1896, Vol. I, pp. 354-68. 200. Kuborn : Cours d'hygiSne g^nerale et p^dagogique. 1892. Pp. iioo. 201. Kussmaul : Die Storungen der Sprache. Versuch einer Pathologic der Sprache. Leipzig, 1877. Pp. 299. 202. Labit et Polin : L'hygi^ne scolaire. I: Le milieu scolaire, pp. v, 310; II: Les maladies scolaires, pp. 411. Paris, 1896. One of the best French handlxioks on the subject of school hygiene. 203. Lancaster : " The Psychology and Pedagogy of Adolescence," Pedagogical Seminary, July, 1897, Vol. V, pp. 61-128. 204. Lange : Die normale Korpergrosse des Menschen von der Geburt bis zum 25. Lebens- jahre, nebst Erlauterungen Uber Wesen und Zweck der Skala-Messtabelle zum , Gebrauche in Familie, Schule und Erziehungs- Anstalten. Miinchen, 1896. Pp. 38. 205. Legrange : Physiology of Bodily Exercises. New York, 1890. Pp. 395. 206. Lehmann : Die Methoden der praktischen Hygiene. Wiesbaden, 1890. Pp. 594. Methods of Practical Hygiene. Translation of the above, by W. Crookes. Two volumes. London, 1893. 207. Liebreich : A Contribution to School Hygiene. London, 1873. 208. School Life : Its Influence on Sight and Figure. Second edition. London, 1878. 209. Lincoln : Hygiene of Public Schools in Massachusetts. From the Forty-second Annual Report of the Board of Education. Boston, 1879. Pp. 44. 210. "School Hygiene," in A. H. Buck's Treatise on Hygiene and Public Health, Vol. II, New York, 1879. 211. School and Industrial Hygiene (No. XII of the American Health Primers). Philadelphia, 1880. 212. "The Sanitary Conditions and Necessities of Schoolhouses and School Life," in the Lamb Prize Essays of the American Public Health Association, Concord, N. H., 1886, pp. 63-98. Council 1 BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SCHOOL HYGIENE 515 213. Anthropometry Individualized. 1896. Pp. 8. Also in No. 42a. 214. "Essentials of School Hygiene," Transactions of the Illinois Society for Child-Study, Vol. I, No. 3, pp. 53-66. All contributions by this leading American authority should be consulted. 215. Lindley : "A Preliminary Study of Some of the Motor Phenomena of Mental Effort," American Journal of Psychology, July, 1896, Vol. VII, pp. 491-517. 216. Lion: Keimgehalt und die Desinfection benutzter Biicher. Wiirzburg, 1895. Pp- 32. 217. Loewenthal : GrundzUge einer Hygiene des Unterrichts. Wiesbaden, 1887. Pp. 152. 218. Lombard : "Some of the Influences Which Affect the Power of Voluntary Muscular ConirsiCiions,''' Journal of Physiology, Vol. XIII, Nos. I and 3, pp. 1-58. 219. Luckey : "Comparative Observations on the Indirect Color Range of Children Adults, and Adults Trained \n Color," American Journal of Psychology, ]^n., 1 895, Vol. VI, pp. 489-504. 220. Luehr : "Causes and Prevention of Lateral Curvature of the Spine, and Near- sightedness," Mind and Body, Sept., 1894. 221. Lukens : "Language Defects," North Western Monthly, July, 1897, pp. 39-44. 222. MacDonald : Abnormal Man. Washington, D. C, 1893. Pp- 445- Contains an extended bibliography. 223. Mackenzie : The Hygiene of the Vocal Organs. London, 1886. Pp. 223. 224. Malling-Hansen : Perioden im Gewicht der Kinder und in der Sonnenwarme, Kopenhagen, 1886. Pp. 268. 225. Manac^ine, de : Sleep : Its Physiology, Pathology, Hygiene, and Psychology. New York, 1897. Pp. 341. A valuable book. Contains extended bibliographies. 226. Mangenot : L'lnspection hygi^nique et m^dicale des ecoles. Paris, 1887. Pp. 64. 227. L'examen individuel et le bulletin sanitaire des ^coliers. Paris, 1894. 228. Mantegazza : Die Hygiene der Sinne. Konigsberg. Pp. 123, 229. Marble : Sanitary Conditions for Schoolhouses. Bureau of Education, Washing- ton, D. C, 1891. Specially valuable in regard to heating and ventilation. 230. Marro : La puberta studiata' nell' uome e nella donna in rapporto all' antropologia, alia psichiatria, alia pedagogia ed alia sociologia. Torino, 189S. Pp. 507. An extended study of the psychology and pedagogy of adolescence. See a review of the same by Dr. Chamberlain in the Pedagof^cal Seminary, Vol. VI. 231. Mercier: The Nervous System and the Mind. London, 1888. Pp. 374. 232. Meyer, Adolf : "On the Observation of Mental Abnormalities in School Children," Child-Study Monthly, May, 1895, Vol. I, pp. I-I2. 233. Meyer, Bertha : The Child Physically and Mentally. Advice of a Mother accord- ing to the Teaching and Experience of Hygienic Science. Translated by F. Salomon. New York, M. L. Holbrook & Co., 1893. Pp. 153. 234. Meyer, Hermann : " Die Mechanik des Sitzens mit Rucksicht auf die Schulbank- frage," Virchow's Archiv, Band XXXVIII, Heft I, 1867. 235. Meyrich : " Die Staubplage in der Schule und Vorschlage zu ihrer Beseitigung," Zeitschrift fur Schulgesundheitspflege, 1894, Nos. 8 and 9, pp. 452-73. 236. Versuch einer Losung der Uberburdungsfrage durch das physiologische Experiment. Leipzig, 1897. 237. Minot : Human Embryology. New York, 1892. Pp.815. 238. Mitchell : Wear and Tear ; or. Hints for theJOverworked. Fifth edition. Phila- delphia, 1887. Pp. 76. 239. Moll : Hypnotism. Fourth edition, revised and enlarged. Contemporary Science Series. London and New York, 1897. Pp. 448. 5i6 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [National 240. Monroe : Bibliography of Education. International Education Series, Vol. XLII, New York, 1897. Pp. 202. Contains sections on school hygiene and physical education. 241. Feeble-minded Children in the Public School. An address read before the Association of Medical Officers of American Institutions for Idiotic and Feeble- minded Persons, at Fort Wayne, Ind., May, 1894, and reprinted from the proceed- ings of the association. Westfield, Mass., 1897. Pp. 11. 242. Moore : " Ventilation of School Buildings in Massachusetts," Seventh Annual Convention of the International Association of Factory Inspectors of North America, Held at Chicago, 1893 ; Cleveland, O., pp. 36-43. 243. "School Houses in Massachusetts," Eleventh Annual Convention of the International Association of Factory Inspectors, Held at Detroit, Mich,, 1897, PP- 57-62. 244. Morgenthaler et al.: Der Schulgarten. Plane mit erlauterndem Text. Preisge- kronte Arbeiten herausgegeben vom schweizerischen landwirtschaftlichen Verein. Zurich, Pp. 134. 245. Morris: The Book of Health. London, Paris, and New York, 1884. Pp. 11, 1079, 246. Morrison, Gilbert B,: The Ventilation and Warming of School Buildings, New York, 1887, 247, " Location and Sanitation of School Buildings," North Western Monthly, July, 1897, pp. 71-5- 248. Morrison, W. D.: Juvenile Offenders. New York, 1897. Pp- S'?- 249. Mosher : " Habitual Postures of School Children," Educational Review, New York, Nov., 1892, pp. 339-49. 250. Mosso : Die Ermiidung. Leipzig, 1892. Pp. 333, 251. Mulford : "The Throat of the Child," Educational Review, New York, March, 1897, Vol. XIII, pp. 261-72. 252. Miiller : Spinal Curvature and Awkward Deportment. Their Causes and Preven- tion in Children. London, 1894. Pp, 8, 88. 253. Newsholme : School Hygiene : the Laws of Health in Relation to School Life. Boston, 1895. Pp. 150. 254. Notter and Firth : Theory and Practice of Hygiene. Philadelphia, 1896. Pp.1049. A standard handbook, ^ 255. Oldright : School Hygiene, Second Annual Report of Ontario Provincial Board of Health, Toronto, 1884. 256. Oppenheim : The Development of the Child. New York, 1898. Pp. 296. 257. O'Shea: "Physical Training in the Public Schools," Atlantic Monthly, Feb., 1895, Vol. LXXV, pp. 143-6. 258. "When Character is Formed," Popular Science Monthly, Sept., 1897, Vol. LI, pp. 648-62. 259. Ovio : I libri a stampa rispetto all' igiene dell' occhio. 1893. 260. Packard : " Schoolroom Air ; with Directions for Examining It to Determine the Degree of Its Vitiation and the Amount of Ventilation Required," Special Report of the Bureau of Education, Washington, 1886, Part II, pp. 349-92. 261. Parkes : Manual of Practical Hygiene. Edited by North. Eighth edition. Phila- delphia, 1891. Pp. 769, 262. Pattin : The Ritual of Health. London, 1896. Pp. 125. 263. Paulsen : " Die Singstimme der Kinder," P/liiger's Archiv, Band LXI, pp. 407-26. 264. Peckham : " The Growth of Children," Report of Wisconsin Board of Health, 1881 ; Madison, 1882, Vol, VI, pp. 28-73, 265. Penniman : "The Criminal Crowding of Public Schools," /7>r«w, May, 1895, pp, 289-95. 266. Perry, G. B,: Report on Schoolhouses, Essex County Teachers' Association, 1833. Council] BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SCHOOL HYGIENE 517 267. Perry, W. S.: "The Hygiene of Study," Tenth Annual Report of State Board of Michigan, Lansing, 1883. 268. Pfliiger : Sehproben und Sehpriifung. Optotypi Pfluger. Leipzig, 1896. 269. Sehproben-Optotypi und ihre Verwendung zur Prufung der Sehscharfe der Schiller durch die Lehrerschaft, sowie zur Messung des zum Unterrichte notwen- digen Beleuchtungsminimums der Schulzimmer. Leipzig, 1896. Pp.36. 270. Pierce : A List of the Bibliographies of Gymnastics and Other Topics Related to Physical Education. Boston, 1897. Pp. 7. Reprint from American Physical Education Review, Vol. I. 271. Pistor : Deutsches Gesundheitswesen. Festschrift zum Zehnten intemationalen medizinischen Kongress. Berlin, 1890. Berlin, 1890. 272. Porter : " The Physical Basis of Precocity and Dullness," Transactions of the Academy of Science of St. Louis, Vol. VI, No. 7, pp. 161-81. Reprint, 1893. 273. " The Relation between the Growth of Children and Their Deviation from the Physical Type of Their Sex and Age," Transactions of the Academy of Science of St. Louis, Nov., 1893, Vol. VI, No. 10, pp. 233-50. 274. On the Application to Individual School Children of the Means Derived from Anthropological Measurements by the Generalizing Method. Quarterly Pub- lications of the American Statistical Association. Boston, Dec, 1893. 275. Prudden : The Story of the Bacteria. New York, 1889. Pp.143. Dust and Its Dangers. New York, 1890. Pp. iii. 276. Putnam : The Open Fireplace in All Ages. Boston, 1881. 277. Quinby et al.: Ventilation of School Houses in Worcester. Report of School Committee, Nov., 1888 ; Nov., 1889. Pp. 24. 278. Raehlmann : " Physiologisch-psychologische Studien iiber die Entwickelung der Gesichtswahrnehmungen bei Kindern und bei operierten Blindgeborenen," Zeit- schriftfiir Psychologieund Physiologie der Sinnesorgane, Vol. II (1891), pp. S3~96' 279. Randall : The Hygienic and Scientific Value of Examinations of the Eyes and Ears of School Children. Chicago, 1895. Pp- 8. 280. Report of Committee on Examination and Care of Eyes during School Life. Instruction of Teachers and School Authorities and Legal Provisions. Chicago, 1895. Pp.7. 281. Rankin : Hygiene of Childhood. New York, 1890. Pp. 140. 282. Reade : Study and Stimulants. Manchester, England, 1883. Pp.233. 283. Rein: Encyklopadisches Handbuch der Padagogik. Langensalza, 1895. Contains articles on school hygiene and related subjects by such men asJZiehen,iTrueper, Janice, and others. 284. Rembold: Schulgesundheitspflege. Tubingen. Pp.191. 285. Repossi : L'igiene scolastica. 2a edizione. Milano, 1889. Pp. 4, 243. 286. Riccardi : Anthropologia e pedagogia. Modena, 1892. Pp. 172. 287. Richards and Talbot : Food as a Factor in Student Life. Chicago, 1894. Pp. 26. 288. Richards: Municipal Responsibility for Healthy School Houses. Concord, 1897. Pp.7. 289. "Foods — Comparative Value and Diet," North Western Afonth/y, July, 1897, pp. 45-51. 290. Richardson: Hygeia, a City of Health. London, 1876. Pp.47. An interesting study of an ideal. 291. The Common Health. London, 1887. Pp. 336. 292. National Health : a Review of the Works of Sir Edwin Chadwick. London, 1890. Pp. 320. 293. Richter : " Unterricht und geistige Ermiidung. Eine schulmannische Wiirdigung der Schrift Kraepelins ' Ueber geistige Arbeit,' " Lehrproben und Lehrgdnge, Oct., 1895, 45. Heft, pp. 1-37. 5^8 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Nationa 294. Rietschel : Luftung und Heizung. Berlin, 1886. Pp. 7. Reports scientific tests of the heating and ventilation in a number of Berlin schoolhouses. 295. Risley : Weak Eyes in the Public Schools of Philadelphia. Philadelphia, 1881. 296. " Defective Vision in School Children," Educational Review y"^^^ \ oxV, h^\\\, 1892, Vol. Ill, pp. 348-54. 297. Rivers und Kraepelin : " Ueber Ermiidung und^ Erholung," Psychologische Arbeiten, I. Band, 4. Heft, pp. 627-78. 298. Roberts: Manual of Anthropometry. London, 1878. Pp. 54. 299. "The Medical Inspection of, and Physical Inspection in, Secondary Schools," Royal Commission on Secondary Education, Vol. V, 1895, PP- 352-75. Contains suggestions in regard to the proper amount of study in relation to the development of chil- dren in different grades of the school, amount of sleep required at different ages, and the like. 300. Robson : School Architecture. Practical Information on the Planning, Designing. Building, and Furnishing of School-Houses. London, 1874. A standard English authority. 301. Roth: The Elements of School Hygiene. London, 1886. Contains an excellent bibliography of the older literature. 302. Royce : " Mental Defect and Disorder from the Teacher's Point of View," Educa- tional Review, New York, Oct., Nov., Dec, 1893, Vol. VI, pp. 209-22, 322-31, 449-63. 303. Ryerson : " Defective Vision in the Public Schools," Transactions of the Canadian Institute, 1889-90, Toronto, 1891, Vol. I, pp. 26-7. 304. Sachs : A Treatise on the Nervous Diseases of Children, for Physicians and Stu- dents. London, 1895. Pp- 666. 305. Sanford : A Course in Experimental Psychology. Boston, D. C. Heath & Co., 1897. Pp. 449- Contains detailed description of many tests which are of hygienic as well as psychological significance. 306. Schaefer : Arbeitskraft und Schule. 2. Auflage. Leipzig. Pp. 56. 307. Schenk : " Zur Schulbankfrage," Zeitschrift fUr Schulgesundheitspflege, No. 10, pp 529-54- 308. Schmidt : Die Staubschadigungen beim Hallenturnen und ihre Bekampfung. Leip- zig, 1890. 309. Schmidt-Monnard : " Die chronische Kranklichkeit in unseren mittleren und hoheren Schulen," aus Mitteilungen des Zehnten internationalen medizinischen Kongresses zu Moskau 1897. Also Zeitschrift fUr Schulgesundheitspflege, 1897, Nos. II and 12, pp. 593-620, 666-85. An important study. 310. Schmidt-Rimpler : Schulkurzsichtigkeit und ihre Bekampfung. Leipzig, 1890. 311. Schreber : Buch der Erziehung. 3. stark vermehrte Auflage. Leipzig, 1882. Pp. 16, 246. 312. Schubert : tjber Heftlage und Schriftrichtung. Hamburg und Leipzig, 1 890. Pp.28 313. " Die Steilschrift wahrend der letzten fUnf Jahre," Zeitschrift fUr Schulgesund- heitspflege, No. 4, pp. 193-215. 314. Schuschny : Nervositat der Schuljugend. Jena, 1895. Pp- 3i' 315. Schuyten : " Influence des variations de la temperature atmosph^rique sur I'attention volontaire des ^l&ves. Recherches expdrimentales faites dans les ^coles primaires d'Anvers, 1895-96," Bulletin de I'Acad^mie Royale des Sciences, des Lettres et des Beaux-Arts de Belgique, Bruxelles, 1896, 3* sdrie. Vol. XXXII, pp. 315-36, with two plates. 316. Scripture: "Tests on School Children," Educational Review, New York, Jan., 1893, Vol. V, pp. 52-61. 317. Scudder : Seating of Pupils in the Public Schools. Boston, 1892. Pp. 20. 318. Seaver : Anthropometry and Physical Examination. New Haven, Conn., 1896. Pp. 200. Council] BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SCHOOL HYGIENE 519 319. Seggel : " Schreibhaltungsmessung," il/««fA^«^r »i^f Wr ia a schooL the spirit of criticism, competition, and of a phase of sapendsiaai eatei&. R May ■ot always be the s«perrtskn of a cam{ietent principaL but it is sapervisioa all tte saatt. When there is added the cxitkal exaauaation of a competent overseer, the good iwflfTf is immensely multiplied. The adoption of a sensible towasUp system introdaees into tke district sdkaal tke elements that work so advantageously ia the town schook. Isolation — the baat of tl« country school — wiU, in a great measure, disappear. Sometiuag approachiag otgaauatiaa and co-ordination will take its place. Teatdhers thus becoaM united into groups with common interests. Meetings for mutual improvement becsaae possible. Classes oaa be organized for the study of the same thing. The principle of Ttriiiff attrition entns, Oac good teacher may be so used as to leaven a dozen. Best of all, there will co^e^ aft kaa^ the dawning hope of competent supervision. While there will be good schools keve aad there without it, there will never be anything else. Business eatetpcises are coBStaatlr taking in new workers at the bottom and educating theaa for their ta^s by wafeehfsi oversight. Errors are promptly discovered and as promptly corrected. The aimce finds himself in a school where those who are above him become his tcacha&. He is •nder constant criticism and correction. He is not obliged to discover the art of doiag things all over again by himselL He enters into the experience of those who have goa* before him. In our educational methods we seem reluctant to profit by the plaia t«"t^B"»* of the past. Ia this department of our social life democracy has gone to seed. I have heard tateffi^^ men argue for the old system on the grooad of its fjnainlaag. a training school iat office holding and for cnfitivating an interest aa pahfic aliiirs. It that there is some force in the sagKCStion. Doubtless the SMhum has : Baft the cost is too greaL Let us devise soaat tlthnd of satiafyiag Ae for office holding that will not jeapardize oar highest iaterests. ST CHAIXJES B. GXLBKKT, SCrKSt>TKM>B>iT OF SCHOOLS,. SWJUKK» K. JL Rural sdiools should have a permanent body of teachcxs^ sea aad woaaem «1» have adopted teaching as a life work, who are especially iafteMfihed ia Ae taaal scknafcfc who feel that th^ opea. a salwfactMqr casecr aad aae adUfiag to take i saxy to eqni^ tkuascttes far sadk a rawict. The stiawlate the creation of such a class : 1. The rural school year should be as long as dtat of Ae < months, 2. Emptoytat shooM be tor aft least a year, wi& coaCiaaaaee of teaaie coaftaseaft only upon success. 3. ConiLpensatioa shouU be aiaipiiifw^ l» make the prwiirinan aftbcafdkivc. ft 1 be as high as in cities^ becaase Ike laatcr cask af Kna^ wmj ke lakeai it MHSt be saiifieat to fiarHfik a Koi^ e<{Bal to tkaft of the awage 1 of the rural caaMMBiliBS, 4. OfportMMttK Anakf beeflfeieA totoadhessof nnl cottrscSk aad make iNgMSS ia the pcofasmia. Tkase en— f liT Mint ke aa> anaagcd Aat dhey oaa be takca vilkaat Ike sacBfiee of aa vide these tnaKWi^ sack as are menftniaed ta the report. Normal srkaofe af varinas grades* acconfiag to tke lefdRaaeafts far arf»iiiwina aad gn abatf iiin» eapedatty dwoted to Ike aeeds of naal sekoak awkft Muaakkr be < Council] INSTRUCTION AND DISCIPLINE 583 5. V'arii^us grades of certificates should be offered, and salaries should be partially determined by the grades of certificates held by the teachers. These ccrtiticatcs, from the lowest to the highest, should be obtainable as the reward for completing certain prescribed professional courses, provided that for obtaining certain higher certificates a record of successful teaching experience should be re 3 3 3 g! 3*s> S. tn o " B B 3 ES o oq HK n o "< r B ■ oq cr S 3 B D rt T3 Oq "O 3) — p ft 2_ >-< Q^ CO CL "< 3 9 ff- o 2. o. i^ 5- s' ^ S. 2 >— oq oq p r ~ 3 3 OQ oq c " p W OQ 3^ n n re S." |C3 »!' 50 fn 5- re •! c 0,3" 2. P P K 3^ 3 «' S' "^ o 3 ?;■ rr O a> IT f* !? P 3 w ■-• C^oq oq O 3- 2.;?^ S' en >!• r-r -^ a (/> p f% oq 640 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Elementary contact with nature, his individuality develops. As he comes in contact with men and society, he transfigures his individuality into humanity. He develops his personality. As he comes in contact with the spirit of nature, with the spirit of literature, with the spirit of the living God — that deeper life — he transforms his personality into divinity. He develops his spiritu- ality. These three — individuality, personality, spirituality — are the liv- ing momentum of every life. This momentum is the measure of, success. Success is the realization of ideals. The highest realization of ideals is in the consciousness that you have made the most of life. Teaching is living with children. Living with children is bringing about a natural and harmonious development of all their natures. It is unfolding the potential. The order of the development of the potential is thru matter, life, mind, spirit. The successive differentiation of subjects in the unfold- ing of the individual grows out of these centers. In the accompanying chart (p. 639) the order of the development of centers is from left to right^ — ^from matter to spirit. The order of the successive differentiation of subjects is from top to bottom — from inci- dental contact to directed studv. DISCUSSION T. A. MoTT, superintendent of schools, Richmond, Ind. — The problem of arranging a course of study so that the successive differentiations of the subjects will accord with the unfolding powers of the mind of the child, and at the same time accord with the laws by which the various subjects in themselves unfold from the simple to the complex, from the lower to the higher, is perhaps the most difficult, as well as the most important, of all educational questions before us today. To make such a course of study will tax the powers of the broadest scholarship and highest professional knowledge of our time. A course of study is an organic thing, not a mechanical construction. It must bring to the growing, unfolding life for which it is intended just the material that this life needs for its highest and most perfect development at every stage of its growth. The nature of the mind of the child and the laws governing its evolution and growth are in every sense the prime factors to be considered, rather than the needs of the child after graduation. The school life may in a sense be a preparation for after-life, but in a higher sense the school life is true living at the time. The guiding principle that has controlled the formation of courses of study in the past has heen at every step the needs of the child the next term in the high school, in the college, in life after he leaves school, rather than the highest needs of the child necessary in order for perfect growth and true living. The important aim in each year's work was to prepare for the next year. The farmer wants his boy to learn to read and write and cipher, so as to meet the needs of the farm life. The merchant desires a wider reach of knowledge and experience, so as to enable his boy to succeed in the more extensive busi- ness activities. The university professor desires his son to prepare for college. The pur- pose of education with the majority of the people has been to give the children thru the schools a better chance to succeed in life. This utilitarian principle has controlled to a large extent the formation of courses of Department] SUCCESSIVE DIFFERENTIATION OF SUBJECTS l^" 641 study. If bookkeeping, stenography, typewriting, Greek, or Spanish were needed by the boy after leaving school, they were placed in the same course of study. We will probably all agree that in the true thought of today the primary purpose of education is the forma- tion of character — the increase and development of the powers of mind and spirit, rather than the enlargement of mental possessions. And all agree that character here means " a measure of mental power, a mastery of truths and laws, a love of beauty in nature and art, a strong sympathy and unswerving moral rectitude, the possession of true ideals of life and the power to live consistent with these ideals." Education can mean nothing else. Every aim proposed by the educator not consistent with this high purpose of real living for the child will run counter to the true activities of the child mind. In the formation of courses of study the subject-matter proposed for each year's work must be such as will co-ordinate with the needs of the child to live an ideal life and to grow rationally along lines of true development, taking into consideration at all times the life and the civilization constituting the environments of the school. Dr. Snyder has clearly set forth the potentialities of the child and their order of development, and surely these will form the basis for all scientific attempts logically to arrange subjects in a course of study. History, mathematics, language, science, and geography will, of course, consti- tute the subject-matter of our courses of study ; but the differentiations of these branches and the divisions of their subject-matter must always be based on the highest laws of mental growth. I will discuss but one of these subjects as to the arrangement of the course. History has taken its place as a subject in all modern elementary schools, but the logical differ- entiation of the various phases of historical work along psychological lines has been attempted by but few. The growth of the race from individualism in the uncivilized peo- ples to the complex organization of civilized life has been co-ordinate with the true growth of institutional life. In the family was the first effort of the individuals of the race to co-operate. The functions of the family in the care of the living and the care of the dead differentiated, and the church came into existence. The family, the church, the state, the school, and society, in its-industrial and social phases, have blended their forces in the upbuilding of the civilization of the race. This growth of the race from the earlier simple forms of life to the complex civilization of today has been gradual and step by step. Each child in its development lives over the life of the race. In its growth each division of its life has a corresponding phase in history. The simple, imaginative life of the early peoples has its counterpart in the trusting, fanciful period of early childhood. The child of six or seven comprehends the institutional life and civilization as seen in the story of the Eskimo, the Indian, and the Aryan much better than he can the institutional life of the complex, multifarious social organizations of which he is a member. In the heroism and courage of the " Persian Boy," as he is guided by principles of honesty and right, he sees the deep contrast to the .temptations to cowardice, untruthfulness, and dis- obedience that the life in the school often presents to him. The race in which the hardy Spartan wins the crown from the graceful Athenian appeals to the boy and the girl, and in the life of the Greek he sees the first steps of the race toward liberty. The Roman love of law is in harmony with the youthful ideas of justice and honesty that cause the right- spirited child to despise to cheat. With the pagan Saxon the boy may, for a time, think that might is right, but with the Christian knight he learns that gentleness and mercy are above the might of the Saxon or the law of the Roman. The boy's desire for adventure is satisfied by the tales of chivalry, and the longing for practical exploit by the stories of the navigator and explorer. It is thru the views of history that the child gets in the sys- tematic study of these successive epochs of the development of the race that he will find his power to understand the history of today. Primary history work has usually been along the line of American history, at every step of which the complex interrelation of institutional life, of cause and effect, is such as 642 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Elementary to be beyond the reach of the child's mind. In this work the pupil fails to get the long view of the growth of the race that he needs and that his very child nature fits him to understand. My thought is that an important event in modern history, with causes and results running out in varied lines and connecting it with all branches of our many-sided institutional life, cannot be made the basis of true work in primary history. The defect in work of this kind is apparent, not only when we view the subject- matter, but also when we turn our attention to the nature of the child mind. The children of the lower grade are much more able to understand the doings of the race when it was in its childhood than the complex events of the past two centuries, however we may sim- plify the wording in which they are expressed. The heroes of the early race seem to touch the child as those of yesterday do not. Enveloped in the dim light of the past, their figures seem gigantic. They lived their life and wrought their deeds when life was more simple and childlike than now. When the child's own life and games are considered, it is not to be wondered at that the stories of men living when the race was in its childhood come closer to the pupils than stories, however simply told, of the events of this century. The nature of the child, his inherent tendency to see things in relation, and his degree of development require that the history work for lower grades begin with the childhood of the race, and follow in logical steps, co-ordinate with the child's growth, the historical steps in the growth of the race. Later in the grades, when the more complex and difficult subjects of American history are met, they are not only more interesting, but pleasant, as the child is ready for them. VALUE OF THE HAND IN THE ACQUISITION OF KNOWL- EDGE AND EXFJ^ESSION OF THOUGHT BY MISS MARY F. HALL, SUPERVISOR OF PRIMARY WORK, MILWAUKEE, WIS. The child is ignorant and must learn. To learn the most, in the shortest time, he must sit passively and con, as his lesson, that part of the garnered wisdom of the ages which is "assigned." He must "apply himself" to it, i. e., he must iterate "three times three are nine," etc., orally, or by writing it on his slate ten times. Perfect celebration of this school rite requires that he shall never be caught looking at anything but his lesson. Later, to clinch his knowledge, he will spell and define mul- tiplier, multiplicand, factor, and product. From time immemorial, in school history, has " Old Bobby Blink, the pedagogue, Kept school down in Big Squalid Bog, Correcting well each polliwog," after this fashion ; but he has not done it without protest from a long and honorable line of educational reformers, of whom Froebel, one of the latest, was one of the most original and radical. Froebel gave us a methodized way of learning by doing. The most aggressive idea of the new education is self- activity, one phase of which is my theme. It boldly I Department] VALLE OF HAND IN ACQUISITION OF KNOWLEDGE 643 declares that, since experience has been the great teacher of the race, it should be the favorite method of study in the schools. By handling things men learned the properties of matter; by making' and using tools they bridged the gulf between barbarism and civilization. But handwork in school is not to be thought of as the addition of something new to the course; it is a mode of studying what is already there. This is the kindergarten idea ; also the view taken by that sturdy child of the kindergarten, the manual-training school. As it is a mode of investigation (and as we are ever told that "education is one continuous, organic process "), not the kindergarten, but that system which edu- cates a child by practice before theory at the beginning and end of the graded course, in kindergarten and manual-training work, and educates him by theory before practice in the intervening years, is in need of explanation. The principal reasons urged by the new education in favor of learn- ing by doing are these : (i) A little work, properly directed, will teach a child more, and teach it more easily and thoroly — at the same time bringing more of the child's senses and powers into action — than many days of memorizing. (2) His finest qualities, capabilities, and forces cannot be reached by a narrow, verbal course of instruction. (3) Self- activity gives motor energy, habits of industry, sense of responsibility, clearness, discrimination, order, power to see things in relation, vitality of the moral nature and will, and courage to do, instead of the barren- ness, timidity, capricious willfulness, physical inertia, intellectual sluggish- ness, and contempt for rectitude and law, which have ever been among the products of the "Bobby Blink" school. (4) School order should be habitual, and the result of the proper alliance of brain and muscle in intelligent effort, rather than anarchy held somewhat in restraint by a code of school artifices and penalties — forms of "nagging" by which active children are either subdued by spiritless task-work, or find an outlet for unused impulses to act in school mischief. (5) Purely sub- jective education, with its artificial and misleading " standings," and its self-consciousness and rivalry, is selfish, unsocial, and mischievous in its tendencies. For these various reasons the new education utilizes the child's natural activity; its object is the increase of personal and social values ; its products are character, power, a developed brain and hand, readiness to act, conscience, and social harmony. In practice it finds the clearness and discrimination of a child's thought registered in the work of his hands. It sees that the child who defines a preposition wrongly, with- out consciousness of intellectual sin, will feel the error in a spoiled mortise and tenon. This capacity to know a failure is worth much in education. The plain, good sense of many sensible, practical people— farmers, 644 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Elementary merchants, mechanics, manufacturers, and others — supported by both the secular and religious press, is often, in these days, expressed in criti- cisms of schools and their graduates for their ignorance of affairs, power- lessness, and unpracticalness. It suggests more and more emphatically that we teachers free ourselves from tradition, and train the children in an all-sided way that will make them thoughtful and effective in the affairs of adult life. Farmers and mechanics ask that such rudiments of science as underlie the industries by which their children are later to live may be taught in such practical, experimental, thoro ways that their boys may become thoughtful, expert farmers and mechanics. They think, and they say, that this would be better than passing ninety in the mere verbiage of school subjects. This widespread interest in the train- ing of children, and this criticism of schools, are significant signs of the times. The parent's greatest bequest to the future is not his titles to houses and lands, but his children. He grows more and more thought- ful about their equipment for life, that it may be better than his own. Those who manage schools are more or less conservative, both with the wise conservatism that treasures all real achievements and that foolish conservatism that preserves the dead forms and mechanisms that once aided the propagation of truth. Like those workmen at Ephesus, we teachers sometimes are opposed to any iconoclastic Saul of Tarsus whose philosophy would endanger our craft and destroy our shrines; and, like them, when our work is criticised, we proclaim, " Great is Diana of the Ephesians," by urging the force of precedent — which, of necessity, is on the side of the antique — and authorities — whom we should invoke with more care. We teachers like a psychological reason for our faith and practices, and usually suppose that we have one ; thus psychology, like charity, may cover a multitude of sins. Psychologists differ about many things, but on all essential things that touch practically the development of the cognitive powers there is substantial agreement. They grant the physical basis of habit. They say that performing given acts awakens characteristic thoughts and feelings belonging to those acts, and that, because function is constantly related to growth and power, what the physical mechanism, including brain, does decides its own character. Therefore a child is the architect of his own brain as well as his fortune. A good brain is the result of a development of the sensory, motor, and other cells into functional power by exercising special senses, by muscular work, etc. They say very emphatically that, if the nerve energy that dis- tinguishes the doer from the dreamer is to be generated at all, it must be done largely during the period of brain growth. Action, not iteration of words, is, therefore, required as a brain developer ; and we do well to remember that a large part of the motor area of the brain is assigned to the hand and arm. All this is practically ignored in the average school. Department] VALUE OF HAND IN ACQUISITION OF KNOWLEDGE 645 Children are not allowed to experiment with form and quantity — to weigh, measure, compute, make — they must say: " Five into twenty-seven, five times and two over." Theyjecite tables about scruples and drams — a lesson that they may assign either to arithmetic or temperance hygiene. The laws of mental science make education a series of systematized experiences and impressions, but the laws of the school board often make it largely a series of verbal exercises about the capitals of the Barbary states, the tributaries of the Hoang-Ho, and the definition of such unknown and abstract things as lie generally out of the child's field of vision ; and they nurture this venerable school superstition by a des- potic system of examinations and reports. If the child, under the sanc- tion of a very old and wise law of nature — self-preservation — tires of word-grinding, and develops his motor cells by playing school tricks, the remedy is — another page of definitions! Or, the child at home who begs for " something to do " is told, " Sit and read your book," or to memorize, " I shot an arrow into the air." If the child is thwarted when his mental images tend to pass into action, or when his growth requires activity, being undirected, or misdirected, he educates himself by chance suggestion. If he builds with Robinson Crusoe, it is well ; but we have learned that the boy is in danger who is led by dramatizing the lives of the desperadoes to confound lawlessness and heroism. To know the value of handwork, watch a child who is making a card- board box for the seeds from his garden. The main product is not a box, but a new conception of accuracy, perseverance, the application of law to work, the joy of accomplishment, with trained senses, feeling, rea- son, will, and the child's "activity in deeds as an index of his knowledge of things." We are now living in a land and time which make peculiar demands upon the school. Future historians will surely note the unparalleled serv- ice of the American teacher of today as one of the large history-making forces which are transforming, by wholesale, and in one or two genera- tions,- heterogeneous elements into a national type, doing, successfully and rapidly, work which has required centuries in other lands and times. But school authorities should see that the mingling of these differing elements in our schools in these times of transition, if not of industrial and social revolution, requires something different from the traditional, conventional school. The first grade of a certain ward school had this spring 166 children. Of these 86 were Irish, 31 German, 23 Italian, 15 American, 4 Arabian, 3 Swedish, i Welsh, i Danish, i Norwegian, and i French. Similar facts are common in our larger cities. They give some color to Bismarck's assertion that we are not Anglo-Saxons ; and they show that the most important business of a school board is not the con- trol of school patronage. 646 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Elementary To know a child's life in a slum home is to know one factor of the public-school question. Defining the subjunctive mode will not cure slum torpor, or restore a lost sense of cleanliness to those who live con- tentedly in filthy kennels in dark,' vermin-infested alleys. This segre- gation of great masses of the very poor in tenement houses, where they live below the general line of comfort — always a danger line — and the widening and darkening of our slum areas, are a distinct menace to the city. If the hopelessness, dissipation, and unthrift of the alleys are to be cured ; if children who are tending to criminal careers are to be saved ; if sturdy beggars who live contentedly on charity are to be inoculated with new ideas of self-respect and duty, the public school must teach the clumsy fingers of the children as a means of arousing benumbed powers. That the stars and stripes float over the schoolhouse is not enough. Then there are some carefully nursed and helpless children of the wealthy to whom the story of the primitive industries — well known to parents and grandparents — is as a fairy tale. Many of these children are dull, superficial, lacking in insight into essential things, and some are positively depraved. How are we to train all these children, for whom the home often does so little, up to the standards of character, insight, and integrity that the fathers held ? The child who now comes to school belongs to a complex and unsta- ble, because progressive, social order, for a part in which — himself com- plex— he is to be fitted. Like Browning's Sordello, he is Compassed murkily about With ravages of long, sad hundred years. What shall be done with him ? His mother takes him to the superintendent or the principal, and he is "classified;" that is, usually he is placed with others of his age or size, or where there are the most vacant seats, or with children who can answer the same questions in arithmetic or grammar — and this is all! This is well, but it should not be quite all. The deepest insight, broad- est knowledge, tenderest conscience, and most patient effort are needed by all who help to make or manage schools, that they may know that this should not be all. Our schools, with some modification, are substantially patterned after the early New England model, but with all else that distinguished early New England left out. The high grade of intelligence and character, the moral earnestness, thrift, and the varied industries of those home- makers of early New England — things which supplemented a school of the humanities and helped it to make large-brained and large-souled men and women — are left behind. Before the children, in those days, got around to things worthy their Puritan mettle, like the " rule of three," the Gallic wars, or the calculus, they had risen early and applied all their intelligence and brawn to knotty problems concerning the mainte- Department] VALUE OF HAND IN ACQUISITION OF KNOWLEDGE 647 nance of the family, besides "doing the chores" about the house and farm — after which these capable, intelligent, resourceful young folks were in no great need of manual training. Their sturdy self-reliance, trust- worthiness, sense of responsibility, and peculiar aptness in applying what they knew to affairs were born of intelligent, purposeful effort, and gave them that knack which later made so many of them leaders of the busi- ness and intellectual life of the cities. But in our days small industries are destroyed, and the general Cise of cheap, ready-made products has so changed the home life that the average child takes as little heed of what he shall eat or wherewithal he shall be clothed as the raven or the lilies of the field. This summer, in an eastern town, the boys and girls of the high school habitually repaired to the post-office, at the close of school, to await the coming of the mail, and to loaf, perchance to flirt — "aye, there's the rub!" — for these were scions of New England. These changes suggest the increasing, urgent need of handwork in school, to insure clear and masterly thinking, to develop moral earnest- ness and will, and to ground later activities. In the early days there was also an inspiring and ennobling famil- iarity with nature — now lost to most children — that gave lessons of utilities and insight into law, and made children acute and practical. What can the town school substitute for the topography of hill, stream, and swamp, the sweep of forest and meadow, a knowledge of soils, min- erals, plants, animals, and their relationships and values ? It gives a day at the park, where the children must " keep off the grass," and where they "must not feed or tease" the unhappy-looking park animals that are neither wild nor tame; or a day at the museum — and blessed are the children thus privileged ! Yet the museum blackbird is not the wild thing that "flutes its o-ka-lee" from the recesses of the swamp, and the environment of the museum oriole does not suggest a fruit orchard. It gives — "and pity 'tis 'tis true!" — nature lessons about the "water-dust," Mr. Wind, Mrs. Crocus, Mr. and Mrs. Crab, and other impertinent personifi- cations that so misrepresent the nobleness and dignity of nature. Children who understand nature, whose mills measure the force of wind and brook, and who construct machines and implements for their mimic industries, are getting much that sloyd could teach them ; but these are the favored children, and they are few. Sound pedagogy and our present conditions of living demand hand- work as an organic part of our graded courses. Utilizing the natural activity of children as a mode of study is a simple solution of the prob- lem. As to means, the kindergarten material for small workers, and more resisting, refractory materials for older ones, may be used in study- ing physical and mathematical conditions, geographic relief, the instru- ments used in arts and industries, or in realizing the scenes and characters read about. When industrial work is methodized for all grades, by an 648 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Elementary extension of the kindergarten idea of instruction, more artisans will become artists, as they did in the old days ; then, also, the son of the family who can make a steam engine will be the social peer of his brother who can follow some chemist's formula and build a pill. In other words, this intelligent, joyous method of studying things, which awakens and trains practical and artistic capabilities to the point where they express themselves in useful, beautiful, and origii*al forms, will destroy that social tyranny which now impels so many to grope restlessly after happiness in callings where they shall never find it. One thing that teachers should not forget is the truth that an impelling force, not a compelling one, develops the child. DISCUSSION Superintendent George Griffith, Utica, N. Y. — I find myself in a peculiar position today. For years a friend and advocate of manual training, and instrumental in securing its introduction and continuance in our system of schools, I feel constrained today to utter two protests or cautions. First, I caution against the extravagant claims of many over-zealous advocates of manual training. It has its place and value — and important they are — but we shall gain nothing by claiming that the course of study without it has produced " contempt for rec- titude and law," and that a course of study with it will obviate all the evil results now apparent in our schools. Secondly, I protest against the common restriction of the term "self-activity " to mere physical or manual activity. "Self-activity is the law of growth," is true ; but it is as true in the realms of imagination or reasoning as it is in the realms of physical activ- ity and sense activity. To claim for manual training, or even for manual training and the kindergarten, all the possible benefits of the self-activity of the child is certainly, in my judgment, making an overclaim. What, then, are the proper place and value of the hand in acquiring and expressing knowledge ? This is made clear by a study of brain action. The division of the brain cells into sensory and motor cells, and the localization'of brain functions, have taught us that the hand is most valuable as an organ of the sense of touch, as well as indispensable in the formation of motor ideas, and also has among the motor areas a large area pre- dominantly its own, and an area capable of highest development only by its activity in expressing thought. Thus we see that the hand is one of the avenues to the mind and one of the instruments for the expression of thought. Moreover, this brain area, with its important functions, is most capable of develop- ment while the person is young. In fact, it is doubted if it is possible completely to develop it in a person in whose youth it was neglected. Hence the importance of manual training in the lower grades as well as in the high school or in the school of technology. Again, knowledge, to be of value, must be expressed. Manual work is often a mode of expression of thought. This develops motor areas, and tends to increase brain power along very desirable, but often neglected, lines. It tends to make doers, and not mere selfish accumulators of knowledge. Ot the influence of handwork upon the will, and hence its value as a moral invigora- Department] THE FUNCTION OF MANUAL TRAINING 649 tor, I have not time to speak ; nor, indeed, is this phase of its influence properly included by the wording of the subject of the paper. In conclusion, let me say that handwork has been found universally interesting to children, that it can be used in numberless ways in connection with nearly all subjects in all grades, that we must not tie ourselves down to this alone ; but, recognizing its proper place and importance, go forward with clear vision and firm faith, until in all our teaching the mind of every child is trained by the proper use of the hand in acquiring and express- ing knowledge, as well as by the use of the eye or ear and tongue. THE FUNCTION OF MANUAL TRAINING IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL BY RICHARD WATERMAN, CHICAGO, ILL. The history of the manual-training movement in the United States is one of the most interesting chapters in the school history of our country. Studied carefully it will reveal some very important truths Sn regard to the laws of social development which are applicable to the growth of a great school system. It will show, for example, that, altho psychology says, " Manual-training should begin in the kindergarten and continue thruout each year of school life," sociology says, "The manual-training movement must begin at the top and go downward." The ideal in view must be a working ideal. It was feasible to introduce manual training into the high school twenty years ago. It was not feasible to introduce it into the first grade until public opinion had been formed, teachers had been trained, and the movement had gained some headway. The school should develop not alone the power to think, but the power to act. Children will learn to do by doing. But further — and this is a vital consideration — the power to think clearly and correctly can be developed more quickly and more fully with the aid of the doing, i. e., of the manual training, than without its aid. An eighth-grade teacher can accomplish more work in nature study, in physiology and hygiene, in arithmetic and in language, if her pupils take two hours each week for cooking, than if they have no cooking, but give the two hours to the regular grade work. As a result of this recognition of the significance of manual training, the movement has advanced steadily, until now, in the public schools of some cities, the course of study not only in the grammar grades, but in every grade, includes some form of constructive work, and the girls as well as boys take part in it. In Chicago a number of manual-training experiments have been tried, and perhaps a description of some of these will be of value in discussing 650 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Elementary the function of manual training in the elementary school. First, how- ever, let us define exactly the terms used in this title. Function is a word denoting activity as a part of an organism. Used in this connection it implies that the school is an organism, that the manual-training department is one of the organs, and that the school cannot fully accomplish its purpose if the manual-training organ is allowed to remain inactive. Manual training is a term that refers to both a method and a subject in the curriculum. As a method it means laboratory work, the handling of things, the use of tools, the training of the senses, the development of power thru experience. As a subject in the curriculum it means an opportunity for the pupil to enter a part of the field of human knowledge which should be studied in the school because it is important in every- day life, i. e., the investigation of scientific principles and their applica- tion in useful arts. The public elementary school is an institution in which the state seeks to make good citizens ; the place in which sixteen million American chil- dren are now studying, i. e., 98 per cent, of the entire number of pupils in the educational institution of the United States. If manual training has a function to perform in the education of every child, it must be introduced into each grade of the public elementary school. This has been done in the Chicago public schools, not in any one building, but part here and another part there, one school emphasizing primary work and another the work of grammar grades, one giving domestic science to girls and another bench work in wood to a large number of boys. The several forms of manual training in the Chicago schools may be grouped under four heads : 1. Bench work in wood for boys in the sixth, seventh, and eighth grades. 2. Domestic science for girls in the fifth, sixth, seventh, and eighth grades. 3. Construction work for both boys and girls in the kindergarten and in the four primary grades,. this constructive work being based on the regular grade work in history, in literature, and in geography. 4. Various forms of social activity, of which the use of the printing press may be chosen as typical. I. BENCH WORK IN WOOD In the best schools in the city this work is very carefully planned, and includes the following elements : (i) A study of the materials used and of the purpose for which each is best adapted. (2) A study of each of the wood-working tools ; the materials from which it is made ; how it should be cared for ; how it should be used. (3) A study of the princi- ples on which mechanical drawing is based, and practice in the use of Department] THE FUNCTION OF MANUAL TRAINING 65 1 the drawing tools. (4) Practice in planing and making a certain number of useful objects. Part of these are chosen by the teacher with direct reference to the principles to be taught, and the particular form of skill to be developed. The others are chosen by the pupil, who is thus able to apply in his own way the principles learned and the skill acquired. Together they constitute a progressive series of models that is carefully graded. Commencing with the use of soft wood, few tools, and simple exercises, the pupil advances to the use of several kinds of wood, a variety of tools, and more difficult exercises. If a boy is asked to plan a box, he first decides what material he will use ; then what the form and proportions of the box shall be ; then the dimensions. These he expresses carefully in a working drawing, which must be so clear that it can be read by anybody. After he has thus formed in his own mind a clear image of what he will make, and has transferred this image to the paper, he has obtained one of the most valuable parts of the training to be derived from the making of a box. The chief obstacle to the introduction of manual training into the public schools is the lack of competent teachers. It often happens that the wood working, for example, is intrusted to a mechanic who knows nothing about teaching, and makes no attempt to relate his work to the other parts of the course of study. This results in a fatal isolation, and leaves an opening for the critics to call manual training a " fad." The fact is that under these conditions the critics are right. A fad is a sub- ject that is pitchforked into the curriculum without being related to any- thing else that the child is studying. If, instead of being completely isolated, this subject be made an organic part of the course of study, it ceases to be a fad and becomes an important factor in accomplishing the aim for which the school is established. Another obstacle to the general introduction of manual training is the false notion that expensive equipment is needed. This is the natural result of employing mechanics instead of teachers. They work for prod- uct in material instead of in man. When we succeed in getting true teachers to take charge of this work, we shall find more emphasis given to the boy than is given to the benches and tools. The manual-training room will be provided with a simple bench and a few tools for each pupil to use in making drawings and working with various materials. The series of models will be chosen with direct reference to (i) the interest of the child, i. e., the experiences in home and school and community that give him a motive for desiring to make the objects chosen ; and (2) the development of the child, i. e., the many-sided growth which the school aims to give him thru a study of the world in which he lives and the people who live in it — their habits, their customs, their industries, their everyday life. 652 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Elementary This brings us to the second group of manual-training activities men- tioned above, viz, : II. DOMESTIC SCIENCE The teaching of domestic science in the Chicago schools has opened up a wonderful vista of the possibilities that could be realized if the desire to make good citizens should become the controlling idea in planning the work of the public schools. A good citizen is a man who is willing and able to fulfill his obligations in the home, in the community, in society ; one who cares lovingly for his family, is loyal to his government, and is ready to help his fellow-men. At the root of good citizenship is healthy, happy home life. For this reason it is of tlje utmost importance that the public school should aim to develop in the boys and girls a desire and an ability to commence today to make the life in their own home both healthy and happy. How can this be done ? During the past year one of the Chicago public schools has attempted to answer this question. It has established a home department, in which 250 girls in the fifth and sixth grades have spent an hour and a half each week in the study of housework, and 200 girls in the seventh and eighth grades have spent two hours each week in the study of cooking. The equipment provided for the cooking department is planned to give every member of the class an opportunity to do individual work. The maximum number of pupils in a class is twenty-four. Each girl has her own table, equipped with the necessary cooking utensils and a gas stove. In addition there are certain things provided for the use of the entire class — a large gas range, a sink, a heater for the water boiler, a coal range, and several cupboards for supplies. The housework room is decorated and furnished in such a way as to make it very attractive and homelike. The walls are tinted a gray-green, and, as far as possible, are hung with the best pictures. The room is divided by screens into parlor, bedroom, dining-room, and kitchen, and each is provided with the appropriate furniture. The plan followed in teaching cooking and housework is based on sound educational principles, each subject being brought into the proper relation with the other subjects taught in the school. Under the teacher of cooking the girls study the principles upon which cookery is based. For example, the effect of hot water on meats, on cereals, and on other classes of foods ; and the different effect produced by cold water ; the influence of dry heat and of steam on the several classes of food ; the constituents of the various kinds of food, and the relative value of each for nourishment ; and the physiological process by which each of these constituents is digested in the human body. Thru all of this work the grade teacher finds that in her class in nature study she is directly helped by the work done in the study of foods in the cooking room ; and in her Department] THE FUNCTION OF MANUAL TRAINING 653 class in physiology and hygiene she is aided by the study of digestion and nutrition which the girls have made with the cooking teacher. The cost of various articles of food is also studied, with a view to determining how a large amount of nourishment may be obtained in return for a small expenditure of money. In short, the teacher uses every effort to prepare the girls to be intelligent and economical housekeepers in all of those matters which pertain to the buying of food and preparing it for the table. A generation of public-school work along this line would do a great deal toward settling some of the grave problems which we as a nation are trying to solve today. What shall we do with the foreigners who come to us ignorant of American habits and customs ? How shall we counteract the demoralizing influences of city life ? What can be done to win back the girls and women whose interest centers in business or in club life instead of in the home ? A home department in the pub- lic schools would help to answer these questions. III. CONSTRUCTIVE WORK IN THE PRIMARY GRADES The third group of manual-training activities mentioned above is that which includes the various forrris of constructive work done in the kin- dergarten and in the primary grades, and based upon the work in history and literature. In the kindergarten the children are interested chiefly in the home. They have been asked, therefore, to make a number of simple things — chairs, tables, piano, picture frames, etc. — for their playhouse, which, in its turn, was made for them by the eighth-grade boys. In the first grade the children hear in its simplest form the story of Hiawatha, and they make his canoe, his bow and arrows, his wigwam, and the clothing that he wears. In the second grade the children hear about primitive man, the sim- plest of human beings, living in the midst of nature. How is he to obtain food ? How provide his shelter ? How make the clothing that he needs ? They are called upon to face some of the problems that he faced when civilization was young, and they are encouraged to make some of the simple inventions that he made in trying to solve these problems. In the third grade the children read about Robinson Crusoe, the modern man who was obliged to live under primitive conditions ; who knew what to do and how to do it, but had no tools and no helpers. He had to provide food and clothing and shelter for himself, and to make his own tools and his own weapons. The children make his island, his raft, his hut, and his tools, and many of the simple utensils that he used during his stay on the island. Again they are helped to realize (i) what are the needs of man, and (2) how these needs may be supplied even when 654 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Elementary tools and machinery and books and a multitude of men, on which we are accustomed to rely, are wholly lacking. In the fourth grade the children continue their study of man and his needs, and in their constructive work they make from various materials, plastic and otherwise, objects which are more advanced in architecture, in decoration, in invention. Their history is the story of the city and state in which they live, and their attention is called to the industries and occupations of men who live in their own time and in their own neighbor- hood. In all this constructive work the teacher is trying to develop in the mind of the child a clear image to correspond with the objects or the situ- ation described in the class in reading or history or nature study. The child thinks in images or pictures; and if the image is clear, the though will be clear. IV. SOCIAL ACTIVITIES The fourth group of manual-training activities is that which includes the various forms of social activity, of which the use of the printing press may be chosen as typical. There is a considerable number of public schools in Chicago where the printing press is used daily by the pupils. A few trustworthy boys are put in charge of this work, and are allowed to spend in the press-room a part of the time that would otherwise be given to lan- guage and to manual training. They are given the assistance of as many helpers as are needed for the mechanical part of the work. The type- setting and proofreading give a most excellent opportunity for training in spelling, punctuation, and paragraphing, and the various forms of gram- matical construction. They also give constant practice in the correct use of the English language. The lower-grade children are led to formulate in their own way the story that is told in the class, and this story is then printed on the school press and used as reading matter by each pupil. The new words the children learn are first written on the board and then printed in large type on sheets of paper. Each pupil is given a sheet, and he cuts out the words and pastes them into a blank book, which he has previously made for the purpose. He places together all the words beginning with the same letter, and thus builds up his own dictionary just as fast as he can learn the words. In any grade where the teacher desires to place a beautiful poem or a choice prose selection in the hands of each pupil she has the necessary number of copies reproduced on the school press. After the members of her class have used the sheets, they are collected and placed in the school library as a permanent addition to the supplementary reading for use thruout the school. It is also possible for the school which owns a press to publish a Department] SOCIAL CO OPERATION 655 school paper, containing some of the best compositions written by the pupils ; news items in regard to the school and its work ; lists of addi- tions to the museum, the library, and the school equipment ; and any other topics that would interest pupils and teachers and parents, and would serve to promote the institutional life of the school. Used in this way the printing press becomes a very important factor in the school work. The opportunity it offers for manual training is considerable, and this, together with the opportunity for developing the child's mental power as well as his moral nature, makes the press an almost indispensable part of the equipment of a large elementary school. So much for the manual-training work that is now being done in one or another of the public schools of Chicago. The interest in these forms of manual training is growing rapidly, and it is safe to predict that before many years these and other forms will be introduced very generally thru- out the Chicago system. This will mean certain radical changes in the present course of study and in the present methods of teaching. What is the force that will bring about these changes ? It is twofold : (i) There must be a few great elementary schools whose work is controlled and directed by the spirit of the new education ; and (2) there must be a strong public opinion that will sustain these type schools in their pioneer work and will support the school board in its efforts to extend the influ- ence of these institutions to all parts of the public-school system. SOCIAL CO-OPERATION BY B. C. GREGORY, SUPERVISOR OF SCHOOLS, TRENTON, N. J. For several years I have given thoughtful attention to the question : " How shall the kindergarten principle be applied to kindergarten instruction ? " A word concerning the general subject may make clearer the special application I have to make, which might otherwise be regarded as inconsequential. The happy results which have followed the introduction of the kin- dergarten into the public-school system have induced those who have control of school affairs to extend its influence into the grades beyond the kindergarten, or sub-primary, stage of education. These attempts, too often, consisted merely in supplying such grades with kindergarten material to be used in the work of the curriculum. The results have been unsatisfactory. The kindergarten material is used aimlessly. Its purpose has not been apprehended by the teacher, and much time and money have been frittered away in consequence. The teacher, conscious of her lack of knowledge concerning the rationale of the kindergarten material 656 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Elementary sometimes resists its introduction, accepting it only when, compelled to do so. From this state of things has been evolved an unreasoning and unreasonable opinion of the kindergarten. Such efforts are irrational and doomed to failure. There is no logical connection between the apparatus of the kindergarten and the purposes of the ordinary school. In introducing the kindergarten material, little effort has been made to ascertain what are the principles of which it is the expression. Froebel, it must be remembered, not only bequeathed to us an apparatus, but also a philosophy of education, of which this appara- tus is the expression as regards only one stage of education. It does not follow, because such apparatus is the appropriate expression of the philosophy at this early stage, that the same apparatus should be its expression at a later stage. To illustrate : the habit of observing the mode of life and characteristics of living creatures may be cultivated in the kindergarten by a game in which children personate birds, etc., but it does not follow that this habit is to be inculcated in the grammar and high schools by the use of such a game. Such an absurd course of pro- cedure is duplicated whenever the kindergarten apparatus or methods are used without regard to their philosophical meaning. The logical mode of inquiry would seem to be this : given a principle, what is the proper method of applying it in the education of children of a given age ? It would be found that for children of the kindergarten age the kinder- garten apparatus offers the best possible medium of application ; for children in the second year in school another method of application must be sought, and for children in higher grades yet other methods, the principle remaining always the same. Froebel's philosophy, not Froebel's apparatus, is the essential consideration in his system of instruc- tion. Froebel's definition of education at the very outset of his discus- sion illustrates my meaning and bears directly on the topic I am to discuss. Two adjectives are prominent in this definition. The develop- ment of the child must be " conscious " and " free." The two requirements are very closely related and very germane to the present discussion. Children are individuals. The divine endow- ment is not the same in two different children. It varies greatly, but in the eyes of many a teacher there are no differences. All children must take exactly the same amount of arithmetic, the same amount of draw- ing, the same amount of music, and the individual peculiarities of the child have nothing to do with the case. To be sure, we do not treat horses in this way. In their training the individuality of each animal is carefully considered. But in our schools it is of no consequence whether the child is to develop into an Edison, a Mozart, or a Napoleon ; the treatment is precisely the same in all cases. It goes without saying that such rough and unintelligent training must unduly stimulate certain Department] SOCIAL COOPERATION 657 sides of the nature and unduly repress other sides in the case of every child. The adjective " conscious " is, however, the most interesting point in the definition. Froebel demands that the child shall be made conscious of his divine possibilities. We are to note that not only is the teacher to know what the child can do, but the child is to know what he can do himself. We note, also, that the definition does not say that the child is to be made conscious of the evil side of his nature. The language of the definition is " a conscious representation of the divine unity." A consideration of the methods employed by a great many teachers will reveal the fact that to make the child conscious of the evil rather than the good in his nature is precisely what the teacher effects. She is con- stantly endeavoring to make the child conscious of what he cannot do, or of what he is doing that is wrong. In the discipline of the class, the child is told very promptly if he disobeys a rule — if he whispers, for example, or if he is inattentive ; but the teacher too often does not take pains to tell liim that he did not whisper during that recitation, or that he was very attentive, and that he deserves great commendation, etc. The rules of the school mostly begin with the word " don't." The child's attention is always directed toward what he must not do, and the evil things that he does do ; he is not made conscious of the successes he attains, of how much he resists temptation, and how excellent his effort has been to do what is demanded in the school. The same thing is true as regards the curriculum. The teacher goes thru her compositions with a blue pencil and laboriously indicates all the errors, and when she hands the composition back to the child, she has succeeded in showing him what he cannot do. Why make him thus conscious of his weaknesses ? Let us assume a new use for the blue pencil. Let it serve to mark the excel- lences. We may suppose, for instance,- that the teacher is endeavoring to inculcate the principle that every sentence should end with a period. Suppose she marks with a blue pencil every sentence that does end with a period and by that process makes the child conscious of attainment. Is it a doubtful proposition that a pupil so treated will generally try to do better work next time ? The paper bristles with commendation ; every blue mark is an encouragement. The child is conscious of power. We repeat that this course of procedure is the reverse of that followed by most teachers. They commend, of course ; some commend not a little; but the teachers are few in number who seek for opportunity to commend, who make their principal criticism commendation. Such a course on the pa,rt of the teacher means, on the part of the child, con- sciousness of strength, and consciousness results in development. The matter is very easily illustrated in discipline. Suppose we assume a fight in the school yard. The culprits are brought before the teacher. Fight- ing has been forbidden. It is, probably, just the worst thing, in the 658 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Elementary opinion of the teacher, the children can do, and, -no matter how the fight commenced, there is a standing rule that there must be no fighting ; and both of the children are punished, perhaps one more than another, as one is a trifle more guilty than the other. But let us conceive a reaSon for the quarrel, which, altho extreme, may serve to make the teaching clear that we have in mind. Suppose, as in the case of young Oliver Twist in his memorable fight with Noah Claypole, the boy had maligned the memory of a dead mother. Here is a dilemma presented to the teacher. On the one hand, it was wrong to fight. On the other hand, it was honorable to hold sacred the memory of the mother. Shall the teacher ignore the better side of the nature, developed even in such an unpleasant incident, and deal only with the wrong side of character ? Which feeling shall the teacher leave more prominent in the child's mind, the feeling of shame or that of self-respect ? Shall the teacher say : " Fighting is wrong, and it makes no difference what the reason was, I shall, punish you, and I shall expel you if you do it again; "or shall she say : " Fighting is wrong, and I am very sorry that you have engaged in a quarrel with one of your schoolmates, but I honor you for holding in reverence the memory of your mother. A boy that can thus hold sacred a mother's memory cannot go very far wrong. We will postpone the further consideration of the fight until tomorrow" ? I fancy, as a teacher of some experience, that the quarrel could be approached by both teacher and pupil the next day with the prospects of more permanent results than if the quarrel alone had been considered. If the teacher grasps this thought, that her business is not to make her pupil conscious of his weak- ness, of what he cannot do, of his tendency to evil, but to make him con- scious of his possibilities, conscious of what is hopeful in his nature; if her gospel is not discouraging, but inspiring, she has changed her whole outlook on the field of education, and her whole course of procedure must be modified in view of such a change. The present subject of social co-ordination is a fair illustration of the method of applying a kindergarten principle. The principle of co-opera- tion runs thru the whole kindergarten system. The children work together, they combine to produce certain results, to evolve certain prod- ucts; they unite in the playing of games. Co-operation is not the only characteristic of play, but it is a most important one. No game that can be played alone is of any importance in the kindergarten. In every game each participant contributes something, and without the sum of these contributions the game would not be possible. Later in the evolution of this idea of co-operation the notion of community is reached, which immediately brings us, as Froebel would have us believe, into the presence of the two conceptions, religion and the Deity. Now, here is a principle; evidently co-operation is necessary, at least in the kindergarten. What is its application to the elementary school. Department] SOCIAL CO-OPERATION 659 not the primary school alone, the grammar school also ? Let us ask a preliminary question : What is the genius of the elementary school at the present time as regards this desideratum ? There must be as many answers to this question as there are schools. In looking over the whole field, however, I may be pessimistic, but I cannot resist the impression that in far too many schools, and to far too great an extent in many other schools, the governing principle is not co-operation, but segrega- tion, isolation. Perhaps I can best support my position and indicate the application of the kindergarten principle of co-operation by calling atten- tion to some of its violations. The most obvious example of such a violation is found in the preva- lence of the counter-principle of rivalry. It is everywhere present in school management. We all use it more or less, because it supplies a kind of stimulus which seems, to us, essential in getting "results." But rivalry is essentially a segregating principle. Do you remember the little poem of Whittier's that we used to parse ? It begins : Still sits the schoolhouse by the road, A ragged beggar sunning. You remember the story. You remember the match in school, the little boy defeated and glooming outside the schoolhouse when all is over. You remember the sweet expostulation of the little girl : I hate to go above you, Because, you know, I love you. Now, I have nothing to do witjj the sentiment of the story, but one teaching surely lies on its face, and that is that rivalry and love are incompatible. You can have one or the other; you cannot have both. It is not necessary to assume the presence of love as a prime considera- tion in the social relations of the school. Don't call it love, if you object to this term ; call it friendship or call it only " class tone" : the principle remains the same. By whatever name you call the genius of social amity, it is antagonistic to rivalry ; one or the other must die. Now, I am far from saying that rivalry has no place in the school- room; I don't know; I wish I did. My feeling is against it. But this much seems clear : that the teacher must choose between that principle and love, kindly fellow-feeling, social co-operation. If, ignoring this obvious principle, we emphasize comparisons of child with child, with reflections on the unsuccessful pupil who has fallen behind a brighter pupil, but has done wonders when we consider what was to be expected of him, we are creating a caste of scholarship which must work out the inevitable fruits of caste. I say again that the results of our comparisons, whether by per cent, or descriptive letter, may not always be apparent ; the vicious principle, however, is always present and is insidiously working its malign results. 66o NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION rElementary Lurking in the ranking system is a correlated evil often forgotten, but serious in its relation to the subject we are considering. The teacher comes to rely on the stimuli supplied by the ranking system and fails to attach importance to the love of knowledge or to the pleasure of intellectual activity. She does not seek to bring about a union of sympa- thies, the ascendance of the principle of solidarity. Her system is opposed to solidarity. The good of one is not the good of all. The good that is attained in the ranking system can be obtained only by the misfortune of someone else. That one must gain, others must lose. This principle is thoroly worked out in practical life, but even there it does not work for social co-operation, as our sad social relations testify. One gets richer as his brother gets poorer, but the brothers are not usually drawn nearer together in the process. I am very fond of a stanza in one of Bryant's hymns : We lean on others as we walk Life's devious path with pitfalls strewn, And 'twere an idle boast to t&lk Of treading that dark path alone. I call your attention to the fact that Bryant's conception is not realized where the law of social co-operation does not, at least unconsciously, hold. Primarily the teacher is responsible, and if the keynote of her administration is that fatal word " discipline," she will never get the desired social condition. The atmosphere of her class-room will be more or less depressing. There will be little concurrence, enthusiastic or unenthusiastic, among the pupils. • The secret of success in this matter has been charmingly expressed by Froebel in a couple of paragraphs which have not received the attention at the hands of teachers of post-kindergarten grades that they deserve. He says : "The child has an intuitive insight which enables him instantly to determine whether what the teacher demands is expressed as an arbitrary command orasan unavoidable necessity to which both teacher and pupil are alike subject." Still more beautifully he alludes to the presence of what he calls "the third something." This is a rather vague expression, and yet I have never found anything I like better. The first "something" is the teacher, the second the pupil, the third the relation. If the third some- thing is present, if the pupil sees in the command of the teacher only the formulation of an eternally true and divine law, there is no obedience, there is only acceptance. This is the divine method and applies to every divine command. "Whatsoever ye would that men should do to you, do ye even so to them," is not obligatory because Christ said it. It would be equally true if Plato or George Washington had said it. The fact is, it is true because it is true ; and the Great Teacher has merely formulated it for us. That is why " his commandments are not grievous." Department] SOCIAL CO-OPERATION 66 1 Now, here is Froebel's. conception of the ideal class-room. Its adop- tion instantly brings about co-operation among pupils, and excludes rivalries and antagonisms. The teacher must choose between the two atmospheres in determining the method of her administration. She brings about social co-operation by her own attitude. If you will allow me to compare small things with great, I may allude reverently to the expression of this law in the divine volume, and in doing so I but follow my great German leader, who is ever making the class-room the crystallization of the divine unity. "He that loveth not his brother whom he hath seen, how can he love God whom he hath not seen?" And again: "That he that loveth God should love his brother also." Do you not see the same thought ? Our relation to the leader and our relation to each other are correlative. If one is at fault, the other must be. So is it between teacher and class. Nor is this merely a question of morals or order in the class-room, as might be hastily assumed. Froebel is always reminding us that the highest results in education are only possible when the pupils are in con- scious accord with the divine plan, or, as he expresses it, with the divine unity. Only with this accord are possible the self-activity and self-reve- lation which are the keynotes of the Froebelian cojiception of education, for only when the teacher's commands are in accord with eternal truth are they self-evident, and only then is "the third something" present. May I now, by way of emphasizing my thought, ask you to notice two rather curious, but everyday expressions of the inborn social impulse in the natures of children ? They show how dull we are to recognize the divine spark, and how we crush and extinguish that spark which might be easily fanned into a flame. The expressions I refer to are found in the two habits of prompting and concealing the wrong-doings of schoolmates. I have seen few teachers who did not consider it their duty utterly to extirpate the vice of prompting by any means in their power. The practice was wrong and wicked, and they never failed to set it in that light before their children. Did you ever notice how hard it is to make converts to this article of our creed ? The best of children will o-© on prompting. Why ? Simply because the action is not wicked. Con- sidered fairly, the act of prompting is noble, praiseworthy. It is the effort of one pupil, at considerable risk to himself, to help another pupil in distress. Children will often prompt their rivals who are struggling for the same medal as themselves. I have a contempt for a boy who naturally does not wish to prompt another, and the general consensus of opinion in all classes of normally constituted pupils regarding such a boy is that of strong disapprobation. I grant that prompting is unwise and injures the person prompted, and that the practice should be abrogated, but not by stifling the spirit of chivalry in the child who prompts ; not by punishing him and thereby forcing him to be selfish. 662 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Elementary How would a boy look at you if he were brought into your presence for prompting and you should address him thus : "My boy, it was very kind of you to help John by prompting ; I was sorry for him myself, and wanted to help him. I honor you for your spirit. Help the man that is down every time, but help him in the best way. I think your way was not the best that time. If he knew he could get your help all the time, he wouldn't study at all, and in the end would he not be in a very bad way, and would you not have done him a fatal injury ? " etc. ? I have enlarged on this habit merely to show that we not only do not develop the social idea in our class-rooms, but that we fail to recognize its symptoms and stifle tendencies toward the ideal. I need say little concerning the other habit, that of concealment. There are some teachers so utterly blind to the importance of social co-operation that they encourage tattling. This is amazing. Others do not go so far, but they reprobate concealment, and there are few of us who do not, at least, accept information brought to us, and who dis- courage its bringing. There was a time when I considered it a very high attainment, indeed, to be able to ferret out offenders by means of a skill- ful use of pupils' willing or unwilling testimony. Alas, we must all do something of this kind, for we are not yet in an ideal state. But, grant- ing this necessity, is it not possible to keep the ideal in view and depre- cate the use of means we should loathe ? For is not the desire to shield our fellow from the consequences of his misdoings a divinely implanted impulse, and is not the desire to deliver the culprit to punishment, except as an ofificial act, the desire to play the r61e of the informer, fiendish ? Is it not possible to recognize the noble, the chivalrous in the annoying and obstructive acts of our pupils, and, by a wise manipulation of their motives, lift them into higher living? We cannot reach the ideal, but constant pressure toward it will surely change our conditions. I have pasted on my desk at my office, right in front of me, this quotation, from George Eliot : " Failure, after long perseverance, is better than never to have had a striving worthy of the name of failure." How often and how sadly I have had to apply that consolation to myself during my own career. How often must every man look to such a source of comfort when "he has but tears to give and must weep those tears alone." And to the pupil the recognition of the God-like striving is as grateful as to you and to me. The striving, not the failure, is the thing which must engage the teacher's attention. I will not close without making a brief allusion to Froebel's two prominent considerations in the Education of Man — play and rhythm. I fancy that, if Inspector Hughes had been here, he would have made much of play, and he would have rendered us a good service by so doing. I have not time to discuss it. The work of the class-room may take the shape of games more frequently than we think. Debates may stand as an illus- J Department] SOCIAL CO-OPERATION 663 tration. A little planning will give to a serious lesson all the charm of the playground, and will develop that characteristic of play, the subor- dination of everyone's effort to a common purpose, thus preparing for the discipline of life, as Mr. Hughes so well knows how to demonstrate. Regarding rhythm, a word concerning music may be in place. Music is essentially a co-operation subject. A teacher may throw away its advantages. She may have the pupils sing a song just to keep them from disorder while she is giving out the pens, and may not notice that their singing is perfunctory and unenthusiastic. Many teachers do this. But many teachers have not yet heard of co-operation. If all sing even in unison, all must at least sing. But in part singing the highest pleasure is felt. There is a distinct sense of co-operation in part singing. You feel that your neighbor who is singing another part is essential to your singing. If he stops, you may as well stop, for the chord is broken and the pleasure is gone. To me co-operation is fundamental. It goes far down to the roots of things and relates to the conditions on which education must be founded, to the postulates of education. Before I studied German I knew a young lady, a member of a German singing society, known as the Eintracht. I asked her what the word Eintracht meant. She said she didn't know thfi English word for it, but it meant that they would "all stick together." That is my conception of school ; and as to the teacher in his relation to this ideal, let us remember that Froebel did not say, as some teachers think, "Let us live in front of the children," but, "Let us live with the children." DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY EDUCATION SECRETARY'S MINUTES FIRST SESSION. — Friday Afternoon, July 8, 1898 The department met in the Central High School assembly hall, with President George B. Alton, of Minnesota, in the chair. In the absence of Secretary E. G. Cooley, Mr Ralph R. Upton, of Chillicothe, O., was elected assistant secretary. The following program was presented : 1. "_English the Core of a Secondary Course," John C. Hanna, High School, Columbus, O. 2. The presentation and defense of three printed syllabi for literature and composition- rhetoric in sec- ondary schools, with a statement of the principles of choice and arrangement followed in the pieparation of each, by Samuel Thurber, master in Girls' High School, Boston, Mass.; Miss Charity Dye, department of literature. Central High School, Indianapolis, Ind. ; W. F. Webster, principal of the East Side High School, Minneapolis, Minn. 3. General discussion. • The president appointed the following nominating committee : A. F. Nightingale, Chicago, 111. Edward F. Hermanns, Denver, Colo, Fred W. Atkinson, Springfield, Mass. SECOND SESSION. — Tuesday Afternoon, July 12 The report of the nominating committee was given as follows : We, the undersigned, the Committee on Nominations, beg leave to submit and report the following names in nomination for the three offices of the department. Mr. Hermanns was not in attendance at this committee meeting. The nominations are as follows : ¥ot President — Edward F. Hermanns, Denver, Colo. For Vice-President — W. F. Webster, Minneapolis, Minn. For Secretary — Ralph R. Upton, Chillicothe, O. Very respectfully, A. F. Nightingale, Fred 'JV. Atkinson, Committee. On motion, the report was accepted, and the secretary was directed to cast the vote of the department for the nominees. The vote was so cast, and the nominees declared elected. Mr. Plummer, Des Moines, la., offered the following resolutions, which were carried : Whereas, Three strong, carefully prepared, complete syllabi on the subject of " Literature and Compo- sition-Rhetoric in Secondary Schools" were presented before the Section of Secondary Education Friday afternoon, July 8 ; and. Whereas, It is the sense of this department that the influence of these valuable papers should be extended as widely as possible among teachers of English ; be it Resolved, That the chair appoint a committee of three, whose duties it shall be to devise means of securing the publication of these syllabi, and the papers which supported them, in full, in a neat pamphlet, and to secure their distribution, and to report action, if any, to the next annual session of this department, 664 Department] ENGLISH THE CORE OF A SECONDARY COURSE 665 The chair appointed : Frank E. Plummer, chairman, Des Moines, la. Charles C. Ramsay, Fall River, Mass. Ernest R. Clark, Colorado Springs, Colo, Resolutions of thanks were tendered Colonel Henry F. Blount, Dr. F. R. Lane, Miss H. M. Reynolds, and others for the cordial welcome which the department had received. Mr. Edward F. Hermanns, president-elect, assumed the duties of his office. On motion of Mr. Alton, the president was requested to set the example of opening next year's session with a brief r^sum^ of the year's progress in secondary education. The department then adjourned, concluding its proceedings in round tables as fol- lows : 1. " Composition -Rhetoric" — Leader, Ernest R. Clark, instructor in English, Colorado Springs, Colo. 2. " History" — Leader, J. J. Shepard, Boys' High School, New York. 3. "The High School as a Social Factor" — Leader, Charles H. Keyes, Principal of High School, Ilolyoke, Mass. Ralph R. Upton, Assistant Secretary. PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS ENGLISH THE CORE OE A SECONDARY COURSE BY JOHN CALVIN HANNA, EAST HIGH SCHOOL, COLUMBUS, O. The problem whether there is a place for secondary instruction is settled by the laws of nature. " The secondary epoch is due to the phenomena of adolescence." These are the words of Professor Nicholas Murray Butler in a valuable article in the June number of the Educa- tional Review on " The Scope and Function of Secondary Education." The essential characteristics of secondary-school studies there enumerated are selected upon sound principles, and do much to clear the way in the problem of curriculum-making — the second of the two great problems connected with secondary schools. In the attempt to solve this problem, the strife between extremists has gone to such lengths that there is a reaction coming. The most thought- ful and the broadest-minded workers in this field are coming to the con- clusion that a sane and harmonious working basis can be established, and that in the establishment of such a basis these ideas must have a control- ling force : I. That many subjects must be omitted entirely; that, for example, the formal study of psychology and allied subjects, of the advanced mathematics, of technical arts and sciences, of astronomy, geology, etc., of mechanical trades, and of many other subjects, belongs not in the sec- ondary school, but in special schools of various kinds, or in the colleges and universities. 666 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Secondary 2. That there must be, even in the secondary school, a recognition of various needs in the establishment of different courses. 3. That there must be a considerable degree of flexibility and a large choice of electives allowed, and that the college-entrance requirements must be changed to harmonize with this idea — all within reasonable limits. 4. That not too many subjects — four or, at the most, five — must be pursued at one time, and that each subject must be pursued long enough to get some good out of it, preferably in no case less than a full school year. 5. That there must be an immovable center belonging to all courses and governing the whole matter of electives. Professor Butler says that there ought to be three general elements in this fixed center, viz.: {a) the study of language ; {8) the study of deductive reasoning, as illustrated in mathematics ; {c) the study of inductive method, as in experimental science and, in part, in history. Beyond these limitations the student should be free in selecting his course. In support of this position he points to the fact that too much uniformity in the German gymnasia has brought about what Bismarck himself calls " the educated proletariat." I will quote one sentence which applies to our own institutions most forcibly this thought : " Democracy needs intelligent and trained leader- ship — leadership in public policy, leadership in industry, in commerce, in finance ; leadership in art and in letters. The basis of training for leader- ship is laid in the secondary schools, where the directive capacity of the nation is serving its apprenticeship." I accept all that he gives, and I believe the consensus of secondary- school people will support it. In presenting for my thesis " English as the Core of a Secondary Course," I claim that there should be a systematic and thoro study of English during the entire four years of the ordinary secondary course, and, whatever is done in the way of foreign-language study — and I believe heartily in its educational value — that, even tho the required mathematics be limited to two years, which is enough, and altho the required science and required history be limited to one year each — all the rest of the work in both these departments being elective — neverthe- less, the study of English should be required of all pupils for four years, and that it should be systematic and thoro. This will make English the "core of the secondary course," and, in my judgment, it will furnish a common ground of agreement, of honor- able compromise, and of harmonious co-operation on the part of the special advocates of all the different departments of study. Here we can all meet, the specialist in classics, in modern language, in natural science, in mathematics, in history and civics. The practical value of language study cannot be overestimated. The fixed laws of thought presented to us in the study of mathematics are Department] ENGLISH THE CORE OF A SECONDARY COURSE 667 absolutely necessary for our training to logical methods. But the prac- tical problems of life are mainly of a different character. The human element is in nearly all of them. " In law and legislation, in history and politics, in art and literature, in business, in society and religious matters, the problems which come to us for solution are solved better by him who is trained properly thru a study of language, for its rules are not, as those of mathematics are, fixed and iron-clad, but are full of exceptions, pro- duced by the great element of humanity which has grown into all lan- guage, as it has into law and art, and business and society. For its immediate helpfulness in relation to all other fields of study and activity the study of our own language is of paramount importance. The relation between clearness of thought and clearness of expression is often a reciprocal one, and this fact is overlooked, sometimes, by teachers in all departments of study. There is no field of study where "laboratory" work may be more helpfully carried on than in language study, and the material for such work in this department is as easily accessible as in any other, and, usually, much the easiest of access, and the most abundant. The May number of Education contains an "Address to Teachers of English," by Samuel Thurber, which is full of sensible and practical sug- gestions. He makes his deductions from two axioms, which are these : (i) the child acquires language only thru unconscious absorption, not at all thru efforts to commit linguistic principles to memory, and (2) he acquires it as a whole, as the entire expression of a thought, not piece- meal, and not by analysis. He then maintains that, in order to this absorption, two conditions are essential : 1. You must give the pupil an abundance of English to absorb. 2. You must bring him into a receptive frame of mind. To the statement of the latter condition he adds the following, which is full of truth, and yet is much neglected : " P'or the last (i. e., the receptive frame of mind) he must be interested, and that which interests him in language is by no means the form and structure of the language itself, but what the language says — its content." If this be true — and who will dispute it? — then the instructor in English who knows his business has a vast advantage over the instructors in some other portions of secondary education, because the " interest " may always be aroused. The field of selection is practically limitless, and it is always possible to find something for study whose subject-matter will command the interest of any sound mind. This, of course, means that a teacher of English need never he overwhelmed by the painful dis- covery that his pupils are not interested in the mattei* of the study. It also means that a subject of this sort ought never to be laid aside, or thrust aside, but ought to stand in the front and in the center and at the 668 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION LSecondary top, and ought to set the pace and point the way for all other work in the school. One practical suggestion of my own here which 1 believe in, and which I will give for what it is worth. It is based on class-room experi- ence of several years in the East High School of Columbus. The help that comes from the interest that may be aroused in the subject-matter is readily made available in all matter of reading — the first of the two halves of this English work in secondary schools ; but, especially in the lower classes, it is practically more difficult to utilize this help in the second of the two halves of the English work, namely, in the matter of expression. And right here I wish to emphasize the thought in Professor Denny's excellent paper on " English Require- ments," presented before the North Central Association of Colleges and Preparatory Schools, at Chicago, in April last. He says: "Too many schools are assuming that, if we only provide enough good reading, the power of expression will come, somehow, of itself. We might trust the silent influence of good reading to make good writers, if we had forty years at our disposal instead of four. The most difficult part of school work, the part which needs the most careful supervision and unremitting attention, we leave the most to chance." Now, in the matter of expression, practice is essential to any degree of success, and the practice will be comparatively unfruitful unless the interest is aroused and maintained in the subject-matter. Of course, very many kinds of subject-matter may be made interesting by a skillful teacher in course of time ; but, at first, with young and immature minds, to whom little as yet is interesting in literature, what shall be done ? Better, for this particular crisis, than the prose-paraphrase plan or the rewriting-in-your-own-words-of-a-masterpiece plan, or the describing of a scene or a character in a poem just read, or the tell-what-you-saw-on- your-way-to-school plan, we have found by experience to be the use of Greek myths. These myths, if properly presented, are delightful and of absorbing interest to the pupils of the ninth grade, and the form vanishes from their conscious vision while the subject-matter fills their horizon ; and, if skillfully and faithfully handled, the expression comes spontane- ously, and only the restraining and guiding hand is needed, instead of the coaxing and pumping that go so frequently with the work of that year. I will not dwell further on this method, but those who have given it a fair trial and are willing to work stand firmly by it. The patriotic effect of the continuous, zealous, and enthusiastic teach- ing of English is not to be ignored. Let me quote again to illustrate this. Another paper presented before the North Central Conference was by Dean Charles H. Thurber of Morgan Park Academy. It contains this paragraph : " The most striking fact of the nineteenth century is the rise of great nations. Hand in hand with this development of Department] ENGLISH THE CORE OF A SECONDARY COURSE 669 political power has grown the spirit of nationality, and, as a consequence, in every civilized country there has been, within a very few years, a great increase in the interest paid to the teaching and study of the vernacular. There was no question more important before the great school con- ference at Berlin in 1890 than that of the teaching of German. The German emperor, in addressing the meeting, said : * We wish to educate young Germans, not young Greeks or Romans.' One of the great results of the conference was an increased allowance of time in all Ger- man higher schools to the study of the German language. Schools can make no mistake in emphasizing the importance of the study of the native tongue. The people will stand by the schools in every reasonable means to this end." I wish, modestly, but no less emphatically, and, I am almost willing to say, fiercely, to second all that is said in that paper about the present college-entrance requirements in English. Let us do away entirely with the " narrow, prescribed list of books." In Mr. Thurber's opinion, " some of the books specified are not by any means acceptable. It would be, indeed, difficult," says he, "in the judgment of many school- men, to pick out books more unsuitable for use in secondary schools than some of those laid down in the college-enttance requirements. The only reasonable principle upon which they could have been selected is that no one would ever read them unless forced to; consequently, if the books are not to disappear from the known body of literature, the chil- dren must be forced to read them in school. There is no more human kindness in compelling a high-school boy or girl to read the horrors of the plague of London than there is to force him or her to a minute study of cancers as a product of over-indulgence in alcoholics. Yet both are being done in our high schools at this moment." (Thank fortune, some of us are philistines enough to refuse to wear this harness!) Will not this body do something to further this suggestion of his that we shall have an open list, i. e., a list of, say, fifty or one hundred books, from which the instructors may select the books best suited to their own taste and training, and to the ability and tastes of their pupils ? Let us get rid of Palamon and Arcite, The Flight of a Tartar Tribe, The Plague in London, The Vicar of Wakefield, and Pope's translation of the Iliad. If you want the Iliad, must you have Pope, when there are Lang and Bryant and Church ? If you want Pope himself, why take his stilted, un-Hotneric translation of the //fVz^ rather than something else of his? Why take him at all ? Then why Macbeth alone for five years ? Let us have the open list ! The placing of English as the core of the secondary course will not do any injustice to any of the other essential parts of that course, whether mathematics, foreign language, natural science, or history. A secondary course might be formed with sixteen year-units — four years 670 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Secondary with four studies each year ; then let English occupy four units, history one unit, Latin four units, mathematics two units, natural science one unit — total, twelve units of fixed work ; and, in addition, four units of elective work, to be taken from the following : German or French, Greek, mathe- matics, natural science, and history — a grand total of sixteen units. A modification of this course, with the modern language substituted for the ancient, ought to make it possible thus to satisfy everybody in the second- ary schools. The colleges, moreover, ought to accept for proper courses any pupils who have satisfactorily completed that course, with whatever elective. The thing which ought to harmonize all factions and unite all special- ists is this placing of English in the chief position. Mr. Thurber's collection of opinions from business men on this sub- ject is immensely interesting and instructive, for it shows how they value the power of expression as a qualification for business. " A working mastery of English," so he sums it up, " is everywhere regarded as of the greatest importance and utility for practical life." President Eliot has expressed it thus : " The power to understand rightly and to use critically the mother-tongue is the flower of all educa- tion." No line of studies can be more practical. Nothing can be more closely related to all other studies. Nothing can be madje more interest- ing and instructive. The power of the subject-matter can nowhere else be made so efficient a help. In no field is there room for more extended research ; in none greater reward for labor expended. Here may labora- tory methods be easily and successfully applied with aH abundance of accessible material. Nothing is more entirely indispensable. Nothing more truly needs a continuous study for a term of years. Nothing adapts itself more surely to the natural development of the pupil. This arrangement is no loss to the supporter of the natural sciences, for extreme claims in that direction are sure to react and to fail in the long run. Professor Coulter is already pointing out to us that the laboratory method in science work in secondary schools must pass away. This is no loss to supporters of the humanities, for the relation between art, history, language, and literature is so close and so vital that the study of our own language, which is the most practical of the practical studies, can only give help to the study of the classics, for at the same time it is the most refining of the studies that refine and the most life-giving of the studies that give life. Can we not all, of whatever faith otherwise, unite on this one plat- form ? 1. English a required study every year thruout the first eight years. 2. English a required study for every course and pupil thruout every year of the secondary course. Department] SOME PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY ENGLISH TEACHING 671 ^3. English, in its grammar, history, composition, rhetoric, literature, the core and backbone of all courses of study in all grades, and particularly in the secondary schools; the center about which, in due proportion and with no extravagance and no bias, and with a reasonable array and breadth of electives, all other studies shall be arranged, and all demands, both of college and of life without the college, may be fully met. SOME OF THE MAIN PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY ENGLISH TEACHING BY SAMUEL THURBER, GIRLS' HIGH SCHOOL, BOSTON, MASS. 1. In a scheme of English study, carried out in minute detail, and tabulated according to years and subjects, a teacher may exhibit his own actual or ideal practice ; but if he publishes this scheme as a method, he invites imitation, and so does harm. No good teaching is likely to be done under a prescribed plan of work. Unity of spirit and aim is desir- able ; but uniformity in procedures is worthless. There is no need that the teachers in a large school, or in a city system, should follow the same model, or follow any model at all. The first thing a superintendent should learn should be to repress the leveling instinct. He should acquaint himself with teachers' work by inspecting it, and should influence this work by prompting motives, and by instilling respect for good prin- ciples. In playing the simple role of adviser, I shall follow out this con- viction, trying only to lay down a few maxims of English teaching, and to make a few of the most obvious applications of these. 2. In this attempt to establish principles and apply them to practice, only those schools will be considered which are free to plan in harmony with real needs. Real needs are determined by the facts of human nature, and by the nature of the subject taught. Exactions imposed from without — such as the entrance requirements of the colleges — introduce into education a species of need that may properly be described as unreal, since it is not determined by essential principles, but by the arbitrary action of persons. 3. English study in the secondary schools at once divides itself into three parts : (a) Training in the use of language. {f) The study of English literature. (r) The scientific study of the English language. It must not be supposed, however, that these divisions can, in practice, be kept apart either in time or in function. Like most attempts at 672 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Secondary analysis, such an arrangement of elements serves chiefly to guide the ordering of a syllabus. The principles that seem fundamental to the training of youths in the use of their own tongue are these : 4. Language is acquired only by absorption from contact with an environment in which language is in perpetual use. Utterly futile is the attempt to give a child or a youth language by making him learn some- thing about language. No language is learned except as it performs the function of all speech — to convey thought — and this thought must be welcome, and interesting, and clear. There is no time in the high-school course when language will be learned in any other way. 5. The youth absorbs only when his interest is roused.. His interest is roused at first chiefly thru his emotional nature. A purely intellectual curiosity comes gradually more and more into play. Moral questions and aesthetic themes then begin to appeal to his mind. In full adolescence the youth gathers and appropriates, to a degree determined by the extent of his natural powers and the felicity of his place in society, from all the ranges of human interest, 6. Hence the great consideration in teaching the mother-tongue is to provide an environment from which the speech may be absorbed. Where this environment is already perfect in the home and in society, the school has but little left to do. But the perfect environment rarely exists. The school must do what it can. The influences that go to make the speech of a youth are innumerable, and the school can but add its quota to the multitude. Yet the school will contribute far more good elements to the speech environment of the youth when it sees clearly what to do and what not to do. 7. Language is thus learned unconsciously. The preservation of this linguistic unconsciousness for the longest possible time is all-important. Supply matter for thought and emotion, awaken curiosity about things that men have always been inquisitive about, and language will take care of itself, because thought and speech are inseparable, and the youth is eager to receive knowledge and hear stories, and can possibly get thoughts and fancies only thru language, which therefore he learns incidentally to the matter of his interest. This learning of language is sure to go on without the least concern for it on the part of the teacher. All the teacher can do for it — tho this is a great deal — is to secure an environment of abundant intellectual and emotional interest. The sources of such interest are infinite in number, and crowd upon the teacher who really wants them. 8. To offer a negation : manuals of exercises in language that tell no story and respond to no native curiosity are worse than useless, because they try to make language interesting as a thing in itself, regardless of its meaning. This is a pre-eminent pedagogical vice. The teaching Department I SOME PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY ENGLISH TEACHING 673 which results in making the youth prematurely conscious of his speech defeats its own ends. Such teaching is solicited by no principle of psychology. It is an outgrowth of that curious propensity of schoolmen which seeks to put all school subjects thru the same mill. These men seem to think that they can teach language in portions, and that, when all the portions are taught, all is taught. 9. The great means of teaching English, both as regards enlarging the vocabulary and as regards formal correctness, are reading, writing, and speaking. All the English hours, in the earlier years, may best be filled with these exercises. <»The teacher must be a good reader, both in the sense of knowing what things are good to read, and in the sense of knowing how to read well orally. The good reader interests his fellows. Young people find out this important fact before they find out that good writing interests them too. An ambition to express one's self well is easily aroused. Genuine interest in a piece shows itself in the voice and the manner. The voice is the true index of culture. I do not know how the young soul is to be touched except thru the voice. 10. Writing, in any modern school, is constant. The rule for writing should be : no day without a line. But the English department is exempted from the enforcement of this wholesome principle, because all the departments require writing, and one of the most wonderful things about a high school is the quantity of paper it covers every day with some sort of written matter. That only the writing that is done for one special teacher should have educative value is absurd. So far as pupils' writing comes under the eye of any teachers whatever, whether of English or not, such teachers should subject it to criticism, in order to check the bad high-school habit of slovenly writing when out of the jurisdiction of the English teacher. Note-taking, as often practiced, is an exercise perni- cious to good writing. But note-taking, rightly practiced, may be made to stimulate the mind without hurting habits of composition. 11. The English teacher may, and usually must, make his composi- tion work periodic. The intervals may be short for the poor writers, and longer for the good ones. There is no need of treating all alike. Uni- formity, a curse everywhere in the education of youth, is peculiarly baneful in composition. The youth who most needs your aid should have it most. He who writes with painful difficulty should write every day — keep a diary, perhaps. Others may write every week ; the majority every two, three, or four weeks. 12. These last may have themes more ambitious than the others — themes that require research and careful thought. Composition themes may be anything that interests youth ; and the ambition governing the class should be, as regards matter, to interest an audience, and,. as regards form, to have the composition in shape to print without correction. The audience to be pleased and instructed is, of course, the class, or the 674 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Secondary school ; and young people's interests are the ones to be kept in view. Absurdly unwise is it to encourage learned writing, or the appearance of it. An excellent occasion for a composition is found when a young per- son has come in his reading upon something that strikes him as good, and will try to win imitators of his venture by setting forth what he has enjoyed. 13. All compositions must be written, primarily, for the sake of say- ing something — the best possible thing — the most interesting, the most piquant thing the writer can evolve. Matter first — form as a thing of course. All writing prospers according to its effect on readers. Writ- ing that is incorrect, getting into print, turns the writer to ridicule. This is the way of the world — a fact of human nature. The young writer must learn this solemn truth. He goes forth liable to gross mortification if he cannot write his mother-tongue. The school should in this matter make itself an epitome of the world. 14. In reading compositions, the teacher is to note and correct those faults which are actually made. A scientific naming and classifying of all faults made in all writing is not to be thought of at any time. All the rhetoric to be taught in connection with English composition should be in the teacher's mind and habits. The teacher should be embodied clearness, force, and elegance. Utterly futile is the repetition of rules. The true situation is this : The pupil is ever writing, trying to please his public with his matter, but knowing that his composition will never reach his public unless it first please his teacher, who is good usage incarnate. Perpetually reading books and papers, and so living in a society of good usage, and kept unceasingly desirous of conforming to good usage, the pupil has every incentive and every opportunity to do well. 15. With regard to the teaching of literature, the school procedure is naturally twofold : First is the silent reading at home, whenever time serves. In this way the learner is to get the bulk of his literature. The home reading is indirectly controllable by the teacher by means of the various devices of questioning and composition writing. By far the best opportunity for influencing the pupil's private reading is the private con- ference between teacher and pupil. 16. Second is the oral reading of selections in the class. In oral reading vocal culture becomes possible, and the form of literature, as distinguished from its content, comes to require attention and awaken interest. In this connection must be considered the all-important dis- tinction between poetry and verse, and the distinction between each of these and its proper antithesis ; verse and prose being the opposites as regards form, poetry and science the opposites as regards content. Pretty much all the literature the school deals with in the English department will be poetry, whether in the form of verse or in the form of prose. 17. A proper understanding of what poetry is can be achieved only Departmen.] SOME PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY ENGLISH TEACHING 675 by acquaintance with much poetry. Definitions make good topics for discussion and may be learned by heart, but they convey no knowledge. Only the definition that one makes for himself avails, and this definition will have to be perpetually revised as one advances in his reading. Short pieces of conspicuously beautiful verse, such as are found in innumerable anthologies, constitute the best text-book of poetic form. Then come up, naturally, the questions : What themes, what illustrations, what motives, does verse poetry most affect ? What language does it make use of ; what is meant by poetic diction ; wherein does poetic diction differ from prose diction ? Pupils must not simply be told these things ; they must be led to see them. 18. Attention must be paid to meters, stanzas, rhyme, and blank verse. So much metric nomenclature as is necessary to describe the meter of a given piece must be mastered. In reading Shakespeare and Milton the ear should be trained to the movement of the iambic ten-syl- lable .line, the great staple of English verse. Not to feel the metric requirement of a line, to fail to yield the voice to its sway, is to confess one's self no teacher of literature. That which verse undertakes to say it may succeed in saying in grammatically constructed paraphrase ; but may, and very likely will, thereby be made to appear in a dress so awk- ward as to be ridiculous. The truth is, things may be said in well-embel- lished verse that would be commonplace, or even silly, in prose. No teacher who is also a person of taste will encourage paraphrasing. 19. How many authors a school may study, and how much time it may give to each, will depend on the number of its weekly hours of Eng- lish. In any case, Shakespeare should be read each year of three, four, five, or six. A valuable addition to one's stock of English speech comes of familiarity with the Shakespearian phrase. 20. Shakespeare stands at the head of English fiction. The fiction we all read, in prose or inverse, is an element of first importance to our lives as individuals and as members of society. English fiction has introduced us to a greater number of distinctly recognizable and familiar characters than have English and American history. There has probably been more written about Hamlet than about any Englishman or American that ever lived in the tide of times. , It is a futile schoolmasterism to lament the tyranny of fiction. During adolescence chiefly, but also in later life, the human creature peoples his fancy with forms that continue to live with him as powers of good or evil. Education must take facts as they are. People will read fiction. Therefore we are to inure our youth to the fiction that is best and strongest. As to the fiction about which everybody is talking, I do not see how a busy teacher can keep up with it, or how, being crude and unwinnowed, it can be made surely to yield its best to choice. It would be a pity to give precious time now to what, ten years hence, will be sunk in oblivion, considering that we have in 676 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Secondary abundance literature seasoned by many decades, and even centuries, of human approval. 21. It will be of no use to assign lessons in the criticism or descrip- tion of writings not yet read — perhaps most unlikely ever to be read. A well-written manual of the history of English literature may serve, to one who has a period of study, as a guide to the best things in that period. But the desire for guidance should precede the guiding. To stimulate research tasks may be set — rather to individuals than to classes. Reci- tations in the history of English literature are useless, unless the authors are to be looked up. A recitation without research is precisely what a repeated demonstration in geometry would be. "To know by heart is not to know at all," says Montaigne; and again : "A sorry mastery is the mastery of a book." But our examination system keeps us in the pro- fession of the belief that knowing by heart is perfect knowledge. 22. In looking after pupils' reading, the teacher must consider indi- viduals as regards sex, age, taste, condition, opportunity ; and in censur- ing compositions, private talk with the individuals goes infinitely farther than reprimand before a class. Personal matters are not properly treated in public, and one's writing is a personal matter. You cannot impress a point upon a pupil as a delicate matter if you speak of it in public. If you bring his writing up in the presence of many, he takes your procedure as a piece of the scholastic routine, which he has learned will slip along ; and he practices the philosophy of the much-chidden, which is, to remain unruffled, knowing that "come what may, time and the hour run through the roughest day." But the private interview, by its very nature, suggests delicacy, reticence, importance. The public reproof minimizes the fault, the private conference enhances its impressiveness. 23. The teacher of English is always inspecting written work, listen- ing to vocal expression. In a certain sense he is perpetually examining. He knows every day just where he is. Periodical examinations, there- fore, he does not need, and could not profitably have. A young reader needs, in his study of literature, all imaginable conditions of enjoy- ment. The purpose of literature is to be recreative and pleasurable. To make it a gymnastic to the memory is to ruin it as literature and convert it into something ascetic, something teasing, something to be anxious about and get marks for. Professing to cultivate a taste for good reading, we go about to cultivate a distaste for it ; for it is to be said that, while such studies as mathematics and the ancient languages, which confessedly constitute an apparatus for mental discipline, can stand any amount of scholastic battering and dissection, the residuum of literary analysis is necessarily lifeless, its essence is gone, it is no longer literature. 24. Examinationism is, in fact, a disease, now having a great run in our education. The examination machinery is wonderfully interesting to certain minds. Its chief use seems to be to heads of systems, who find Department] SOME PRINCIPLES Oh SECONDARY ENGLISH TEACHING 677 in it a substitute for personal influence, hoping, by means of mechanism, to make themselves felt thruout the entire body which they are set to control. 25. As to the extent to which the scientific study of English can be carried in the high school, opinions naturally vary. An absolute canon cannot be imagined. No part of the conceivably possible scientific study of English is essential to the practical acquisition of English speech. Yet the ancient custom of putting grammar somewhere in the school course has its justification. Rejecting grammar as the art of speaking and writing English, and regarding it simply as a science, or knowledge, we find its function to be to serve as a natural and easy introduction to abstract thought by familiarizing the learner with the conception that the fundamental categories of thought and speech are identical. To know the parts of speech, the facts of syntax, the nomenclature of sentence structure and analysis, is important. The usual mistake is made in putting grammar too low down in the course. The language should be well possessed before it is subjected to scientific study. The youth should not be troubled with grammatical technique till he knows enough to perceive its desirableness. 26. Pupils who read the late middle English of Chaucer, or English no older than the Tudor period, will necessarily have to do something with historical grammar. The usual compends of Chaucerian and Shakes- pearian grammar need expansion and explanation by the teacher, who should therefore have some acquaintance with Anglo-Saxon. The. impor- tance of historical English grammar consists herein, that it furnishes a safeguard against narrow views as to what is good English idiom. It is a widespread belief among English scholars that the language has in modern times been losing some portion of its native raciness. This loss is sometimes ascribed to unintelligent teaching in the schools. If this degeneration of the language really exists, the corrective of it lies in an increased respect for the elder speech. 27. It is doubtless feasible to teach youth of high-school age Anglo- Saxon. Text-books contemplating just such work exist in considerable variety. But this study should not be introduced unless there is in the school a proper constituency for it ; that is, a sufficient number of pupils who have a genuine curiosity to study their language in its oldest forms. I could wish, and hope to see, all high-school studies optional, and would have, instead of courses, only eligible subjects. To require a high-school pupil to study Anglo-Saxon would be manifestly absurd. Anglo-Saxon should be an available subject in a large high^ school, but it should not be a required part of any course. The high school is the people's college. In its college the people should have facilities for studying the native language in its entire history. 678 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Secondaiy A PROPOSED FOUR-YEARS' COURSE IN ENGLISH FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS BY MISS CHARITY DYE, HIGH SCHOOL, INDIANAPOLIS, IND. FIRST YEAR FIRST HALF Composition-rhetoric. — i. A review of grammar; business-letter forms. 2. Exer- cises in sentence variety tliru written impressions "received from the literature studied; from observing nature and everyday life. Literature. — Selections from Whittier, Irving, and Burns. Suggested reading. — Irving, The Alhambra, Tales of a Traveler, Life of Goldsmith, Knickerbocker'' s History; Goldsmith, The Deserted Village; Addison, the Sir Roger de Coverley Papers; Cooper, The Last of the Mohicans; Helen Hunt Jackson, Ramona, Bits of Travel at Home; Wendell Phillips, Toussaint V Ouverture ; Whittier, Margaret Smith's Journal; Lanier, Boys^ King Arthur, Boys' Froissart. SECOND HALF Composition-rhetoric. — I. Paragraph formation, noting clearness, unity, sequence, and coherence. 2. Written exercises : the humorous in Holmes, Curtis, and the humor- ous writers in suggested reading ; table-talk ; impressions received from reading and observation. Literature. — Selections from Bryant and Holmes ; Shakespeare, The Merchant of Venice. Suggested reading. — Thoreau, Walden, Early Spring in Massachusetts; Burroughs, Pepacton; Warner, My Summer, in a Garden; Curtis, Prue and I; Cervantes, Don Quixote; Cowper's and Luther's Table-Talk; Lowell, The Biglow Papers; Bryant, Prose Writings and translation of the Iliad. SECOND YEAR FIRST HALF Composition-rhetoric. — I. Exercises upon choice of words ; upon the poetic words, epithets and figures in the literary study. 2. Writing of simple events in connection with the short story ; original epithets and figurative expressions embodied in written exercises. Literature. — Selections from Hawthorne ; Shakespeare, fulius Ccesar. Suggested reading. — Donald G. Mitchell, About Old Story -Tellers; Mary E. Wilkins, Short Stories; Poe, The Gold Bug and The Maelstrom; Kipling, The fungle Book; Bryant, translation of the Odyssey; Froude, fulius Ccesar; Clough, translation of Plutarch's Lives. SECOND HALF Composition-rhetoric. — i. Arrangement of material into plan ; proportion of parts in composition. 2. Letters embodying impressions received from suggested reading and from life. A written analysis of one of the essays studied. Literature. — Selections from Lowell, Emerson, and Whitman ; a brief view of American literature ; intensive study of " The Harvard Commemoration Ode," " The American Scholar," or " Self-Reliance." Suggested reading. — Letters of fames Russell Lowell; Emerson-Carlyle Correspondence; Andrew Lang, Letters to Dead Authors; Tennyson, Idyls of the King, Ode on the l>;partment] ^ PROPOSED FOUR-YEARS' COURSE JN ENGLISH 679 Death of the Duke of Wellington; Lincoln's Gettysburg Address; "Oration of Pericles over the Athenian Dead " (translation) ; E. E. Hale, A Man Without a Country; Plumptre, translation of Prometheus. THIRD YEAR FIRST HALF Composition-rhetoric. — I. The characteristic differences between the great divisions of poetry. Attention to rhythm, rhyme, stanza, foot, and the four measures most common in English verse. In connection with poetry, especial attention to exercises embodying the elements of the poet's art in the selections studied. 2. In connection with the novel, ten-minute compositions written in class without notes ; compositions to be based upon studies made of the materials, setting, plot, incident, character, purpose, and method of a novel ; also upon comments of books studied and upon their style and diction. The compositions also include the principles of paragraph structure, variety of expression, and an acquaintance with the various discourse forms. Literature. — The novel, studied thru The Talisman, Jvanhoe, Silas Marner, and Hard Times {oihex novels may be substituted); poetry of Tennyson ; Byron's Childe Harold, Cantos III and IV. Suggested reading. — Austen, Pride and Prejudice; Eliot, Mill on the Floss; Howells, The Lady of the Aroostook ; Hawthorne, The House of Seven Gables, Marble Faun; Scott, Quentin Durward, Kenilworth, Marmion, Woodstock; Dickens, David Copperfield; Blackmore, Lorna Doone; Hugo, Les Miserables; Tolstoi, Master and Man; Q,x^\V,John Halifax, Gentleman; Stevenson, Treasure Island; Goldsmith, The Vicar of Wakefield; Shelley, The Cloud, " The Skylark ; " Foe, essay The Poetic Principle, The Lotus Eaters, from the Odyssey. SECOND HALF Cotnposition -rhetoric. — i. Exercises for discovering the aesthetic elements in literature; the chief characteristics of literature known as criticism. 2. Writing of various forms of description as a test of the pupils' aesthetic development. Books reviewed from the point of criticism or appreciation. Literature. — Ruskin, selections from Modern Painters, and The Queen of the Air; Lamb, six of the Essays of Elia ; C&v\y\G, Heroes and Hero Worship and. The Edinburgh Address; one oration from American literature ; assigned critical essays in interpretation of the authors studied. Suggested reading. — Keats, Ode on a Grecian Urn; Matthew Arnold, "Dover Beach ; '\ Rossetli, The Blessed Damozel; Walter Pater, The Child in the House; De Quincey, Essay on Literary Style; Barrie, Margaret Ogilvie; Dickens, A Tale of Two Cities; Carlyle, tsszy on Burns; Ruskin, ^wa^Wf? and Lilies; Sumner, The True Gran- deur of Nations; Burke, Speech on Conciliation with America. FOURTH YEAR FIRST HALF Composition. — Special theme work, involving the principles underlying all forms of discourse, but emphasizing exposition. [Aterature. — The history of the early and middle periods of English literature; Chaucer, the prologue to the Canterbury Tales. Pupils are also expected to read and write a review of one of the Canterbury Tales. Shakespeare, Hamlet, Macbeth or Coriolanus; together with a study of the development of the modern drama; Spenser, the first book of The Faerie Queene. Suggested reading. — Spenser, remaining books of The Faerie Queene; Bunyan, Pilgrim's Progress; Langland, Piers the Ploughman; Abbie Sage Richardson, Tales from Old English Poetry; Maclehose, Tales from Spenser; Lowell, essays on Chaucer 68o NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Secondary and on Shakespeare Once More; Shakespeare, historical plays ; Johnson, The Lives of the Poets; Bulwer, The Last of the Saxons, The Last of the Barons. SECOND HALF Composition. — Special theme work, emphasizing the simpler forms of persuasion. Literature. — Bacon, selected essays ; Milton, first two books of Paradise Lost, and Lycidas. By means of written reviews prepared by individual pupils, the class is made acquainted with the remaining books of Paradise Lost, and also with the earlier poems. The history of English literature in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, with a men- tion of the most prominent modern authors. Selections from Dryden, Pope, Addison, Gray, Wordsworth, Coleridge, Shelley, Keats, and Robert Browning. Suggested reading. — Milton, Areopagitica ; Lowell's essays Dryden and Gray; De Quincey, The Affliction of Childhood and Dream Echoes; Emerson, The Ovet- Soul; Lee, The Life of Dorothy Wordsworth; Thackeray, Henry Esmond; Dryden, Palamon and Arcite ; Walton, The Complete Angler; Macaulay, essays on Milton and Addison; Plato, translation of the Apology. Note. — Selections from Welsh's Development of English Literature and Morley's English Writers; Taine on " The Saxons " and " The Normans ;" Collier's comments upon the life of authors in the eighteenth century, and correlated topics in English history read and commented on by the teacher, EXPLANATORY COMMENT ON THE COURSE Assumptions. — I. That the secondary school is essentially a preparatory school. 2. That, as the majority of its graduates engage at once in the active duties of life, its pri- mary function is to fit students for life. 3. That the secondary function of fitting students for college may be fulfilled by si flexible program in any well-equipped high school. 4. That entrance to the secondary school requires : (a) In grammar, a correct use of the auxiliary verbs ; of the principal parts of the irregular verbs in common use ; of the rela- tive pronouns, possessives, and irregular plurals ; also an observance of agreement between verb and subject, pronoun and antecedent, and of tense sequence, {b) In com- position, the ability to write a number of correctly connected sentences expressing con- secutive thought upon some familiar subject ; and in connection therewith power to use the dictionary and encyclopaedia, (c) In literature, a knowledge of the root stories of the Hebrew and other great literary Bibles; some of the most prominent myths and historic legends ; the life of Lincoln and the autobiography of Franklin ; the more familiar poems of Longfellow and Whittier, Hawthorne's Grandfather^ s Chair, Irving's Rip Van Winkle, Lamb's Tales from Shakespeare, and as many heroic ballads as the time allows. The problem, — The general problem is one with that of public education. It aims to refine the mass of average mind till it is sensitive to the higher issues of life, and till the individual is started toward self-realization. It seeks to provide discipline ; to lay the foundation for institutional life, and to produce social beings ready to live in harmony with their kind. The particular problem is one of matter and not of method. Its ques- tion is: "What shall be selected from the mass of subject-matter, of what kind, and in what proportion, to accomplish the aims proposed ? " The basis for selection of literature. — The literature of the past is a fundamental factor in education, and its function of giving worth to the present cannot be overvalued. If American youth are to live in and perpetuate a growing democracy, they must be edu- cated in democratic ideals ; they need to absorb the genius of American civic and literary life. This need calls for a proportionate share of American literature in the curriculum of the public school. The literature produced in this country has claims of its own, inde- pendent of conformity to the standard of classical antiquity or of mediaeval feudalism. With the growth of the spirit of democracy, art standards have been enlarged to include new subjects and broader sympathies. Already new forms of expression more adequate to the growth of humanity have appeared. " The Man with a Hoe," by Millet ; The Department] SYLLABUS OF A COURSE IN ENGLISH 68 1 Weaver, of Kaveloe, by EJiot, and "A Man's a Man for a' That," by Burns, have indeed dignified labor and shown the poetic in the commonplace, and applied to all men the measure of a man. Not less have the " Ride of Paul Revere ; " "The Concord Fight ;" " The Snow-bound Home ; " " Uncle Tom in the Cotton Field ; " " Democratic Vistas," by Walt Whitman ; "The Harvard Commemoration Ode," by Lowell ; the defense of the constitution, by Webster ; the upholding of civil-service reform, by Curtis, and the address of Abraham Lincoln on the battlefield of Gettysburg dignified life and labor this side the Atlantic, and helped to produce a literature that is both American and national. Order of discourse forms. — Since discourse is explained by literature, and literature is, in turn, explained by life, life must furnish a grounding for the study of discourse as well as of literature. All the discourse forms are used together in natural expression from infancy to age; they should be used together in school. Not only should the gen- eral forms, narration, description, exposition, and persuasion, be used simply and freely whenever an impulse would express itself thru them, but also the specific forms of dia- log, soliloquy, or monolog should be employed when they are the natural means of expression. Expression should be a perfect correspondence between feeling and form. While all the varieties of discourse are used thru the four years, narration and description are emphasized in the third year, exposition and persuasion in the fourth year. Argu- mentation is left to be pursued in connection with the study of logic in college, where a course in analytic grammar is also recommended. The rhetorical study is made to con- form to the literary study, and is intended to be made as practical and informal as possible. Provisions of the course, — This course in English provides for five lessons a week for four years. For the first year, three lessons a week in composition-rhetoric, and two in literature ; the time afterward can be distributed as the teacher sees fit. In the fourth year it is intended to give a historical view of the development of English literature. Collateral readings, while only suggestive, may be reported upon in class. Practice in the use of indexes, the making of reference lists and reference cards in connection with studies, are necessary provisions for helping students to a rightful use of books and libra- ries. The course especially recommends that stress be laid upon con\position in connec- tion with literature. For example, in the first-year studies in Whittier, pupils can write upon Whittier's heroes, his " Flemish Pictures," "A Typical New England Home," " The Civil War Poet," etc. Weekly informal and impromptu compositions should be read and discussed in class. One lesson should be given to the biography of each author studied. BOOKS UPON WHICH THIS COURSE IS BASED In Technical Study. — Lewis, ^ First Book in Writing English; Scott and Denney, Composition- Rhetoric; Dye, Tke Story Teller's Art; Carey, Guide to the Study of Criticism; Wylie, Studies in the Evolution of English Criticism; Santayana, The Sense of Beauty; Gummere, ^ Hand Book of Poetics; Baker, The Principles of Argumentation; rhetorics by Genung, Hill, and Carpenter. In Literary Study. — Pancoast, Introduction to English Literature: complete and selected works of the various authors, owned by the school and rented to the pupils. SYLLABUS OF A COURSE IN ENGLISH, WITH A DEFENSE OF THE SAME BY W. F. WEBSTER, EAST SIDE HIGH SCHOOL, MINNEAPOLIS, MINN. FIRST YEAR— FIRST SEMESTER LITERATURE — NARRATION. Scott — Marmion or Lay of the Last Minstrel. Vigor and rapidity. POE — "Gold Bug," " Ligeia." Skill in technique. 682 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Secondary Tennyson — " Holy Grail." Elegance. Lowell — " Sir Launfal." Ease and beauty. Whittier — "Snow Bound." Simplicity. Browning — " Hervd Riel," " Incident in French Camp." Action. Home reading : Stevenson — Treasure Island. Kipling — Jungle Books and Tales. Meaning of the author. 1. Outline of story. 2. Incidents in life of any characters. 3. Central ideas and purpose of story. Method of the author. 1. Does the interest center in the incidents or the characters ? 2. Is there a climax ? 3. Do all the parts converge to this point ? Unity. 4. Are the parts arranged in a sequence ? Coherence. 5. Is the interest sustained ? Style of the author. . Words that give movement to any passage. Verbs. COMPOSITION — NARRATION — TO give spontaneity. Incidents without plot. Selection of material. Unity. Arrangement of material. Time sequence, coherence. Proportion in treatment. Mass, emphasis. At least three-fourths of subjects should be incidents in lives of pupils. External form of composition. Heading, margins, indention of paragraph. Grammar study. Review the principles. Especial attention to inftections of pronouns and verbs, agreements of verbs and pronouns, verbals. Concord. Punctuation. Capitalization. Figures of speech based on likeness : simile, metaphor, personification. It will be well to adopt at once some system of abbreviations for marking papers. These should be dic- tated to pupils and copied by them into a " composition notebook." This book should be large, well made, to serve for the four years. FIRST YEAR — SECOND SEMESTER LITERATURE— DESCRIPTION. Hawthorne — Old Manse. Graceful diction. Lowell — " Indian Summer Reverie." Figures and specific words. Gray — " Elegy." Serious, thoughtful. Goldsmith — Deserted Village. Subjective description. Byron — Childe Harold. Daring description. PoE — " Fall of the House of Usher." Attention to details. Home reading : Blackmore — Lorna Doone. Burroughs — Pepacton. Kipling — City of Dreadful Night. Department] ' SYLLABUS OF A COURSE IN ENGLISH 683 Meaning of the author. Method of the author. 1. Does the author retain his point of view ? Unity. 2. Does the author arrange details' in order ? Coherence. 3. Are they treated in right proportion ? Emphasis. Style of the author. Words that produce pictures. General terms or specific words ? COMPOSITION — DESCRIPTION— TO givb accuratb expression. Subjects should be common and individual — not classes of objects. Subjects should be things seen by pupils. Treatment. Selection of details decided by purpose of description. Get a point of view and stay there. Unity. Place details in some order. Coherence. Arrange and proportion details to effect purpose. Emphasis, mass. It is a good plan to use same subject, varying conditions or purpose. " Appearance of My Home after a Long Absence;" " Appearance of the Home from which Drunken Cruelty Drove Me ; " " My Dog ; " " My Neighbor's Dog." Paragraph structure. Topic sentence developed by — Particulars and details. Telling what it is not. Comparison and analogies. Note emphatic places in a paragraph and have something there. Words. Choose those which give clear pictures. Nouns, adjectives, verbs. Specific words opposed to general terms. SECOND YEAR— FIRST SEMESTER LITERATURE — EXPOSITION. RUSKIN — Sesame and Lilies, tv/o essays. Digression. Burns — Selected poems. Carlyle — "Burns." Poetic imagery. Home reading : KiNGSLEY — HypcUia. Stevenson — Crabbed Age and Youth. Meaning of the author. Outline showing main thesis and subordinate propositions, preserving their dependence and relative importance. ' Method of the author. Does he stick to his point ? Unity. Does he pass from the known to the unknown ? Coherence. Does he arrange his material to get highest effect ? Emphasis. Style of the author. Words that link parts together. Conjunctions, relatives, adverbs, and phrases. How does he obtain clearness ? Are the figures of speech and comparisons effective ? 684 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION ' [Secondary COMPOSITION — EXPOSITION — to encourage logical thinking and adequate expression. Terms. Definitions — genus and differentia. Propositions. 1. Clear statement of proposition. '^ Key sentence." This will limit the 2. Discussion. a) What shall be included ? Unity. b) What shall be excluded ? Unity. c) In what order ? Coherence. d) In what proportion ? Emphasis, mass. Special attention to mass and proportion. Methods of condensation and expansion. Other methods of showing relative importance of thoughts in an essay. At least ten weeks of this semester should be devoted to outlines, in which the topic sentences shall give the headings of successive paragraphs. From this time there should be handed in with each essay an outline written before the essay. For class work, select a topic sentence, or more if necessary, to be developed by a method designated by the teacher, until the pupil understands the kinds of paragraphs so far studied and will make a happy choice. It is well to outline the same theme in different ways, having different points of view. SECOND YEAR — SECOND SEMESTER LITERATURE— EXPOSITION {continued). Milton — " L' Allegro," "II Penseroso," "Lycidas." Allusion. Macaulay — "Milton." Sentence, paragraph. Burke — "Conciliation." Logic. Home reading : Lytton — Last Days of Pompeii. De Quincey — English Mail Coach, Confessions of an Opium Eater. Meaning of the author. Analysis of paragraph. Method of the author. (As in first semester of this year.) Style of the author. Does each paragraph discuss a single topic ? Unity. Are the sentences arranged in logical order ? Coherence. Does each paragraph have a climax ? Emphasis. COMPOSITION — EXPOSITION (continued). Outlines. (As in first semester of this year.) Paragraph structure. Repetition. * Proofs. Specific instances. Cause and effect. Combination of forms. Connectives and methods of transition. Coherence. Conjunctions, pronouns, adverbs, adverbial phrases, transition, paragraphs. Sentences. Periodic, loose, and balanced. To make pupils think a whole sentence before writing, insist on many periodic sentences. Long — what effect ? Department] SYLLABUS OF A COURSE IN ENGLISH ^^5 Short — what effect ? If argumentation is to be introduced as a distinct form of discourse which should be studied, it should not take more than six weeks at the end of this semester, and it sliould be very elementary. THIRD YEAR — FIRST SEMESTER LITERATURE — NOVELS. •^coi-x — Ivanhoe or Talisman. \ incident. (Read but one.) Stevenson — Kidnapped or The Black Arrow. ) George Eliot — Silas Marner. Character. Home reading : George Eliot — Romola. Thackeray — The Newcomes. Meaning of the author. Method of the author. Is the interest centered in plot or characters ? Do all the details work toward the climax ? Unity. Are parts arranged in best order ? Coherence. Style of the author. Picturing power. Phrasal power. Character-drawing power. Emotional power. COMPOSITION, The principles studied in the first two years are sufficient to give clear, accurate expression ; these principles should guide the pupil in writing, and the teacher in criti- cism during the remaining years of the course. It may be wise, however, to touch upon some of the refiqements of composition. Sentences should be studied for — 1. Clearness dependent upon a) Choice of words. Latin or English. Specific or general (figures of speech). b) Arrangement of words. Coherence. Mass. 2. Force. a) Choice of words. Latin or English. Specific or general. b) Arrangement of words. Inversion. 3. Elegance. a) Choice of words — by ear. b) Arrangement of words — by ear. Assonance, alliteration. Metrical phrases. The subjects of composition should be drawn more from the literature. Outlines of stories, episodes, conversations by character upon topics of our time, descriptions of scenes, character sketches, and purpose of author give a variety of subjects which should employ the different forms of discourse in about equal propor- tions. Force and elegance should be subordinated to clearness, the real goal of composition in secondary schools. 686 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Secondary THIRD YEAR — SECOND SEMESTER LITERATURE — VERSIFICATION AND CRITICISM. Wordsworth — "She was a Phantom of Delight," "I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud," " Hart-Leap Well," "Milton" (sonnet), " Tintern Abbey," " Intimations of Immortality." Keats — "Ode to a Grecian Urn," " Eve of St. Agnes." Shelley — "The Sky Lark," "The Cloud." Shakespeare — Merchant of Venice. Arnold — "The Study of Poetry," "Wordsworth." Lowell — "Chaucer," "Shakespeare Once More," or "Wordsworth." Home reading : Hawthorne — Marble Faun. Critical. Kipling — The Light that Failed. Life vs. technique. Shakespeare — Tempest ox Twelfth Night. Meaning of the author. Method of the author. Style of the author. English or Latin words. Phrasal power. Picturing power. Emotional power. Musical power — vowels, alliteration, accents. COMPOSITION. During the time the class is studying versification, the compositions may be letters asking employment, recommending friends for positions, and answering "wanted- column " notices. The latter part of the term should be devoted to book notices and reviews, newspaper editorials, etc., and criticisms of new stories and poems. FOURTH YEAR— FIRST SEMESTER LITERATURE— DIFFICULT SELECTIONS. Chaucer — " Prologue " and one tale. Historic value. Milton — Paradise Lost (one book). Imagery. Emerson — "Compensation" or " American Scholar." Browning — " Balaustion's Adventure," "Rabbi Ben Ezra." Difficult sentence structure. Tennyson — Selections and In Memoriam (parts). Musical power, science in poetry. Home reading : Stevenson — Lantern- Bearers, A Humble Remonstrance, Gossip about Romance. Harrison — Choice of Books. FOURTH YEAR— SECOND SEMESTER A HISTORICAL REVIEW OF ENGLISH LITERATURE — TEXT- BOOK. Home reading : Lowell — "A Good Word for Winter," "New England Thirty Years Ago." Hawthorne — Our Old Home. Compositions during the last year should be more pretentious, approaching two thousand words each. Three of these should be written each semester under the critical supervision of the teacher. Class work will yield to individual instruction. Department] DEFENSE OF SYLLABUS 687 DEFENSE OF SYLLABUS BY W. F. WEBSTER, MINNEAPOLIS MINN. In addition to the principles which all admit should guide in making a course in English, I shall introduce two, viz.: that composition should be taught in some definite order, and that the literature and composition should be so correlated as to be mutually helpful. It will be granted that the literature should be the best, whether written on this side of the Atlantic or on the other. The quality of literature is not a question to be decided by place of residence ; whether from Salem or London, Calcutta or Vailima, makes no difference. It may be commendable patriotism, but it is a very partial survey, which finds half of the best literature written in our own fair land ; yet many courses are more than half made up of American authors. Good they are, but not the best ; and less than the best is an injustice. It will be conceded, also, that the course should be graded. This should be by the selections read and not according to authors. It is a mistake to read " Sir Launfal " and " The Commemoration Ode " in the same term, or " Rabbi Ben Ezra" and " Herv^ Riel.'' I am way within bounds when I say that four years of growth lie between Tennyson's Idyls and In Memoriam ; and it is a discouraging waste of time to compel pupils to an arrangement that we ourselves never follow in our own reading. We agree, then, to take from the broad stream of English as much of the very best as we can read in the short time at our disposal, and to arrange it in such an order that the advance from high to higher shall be gradual, easy, and fascinating. In organizing a course in English, an intimate relation should be established between the literature and the composition. We have done much in our schools toward correlat- ing the different lines of work, in some cases too much ; in these two divisions of the same subject, however, there has been little or no attempt at correlation. In branches so indissolubly associated, the arrangement should be sought which yields the most mutual benefit. The advantage of this alliance is a fact of all time. From Chaucer to Stevenson there has been a laying on of hands and an unbroken succession of inspired men, none of whom has neglected to acknowledge his debt of obligation for matter, method, or inspiration. The poet Keats was not the son of a hostler, but he was born the day a copy of Spenser's poems fell into his hands ; and Keats can with pride claim the youthful Lowell as his literary descendant. What do the terms Johnsonian, Shakes- pearian, Dantesque mean but that the writings so characterized approach the style of these worthies ? Even those gentlemen who assert that composition should not be taught by a special teacher — a proposition as absurd as that physiography should be taught by no one in particular — those persons who would divide the compositions into as many packages as there are teachers in the corps, and allow each teacher to contribute his share to the gen- eral discouragement, even they recognize the subtle influence of a person's reading upon his diction. The hand is subdued to what it works in ; ani just as surely as evil com- munications corrupt good manners, so surely constant association with the culture and strength of greatness will result in stronger thinking and more refined expression. Ob tl^e other hand, the study of a few principles which underlie good composition increases the appreciation of good literature. Altho he enjoys music, it is folly for a layman to claim that he" appreciates Wagner as does Mr. Damrosch. His capacity for enjoyment has been augmented by every increment of his musical knowledge, and he has learned secrets which admit him to a heaven of rapturous glory shut against the unini- tiated. And the principle is true of all art. Tennyson would not so often have sought his Virgil, nor Arnold and Pater their Homer, had they not seen a beauty there far outshining 688 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Secondary the beauty we behold. Beyond the power of the golden words of ancient wisdom to do, they were transported with delight while looking at the gorgeous patterns of those master weavers. Every advance in the knowledge of any art is attended by a corre- sponding increase in the enjoyment of its beauties. If it be accepted that classic English, in amount and kind to suit the capacity of the pupils, shall be arranged to illustrate the work in composition, the question becomes, What is the course in composition ? And I am assuming that a few elementary principles can be taught. Too long have teachers deluded themselves with the thought that they were teaching composition, when they were showing their pupils how not to do it. With thick, bulging eyeglasses they have been peeking here and there looking for misplaced commas, misspelled words, and, forsooth, for a lack of agreement between verb and sub- ject, unable to note the excellency of so large a unit as a sentence, to say nothing of a three-page essay. Nagging criticism which sees nothing larger than a split infinitive is an abomination to a generously molded youth. Dickens has lapses worse than these, yet we keep on reading him, because the superiority of the whole so far outweighs such trifles. All his people will act consistently and be perfect creations of imperfect human- ity, tho there may be a lack of concord between a relative and its antecedent. We have been tithing of mint and anise and cummin, and we have neglected the weightier matters of the law. This system has brought intellectual torpor and spiritual death. No wonder that dull-eyed pupils, whose youthful vitality has barely withstood this starvation, have been seen in many a class-room lying listlessly about under the narcotizing influence of negative, destructive criticism. To find fault is not the whole duty of a teacher. Organized, constructive criticism is as necessary in this subject as in algebra or Latin. There are clear, tangible, objective points in the construction of a theme, a paragraph, or a sentence which can be taught. We have worked long enough telling these unfortunate young people how it is not done ; it is time that we begin to show them how it is done. The forms of discourse I have arranged in this order : narration, description, and exposition. Narration I place first, to give spontaneity. The boy who can tell a good story to his companions, arranging the details so as to get the best effect, and never los- ing sight of the point, when he comes to class finds himself all tied up in his efforts to satisfy the numberless demands of his teacher. He is fettered, shackled, ball and- chained, his shoulders bent under a load of don'ts, and then we expect him to run. It reminds me of my first day with a bicycle. A kind friend, solicitous for my gallant appearance, advised me to sit straight, not to balance by keeping my body over the wheel, but by keeping the wheel under my body, and then, on pain of a broken friendship, to use the ankle movement. I tried to do all these graceful things and made a sad and laughable failure. One day, however, in the absence of my very proper friend, I led the wheel out, and by some accident got started. I had many curves in my spine, one pedal was caught by a heel and the other in the hollow of the foot, I swayed from side to side, but I was going. I learned that the first thing to do in riding a wheel is to go ; then afterward I could catch the pedal with the ball of my foot, sit gracefully, and move with a dignified ease: And in writing, the first thing is to get going ; the start will be ungrace- ful jumping, there will be uncontrollable digressions, and the finish will be a sudden fall. But there has been an exhilaration, and there will be an enthusiasm to try again. Spon- taneity is the object in the first term's work. Accuracy of statement is best secured in description. Stevenson, Maupassant, and Ruskin were always writing little bits of description; and the. author who can handle this department of literature is pretty sure of success. In this field the theme is but a short paragraph, and its perfection depends on a few severe principles. It is really the practice ground of literature. In securing method in description, nothing is of more value than reading many selections to illustrate the principles you wish them to absorb. The definite point of view, the careful selection of details which heighten the effect, and Department] DEFENSE OF SYLLABUS 689 then the one right word to express exactly the thought — these require the strictest fidelity to truth, and the most painstaking accuracy of statement. When the pupil has gained some freedom of expression, and has learned the value of accurate statement, he is ready to take up the next form of discourse which makes severer demands upon his reasoning faculty. As composition is the art of conveying to the reader what is in the writer's mind, great care should be exercised that little or no demand is made for the collection of materials. No worse mistake can be made than to drive pupils to books when preparing an essay. In spite of their integrity, they will copy phrases while taking notes, and these they will slip in unintentionally, and as a composi- tion exercise it has been entirely A^orthless. To know definitely what one does think of the commonest topic ; to make an adequate and accurate statement of the proposition, including enough and not excluding too much ; to arrange in logical and forcible order the ideas that lead to the conclusion, emphasizing important considerations and subordinat- ing lesser matters ; to carry the whole forward to a firmly established, solid conclusion, is hard enough when one has the requisite knowledge, and this process makes exactions upon the rational faculty equal to any work in a school course. Argumentation any farther than it will inevitably enter into exposition should not be a special subject of high-school study. Deduction and induction are matters that may better be deferred to a more mature age. All refinements of style should be excluded from a high-school course in English, tho they should be noted in the reading. Exer- cises for the development of any particular quality of style other than clearness are plainly not in the province of our work. The plan includes only the three forms of dis- course, but these are susceptible of great variety in their applications. Outlines of stories, descriptions of scenes, conversations by characters, discussions of the author's purpose, and elementary criticisms give opportunity to avoid monotonous repetition. And if in the end the pupils can think clearly and adequately express what they think and feel, if they can tell a plain tale so that a wayfarer need not err, all reasonable demands will be satisfied. I have arranged the literature in groups ; narration, description, and exposition are followed by the novel, some shorter poems, a few critical essays, and difficult selections. The reason for the arrangement during the first two years has been given. To avoid monotony, prose and verse have been mingled, and authors have been introduced whose manner and subjects will contribute sufficient variety. The novel, which for some unreasonable prejudice has until recently been excluded from school — the form of literature the most read, and for that reason the most produced ; the form which is the truest criticism of modern life, and therefore the most valuable for study — has been put into the third year. That pupils shall not skim along to get the story, but be encouraged to read out of it what the author has, with his soul's strength, written into it, is the reason for introducing it into the course. Versification and criticism acquaint the pupils with the more refined beauties of literature which are found in the delicate harmony of thought and phrase. Then there are authors who would not be fairly represented unless some of their more difficult works were read ; and there are others whose works all seem difficult. Chaucer should be read, not alone for his manly view of life, but for his great influence on the whole course of English literature ; Milton, Browning, and Tennyson would be imper- fectly understood if some severe study were not given to their typical compositions. These I have placed in the fourth year. And last, as a summary of the course, comes the history of English literature. For after looking at these authors singly and close at hand, it will be an advantage to step back and from a distance view the whole onward sweep of our literature, to discern the influence of the times and the relations of authors one to another. For this purpose there should be used a short and scholarly text-book. It may be inferred, as I have said so much of the relation of literature to composition. 690 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION fSecondary that I think of it in no other way. The meaning of the author is placed first in the syllabus because it is the most important. Its supremacy cannot be exaggerated. Not only does literature transcend composition in value, but I am more than half way to say that it has more virtue than all the other studies, for it has extracted the best from them all. To fol- low Burke thru one of his demonstrations, with its propositions and counter-propositions, its corollaries and scholia, all marshaled in the most effective manner, and each con- tributing its share to establishing the main thesis, is an exercise the equal of a book in Euclid. But superior to the advantages of utility is the pleasure derived from the beauties of literature. The full-toned roll of Webster's deep-breathed periods, the burst and crash of the leaping lines in Byron, the dainty delicacy of Stevenson's studied prose, the liquid murmuring of Tennyson's purling music — in each there is a beauty to match a Phidian marble or a landscape by Corot. Yet deeper than these, and higher and wider than their utility and their beauty, is the relation of literature to life. Mathematics and science may tell us how to get a living and to keep our bodies well, but literature alone tells us how to live. There is an awful warning in George Eliot's Tito, upon the horizon of whose young life there rested but a small shadow, imperceptibly spreading with his growing years until his whole sky is overcast in hideous darkness ; and with his death he pays the wages of sin. Shakespeare takes the world's great heart ; and all its passions — its love, its hate, its despair, its forgiveness, and its treachery — are made flesh and dwell among us, and we, beholding the infinite possibilities for good or evil resident in each human soul, tremble or rejoice. Or under the serene stars, beside clear-souled Emerson, with heads uncovered to the deep sky, we catch the breezes of heaven ; and as the earth slips away from us, with its muck and mire, we can almost discern the divine harmony and the per- petual beneficence of God's unending creation. An efficient force in intellectual develop- ment, an abounding source of aesthetic culture, an open sesame to the deepest knowledge of life, our literature has but now come to claim her heritage ; and, easily advancing from more to more, she grants to all who confess her gentle sway an immortality of pleasure and of profit. DISCUSSION P. W. Lyons, Bridgton High School, N. Y.— We should carefully consider the influ- ence of home and local environment upon diction. Subjects for composition should be the happenings of home and school life. My own practice is to have each student prepare and read a paper monthly before the school. F. O. Baker, Yonkers, N. Y., desired to ask Dr. Thurber whether each instructor should be at liberty to choose his own authors for class use. Dr. Thurber replied that in his vicinity it had been a time-honored custom to read literature in school work as folllows : first year : American writers ; second year : easier English writers — Macaulay, Addison, etc. ; third year: Milton and Shakespeare ; fourth year : Shakespeare, Milton, and Chaucer. Miss Lucia Stickney, Hughes High School, Cincinnati, stated that in her school work she had followed the college preparatory requirements, and found a tendency to fall behind the author as a refuge. She disapproved of this method and suggested that pupils must draw upon themselves. Miss Dye added a suggestion in the line of her syllabus. Charles C. Ramsay, Durfee High School, Fall River, Mass., advocated a modified use of good text-books in English. Department] ESSAY CORRECTING 691 THE ENGLISH ROUND TABLE ESSA V CORRECTING— CAN IT BE MADE A JOY FORE VER ? BY PROFESSOR F. N. SCOTT, OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN [abstract] The disagreeableness of essay correcting is not due to an intrinsic quality of the task itself, but to the unfavorable conditions under which the task is performed. These unfavorable conditions are as follows : 1. The amount of correction allotted to a given teacher may be more than he can perform easily and well. 2. The teacher who undertakes the task of correction may have no special aptitude for it. 3. The teacher who undertakes the task of correction may have no special training for it. On this account, he may seriously misapprehend its purpose and essential character. 1. The first unfavorable condition is the most serious of all, but it will not be discussed in this paper, for the reason that the data for the solution of the problem have not as yet been collected. No one knows, except in a vague and general way, how many essays a well- equipped teacher of composition can read in a given period of time with- out fatigue. In all probability, however, too little allowance has been made for this kind of work in the apportionment of the burdens of teach- ing, and it would seem that in our high schools there is need of more teachers of English, The idea that the special teacher of composition can be abolished and the work of correction distributed among teachers of other subjects is attractive, but fallacious. 2. Special aptitude for essay correction, including a genuine liking for it in all its phases, is a rare quality in a teacher, but is nevertheless a sine qua non for the successful teaching of composition. Those who do not possess this gift should abandon the field to those who do. 3. Up to the present time little has been written upon the rationale of essay correction. Its fundamental principles have not been thoroly explored. For this reason, perhaps, the word " correction " is often used in the narrow sense of marginal annotation. A broader view would regard it as including all words of encouragement, suggestion, advice, caution, and criticism by means of which a teacher represses bad habits of expression and sets up good habits in their stead. It thus has a positive as well as a negative side, and this positive side must not be overlooked. 692 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION LSecondary The essentials of good correction are as follows : (a) Correction should be individual. It should be based upon study of the speech habits of the pupil and of the influences which have shaped them. It should take into account character, habits of thought, and likes and dislikes. The good teacher, when he makes corrections, will have in mind the strength as well as weakness of each pupil in his class. {V) Correction should be constructive. Its aim should be to build up good habits of expression. The best correction is stimulating and sug- gestive. Correction may even promote originality and spontaneity. The difference between suggestive and unsuggestive criticism may be illus- trated as follows : Suppose that a pupil has used the word "transpire" in the sense of " happen." One method of correction is to put an abbrevia- tion or question mark in the margin of the essay ; but a more suggestive method is to write: "See Z^Z£/ slave of Scott, Cicero, and Burke. Carlyle formed his style by imitating his father's conversation. Nor has this method of cornposition been practiced by boys alone. Some great writers have never laid it aside. Virgil's obligations to Homer, Milton's to Virgil, Pope's to Horace, and Johnson's to Juvenal are cases in point. The ramifications of the practice are infinite. Every successful versifier for the college paper is a devotee of Dobson or Praed, and the prize story in the college magazine bears unmistakable evidence of being an echo of Howells or Kipling. The idea that I would impress upon you, then, is this, that here, per- haps, we have a true principle of teaching the art of composition, and that perhaps, with the same method, the average boy and girl, under careful instruction, may learn to do passably well what extraordinary men and women have learned by themselves to do surpassingly well. The range of subjects that can be treated in the manner suggested is practically unlimited, or is limited only by the range of our literature and the unspeakable wisdom of the committee on college-entrance require- ments. I can mention only a few, but those few will each stand for a class and will suggest countless others. The description of the village of Raveloe in Silas Marner, for instance, may be made the basis for a description of the pupil's own town. John Burrough's Roof Tree will give him a standard by which to evaluate the domestic architecture that Department] SUBJECTS FOR COMPOSITIONS 699 he sees. The character sketches in Goldsmith's Deserted Village and in the prologue to the Canterbury J ales will inspire him to draw pictures of his parents, his companions, the strangers who cross his path, and per- haps his teachers, Tom Brown' s School Days will enable him to describe his own with fine feeling and insight. If he is of a satirical frame of mind, Johnson's London may rouse in him a wish to excoriate the faults of the city in which he lives, especially if he lives in Chicago. But per- haps the best of all fields for work of this kind will be found in the essays and the biography of Macaulay. The vigor and the perspicuity of his style are well within the grasp of the beginner. His unsullied life, his devotion to literature, and his fine simplicity, both as man and author, afford perhaps the best of all examples that we can hold up to our boys to prove to them that a man may cry over Homer and not be a milksop, and read Plato in the original and not be a pedant. His fascinating let- ters and journals, freer and simpler in style than his essays as they are, are often sufficient of themselves, without suggestion from a teacher, to set a bright boy to work upon similar efforts descriptive of his own expe- riences. His essay on Addison may well suggest a similar essay on Irving, his life of Pitt a life of Lincoln, or his description of the trial of Warren Hastings a description of the debate between Webster and Hayne. Best of all, and most interesting of all, an attempt may be made to finish his incomplete life of Frederick the Great as he himself would have finished it. I have reserved perhaps the most important consideration until the end. It is this, that exercises of the sort 1 have mentioned improve, not only the ability to write, but also the ability to read. No one knows, and no one can know, how hard or how charming it is to write well until he has tried. No one can understand the glory of the simplest of our masterpieces until he has tried, and tried again and again, to reproduce their dignity, their simplicity, the naturalness of their style, their freedom from hypoc- risy and from cant. It matters little whether success or failure, in the narrower sense, attend one's efforts. Not failure, but low aim, is crime, and in the broader sense one cannot fail. Provided an honest effort be made, no matter what is put down in black and white, the harvest of purer taste, riper judgment, deeper reverence, and keener delight in things high and good is sure to follow. It may be said, not as a paradox, but as a truth, with reference to this principle, that it is better to have writ and failed than never to have writ at all. The conclusion which I would emphasize, then, is that for the matter of our compositions we ought, generally, to look to life, and for the man- ner, generally, to literature. In doing this we shall effect a closer union between our work in composition and our work in literature, shall com- bat a present widespread tendency to separate the two into distinct courses, and shall discover that the closer relationship thus developed 700 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Secondary teaches people not only how to write, but also how to read,, more skillfully. Finally — and perhaps this is most important of all — it will be seen that the question which we have just been touching upon is part of a much wider and deeper question, and that, do what we may as teachers of com- position, we must not expect that our disciples will make any distinct step forward in the power to write until they have made a corresponding step forward in the power to see, to feel, and to know. DEPARTMENT OF HIGHER EDUCATION SECRETARY'S MINUTES FIRST SESSION. — Monday, July ii, i8q8 (joint session of the departments of secondary and higher education) The meeting was called to order by President R. H. Jesse, of the University of the State of Missouri, in Columbian University Hall, at 3 P. M. The first paper was presented by Dr. James M. Green, State Normal School, Tren- ton, N. J., on the questions : " Are there studies that, as constants, should be pursued in some measure in every course in the secondary schools, and in the freshman and sopho- more years of college ? If so, what are these constants, and what should be the minimum requirement in each in these six years ? " The paper was discussed by Professor Frank Thilly, of the University of Missouri ; Principal Charles C. Ramsay, High School, Fall River, Mass. ; Dr. Robinson, Rock Island, 111.; J. M. Davis, superintendent of secondary schools, Iowa; Professor A. T. Ormond, Princeton University, and Dr. Green. A paper on " The Training of the High-.School Teacher " was presented by Profes- sor M. V. O'Shea, University of Wisconsin. The paper was discussed by Professor Walter B. Jacobs, High School, Providence, R. I.; Miss Connolly, Washington, D. C. ; Mr. Roberts, of Missouri; Professor B. A. Hinsdale, University of Michigan ; Superintendent George V. Buchanan, Sedalia, Mo. The discussion was closed by Professor O'Shea. The meeting then adjourned. SECOND SESSION.— Tuesday, July 12 The department was called to order by President Jesse at 3 P. M. Dr. Nicholas Murray Butler, Columbia University, New York city, spoke on the subject : " Should the undergraduate curriculum of four years in colleges and institutions be shortened by allowing such freedom of electives in the junior and senior years that a bachelor degree and a professional degree may be obtained in six years ? " Dr. William B. Smith, Tulane University, New Orleans, La., continued the discus- sion of the question. In the absence of Dr. Albert Shaw, New York city. Professor A. T. Ormond, Prince- ton University, spoke on the subject : " Should the undergraduate curriculum of four years in colleges and universities be shortened by reducing it to three years ? " The discussion was continued by President James H. Baker, University of Colorado, and President William F. King, Cornell College, Iowa. A paper was read by Professor B. A. Hinsdale, of the University of Michigan, on the question : " Is it possible and desirable to form a federation of colleges and universities in the United States similar to the Association of American Medical Colleges ?" The subject was discussed by Mrs. Ellen H. Richards, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and Professor Taylor, University of New York. 701 702 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Higher Professor A. T. Ormond moved that a committee of five be appointed to report next year on a practical plan of effecting a national federation of colleges and universities, and to offer recommendations with reference to the same. The motion was amended to make the committee consist of the present officers of the Department of Higher Educa- tion, together with Professor B. A. Hinsdale, University of Michigan, and President James M. Baker of Colorado University. The motion was carried. Moved by Professor W. H. Black, Missouri Valley College, Marshall, Mo., that the colleges and universities of the United States be notified by the secretary of the Depart- ment of Higher Education that the question of a national federa.tion is being investi- gated and to be voted upon at the next meeting of the association. The motion was carried. The nominating committee reported the following nominations for the ensuing year : For President — Dr. R. B. Fulton, chancellor of the University of Mississippi. For Vice-President — Dr. Elmer E. Brown, professor of pedagogy. University of California. For Secretary — Dr. G. A. Tawney, professor of philosophy, Beloit College, Wisconsin. Joseph Swain, A. T. Ormond, Committee. The report of the committee was adopted. The department then adjourned. G. A. Tawney, Secretary pro tempore. PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS ARE THERE STUDIES THAT, AS CONSTANTS, SHOULD BE 'PURSUED IN SOME MEASURE IN EVERY COURSE IN THE SECONDARY SCHOOLS, AND IN THE FRESHMAN AND SOPHOMORE YEARS OF THE COLLEGE ? IF SO, WHAT ARE THESE CONSTANTS, AND WHAT SHOULD BE THE MINIMUM REQUIREMENT IN EACH IN THESE SIX YEARS? BY DR. JAMES M. GREEN, STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, TRENTON, N. J. All our theories of education should follow a careful observation of the experiences a youth is likely to meet in life, and what will best fit him for those experiences. So trite a statement as this would seem out of place, were it not for the fact that many theories of education yet seem to be formed from an ideal of what should be, rather than a realization of what is ; or are the results of some ambitious efforts at invention. It was not left for man to create the human race, and he can scarcely hope to invent any new laws concerning its development, but must content himself with supplying the conditions for that development. In forming any scheme of education, we must not lose sight of the fact that our temporal existence is not all of life, but the conclusion is DepartmentJ STUDIES AS CONSTANTS IN HIGHER EDUCATION 703 warranted that a proper meeting of the conditions of this life will so completely fit for the life to come that these two ends are in harmony. The history of education reveals as great a swinging of the pendu- lum of popular opinion as to what constitutes a good plan of education as in any other department of public concern. The time was when the tutor was the only school. Two things made this school unsatisfactory ; one was the expense, the other the lack of contact of the mind of the pupil with other pupils' minds. Hence the forming of the real school which accomplishes not only the ends of economy, but community as well. A mistaken notion has gained much credence, that when a person becomes a member of a community, he loses his individuality. This can hardly be said to be true, unless, to use an algebraic term, he is losing an unknown quantity. Zoologically speaking, we must recognize the fact that the various species of mankind are to be classified under the genus homo, and that, as members of the human family, there are many things in common. The special, or individual, grows out of the general, as the branch leaves the trunk, but, as the branch must be recognized as having the sustaining part of itself in the trunk, so a very large portion of every individual is a part of the common human trunk. The question we are to discuss is : " Are there studies that are con- stants, appearing in every course of study in the secondary school and in the first two years of college ?" We should precede this question with another : Are there lines of mental activity that are common and continuous, the product of which depends upon the relative training of the mind ? If such lines of activity appear and require for their competent discipline a given pro- portion of time each week during the six years under consideration, th'en our question for discussion should be answered in the affirmative. There appear to be at least three lines of mental action that are com- mon and continuous. The abstract general names of these lines are mathematics, language, and history. The proposition is that there is so much of that which is of interest and profit to every individual within these three lines that they should be placed in every course of study, or, in other words, that every pupil should be required to study them. Mathematics should include arithmetic, algebra, geometry, trigo- nometry, and analytical geometry. At first glance, those different names might seem to represent differ- ent subjects, but to the psychologist they represent simply progressive phases of the same subject. It is this subject that trains what might be termed the measuring, or absolutely comparing, faculty of the human mind along all lines of conclusion as to material conditions, as well as space relations. When one pauses to consider how much of mental 704 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Higher activity is involved in these lines, including, as they do, all financial con- ceptions, all comparisons of values, all unknown quantities and hypoth- eses, surely their claim for recognition is established. It is expected that the pupil will have practically completed arithme- tic with the grammar or elementary school, and that this subject, if it receive attention at all in the secondary school, will receive only that attention which will show its fundamental or philosophical relations, the one part to the other. And in these days, when the spiral system is gaining proper respect, the introduction to algebra and inventional geometry is in the elementary school. To all practical purposes, alge- bra should be taken up with the secondary school, and so much of it taken as is indicated in the ordinary elementary algebra. In other words, exer- cises should be given in each of the essential forms that will give the pupil a good working knowledge. That which is commonly understood by higher arithmetic and higher algebra, namely, an exceedingly high form of arithmetical or algebraic calisthenics, should be discouraged as consuming too much time, keeping the pupil too long away from those processes which are absolutely essential to progress. Plane and solid geometry, trigonometry, and analytical geometry will require a just pro- portion of the pupil's time until the close of the sophomore year, and will result in giving him so much of mental discipline, and at the same time acquaintance with processes, as will fit him for all those forms of reason- ing which may be said to be sufficiently common to receive the attention of everyone. Training in language should be continuous from the first entrance of the child in school, certainly until the end of the sophomore year. The terms grammar, rhetoric, English and American literature seem unfor- tunate by reason of their tendency to create the impression that there are phases to which we can entirely devote ourselves for a given length of time. If the growth of the mind is to be natural, the growth in language must be natural ; that is to say, continuous. Language is the power to interpret and express thought. Too often it has been understood to mean the forms for the expression of thought. The writer is not at all in sympathy with a practice that yet prevails to some extent, and for- merly prevailed largely, which consisted in distinguishing parts of speech and carrying them thru their modifications, independent of a correla- tive content of meaning. Figure of speech, order in thought, and sus- tained composition ar^ all relative terms. One phase of language passes into another as imperceptibly as one shade of color passes into another. It is unfortunate to define the work of the secondary school and the first two years of college in terms of rhetoric and literature, American or English, classic or modern. It is much better to define it in terms of authors. We must regard language as the reservoir of the thought of all the ages on all the subjects of interest to any age. Here are found what Department] STUDIES AS CONSTANTS IN HIGHER EDUCATION 705 the physicist might describe as the varieties of mental energies, known as styles in composition. The course of study mapped out in language should include treatises on the various subjects of most common interest in styles of most marked power. Fiction, poetry, essay, description, analysis — all should come in, as exemplified by the masters, in forms adapted to the child at the various stages of his growth. The writer can- not heartily indorse as anything other than an expedient a practice, which seems to be gaining recognition, of selecting a certain few works in lit- erature for college-entrance examinations one year and certain others another year. It seems to imply that the virtue of an education in this line consists in being able to guess out beforehand what works will be set for the examination, and then preparing on those works. Let us hasten the day when good, wholesome common sense shall actuate us in matters of education, as well as in other matters of life. How well we know that to be educated does not involve necessarily a knowledge of any one author on any one subject. A regular course should be mapped out which would result in power — wKich, after all, is the only definition of education ; and all tests for college entrance or for college exit should aim simply to dis- cover the degree of the existence of this quality. A man who under- stands testing power in language is perfectly willing to place into the hands of a student the work upon which he is to be examined, knowing that the answers to such questions as he may suggest will expose the real comprehension and grasp and culture he is seeking to test. This work in language should not be limited to the mother-tongue, but should include at least one foreign language. While the speaking value in the foreign language is to be prized, yet the increased power in the mother- tongue, that is to say, the increased culture and power in our own forms of thought that we acquire thru the study of a foreign tongue, would seem to be the greatest value to be gained. We are asked to name the minimum in each of these constants. It seems rather narrow to specify the subjects that should constitute the minimum. Fortunately for our youth, nearly every one of the great mas- ters in English has written something for the children, as well as some- thing for the adult portion of his readers. We should include something from Longfellow, Holmes, Emerson, Whittier, Kingsley, Anderson, Irving, Scott, Shakespeare, Dickens, Milton, Addison, Macaulay, Gold- smith, Tennyson, Dante, Homer, Virgil. Well-chosen selections from these writers will furnish the growing mind with food from objects of nature, discussions of state, themes of literature of fictitious origin, prin- ciples of religion, art, and sociology — indeed, from all that variety of subjects which is yet the common current thought of the race, and without which the mind can scarcely be said to be abreast of the civilization of its own period. History, like language and mathematics, should be taken up in the 7o6 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Higher elementary course ; but, in the very nature of the child's mind, little more can be done than to present the narrative side in an interesting manner. The subject of history should include much of geography, not particu- larly for the sake of concentration, but rather because you cannot properly study history without it. History, in the true sense of the word, is a real inquiry into the origin, growth, and development of all of our institutions, of whatever character, social, political, religious, educational, or other- wise. We need to study government in its widening stages, from the vil- lage thru the municipality and the state to the general government. There appears to be very little value in the independent study of the ordinary texts on civil government, or constitution, or finance, but we can- not intelligently study the development of a country without clearly understanding the important part that has been played by its system of finance, its systems of transportation, and the relations between the local and general governments. We must understand of any nation something of its art, its religion, its literature, its government, its education, and its industries. The history of America cannot be studied intelligently without a study of the history of Greece, Rome, and England. It is true, we need also to know something of France and Germany. It is not the thought that, in studying the history of these foreign countries, we need to enter into all the dynasties, or, indeed, take up that inci- dental character which may be considered almost personal ; but we should certainly be able to inquire into those institutions out of which grew our own. We are to be met in the future by those who would vote upon the popular election of a United States senator, or upon his election by a legislature, as tho it were a simple question of popular choice, rather than one involving a fundamental principle. The same class of people would vote upon a state or national banking system as tho they were mere expedients or establishments of convenience, rather than insti- tutions involving the principles of confidence upon which alone can be based great business transactions. This same class of people will approach such questions as national or individual ownership of railroads and tele- graph lines as tho there was involved no fundamental question as to what will stimulate prosperity with a people. It really seems sometimes, when we look back over our courses of study and our practices under these courses, that we have concerned our- selves least with the questions that are of most value, and given most of our attention to the phases that are of least concern relatively. What form of municipal government in England and America has been most economical, in the true sense of the word, is a question which, if answered, would help the great mass of people of our country very much. Questions similar to this arise constantly in this subject of history. I should say a minimum in history should include of Greece, Rome, England, and America at least a study of their foreign relations ; leading Department] STUDIES AS CONSTANTS IN HIGHER EDUCATION ^o^ wars and the results ; their constitutional development ; religion ; educa- tional, social, and commercial development, and their general progress. If these three subjects are taken up in the manner suggested, it will require a given amount of time each week during the six years to give them the requisite attention, but there will be left opportunity for other equally important correlative subjects, but subjects requiring each a less amount of time. In closing this necessarily brief paper, I appeal again for these three subjects as constants, on the ground that they concern every life, and that there is in them more for every life than in any subject that might be sub- stituted for any one of them. DISCUSSION Frank Thillv, professor of philosophy. University of Missouri. — The function of the secondary school and the college is to educate human beings. To educate a human being is to fit him for solving the problems of " complete living," or for realizing the highest good. A man is educated when he understands himself and his physical and psychical environment, that is, nature and humanity ; when the world arouses in him the normal intellectual, aesthetical, and moral feelings ; and when he can react upon it for his own and others' good. He must know in order that he may feel and act, and he must feel and act in order that he may know. But since we cannot influence the emotional and volitional nature systematically except from the cognitive side, instruction will be particu- larly concerned with the intellect. The young should be trained to perceive, judge, and reason ; to analyze and synthetize phenomena ; to break the world into pieces and to put it together again in new ways, according to the purposes of the individual ; to use the facts as stepping-stones to something higher. Hence we shall do well to select such sub- jects as have both formal and material value ; that is, such as develop the mind and at the same time furnish it with useful knowledge. That knowledge, however, is useful which gives us a deeper insight into the workings of the physical and spiritual universe, and enables us to enjoy and control it. Knowledge, as Paulsen says, that does not make us wiser and more prudent has no value. " Was man nicht nutzt, ist eine schwere Last." Among the studies meeting these requirements I mention, first, natural science. The study of natural science by the laboratory method develops all the intellectual powers and leads to the acquisition of useful information. " Science," to use Huxley's words, " is nothing but trained and organized common sense." The student learns to see things for himself; to depend upon his own judgment; to be truthful, careful, and exact. Words come to stand for clear and definite objects, and ideas are expressed in accurate language. The contemplation of nature may also be made the source of aesthetical and religious enjoyment, as has often been pointed out. Three years of at least three hours per week should be spent in the investigation of the forms and occurrences of the external world. But facts must be measured and their quantitative relations discovered. This neces- sitates the study of mathematics, algebra, geometry, trigonometry, etc. In addition to its practical utility, this subject has great formal or disciplinary value as a means of exer- cising the powers of abstraction and deductive reasoning. I should, therefore, require at least two years of mathematics. The world, however, is not a mere soulless machine ; it is a spiritual being. Mental 7o8 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Higher phenomena are as worthy of being investigated, and a knowledge of them is as useful, as the facts of the corporeal realm, and only a one-sided system of education can afford to ignore them. An educated man will have some knowledge of the operations of con- sciousness, of the principles of conduct, of the laws of economic life and government, and of the development of the human mind in history. He cannot gain that insight into the meaning of life of which we have spoken, nor properly perform his duties as a member of society, without understanding these things. A country, especially, in which every citizen is called upon to assist in solving weighty moral, political, and economic problems should pay attention to what we might call the mental sciences. I would recommend a minimum requirement of three years for history, one year for political economy and ..politics, and one year for psychology and ethics. We study language to understand the inner, spiritual life of a people, and to give expression to our own states of soul. But language is not merely the outward symbol or instrument of thought; it assists thought. Ideas and their relations are associated with motor processes, words, gestures, facial movements, and thereby fixed in the mind. In learning to speak, we learn to think and feel with our people : words are the frozen con- cepts and feelings of the race. We should teach the young to read, write, and speak their mother-tongue ; place them in possession of their spiritual inheritance. Four years should be devoted to English rhetoric and literature. But a national spiritual life is not an isolated, independent thing ; it is a part of the total spiritual life of humanity. Hence, in order to understand ourselves, we must under- stand other peoples ; and this we cannot do well without a knowledge of foreign lan- guages. Occupation with foreign languages also gives us greater breadth of view ; makes us more tolerant and sympathetic. "To learn a new language is to acquire a new soul," as has wisely been said. We should, therefore, study, first of all, the modern lan- guages, the languages of the present intellectual leaders of mankind, German and French, which, owing to the growing international intercourse in science, art, and commerce, have also a great practical value. The minimum requirement should be two years of modern languages. In conclusion, a place should also be found, at least in the curriculum of the sec- ondary school, for such subjects as drawing, manual training, and gymnastics. All of these exercises assist us in gaining control of the body, in acquiring skill in the use of our limbs. They are likewise a source of recreation and pleasure — the pleasure which accompanies healthful and successful activity — and develop the intellectual powers. Prinicpal Charles C. Ramsay, High School, Fall River, Mass., referred to the paper by Dr. Green and to the discussion of Professor Thilly as scientific appreciations of the different branches of knowledge. It is a mistake, said he, to think we can say just what lines of study should be universally pursued by pupils. I would go no farther than to require English and one foreign language of pupils in the secondary course, leaving it to the pupil to elect. Elaborate requirements give the students only the scraps and fragments of what might be a fine feast. Dr. Robinson, Rock Island, 111., spoke in commendation of Mr. Ramsay's view. His own experience would point to a similiar policy. We must, said he, make a minimum of requirement in the essentials, and leave the further choice of studies to the students and their parents. We should adhere neither to a purely elective nor to a pure require- ment policy in the secondary schools. J. M. Davis, superintendent of secondary schools in Iowa, emphasized the need of an abundance of good reading for the social as well as intellectual culture. Professor A. T. Ormond, of Princeton University, dwelt upon the need of the student for guidance and direction in the choice of studies. Instead of one rigid requirement for all, we might require one or more of several alternative courses. Very often neither the pupil nor his parent is able to choose wisely. There are certain Department] THE TRAINING OF THE HIGH-SCHOOL TEACHER 709 constants, such as language, history, nature study, and mathematics, which, in some of their aspects at least, all should study. Dr. Green renewed the discussion as to constants. It is not the question of elect- ives, but of those studies which ought to be pursued by all students, with which we are dealing. He deprecated the idea that the child is able to choose his own studies. Natural science, manual training, drawing, etc., need to be taught, but they need not occupy the place of constants which continue thru the secondary and the first two years of the higher courses. Professor Thilly, in conclusion, emphasized the fact that theories as to the arrangement of studies cannot be experimented with as a physicist or a chemist experi- ments with his elements. The question here discussed cannot be settled upon the basis of experience alone. The considerations, of greatest value for us are our knowledge of the mind, the laws of its activity and growth, and our knowledge of the materials of instruction. THE TRAINING OF THE HIGH-SCHOOL TEACHER BY M. V. O SHEA, PROFESSOR OF THE SCIENCE AND ART OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN, MADISON [abstract] The present view of the requirements for teaching, as well in the high school as elsewhere, regards adequate preparation in scholarship and special study of the science and art of education as equally essential. The Committee of Fifteen, reporting upon the training of teachers, right- fully maintains that " If college graduates are put directly into teaching without special study and training, they will teach as they have been taught. The methods of college professors are not in all cases the best, and, if they were, high-school pupils are not to be taught nor disciplined as college students are Success in teaching depends upon con- formity to principles, and these principles are not a part of the mental equipment of every educated person The training of teachers for secondary schools is in several essential respects the same as that for teachers of elementary schools. Both demand scholarship, theory, and practice." While it is possible to obtain definite statistics respecting the preparation of high-school teachers in but a few of our own states, still estimates by officials familiar with the conditions declare that quite a large percentage of instructors in secondary schools — apparently less in New England than elsewhere — have not had the advantage of a college education. Of the 700 instructors in the secondary schools of Wis- consin 50 per cent, only are college graduates ; while of the remainder 27 per cent, are graduates of normal schools and 23 per cent, have not pursued their studies beyond the high school. In Minnesota, out of a total of 376 secondary-school assistants, 255 are college graduates, 76 are 7IO NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Higher normal-school graduates, while 45 terminated their academic career with the high school. The ideal of scholarly preparation on the part of the secondary-school teacher has apparently not made so great headway thus far in Missouri, for only about one-third of her teachers have college degrees, while a greater number have had neither normal-school nor university training. The factor of meager salary is perhaps more than any other making impossible the attainment of a scholarly teaching standard on the part of instructors in the secondary school. The remuneration for services in many localities is not calculated to encourage thoro preparation, and so to draft college graduates into service. On the average, male assistants in high schools the country over do not receive more than $1,000 per annum, to be very liberal; while in the majority of schools in Wisconsin $800 is the maximum. A woman is thought to be unusually fortunate in my own state when she receives $700, and this appears to be regarded as a generous allowance in Connecticut, New York, and other states as well. These amounts are no greater than, commonly not so great as, normal-school graduates expect to receive. Indeed — and it should be encouraging to the profession of school-teaching to be able to say this — school officials in Wisconsin are not infrequently informed by the presidents of normal schools that $700 is the least sum for which any of their strong candidates may be obtained. So far as my knowledge extends, persons completing their education in training schools, and occupying either assistant positions or principalships in the high schools, are, speaking generally, reaping as fruitful harvests as university graduates in corresponding situations. Under such conditions it is little less than inevitable that young men and women should pursue the path of least resistance leading to the desired high-school berth ; and, in view of these circumstances, it is evident that the problem of securing a high standard of scholarship in the secondary school is primarily a sociological, not a professional, one. It needs ever and always to be appreciated that the school, being one of a complex of social forces, cannot rise far above the common level of social evolution. Reform must strike at social inertia and social hindrances, as they affect education ; and very much is being accomplished in some parts of our country today by the social agitation of educational questions. Surely, criticism heaped upon the schools in general and the teachers thereof in particular, without indicating clearly the source of shortcomings, not only fails to encourage amendment, but it seriously aggravates already unhappy conditions. But the factor of inadequate stipend is not the only one which has operated in the past, and is now at work barring applicants with university diplomas from the secondary schools. The well-nigh hopeless inefficiency, one might almost say imbecility, of a college youth fresh from his books DepartmenO THE TRAINING OF THE HIGH-SCHOOL TEACHER 7 1 1 before a room full of high-school boys and girls, anticipating with eager- ness, not to say malice aforethought, the performances of the young recruit, has always attracted the attention and stimulated the irony of school officials. One may hear it proclaimed on every hand, if he listens for it, that, at the start at any rate, however it may be at the finish, altho so many college men switch off the pedagogical track before they have caught their second breath that the indictment is doubtless true for the entire race, irrespective of tinie limitations — one may hear it said that the normal-trained sprinter has better wind and gait than the university man, who during his college course has in reality never heard or seen anything about secondary teaching, and who steps off the first day totally ignorant of the rules of the track or of how he should rightly handle himself. , It is sometimes said in apology for the college graduate's empty-handedness that, having passed thru the process of schooling him- self, he must of necessity have acquired the art of imparting knowledge to others. This doctrine, so deceptive because it sounds so rational, was advanced long ago by a Massachusetts legislature appointed to report upon the work of the early normal schools ; but it met with little appro- bation at that time — much more than it merited, tho — and has since been entirely discarded by intelligent persons familiar at all with the real problems of education. The situation here depicted is a really serious one, and, until it is remedied by greatly improving the teaching power of college candidates, we must continue to have normal-trained persons in high-school positions. If, as is done in Wisconsin, inducements could be given to normal-school graduates to complete a college course in prep- aration for high-school positions, the problem would be, in a measure, solved. During the past year over forty graduates from the normal schools of Wisconsin, and a number from other states, entered the junior class in the course leading to the degree of bachelor of philosophy in education ; and it is believed that this indicates a significant departure in the training of the secondary-school teacher. But it must be true that, for a long time to come, the majority of teachers in the high schools will not have attended a normal school, and it is with their preparation that we are for the present concerned. In 1895 the general assembly of Connecticut directed the state board of education to inquire into the condition of the high schools ; and, after a painstaking and detailed study of conditions, a report was made last year charging them with deplorable inefficiency, to be accounted for, at least in considerable measure, by the inferior character of the instruction. The report proceeds to say that Graduates of colleges, fresh from their books, apply, fortified with recommendations from the president or professors, purporting to show that the holders have been faithful, have attained a high rank in scholarship, and have traits of character which are sure to make them teachers The students thus recommended are often really strong 712 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Higher in their college subjects, and particularly qualified in some special branch. None of them are acquainted with the philosophy or history of education, and they are not prepared to teach any subject. In not more than three or four schools was real teaching, as distinguished from examination, found. Usually a lesson is given, consisting of so many pages or so many examples ; the recitation hour is occupied in finding out whether this lesson so given has been learned. A lesson in algebra is assigned, say twelve examples on the thirtieth page, and then the recitation hour is occupied in finding out whether the scholar has " done " them. In a recitation in history the lesson consisted in part of the list of Roman emperors in order from Augustus to Trajan, and the only question possible was whether the right succession and the years were correctly given. There is no opportunity for skill except in questioning. This questioning, if mere questioning or constant examination be teaching, was often without preparation and aimless. It sometimes hit the mark, and sometimes did not. It is always suggestive of the man who went out to kill a bear and hit a calf. There was little evidence of prepa- ration on the lessons. In Latin classes taught by experienced teachers there was evident as much preparation as results from going over a subject year after year, and if eternal examination on a definite line be teaching, the best teaching was found in the Latin classes. Without minimizing the evils of inadequate scholarship, still, regard- ing things as they are, the chiefest defect in the preparation of college graduates for teaching is seen to be the almost utter lack of instructional knowledge, interest, and experience under wise criticism, which results too often in there being less genuine teaching in the high school than in any of the grades below it. But even if college students designing to teach had desired to make decent preparation therefor, they could not until recently have found adequate opportunities in universities anywhere ; and they can find these even yet in but a half dozen or fewer institu- tions, altho the facilities in universities for the study of education, par- ticularly in its scientific and concrete aspects, are being multiplied every year, and the number of students availing themselves of these advantages is increasing rapidly. In 1890 there were reported to the Commissioner of Education 3,414 students, in 114 universities and col- leges, pursuing courses of study designed for the training of teachers. In 1895 the list of institutions had increased to 192, and the number of students to 6,402. However, in the larger proportion of these cases the educational studies were fragmentary, and entirely theoretical, the pro- fessor of philosophy frequently discoursing a few times a year in a highly abstract and learned manner upon pedagogical themes ; altho twenty- seven universities reported having regularly organized departments of pedagogy, with courses of study extending over four years, and leading to degrees equivalent to first degrees given in other departments. In a few instances postgraduate courses were offered ; and in all attention was paid not alone to the history, theory, and philosophy of education, but methods of instruction and school organization were considered as well. Thus the good work moves on apace. Within recent years it has Department] THE TRAINING OF THE HIGH-SCHOOL TEACHER 7 > 3 inspired the establishment of independent schools of pedagogy and normal colleges; and in their organization these have, for the most part, recognized the demands of concrete, as well as practical, training. While facilities of whatever sort for the training of secondary teachers are, con- sidering the exigencies of the situation, to be hailed with delight wher- ever and whenever they make their appearance, yet, in view of the needs of those who train youth, who should be men among men, in sympathy with the varied interests of the community, broad in culture and catholic in opinion, capable of taking an important part in social functions and directing social activities — considering these obligations, it is apparent that the teacher's training should be secured in universities, the home of all activities, the foster-mother of all interests, the best representative of cosmopolitan life. When the teacher's studies are pursued in independ- ent endowments, where he sees and hears nothing but what has concern with his special calling, and where all the minds he comes in contact with are running abreast of one another in the same groove — in such an environment he is only too apt to become a pedagog indeed, such a one as has supplied Shakespeare and Swift and Pope, and many another satirist, with the motif iox some of their keenest jests. It would not be of so much account whether the teacher was cut on a generous or meager plan, if it were not that his attitude toward life and things has such a tremendous, almost immeasurable, influence upon the tide of life of rising generations, elevating or depressing as his own is exalted or narrowly limited, instilling in the minds of the young just and reasonable, or bigoted and erroneous, views of varied political and social interests, religion, and the like. And the best and surest way to secure breadth in the teacher is to keep him, during his formative period, in an environment where things are built on generous foundations — the university, which, of all social forces, is, or ought to be, the most liberal and comprehensive. But even regarding all of our opportunities, in the university and elsewhere, for the decent and efficient training of secondary teachers, they are seen to be wholly inadequate to meet the demands. The Ger- man people have progressed far beyond us in this respect. Findlay,' writing on the training of secondary-school teachers in Germany, says that "students who take a special interest in Pddagogik have oppor- tunities for pursuing their inquiries during their university career. The liberty allowed to the German undergraduate of keeping terms in any German university enables such men to go to Halle, or Leipzig, or Giessen, or Jena, in each of which universities elaborate arrangements are made for 'practical' training in school classes, associated with courses of university lectures. " For more than fifty years every intending teacher, after passing his Staatsexamen, has been sent to a gymnasium or other secondary school ' Report of the Commissioner of Education, 1894-95, P- 703- 714 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Higher for his trial year, called the Frobejahr. He is not paid any salary, but is attached to the staff, teaching for a few hours every week and learning what he can from the head master and his colleagues." In 1890 an important reform law was enacted requiring that all candidates should take a year of actual training in a properly organized seminar, and this in addition to a preceding Probejahr. While it may be questioned whether the German plan does not lay too great emphasis upon professional training for all instructors, yet it cannot be gainsaid that the principle upon which it is reared is eternally right, in its fundamental features at least. We in this country need on the part alike of schoolmen and of the public a better knowledge of what professional studies aim to accomplish, and a greater appreciation of their value to the teacher in the secondary school or elsewhere. The dean of one of our great universities recently delivered himself of the opinion that it was not necessary, in order to teach biology in the high school, that one should have studied the science and art of education. He urged the argument that to have mastered the facts to be taught was in itself sufificient to give the candidate power to put those facts into the minds of his pupils — a very ancient contention, 'and one founded upon a false view alike of the way in which the mind puts off ignorance and adorns itself with knowledge, and of the large purposes of instruction in science or in other studies. Further expressions of the dean revealed the fact that he regarded the study of education as consisting of the parrot- like learning of pedagogical theories and devices for teaching — a chimera haunting the minds of many in academic circles even today. The normal schools have doubtless fostered this widespread illusion, since in the indiscreet years of their youth they magnified to such proportions the petty details of schoolroom methods that the foundation principles were, in considerable measure, obscured. But for the most part these institu- tions have outgrown this formal stage in their evolution, until now the studies which primarily engage their attention relate to the modes of human development, with the purpose in mind to determine how this may be influenced for good by educational agencies. It is recognized that the process of maturing in childhood proceeds in conformity to cer- tain general laws of growth which reign everywhere in the universe, and which must be consulted in all education alike in the selection of subjects to be taught, and in the order and manner of presenting them. Need it be argued that this constitutes a most profitable study to be pursued by the candidate for teaching, and a most intricate one as well ? But the average layman is inclined to regard this as he does other related matters — that there is nothing so involved or abstruse respecting the maturing of childhood and youth, and simple common sense is sufficiently wise for purposes of instruction. Such a proposition proceeds, from a mind full of ignorance regarding the vital matters at issue; and it Department] THE TRAINING OF THE HIGH-SCHOOL TEACHER 7 1 5 may be explained by the well-known psychological law, that the less deeply one's vision has penetrated into a field of thought, the less of con- sequence he is able to descry in it,, and the more confident he is that he has acquired full knowledge respecting it. This may be likened to the optical phenomenon, that the farther an object is removed into the distance, the smaller and more insignificant it becomes. If native instinct and common sense were a sufficient equipment for one who fashions the minds and attunes the hearts of childhood and youth, we should, indeed, have had our best parents and teachers among the most ignorant of people, whom nature, and not tuition, has instructed, and so in whom instinct is the guide of life. But every psychologist knows that what is popularly called common sense is in many situations a most dangerous attribute, for it fills the mind with contentment regarding its own limited attainments in particular directions, and gives an assurance in wonted action which is the accompaniment of nothing else than ignorance and prejudice. Common sense (common ignorance would be more appropriate) originally conceived and now nurses the rough-and-ready method of training child- hood which is the only recourse of savage people, and which brutes employ in the discipline of their young, but which has lost its effect- iveness in the present stage of the evolution of the human race, and which, if continued, simply tends to hold the development of mankind in check, promoting arrest upon the savage plane. The candidate for a position in the high school, then, should devote his attention, in the first place, to the study of human development, seek- ing to acquire a sort of natural history of the maturing mind. Modern researclj^s in the biological sciences have taught us that, at least in a general way, every new being recapitulates in sequence, up to the point occupied by his particular species in the scale of life, the principal char- acteristics of the phylogenetic series ; and they have shown, further, that certain influences hasten this process, while others retard it, and even prevent the individual in some instances from passing clear thru the lower orders, bringing them into life thus unformed, or, as we say, deformed. Much evidence from many sources is constraining us in these times to the conviction that the child must reproduce within himself the ancestral record not only physically, but he must live over again, in some degree, the mental experiences of his predecessors in the racial series. And as in embryological development untoward influences may lead to arrest, so in the child's mental growth unwise treatment may cause him to stop upon some platform lower than that which he was designed by nature to attain. Is it not of supremest consequence that the intending teacher should familiarize himself with these primary laws of growth, to the extent that they are definitely understood, so that in his train- ing he may have his course guided by them to the greatest possible degree ? 7l6 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Higher And it seems of particular moment that the secondary-school instructor should study earnestly the principles of human development, considering that the epoch in an individual's career occupied substantially by the high-school period is marked by the most significant and vital phenom- ena. So great are the spiritual transformations which are now wrought in the lives of youth that many have regarded these events as constitut- ing in truth a second birth hardly less momentous than the first. There are no people so benighted but that they recognize in adolescence the greatest crisis in the process of maturing; and nature has taught them to fill this period with religious ceremonies arid practices which are adapted to impress the cardinal virtues of courage, honesty, and obedience upon blossoming manhood and womanhood. This being a season of both physical and mental unrest, of incessant change in ideals, of the advent of a great multitude of strange energies and emotions that need the most careful direction, of the ready formation of settled convictions which persist thruout adult life — considering these and other things, how great is the necessity for the keenest insight on the part of those who are charged with the responsibility of guiding lives thru this dangerous pass connecting childhood and maturity ! In concluding, it scarcely need be mentioned, certainly not argued, that the candidate for the privilege of instructing youth, having diligently pursued studies relating to human development and to the great science of education founded securely thereupon, should have seen the doctrines he has thus acquired tested and applied in actual practice during his proba- tionary period. He should himself try his hand at this, in order that he may be aided by those who have been successful before him, and who may be of service to him by pointing out wherein his practice is not in harmony with his theory and suggesting how improvements may be made. It is surely a crude, sorry way, and one entirely out of harmony with present- day methods in all walks of life, to turn loose upon youth, at a time when it needs the wisest guidance, raw, undisciplined tutors, who, it is hoped, will ultimately acquire skill by lawless experimentation upon innocent subjects. If, then, the secondary teacher adds to a thoro college education genuine scientific study of human development and the educational laws growing out therefrom, and tests his art in the presence of experts, he has done only that which should be required of him before he is permitted to enter the schoolroom. It is true, of course, that he may not even then be a fit guide for youth, if nature has not been generous in her first gifts to him ; but in any event, whether favored or not, he will be more efficient in proportion as he has improved upon and developed native endowments. To attain in the case of every secondary teacher the requirement here presented is largely a social, but partly a professional, Department] SHORTENING OF UNDERGRADUATE CURRICULUM VI task ; ahd when it is met, as it surely must be in the fullness of time, we may, then, have in every secondary schoolroom one " Who grows not alone in knowledge and power, But day by day, and hour by hour, In reverence and in charity." SHOULD THE UNDERGRADUATE CURRICULUM OE FOUR YEARS IN COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES BE SHORT- ENED BY ALLOWING SUCH FREEDOM OF ELECTIVES IN THE JUNIOR AND SENIOR YEARS THAT A BACH- ELOR DEGREE AND A PROFESSIONAL DEGREE MAY BE OBTAINED IN SIX YEARS? BY DR. NICHOLAS MURRAY BUTLER, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK CITY A course of broad, liberal culture preparatory to a professional train- ing is necessary to a complete equipment for life. Only those schools are, in a strict sense, professional which require such a course as a con- dition of entrance, and eliminate from their curriculum all subjects which do not have an immediate bearing upon professional training. There are but two such schools in America of genuine university rank, viz., the Harvard Law School and the Johns Hopkins Medical School. On the other hand, we have too many schools in America of a semi-professional and semi-liberal character. Many of these are carried on as private investments, which bring large returns to their proprietors. It being to their interest to admit as many students as possible, they often take them without any secondary or liberal training. Consequently the time has come when law and medicine are no longer learned professions. They are often pursued as trades. The college offers the liberal education that should lie at the founda- tion of professional training, and it occupies a place midway between the secondary school and the professional school. As such it can only justify its existence by giving a training which adequately compensates for the four years and the expense involved in taking such a course. The truth is, the college has scarcely effected its aim in this country, for the obvious reason that, in order to take a college course, the professional man must wait until he is between twenty-five or thirty years of age before he can maintain himself in life. This difficulty can be met in cases where the college is part of a uni- versity system, and where the range of electives is broad, by permitting the student to elect studies in such a way as to cover the first year of his professional course during the junior and senior years of college. In 7l8 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Higher this way the student shortens his stay in the professional school by a year, without really shortening either his liberal or his professional training. At Columbia University this arrangement has brought about at least one unexpected and beneficent result. Students who never expect to take professional courses after leaving college are found availing them- selves of the opportunity to take the fundamentals of professional train- ing as a preparation for business pursuits. This is especially true of the law courses, altho it holds as well for the other technical subjects. There are certain studies in the mental, the political, and the social sciences which all students desire, because they contribute materially to that breadth of culture and intellectual equipment which it is the aim of a liberal education to produce ; and these studies are made available to all students in the junior and senior years. All this is possible only in colleges which form parts of universities. In the 420 or 430 colleges in America which are not parts of universities the question arises whether the course should not be reduced to three years. This difficult question is the subject of a later paper on this program. The semi-professional schools, after reducing their entrance require- ments to the minimum which enables students to enter them without a preparatory liberal training, are now endeavoring to lengthen their courses so as to extend over from three to four years. I deprecate this tendency. The real solution is not in this direction. The surer way of effecting that reorganization of our educational system which is so obviously needed is to raise the entrance requirements of the professional schools so as to make a preparatory liberal training necessary, and then to elim- inate all studies from the professional course which do not have an imme- diate bearing on professional training. DISCUSSION Dr. William Benjamin Smith, professor of mathematics, Tulane University, stated that the subject was one upon which he had thought and formed definite opinions, but which had not occupied his attention recently. In the few minutes allotted him he would endeavor to state some of his conclusions, but not to ground them with rea- sons satisfactory to himself, much less to his hearers. The plan sketched by Dr. Butler had much to recommend it under certain condi- tions, and in its original, or perhaps some modified, form it might with advantage be tried in other college-universities. ' However, all such compromises and half-measures offered no final solution, in principle, for the educational puzzle of today, tho they might be useful, instructive, and even necessary stages toward such a solution. The fact is that our present college-university is a kind of educational centaur, which cannot be dealt with quite satisfactorily in its present form. It involves a certain junction of disparates, a mingling of heterogeneous elements that will hardly enter into combina- tion. In the lower grades of the quadrennium the culture elements are exclusively Department] SHORTENING OF UNDERGRADUATE CURRICULUM 7^9 present, but in the upper these yield place more and more to the professional, or semi- professional. This signifies that there is everywhere an awakening sense of too many years preparatory to professional or university studies proper. To struggle against this tendency to shorten the college course is idle ; it will assert itself and accomplish its end this way or that, even if it should have to strand the college course, expelling this latter from the general current of education. For the complaint that our American youth begins his university course too late in life by at least two years is only too well grounded. He is, in fact, at least in the backbone culture studies, more particularly the languages and mathematics, some three or four years behind his English, German, and even French cousins. While he is wrestling with Caesar, Xenophon, and elementary algebra, they are mastering Tacitus, Sophocles, and conic sections. Measured all round, they will be found to have accomplished at fifteen what he does not accomplish before seventeen. (See a widely read article by Professor Goodwin, in the Nation.) Coming to the university proper, to professional or technical studies, at twenty-one instead of nineteen, no wonder he complains, is often impatient, and seeks for short-cuts, and would flank the college curriculum by devious maneuvers. The regular college-bred youth has a real grievance, which it is vain to ignore, disguise, or minimize. The present system amerces him of at least two years of his life, and precisely when years count most. This grievance must be frankly recognized and boldly abated, if the college curriculum is to maintain its time-honored place as mid-highway between the common education and the higher professional and technical culture. The proper method of overcoming the difficulty in question is that which nature everywhere employs when the continued growth of an organ or organism has rendered it unwieldy or ill-adapted to complicated conditions : the method of spontaneous fission. Divide and conquer. Out of the present college-university must emerge the college and the university, distinct in aim, method, discipline, organization. The many colleges that nowadays are making broad their phylacteries and assuming the functions of universities should abandon such aspirations and content themselves with college work proper — work not less useful, difficult, and honorable. The college class-room calls for a kind of talent different from that demanded in the university lecture-room — different, but not inferior. On the other hand, the real universities in our land should lay aside all under- graduate work below junior and senior years, and no little even of those years, and devote their wealth, their equipment, their energies solely to university work proper, to research, to technical and professional training. Even then they will have all and more than all they can do, for the university supply does not yet equal the demand. It IS only a few years since this same process of spontaneous fission separated finally the college from the academy. Till then the so-called preparatory or sub-freshman department was a regular annex to the college. The process of separation was not always painless, and often met with earnest protest, but it has now been very generally accomplished. A similar dissociation at the upper end of the college course will free it from anomalies and bring into independent being the university in America. The college will then enter upon a career of greatly enlarged usefulness. Its function as the especial organ of general culture, of intellectual discipline non-professional, but fitting for all professions, being more clearly defined than ever before, it will receive wider recognition and enter more largely than ever into the general mental life of our people. Students will be attracted to it whom now it cannot reach. The age of admission being lowered from sixteen to fourteen years, the average age of entrance would be about fifteen, from which to nineteen a uniform and consistent code of discipline may be enforced. But this lowering of the minimum age need bring with it no commensurate lowering of condi- tions for admission. When high schools cease to prepare for the college-university and begin to prepare for the college proper, for pure culture study, not for studies half disci- plinary, half professional, they will find it possible to give better training in less time. At present their energies are frittered away on too great a variety of subjects. Omnis- 720 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Higher cience is their foible, distraction their bane. Non multa sed multum. Let them do a few things well. Let them prepare thoroly in English, algebra, geometry, Latin, Greek, with German, French, and science as alternatives ; let them seek this kingdom of heaven and its righteousness, and, in due time, all else will be added. The student will then leave college at nineteen quite as well prepared for university professional work as he is now at twenty-one, knowing, indeed, not so many things, but thoroly knowing the few he knows. A great variety of studies is quite as unnecessary to true growth in culture, to true mental development, as a great variety of foods to the proper nutrition of the body. At present our educational system is chaos, and, thru its lack of consistent organiza- tion no less than thru its over-diffusion and lack of accent, it wastes at least two years of the student's life. Everywhere in nature waste is an impressive phenomenon, but nowhere more impressive than in American education. The college of the future will parallel closely, without imitating, on its classical side the German Gymnasium, and on its scientific side the Realschule ; while our university of the future will keep fairly abreast with the universities of Germany. Professor A. T. Ormond, Princeton University. — The method of shortening the college course in years is one which does not commend itself. Such a result is one which we would profoundly regret. Our experience has shown that the four years of college are the most important years in the individual's life, and their value is too great, both to the individual and to society, to admit of such a sacrifice. In place of such a reduction, three steps should be taken : first, all studies in the curricula of secondary schools which are not essential to preparation for college should be eliminated, and the prepara- tory course be thus reduced ; secondly, the electives of junior and senior years should be so arranged that the student can cover the first year of his professional training while in college ; thirdly, the professional course should be reduced to a minimum of time requirement by eliminating all studies which do not have a direct bearing upon profes- sional training. President J. M. Baker of the University of Colorado emphasized the need of some change in our present system. Young men and young women are continually short-cir- cuiting the college course, in order to get into their life work earlier. It may be neces- sary to shorten the college course in order to save it. He would not do this, however, if it can be avoided, and believed it may be avoided by a reorganization of our whole edu- cational system. President King of Cornell College, Iowa, dwelt upon the fact that the same diffi- culty exists with reference to the high-school courses as with reference to the colleges. Shall they aim at a complete preparation of the pupil for life, or shall they be simply preparatory to higher liberal education ? The time required for complete education might be reduced by making the secondary school simply a preparation for college ; also by eliminating from the professional course all studies not of professional value. IS IT POSSIBLE AND DESIRABLE TO FORM A FEDERATION OF COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES IN THE UNITED STATES SIMILAR TO THE ASSOCIATION OF AMERICAN MEDICAL COLLEGES? BY PROFESSOR B. A. HINSDALE, UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN As this is a new subject, at least in this form, it will be better, as Matthew Arnold might say, to let our intelligence play freely around it Department] DESIRABILITY OF FORMING FED ERA TION OF COLLEGES 7 2 1 and upon it than to advance and maintain a particular thesis. Further- more, it will be necessary first to form a clear idea of the organization that is set up as a type of the proposed college federation. The purposes or objects of the Association of American Medical Colleges, as impliedly stated in sections i and 7 of Article III of the con- stitution, are two in number. The first of these sections declares that each college holding membership in the association shall require of every student, before admission to its course of study, an examination in a prescribed minimum of general studies ; and the second one, that each college may confer the degree of doctor of medicine during the year 1898 upon students who have attended three courses of instruction, of six months' duration each, provided each of these courses has been in a separate calendar year. The studies in which the student is to be examined are English, arithmetic, algebra, physics, and Latin. The general conditions of membership, as well as some of the working machinery of the association, are shown in Article II of the constitution, as follows : Section i. Any medical college conforming to the requirements of the association as expressed in this constitution and in the by-laws of the association is eligible to membership. Sec. 2. Any medical college desiring membership in this association shall make application to the secretary and pay the annual dues of five dollars. This application shall be accompanied by evidence that the college applying is conforming to the require- ments of this association. The application and all evidence and information in relation to the college applying shall then be put into the hands of the judicial council, to be reported to the association, favorably or unfavorably, at the annual meeting, at which time the college shall be elected to membership if it receives the favorable recommenda- tion of the judicial council and the favorable ballot of a majority of the colleges repre- sented in the meeting. The neglect of the judicial council to report on the application of a college shall not be a bar to election. Sec 3. Each college is entitled to one representative at all meetings of the associa- tion, and to one vote on all questions. The dean of the college will be its accredited representative in the absence of any other delegate. Sec 4. The dues are five dollars a year, payable in advance. Besides the representatives of colleges in attendance at the regular meetings, who are termed active members, provision is also made for associate and honorary members. Moreover, it is the duty of the judicial council, in addition to passing on applications for membership, to investi- gate and determine all questions of violation of the rules and regulations of the association, and all matters of dispute among the members. The association is purely voluntary, having no coercive authority whatever. Information as to the working and success of the association does not seem to be very accessible to a layman. It is, perhaps, safe to say no more than that it has thus far proved to be measurably useful and success- ful. It has now been in operation some seven or eight years. Now, if a similar federation of colleges and universities be formed, 722 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Higher what shall be its functions ? Obviously, among them would be included the consideration of terms of admission to the institutions that comprise the membership and the conditions of graduation ; or, more definitely, the prescription of minimum entrance requirements and minimum courses of study leading up to degrees. Argument is hardly called for to show that these are important matters, intimately affecting the progress of higher education in the country. Entrance requirements condition closely the work that students do in college, and this again determines the worth, academically speaking, of the bachelor's degree. It is not surprising, therefore, that these subjects should always be up for discussion. In fact, the first topic has had the floor in a pre-eminent sense for some time past, and promises to hold it for some time longer. The low value of much that passes in the United States for higher education is a thrice-told tale. The causes of this state of things are disclosed by a glance into the history of our civilization. The oldest of the nine colleges founded before the Revolutionary War strove to main- tain the standards of the university-colleges of England after which they had been modeled, but not with complete success ; while the later schools of the same group fell to a still lower level. Existing conditions were not favorable to the preservation undimmed of the ancient ideal. A much greater loss came with the colonization of the great West. Here education of all kinds contended with frontier conditions on a grand scale ; old traditions were obscured or wholly lost ; the material demands of life were as great and pressing as the opportunities for material develop- ment were promising ; so-called institutions of higher education multiplied far beyond either the needs or the resources of society, with the inevitable result that, to the popular mind, and, it is feared, to some men styled educated, the words "college" and "university" came to mean little more than schools that held commencements, gave out diplomas, conferred honorary degrees, and solicited subscriptions. Meantime the old colleges of the East, instead of expanding their work and diversifying their methods, hardened down into "the precise forms in which they had been modeled in the first place. The potency of better things came with the educational genius of George Ticknor, Thomas Jefferson, and Francis Wayland. The ideas of these great reformers worked slowly in the mass of society, and in the cases of Ticknor and Wayland, in the institution where they had been first promulgated; so slowly, in truth, that President Eliot could say of certain changes made at Harvard College in 1883-84 that they were the " practi- cal completion" of a development which began sixty years before. But they worked nevertheless, and have effected most important changes in our higher education. Still more, important changes in the social condi- tions of the West, as increasing density of population, growth of wealth, Department] DESIRABILITY OF FORMING FEDERA TION OF COLLEGES 723 and the slow maturing, of civilization, have rendered the elevation of higher education both necessary and possible. Accordingly we have seen in the last twenty-five years a degree of progress in the colleges and universities of the country fully equal to that made in common and second- ary schools. Old standards have been raised still higher, and old ideals still more highly polished, while new standards and new ideals have been brought forward. Admission to college has become a more arduous undertaking, and degrees have been made more significant. But, not- withstanding all that has been accomplished in the line of progress, much still remains to be done before it can be truly said that our higher edu- cation is fully abreast of the material development of the country ; and, when this is accomplished, constant effort will still be necessary to main- tain that relation. Manifestly, therefore, if a federation of good colleges and universities would promote this great end, its formation should be eagerly welcomed by all friends of liberal culture and of high scientific training. Still more may be claimed for the proposed federation. Colleges and universities have other common interests than entrance and gradua- tion standards. Intercollegiate ethics will bear further discussion, especially in connection with the growth of the new college and university interests. The same may be said of the moral training and welfare of students, a subject that embraces the whole round of college discipline. Particular mention may be made of athletics, which has already led to so much intercollegiate discussion and legislation, and that certainly has not so far been put on a satisfactory basis. Then there is the important and com- paratively new field of graduate study, in which some institutions that are ill-prepared to do graduate work are now groping about rather blindly, while still others of the same character are looking wistfully thru the gate- way, wondering whether they had better enter in or not. For one I see some danger threatening higher education at this point, viz., the danger that institutions which are not manned and equipped to do graduate work will undertake such work nevertheless. It is not at all impossible that graduate study will be subjected to the same process of dilution that undergraduate study has undergone ; perhaps some will see evidence that this process has already begun. To be sure, a college federation would furnish no forcible means of preventing this result, but it might do something to check the mischief by striving to limit graduate study to institutions that are able to carry it on. A high standard could be held up, and the lines of study in which different institutions are relatively strong might be made more fully apparent than at present. Possibly, too, some- thing could be done in another direction, which I shall venture to point out. As is well known, there is in all well-educated countries a duplication of instruction that at first view certainly seems unnecessary and, therefore,. 724 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Higher wasteful. Mention may be made of the colleges that comprise the uni- versities of Oxford and Cambridge. In Germany the universities and polytechnic institutions claim to emphasize respectively science as science and the applications of science ; but the line of demarkation is generally vague and shadowy, and is often lost sight of altogether. Now, how far this duplication is actually wasteful is not an easy question to answer ; but certainly one will not lay himself open to the charge of dogmatism who affirms that, in the United States, much good money could be saved, and the cause of sound education at the same time be promoted, if some reasonable limit could be imposed upon the never-ending process of multiplying colleges and duplicating instruction. Once more, we may inquire whether the colleges and universities that really do graduate work could not profitably consider their common relations, with a view of regulating more wisely than at present the work that they are respectively best able to do, and so of controlling their respective lines of develop- ment. Would it not be a gain if these schools should deepen rather than broaden their work, and then unite in a generous effort to turn the attention of students seeking highly specialized instruction in particular branches to the places where what they desire is furnished in fullest measure ? I shall venture to mention another, but a related, topic. Reference is made to the freer passage of graduate students from one institution to another, with a view to receiving the instruction of the ablest men in the several departments of learning and science. While this is common in Germany, it is comparatively rare in the United States ; but if the prac- tice is a good one, as it is believed to be, in the one country, why should it not be a good one in the other ? And now, having looked at the principal arguments that recommend the proposed federation, let us look at some of the objections that might be urged against it. Perhaps the first objection will be that the plan is unnecessary and would prove to be useless. How could it promote the ends that have been described, since it would necessarily be, like the Association of American Medical Colleges, a purely voluntary organization and wholly destitute of coercive authority ? As a matter of course, all the authority that it would wield would be moral, arising from argument and persua- sion ; but that discussion and voluntary co-operation could not fail to exercise a salutary influence will hardly be denied or questioned by those who are fully aware of the part that these agents have played in such progress as has already been made. Good would certainly result from holding aloft where all men can see them two educational norms — one of college-entrance requirements and one of graduation conditions — by an association made up of the leading colleges and universities of the Department] DESIRABILITY OF FORMING FED ERA TION OF COLLEGES 725 • 1 country. It may be replied that, if the federation is to use discussion as its principal instrument, the end can be reached more directly. All the subjects named, it may be said, are now discussed in books and periodicals, in reports of college and university presidents, and in the meetings of existing associations, like the present one. Why, then, the question will be, should it be necessary to devise such an agency as the one proposed ? The answer is that the present modes of discussion are more or less circuitous and cumbersome ; that we have no distinct and separate forum for the consideration of these important questions ; and that the establishment of such a forum would give the questions a sepa- rateness, and so a consequence, that they cannot otherwise acquire. Education, we all believe, is the very last cause in the world that should undervalue full and thoro discussion. A second objection is likely to spring out of the facts of geography. In a country of such magnificent distances as ours, it may be asked how a federation of colleges and universities could be kept alive and active, even if it were once created. The difficulty is no doubt a real one, if a national organization is contemplated. But the federation need not be national at the beginning ; it might be better to organize on a smaller scale, in the faith that the limited organization would so abundantly justify itself as to remove all objections of a geographical nature to a larger one. An objection still more serious, perhaps, is suggested by the unequal educational standards of the different parts of the union, as expressed in the curricula of their institutions of higher instruction. Such differ- ences, while smaller than once they were, and growing smaller still, have not disappeared. They are still considerable, and promise to remain considerable for a time at least. The limitation of the federation to good colleges and universities would not prevent a certain range of dif- ference both in entrance requirements and in courses of study. This being so, some may demand to what practical advantage legislation could be enacted, or discussion be carried on. The objection may be specious, but it is not serious. The institutions interested in the report of the Committee of Ten, and even the institutions represented on the com- mittee that proposed the report, were in no sense equals. The federa-. tion would do as the medical association has done — fix minimum entrance and graduation requirements, and leaye it to the stronger institutions to carry their own standards as much higher as they might wish. Perhaps the federation would put its standard so high as to exclude a majority of the colleges and universities that make annual reports to the Commis- sioner of Education. If this were done, the minority might be roughly divided into two classes, a smaller and a larger, that would be separated in the character and extent of their work by a certain interval, but not so 726 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Higher widely separated as to preclude their working together harmoniously and effectively. Besides the advantages accruing to the federation schools, would not many of the schools that were excluded struggle to raise themselves to the level of membership ? Still more, would not the exclusion of those that were excluded draw more plainly than it is now drawn the line sepa- rating the real colleges and universities from the pretended ones ? It is true, of course, that for the most part such exclusion would be effected negatively rather than positively; true, also, that such exclusion would have little weight unless the strongest institutions should enter heartily into the work of the federation; but if that end could be secured, the public would sooner or later find out the reason why some institutions were in the federation, while others were not. Perhaps it will be objected that any success which the association of medical colleges may have achieved does not argue that the proposed organization would be similarly successful. Medical schools, like law schools, are conducted by a numerous and powerful profession, while schools of liberal arts and sciences are carried on by professors who not only do not constitute a profession, but who have few practical common interests and small esprit de corps. It would be vain to deny the perti- nency of this argument. It may be said, however, that while the lack of common interests and esprit de corps on the part of college and univer- sity professors would unquestionably retard the formation of the federa- tion, and, for a time, render its maintenance more difficult, the federation would, in the end, prove to be a powerful engine for the development of such interests and spirit, both of them objects greatly to be desired. Indeed, it is not improbable that some persons will think this con- sideration the most hopeful sign that would attend the formation of the organization. So, balancing the pros and cons, we come finally to these con- clusions : 1. That there is plenty of needed work which a vigorous federation of good colleges and universities could do. 2. That this work would be done thru discussion and voluntary -co-operation. If nothing more, the federation would constitute a sort of clearing-house for the discussion and, it is hoped, practical settlement of important questions affecting the institutions participating and of higher education thruout the country. 3. That there are some serious obstacles to be overcome before it could be got into successful operation. 4. That the subject is one eminently worthy of serious consideration. 5. That it would be unwise to attempt any practical movement until the way has been well prepared by preliminary discussion. Department] DESIRABILITY OF FORMING FEDERA TION OF COLLEGES 727 DISCUSSION Mrs. Ellen Richards, of the Massachusetts Institute* of Technology, introduced the discussion by an interesting account of the Boston Alumni Association. Membership in the association was limited to persons possessing a B.A. degree from some college or university of good standing. To determine what colleges and universities possess such standing was a difficult matter, as to which great care has been taken. The association has consequently come to exercise an elevating influence upon the curricula of colleges. In some cases alumni have interested themselves in the elevation of the curricula of their colleges. Occasionally the association has been influential in preventing the granting of charters to colleges which would be a burden to the educational system of the country. Professor Taylor, of the University of New York, spoke on the requirements of the state of New York for admission to the bar. Twelve years of pre-professional aca- demic training are demanded, and it becomes necessary for the board of examiners to inquire into the standings of the colleges, universities, and other schools where this pre- professional training has been received. A national federation of colleges and universi- ties would be of great assistance in this matter, and might lead to similar requirements in other states. NORMAL DEPARTMENT SECRETARY'S MINUTES FIRST SESSION.— Friday, July 8, 1898 The Department of Normal Schools met in All Souls' Church at 3 p. m., with Presi- dent H. H. Seerley, Cedar Falls, la., in the chair. W. B. Powell, superintendent of schools, Washington, D. C, welcomed the depart- ment in a brief address. The subject of the meeting was the preliminary report of the committee appointed last year on the topic : The formulation of a course of study setting forth the minimum requirements for graduation from the state normal schools of the United States. In the absence of Dr. A. G. Boyden, of Bridgewater, Mass., his report on " The New England State Normal Schools" was read by Dr. Z. X. Snyder, of Colorado, chairman of the committee. Miss Marion Brown, New Orleans, La., reported on " The Southern State Normal Schools." H. H. Seerley, Cedar Falls, la., gave a report on " Normal Schools West of the Mississippi River and East of the Rocky Mountains." President R. G. Boone, Ypsilanti, Mich., read a report on "The North Central State Normal Schools." Principal E. T. Pierce, Los Angeles, Cal., was absent, and his report on " The Pacific State Normal Schools " was read by Dr. Snyder. A general discussion followed, after which the following Committee on Nominations was announced by the president. W. E. Wilson, Rhode Island ; Roland W. Guss, Massachusetts ; Z. X. Snyder, Colorado. SECOND SESSION.— Tuesday, July 12 The department met at 3 o'clock, with President Seerley in the chair. The preliminary report of the Committee on the Formulation of a Course of Studies was continued. Dr. N. C. Schaeffer, of Pennsylvania, reported for " The Middle State Normal Schools." As the committee was to be continued for a full report at the next annual meeting, the following additional questions were submitted for inquiry : 1. How many college graduates enter the normal schools ? 2. Should the course of study in a normal school differ in preparation for a grammar- school grade from that for a high-school grade ? What proportion of the teachers are trained ? What proportion go to rural and what to urban schools ? • 3. Are not the normal schools requiring unnecessary reviews in the common branches? Are we not driving bright young men and women to the universities, who would pre- fer the state normal schools, by exacting reviews of the common branches ? 728 Department] THE NEW ENGLAND STATE NORMAL SCHOOLS 729 Is it wise to provide special courses, preparing teachers for the different grades of schools, specifying the same in the diplomas ? Dr. Z. X. Snyder, of Colorado, gave the report on "The Training School," "The Model School," " The Practice School," in the United States. A general discussion followed. The nominating committee recommended the following as officers for next year : For President — Theodore B. Noss, California, Pa. For Vice-President— M.\ii Marion Brown, New Orleans, La. For Secretary — J, N. Wilkinson, Emporia, Kan. It was moved and unanimously carried that the secretary of the department be instructed to cast a ballot for the officers as named. The ballot was cast and the nomi- nees declared duly elected. After the introduction of the new officers, the department adjourned. F. B. Palmer, Secretary. PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS PRELIMINARY REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON THE FORMU- LATION OF A COURSE OF STUDY THE NEW ENGLAND STATE NORMAL SCHOOLS BY PRESIDENT A. G. BOYDEN, STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, BRIDGEWATER, MASS. The normal-school syllabus was sent to each normal-school principal and to the leading superintendents of New England. Nine of these prin- cipals and eleven superintendents have replied. These replies are sum- marized as follows : 1. What should be the minimum requirements for entrance to a state normal school ? Seventeen reply : " Graduation from a good four-years' course of high- school studies." Two answer: "The requirements for admission to col- lege." One answers : " Good health, good looks, sterling character, an active mind, a living interest in the world of nature and of human life, command of the mother-tongue, a love of good literature, and a teachable spirit." 2. What should be the minimum academic requirements for gradua- tion in the following subjects : English and literature, mathematics, sci- ence, and history ? In ELnglish and literature : " Mastery of English grammar, ability to read and interpret standard English writings, and to know fairly well at least a dozen good books; ability to write correct, terse, vigorous, and idiom- atic English." In mathematics: "Algebra and plane geometry." In 73° NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Normal sciences: "Appreciation of the scientific attitude of mind, a year's vigor- ous study of biology, a year of physics and chemistry, and of physiography with laboratory practice." In history: "United States, English, and gen- eral history — as full study as possible in a good high-school course." 3. Which of the following subjects should be included in the minimum requirements for graduation from a state normal school : Music, drawing, science for the elementary grades : physical training, history, and literature for the lower elementary grades ? "All of these," is the uniform reply. 4. What should be the minimum of professional work along the lines of psychology, pedagogy, history of education, methods in the common branches ? "The fundamentals of each in so definite a manner as to be in daily use, intentionally applied." "From beginning to end of the normal- school courses one or more of these subjects should form a substantial part of the current work. Both theory and practice should be taught." "The method of teaching should be part of all study of subjects." "Psy- chology, one year ; pedagogy, one ; history of education, one ; methods, three." "Psychology, pedagogy, methods, each one year; history of edu- cation, one-half a year." 5. In the employment of a "training school," how should the actual handling of a class by a practice teacher and the observing of expert teaching be proportioned ? "According to the power of the individual normal student." "One part of observation to two of practice." "The time should vary with the circumstances. Perhaps one-third should be given to observation, one- third to assisting an experienced teacher, and one-third to practice with full control of the class." " Four times as much observation as practice until the last term." 6. What proportion of the above requirement in this minimum course should this " training-school " work constitute ? "One-fifth to one-tenth." "One-third to one-half." Most say : "One- fourth." "At least one half year." 7. If you are a state normal-school president, give length of courses offered by your school. "One year, with special course for college graduates." "One year, with special course for teachers of five years' experience." "Two years, with general course." "Three years, including general course with elect- ives." "Four years, including general course with advanced studies." Most have a course of two to three years, or such time as is needed for completion, without definite limit in time. 8. State branches that are required in these several courses and the time assigned to each branch. "The studies of the public-school curriculum." "The time given to Department] THE NEW ENGLAND STATE NORMAL SCHOOLS 731 each in different schools varies so much that one statement cannot cover it." 9. What professional branches are assigned to each course, and what order is designated ? Give reasons for preferring this order. "All the work of each course is professional." "The professional studies are put into each course." " Psychology, pedagogy, method, are contemporaneous and continuous in all the courses ; history of education last." " Psychology is a basis for pedagogy and method." 10. What minimum practice in teaching is required to finish the said courses in your normal school ? The reports give a variation in time from six weeks to fourteen weeks in the two-years' course ; in the longer course, more than double this time. 11. Is it a function of the normal school to do distinctively academic work ? Unanimously, it is not. 12. Should all or any of the following subjects be taught formally in the elementary schools or the normal schools : bookkeeping, patriotism, ethics, art ? Reports show great diversity of views. Some say : "Yes, all;" some, "No" to all; others say, "All in the elementary schools;" others say, "In both." 13. What criticisms have you to offer on the present state normal school ? What can be done to make it more efficient or more practical ? "The normal school is too often an academy." "jLack of scholarship in the graduates. They often have the idea that all pedagogical knowl- edge is shut in between the covers of their topic-books." "Make requirements for admission greater; exact more of personality in candidates for graduation ; provide better training for normal-school teachers; insist upon their better acquaintance with public schools." "Increase the age of entrance to seventeen years; increase the require- ments in science ; increase the length of the course to a minimum of three years." " Let superintendents become better acquainted with the normal schools, and the normal-school teachers with the public schools." " Remove the normal schools from all outside meddling, political or per- sonal, and put into them more thoroly cultured and consecrated teachers." " Liberal appropriations for building and equipping practice schools to be controlled entirely by the normal school." " A great deal more prac- tice in the training school is needed." "The practical side of the work, observation of and practice in teaching, should be strengthened in every way possible." '.'Some scheme of practice teaching where discipline may be tested ; knowledge of how to keep a school register." " I should be glad to see teachers returning to the normal school for study after prac- tice. Under strong teachers such classes would prove a power." 732 NATIQNAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Normal THE SOUTHERN STATE NORMAL SCHOOLS BY MISS MARION BROWN, PRINCIPAL OF NORMAL SCHOOL, NEW ORLEANS, LA. In the South, as in other sections of our country, the normal school has been a growth, the private normal school preceding the public insti- tution, the locality or city undertaking the training of teachers before the state. The whole educational system of the South has been subjected to "the usual mistakes of friends within and assaults of foes without;" in addition, there have been the vicissitudes and calamities of war, the desolation and privation that fall upon an invaded land ; but today every state has a complete system of public schools, frequently somewhat imperfect and lacking in articulation, hampered occasionally by local conditions and traditions, but only in degree, not in kind. Thomas Jefferson's plans for popular education early found ardent supporters among leading men in the South, but social and industrial conditions were against popular education, for practically there was no school population save in the towns till less than half a century ago. A genial climate and inexhaustibly rich soil, in conjunction with the aristo- cratic customs and prejudices of its early settlers, induced preservation of large estates cultivated by slave labor, in which muscle was more desirable than intelligence. The whole region was sparsely settled in proportion to area, and in many districts, especially in what is now known as the " Black Belt," the negro population was, and is today, from three to ten times as great as the white. The laboring white population, the poorer middle class, was found only in the towns. The wealthy planter had a tutor or governess for his children, sending them north or abroad for finishing touches. Shortly after the revolution, Virginia, thru the inspiration of Jefferson, led the van with plans for a state university, the other states falling into line at varying intervals. With the thirties all the states legislated for public education, providing financial support, but the public money was appropriated to private insti- tutions with the proviso that each school educate annually a certain number of indigent children (white). It goes without saying that the indigent children, or their parents, generally preferred ignorance to the stigma of charity scholar. There were frequent protests against this system, accompanied by proposals of plans looking to municipal and state systems of schools open to all children, and under the sole management of the civil authority. In 1839 Randolph Macon College, a Methodist institution, by a resolution of its trustees, established a department for "the training of teachers for the common schools." From 1845 ^o 1850 the cities established school systems, and the states, at the close of the Dispartment] THE SOUTHERN STATE NORMAL SCHOOLS 733 fifties, had inaugurated some form of state system, excellent on paper, but, from causes already mentioned, halting and ineffective in operation. With the establishment of a state system of education, which had begun with a university and extended itself downward to the elementary schools, it became apparent that the state must undertake the training of teachers for its schools. Here again the cities led. New Orleans establishing, in 1848, the first public normal school in the South, The subject of state normal schools was generally agitated, but with i860 the period closed. During the five years that followed school questions were of minor importance, invasion and lack of means closing the schools in many places. In reconstruction times there was much fairly good, and even excellent, school legislation, but the southern voter had had little or no voice in its making, and enormously increased taxation, whereby large amounts were appropriated to schools, notoriously asylums for political friends, along with attempts to force upon the people mixed schools and negro school officials, had so disgusted the people of these states that the public school inspired, for some years, neither love nor respect. By 1880 the South had come to its own again ; new avenues of industry were opening enticing vistas ; the strong, sturdy generation that had grown up, feeling the Jack of the education they had missed in the storm and stress of the last twenty years, had become strong advocates of public schools. Experience with imported teachers, who were frequently unde- sirable, both as teachers and individuals, while inclined "to point the finger of scorn" at everything south of the Ohio, added to the need of the young people of the South for employment, fostered the desire to estab- lish normal schools. The Peabody fund had assisted, in many places, in establishing normal classes, which, usually only thru reviews of com- mon branches, became " the little light that casts its beams afar." The Peabody Normal College at Nashville, opened in 1875, became the Mecca of aspiring young men and women, and, with its high scholastic standard, sent back into every southern state cultivated teachers, many of whom are today educational leaders. These influences, combined with the realiza- tion that the states could raise money to meet increasing demands for school purposes, made the state normal school a certainty, and the early eighties saw the beginnings in nearly every southern state. Today, as far as I can learn, every state, except Arkansas, with a system of one-month country normals, has at least one state normal for white students; many have, or will soon establish, the same for colored students, with industrial features added. Now the conditions under which these state normals work. There are few large cities ; the section is principally agricultural, but discoveries of coal and iron have given an impetus to manufactures ; villages have become towns. Up to within the last decade the elementary school was the only public school within the reach of a large percentage of the rural 734 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Norma, population; consequently the state normals had to admit on a bare com- mon-school education ; hence we find a three- or four-years' normal course, including academic instruction and professional work. Today, in almost every small town there is a high-school department. The majority of these schools, officered by trained and ambitious young men and women, in a few years promise to do excellent work; the elementary schools, thru the efforts of the state normals, having improved rapidly. In answer to the series of inquiries sent out by the special committee, the majority of principals and superintendents favored entrance require- ments based on a high-school course or its equivalent, but about half of these considered it not yet possible, under present conditions ; hence, while not regarding academic work as a function of the normal school, or only in so far as might be necessary to methods of teaching subjects, they nearly all in turn advocated an academic course corresponding generally in amount, time, and order, to that of a good high school, and, in a few instances, to a college course. This question arises : Are we not in danger of becoming so hampered and bound by present conditions that they come to seem unchangeable ? It appears to me that, when we cling to a grammar-school preparation for normal training, we deliberately lower our standards ; further, these young people are in need of the mental development of a three- or four-years' high-school course ; the normal offers an equivalent course combined with one and a half or two years' professional work, both taking the time of a good high-school course or a little more. While the South is not alone in these conditions, are we not making the mistake of putting quantity before quality? Granted that the demand for normal graduates exceeds the supply, at the rate we are now turning out graduates from a three-quarter high-school course with a normal-school attachment, are we not running the risk of flooding the country with teachers who may have method, but not sufficient matter to support the method thru trials of years of teaching ? By doing academic work the state normal militates against the high schools. For example. Miss X is ready to pass to the high school at M — ; instead she elects to go to the state normal, in three or four years returning with a state diploma; her classmates have gone thru the city high school and found it hard work, too; have yet to take two years in the city training school besides. Do they draw no conclusions ? Can the state-normal people accuse the city superintendent of high treason if he does not give the preference to their graduates, or if other localities whose superintend- ents know the conditions prefer other preparation ? You may say that the state normal schools aim particularly to prepare teachers for country schools. Then you have declared that the rural schools are not to have the best teachers, and the cities can look elsewhere for trained teachers. Another thing, the normal school is not, like the elementary or the \ secondary school, for all who want to come, but it is established by the Department] THE SOUTHERN STATE NORMAL SCHOOLS 735 state for a special purpose, viz., to provide properly equipped teachers for its schools, and its authorities must have the best attainable material for making teachers; consequently, the standard they fix will be the preparation to which all applicants for entrance therein will aspire ; thru the state normal the state says to prospective teachers : " This is what we demand as employer. Can you fill the bill ?" In the South the state-normal-school problem has two distinct phases : a normal school for white students, modeled as far as possible on the best lines, scholastic and professional ; and the normal school for colored students, where elementary professional training must be combined with special industrial work. The latter is distinctively a southern problem, and must be worked out by the southern people as they come to under- stand more thoroly the industrial status of the negro and his place in our economic progress. In the former, the problems which the southern state normal school has to confront are essentially the same as the normal schools in other states have conquered or are still battling with. Opening their doors somewhat later than their brethren of the North and East, they have had, in their pioneer work, the example of others to warn them of rocks ahead. In attempting to solve the problems that still remain, or that have risen of late years, they again have the advantage in working with those more experienced than themselves. How will the solution of the question now before us, "The formula- tion of a course of study setting forth the minimum requirements for graduation from the state normal schools of the United States," affect the southern schools ? We have acknowledged that they are, in most instances, greatly handicapped by inability to get a sufficient number of students that have had good secondary instruction, hence feel compelled for some time yet to do more or less academic work j are insufficiently supported financially for the great work they have to do ; yet, in spite of all these drawbacks, they are ambitious, feel they must bring the teaching force of their respective states up to the line of march, with the hope some day to be in the van. In each section there is one large city that gives the social and educational tone to a considerable area, not always bounded by state lines. These cities are far from the great centers of our country; their teachers can meet professional brethren only in gatherings like the National Educational Association. The discussions and decisions of the various departments are to our educational public what congressional legislation is to the whole country. Hearing and taking part in them, if only as attentive listeners, they go home and proceed to work their schools up to the ideal standard. How ? By first convincing their respective school boards that such is the national educational ideal along this par- ticular line ; then thru the board, their public. No one section can be per- mitted to lay claims to loftier ideals than another, no one region is willing to acknowledge that it canftot or will not measure up to a minimum 736 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Normal Standard ; hence, where there is any educational life — and I assure you the South is alive and striving toward the goal of educational excellence — there will be a stirring in the camps to meet the call. The stamp of national approval means a great deal — much more than one who is not behind the scenes can realize. Those whose work has long been systematized, to whose problems a solution seems in sight, must, of their superior advan- tages and experiences, show the way to those whose pathway has often to be hewn thru the thick forest of public indifference. Therefore, with a definite line of minimum work marked out, normal-school faculties can present to their constituencies a mark below which none must fall, beyond which each community will strive to pass — a common standard which all normal schools will recognize, the first step toward a really national and homogeneous system of public education. NORMAL SCHOOLS WEST OF THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER ' AND EAST OF THE ROCKY MOUNTAINS BY PRESIDENT HOMER H. SEERLEY, CEDAR FALLS, lA. This report covers a region where the schools are generally less than thirty years old, and where most of these are not more than half that age. These schools are in states where institutional life is making great prog- ress, and where populations are sparse and much mixed as to national origin and language. The chief problem in some of these states is elementary education. The teachers deal with conditions, not theories, and the unifying of the people in language, in interest, and in sympathy is the principal educational work attempted. The need of elementary teachers in this region is very great. The salaries paid are small, the standard of teachers' certificates, generally, not very high, and the attempt to supply a known positive demand is the problem laid at the door of the normal schools for immediate solution. Hence the environment has a marked effect upon the conclusions of this study, as obtained from correspondence and investigation. The state normal schools found in this vast territory, while young and few in number, are yet the best-patronized and the most cordially supported by the general public of any kind of school found in the same field. These schools are very sensitive to public demand, are very close to the public interest, are easily touched by public legislation of many kinds, and are naturally responsive to public expectancy as far as possible. Most of these states regulate the qualifications of a public-school teacher by; statute, and determine, therefore, in a way, the minimum requirements oi\ Department] NORMAL SCHOOLS FROM IOWA TO COLORADO 737 the standard course of study to be offered. This has a marked effect upon the limitations of the schools of this order, and gives them a hold upon the people that is hard to comprehend by those who do not per- ceive these fundamental conditions. As a consequence there will be no fixed course of study, no possible settled adjustment of requirements, no certain and definite agreement, that can be reached, since change must go on, progress must come, modification must follow, and development must continue for many years to come. In making this study, I asked the opinions of three classes of educa- tors : (i) college and university presidents ; (2) superintendents of the larger. and more important cities; (3) the presidents of these several schools. Of course, in such a multitude of counsel, many opinions were obtainable, but there is, after all, a large unanimity of opinion in the entire number consulted. 1. THE COLLEGE AND UNIVERSITY VIEW Most of these opinions show that the normal school ouglit to be a part of the educational system of a state, and that a student who enters a normal school ought not to be prevented from continuing his studies afterward in the college or university. It seemed, therefore, that there ought to be complete unification in the educational system, whereby a student might turn aside for professional education as a teacher, and yet neither lose much time nor be unfitted for taking a higher education, should he conclude that his future promise encouraged it. Most of these prominent men report that their experience with normal-school graduates was of such a character that they could state that these became the best students and developed into superior and influential scholars. Some, however, thought they were inferior to good high- school graduates, and considered the turning aside to pursue a normal course first, and after- ward taking a university course, as not a good plan. It was also sug- gested that so much academic instruction should be eliminated from a normal-school course, and the schools be made more professional in character and in training. Others also state that the mental equipment and the training given by the normal school are frequently too meager and too restricted actually to fit a person for the large and broad work he is expected to do. Some of these universities grant two years' full credit upon a college course to normal-school graduates of full four-year courses, and are well satisfied with the results of the experiment, while others say that they are not more than fitted to enter upon freshman college work after graduation from a full normal-school course. These universities assume that the province of the normal school is alone to furnish teachers for the elementary grades of public schools, and that it has no suitable preparation for high-school work. 738 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Normal II. THE CITY superintendents' VIEW This second class of educators see the normal school chiefly from the work done by its graduates in the schoolroom under their supervi- sion. They are quite willing to say that students are too generally admitted to the normal schools before they are properly prepared in scholarship or in experience in life to enter upon professional studies. They assert that persons graduate frequently from normal schools who are not fitted by nature to govern or instruct the young, and that the normal- school managers knowingly permit this practice to continue. They further object to the elementary courses at all, as the reputation of the school is generally dependent upon these less prepared and less thoroly instructed graduates. Protection to the public would require that a difference be made, and that this needless confusion in what constitutes graduation should not be allowed to continue to mislead the public and increase the number of those who are frequently incompetent without knowing it themselves. Not a few think the normal school should demand an entrance scholarship equivalent to that demanded by the college, while they just as strongly recommend that methodology and devices should not be considered as a substitute for careful instruction in the principles and doctrines of education. There is a tendency, they think, to make teaching a trade, rather than a profession, and they place most of the cause for this growing evil at the door of the normal school which tries to instruct its students in the mechanism of management and teaching before they are prepared in scholarship, age, or experience in life to view educational ideas and methods from the true and proper stand- point, III. THE NORMAL-SCHOOL VIEW The presidents of these normal schools are reasonably a unit on most questions sent out by the committee, tho varying in many important particulars. They think the entrance requirements of these schools can- not be regulated by faculty enactment, but by the conditions that exist in the state where they are located. In the most of these schools two standards of entrance prevail: (i) high-school graduate scholarship; (2) the actual teacher scholarship, determined by the license requirements, established by law. They take it that a legal teacher ought by right to be able to enter a teacher's professional school and get the instruction he needs to prepare him to do better and more remunerative work. The academic requirements for graduation involve about the same amount of matter as regards kind and degree. Most of the schools offer four-year courses beginning with the standard set by the customary teachers' license, and abridging this time for high-school graduates, according to their scholastic qualifications. The lines offered permit some differentiation in language, in science, and in history. There is, usually, Department] NORMAL SCHOOLS FROM IOWA TO COLORADO 739 a Latin course, an English course, and, at times, other courses, like science courses, etc., where variations are allowed to suit the individual tastes of students, the assumption being that either one of these courses is a reasonable preparation for public-school work. All of these schools regard vocal music, drawing, physical training, science, history, and literature for the lower grades essentials to graduate from any course, tho they differ very much in the way courses should be worked out and the instruction accomplished. " The professional work assigned has more or less variation. Psychology, pedagogy, history of education, methodology, are all. recognized as having place, but the attention given to each separate topic has wide divergence, all the way from formal definite lessons to incidental instruction in the training-school conferences. The general theory that prevails is to make some professional study required every term in the four-years' course; tho at least one school has almost all the professional study in the final year of the course. The practice school is found in every school but one in this region, and that one will establish it as soon as circumstances permit. The use of the practice school varies according to the province of the school indi- vidually. Where the need of scholarship in teachers being trained is the chief function now demanding attention, practice is at a minimum. Where the demand for competent teachers takes the form of the carefully trained teacher, there practice is more emphasized. The limits are from sixteen weeks' to two years' practice, according to opportunity and appar- ent necessity. Some have no specific limit, except such as is necessary to satisfy the practice department, the same as students are required to satisfy other departments of the school, they being allowed to pass as soon as their work shows creditable status and good promise. This seems to be the coming plan, as there must be much variation in individual needs where the students are of all classes — college graduates, high-school graduates, teachers with well-known and successful experience, and beginners in the elementary principles of the business. The quantity of practice and observation is likewise variable, some making much of observation and some very little. All quite generally regard practice as more important than observation, but some consider them as of equivalent value in the work of training a teacher. The majority of the schools seem to regret that so much of the time and strength of the work must be given to academic instruction, but it is apparent that they also believe that the kind of academic work absolutely necessary to a teacher is not yet done by other kinds of schools, particu- larly in the elementary branches. At present they think it is useless to hope that this work will be done elsewhere. Some of the most experi- enced and most thoughtful evidently believe that the time will never come when academic instruction will not be the proper function of a normal school established and maintained by the state. But the spirit of 740 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Normal these schools is favorable to a higher standard of entrance, to a dispensing with the briefer courses now offered, to giving less academic instruction if it can be done elsewhere, to catering less to a low conception in the public mind of what an elementary teacher may be in scholarship and skill. In addition, they suggest that the training school is the vital point to be improved, that the teaching of devices and methods as a substitute for principles and developmental ideas should be dropped, that today too many weaklings and inferior persons are graduated as representatives of normal -school work, that the scholarship obtained is frequently so lacking in necessary thoroness that the graduate seems incapable of meeting the public demand. They advise, also, that the normal school should naturally become a part of the general educational system by giving proper recog- nition to the high schools for their academic work, and, at the same time, obtain such recognition from the universities as acknowledges the impor- tance and the value of teachers' professional studies as a fair substitute for an equivalent amount of work exacted for the standard bachelor degrees. THE NORTH CENTRAL STATE NORMAL SCHOOLS BY PRESIDENT R. G. BOONE, STATE NORMAL COLLEGE, YPSILANTI, MICH. About the middle of April there came to my office a circular letter from our president, H. H. Seerley, calling attention to the meeting of the Normal Department and the contemplated report of the committee, of which President Snyder is chairman, and which was appointed at the Milwaukee meeting, upon .the " formulation of a course of study setting forth the minimum requirements for graduation from the state normal schools of the United States." A little earlier a communication from the chairman. Dr. Snyder, was received, assigning as my field the states of Michigan, Ohio, Indiana, Wisconsin, and Illinois. My instructions were to "get out whatever form of syllabus I wished, in order to obtain the desired information," and formulate it for a pre- liminary report. Immediately the following questions were sent out to twelve normal schools, supported by the states assigned to me, to the five state superin- tendents, to fifty city superintendents, and to nine other persons promi- nent in educational matters. Here follow the questions of this circular letter : 1. What should be the minimum academic requirements in the following subjects: English, history, mathematics, and sciences ? 2. What and how much work in psychology and pedagogy ? Department] NORTH CENTRAL STATE NORMAL SCHOOLS 741 3. What should be included in the way of method in the common elementary branches ? 4. Of the following subjects which should be included in such minimum require- ments: (i) music, (2) drawing, (3) science for the elementary grades, (4) history for the elementary grades, (5) physical training ? 5. Should the course include also the method of presenting any or all of the subjects enumerated in the last paragraph ? 6. What and how much attention should be given to the history of education ? 7. In the employment of a "training school," how should (i) the actual handling of a class by a "practice teacher" and (2) the observing of expert teaching be propor- tioned ? 8. What proportion of the total requirement in this minimum course should the " training-school " work constitute ? 9. What professional work, if any, in secondary branches should the state norma school attempt ? Soon after the circular letter had gone to seventy-eight persons, another letter came from the chairman, followed by a package of syllabi, which all members of the committee alike were asked to use. This out- line consists of the thirteen questions that have already been presented to you by those who have preceded me in this discussion. Immediately these questions were mailed to the names of the list noted above. Of this syllabus five of the thirteen questions are the same as the correspond- ing ones in the earlier circular sent out. To the first request eleven replies were received ; to the printed sylla- bus seven returns were made. Altogether there were eight responses from seven normal schools, six from city or county superintendents, one from a college president, and one from a retired educator; a total of eighteen returns in all out of an aggregate of seventy-eight requests. All this is recounted, not at all by way of criticism upon anyone, either members of the committee interested or those who were asked to lend the committee their wisdom. It is not presented as any explanation of the meagerness of the comparison offered. It certainly is not offered as a body of facts from which to draw reliable conclusions concerning minimum normal-school courses in Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Wisconsin, and Michigan ; much less, conclusions concerning such courses in general. The brief preliminary statement can serve at best as a text only or pre- text for saying some things about minimum courses and elementary pro- fessional training, and conditions of admission and requirements for graduation, that need to be said, I conclude, whether they be borne out in all their detaiJs by the experience of the institutions comprised in these five states or not. You will not, therefore, hold the schoolmen of this section responsible for all I shall say, tho I shall try to speak what I conceive to be their sentiment touching this question, as I have been able to discover it. Besides the answers to the syllabus questions, I have examined some- what carefully the catalogs of the two schools of Illinois; of Oshkosh, 742 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Normal River Falls, Whitewater, and Stevens Point, and the prospectus of the West Superior school, Wisconsin ; and a catalog of the Indiana school. What I here say you will understand, therefore, is gathered from the two sources. 1. Of eight who answered the first question six would make gradua- tion from a reputable high school the requirement for entrance to the proposed minimum normal-school course. One of these thought that to have completed the second year of a high-school course might possibly be sufificient; and one said, "eventually" graduation from a high school. Of the other two, one would require the holding of a third-grade license to teach, and the pther would make the condition of entrance to this minimum course the same as is required for admission to a high school. The tendency of most schools is so • to raise the standard of entrance as practically to prepare no teachers for the low-salaried places of village and rural schools. Of course, the question is raised at once whether it is wise to attempt to give the technical training — even its rudiments — to applicants who have had no more than an elementary-school training. I can only raise the question and leave it. 2. Concerning the requirements for graduation in English, mathe- matics, and history, there were but four answers received, and these show great difference of opinion. One would require two years in each of the four subjects ; one would have twice as much mathematics as of each of the other three ; and one would apportion the four groups in the ratio of nine parts of science and mathematics to four of English and history. The average preference, as gathered from courses of study as well as the direct answers to questions, is for the dominance of the sciences over the humanities, so far as these four groups are concerned. 3. The question as to the use that should be made of music, drawing, science, physical training, and history in the elementary grades was answered by thirteen. All the writers would include all of these branches in even a minimum training course, except in a single instance where his- tory for the grades was omitted explicitly. One regards physical training as standing first in importance, the order of the others remaining as given above. Two would make the normal-school work in elementary science and history for the elementary grades as method work only. Thruout the answers, and in most published courses of study, there seems to be what to me stands for a painful lack of appreciation of the •value of history, and story and literature, and art in its various forms, as a means of child training. What is there in our own nation's past, or in that of the race ; in human achievement and thinking and living ; in fine arts and industrial skill, that may further the civilizing and socializing process in the child and make him fit for high-grade living as a man in the complex social life about him ? Is there a neglect of the humanities by teachers in fitting for work with children and youth ? Department! NORTH CENTRAL STATE NORMAL SCHOOLS 743 4. About professional work — psychology, pedagogy, history of educa- tion, and method exercises in the elementary branches — there is shown the greatest diversity of opinion. . Here again thirteen answers were received — five from persons connected with normal schools, six from those actively engaged in school supervision, and two from educators of large experience, but not now connected with elementary or secondary schools. Six do not mention history of education, and one would have none of it, regarding it as greatly overrated as an aid to right teaching. Another considers a knowledge of three or four leading reformers as sufficient for this kind of professional training. The average time set for the subject is a half year. All would have psychology taught even in the most elementary courses. The amount varies greatly, however, as does the importance attached to it as a guide to instruction. One would include in a minimum course the general steps in pedagogy only, leaving psychology to later and longer courses. One would have of psychology such works studied as those of James, Sully, and Dewey — for their general and not specific value, how- ever— not mentioning pedagogy in this course at all. The average time put upon psychology, pedagogy, and the history of education, together, is one year. The average time given to all professional subjects, includ- ing the method work in elementary branches, and excluding the training in practice and observation schools, is two years, or about one-fourth of the total course. Most actual courses, as published, show less than this, and the shorter courses considerably less. Probably for these courses it should be less; right habits of thinking and respectable scholastic attain- ments are very important for any grade of preparation. There is always danger in giving technical knowledge a setting in mediocre attainment. o. YiK\ : Anatomy of Pattern. Scribner's Sons. $1.25. Nature in Ornament. Scribner's Sons. ^(4.50. Jones, Owen : Grammar of Ornament. Quartich. $\%. THEORY, criticism, ETC. RvsKlti : Aratri Penteltci. Merril & Baker. $1. Modern Painters. Five volumes. Merril & Baker. $7.50. Seven Lamps of Architecture. Merril & Baker. %\. Lectures on Art. Merril & Baker. %\. Stones of Venice. Three volumes. Merril & Baker. ^^4.50. The Two Paths. Merril & Baker. $\. Pre-Raphaelitism. Merril & Baker. $0.75. Hamerton, P. G.: Graphic Arts. Roberts. $z. Etching and Etchers. Roberts. $5. Contemporary French Painting, Roberts. $3. The Painter's Camp. Roberts. $z. Thoughts about Art. Roberts. $2.. Painting in France After the Decline of Classicism. Roberts. $3.60. Taine : Lectures on Art. Two volumes. Henry Holt & Co. $S. Lessing : Laocoon. Roberts. ;S!o.50. 'RKOViHt.l.l.: French Art. Scribner's Sons. ;?i.25. Moore, George : Modern Painting. Scribner's Sons. $2. Ch^vk^vi.,U^. Its.: Laws of Contrast of Color. Macmillan & Co. ;?i.50. Blanc, Charles : Grammar of Painting. Scott, Forseman & Co. $3. \ AH Y>yK^, ].C: Art for Art's Sake. Scribner's Sons. 51-50. Child, Theodore : Art and Criticism. Harper & Bros. $t. miscellaneous South Kensington Handbooks upon various subjects. Chapman & Hall. $30. Baedeker : Guide Books, France, Germany, Italy, etc. About fifteen volumes. $35. Hare, Augustus : Walks in Rome, Walks in London, and other works. $37.50. MoRiN, Louis : French Illustrators. Scribner's Sons. $15. And as many photographic reproductions of works of art as possible, the Braun autotypes and Berlin photographs preferred. W. M. R. French. Miss Emily H. Miles. Miss Ruth J. Warren. THE FUNCTION OF ART IN THE EDUCATION OF THE AMERICAN CITIZEN BY WILLIAM ORDWAY PARTRIDGE, BOSTON, MASS. Art is no longer a mere vehicle for pleasure, and one can scarcely have patience with the hue and cry of art for art's sake. We recognize that it must today help man to realize in the most profound way the conscious- &20 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Art ness of his own soul. John Morley has said : " The truth is that nothing can be more powerfully efficacious from the moral point of view than the exercise of an exalted creative art ; at once enlarging and elevating the range of his reflections on mankind, even kindling his sympathies into the warm and continuous glow which glorifies and strengthens nature, and fills men with that love of humanity which is the best inspirer of virtue." I have an artist's dread of pointing a moral ; let me then speak of art in its relation to all education and culture — what art has done for past civilizations, and what, with the help of science, it may do for the present. Let me speak of the relation of art to character and national destiny, and you shall draw your own moral and conclusion. Art, as someone has wisely said, is not a substitute for life, but a key to it. "Life is greater than art." I have no patience with the egotistical persons who use their art for purely selfish ends ; who, in other words, would make art greater than life — in fact, substitute art for life ; who will use up, not only paint and brushes and marble, but the enslaved human being himselfj in order to create some piece of work that shall astound and startle their world. These men, like Nero, with his plentiful posterity, may fiddle while Rome burns. Such men are the offscourings of the decadent school, the products of a useless, inferior order of living. Simple, honest men, who love their fellows, and who are willing to live and let live, must always feel contempt for the parasite. Let this, then, be our platform and point of departure. I believe that art holds a precious boon for this hurrying people. It presents lofty types for their contemplation ; it keeps before the mind of the many figures and faces of our national heroes. We come suddenly upon a statue in the jar and confusion of the market place, and, for a moment, the buying and selling are hushed, and the soul is refreshed in beholding some heroic type who has sacrificed life for his country and truth. We are confronted by inspiring faces in bronze, that show the illumination of God-like lives. The spiritual side of life is nourished by such memorials. One cannot escape them. Their mission is to uplift, and their influence upon character, while a silent one, is as potent as that of nature, working her wonders without noise, but unfailingly. Truly Michael Angelo wrote : " The might of one fair face sublimes my love." *^et us carry our statues and our pictures into the homes, and then into the hospitals, to comfort and cheer the sick and dying, and to give to the imagination fruitful suggestions. Let us carry our pictures and statues into the prisons, so that those who are morally sick may be healed by looking upon the faces of the good and great. Crime cannot live with spiritual beauty. Beauty, as Emerson truly says, is a creator. It sings to us of that new life where beauty walks hand in hand with work and duty. Department] THE FUNCTION OF ART IN EDUCATION 82 1 I fancy some one of my hearers may say that all this is the vision of the dreamer, and not the practical man. To him I would reply that art is greatly practical, and for two unanswerable reasons : the first is that it makes for manhood, and the second that it nourishes the most conserv- ative and practical idea man has ever cherished, namely, the love of immortality. It makes for manhood by stimulating our ideas of patriot- ism and liberty. So art, by presenting high ideals to the imagination, lifts man above his material possessings and desires, into the realm of eternal truth and spirit. It works constantly for our happiness. Art, then, is grandly, democratically practical, because it makes great and true men. Modern art deals pre-eminently with humanity in its most humble aspects. It teaches us that the meanest life has something in it worthy of all reverence, greater, even in its rags, than all physical nature. It not only is the molder of idealism, but it teaches the citizen to live sanely and quietly, furnishes a healthful and inspiring order of amusement, and so conserves the national life. It holds something for all conditions of men ; it reveals to the rude peasant the beauty that he walks upon, unwit- . tingly, and he listens with new ears to the songs that nature sings. Phillips Brooks writes : " Art and poetry and music and deeper thought are helping men to the sense that this new world which science finds, where the old faiths lie captive and lamenting, is not a world all alien and terrible ; but that our human lives can rise into harmony with its glorious order ; that the heavens are vaster and the earth holier than what our fathers knew." Thus science opens new purposes to art, and art records the achieve- ments of science ; there is no antagonism between the two. Indeed, there can be no great art without a great science. The men who placed the pyramids in their everlasting stations, and who handled easily masses of stone as large as a small house, wedding one to another with a nicety that baffles our artisans ; Ictonos, who planned the Parthenon, and Phidias, who designed its sculpture, were masters of scientific laws that make us appear like tyros and children. Let us welcome all truth and science ; science makes a great art possible for the American people. But let us remember that, as Whitman says. Your facts are useful, but yet they are not my dwelling, I but enter by'them to an area of my dwelling. * i|c i|c :(: * * * I know I am deathless, I know this orbit of mine cannot be swept by a carpenter's compass. It behooves us to remember, however, that art is, and must be inevi- tably, a reflection of life. The art of the landscape painter is, to define it poetically, the reflection in the river: treeand cloud form and blue sky soft- ened and arranged in some harmonious grouping by the intelligent artist. 82 2 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Art Art, where it deals with human nature, is no more or less than Bacon defined it, namely, "man added to nature." It seems almost idle to be talking of art when nature is making it on every side, on days like these, when bud and blossom crowd and jostle one another for the first peep of the blue sky. The fact is that we talk art too much and love it too little. Praxiteles is said to have permeated the marble with moods of his own soul. And to Ameil every landscape appeared to be a state of the soul. When a great inspired preacher returned from the far West, he spoke of the scenery as being wonderful, yet lacking an all-comforting human interest ; it had no human history. His meaning is clear ; no man has yet adequately gathered up the mighty fragments of human life and given them back to his fellows in such terms of beauty that our world could appro- priate them with satisfaction to the heart and soul, as well as to the under- standing. The notes of human pathos, suffering, and joy were scattered on a disordered scale, waiting for some Beethoven to arrange them into divine harmony. Bacon, with his peculiar astuteness, has then justly defined art to be "man added to nature." This quality, then, the modern man, asks to be added to the physical side of the universe. We have no terms as yet to express it. We may call it human sympathy or feeling. Terms will not be wanting when the thing itself exists more generally. It is this precious quality which is to make our art different from the arts of Egypt and Greece and Rome, and which is to make American art grander than that of any nation in the past. The Greeks scarcely dreamed of this thing, this delineation of character — the writing of life upon the human face. What a fascinating study ! It is the difference between the Venus of Milo .and the Sistine Madonna — and something more, which I shall attempt to make clear. The spiritual import of the subject is to be wrought out, not necessarily by the accessories of crucifix and sackcloth, but told in the execution of the work, by the model selected, by the hand that works, and judged by the feeling inspired in the spectator, who is part of the whole plan. Art is the child of nature, Her darling child, in whom we trace The features of the mother's face, Chastened and softened and subdued Into a more attractive mood. And with a human sense inbued. This little verse of Longfellow gives us the philosophy of art in a nutshell. The kind of art we produce depends upon the character of the human sense with which it is imbued. Men do not produce figs of thistles. We see, then, the vital relationship between character and the art product. It determines it. This is a tremendous thought ; we are writing, day by day, history in poetry and bronze that shall make pos- Department] THE FUNCTION OF ART IN EDUCATION 823 terity glad that we have lived and blessed the earth, or make the men who come after us think of us as mere soulless clods, having no ideals worthy of perpetuation, no life higher than the beasts of the field. Now, let us bring this question of art directly home. We do not belittle it by considering it in relation to the most simple talent or appreciation which we may possess. If it is sincere, that is all that is necessary. American art is the result of every degree of talent and appreciation which the country may afford. History teaches that Greece gave something to this world beyond all its natural beauty, and that Greece did this inevitably ; that she added the glory of human thought and feeling to mere physical and animal beauty. There are many who think that Greece told the whole story for all time, but those who study history in the sympathetic and searching light of today, and who live with and study their fellow-men, know that this is not so. They are conscious that America has a sublime contribution to make to the art of the world ; a new chapter to write in the history of human achievement. What is it to be ? We shall understand it better, perhaps, by considering first what it is not to be. It is not to be the imitation of any foreign schools, be they Greek, Florentine, or French. We are to give these schools and nations their meed of appreciation and reverence, and. then to say with Michael Angelo : "I go my way alone." It is for this, I take it, that America was called into existence. Let no criticism daunt us and no past fetter us. The veriest wretch who feeds some benumbing piece of machinery in the noisy hall of a manufacturing town has some- thing to give the world. It may be only that drop of his hopeless prison experience ; but, no matter what it is, there are two rights which must be served before we can be spiritually free or actually just. The one right is to let every individual express himself ; and the other right .is the world's claim to that expression. Each must give his moral quota, or something is lacking in the balance. What can an artist give ? Himself — no more nor less. Otherwise he is forever in debt to the world's art. He is worth in the actual balance only the moral count of that self or soul. This is the least and the most that he can contribute. If you be without char- acter, you stand helpless before a defeated obligation. Little did men dream, years ago, that the poor, wretched, crippled slave Epictetus had something to say of greater import than all the patricians in the land. We have not yet done with slavery ; we have only advanced a plane higher in the scale of civilized living. Shall we not find out what education in art means, if we can discover what it is in life? If I can but make you feel that each one of us has within him something so sacred, so precious, so well worth striving to develop, and to die for, if need be, that he may press forward unfal- teringly, and with that high faith that belongs to the youth of a great people. §24 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [An We are confronted with new problems that call upon us for independ- ent solution. We are the heirs of all the ages, and surely we are not willing to accept tamely and supinely the opinions and achievements of the peoples who had a different light and a different social environment, and who were good and great according to their interpretation of their age. Remember that art is not to be borrowed, or stolen, or invented. It comes only by evolution. Each flower is beautiful after its kind. The violet is not forever seeking to become a rose ; nor is the rose envious of the violet. The commingling of the two would not produce anything more beautiful. Each beautiful thing after its kind, and in the natural order of development. The evolution of art and the artist works according to universal, unchangeable law. Suppose, in physical nature, a tree should take it into its head to grow downward, and so cast its tortured roots into the air — would its life be any more satisfactory ? The simile is not unlike the man or the artist, or people, who are forever attempting something new, something strange. Sanity should be our watchword. The flower of a man's genius and a nation's should develop according to the law of their life principle. It expands or contracts with their soul. " Strength ever veiled with grace ; The mind's anatomy implied, not shown, No grasping for the vague, no fruitless fires, But heard 'neath all the tone Of that far world to which the soul aspires." It is this absolute sincerity alone which shall make for us a great art. Why was Athens great ? Because she educated her world. The men were not merely trained, but they were educated — that means something more. We must Jiave done, then, with copying foreign models. " Miracles," as Lowell well says, "cannot be encored." We must stand on our own ground, make our own fight, and like men beat out a solution to our own problems. Without this order of independent patriotism which, as Cole- ridge well remarks, is the begetter of the true cosmopolitan, we can have no great order of living, and, consequently, no great order of art. What made Greek art supremely great under Pericles ? Nothing so much as Leonidas and his heroic band who stood like a wall against the Persian hordes. The soul of Greece against the bulk of Persia, but the conquer- ing soul. To the Greek the line of beauty was not only the line of grace, but especially the line of strength. Are we not still surrounded by bar- barian influences ? Is it not the old problem, the soul of truth against the bulk of error? Does not luxury beget indolence, and indolence depravity ? Do not many of the selfish, money-making instincts of the day point to a return to the law of the jungle ? Alas ! who can gainsay it ? And opposed to this is art, an influence which stands for the higher interpretation of life — the assertion of the soul. Department] THE FUNCTION OF ART TN EDUCATION 825 Who dares to say that the soul is not still oracular, and that all revela- tion is of the past ? Is not every stroke of genius a revelation of the divine power in man striving for expression, the voice that will not be stilled and that cannot be hushed ? We know today that the vision of beauty belongs to all mankind, and not to any clique or coterie, priest-craft, or royalty. The poorest among us has the same right to enjoyment as the richest : character alone, not rank, determines the right to enjoy. The clearest and the most ecstatic vision belongs inevitably to the pure in heart. From the moment we open our eyes upon this world we begin to select and choose the things that are beautiful or ugly ; what we select depends upon our education and the character it develops. And this is a most important matter to be considered. Man is so much the result of his environments that but few are able to escape from its thraldom and to grapple with the evil star of circumstances. Let us beautify first the home, then the school, and then the great university of the street, where all men receive their life education. In America there is a danger of overtravel and undigested data jumbled together from the seeing of many art manifestations in many countries ; this is a poor makeshift for true education. There is a time to travel and a time to stay at home and think and read, and live. There is much truth in the old saying of the rolling stone. It is an untraveled Shakespeare that becomes the articulate voice of England, and Dante finds a voice for ten silent centuries without traveling as far as from New York to Washington. Travel is an accident of greatness, rather than its essential. Art is a personal matter ; it is like the atmosphere all about us. We make or mar it unwittingly every day and hour. All honor to men like Innis and Gibson and Emerson, who have brought art from the chilling atmosphere of Olympus to the kindly warmth of the hearthstone. Let us not be looking forever at the stars, expecting some new planet to swim before our eyes, while we forget the beauty of the field flower at our feet. Look upon every child that comes before you as a possible Shakespeare or Beethoven or Lincoln. " That is great which lies nearest, Carve from this thy work of art." Once you have entered the realm of the beautiful, you never will be able to leave it or exhaust it. There is enough work for any of our artists in any quarter of this great city for a thousand years. The trouble is with the eyes that do not see. " The poem hangs on the berry bush, When comes the poet's eye ; And the whole street is one masquerade, When Shakespeare passes by." 826 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Art As Minot Savage remarked not long ago : " The man that finds any- thing but the keenest interest in the life and atmosphere of today has exhausted, not this world, but himself." As long as there is one human face to look upon, as long as there is one human heart, with its loves and ambitions, its hidden tragedy and its secret aspiration, so long will there be art and artists, and lovers of the beautiful. There is a heaven which, as Wordsworth says, lies about us from our infancy — the world of vision; and at its well-springs life renews itself; the world of the real, and that world of the ideal which comprehends the real, and of which we are so often cheated by the sterile and vapid life of the hour. " There is a heaven," as Wordsworth truly puts it, " near us from our childhood." It is not that we have too much life today, but, alas, that we have too little. It is the mission of art to enrich our lives, and to stimulate every aspiration. It is the artist's mission to reveal the worlds that are now hidden, and which are our own by every divine right. The institution teaches the beauty of holiness. Art teaches the holiness of beauty. Notwithstanding all the wonderful beauty of this world, the convic- tion is thrust upon us that we are framed for something vaster and more sat- isfying— something more complete. We are filled with a noble discontent ; with a thirst for something which knowledge does not allay, and to which religion ministers with the consolations of art, her handmaiden. As boys we sigh to be men and conquer the world, and gather in its poor honors, which are not unlike the seashells we bring home to our study, beautiful as we see them beneath the wave, but dry and colorless when once acquired and tabulated. As men we look back to the careless boy- hood, lying like an oasis in the waste of the desert, and we would give all the world's trifling honors for a day of clear-eyed, untroubled boy- hood. It is the undiscovered country that always fascinates us. Art stimulates the imagination and cheers us on, helping us to meet the unknown future without fear and with all faith. Robertson once said: "What we want is not so much, not half so much, light for the intellect as dew upon the heart." And the love of art is like a roseleaf pressed against the world's scarred cheek. It is full of consolations for the desolate and the oppressed. It admits them to a world of ideal relationships where the poorest may own all that he can see with beauty's eyes. It lifts man above the desire for material pos- sessions ; it feeds his spiritual nature. There is somewhere a picture of an ideal female figure riding the tempest, and touching softly a lyre which is pressed to her side. The artist has called it " Stilling the Storm." He has attempted to depict the mission of art, which is, indeed, to still the storms of life, to dissipate doubt, and to keep in tune with the celestial harmonies. The shadow of doubt cannot be dispersed always by intel- lectual effort, no matter how searching and exhaustive. But it is rarely Department] THE FUNCTION OF ART IN EDUCATION 827 that one appeals to the ministration of art without receiving divine consola- tions. Truly has Robertson understood it ; it is dew laid upon the heart. As to character, the lamp of independent light, of isolation, if need be, must be kept steadily burning on the altar of sacrifice, if character is to grow. We cannot adequately measure in our own day success or failure ; it must be often as Lowell has written : Truth forever on the scaffold, Wrong forever on the throne, But that scaffold sways the future. And behind the dim unknown Standeth God within the shadow, Keeping watch above His own. We must not measure success by any tangible accomplishment; this, to be sure, is the world's standard of success ; but the poets of today find a new and sublimer key in which to chant their epic praise. To Keats' finely tuned ear the sweetest ditties were those of no tone ; to Browning, the unaccomplished, All that the world's coarse thumb And finger fail to plumb, was worthy of the highest praise. Life is forever greater than any mani- festation or reflection of it in art ; there is only one thing that can make us great, and that is living greatly. Noble natures, as Schiller aptly puts it, "pay by what they are, and not by what they do." So I would say to you, many who are gathered here today, and who must swell the ranks of the great army of appreciation, that loving sympathy is more than mere tangible accomplishment, and that living well is the first and greatest consideration. "Unto each man his handicraft, unto each his crown, that just Fate gives." May I then appeal today for the responsibility laid upon each one of us in the creating or appreciating of beauty ? You cannot escape this responsibility by claiming lack of inherited talent or culture. Science teaches us that man is what he thinks. A man may rise upon the step- ping-stones of his ancestral self to higher things, notwithstanding Dr. Holmes to the contrary, and bravely support the weak steps of a new and untried thought. I should be glad if 1 could dispel the idea that art means luxury or luxurious surroundings ; this is often the abuse of the best, which is the worst phase of art. Art thrives greatly only amid manly and simple sur- roundings. Perfervid living and luxury are the sure forerunners of decadence. Art teaches us to appreciate the beauty of the lowly ; the " flower in the crannied wall; " to consider the lilies. The greatest painter of this century, Millet, lived a homely life among the peasants of Barbi- zon. The accident of wealth or poverty has little to do with it; sincerity of purpose is the only touchstone. 828 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Art " Beauty is truth, truth is beauty." There are many who say: "We know nothing about art." This implies that they know little about life, that is, in its rounded sense. Then let us advise such to use the eyes God has given them, to look about them, to look at the first mother and child they meet on the daily round, and then at a photograph of the Dresden Madonna, and see how art inter- prets that first and tender relationship. Let me ask them to look with sympathy at the first woman's face upturned in the ecstasy of power, and then at the face of the Madonna or the " Assumption," and see how Titian interprets the relation of man to God. Many of us, born in cities, learn to love beautiful nature thru beauti- ful pictures, and to understand the beauty of the human form only thru the sculptor's loving appreciation of it. Do not consider too curiously, or trouble yourselves with the cults or isms of art, but use your common sense, and assume bravely your responsibility in this matter. If you find in the Dresden Madonna something more than paint and bristles, accept art as an interpreter of all true religion. The fault is in ourselves, and not in our stars, if we are not receiving the consolations and inspirations of art. I would advise everyone present to live constantly in the light of some great masterpiece — let it be but a small photograph of the Dresden Madonna or the "Assumption" — and try its effect upon his life. You will find in this companionship something greater than all nature affords, namely, man's interpretation of the universal in the terms of beauty. Art is a great safeguard in these days, when the physical sciences threaten to sweep away all traces of man's relationship to the divine. It establishes the fact that every race in every clime has cherished some ideal of immortality and a protecting God. Colonel Clarke, of the Bureau of Education, shows us that the crude totem pole of the Alaskan savage, representing at its summit a frog escaping from the mouth of a crudely carved face, was meant to convey the idea of the soul's escape from the body, and which the Greek embodied so beautifully in his larger culture in his sculptures of Psyche and the butterfly, and love and Psyche. • The Greek believed that art works steadily to perfection, and that, therefore, it makes a man fit to become the friend of God, and so estab- lishes his immortality. The love of art inculcates an appreciation of obedience. No man can create a work of art without being, in a degree, a master himself ; nor can anyone truly appreciate it without some order of self-mastery. Art tends to check our unbridled desires. It works for temperance and balance, and so accomplishes silently the freedom of the spirit. Keats truly says of it : Thou silent form dost tease us out of thought As doth eternity. DepartmentJ THE FUNCTION OF ART IN EDUCATION 829 But there is another way of looking at thi^ subject, which I may call the aspect of the humanitarian, and that is this : that we can claim to be neither free nor just until we have given every man, woman, and child in the world the right to express the beauty that is within them, and to enjoy the loveliness of the world that is without them. Some interesting experiments have been made in East London and in the slums of New York and Boston, in the way of presenting to the people their fine works of art hung upon the walls of church and hall, and the result for good has been beyond all expectation. The expres- sions of the poor and miserable outcasts haVe made us believe truly that man does not live by bread alone, but that, to uplift him, we must furnish food for the spiritual side of his nature, as well as the purely physical. Let us call upon everyone present to encourage and carry forward this work of regeneration. Is it not the truest political economy to do so ? By crowding in the good, as Drummond says, you leave no place for evil thought or deed. Then, again, art works for American unity, because it wars constantly with the desire of any one section unduly to exalt itself, by making our forefathers and present heroes national examples of virtue and courage. It tends to knit more closely together the hearts of all true Americans. Homer made the Greek people great, iji spite of their defects, by keep- ing before their minds the mighty Achilles. And an indolent race became heroic in listening to the story of a character that existed mainly in the mind of the artist poet. I pray you, then, keep a corner in your study for some statuette of heroic manhood, or of appealing womanhood. I pray you, keep a place in the quiet of your own thought for growth along the lines of beauty. Do not be ashamed of the ideals you have cherished in your ingenious youth ; stand by them thru life, and believe that art will help you to do so, and that character is the resultant of this order of devotion. You will find that the most brutal natures uncover in the presence of the man or woman who carries the love of beauty in the face. We must have a platform and a purpose, not borrow or beg our arts. No circumstance can deter the man or woman of character and resolution. " Thou hast but to resolve, and lo ! God's whole Great universe shall fortify thy soul." One of the saddest sights in life is to see a man or a nation drift- ing away from purpose and at the mercy of the wind and tide ; a help- less derelict on the great ocean of life. The universe is against such a one. ^ " Beneath this starry arch Nought resteth or is still, But all things hold their march As if by one great will." 830 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Art The Christian world, as someone has said, has added the minor notes to the gamut of poesy and art. This charge certainly is true. " Our sweetest songs are those which tell of saddest thought." But Steadman, the poet, remarks with feeling that it is better to suf- fer than to lose the power of suffering. While a wide field has been lost to us where the pagan reveled in pure sensuous enjoyment, a vastly more interesting country has been discovered ; it is the writing of char- acter upon the human face that arrests our attention and claims the quick sympathy of the modern world. The ancient world concerned itself but little with this. Disease and death and old age and pam were thrust aside and quickly forgotten. We have Christianity to thank largely for the development of this sympathetic relationship of man to his fellows, with the thousand, and one rainbow tints that overhang this relationship. Life has taken on a tremendous seriousness, and we have lost the naive pagan forgetfulness of responsibility. The world is rounding out its character; working toward the millennium. Do I make the function of art in education clear ? Mrs. Ward, in her last book, Helbeck of Bannisdale, says : " The transformation is enormous ! The mass of men who read and think and lead straight lives today are on the whole conscious of a dignity in range their fathers never knew." The spiritual stature of civilized man has risen — like his physical stature. We walk today a nobler earth. We come — not as outcasts, but as sons and freemen into the house of God. But all the secret? and formulae of a new mystical union have to be worked out." And art is to help us in these processes. Need one call upon you at this crucial time to be faithful to your country to cherish the patriotic idea in art ? The names of Hobson, Dewey, and Bagley have made the present heroic, and silence the mut- terings of those ancient mariners who would make us believe that all greatness lay in the past. The world has a new record of moral courage, and America has suddenly taken a foremost place among the nations. A tide-water mark has been cut upon the vast shores of human endeavor. If, indeed, character is destiny, we must predict for this people an evolution so magnificent that one trembles in picturing it. Love well your country. Without .patriotism there can be no more heroic order of living ; no high ideals, and no great art. A feeble, flaccid people can produce no enduring arts, and soon becomes the slave of Greek or Roman. Emerson truly wrote : What avail the plow or sail, Or land or life, if freedom fail ? Witness the Greek, Roman, and Florentine civilization ; remember that Pericles, Caesar, and Dante were soldiers. Someone laments that the cannon must speak in the teacher's place. Are there not times in Department] THE FUNCTION OF ART IN EDUCATION 83 1 the history of a people when the cannon is the best and most effective teacher ? You step upon the stage at a critical period in the history of the world. Only by loving this land can you make it great or produce great art. Let us believe in the arts of peace, but not when they are purchased at the expense of freedom. We all love peace, but not at the price of character and honor. Life on a high plane is worth all peaceful arts on a low plane. How dearly our freedom has been bought ! The value of the lives that paid for it cannot be computed here or now. It is our precious heritage, for is not humanity, with all its hopes and with all its fears, hanging upon its destiny ? DEPARTMENT OF MUSIC EDUCATION SECRETARY'S MINUTES FIRST SESSION.— Friday, July 8, 1898 The department met at 3 P. M. in the Gunton Temple Memorial Church. E. W. I'earson, supervisor of music, Philadelphia, Pa., read a paper on " Fads in Public-School Music." Miss Mari Ruef Hofer, Chicago, 111., read a paper on "What Is Music and How can We Help Children to Become Musical ?" C. H. Congdon, supervisor of music, St. Paul, Minn., spoke on " Individual Singing." The president appointed as nominating committee : F. E. Howard, Bridgeport, Conn. Miss Linn Marie Hawn, East Orange, N. J. Miss S. Lillian Byington, Moline, 111. SECOND SESSION.— Tuesday, July 12 The session was opened with a song by classes from the city schools of Washington, conducted by Miss Anna E. Scammel, supervisor of music. A. E. Winship, editor of Journal of Education, Boston, Mass., gave an address on "School Music in Character-Making." Mrs. Carrie B. Adams, Terre Haute, Ind., read a paper on "The Next Step — What shall It Be ? " The paper was discussed by Miss Sarah L. Arnold, supervisor of primary schools, Boston, Mass. The report of the Committee on School Songs was given by P. C. Hayden, super- visor of music, Quincy, 111. The chorus singing by the children, under the direction of Miss Pearson, was a most interesting feature of the meeting. They sang with a clearness and purity of tone, and an exquisite expression, seldom heard from pupils of any age. The piano solos by Mr. John Porter, and the vocal solos by Mrs. Nellie Wilson Shir- Cliff and Mr. George B. Cooper, were greatly enjoyed. A vote of thanks was tendered Miss Scammel and Miss Stetson for the perfection of arrangements and beautiful souvenir programs of the meeting. The nominating committee reported as follows : For President— Mr. P. C. Hayden, Quincy, 111. For Vice-President — Miss Mary A. Grandy, Springfield, Mass. For Secretary — Miss Lucy Robinson, Wheeling, W. Va. The report was accepted, and they were unanimously elected. The meeting adjourned at 5 : 30 P. M. S. Lillian Byington, Secretary. 832 Department] ^OIV TO HELP CHILDREN TO BECOME MUSICAL »33 PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS WHAT IS MUSIC, AND HOW CAN WE HELP CHILDREN 20 BECOME MUSICAL ? BY MISS MARI RUEF HOFER, CHICAGO, ILL. Whether the study of music as an art will ever obtain in the public schools, or whether the schools are the place for artistic cultivation, it is not the object of this paper to discuss. Has not much of the objection to music in the schools, and the difficulty of teaching it, arisen from a misunderstanding of its nature and place in the work, rather than in the impossibility of doing it artistic justice in the schoolroom ? The work of the modern psychologist has done so much toward justifying art and relating it to the whole of the educational scheme that the music teacher need no longer make empirical and dogmatic state- ments to convince the unmusical of its reason for being. Not the least battle fought by the new education has been that against the intellectualization of art in schools, and thru this the stunting and perverting of its first uses in primary education. But in the great reversal of opinion which has taken place in these matters old truths which have long lain buried beneath the educational structure have at last been thrown to the surface. With the better understanding of the methods and principles of education, thru the deeper study of the child and its development, the emotive power, so long at a discount with the educator, now bids fair to become the chief stone of the corner. Thus the pedagog now stands as middleman and high priest, the minister at the shrine of incipient genius. In the light of the new truth we are discovering that the so-called "divine spark" is the inheritance of all, that artists are not only born, but that we teachers can readily help make them by properly understanding the material, both human and theoretical, with which we deal ; that many a gem of genius " of purest ray serene " lies hidden under a heap of mere rubbish of accumulated ignorance ; that this spark, tho feebly glimmering in some, in contrast with the brilliant sparkling of others, and tho never found alike in two indi- viduals, may often be fanned into a divine fiame, and man reclaimed from the slavery of imitation to the dignity of creator and artist thru right education. In the art of music, of whose mission the musician has always been so certainly and luminously sure, we are particularly grateful for the §34 NATlOt^AL EDVCATIOMaL ASSOcIAT/ON [Music reinstatement of the creative principle as the basis of development. We feel to thank the psychologist for stealing our thunder, inasmuch as its accompanying lightning flash has revealed to us a wider vision of the usefulness of our art, and awakened us to the fact that the musician and the music teacher have a great work to do. Not that the rational educa- tor and parent will forthwith desire to make Mozarts and Beethovens of all the children, but that we will strive to give music its right use and proper place and part in their education. In the treatment of "What is music?" it might be well to begin by saying that it is not comprehended in notation, nor should its first study consist in the learning of notes. Even the book company is beginning to recognize that it is not for the special benefit of exploiting some elaborated human system of teaching, but that it must offer us an advance in musical culture as well. In order to approach the question of "What is music ?" we need to go far back of that which at the present time it stands for. As far as human expression is concerned, music is our first art. Song is as old as human- ity. The music of today is but an elaboration of the primitive emotive utterances of the race thousands of years ago. The poet tells us that : Since ever the world was fashioned, Water, and air, and sod, A music of divers meaning Has flowed from the hand of God. In valley, and gorge, and upland, On stormy mountain height, He makes Him a harp of the forest. He sweeps the chords with might. He puts forth His hand to the ocean, He speaks, and the waters flow, Now in a chorus of thunder. Now in cadence low. He touches the waving flower-bells, He plays on the woodland streams, A tender song, like a mother Sings to her child in dreams. But the music divinest and dearest, Since ever the years began. Is the manifold passionate music He draws from the heart of man. Where nature leaves off, there man begins. As a link between the natural and the divine man stands a self-conscious and interpretative being, and to the earliest beginnings of these interpretations we trace the birth of art. We are told how, little by little, as the external and visible signs of the world about him left their clear images in his mind, "nature plus human imaginings, mixed in the alchemy of men's souls, became music." Department] HOiV TO HELP CHILDREN TO BECOME MUSICAL 835 When primitive man was thru with the hunt or war with his enemies, in his hours of ease he would reflect upon his experiences of either victory or defeat, or the excitement of the chase, and then re-enact these incidents for his own pleasure and the pleasure of his friends. Primitive man, when possessed by an idea, moved by feeling — an emotion — sprang up and danced and sang it out. Thus were born dramatic art, music, and dancing, as represented in the choral dance. As living and loving and warring grew more complex, so also grew the moods and content of emotional experience. That which began as a rude cry and exclamation gradually assumed form and order. As man's consciousness and appreciation of the world about him increased, his vision expanded, and he gained the power of abstracting and reproducing at will his impressions. In this simple story we find our whole problem in a nutshell — the statement of the creative principle in man, a psychology of art, and a philosophy of teaching identical with the best methods of today. What the child of the race did a thousand years ago is the process of develop- ment of the child of today. It was not until the Christian era that our present color and music were born, which are the immediate material with which we deal. With the new message to mankind love for your brother, new thought and feeling arose and brought a richer emotional experience than had been known before. With a new content for life came the new content for art. All the old things were remodeled after the new idea. Barbaric strains were transformed into the Christian hymn. Then we come to the time when music was recorded and perpetuated in language form. The scholar, gathering up the thread of the people's thought, carried it to the monastery, where he elaborated and perfected what has since become a scientific form of music. Here it is well to note a point. In elaborating the form of music, content was lost. The mind engaged in mathematical ordering and calculation had not time to experience or the disposition to feel. Music became formal and conventionalized. Thus we might say that in music- making music-creating was lost. When the relation of music to life ceased, the vital element was lost. Have we not here the key to a double situation which throws light at once upon the condition of art as well as the need of returning to its simple, natural beginnings with children ? Has not one of our great difficulties in teaching been the elaboration of the technical side of music at the expense of the natural and emotional approach which leads so directly to the cultivation of its ideals ? Previous to the period of its formulation music figured as a natural language and expression of the people. This music we have preserved to us in the form of the folk song, which, vitalized by the living touch of daily experience, has given us some of the best themes of our musical 836 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Music literature, and forms the basis of the romantic school, in contrast with the classical of pure form, which again finds ascendency in the music development of today. With the experience of all the past and present gathered up in our music, it is history, biography, poetry, and philosophy. How best to bring the great musical inheritance at our command to the children, how to help children into early musical appreciation, how to open the door thru simple songs and elementary training, is a subject worthy of the study of the best musicians and teachers that we have, and one destined to influence most strongly the quality of the art as well as of the artists of the future. The easy lending of tone to the expression of idea makes of music a natural picture language. Aside from pure music writing, the picturing of ideas thru tone and rhythm images, the attempt to tell stories, even to express definite ideas, thru combinations of musical sounds, has been com- mon from the earliest period. To the child, the word, its meaning, and the thing itself are identical. In the teaching of singing the nearer we get to natural primitive expression, the more we get the tone of pure feel- ing, such as ejaculation of surprise, fear, anger, sorrow. Utter a succes- sion of tones as exclamation, vary the pitch, and you have the essentials of a song. Yet the farther we get away from personal experience into the reproducing of ideas outside ourselves, the more we enter into the imagi- native and descriptive, and here we rise to the intellectual higher forms of melody and rhythm which complement the varying ideas expressed in the picture. As with the savage, with very young children the interpretation of a song rests upon vital experiences as the basis of the mental image which makes it an art production instead of mere imitative chatter. We can get tone, color, and proper interpretation only from the emotional background or meaning of the song. Why not teach a song as intelli- gently as a literature lesson ? Why not sing a song as intelligently as we would read a poem ? The recipe for interpretative singing, with children as with artists, is vital and intelligent singing. Why we have made such difificult work of interpreting, when music is only intelligence expressing itself thru a tone channel instead of a verbal one, it is difficult to say. Every master in music speaks to us directly, without circumlocution, and we intuitionally and naturally understand him and respond to his moods. It is only when we approach him from the standpoint of technical difficulties that our courage fails and we fall into confusion and uncertainty. A beautiful song and its correct interpretation embody all the ele- ments of music teaching, even in the most advanced stages of study. I would make the statement now — and this may arouse some discussion later — that I believe that all musical difficulties may be reached and solved thru the needs of interpretation, and that without a loss of interest to the Department] HOiV TO HELP CHILDREN TO BECOME MUSICAL 837 child or a necessity of much musical drudgery. We are learning that the divorcement of the study of music from expression sets the mind adrift like a traveler trying to accomplish the impossible feat of traveling upon two roads at the same time. As a consequence the vital energy is spent in vibrating between the two interests instead of reaching the final goal of interpretation thru the solution of the musical difficulty. In helping children to become musical, the work is poorly begun if the teacher who stands before her class insists upon breaking every law of the musical decalog by her very presence. With a voice unmusical and unsympathetic, unrhythmic in body and in mind, she is apt to destroy the first great, and, I will say, the most important, music lesson which can be brought to the child, that of artistic example and presentation. I have in mind a teacher who receives several thousand dollars a year for mak- ing her children wholly unrhythmical and unmusical. Bad habits and bad taste emphasized in these early years become fixed and almost ineradi- cable faults. I would then place at the head of our work artistic pres- entation. In this should be comprehended all the details of good singing on the part of the teacher — good breathing, well-placed and modulated voice, rhythmic and musical singing. The next consideration, of equal importance, is the song itself ; we have always had good ones, and we are continually increasing their number. By a good song I do not mean the merely pretty and fanciful creation, with which we are being deluged with the increasing interest in music for children. Even with very little children the song chosen should be worth teaching and singing. In the choice of material, first of all we must have a story — a some- thing to tell. Fortunately for us, the song with a moral is a thing "of the past. A good poem from the child's standpoint, as well as a literary one, is necessary to our work — one of description or conversation; an episode or dramatic plot, will serve our purpose. In a song the text is of the first importance, and the music should complement and lend itself to the development of its moods. After establishing its general characteristics and giving it a reason for being, we can next take up its musical treatment. Is it a melody song, a rhythm or harmony song ? Is tone or movement the leading feature, or does its harmony fascinate the ear with many voices, or complementary story-telling? The limitations of the class quickly decide the point of emphasis. If the voices are bad, we need sweet tones and pure melody ; if the children are passive, we need the activity and life of a rhythmical song. If their ears are defective, we can cultivate their listening capaci- ties to good effect. The story keeps the interest alive, and the treatment of the musical element offers opportunities for a good music lesson. In interpreting a song it is well to remember that its idea is cause, and the picture obtained is effect. Sometimes our pictures tell tales out of school. 838 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Music You cannot expect a child to express what he does not feel or under- stand. Develop your song and gain your results as far as possible thru the interpretation of its idea. By following this method, the imagery of pure form and pure tone, and the feeling for rhythm, the appreciation of a chord, the sense of bal- ance in the borrowing and the lending of a phrase, in the building of a climax, soon become musical first principles, which are easily accomplished in ordinary school work. In learning either to sing or play, thru repeated sensation there is gradually established a motor, auditory, visual, or tactile imagery, and when this is accomplished we may truly say that the word has become flesh and right doing unconscious habit. In teaching music from a musical standpoint it is necessary to keep in mind the musical side of development and to bend all other issues to this end. One of the evils of past music teaching was the tendency to force the abstractions of music — its symbolism and technique — upon young children, instead of its vital and emotive uses. In connection with this was the encouragement of the visual over the auditory appreciation of music, the eye over the ear. To get a beautiful tone we must hear tone, feel tone, think tone, and finally, with a perfect mental concept, will come the understanding and the power to reproduce. Also the trying to finish our work too much from the so-called artistic standpoint, and the desire to obtain musical effects, rob the child of much of the broadening nature experience which song life might otherwise bring to him. Following the order of natural development, the study of music lends itself naturally to the culture-epoch periods of child development. These are most interesting to trace, and with careful study quite possible to meet with related song material. In the kindergarten we have represented the primitive emotive period, where song is spontaneous expression, a part of real life vitally lived out. This phase extends itself into the next higher, the imaginative or representa- tive period, where nature appreciation begins, and the life of bird and bee and tree and flower is dramatically reinterpreted by the child. Next follow the occupations of man in the pastoral and industrial experiences ; myth and fairy tales ; the arithmetical, where the teaching of the intricacies of musical notation best finds its place; then follow the legendary, histor- ical, and literary, represented in folk songs, ballads, and the larger musical forms of opera and oratorio. All these phases are represented in a most valuable and beautiful song literature at our command. Of the making of books there is no end, and, as someone has said, we may have to resort to a cremation before we can sift out that which is worthy and desirable. In our advanced civilization we have gone somewhat astray in the writing of pretty tunes for children, instead of giving them musical ideas to appreciate. How to provide the child with the largest experience, the Department] HOiV TO HELP CHILDREN TO BECOME MUSICAL 839 stuff out of which music can be made, should be our deepest concern. In the two-step atmosphere of the nineteenth century it is a little difficult to give him impressions deep and sound, which will lead him finally to grasp music in its larger meaning. We cannot produce the musician or the artist simply by listening to pretty tunes or tones, but by inspiring him with noble ideas and sentiments, which, if he becomes a musician, will make of his music a life work and a ministry to the human race. Now that the art of music is corroborated in the science of teaching we need no longer apologize for our work under cover of an arithmetic lesson. Let the law of its beauty sink deep into the children's souls. Flood them occasionally with harmony, as you would your lawn when the turf gets dry. Let the music speak while the teacher keeps silent. It conveys more thru a few moments' simple hearing than volumes of expla- nation on our part. Subordinate the theory of music to its performance. Always present difficulties, not as abstractions, but as rewards of merit and sugar plums. Finally when, thru the ideal conditions presented, we not only get a few facts about music into the child's mind, but arouse his will and the true assertion of himself in song, we gain not only beautiful singing, but the true individuality of the child. We arouse the artist's power, and we contribute to the world's work a vital, active factor. If the work of the teacher of this age is well and intelligently done, the making of men and women as well as artists and interpreters should follow as a natural result. Above all it is necessary to avoid smartness and mere cleverness in this work which lies so close to the ethical heart of the child. The child has nothing to do with the superficialities of art. He has everything to do with its fundamental values — the actual root experiences from which its flower and fruit will grow. We naturally shun the person who knows how all the wires are pulled and pulls them. I have seen a very clever teacher "sketch in a song," "touch up the ethics," finish it and tack down the technical corners in the most approved fashion, whilst the stupid children gazed wonderingly and the smart ones lent themselves to her rapid methods, perfectly conscious of the show that was being carried on with them. In these facile days we are learning to honor the perfectly plain-, honest man who indulges in " no fancy notions," and, tho he be a little slow, is simple and sincere at heart, and produces earnest and unve- neered results in art. Sincere growth is slow, nor can we hasten the process by mere surface agitation. As music teachers we have a mission toward art besides earning our living and covering ourselves with glory in its performance. Are we teachers by the grace of God, or mere menials in the courts of the Most High in the matter of serving art ? The making of artists is the work of our age; let us see to it that we do not misinterpret the divine message intrusted to our care. 840 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Music INDIVIDUAL SINGING BY C. H. CONGDON, SUPERVISOR OF MUSIC, ST. PAUL, MINN. Many music teachers are of the opinion that during the first three years of school life, beginning with the kindergarten, the music period should be given up almost entirely to the singing of good, wholesome songs by rote. To be sure, it is possible to teach six-year-old children to read easy music ; but does it pay to devote the greater portion of the music period to this work, when we consider the age of the children and the limitations of the school program ? Children gain most of their knowledge thru the perceptive faculties, and not by reasoning or reflection. They absorb the strongest influences that surround them, and, by their wonderful power of imitation, grasp the things that are most vividly presented. Their power- of analysis is com- paratively weak, and their capacity for serious study and methodical effort extremely limited. It is unwise, therefore, to reverse the order of nature by attempting to force these young minds to grasp a subject so abstruse as the technical study of music. A child's first conceptions are of wholes and not of parts. He knows a flower long before he can learn to analyze it, and likewise he can remem- ber a complete melody much more easily than he can grasp its construct- ive elements. I believe, therefore, that it is not best to attempt the study of sight-singing to any great extent below the third grade. This is the time when children should acquire the language of music as they have learned their mother-tongue, for the love of song implanted in the human heart at this early age will live and grow to bless the coming years. The ability to sing comes to children usually about three years after they have learned to talk. It would naturally follow, therefore, that, if their first efforts in learn- ing to read are made at the age of six, they should not begin the serious study of sight-singing much before they are nine years old. By this time they will have acquired, thru their song training, correct conceptions of melody and rhythm, and a taste for singing that will be a great incentive to all future efforts in the line of technical study. The greater interest they would then take in the new work would more than compensate for the loss of time. Many argue that young children delight in singing exercises by sylla- ble, and, therefore, devote most of their singing period to such practice. Of course, children take greatjpleasure in doing anything for a successful, Department! INDIVIDUAL SINGING 84 1 enthusiastic teacher; they enjoy cleaning blackboards and dusting erasers, and enter into such work with great zest, because they love the teacher, and her wonderful influence will impel them to vigorous effort along almost any line of action. This, however, is no argument in favor of mechanical drill work being made the chief aim of public-school music. I believe that song singing should continue thruout all the grades and into the high school, whether the children are able to read music or not. When the time comes, however, for the introduction of sight-singing, the two lines of work should be held distinctively apart until the proper foundation has been laid for the latter. It is to be hoped, of course, that these two lines will eventually meet, and that the children will be able by the time they have reached the fifth grade to read the music of their songs. It will be inferred from the title of this paper that a considerable amount of technical advice in the matter of methods will be forthcoming. In order that the idea may not obtain that I belong to the school of mechanical teaching, I beg leave to state, in a general way, my views of music education. The power to imitate is one of the most valuable faculties with which the human mind is endowed. This faculty is brightest during childhood, and without it the young mind could not develop. Children learn songs at first by imitation, which is, of course, the natural way. The process of singing by note is decidedly unnatural, and the ability to sing at sight is difficult to acquire, but it is a means to a greater end, and is therefore a part of one's education. Because children can imitate so readily whatever they hear, the process of recalling elementary con- cepts is exceedingly difficult. Calling words is a small part of the mental process of reading, and yet, no reading could be done without the ability to call words. The greatest value of music in the schools lies in its salutary effect upon the children — cultivating their emotions and influencing them for good. The best results are reached, however, when the children are taught to read music intelligently. Without a correct conception of the relative pitch of sounds, sight- singing is out of the question, and ear-singing must necessarily predomi- nate. Many teachers think their work is satisfactory because a few pupils with strong voices lead, and the rest follow. An examination often reveals the fact that a great majority of children sing by ear, and would get along about as well if they had nothing to look at but the words. When concert singing is done exclusively, only the natural leaders acquire the ability to read. The natural leaders are not always the natural singers, for oftentimes the intellect develops more rapidly than the emotions ; and while the natural leaders readily obtain mechanical results, the quality of voice and 842 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Music the expression are often sadly neglected. On the other hand, many natural singers have beautiful voices and a strong appreciation of the emotional side of music, but overlook the mental effort necessary to interpret the printed page. They depend entirely upon their neighbors for the melody. Experience shows that it is possible to reach the individual in the matter of tone relation as well as in number relation. We should be on our guard, however, against falling into mechanical habits, and remember at all times that the development of tone relation is only a necessary means to a very desirable end, viz.: the intelligent interpretation of the printed page of music and the proper rendition of the school song. The first necessary condition for individual singing is perfect discip- line. Each pupil should stand ready to respond instantly to the call of the teacher. He should be willing at least to try to sound the keynote, and to do as much more as possible. At first the pupils will laugh at slight mistakes, but in a short time this will wear away, and individual recitations in music will be regarded as a part of the daily work. The timid pupil should not be discouraged at the outset with difficult problems. Give him something that he can do, and he will be ready for the next step. The great value of this work is not so much in the actual drill, as in its reflex influence upon pupils. It is an incitement to indi- vidual effort, which is the true secret of acquired ability. Thru the practice of writing music by dictation we have found a speedy way of reaching the individual. The value of written work as an aid to the memory should not be overlooked. Children will acquire a more definite knowledge of the staff notation by the practice" of copying music and writing it by dictation. Scales, signatures, intervals, etc., will thus become indelibly fixed in the mind. The songs can be preserved for future use, and the work will thus serve a twofold purpose. A plan must now be devised for individual tone drill that will not exhaust the time at our command, and thus leave no room for the study of songs. As far as possible, teachers should make the following observations and keep a careful record of them : 1. To what extent is the coexistence of the number sense and the tone sense found in children ? 2. Do pupils who think tones readily catch melodies with equal facility, and vice versa ? 3. After the pitch is sounded, how many pupils can start a familiar tune without further aid or suggestion ? 4. Take a list of pupils who are prompt and alert during the physical exercises, and see whether or not this list coincides with any of the above classifications. The work in sight-singing should be conducted on the basis of indi- Department] INDIVIDUAL SINGING 843 vidual intelligence. It is not intended to dispense with songs until every individual pupil has mastered tone relation; on the contrary, song singing should be continued in" all grades, notwithstanding the fact that the majority of children sing by ear. A line must be drawn, however, between the two ways of singing, and a certain amount of time devoted to each. We must not deceive ourselves any longer by taking for granted that a knowledge of the constructive elements of music will come incidentally thru song practice. This work should receive the same careful atten- tion that is now given to the number work ; every child should learn to think tones independently, and, in order to accomplish this, individual effort should be required. The following classification is suggested for carrying out the work of individual singing : 1. Those who can sing all the sounds of the scale in any order. 2. Those who can think a few tones, but have not mastered them all. 3. Those who sing by ear only. 4. The monotones. Drill work is very misleading as to the actual results. Many do not stop to consider that in concert singing a large percentage of the chil- dren sing by ear, even when they are practicing sight-singing exercises. In my opinion it is even much better that the children acquire a knowl- edge of tone relation by individual effort, and that the concert work be devoted almost entirely to the study of beautiful songs, adapted, of course, to the child as well as to the grade. The impulse of a song thus learned will carry the children to the next effort with greater interest, and they will always be rewarded for their efforts. I would suggest, therefore, that, on the basis of a fifteen-minute daily lesson, about five minutes each day be devoted to individual singing, and that purely intellectual effort be required. An individual recitation always has a reflex influence. It is not the amount of drill the pupil gets while he .is reciting, but the fact that he has made an individual effort brings him to a personal contemplation of the relative pitch of sounds. Once the child knows that he is expected to think tones as he thinks numbers, and to know the scale as he knows the multiplication table, he will grap- ple the problem outside of the singing, master it, and apply the knowl- edge thus gained when the class is struggling with the difficulties of a new song. Let me close, then, by saying that in my opinion the so-called drill work should be confined principally to individual recitations ; that every child above the third grade who can sing the scale shall be required to master the elementary principles of tone relation ; that the failure to accomplish this shows laxity on the part of the child or incompetence on the part of the teacher; and that at least two-thirds of the singing period 844 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Musk in school shall be devoted to the study of beautiful songs adapted to child life. The salutary influence of song will thus predominate in the schoolroom, and the children will always look forward to the singing lesson with delightful anticipation, and the drudgery and mechanics of public-school music will be relegated to their proper place. SCHOOL MUSIC IN CHARACTER-MAKING BY DR. A. E. WINSHIP, EDITOR "JOURNAL OF EDUCATION," BOSTON, MASS. Music rises thru rhythm and melody to harmony and symphony. School music brings the populace up to the enjoyment of all the com- fort, peace, and joy of music, in so far as music has a common interest for mankind. It also brings music as an art into the everyday life of the world by "making it the habitual companion, in their impressionable years, of those who are to be the Americans of the future. At large expense we are beginning to beautify schoolrooms with repro- ductions of works of art, reprints of the masterpieces. Too much cannot be said of the benefit to be derived from placing these where children can see them day by day ; but even this is hardly to be compared with the influence of the daily singing of historic songs, the weaving of selec- tions from masterpieces into the hearts and voices of children, to be taken by them into after-life. The problems are how to get the most of music into school, and the most out of the music of the school. Let us have music in every school in America. It is almost as absurd to have a school without music as to have a schoolroom without sunlight. When music is in the school, it should be so taught as to be a factor in character-making. Sunlight in the schoolroom will not insure health without proper ventilation and appropriate exercise ; indeed, it can ruin the eyes if it is directly faced. So music will not. make character simply by admitting it to the schoolroom. The school has its influence upon the child individually and as a mem- ber of the community. The school helps the individual to intellectual power, practical force, and personal character. The community influ- ence of the school is focused for good citizenship, for worthy membership in society, for the leavening of the universal character of the people. The culmination of both is in character. Music is of service to a greater number of persons than any other art. More appreciate it and execute it ; more are influenced by it and use it for the pleasure and good of others. The poorest get from it comfort and enjoyment, and the rich joy and peace. The laborer at his toil, the millionaire at his dinner, the servant and the servantless housewife in the Department] SCHOOL MUSIC IN CHARACTER-MAKING 845 kitchen, and the society queen in the drawing-room, all find music their tonic. Music rests the body, balances the mind, and pacifies the soul. It is said that one cannot be hypnotized when he is singing. The violently insane do not sing. An angry man cools off if he begins to sing. There are no angles in a song. The tendency of music is to make one beauti- ful. If there are discords in the life of musical people, it is not because of the music, but in spite of it. Music may be taught in school so as to be a mere glossing of the life, or it may reach to the fountains of character. No art can be spread out so thin, as none can run so deep. A bird that is ill will not sing. Music represents health of body and of mind, of disposition and spirit. It represents, also, faith and love, joy and peace. The common school is especially a place for teaching singing, for giving the child the power to get the most out of music, that he may give the world the most thru music. It is something to sing, but singing of itself is not enough. One must know how to sing well. When Melba, the queen of entertainers, with a voice of culture as well as of sweetness and force, began her training with Marchesi, she would spend twenty- three hours and forty-five minutes of exquisite care of body, mind, and spirit, in order that she might be in the best possible condition for a les- son of fifteen minutes. If a woman of her genius and power needed the most skillful training at the hands of one of the world's most gifted teachers, what shall be said of those who think that it is all-sufficient to have a school sing one hymn or song each morning ? School music should be taught by a thoroly good system, and by one competent to train the voice. The school is no more expected to make soloists than to make horse- shoers or milliners; but as the school gives the training and education so that one can prepare advantageously for any life work, so it must give that preparation for specializing which shall discover to the child his talent for music. It ought to be expected of every graduate of a public school that he shall he able to do as well with the talent he has in music as he does with that which he he has for letter writing. There is a tradition that most musicians have but three or four pet songs or "pieces of music" that they can render at any time, and that they can play or sing only when they are in practice. This may be the professional's standard, but it is not the standard of the people in other things. What would be thought of a school that trained the pupils to perform but three sample examples, and these only when they were in practice, or to read a selection of descriptive, didactic, oratorical, and poetic character ? The comparison is not adequate, but it is suggestive. The public school ought to do away with much that seems to the people nonsensical in the limited power of trained musicians. 846 . NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Music While children should be trained to get out of some masterpiece all that is in it, they should also be taught to get out of every masterpiece in music somewhat of its power as readily as they do out of Paradise lost or the Merchant of Venice. Many of the choice bits of music are as capable of universal apprecia- tion as the most popular lines of Burns or Byron. Music has hallowed the humblest virtues and the homeliest conditions. Who that ever heard Patti throw the halo of her genius over " Coming through the Rye," or Annie Louise Gary breathe the inspiration of her soul into " Down Upon the Suwannee River," can ever forget the power of the human voice over each individual in a vast audience ? One evening when Jenny Lind was at the height of her power, and the largest auditorium in New York city was packed to the limit, Daniel Web- ster occupied the box of honor. As she was swaying the audience with one of her star selections, for the rendering of which she was trained to the limit of her ability, Mr. Webster said to a companion : "Why doesn't she sing some" ballad of her girlhood days ? " The gentleman retired, and, as the great singer left the stage amid a deafening applause, he told her of the remark of the great orator. As quick as thought she returned for her encore and sang in her native tongue one of the sweet ballads of her child- hood ; and as the last note died upon that breathless throng, she turned her radiant face and nodded in her charming way her appreciation to Web- ster, who by instinct had risen, and, with a majesty sublime, bowed his recognition. It is said that in all her career she never had such an ovation as that which greeted her when the full significance of the moment burst upon the audience. None of us appreciate the beauty, the power, the glory of music. It not only comforts and inspires the needy of earth, but at the dawn of creation the morning stars sang together, and at the advent of Him who said, " Come unto me all ye that labor and are heavy laden, and I will give you rest," the very heavens echoed the message: "Peace on earth, good will to men." Rhythm is a combination of very distinct ideas ; it is keeping step like an army, it is flowing like a river. It is measured time, and yet it is time flowing in unbroken movement. The accent gives the continuous flow to sharply marked-off measure. All physical life is perfect in proportion to the perfection of its rhythm. The faintest touch of life in the crudest, slimiest mold that gathers under damp bark in the tannery yard is a little world in which rhythm reigns, while, at the other extreme, the latest revelations of brain activity tend to show that there are no currents of force, but rather a reign of rhythm, among the brain cells. The movement of these, and not their touch, is the source of mental activity. The essence of the lowest traceable vegetable life is rhythm ; the I Department] SCHOOL MUSIC IN CHARACTER-MAKING 847 highest flights of poet and orator, the sweetest affection, the loftiest reaches of faith, joy, and peace, are rhythmic activities of matter, mind, or emotion. Lack of appreciation of all this has prevented the school from rising to the heights it should attain. In mathematics we find rhythm as an exact science, as perfect in its way as the movement of the spheres. The pianist attains the art of touching the keys with rhythmic accuracy with- out following the hand with eye or mind. There is no satisfaction in arithmetical work until the pupil knows the fundamental combinations and processes as the pianist knows the keys. Every child soon knows the sum of two numbers as the pianist knows how to strike the chord. The pupil who adds by counting with his fingers is lacking in the "ear for numbers" as much as the child that counts the octave on the keys is lacking in an ear for music. You do not give up with the child who counts his fingers, but you keep him wrestling with the numbers until he has them fairly well in mind. The pupil that does not know the chords simply needs a more skillful treatment, because music is higher in the realm of art and science than arithmetic. Those who have the rhythm of language need neither drill nor gram- mar, but there are those who must be helped to this rhythm by both. Spelling is universally acknowledged to be a matter of rhythm, and we may as well admit that this same is true of the skill for gathering and classifying information in geography, science, or history. The " new education " is the dawn of a brighter day. The dawn in the new education seems, however, to have heard the command of Joshua, and the sun is standing still just below the horizon, leaving us in the dawn of perpetual promise. The old way was mechanical ; the new has activity, but too often merely mechanical activity. If it has life, it is too often a military life, keeping step to the word of the drillmaster, a meas- ured tread that breaks the bridge by its terrible swing, whereas it should be the life of the bird upon tireless wing. The kindergarten of Froebel was a prose poem. Life in the kinder- garten is social rhythm, with the voice as natural as the note of the lark, the language as easy, and the courtesies of life as graceful, as the rhythm of nature. All this should be retained in elementary and secondary school, in college and university, and it will be when music is appreciated as the keynote of all intellectual activity and social grace. Whatever our theological prejudices, we must all admit that the most beautiful conception of the ages is that of the Child of the Manger, whose birth and growth, childhood and manhood, were humanity touched with the melody of heaven. It is a long reach from the child of the slums to the saint in glory, but it is no longer than from the slimes of the pond to the purity and sweetness of the unfolding lily. Our faith believes all things possible 848 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Music with people, but not with persons. Whoever and whatever can give the teacher whose life is being worn out by her dull boy faith to believe that there is power in earth or heaven to make of him a pure, agreeable, self- sacrificing, noble man is doing more for the world than he who has invented a battalion of "the best methods" in number work or language teaching. Music has in it greater possibilities along this line than any other subject. And yet there are those who think the value of the multi- plication table in business is infinitely more important than music, which if taught with half the faithfulness of arithmetic, might be made to trans- form many a mischievous boy into a glorious character. Who shall state the ratio between a boy grinding away on a distasteful lesson because the eye of the teacher is upon him, with the truant officer at the door, and the boy who is enthusiastic over his school work because the melody of rhythm thrills thru every lesson ? Does some teacher, who has no faith in the possibilities of the bad boy, say sneeringly that it is idealizing when we say that a school ought to be a pl'ace in which the rhythm of heaven thru music should touch the life of the child of the street, so that his thought and hope and faith shall eventuate in that character and power for which the Great Teacher came among men ? If so, he sneers not at us, but at Him who gave us our ideals ; and it is better to stand humbly at the feet of the Great Teacher than to be with those who reviled. THE NEXT STEP— WHA T SHALL IT BE ? BY MRS. CARRIE B. ADAMS, TERRE HAUTE, IND. We have reached a point in regard to the idea of music as a necessary subject in the school curriculuip where no vociferous agitation or defense is called for; in fact, in most quarters we are rapidly taking upon our- selves the relieved, resting air of one who has fought a good fight and won the victory. It has been a hard-fought battle in many instances, but the victory is ours. Public sentiment says it ; patrons say it ; pupils say it ; teachers say it ; school boards say it ; educators in every stage of enlightenment say that music is necessary to the symmetrical develop- ment of the child, for whose sole good the schools exist. There is no chance to argue the question here, since we are all on the same side, and not a single reason why we should attempt to justify this state of affairs. We have passed that stage, happily, and may now rest from our labors and enjoy the fruits of our years of strenuous effort. Music has at last come into its rightful inheritance — the minds, hearts, voices, and lives Departmeml THE NEXT STEP— WHAT SHALL IT BE? 849 of the masses — and perchance we have been instrumental in bringing about such a happy state of affairs in our own particular little corner of the earth, and we may now sit down and behold its progress. May we ? Will we ? Dare we think of such a thing, when the very success of former efforts places us under a dojible obligation to use all our power and strength that success may not turn into failure ? Ah, no ! Pity the man or woman who thinks of rest at this stage in the history of music as an educational force. We are weary, perhaps, but the reward is great to those who labor — and there is resting by and by. Put the thought aside, and let us look over the field. What influences have had to do with making music a recognized necessity in every school curriculum that pretends to be up with the times? As well may we ask what wonderful influences have revolu- tionized the educational world since some of us learned our a-b, abs. Perhaps Mr. McGuffey, of first-reader fame, wherein occurs the question and answer, " Do we go up ? We do go up ! " may be credited with a prophetic eye, since we certainly have "gone up" to the very mountain tops in comparison with the plane we occupied then. In fact, we are so very much elevated that we have one of three things to do : remain placidly, contentedly, inanely where we are; slide down from the mountain tops ; or build us more stately mansions. If build we must, it behooves us to look well to the foundation we have laid. Perhaps it is not broad enough for the support of an imposing musical structure ; perhaps it is not deep enough to withstand the strain of any but a light, ephemeral style of architecture, calculated to please the taste of the casual observer; perhaps we as builders have not given every stone in the foundation the honest thought the cause deserved, or thru ignorance have used the wrong material in constructing our part. At any rate, we might investi- gate. So much depends upon good teaching, if music is to be the wonderful power we confidently hope and expect, that an investigation that does not take the teacher into account, with her opportunities for training and her general ability and preparation for the work, would be a remarkable one indeed. Music is so peculiarly susceptible to the teacher's influence that it would be difificult to overestimate her importance in this field. Of course, there are innumerable teachers of the infallible type in other states, but the millennium is not yet shedding its beneficent rays abroad in Indiana. In fact, the feeling seems quite prevalent among us that there are some things we do not know, and, alas ! may never know. Therefore my remarks may be understood to have reference to affairs as observed by an Indianian, where teachers are ordinary flesh-and-blood mortals, with days constructed on a sadly limited scale of hours and min- utes, considering the amount of work to be done, while a similar discrep- ancy is noticeable in the nights. 850 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Music Every teacher present recognizes the fact that a comparatively small number of schools in any state employ competent supervisors of music, and that a comparatively small number of school children outside of the larger cities receive their musical instruction from teachers especially trained for that work. The other fact is alsQ being recognized, that music is being taught in three-fourths of the common schools, upon the recom- mendation of patrons, boards of trustees, county and state superintendents —all of which indicates a delightful state of affairs. But if specially trained teachers are not doing the work, who is doing it ? The regular teacher, to be sure. And where does the regular teacher supply herself with the necessary information to carry on this work intelligently? "Dear me!" says one teacher, " I didn't know one had to study music to be able to teach it. I thought one simply needed to be able to carry a tune and know something about lines and spaces ! " The honest truth about the whole matter is that half the music teaching in our public schools is done upon the basis of being able to carry a tune and knowing something about lines and spaces. Not in the schools where a special music teacher reigns supreme — oh, no! — but in the little red schoolhouse and two-story white frame or brick village schoolhouses, where a numerous host of children are getting their first long-coveted taste of the divine art. Of course we know that every school should have lessons in music from a special music teacher, but we also know that such an arrangement is not possible as yet, and that the regular teacher is supposed to direct this work as she does all other required branches. Where does the com- mon-school teacher get her training for this and other work ? If in the course of human events she decides to become a teacher — and there are many and divers reasons aside from a divine call for such decision — she naturally turns to the school created by law to give her the profes- sional training she requires, the normal school. With what previous preparation does she come ? Formerly she came blissfully ignorant of most things a teacher ought to know, and seldom stayed long enough to acquire the academic knowledge necessary for a teacher ; and her mental condition was such that the small amount of musical training offered by the average normal school was all but useless. But now she must hold a two-years' teacher's license in her hand before she is allowed to enter — or at least such are the conditions in the Indiana State Normal School. What does she bring in the way of previous musical training ? Very little. Nine-tenths of the students who enter the music classes in a nor- mal school have lived where musical advantages were limited to the Sun- day school and an occasional term of singing school. While the average Sunday school does the best it can with the music and means at its com- mand, as a source of correct ideas of music and singing its influence is not altogether to be desired. The singing school (alas for those whose Department] THE NEXT STEP- WHA T SHALL IT BE? 8 5 1 main musical dependence it was !) is relegated to that past which is the home of the melodeon and " Lily Dale," " Fairy Moonlight," " Fairy Belle," and other old favorites, and nothing has taken its place as yet. Taking her, then, with her meager supply of musical knowledge, what does the average normal school do for her ? Places her in a class with a hundred other similarly equipped students — or perhaps with that number of students in various stages of development, which is much worse — and attempts to administer musical instruction in such heroic doses, as she is ground with the ninety and nine others thru the same mill, that she will come out at the end of the one or two terms provided in the course fully equipped to direct the music work in her next school ! Often that grind consists of mere mechanical things, and often the time allotted in the course of study to music is so short that there is absolutely no time for individual work, and as equally absolute necessity for a hurried going over of the many important fundamental things in music before the term shall end and the student departs forever. Some normal schools provide bountifully for the music work, but as a general thing the course is limited to two or three terms of twelve weeks each. How can a teacher of music be equipped in that length of time, unless previous experience and training make it possible ? And why should not those who desire to fit themselves for this line of public-school work find ample provision made for their wants in music, as in mathematics, in a normal school ? As a matter of fact, more necessity exists for it, since the average student has had a more active mental experience with mathematics than with music. More especially is there a necessity for superior musical advantages in a normal school now, when so much is expected of the regular teacher, and when music is being experimented with in so many of the smaller schools. The course should be such that, when the teachers' examination shall include an examination in music, the student will not look upon it as a bugbear to be dreaded, but will be able to answer any reasonable set of questions, after having finished the course in a normal school. What are some of the essential things in music ? If it is public-school music, the answer would be one thing, and if it is instrumental music, the answer would be something else. The fact that vocal music is more universal than instrumental is one reason for its study in the public schools, which leads me to say that the making of children's voice habits should receive much more thought from parent and teacher than has ever been given to it. Why should the teacher's voice stand in the way of the progress of your boy or mine ? The advantage of a soft, low voice is preached on every side, and very little attention is given in training schools for teachers toward modifying and making melodious the oft- times sharp, wiry, aggressive voices of those whose peculiarities of tone and enunciation will be imitated by a roomful of little ones some day 852 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Music and somewhere. A very large field opens to those who realize the impor- tance of a well-managed voice, whether in speaking or singing, when the imitative faculty of even the dullest child is considered. Have you ever visited a little country school where eighteen or twenty children of assorted sizes and ages were being cared for by a faithful teacher at so much per month, and not so very much either, for from three to seven months in the year ? And have you heard this willing soul try to give a music lesson ? Or perhaps you have in an unguarded moment asked to hear some of the songs the children have learned. Did you not say in your heart, as you endured to the end, that it were better never to have had singing than to have had it done in so barbarous a manner ? Softly, my friend ! Did not that little teacher do her most conscientious best, according to the light she had ? And what more do you, oh ! ye of ten talents ? Let her sing and teach others to sing ; but speed the day when her opportunity to learn how to sing and to teach others to sing may be largely increased. Every normal school can teach its pupils to use the organs of speech neatly and accurately, and what accomplishment is more valuable to a singer than this ? Not all souls are capable of the largest expansion any more than all voices are capable of thrilling an audience, but all organs of speech and song may be cultivated to a higher degree of usefulness, and especially is this culture to be desired in those who are to look after the music work in any school. If, in the coming years, more general exer- cises of a voice-refining nature are introduced in the normal schools, our little district-school teacher will be able to dispense with the nasal twang, the uncultivated enunciation and slovenly articulation, or the metallic tone, almost unconsciously, since she, too, is possessed of the faculty of imitation, and only needs opportunity to use it under advantageous cir- cumstances to make rapid progress. What an immense stone in the foundation we are laying is the rote song ! And how frequently is it used as a mere physical exercise ! The fact that words count is so lamentably ignored by singers of otherwise fair intelligence that one is not astonished to find teachers who need the unseeing eye opened in regard to the manner of using songs in the schoolroom. Sacrifice the music if you will, but keep the sentiment underlying the words ever in mind. If there are doubts as to the chil- dren's ability to express and appreciate that sentiment, an error in selec- tion has been made, and the song should be laid aside. Where shall the teacher lay the foundation for this discriminating taste and judgment in the selection of rote songs ? Her whole training and experience, that make her a success as a teacher of other branches, aid her in this, and I see no reason why more definite work may not be done along the line of rote songs in a normal training school, when its vast importance Department] THE NEX T STEP—WHA T SHALL IT BE? 853 is considered, and when the fact is recognized that in hundreds of schools the so-called music work consists of rote singing entirely. Everyone should be intimately acquainted with the tonic, dominant and subdominant triads, and their family connections and interrelationship, if she would enter more fully into the joys of music. Why not have harmony in our foundation, since it is the essential element in our super- structure ? Could not the public schools plant the seeds of harmony, at least, and in some instances even water them, trusting to providence for the increase ? Suppose the boy's voice is changing and he does not care to sing, partly because there is no certainty that he will succeed if he tries, and partly because he is relegated to the too often tuneless realms of alto at the first suspicion of a croak, when he naturally prefers a tune. It is as certainly wrong to take all music study away from him at this time as it would be to force him to sing, croak or no croak. Why not require less singing, and more study of the scientific and historical side of the subject, at this particular period in the mental life of the boy or girl, thru harmony and biography ? Wouldn't the princi- pal triads and the dominant seventh, with their progressions and resolu- tions, prove interesting to any mathematically inclined youth ? His ability to think tones certainly need not cease with his ability to make tones that are satisfactory to himself and others. I question the judgment of a supervisor of music who does not call to his aid the unlimited source of interest and inspiration to be found in biography — one of the most important stones in our foundation. I know a supervisor who doesn't, but he doesn't live in Indiana, and I don't know that he is present. In one schoolroom with which I am familiar a bust of Beethoven frowns down upon the children from his pedestal. "Why does he look so cross ? " inquired a small boy. The teacher in charge knew just what to say, and within a week every child in the room had ransacked home and school libraries in search of points of interest in the life of Beethoven. Instead of the disagreeable expression they saw before they had read of his unhappy life, they found an element of sad- ness that aroused their sympathies every time their roving eyes rested upon his face. Another stone that our builders are using freely is good music, whether written by the old masters or by modern composers of skill, and it is a most gratifying thing to note the purity of style and form to be found in the exercises and songs in the various courses in music for use in the public schools. It is not enough that the children sing good music, however. It isn't the music we ourselves are able to make that influences us most ; else music's power would be decidedly limited, in some cases. Why not brighten our structure with bits of color in the form of illustrated sketches of various composers, including American writers ? 854 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Music Any of the simpler forms of the classics in an appropriate biographical setting may be invested with great interest for a roomful of children, if intelligently interpreted. The- masses will sing and play good music when they have been shown where to find it in the simplicity adapted to their needs, and it is thru the door of the little red schoolhouse, or the stately portals of the city school building, or of the yet more dignified normal-training-school entrance, whether controlled by state or private means, that this artistic touch must come. If we cannot have trained supervisors of music in every school in every county in every state, then, in all justice, give those who prepare for the work of school-teaching in our normal schools better opportunity to learn the fundamental things in music, before they are expected to comprehend this (to them) almost unknown subject and teach it to their helpless pupils. As well expect a teacher ignorant of Greek to study methods of present- ing the subject for a term, and then be able to do successful work with a class of beginners ! Not all students who attend normal schools are destined to become shining lights in the teaching profession, but a large number will be engaged as teachers, and many of them will be obliged to teach with but little time spent in preparation, for financial or other reasons. It isn't to be expected that the subject of music will receive the time and attention its newness and importance deserve, but the training for teaching that does not aid in presenting a music lesson is not all it should be. A good teacher is often more successful with the music work than a good musician — and therein lies our hope. The thing most teachers need is an actual working knowledge of the subject-matter of music first, and the ability to use the formal side sub- jectively next. It is absolutely necessary for a teacher to know about the means of representing tones, else how can she know when not to teach signs ? Even special music teachers need to be reminded occasionally of the fact that music does not consist of notes, bars, lines, spaces, etc., and what wonder if the regular teacher falls into the rut of sign teaching alone, when her training includes little more than sign work, frequently? The special teacher must have the intelligent assistance of the regular teacher, if music is to be used to the fullest advantage in the schools; and today, as never before, we look to the fountain head, the normal school, for the training that will make this possible. The teachers will gladly take all of the instruction in music that the required course of study will permit, and I confidently expect to see such changes in the requirements as will give them the opportunity to prepare fully for this work, which is soon to be a part of every teacher's daily program in the common schools and in the grades. Our builders are, in the main, honest. Our architects are planning according to the needs of the masses. We are not standing still, neither Department] THE NEXT STEP— WHAT SHALL IT BE? 855 are we losing ground. We have laid the foundation upon which to erect an educational edifice of more varied beauty and usefulness than has ever yet been erected, and the strength of the pillars which shall support the final dome of this intensely, artistically, characteristically American struc- ture will be based upon public-school music work, which shall include mind, voice, and soul culture; a knowledge of combinations as well as successions of tones ; and an interest in what has gone before, what is, and what will be, with the regular teacher amply prepared to direct the music work as intelligently as she directs the work in other branches. The next step? Well, what shall it be ? DISCUSSION Miss Sarah L. Arnold, Boston, Mass. — The question asked by Mrs. Adams has been answered by the singing of the pupils this afternoon. The theory needed to put music in the right place is to make the regular teacher believe that music is essential. What does it do for children ? One hard task is to secure the habit of attention ; to see the note, to fix its position in pitch and its length, requires intense attention. When things go wrong in school, music brings sympathy and a willing spirit more readily than scolding. When they sing together, a sweet unity is secured, a forgetting of self, a merging into one under the control of the teacher. This oneness is higher than unity. Harmony is higher — means a broader musical conception, a blending in one beautiful whole. The task of the twentieth century is to learn how to live together in peace and happiness, and music is one of the most potent agencies in bringing this about. DEPARTMENT OF BUSINESS EDUCATION SECRETARY'S MINUTES FIRST SESSION.— Friday, July 8, 1898 The department convened in the Academy of Music Friday afternoon, July 8, at 3 o'clock, and was called to order by the president, D. W. Springer, of Ann Arbor, Mich., who gave the annual address. . Following this, Hon. Lyman J. Gage, secretary of the treasury, Washington, D. C, gave an address on " Reasonable Expectations in Business Education." J. M. Mehan, of Des Moines, la., chairman of the Committee of Nine, presented a model business-college course. Professor Emory R. Johnson, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, read a paper on "{Business Education in the High School." M. A. Grove, of Harrisburg, Pa., was chosen secretary pro tempore. The department adjourned to meet July 11. SECOND SESSION.— Monday, July II The second session of the department convened in the rooms of the Spencerian Busi- ness College at 3 o'clock p. M., President Springer in the chair. The meeting was a round-table discussion of the papers presented at Friday afternoon's session. Owing to the sickness of Mr. Mehan, most of the meeting was devoted to the consideration of the course of study as submitted in the president's address. The matter of a uniform course of study for business colleges, which has been in the hands of the Committee of Nine, was referred to a committee, consisting of J. M. Mehan, Des Moines, la.; J. E. King, Rochester, N. Y., and J. W. Warr, Moline, 111., to prepare the same for publication, and report to the department at the meeting in 1899. The election of officers for the ensuing year resulted as follows : President — Allan Davis, Washington, D. C. First Vice-President — I. O. Crissy, Albany, N. Y. Second Vice-President — Court F. Wood, Washington, D. C. Secretary — W. C. Stevenson, Emporia, Kan. Chairman Executive Committee — Carl C. Marshall, Battle Creek, Mich. A resolution was passed thanking Mrs. Spencer for the use of her rooms for the sessions of the section, and the local committee for the efforts made in behalf of the department. Adjourned to meet July 12. THIRD SESSION.— Tuesday, July 12 The third session of the business section convened in the rooms of the Spencerian Business College, Tuesday afternoon, July 12, at 3 o'clock. George M. Coffin, deputy controller of the United States treasury, Washington, D. C, gave a paper on the " Administration and Bookkeeping of a National Bank, and the Qualifications and Training of a Bank Accountant." 856 Department] BUSINESS EDUCATION 857 A. O. Kittredge, editor of Accountics, "iitvr York city, presented a paper entitled " Bookkeeping and Accounting of the Periodical Publishing Business." I. O. Crissy, examiner of business schools for the state of New York, read a paper on " Business Education in the State of New York." Mr. David Wolfe Brown, chief reporter of the United States House of Representa- tives, presented a paper on the " Qualifications and Training of the Congressional Reporter." The president-elect was introduced, and, after he had expressed his thanks to the section, the meeting adjourned. M. A. Grove, Secretary pro tempore. PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS BUSINESS EDUCATION BY DURAND W. SPRINGER, ANN ARBOR, MICH, The public-school system of a Utopian state should enroll the entire population of the country between the ages of five and eighteen. In the United States we are confronted with different conditions. In the year 1870, 61.45 per cent, of the school population was enrolled. This per- centage has increased to 69.85 per cent, in the year 1895. Of this enroll- ment 50.48 per cent, are boys. This total enrollment is divided among the various branches of education as follows : the elementary schools, 95 per cent.; the secondary schools, 3.6 per cent.; the higher schools, 1.4 per cent. The secondary schools contain our youth between the ages of fourteen and eighteen, and it is with this branch of the system that we are particularly interested. Up to the year 1887 private second- ary schools enrolled a larger number of students than did the public secondary schools. The growth of enrollment in the private secondary schools has been but one-hundredth of i per cent, in the last twenty-five years, whereas the enrollment in the high schools has increased ten- fold in the same time. While there has been this marked increase in attendance upon the high school, it is a noticeable fact that the boys form but 45 per cent, of the secondary enrollment. In addition to the students found in these distinctive secondary schools, there are one hun- dred thousand students of the same age pursuing courses in the business colleges of this country. This is a number equal to the total attendance on all the various higher institutions of learning. This large attendance upon business colleges indicates a feeling in the minds of a large number of people that the public schools are not furnishing the education they desire for their children. It was this same feeling that caused three stu- dents to attend the private secondary schools twenty-five years ago where 858 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Business one attended the high school. When our high schools shall meet the demand for education along business lines, as they did along preparatory lines, another corresponding ratio of increase in attendance upon the public schools will be noticed. The public secondary schools were primarily established for the pur- pose of fitting the student to pursue a higher education. The course of study was originally a rigid one, but from time to time changes have been made and new studies added, till now hardly any high school offers less than three distinct courses of study. As has been indicated, these changed conditions have greatly increased the attendance. In the high schools of the United States the graduating class of 1896 contained but 12.05 per cent, of the enrolled students for that year. Of those who graduated 29.28 per cent, went to college. But 13.82 per cent, of our high-school students are preparing for a higher education. The old idea that the secondary school was a preparatory school has been outgrown, and the secondary schools have become the finishing schools for over 85 per cent, of the attendants. The high school, in order to benefit the many, which it should, must be adapted to the needs of those who can go no farther along educational lines. The larger percentage of those who leave school prior to completing their secondary education are boys. The largest number of them drift into various occupations, and yet, of the boys in the United States between the ages of fifteen and nineteen, there were over a million, according to the census of 1890, who could not be located in any of the gainful pursuits or in any of the schools. What as to the education that has been offered in our secondary schools ? It is probably as thoro, as far as it goes, as is any. It has been an evolution, and a rapid one at that. It is not in a spirit of fault-finding that the suggestions of this paper are made, but rather with the idea in mind that we have now reached a point where we can broaden the work and be of benefit to a larger number and a different class of persons than have the schools of the last twenty years. As has been suggested, many students have left school at about the age of fourteen, because the oppor- tunity was not offered them in the public schools along the lines that they wished to pursue. Being designed as a preparatory education, it has failed to benefit, to as large a degree as it should, the class of chil- dren that needed it the most — namely, the children of the poorer classes. While theoretically the education that is best for those who go to college may be best for those who do not, practically it is hard to convince the masses of the truth of that statement. The tendency of higher general or culture courses has been to breathe a spirit of contempt for business and labor. This has usually been the outgrowth of the feeling on the part of our teachers of largest culture that the ambitions of the average business man were purely mercenary, and the impractical methods of many of these same educators have developed in the minds of the busi- Department) BUSINESS EDUCATION 859 ness community the idea that the predominating education was too theoretical. The modern classical course affords a special as well as a general education, and is pursued by a majority of those taking it for purely utilitarian reasons. The present classical and Latin courses are the natural preparation for the intellectual, professional vocations; as such, they have a right to exist. Society needs them. The education of democratic people, provided at public expense, should prepare them for intelligent citizenship. It should aim to adapt every citizen to the civilization of his time. Conditions change, and so must systems of education. The student should be put in touch with what is taking place, rather than with what has occurred. The past should be studied for the lessons it gives as to how the present should be lived. Education has been recognized in our laws as one of the necessi- ties of life. From the standpoint of the individual, it is as valuable to the poor as to the rich; and from the standpoint of the state, much more valuable. It should develop the powers of the individual to their fullest state of usefulness, for the individual is the foundation of society. The main purpose of our secondary schools should be to fit the students for honorable and useful lives. Power concerning the everyday events of life is the one thing to be obtained. The most important accomplish- ment which any person can possess is the ability to support himself and those dependent upon him. His next aim should be to benefit those with whom he comes in contact. What spare energy remains he may use in indulging in those lines of work in which he is especially inter- ested and which minister to his personal gratification. That is the best education which not only disciplines the mind and gives to us pleasure in its pursuit, but which at the same time fits us to mingle in society and the business world to its and our own betterment. This is essentially a business age. With twelve million voters in this country, there are nine million depositors in banks, and over one million persons so engaged in business as to have credit ratings in the commer- cial directories. According to the census of 1890, 47.95 per cent, of our total population over the age of ten was engaged in some gainful occu- pation. These were divided as follows : agriculture, fisheries, and mining, 39.65 per cent.; manufacturing and mechanical industries, 22.39 P^^" cent.; domestic and personal services, 19.18 per cent.; trade and transportation, 14.63 percent.; professional classes, 4.15 per cent. Between the years 1880 and 1890 there was a marked decrease in the percentage of those engaged in agriculture, a corresponding increase in the percentages of those engaged in trade and manufacture, while the percentages of the pro- fessional and domestic classes remained about stationary. There are more persons engaged as bookkeepers, clerks, and salesmen than in all the professional classes combined. In the professional and domestic classes we find two males employed for every female ; in the manufacturing 86o NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Business and mechanical industries the ratio is four to one, while in the agri- cultural and trade divisions it is nineteen to one. These figures merely show a tendency of the times. Our boys are leaving the public schools to go into some form of business or employment. If by any means they can be held — and we can, in addition to the direct professional training, which will be the motive for them to stay, give them a certain amount of general education — we shall to that extent have succeeded where now we entirely fail. If this be done, the successful business man of the future will be one with broader ideas and possessing more culture c.nd refinement than does the business man of today. Business has become the greatest profession of the age. The business man is the controlling element of society. He needs as complete an equipment as is possible, and the more complete it is, the better will be the society of the future. The question arises : Ought the public school to give any distinctive training along professional lines ? Statistics show the truth of the statement, made a few minutes since, that the classical course affords a distinct pro- fessional training. Professor Edmund J. James, of the University of Chi- cago, said in an address before the American Bankers' Association : "The business class is the most important in numbers and influence left without any provision by government for the professional training of its members." Commercial training should be offered in the public schools at two points. In the elementary schools business forms should be studied and enough of bookkeeping so that those who leave school may be able to keep a private set of books. The value of such instruction to the country, from an economic standpoint, can hardly be appreciated. In the secondary schools the ideal condition would be that in which no regu- lar courses were offered, but the students were free to elect the studies desired, with the guidance of the teacher and under such general rules as should prevent hit-and-miss courses of study. A diploma should then be given according to the work that has been done. We are not ready for that in this country, however, and we claim that the people have a right to demand a course which shall run parallel with the classical, Latin, and scientific, and shall be so framed as to afford an incentive for the youths of our country to remain in school for a longer period than they now do, because the instruction received shall be such as will be valuable to them in the business world. We claim the right to a course which shall offer a training in the commercial vocation equal in value to that which is now offered for the several professional vocations. The aim of this course should not be to draw studepts from the others, but rather to enlarge the scope of the high school. Neither is it intended that such a course should supersede the business colleges of this country. The high schools have not- driven out the private preparatory schools. They have, however, stimulated them to renewed activity, and compelled them constantly to increase the effectiveness of the courses offered. The aim of the commer- 'Department] BUSINESS EDUCATION 86 1 cial course should be to supply that form of a business education which the business colleges cannot. It is not expected that this course will be able to make successful business men any more than medical and law schools are able to produce successful doctors and lawyers. On the other hand, it should not strive to make mere bookkeepers or clerks. While it may not make a finished man, it should give him power. It need not necessarily be narrow merely because it is professional. Its aim should be to train the mind along certain channels which it must take in follow- ing a business career. It should not aim to give simply what will be of immediate use, but rather principles which will give the possessor a grasp of things that will enable him successfully to master difficulties as they arise. And a special reason for the establishment of such a course is to be found in our present foreign relations. The entire policy of our country may be changed, as a result of the war in which we are now engaged, in which case the business man will be more than ever an important factor. The course outlined- for you today is one which is probably different from what many of you would select. I am not sure but that a year hence I would advocate some changes in minor points, but so far as the general principles are concerned, it is one which, I think, could be introduced in every high school in our country without danger as to the effect upon the present students, with benefit to the students whom it would attract, and with no detriment to any part of our educational system. I favor, of course, a commercial course coequal in length, number of studies pur- sued, and intensity of work with all other courses offered in the same school. Short courses weaken the effect in the minds of the students as to their value, have a tendency to draw the poor students from all other courses, and are generally unsatisfactory. The experience in the European schools where the commercial course has been given side by side with the others is that it has been neglected. If the same is to be true in this country, then the work should be offered in separate commercial high schools. If it can be accorded a place side by side with the others, it would be better for all. It would then be possible for those pursuing other courses to take a small amount of work along this special line, if they so desired. It is also probable that, by coming in contact with students pursuing other lines of work, the mental horizon of the commercial student would be broadened. With regard to English you will notice that the work is largely that which may be called "unprepared." I believe composition work to be the point at which we need to bestir ourselves the most. I should like to see the principle of "every teacher a teacher of English" so emphasized that it will be impossible for a student to receive credit in any subject, no matter how correct may be the paper with regard to that particular topic, if it is faulty in English. In conclusion, I cannot help but express the hope that the work in 862 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Business higher commercial education begun at the Wharton School of Finance, and now being inaugurated in the universities of Chicago and California, will continue to grow until the time shall come when the completion of some such a course as is presented here today may be considered sufficient preparation for admission to any college or university in the land. COURSE OF STUDY FOR A COMMERCIAL HIGH SCHOOL FIRST YEAR FIRST SEMESTER German, Spanish, or French ....... Algebra - - - - •- - - -- United States History ........ English - - - ... German, Spanish, or French Commercial Arithmetic Modern History Correspondence and Penmanship SECOND SEMESTER SECOND YEAR FIRST SEMESTER German, Spanish, or French Algebra ..... Physical, Commercial, and Industrial Geography Free-hand and Instrumental Drawing English ..... SECOND SEMESTER German, Spanish, or French Bookkeeping Botany or Biology Typewriting English German, Spanish, or French Accounting Civil Government Chemistry English THIRD YEAR FIRST SEMESTER SECOND SEMESTER German, Spanish, or French .---.- Office Work, and Customs and Methods of Business Commercial Law, and National and Foreign Commercial Legislation Industrial Chemistry _..... English ........ FOURTH YEAR FIRST SEMESTER German, Spanish, or French . . . - . Physics ........ Department] EXPECTATIONS CONCERNING BUSINESS EDUCATION 863 History of Commerce and Industries - - - - - - 4 Study of Products and Fabrics ...---- 4 English Literature - - - - - - - • - 5 SECOND SEMESTER German, Spanish, or French ...---.4 Physics - - - - - - - - --4 Economics .....---.4 Geometry .....-----5 American Literature ......-- 3 Remarks. — i. The above outline presupposes a study of business forms in the eighth grade, and enough of bookkeeping to enable one to keep a private cash account. a. The figures to the right indicate the number of recitation periods per week. 3. Black-faced figures indicate that the lessons should not require extended outside work. 4. Stenography may be substituted for any ten hours' work. No credit for the study of a foreign language should be given unless it has been pursued at least two years. If, therefore, stenography is substituted for one year of a language, but one foreign language can be taken. 5. Each student should be required to devote at least three hours per week to systematic physical develop- ment and one hour per week to acquirmg the art of public speaking. REASONABLE EXPECTATIONS CONCERNING BUSINESS EDUCATION BY HON. LYMAN J. GAGE, SECRETARY OF THE TREASURY OF THE UNITED STATES It is a great honor — one in the present instance dubiously deserved — to be called upon to speak to a company as large as this, where nearly all of the units composing the group are fully certified to as carefully educated persons. One may well fear the exercise of a long-established habit of criticism, which it is the educator's duty to constantly observe and fittingly apply. I am asked to talk for a few minutes — if I remember correctly, empha- sis was placed on the "few" — upon the reasonable expectations in busi- ness education. Now, there are evidently three important, but well- differentiated, parties who may entertain " expectations" as they relate to education. These parties are the educator, the educated, and the great public to whom both the others are allied. In reflecting on the theme, I thought to take these parties seriatim, and consider from the standpoint of each what reasonable expectations each might be justified in cherish- ing. There is a well-used phrase — very sententious — which has some- times been found in bad company, to this effect : "What is there in it for me?" and I asked myself this question, as it affects the educator or the teacher: What is there in education — business education, or other — for the teacher or the school ? The answer came promptly : Nothing — next to nothing — either in a material or financial way. Much of labor; much of anxiety ; many chagrins ; much work seen in advance to be compara- 864 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Business tively hopeless, as is the tilling of barren ground ; much lack of appre- ciation, both private and public ; many evidences of absolute ingratitude. A discouraging catalog, if there were nothing else ; but there is some- thing else. There is the sense of co-operating in a large work ; the consciousness that one is working to make the world wiser and better. A generous-minded man once said to me : " I have given money quite freely to relieve the distressed, to soften the bitterness of helpless age, and to alleviate the condition of the unfortunate; but there was little or no inspira- tion in it. When, on the other hand, I have helped a bright boy to secure for himself a good education, my imagination has become affected. I saw my dollars — won by hard application in sordid ways — transmuted into intellectual agencies powerful to affect the thoughts and feelings of generations which will live when I am dead." This kind of reward it must be that cheers the educator on. This kind of expectation it must chiefly be that the instructor my reasonably cherish. So much has been written, so much has been spoken, on the benefits and advantages of education that it requires some courage to try to add anything to the stock of eloquent words now recorded in the interest of that great theme. It was with this fact in mind, it may be, that the pro- gram maker asked me to speak upon the "reasonable expectations in business education." For it is no doubt true that business education, as distinguished from classical or scientific education, has received but scant courtesy. Indeed, until within a recent period "business" has been classed among the vulgar callings. ' In England and the court cities of Europe the tradesman of every grade is still held as one not quite worthy of consideration among the learned and polite. Happily in our more demo- cratic land class distinctions, class prejudices, have less influence. Man is here considered for what he is. Does he possess elements of power ? Is his character upright, are his ways honorable ? Does he possess genius for useful work ? Can he create or co-ordinate varied forces of produc- tion and commerce ? Has he the fair and simple manners of a gentle- man ? These are the tests which determine the degree of acceptability to American social life. But it is not more than one lifetime since business education, as such, received even here no recognition as education at all. Those who ventured to establish schools, with a limited curriculum, designed especially to train the young for the practical affairs of business life were classed as dangerous innovators. On the contrary, they were pioneers of progress, and the roads they have opened will never again be closed. The paths of preparation by which the young can now become the better fitted for the world's work are numerous, and happily there be many who walk therein. Without attempting to be very nice or strictly accurate in the classification, education may be considered under at least four subdivi- sions : , Department] EXPECTATIONS CONCERNING BUSINESS EDUCATION 865 1. Manual training, that which relates to the education of the hand and eye. 2. Business education, as represented in our commercial schools and colleges. They deal with the elements of calculation. They inform the mind upon systems of industrial exchanges, trade, insurance, transporta- tion, and banking. 3. Scientific education, which has to do with laws of nature in relation to physics, chemistry, etc. 4. Classical education, which relates to history, art, literature, philos- ophy. Now, these all mark, in their progressive order, the advancement of mind and the progress of man in comprehending himself aijd his envi- ronment. But if we were to place emphasis on the relative value to the human family of these four divisions as a whole, that emphasis must be placed in the order stated. It is better that the many should possess moderate intelligence than that the few should be superlatively wise. A knowledge of simple mechanics, gained thru manual training, may give useful bent to millions. It kindles in the mind a taste for inquiry, and. awakens a profound deference to the moral laws. Nature is true to herself, exciting in the student an appreciation of a straight line — of a perfect cube, all the sides equal ; teaching him that to shape wood or iron, or to make fine tools of steel, he must obey the laws by which all these things are done. He learns that obedience to for- mula is the condition of achievement. Loving, as I have said, a straight line, he cannot love a lie. Perceiving the beauty and power of the physi- cal laws, he is carried over to an admiration of and sympathy for the beauty and power of the moral laws. The influence and effect of a business education are not dissimilar. It opens the mind to a comprehension of that distributive system of com- merce by which the division of labor is made possible. It shows the student the interdependence between agriculture and transportation, between manufacturing and ilisurance. It reveals to him the principles and details of the banking system, that great and useful mediator in all industry and commerce. He learns the power and usefulness of credit, by whose aid things are produced, transformed, and passed on to the consumer. He becomes familiar with the various instruments of the world's exchanges, such as books of account, promissory notes, bills of exchange, ships and railroads. He learns, or ought to learn, the legal sanctities which have been thrown around all evidences of claims and titles. If a diligent student in a proper business school, he will acquire a mental grasp of the simpler principles of political economy, for there are axiomatic truths here, as there are in mechanics and mathematics. That the wages paid to labor cannot exceed the value of the product is as simple a proposition as that the part cannot be greater than the whole. 866 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Business That wealth is the surplus of useful things, left over beyond the cost or exhaustion of producing them, is equally simple and true. Resting on this satisfying conception, he can no longer be befooled with the idea that wealth can be increased by diminishing the measure by which it is counted, whether that measure be yardsticks, dollars, or weights in avoir- dupois. Thus in the business school, as in manual training, perhaps even to a higher degree, we learn that happiness and success come by observing and obeying the truth as it is revealed in the natural relationship of nature to man, and of man to his fellows. Over us and beyond our con- trol everywhere and always there exist these relationships. Tho unrecog- nized, yet, if violated, they bring confusion and misery ; recognized and obeyed, they bring harmony and peace. " To know this is true wisdom and manhood, and the ignorance of this is too plainly folly and vice." What, then, are the "reasonable expectations in business education" which we are justified in cherishing ? Let us not overestimate this. Without overstatement, we have the right to expect from the graduates of business schools and colleges a thoro theoretical knowledge of all the machinery, tools, and methods by which real business life, in its multiplied forms, is carried on. We have a right to expect that the. young men and women will go out from these schools with their moral perceptions of the true, the beautiful, and the good increased and strengthened. As the mechanic must love a straight line, a perfect cube, and that emblem of eternity, a perfect circle, so must the student in accounts and business rules come to love an exact balance. A balance in accounts artificially forced to secure the appearance of a just balance is an unforgivable offense, a damning lie. All justice cries out against it, and the educated perpetrator of such an offense is self-condemned as a criminal and a coward. The principles of justice and equity which underlie commercial law, the honorable obligations involved in the relations of debt and credit, these all impress the mind, and are inevitably carried upward with more or less power into all of life's relationships. We have, therefore, a right to expect from those thus taught a better citizenship, a higher manhood, a purer moral character. But what of business success, of material advancement, of the acquisi- tion of wealth, power, and fame ? For it is these, or the expectation of these, in too large a degree, perhaps, that allures the student along this special branch of study. Can we confidently expect these as the uniform, never-failing result of a thoro business training ? The answer must be in the negative. Such results cannot be guaranteed. The prepa- ration we are considering will be a most helpful factor. This is the best that can be said. The prizes of life do not always come to the most deserving. Many things must co-operate to bring in great results. Innate ability, which schools cannot furnish, must find conjunction with Department] BUSINESS EDUCATION IN THE HIGH SCHOOL 867 conditions, circumstances, opportunities which lie out of individual con- trol. Do you find a man great, distinguished, a business Saul among his brethren ? Do not worship him overmuch. Perchance among the humble and unrecognized are a score or a hundred as worthy as he, to whom circumstances and opportunity did not come. The poet sings of the many pearls obscured in ocean depths, which never grace a gilded coronet ; of flowers perfect in «olor and fragrance, bearing witness to their beauty only in the desert air. Such also is the not infrequent fate of modest excellence in all the ways and walks of life. To be prepared, to be ready to meet the requirements of time, place, and opportunity — this it is to have really achieved, whether the large place, the large opportunity, comes or not. With business education more general, we may expect a better order of business men in all places, both great and small. We may expect less waste, fewer insolvencies. The world's work is to be better done ; the individual life, dignified and, exalted by higher ideals and purer ethics, will tend more and more to reach that high plane which we may well believe it to be the purpose of God that we all attain. BUSINESS EDUCATION IN THE HIGH SCHOOL BY PROFESSOR EMORY R. JOHNSON, UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA, PHILADELPHIA, PA. A discussion of business education in the high school naturally involves the consideration of two questions : Ought there to be included in the American public high-school system an educational course or cur- riculum constructed with especial reference to the vocational needs of the students who are looking forward to a business career ? And, second, if business education has a proper place in the public high school, what should be its nature and scope ? The general reasons why definite and adequate provision for business education should be made in the public high school have been so frequently and ably presented by educationists and business men that it would be supererogation for me to repeat them at length on this occasion. The argument for this education rests on a dual basis : the educational needs of the public demand it, and it is requisite to the best development of our high-school system. The high school is the institution of last resort for the great majority of boys and girls who carry their studies beyond the elementary grades. It is the institution in which are developed the ideals and powers which are to control the spirit and efficiency with which they perform the civic 868 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Business and economic duties that their subsequent lives will exact of them. Life is complex, and its duties are diversified ; but the high-school instruction, as at present organized, requires nearly the same work of all pupils. Altho many schools have two courses, the classical and the scientific, the studies offered in each course are usually all required of every boy or girl pursu- ing the work of the course. Moreover, the contents of both courses are such as rather to prepare the pupil for the subsequent pursuit of those • special studies which fit for entrance into some learned or technical pro- fession, than to give the young person that education which will incline him to business pursuits, and give him the knowledge and mental habits that will help him to become an intelligent and successful business man. The young men or the boys who expect to enter business when their school days are over — and they constitute the majority of the boys to whom the pursuit of a high-school course is possible — find that no course of study ,has been provided in our public-school system by means of which that secondary education can be secured which is essential and requisite for him to possess who aspires to become an educated business man. The result of this is that but few boys graduate from the high schools before entering the business shops, stores, and offices. Indeed, if there be deducted from the high-school graduates those persons who have pursued secondary studies as a preparation for teaching, or for the higher studies which prepare for admission to the various professions, those remaining will constitute but a small percentage of even the relatively limited num- ber of our youths who complete the work of the high school. The high school is at present not appealing to the boys with business ambitions as strongly as it ought. This statement suggests the other basis upon which the argument for business education in the high school rests. In order for the high school to attain that measure of development which will enable it to fulfill the educational functions which it ought to exercise, it must include within its work of instruction those studies which are needed by the boys and girls who are to enter the business callings. As Professor Edmund J. James has said in his well-known report on The Education of Business Men in Europe: "We can conquer the uneducated and half-educated people of this country for secondary and higher education only by offer- ing them courses of study which, while they are of a strictly educational character in the best sense of the word, shall also have some bearing on their future everyday life, shall have some direct relation to the work they are called upon to do in the world." The practices and experiences of foreign countries confirm the sound- ness of these theoretical reasons for including business education in the American high schools. It is true that there are few, if any, foreign institutions which can be bodily and without change successfully trans- planted to another country. Like most exotics, they will not flourish in Department] BUSINESS EDUCATION IN THE HIGH SCHOOL 869 the unnatural environment, but in the case of educational institutions there is seldom any difficulty in one country's adopting the spirit and ideals which the experience of o'ther nations has shown to be of value. In Austria, France, Germany, Belgium, and Italy, and in Japan, business education has come to be recognized as an essential part of the educational system of each country. The degree of development varies in the different countries, Germany having the most fully organized plan of business education, industrial and commercial, of both higher and lower grades. Five years ago there were fifty-five schools in the German empire of the rank of commercial high schools, with an attendance of 5,68i pupils. Some of these institutions are supported by merchant guilds, some by cities, and others by the state. Besides these schools there are commercial classes and commercial courses connected with the real schools {Realschulen), and supported by the state and the cities. The commercial high schools of Germany are largely attended by foreigners as well as by Germans. The success of these institutions of elementary and secondary rank is evidenced by the fact that a state commercial school of an advanced grade, corresponding to our colleges, has just recently been opened in Leipzig. With the increase of these higher institutions for business education, as the public demand shows the need for them, Germany will cover the entire field of business education in a systematic manner. According to Professor James' report, already referred to, there are in Austria thirteen commercial academies, or high schools, as we would call them, with an attendance, in 1893, of about three thousand pupils. Besides these there were reported to be 104 institutions covering very much the same ground as is occupied by the commercial colleges in this country. In France there are two commercial high schools in Paris, and one in each of the six cities, Lyons, Marseilles, Rouen, Rheiius, Havre, and Bor- deaux. Besides these so-called superior schools of commerce, there is at Paris a school of higher commercial studies, in which the more advanced grades of business education are covered. The school at Rheims is now a state institution ; the Rouen school is controlled by another educational institution ; the other six schools are controlled by commercial corpora- tions ; all are subsidized by the state. In Belgium there is the well-known Superior Institute of Commerce at Antwerp, supported three-fourths by the government of Belgium and one-fourth by the city of Antwerp. This insti- tution has a course covering three years, the latter two of which are made up of studies more advanced than those of secondary education. In Italy a school of commerce is to be found in Venice, Florence, Turin, Genoa, Naples, Rome, and some other smaller cities. The success of these schools abroad shows that there is a real demand for business education of a kind that is not now obtainable in this country. The prevalence of foreign students in these schools — two-fifths of the 870 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Business total enrollment at the Antwerp school consisting of foreigners — shows that the value of their educational work is recognized by the people of other countries. The advocates of the inclusion of business education in the public high- school system are supported, not only by the theories of educationists and the educational practice and experience of foreign countries, but also by the active co-operation of many prominent business men who are working to further business education in America. The views of men like the late William H. Rhawn, ex-president of the American Bankers' Association ; Mr. Theodore C. Search, president of the National Association of Manu- facturers of the United States, and Mr. John H. Converse, of the Baldwin Locomotive Works, and others who might be cited, carry much weight. In a letter recently written, Mr. Converse says : " I consider it eminently desirable that there should be a commercial high school, or commercial course in the existing high school ; experience will show which is better. In any event there should be, I think, in connection with our secondary schools a commercial course which should be optional, but not obligatory. I would go even farther than this and say that there should be in our universities a commercial course as an elective or supplementary to the regular course." Tho this last sentence is somewhat foreign to the subject under consideration in this paper, it deserves quotation, because it illustrates the liberal views of education held by many successful and influential business men. The other consideration involved in this discussion is the nature and scope which business education in the high school should have. What kind of education ought the high-school system to develop, if it is to provide courses framed with reference to the vocational needs of boys who are to go into business ? The first fact to be emphasized in considering this question is that business education in the high school should be no less liberal, no less educational, than that received by the pupils who pursue the courses now offered in the existing high schools. Tho intended to minister to the needs of prospective business men, business education in the high school should not be technical, in the sense of teaching the technique of busi- ness. The ideal should not be to train pupils in the arts of business ; the aim should not be to turn out skilled clerks, but young men with an education that will enable them in due time to take their place in the ranks of educated business men. Before the would-be physician gives attention to the art or practice side of his chosen profession, he takes a course of study whose core is made up of certain natural sciences. He studies the interaction of forces in that large world of life of which man is a part, that he may understand the relation of man to that larger world, and be able to know and deal intelligently with the forces which control man's physical well-being. Similarly, the boy who expects to enter some Department I BUSINESS EDUCATION IN THE HIGH SCHOOL 871 particular field of business needs to study the laws and forces which obtain in the larger realm of business, and to analyze the political and social forces which dominate the social world in which he is to live and carry on the special business of his choice. The technology of busi- ness should be given only an incidental place in high-school business education. The core of the instruction given should consist of the social sciences. Economics, the science of business affairs, should rank first in importance, and the instruction given should cover the various branches of practical economics as well as the theory of the science. Industrial and commercial history should form an important part of the instruction in economics. Political science, or the study of civic society, should rank next to eco- nomics. The political organization of society should be studied in all its more important phases. These courses in the social sciences, constituting the core of the instruction given, should, most of them, be required of all students. The work in English and in accounting should also be required of all, and should be comprehensive and practical. If feasible, most of the other courses offered should be made elective. The modern languages should be given a prominent place as electives ; courses in general and applied mathematics should be available, and the natural sciences, espe- cially physics and chemistry, should be open to election. In introducing busijiess education into our high-school system, the principle of elective studies and selective courses should be accepted at the outset. The acceptance of this principle does not compel us to dis- regard the disciplinary value of high-school studies. All high-school education should be disciplinary, and, by making the studies which con- stitute the core of instruction in each course required work for those pupils pursuing that particular course, the disciplinary character of the education will not be lost. We have long since abandoned the notion that there is only one combination of studies possessing disciplinary value. The required studies in the social sciences, as indicated above, would comprise from one-third to one-half of the pupil's work ; the rest of his work should be selected by him, aided by the counsel of teachers and parents, with reference to the vocation which he intends to follow when his school days are ended. The vocational needs of the pupils will be varied, and the range of selection should be made as large as the school can afford. Business education in the high school should be both disciplinary and selective. There is no reason why it cannot be both liberal and of voca- tional value. In a recent address on the " Scope and Function of Secondary Education," Professor Nicholas Murray Butler closed with the following paragraph : A secondary education that is both disciplinary and selective is of unusual impor- tance in this country on both social and political grounds. Deniocracy needs intelligent 872 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Business and trained leadership — leadership in public policy, leadership in industry, in commerce, in finance, leadership in art and in letters. The basis of training for leadership is laid in the secondary schools, where the directive capacity of the nation is serving its appren- ticeship. There the majority of men and women who are to guide the destinies of the next generation are putting forth their powers and testing their strength ; out of a variety of intellectual interests, nature and environment lead them to make a selection. Train- ing— persistent, thorough, broad — in the field chosen is the surest guarantee, if one can be given, of future success and of future usefulness.' It will doubtless be argued that the scheme here outlined of business education in the high school, whatever may be its merits as an ideal, is impracticable because of the difficulties in the way of securing its adop- tion and putting it into operation. The argument has force ; it is usually much easier to secure half than the whole of a desired reform. It is nevertheless always of advantage to have a clear concept of the ideal to be ultimately attained; the half-way measures secured will be better if we clearly conceive what whole-way measures would be. The advocates of business, education in the high school should strive for the proximately obtainable; but should not, while doing this, lose sight of the ideal, nor cease working for its ultimate attainment. As regards the relative merits of selective courses of study as compared with the course of study in which the same work is required of all pupils, I am convinced that it will not be long before the superiority of selective work will have been generally acknowledged. The selective system has triumphed in higher education, and it will surely win in the field of secondary study. A practical question of much importance, and one that ought to be given careful consideration by American cities, is whether the business education of the secondary schools should be provided for in separate institutions by establishing business or commercial high schools, or should be inaugurated by adding a commercial or business course to the existing literary high schools. In New York the plan which has been adopted contemplates the establishment of a commercial high school as one of the four high schools with which the city is to be supplied. In Philadel- phia the board of education has just recently adopted a course of study to be given in a department of commerce connected with the Boys' Central High School. The course will be inaugurated with the open- ing of the academic year of 1898-99. The experience of foreign countries where business education has become a successful and permanent feature of secondary education is on the side of separate institutions devoted entirely to the work of business education. Professor James says con- cerning the experience of Austria : The same experience has been met in Austria as in other countries, that the attempt to develop commercial courses side by side with other courses in the same institution has not been successful. Generally speaking, such courses have given 'Cf. the Educational Review, Vol. XVI, No. i, pp. 26, 27. Dcpartraent] BUSINESS EDUCATION IN THE HIGH SCHOOL 873 satisfaction to no class of people ; they interfere with the healthy development of other courses in the institution, and are uniformly neglected by the authorities of the institu- tion with which they are connected.' This discussion of business education in the high school cannot prop- erly be brought to a close without calling attention to the fact that business education should not be confined to secondary education. The high schools of this country should develop the best possible system of secondary business education. Like the work of all high schools, the business or commercial high schools should be organized with reference to the needs of the community, and not with regard to the demands of the higher institutions of learning. Its courses should be outlined pri- marily with reference to the educational needs of those who are to engage in active business pursuits upon the completion of their high- school studies, for they will always constitute the majority of the pupils. But, however well the high schools may carry on the work of business education, they can no more give the future business man the education which he needs in order adequately to meet the requirements which his station in life will exact of him than can the literary and scientific courses of the existing American high school furnish that liberal culture needed by those who are to enter upon studies that prepare for professional careers. Both the business man and the professional man need higher education. As the director of the Leipzig Commercial Institute has well said: "The large dealer has no less important functions to per- form than the educated individuals of other classes, and he can -fulfill them satisfactorily only if he is willing to give as much time and care to his education as the members of other classes are willing to give to theirs.'" The higher education of business men has made more progress in this country than has secondary. The Wharton School of Finance and Economy of the University of Pennsylvania has been in successful ope- ration for sixteen years, and three other universities have recently estab- lished schools similarly organized. The University of Chicago and the State University of California will each inaugurate a "college of com- merce" this autumn, and the authorities of the University of Missouri will open such a college as soon as the legislature appropriates the requi- site funds. The necessity for providing, both in secondary and higher institutions of learning, educational courses adapted to the vocational needs of pro- spective business men is fast gaining public recognition. It is the special duty and privilege of educators to formulate clearly the ideals which should pervade this new field of education. ' Cf . Education of Business Men in Europe, p. 52. ^ Ibid, p. 162. 874 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Business 2 HE ADMINISTRATION AND BOOKKEEPING OF A NATIONAL BANK BY GEORGE M. COFFIN, DEPUTY CONTROLLER OF THE CURRENCY, WASHINGTON, D. C. Before entering upon a discussion of the administration and book- keeping of a national bank, some definite knowledge of the system under which such banks are operated is essential. NATIONAL BANK SYSTEM The national banking system was evolved in 1863 out of the exigen- cies of a great civil war. To meet the cost of this war the government had to borrow huge amounts, and needed besides large sums of money to pay its current expenses. It had already issued directly about 1^450,000,- 000 of paper money familiarly called "greenbacks," but needed more. So the government made to the banks then operating under state char- ters, and to any new banks which would organize, this proposition : If a bank will buy $100,000 United States bonds, the government will lend the bank $90,000 of national bank currency, holding the bonds as security for the currency, which the bank could immediately issue to circulate as money. The currency is practically a loan to the bank by the govern- ment on the collateral security of its bonds, which the bank can regain only by depositing with the government lawful money equal to the cur- rency it has received. The theory upon which these banks were created is that the issuing of currency to circulate as money is one of the constitutional powers granted to the general government, and that, while the government has not the power to create corporations for conducting ordinary business enterprises, it could create them for the purpose of performing such governmental functions as might be delegated to them. In addition to this power to issue currency the banks were permitted to do what is known as a commercial banking business, and the system, as it stands today after a test of thirty-five years, represents, with some exceptions, the very best type of commercial banking on a most widely extended scale. Altho the currency now issued by them amounts to a large sum, being about $200,000,000, this feature is dwarfed in contrast with the business of receiving deposits and lending money; for on May 5, 1898, the aggregated reports of condition from 3,586 national banks then doing business, with a capital of nearly $900,000,000, show that they held individual deposits amounting to about $2,000,000,000, and at the same time had loaned the enormous sum of $2,097,094,235, besides Department J BANK ADMINISTRATION AND BOOKKEEPING 875 having on hand about $460,000,000 in cash, held as a reserve against their deposits. The capital was contributed by over 281,000 shareholders and deposits made by about 2,000,000 depositors. There is no mystery about national banking. The shareholders who contribute the required capital stock invest it with the hope of making a reasonable profit, and at fhe risk of losing it all and as much more. For the past few years the enormous sum of $900,000,000 capital invested in national banks has earned only about 5 per cent, average profit per annum. POWERS OF A NATIONAL BANK A clear idea of the powers and privileges conferred upon a national bank is conveyed by the language of paragraph 7, section 5136, of the national bank act, as follows : "To exercise by its board of directors or duly authorized officers or agents, subject to law, all such incidental powers as shall be necessary to carry on the business of banking ; by discounting and negotiating promis- sory notes, drafts, bills of exchange, and other evidences of debt ; by receiving deposits ; by buying and selling exchange, coin and bullion ; by loaning money on personal security ; and by obtaining, issuing and circulating notes according to the provisions of this title." The chief objects, therefore, for which these banks are organized are: 1. The receiving of deposits. 2. The loanitig of money on personal property. 3. The buying and selling of exchange. 4. The issuing of circulation secured by pledge of United States bonds. The intent of the law appears to have been to create institutions which, having a certain amount of cash capital stock actually paid in as a guar- anty for the safety of depositors, should act as agents or trustees for the safekeeping of funds deposited with them, subject usually to withdrawal upon demand. In order that these banks shall be able to respond promptly to such demands, they are required to keep on hand in lawful money a certain proportion of their deposits, varying between 15 and 25 per cent. They are permitted to loan out the remainder of their deposits on personal security, upon the assumption that their loans will be made for short periods of time, and so may be quickly convertible into funds wherewith to repay their depositors when necessary. As a further precaution in this direction they are forbidden to make loans secured by real estate, or by their own stock, or to purchase the stock of other corporations for investment. ADMINISTRATION VESTED IN DIRECTORS The administration of the affairs of a national bank is vested by law in the board of directors, the number of whom in no- cas^ is less than five. 876 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Business These directors, elected annually by the shareholders of the bank, have the power to appoint all oflficers and clerks, define their duties, require bonds of them and fix the penalty thereof; to dismiss any officer or employee at pleasure, and appoint another to fill his place ; to prescribe by-laws, not inconsistent with law, regulating the manner in which the bank's stock shall be transferred, its directors and other officers elected or appointed, and its general business conducted. Each director, when elected, must take an oath that he will, so far as the duty devolves on him, intelligently and honestly administer the affairs of the bank, and will not knowingly or willingly permit to be violated any of the provisions of the national bank act, and that he is the owner in good faith of at least ten shares of stock in the bank, which must not in any way be pledged as security for any debt. ADMINISTRATION AND BOOKKEEPING It is now in order to discuss in detail the administration of a national bank, which necessarily includes the bookkeeping. Before a national bank with $100,000 capital stock can commence business it must have $50,000 actually paid in, and must buy and deposit with the treasurer United States bonds having $25,000 par or market value as security for $22,500 currency which it receives as soon as printed by the government. The remaining $50,000 of capital must be paid in within five months after the bank begins business. When the full amount of each share ($100) is paid in, a certificate of stock, signed by the presi- dent and cashier, is issued to each shareholder, stating the number of shares to which he is entitled. A record of all shares issued must be kept on the stubs from which the certificates are detached, and also in a "stock ledger," which contains an account with each shareholder, showing date of issue, and number and par value of shares held by him. Whenever a shareholder transfers his stock by sale to someone else, he must indorse the certificate to the new holder, who surrenders it to the bank and receives a new certificate in his own name. The bank cancels the old certificate, attaches it to its stub, and on the stock ledger charges the account of the former holder, and opens an account with the purchaser of the stock. DEPOSITS About the first business a new bank does is to receive deposits. The depositor takes his money or checks to an oflftcer called the receiving "teller," which, by derivation, means one who keeps "tally." The amount of checks, paper money, gold, silver, or small coin stated on a printed deposit ticket is handed with the deposit to the teller, who, on first deposit, gives the depositor a pass-book, in which are entered amount and date of deposit, and usually a book of blank checks with which to draw out his deposit when desired. Only about 10 per cent, of bank deposits are Department] BANK ADMINISTRATION AND BOOKKEEPING 877 made in actual money, about 90 per cent, being checks and drafts. The depositor writes his signature and address on a card or in a book kept by the bank to prove the genuineness of his signature on the checks he may draw. The teller enters the amount of the deposit in a book, placing the ticket on file, from which it is taken later by the keeper of the " individual ledger," in which is kept an account with each depositor, showing in one column his deposits, in a second the checks paid, and in a third the bal- ance remaining to his credit. Such a ledger is called the three-column or balance ledger. When the depositor wishes to withdraw any money, he presents his check, payable to bearer at the bank, to an officer called the "paying teller," tho in a small bank the receiving and paying are both done by the same teller. Or he gives his check payable to bearer or order to some- one else, who may either draw the money or deposit the check. ' The pay- ing teller being satisfied that the signature is genuine, and that the depositor has the proper amount to his credit, pays the check in such money as the holder prefers from the supply of currency furnished him for this purpose. Having paid the check, he records the amount in a book, and stamps it "paid" across the face, placing it on file, from which it is taken later by the individual-ledger bookkeeper, who charges it to the account of. the depositor on his ledger, and changes the amount in the balance column to correspond. At close of the day's business the receiving teller, who commences the day with no money on hand, balances his accounts in a book showing the amount of deposits received on one side and the amount of checks and money in his possession on the other, which must equal the amount received, if no error has been made. The paying teller, who begins the day with a stated supply of currency, also makes a balance, showing the amount remaining on hand after deducting total of checks paid during the day. The total of deposits made and of checks paid entered in all accounts on the individual ledger must agree with the corresponding totals on the books of the tellers, if no errors have been made in the postings. LOANS AND DISCOUNTS As the chief profit a bank Uiakes is derived from loaning its capital and a portion of its deposits at interest, this feature of the business requires the greatest care and judgment, for if the funds are loaned to borrowers who do not repay them, loss will ensue instead of profit. This depart- ment, therefore, calls for the highest display of administrative ability on the part of the directors, whose duty it is to exercise unremitting vigi- lance and discretion in scrutinizing the financial ability, and, above all, the integrity and punctuality, of borrowers. As a rule, no loans or dis- counts should be granted by a bank unless approved by the full board of directors, or at least by a committee of their number specially qualified 878 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Business to be judges of credit. This important duty should never be delegated to one director or officer alone. P'rom time to time all the notes and obligations upon which loans are made should be carefully examined by the directors, with a view to seeing that accommodations granted are pru- dent in amount, and that the signatures on the loans and discounts are genuine. Particular attention should be given to paper not paid at maturity, called overdue, in order to collect it or make it secure. Each note, when discounted, should be numbered sequentially, to give it an individuality, and recorded by the discount clerk in a register giving proper details as to makers, indorsers, collateral security, and date of maturity. Usually loans granted by national banks are made on promis- sory notes signed by one party and indorsed by another, called two-name paper, or on notes made by one party secured by collateral of stocks or bonds made payable to bank by assignment. Sometimes loans are made on notes made by one party without security of indorsement or collateral ; this is called single-name paper. A list of all loans and discounts, arranged according to the dates when they fall due, should be kept in a book called "discount tickler," from which notices reminding borrowers when to pay are sent out, and the payment or non-payment of notes at maturity can be conveniently seen. To a large extent national banks collect notes and drafts belonging to their customers, and the same bookkeeping and care should be applied to these as to those which belong to the bank. EXCHANGE An important branch of business is the buying of checks and drafts on banks or individuals in other places, and the selling of checks on other banks, called buying and selling exchange. The blank checks are either bound in book form, with stubs sequentially numbered, or put up in pads without stubs, with a book sequentially numbered in place of stubs for recording amount, date, etc. The exchange bought is forwarded by mail for collection to other banks, upon which the bank remitting them draws exchange. For each such correspondent bank an account must be kept by the bank in a ledger showing amounts remitted in one column, amounts drawn in another, and the balance due in a third. CLEARING-HOUSE Where there are several banks in one place, there is usually a very important and labor-saving arrangement between them called the "clear- ing-house." Each bank usually receives on deposit or for collection checks or drafts drawn on its neighbors, and the clearing-house is a plan for a representative from each bank to meet every day at a stated hour and convenient place to make a mutual exchange of checks, paying only the balance due from or to each other in money. This accomplishes an immense saving of actual currency. As an illustration, the clearing- Dcpartmentl BANK ADMINISTRATION AND BOOKKEEPING 879 house banks in New York city in 1897 exchanged checks amounting to over $31,000,000,000 by paying balances aggregating less than $2,000,- 000,000, or only about 6 per cent., in actual money. GENERAL LEDGER The book in which a general summary of the bank's business is kept is called the general ledger, with accounts showing all transactions in capital stock, profits, deposits due to individuals and banks, circulating notes, etc., all of which represent "liabilities," or what the bank owes ; and such accounts as loans and discounts, United States bonds, amounts due from other banks, and cash, which represent "resources" or "assets," or what a bank owns. A balance of the accounts on this ledger should be a true statement of the bank's resources and liabilities, and show at a glance its actual condition, provided all the books and accounts are honestly and accurately kept. QUALIFICATION AND TRAINING OF A BANK ACCOUNTANT The constant verification of all these accounts is a most important branch of bank administration, and this suggests a discussion of the sec- ond branch of the subject, viz., the qualifications and training of a bank accountant. The essential qualification of any expert accountant is the natural capacity to understand the meaning of figures. The accountant is born, not made, for the ability to understand figures is as much a natural talent as that for music, painting, or any other of the fine arts. The best training school for a bank accountant is practical experience in all the departments of bank work and bookkeeping, and the clerk who soonest wins success in a bank or any other field is he who, not con- tent to know thoroly only his own duties, is eager to know all he can learn of the duties in all other departments. But the bank accountant who has mastered a knowledge of the work and bookkeeping of the tellers, the individual bookkeeper, the discount clerk, the exchange clerk, and the general bookkeeper, still has some important things to learn. And these are how to discover the methods by which books and accounts may be falsified to conceal dishonest acts. A good bank accountant should be able to make a thoro examination of the affairs of a bank, and in doing this he should take nothing for granted. In the teller's depart- ment every dollar should be actually counted and examined, and every check and memorandum carefully scrutinized to ascertain that signatures are genuine and that the items represent cash value. The only complete proof of the correctness of the individual ledger will be the actual com- parison of depositors' pass-books with the ledger accounts to see if the figures on both correspond. Thru falsification of depositors' accounts on the individual ledger the bookkeeper, with the aid of a confederate outside, has frequently been able to commit robbery amounting in some 88o NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Business cases to hundreds of thousands of dollars. Robbery has also been com- mitted thru falsification of accounts with correspondent banks, which can be detected only by careful comparison of a transcript of all entries on the books of the correspondent bank with the books of the bank, called reconcilement of accounts. In examining loans and discounts, the accountant must see that the signatures of makers and indorsers are genuine, and that the aggregate of all items agrees with the balance of loans and discounts on the general ledger. He must also examine and verify all stocks, bonds, and other collaterals held as security. When interest on loans is not entered until notes mature, defalcations have occurred where the discount clerk has collected the correct amounts, but entered smaller amounts on the bank's books, appropriating the differ- ence to his own use. In general, the aim of the expert bank accountant should be to find whether the bank's statement of resources and liabilities taken from its general ledger represents the truth, and to do this he must have the capacity to look into every nook and corner of the bank's business "and unearth any fraud which may have been covered up. In conclusion, successful administration depends upon the ability of bank directors to guard against dishonesty and incompetency from two directions. On the outside of the bank they must be vigilant to see that the funds of the bank are so loaned or invested that they will be repaid with interest, otherwise loss of profit, and even of capital, will result ; and on the inside of the bank they must take such precautions that acts of dis- honesty cannot be committed. This can be accomplished only by care- fully inquiring into the reputation of every employee before engaging him, and by having the work of every employee checked or verified by someone else ; this precaution is really a moral duty bank managers owe to their employees. After all, the success of the bank manager, the bank accountant, and of the bank's customers and employees as well, will depend upon the intelligence, the energy, and the honesty contributed by each and all to the general result. In its last analysis it is a matter of good character — the best capital any business man may possess on earth and the only treasure he can- possibly have with him in heaven. THE BOOKKEEPING AND ACCOUNTING OF THE PERIOD- ICAL PUBLISHING BUSINESS BY A. O. KITTREDGE, EDITOR OF " ACCOUNTICS," NEW YORK CITY My subject divides into two parts, bookkeeping and accounting. These terms are often used to designate the same thing, but in the cor- Department] PERIODICAL PUBLISHING BUSINESS— ACCOUNTING 88 1 rect meaning of the words they indicate two separate and distinct func- tions. Accounting is an element of business, whereas bookkeeping is simply the art of recording the transactions of business. The records of every business, to be accurate, must have at their foundation a scientific accounting basis. Upon this the bookkeeping system is to be con- structed, but unless it is so fashioned as to show results in the best form suited for stating the condition of the business from time to time, it will fail of the greatest possible usefulness. The ideal statement of business conditions is the "going balance sheet," and to that we shall lead up. The business under consideration is designated as the periodical publish- ing business. If I were to be limited to a consideration of the publishing business, which ordinarily means the manufacture and sale of bound books, there would have been ruled out of this discussion some matters which I venture to believe will be interesting to you. A very considerable number of those engaged in publishing periodicals own or control their printing plant. In addition to doing their own typesetting, presswork, and binding, they do job work for the public. We then have in the business before us manufacturing, publishing, and merchandising. It is a manufacturing business that sells part of its product in the general market, and delivers another part of its product to one of its departments, namely, the periodical department. The latter distributes the goods thus taken over on the subscription plan, with some payments received in advance of service ; for example, prepaid subscriptions, and some col- lected after partial or complete delivery of the goods. Its current receipts, therefore, do not necessarily correspond with its output ; or, to state it otherwise, its revenue and earnings are always different quantities. From what is so far before us it is very evident that a single account of the general character of that usually called the merchandise account would be wholly inadequate for this business. With it alone to depend upon, no matter how correctly the personal and general property accounts might be kept, the loss and the gain results of the business, other than that embraced in a statement in gross at the end of a fiscal period, would be entirely lacking. It is not enough today to know that the business, taken as a whole, is making money. It is demanded of the accountant to show just where money is being made and how much, and just where losses are occurring and their rate. It has long appeared to me as if there had been a mistake made by someone in the early days of the literature in English of double-entry bookkeeping, and that those writers who have come after have failed to detect the mistakes of their predecessors. Consider for a moment, if you please, the merchandise account as one of the several property accounts which double entry recognizes. It is peculiar among the ordinary property accounts that it is made up of two sets of values. There are cost prices on the one side and selling prices on the other. Its balance is a mixed quantity. Com- 882 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Business pare it with bills receivable or with cash, which are of a similar nature. In each of them the same values appear on both sides of the account. Accordingly, the balance in each of these accounts shows the amount of the property on hand. Not so, however, with merchandise. Its balance is an amount which represents goods on hand minus the profit made on what has been sold, or an amount consisting of the sum of the goods on hand plus the loss that has been made on what has been sold. This is very confusing, and it becomes still more so when expense items are taken into consideration. At the beginning of the fiscal period we debit the account with the inventory at cost prices. Next we debit the account with the goods we buy at cost prices. The third step is to credit the account with the goods parted with at selling prices. Some of the goods that we have bought are unsatisfactory to us, and we return them. Mer- chandise must be credited with them at the cost value. Some of our customers return part of the goods which we have sold. Now merchan- dise must be debited, and at the selling price. We, therefore, have selling pri-ces and cost prices mixed on both sides of the account. If there is a manufacturing department in the business, the merchandise account is debited, in addition to what we have described, with the cost of the materials bought, with the amounts paid out for labor, with the salaries of the superintendent and general manager, with insurance, taxes, and all the other expenses of manufacture. What bookkeeper can tell from the amount appearing as the balance of merchandise account what it really represents ? It is, therefore, very evident that two or more accounts should have been placed where merchandise stands alone at present. BUSINESS EDUCATION IN THE STATE OF NEW YORK BY I. O. CRISSY, EXAMINER OF BUSINESS SCHOOLS FOR THE STATE OF NEW YORK I am to speak to you this afternoon on " Business Education in the State of New York," but my remarks will be devoted almost entirely to the attitude and the hopes of the University of the State of New York, which I am here to represent. The University of the State of New York — better known, perhaps, by its older title, Board of Regents — is a supervising and examining and, to a certain extent, legislating body for the institutions of higher education in the state, but is not itself a teach- ing institution. Its great function is to promote and encourage higher education along all lines, and it is the administrative arm in carrying out all enactments dealing with higher education. Some very sweeping reforms in the matter of preliminary requirements for professional educa- Department] BUSINESS EDQCATION IN THE STATE OF NEW YORK 883 tion have been made within the past few years. It is not necessary to dwell upon the tremendous impulse that has come to secondary and higher education in the state of New York as a result of these beneficent laws, or upon the inestimable advantages that have grown out of them. These are so self-evident as to need no elucidation. By chap. 312 of the Laws of New York of 1896 the business of accounting was in that state raised to the dignity of a profession, with a title for those who qualify which carries with it all the force and honor of a degree. The law pro- vides that a citizen of the United States over twenty-one years of age, of good moral character, and who is a resident of the state, or has a place for the regular transaction of business therein, shall, on due certification of his qualifications by the regents of the university, be known and styled as a certified public accountant, and that this title shall not be used by any other person. The law empowers the university to make rules for the examination of candidates for the title of C.P.A., and to appoint a board of three examiners who are required to be certified public account- ants. The university rules require that the candidate shall have received a preliminary education equivalent to a full four-year course in a regis- tered high school ; that he shall have had five years' experience in the study or practice of accounting, and that he shall pass satisfactory test examinations in the following subjects : theory of accounts, practical accounting, auditing, commercial law. Examinations are offered in June and December of each year in New York and three other cities of the state. Questions in all the papers are framed to cover some of the most difficult problems of the subject under examination, and the candidate who obtains the honor of writing C.P. A. after his name must needs have a clear knowledge of the subjects involved. The state of New York has thus placed itself abreast of England and the more advanced continental countries of Europe in recognizing accounting as a learned profession, and it is believed that many other states will speedily follow her example. Two years ago a committee representing the leading business schools of the state was appointed to confer with a committee of the university with a view to securing state recognition of business education by pro- viding for registration in the university of such business schools as were found worthy of the confidence of the community and able to meet cer- tain stated requirements. For the purpose of encouraging a higher stand- ard of business education and securing a uniform test therein, it was voted by the regents that a state business diploma should be offered by the university, which should have as its basis graduation from the high school, supplemented by a full course in a registered business school. It was at first the sense of the conference committee that the minimum requirements for registering a business school should be six competent teachers giving their full time to the work, a course Si study for the state business diploma of not less than two years or one thousand hours of 884 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Business actual instruction, and a school equipment of not less than $5,000 in value, exclusive of building and heating and lighting apparatus. On further conference, however, it was decided to reduce the minimum length of the course to one year or five hundred hours of actual instruc- tion. An inspection of the business schools, of which there are something over seventy in the state, was begun in April of the present year. It was soon evident to the inspector that there were schools located in smaller towns which could not meet the requirements as to the number of instructors and value of equipment, but which were giving as efficient instruction and turning out as good work as the best in the state. In view of these conditions, it was determined by the university to grant to such schools provisional registration, which gives them all the privileges and the standing educationally that regular registration implies. This action is strictly in accord with the settled policy of the university, which is not only to elevate the standard of education in the state so far as pos- sible, but also to foster and promote such education under all circum- stances. The fixing of a minimum does not by any means prevent any school from making its course as much longer as may seem necessary, and, as a matter of fact, the actual length of the course will doubtless depend upon the individual judgment of the manager of each school as to how much instruction is necessary to meet the requirements of the examinations for the state business diploma, for which a provisional syllabus was published last spring. In the preparation of this provisional syllabus the univer- sity has drawn very largely upon the excellent and able report of your Committee of Nine, and has adopted many of the recommendations of the report entire, for which valuable aid I most cordially tender to the committee the acknowledgment and thanks of the university. It is frankly admitted that the matter of the length of the course is still in a tentative stage. The examinations cover the following subjects : book- keeping, intended as a competent test of both theory and practice ; com- mercial arithmetic, commercial law, commercial geography, and history of commerce. This examination, in so far as it relates to law, demands a knowledge such as every business man should possess of the laws that regulate ordinary relations of life. As to commercial geography, it demands a general knowledge of the geography of the world in its rela- tions to commerce, and this naturally includes a general knowledge of the leading products, leading industries, leading commercial cities, and the more important commercial routes, while in respect to our own country a more intimate knowledge of these matters will be required. In com- mercial history the candidates should have clearly defined ideas as to how commerce originated, how and why it grew, and what discoveries, inven- tions, or laws have spfecially affected it. Business and office methods : this 1 Department] DUTIES OF THE CONGRESSIONAL REPORTER 885 examination — somewhat vague, perhaps, in title — is designed as a test in those minor, but very important, matters which, I believe, are taught in all good business schools, altho not given so much attention in text-books. English : this test does not deal at all with the technicalities of grammar ; it is simply a practical exercise in English composition along such lines as confront the man of business daily. I say most cordially, on behalf of the university, that it asks for these examinations and for the criticism and suggestions of educators and accountants, and that the question papers will be sent on application. A state stenographer's diploma, entirely independent of the business diploma, will be granted to gradu- ates of registered schools holding regents' pass cards in the 125-word test in stenography and in the English prescribed for the business diploma, on passing the examination in typewriting and office methods prescribed by the syllabus. But what will the University of the State of New York accom- plish by this new departure ? The answer rests very largely with the business schools of the state. First of all, there will be established a uniform credential by which business education can be measured. Second, it will elevate the dignity of the business school by the mere fact of the institution having been found worthy of registration in the university, the state conservator of higher education. Third, it will be a protection to the public. The system of registration will sound the death knell of the fake school in the state of New York. The disappearance of the fake school will be speedily followed by the disappearance of the highly lurid literature for which the so-called business college has earned such brilliant laurels. Finally, the gain in better general education will be great. The busi- ness schools will strive to elevate their own standards. They will not be satisfied with turning out good bookkeepers, good railway clerks, and good stenographers, noble as is that work, but they will aspire to turn out also broadly educated and thoroly equipped and polished business men and women. THE DUTIES AND QUALIFICATIONS OF THE CONGRESSIONAL REPORTER BY DAVID WOLFE BROWN, OFFICIAL REPORTER, UNITED STATES HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES To conceive vividly the duties and qualifications of the congressional reporter, one must conceive vividly his environment. Let us take a glance at the scene of his daily labors. 886 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Business THE PERSONAL MAKE-UP OF CONGRESS What a heterogeneous body in its personal make-up is the American House of Representatives ! Here are 360 members and delegates, each of whom is more or less a representative of the peculiar manners, speech, sentiments, ideas, of the section of country from which he comes. Here are lawyers, doctors, ministers, merchants, clergymen, teachers, bankers, railroad men, farmers, mechanics — in fact, men from every avenue of life. The topics which engage the attention of the house are treated by each of these men in his own unique way, with his own peculiar modes of thought, his own characteristic tones and words. RANGE OF CONGRESSIONAL TOPICS And how vast the range of these topics ! Glance at the list of con- gressional committees, with the designation of the subjects intrusted to them: measures of finance; tariff bills, bringing up ever and anon that interminable controversy between free trade and protection ; measures of internal-revenue taxation, affecting the various manufacturing and eco- nomic interests of the whole country ; changes of the statute law in all its various departments, and at times amendments of that great fundamental law, the constitution of the United States; questions involving the rela- tions, peaceful or warlike, of our own country and foreign nations; the organization and reinforcement of our land and naval forces ; the manu- facture of artillery and small arms; the building of war vessels; national bank legislation ; bankruptcy laws ; internal improvements in all parts of the country, with the discussion of the local and peculiar needs of hun- dreds of rivers and harbors ; Indian affairs, with the strange-sounding and almost unpronounceable names of various aboriginal tribes ; all the various questions affecting the postal service, such as the free -delivery system, the subsidized railway service, the pneumatic-tube transmission of letters, etc. And then commerce in all its ramifications, interstate and foreign ; immigration and naturalization ; civil-service reform ; pensions, with the discussion of the wars out of which the pensions arose ; the law of copyrights and patents, etc., etc. — I must take refuge in "etc.," for why should I try to enumerate subjects which are innumerable ? Is there indeed, any topic of "contemporaneous human interest" that may not becomfe the theme of the representative's voice, and therefore the theme of the reporter's pen ? HOW BUSINESS IS DONE And how are these subjects discussed ? Not in dry, prolix essays, such as might be read from a college professor's desk, but generally in that direct, business-like, unceremonious way which might be expected from repre- sentatives of a practical, plain-dealing people. The theoretical ideal of a Department] DUTIES OP TtiE CONGkESSlONAL REPORTER 8^7 legislative body is an assemblage whose members, unless engaged in voting, or in making formal and stately speeches, sit mute "at their desks hour after hour, listening with more than the patience of martyrs to the reading of bills or amendments and the utterance of long-winded harangues. But the American House of Representatives does not in prac- tice conform — indeed, no body of wide-awake, bustling Americans can be made to conform — to any such schoolboy routine. If the member who " holds the floor " or the subject which he discusses does not interest his fellow-members, no human power can compel them to listen, or even to sit silent. When, on the other hand, they are eager to hear, this eager- ness cannot be thwarted ; and if from any cause (inaudible utterance, bad acoustic arrangements, or anything else) they cannot hear at their desks, they will inevitably drift to some other point in the hall where they can hear; and from that point (tho huddled together till they present somewhat the aspect of a " mob ") they cannot be driven, except for a few moments, even by the stern announcement of the chair (emphasized by the hammering of the gavel) : " The house will come to order, and members will resume their seats." DISORDER IS A NORMAL CONDITION Necessarily a body like this is, from the ordinary point of view, dis- orderly. Sometimes it is disorderly because the question before the house arouses no general interest, and hence the buzz of private conver- sation competes with the monotonous reading of bills and amendments, or the delivery of dull speeches. At other times the body is disorderly, not from lack of interest in the proceedings, but because interest is intense; for intense interest 'is very rarely an absolutely silent interest. At times this body is more than disorderly ; it is turbulent. Now and again partisan or personal questions stir it to fever heat. Some anger- kindling word or phrase is flung from one side to the other. Perhaps one infuriated member gives another " the lie direct." A hundred men are instantly on their feet. Thirty or forty excited representatives are shouting at once. The parliamentary gladiators of the contending sides indulge in the bitterest reproaches and retorts. And sometimes the battle is more than a battle of words. Frequently the parliamentary storm is too fierce to be quelled by the voice of the presiding officer. Indeed, his voice is scarcely audible amid the uproar. To allay the tumult, the ser- geant-at-arms is appealed to, and, bearing that symbol of the house's authority, the mace (only a symbol at present, but a potent one), he rushes into the melee; and order is once more restored. This body, with its heterogeneous membership, its marvelous range of subjects, its varied styles of expression and modes of thought, its habitually informal and even disorderly methods of doing business, its occasional scenes of turbulence, is the body whose proceedings the 888 NATIONAL EbUCATiONAL ASSOCIATION [business congressional reporter is expected to take down with flawless accuracy. The difficulties of the task stand out in bold relief and need no coloring. STENOGRAPHIC DIFFICULTIES First, there are the difficulties purely stenographic. As to mere rapidity of utterance, it is but reasonable to expect that some of the speediest speakers from different parts of the union should find their way — as in fact they do — to the national councils. But the set speech, rapidly spoken tho it may be, is not the touchstone of the congressional reporter's stenographic skill. A severer test comes in the earnest and often excited colloquies, as rapid as the most rapid colloquies of the courtroom, but more perplexing, because these congressional colloquies are not merely between lawyer and witness, but are participated in by perhaps a dozen eager and possibly angry disputants speaking from scattered parts of the hall. DIFFICULTIES OF HEARING The congressional reporter's peculiar difficulties of hearing you have already surmised. The confusion on the floor of the Jiouse is often so great that not only are visitors in the gallery bewildered, but one member after another, often in quick succession, rises to appeal to the speaker for "order," on the ground that "it is impossible to understand.what is going on." There is no one place in the hall, not even the speaker's chair, from which the debates and proceedings can at all times be clearly under- stood. How, then, does the official reporter meet and overcome the diffi culty of hearing ? He does it only by perambulating the floor of the house, notebook in hand, writing as he walks or stands — seeking always to get as near as possible to the debaters, and for this purpose standing often in an aisle, or possibly dropping into some absent member's seat ; but never, when on duty, lingering for even a moment at "the reporter's desk" — called so perhaps in irony, because no reporter ever sits there when actually reporting. Such are the difficulties of hearing when comparative quiet prevails ; the difficulties are aggravated a hundred fold amid scenes of turbulence such as I have described. On these occasions, when the legislative storm is raging most fiercely, accurate note-taking is, of course, more difficult than at any other time, and yet more necessary ; for, in the midst of the storm, some clarion voice, rising above the din, rings out the words "Mr. Speaker, I call the gentleman to order and demand that his words be taken down," whereupon the reporter must instantly reproduce from his notes the stinging words just uttered in this almost pandemonium. Reports taken under these most trying circumstances must, without opportunity for pottering or pondering, go at once into cold print, where they are subject to correction in the presence of the house, which means Department] DUTIES OF THE CONGRESSIONAL REPORTER 889 in the presence of the country. The lawyer may bury his mistakes in the musty records of the courtroom ; the physician may bury his beneath the memorial tablets of the graveyard; the congressional reporter's errors meet him face to face in the Congressional Record, with no merciful " recording angel " to "drop a tear" upon the erroneous word or phrase and " blot it out forever." AN " untouched" photograph To make matters worse, absolute stenographic accuracy may be to cer- tain speakers as unwelcome as an " untouched " photograph to a person who sits for his picture. The report may be, not incorrect, but too faith- fully and painfully true. Said a distinguished member once to the offi- cial reporters : " Gentlemen, I do not doubt your accuracy ; I dread it." THE FACULTY OF ACCURACY If I must undertake to specify, even in a general way, the qualifica- tions of a congressional reporter, let me say, in the first place, that one thing which any reporter, and most decidedly the congressional reporter, requires is the desire and capacity to be exact about apparently small matters. This conscientious ambition to do even little things as well as they can be done — to make no slip that the most scrupulous care can avoid — constitutes what I call "the faculty of accuracy," a faculty abso- lutely indispensable to the successful reporter. Under the prompting of this faculty, a thoroly accomplished stenographer begrudges no pains to get with implicit correctness names, quotations, references, etc., not trusting merely to what his notebook tells him, but verifying his notes, if the occasion requires and allows it, by resort to books of reference or personal inquiry. Mere guess work never satisfies him. Nor does he content himself with the remark : " Well, I guess that is near enough." For him nothing is " near enough " that is not exactly the thing. In the stenographic student no characteristic can give better assurance of final success than the determination to be faultlessly correct at any cost. ALERTNESS, ENDURANCE, AND " NERVE " The congressional reporter should possess, as should all his fellows in the profession, a peculiar combination of mental and manual alertness. It has been remarked of shorthand reporting that " no other proceeding so imperatively demands instantaneous mental comprehension with instan- taneous manual execution." Agile fingers play their part in the work, yet it is absolutely true that to write quickly one must think quickly. I believe there are many persons (some of them aspiring to be rapid stenog- raphers) who are unable to carry spoken language thru their minds, with clear apprehension of its meaning, at so high a rate as two hundred words a minute. I do not say that this deficiency is incurable by study 890 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Business and practice, but it is a deficiency which cannot be removed by mere training of the hand or mere shorthand " cramming." The reporter imperatively needs large powers of mental and physical endurance. To carry him successfully thru the wearying and worrying tasks of his profession, he requires a sound constitution of body and mind, with habits of temperance and moderation. More than this, if he hopes to' be equal to every emergency of his profession, he should be a man of nerve. Difficulties and dangers which make some men lose their heads rouse others to excel their ordinary selves. The man who, under trying circumstances, is not confused and abashed, but stimulated and embold- ened, is said to have nerve ; and this is the sort of nerve which largely helps to make a successful reporter. Especially is it needed on that fierce battlefield, the floor of the House of Representatives. When members lose their heads, all the more reason is there that the reporter should keep cool, with every faculty alert, that he may prove himself master of the occasion. KNOWLEDGE OF LAW INDISPENSABLE The congressional reporter should have pre-eminently and specifically a knowledge of law. The prime business of the body in which he reports is the making of laws. Its discussions turn upon the law as it has been or is, in order to determine what it should be. Legal rules and maxims are glibly quoted. The principles of the common law are constantly brought in review. A frequent topic, too, is that fundamental law, the constitution of the United States — the construction of its various provi- sions, with their nice qualifications, limitations, and exceptions. How blindly and stumblingly must the reporter grope his way thru these dis- cussions, if his mind has not been enlightened by the study of common law, statute law, constitutional law ! More than this, he should be an adept in parliamentary law. Nice parliamentary points are topics of daily debate. Shrewd parliamentary tactics are the weapons in many a legislative battle. In a body like Con- gress there arise from day to day, almost from hour to hour, crises in which the reporter, unless versed in parliamentary law, must find himself hopelessly at sea. THE reporter's GENERAL EDUCATION As to general education, the reporter should possess such a liberal fund of useful information as can come only from a natural love of read- ing exercised over the broad field of English literature. " What should I study in order to prepare myself as a reporter?" was asked by an ambitious student of a veteran stenographer. " Everything," was the con- cise, but somewhat discouraging, reply. The absolutely perfect reporter, if the ideal could be realized in mortal flesh and blood, would be a walk- ing, breathing encyclopaedia. Department] DUTIES OF THE CONGRESSIONAL REPORTER 89 1 Need I say that .the congressional reporter cannot satisfactorily do his work without a good knowledge of history, especially English and Amer- ican, and more particularly the history of American politics ? And he must by no means fail to familiarize himself with that text-book of current, everyday history, the daily newspaper. If he be not well read on every- day topics, his ignorance will often betray him into sad blunders. Some acquaintance, not necessarily profound, with other languages than his own, especially Latin and French, can hardly be dispensed with. LITERARY SKILL A reporter should be able to write his mother-tongue, not only with correctness, but with literary skill ; and to attain this he will find it neces- sary, not merely to study the formal rules of grammar and rhetoric, but to learn the language from its concrete illustrations in the writings of those whom the world recognizes as masters of English style. But it may be asked : " Is it not the business of the reporter to take down and transcribe just what he hears; and, if he faithfully does this, can more be asked or expected?" Yes, more is asked and expected — reasonably asked and expected. The reporter is not, and cannot be, a machine* Without breadth of education and intelligence he cannot understand what he writes. Unable without such understanding to attain even verbal accuracy, he must inevitably write a great deal of nonsense. "TOUCHING up" a REPORT But suppose the reporter's notebook shows every word faithfully recorded. Mere word-taking, however successful, cannot suffice to fill the measure of the best reporter's qualifications. There may be a place in the reporting profession (but it cannot be a high one) for men whose sole aim is to take down exactly what is said and to write it out without varying a jot or tittle from the uttered words ; but any stenographer who would make creditable reports of public speeches — creditable to himself and the speakers — must do more than this. The manual skill necessary to take down every uttered word cannot be dispensed with ; but when the exact language has been photographed upon the pages of his note- book, the reporter must know how to "touch up" the photograph. He must not' subject himself to such a complaint as that sturdy old Scotch- man, Thomas Carlyle, makes against the men who have preserved for us the speeches of Oliver Cromwell. "The reporters of those days," says Carlyle, "seem to have been singularly candid, and to have given the printer precisely what they found on their notebooks." There are two kinds of reporting, literal and literary. An absolutely verbatim report — one to which the reporter has not by means of his own education and taste imparted literary finish at points where literary finish was needed — is not a good report, and will not be accepted as such even 892 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Business by the man who made the speech. How far the "touching up" of the stenographic photograph should extend is a question that I cannot now go into at length ; but surely an accomplished stenographer, in transcrib- ing his notes, should be able to correct a slip of the tongue, a misquota- tion, an error of grammar, a mixed metaphor — faults scarcely avoidable by even good speakers, when speaking extempore. Nor is it too much to expect that the reporter should be able to exscind surplusage or rearrange the clauses of a sentence so as to bring out the sense more clearly. IS THE STANDARD TOO HIGH ? In defining the qualifications of a congressional reporter, have I pre- scribed too high a standard ? Human nature being, after all, only human nature, it may be confessed that the ambitious aspirant to high reporting skill, like other aspirants to professional eminence, must often content himself with an approximate attainment of his ideal. And even the semblance of these qualifications, even a working substitute for them, cannot be acquired in a short time. Years, not months, of general and special education are needed. Indeed, the education of the reporter, like the education of any other professional man, is never completed. THE CONGRESSIONAL REPORTER'S REWARD For all this elaborateness of preparation, this anxious discharge of responsible and exacting duty, what is the congressional reporter's reward ? First, a secure and honored place in an honorable profession, with recog- nition from intelligent minds of the talent and toil that the holding of the place implies. Second, an opportunity for personal association (as close and intimate almost as one may choose to make it) with some of the picked men of the nation. Third, the breathing, as daily work goes on, of a clear, expanded, stimulating intellectual atmosphere. Work that brings one constantly in contact with topics of the highest import, handled by some of the brightest men of the country, cannot become mere drudgery. Fourth, the congressional reporter has the advantage of seeing enacted from day to day some of the most interesting dramas of real life. In this legislative theater, the play, serious or facetious by turns, involves themes of intensest human interest. The actors are three or four hundred men in whom human nature is throbbing and thrilling with far more than the warmth and intensity of the mimic stage. The complications of this drama bring into action almost every human faculty and passion. There is no monotony ; for each day has its new incidents, as fresh and unique as bubbling, wide-awake human nature can make them. Fifth, the daily work of the congressional reporter is a never-ending education. Would that I had better improved the advantages of this academy in which I have been a pupil ! DEPARTMENT OF CHILD STUDY SECRETARY'S MINUTES FIRST SESSION.— Monday, July ii, 1898 The Department of Child Study met in the Foundry Church at 3 P. M. In opening the meeting the president, M. V. O'Shea, Madison, Wis., introduced Miss Edith C. West- cott, chairman of the local committee, who welcomed the department, inviting the mem- bers to a garden party given at Belmont, the home of Mrs. A. L. Barber, in behalf of this society. The president followed with introductory remarks. Professor C. H. Thurber, of the University of Chicago, being absent on account of sickness, a request was made that his paper on "The Reading of Children in the Adoles- cent Period " be published in the proceedings of the National Educational Association. Ossian H. Lang, editor of the School Journal, New York city, read a paper on "Some Cautions to be Observed in Child Study." "A Year's Study of the Entering Pupils of the Springfield, Mass., High School" was presented by Fred W. Atkinson, principal of the High School, Springfield, Mass. Edgar James Swift, Normal School, Stevens' Point, Wis., presented a paper on "Heredity and Environment — a Study in Adolescence." Charles H. Keyes, principal of the High School, Holyoke, Mass., discussed the paper of Ossian H. Lang. H. L. Tolman, College of Physicians and Surgeons, Chicago, 111., spoke upon the paper of Principal Atkinson. The president announced the nominating committee as follows : £. A. Kirkpatrick, Fitchburg, Mass. George Griffith, Utica, N. Y. H. E. Kratz, Sioux City, la. Meeting adjourned until Tuesday, 2 P. M. SECOND SESSION.— Tuesday, July 12 The second session of the Child-Study Department convened at 3 p. M., the presi- dent, M. V. O'Shea, in the chair. A paper entitled " The Influence of the Weather upon the Activities of Children " was presented by Edwin G. Dexter, Normal School, Greeley, Colo. An address on " The Rearing of Children from an Experimental Standpoint " was given by Dr. Elmer Gates, Laboratory of Psychology and Psychurgy, Chevy Chase, Md. John G. Thompson, principal of the Normal School, Fitchburg, Mass., read a paper on " Child Study in the Training of Teachers." Will S. Monroe, Normal School, Westfield, Mass., read a paper on " The Develop- ment of the Social Consciousness in Children." Brief discussions followed the above papers, at the close of which the nominating committee presented the following report : Your Committee on Nominations begs leave to submit the following report : For President— Vfill S. Monroe, Westfield, Mass. 893 894 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Child Study For Vice-President— Vit.\3!oea. Post Halleck, Louisville, Ky. For Secretary — Mrs. Alice W. Cooley, Minneapolis, Minn. Respectfully submitted, E. A. KiRKPATKICK, . George Griffith, H, E. Kratz, Commitee. The report was accepted and the above officers duly elected for the ensuing year. The meeting then adjourned. G. W. A. LUCKEY, Secretary, PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS PRESIDENT'S ADDRESS BY PROFESSOR M. V. O SHEA, UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN At the opening of this, our sixth session, ladies and gentlemen, it may be well to recall that, when we were last together, there were many who were inquiring whether the phenomenal enthusiasm in the study of childhood had not reached its climax, and whether we had not already entered upon an era of conservatism, or even of reaction. In view of these remembrances it is appropriate to say that during the past year there have been manifest unusual interest and activity in child study ; and not more interest in the study of children than in the devotion to their needs, when these are once discovered. Child study has been thought by many to refer wholly to the scientific investigation of the characteristics of child life. Such people regard it as an intellectual movement merely. But in a far more important sense it stands for a rich, emotional attitude toward children, a consecration to their care and culture in the schoolroom or elsewhere. Since our last meeting several vigorous state associations have been added to the remarkably large number already in existence. Teachers' gatherings everywhere have been thought to be incomplete without papers and discussions upon this subject. The press, secular and profes- sional, has given unusual space to the discussion of matters concerning the development of the child and the mode of properly training him. Most significant of all has been the consideration which child study has received in women's organizations ; and when we consider that these organizations are increasing very rapidly, and that women are appreciating that the most important field of usefulness for them relates to the training and care of childhood — more important than temperance or politics, or, one might almost say, than religion, since it includes the lat- Depurtment] PRESIDENT'S ADDRESS 895 t6r — in view of these things we see how great is the future of the work for which we stand — the sympathetic, affectionate study of childhood in all of its phases, and the most perfect devotion to its needs in every rela- tion of life. But we have not been without our critics during the past year. There have been those who occupy high places who have been calling out to teachers in loud voices warning them against the dangers of child study and prophesying its early doom. But we may find consolation in the fact that the world is full of the echoings of warnings from those who always see in progress elements of danger, and who feel that a power which they are not directing cannot have real substantial merit. There has never been any great reform movement in the history of mankind which has not at the outset met with criticism and accusation by those who are so con- stituted that they never dare to depart from the beaten tracks. But such criticism has its place in the evolution of the race, since it tends to pre- vent excesses, and so we should welcome it, especially if it be offered in- a candid spirit. One of the most prominent of our critics has sounded the alarm to the teachers over the country, assuring them that the study of the child will make them cold and indifferent; that no teacher may be successful who regards her children in the light of objects to be studied scientific- ally ; that child study is making statisticians of those in the schoolroom and not true instructors of childhood. If this indictment were true, it would certainly be a serious and a merited one. But teachers are not thus occupying themselves in their schoolrooms. They are not in any great measure filling out syllabi, or measuring and weighing their chil- dren, or probing them with all sorts of irrelevant questions. The child- study movement has not at all encouraged this sort of thing, altho it would be strange if on the fringes there were not to be found ravelings. Every normal activity has some abnormal aspects; but we are not to allow these to become so magnified that they entirely obscure the true form and figure of the thing itself. What teachers are doing, in so far as they are responding to the present interest in the study of child life, is to familiarize themselves with the results of scientific studies, and then seeking to apply these in the concrete experiences of the class- room. And can it be gainsaid that this is a most important work for the teacher whose mission it is to benefit to the greatest degree possible every individual life under her care ? It should be thoroly recognized that the teacher is primarily a gardener, not a»scientist. She must nurture and direct the lives of the children committed to her care, and she may not be at all concerned with elaborating a science of child growth, except as this will make her more skillful, more influential, in shaping aright the destiny of each individual in her charge. While the teacher, then, cannot 896 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Child Study become a scientist in the sense that she will strive to contribute to the science of human growth, yet she must take the results which are reached by such scientific studies and observe them to the greatest degree possible in all the work of her schoolroom. But there are those who feel that even this is unnecessary for the teacher, and that she would be more truly successful if she consulted only her common sense, her uncultivated instincts, in all of the emergen- cies which arise in the tuition of childhood. In these days instinct is being magnified to such great proportions that it is esteemed by many to be the safest guide to conduct in any and all situations. But if instinct were the wisest counselor for those who direct the lives of childhood, then we should indeed have our best teachers and parents among the most ignorant of our people, whom nature and not tuition has instructed, and so in whom instinct is the guide of life. Without minimizing the value of the natural instincts of affection and devotion to childhood, yet it needs to be appreciated that special study of child life only serves to increase,. to make richer and more comprehensive, one's affections and more loyal his devotion. Ignorance in any of the concerns of life breeds indifference ; it leaves the heart cold and the sentiments callous, while knowledge arouses dormant emotions and makes keener and truer those which are already active. Ignorance of nature does not beget a love for nature, nor does ignorance of the marvelous processes of growth in child life cultivate richer sympathies for the needs of childhood ; but rather, the more one knows of childhood, the more wonderful and beau- tiful it all appears, and the greater are the mysteries which are seen to lie entombed in every child's life. Such knowledge awakens a true love for children, and vitalizes the native instinct to sacrifice one's self-interest for the well-being of the child. As I see the situation, I apprehend that there is far greater danger from stagnation and indifference regarding childhood than from over- enthusiasm in the child-study movement. I am not fearful that the great enthusiasm which is being manifested everywhere will have any other effect than to make teachers more considerate toward children, more skill- ful in dealing with both the normal and the abnormal, the perfect and the imperfect, more sympathetic and patient and affectionate ; and, best of all, it will bind the teacher to the pupil and the pupil to the teacher in bonds of sympathy so close as to make the work of the schoolroom full of .joy and pleasure. Of course, there are excesses which result from over-enthusiasm and false hopes that follow after too great confidence in what is merely transient or speculative. But we are not to condemn the spirit itself because of the things which get attached to it. We are not to feel dis- couraged because we cannot control all of the factors which are at work Department] PRESIDENT'S ADDRESS 897 in this movement ; but, rather, we are to have confidence that, by keeping the ship headed in the right direction and moving with the right momentum, we shall in plenty season reach port in safety. There is another sort of criticism of child study, which charges it with being merely a fad which will pass out of view rapidly. Such criticism proceeds from those who regard child study as limited to the filling out of blanks and things of that sort. But this is the most unimportant part of the work. It is a mere incident. It would be well if we could secure a term for this movement which would indicate on every occasion that it related to the subject of human development, in its broadest aspects and in all of its phases ; and that data are derived for this science from various lines of investigation that are concerned with growth in any form. Thus evolution, biology, anthropology, neurology, and other sciences are contributing vast amounts of information that are being assimilated into a science of developmental psychology and hygiene. Child study should not only proceed in its own special way, but it must go to every allied science and find out what it yields that may advance our knowledge of human growth. And what is garnered from these various fields must be wrought into a harmonious whole that will alike describe the route which a child follows in his progress from birth to maturity, and teach us how best to aid him in his journey. Regarded in this light, child study is not only not a fad, but it is rather just at the beginning of a career which shall grow more brilliant because more fruitful with every passing year. From all points come tidings of the awakening of a deep conviction in the public mind that the greatest concern in life has to do with the training of childhood, and that the progress of the race demands that the best minds and the truest hearts be devoted to this great cause. The call has been sounded, and the choicest of the land are responding eagerly to it ; and when it is realized that child study represents at the same time a scientific and a profoundly sympathetic attitude toward the study and training of child life, it will be appreciated that it is a movement which will gain in momentum at every point. We have represented upon our program today the scientific and the practical aspects of child study. We have the fruits of investigations that have been carried forward with great care and patience, and which promise to be of direct practical benefit to everyone who has the direction of child life. We shall, too, consider the ways in which the results of scientific studies may be most readily and efficiently applied in the train- ing of home and school. Thus we ally the scientific and the practical in our program, as they must ever be allied in all the affairs of life in order that they may have the most successful issue. NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Child Study SOME CAUTIONS TO BE OBSERVED IN CHILD STUDY BY OSSIAN H. LANG, EDITOR "SCHOOL JOURNAL, NEW YORK The exuberance of the first proselytes in child study has given many a speaker and writer of a satirical turn of mind an opportunity to say witty things about pedagogic fads. The truth is that many of these enthusiasts did appear ridiculously pompous when they solemnly told how Johnny winked and what Nellie said and how Charlie neighed like a horse, having been cajoled into the belief that this was genetic psy- chology done in a scientific way. However, things new have a gro- tesqueness all their own, and it is ihis very grotesqueness which helps to make them talked about. The critic has in more than one way aided the introduction of the very thing he was opposed to, by croaking about it too noisily. Notwithstanding all the funny stories that have been aimed at the efforts of the advocates of child study, not one sane and intelligent person has ever seriously doubted the pedagogic value of an intimate knowledge of children. It may be that sometimes a speaker, fond of smart argu- ment, is heard protesting that special, conscious child study is unneces- sary to a successful education, but he invariably defeats his own scoffings by the logic of the appended attempts at proofs. True, there are many good educators among mothers and teachers who know a great deal about children, tho they have never heard of child study, but does that prove that they never studied children ? It is an absolute waste of time to attack or defend child study from this direction ; sophistry is not a branch of present-day pedagogics. While the raison d'etre of child study cannot be denied, the methods in vogue in this particular field are certainly open to criticism. And, indeed, Professor Miinsterberg was justified in sending in his Atlantic articles a stray shot at the kind of child study which has at present a monopoly. It is well to bear in mind that most of the mistakes in child- study methods have their origin in mistaken views of the motif of child study. Some there are who think they have discovered in child study a means of revising the fundamental truths of pedagogy, a new kind of higher criticism, as it were. These friends are usually very gullible and are apt to swallow whole in their enthusiasm many of the psychological morsels served up by yellow Sunday journals. Being extremists, they will hardly remain true to their worship of pedagogic metaphysics long enough to feel the awful disappointment that might be in store for them, and we need not .shed one single tear in their behalf. Child study has Departmcntl SOME CAUTIONS TO BE ORSERVED IN CHILD STUDY 899 not come to destroy foundation principles nor to deprive them of one jot or one tittle of their vital force. With many others child study is a pretty toy. Volumes of genuine, adulterated, and bogus sayings of children have been published for their special delectation. Sometimes the credulity of these friends is rather severely tried. Most of the bright little books purporting to be collec- tions of children's sayings are full of cute counterfeits. Truth and fiction are usually mixed in a most fascinating way. Even Dr. Sully has not been able to keep his books of child studies free from colored statements, which add considerable brightness to the collection, but can hardly be expected to have pedagogic or psychologic value. The trouble with the general run of children's sayings is that they are so decidedly commonplace that a 'collection of them would have but little selling power. The love for fairy tales is not stored away with the top and the doll ; adults enjoy them fully as much as the children, and a flavor of them is neces- sary to make child study palatable to those whose sole object is to be entertained. Child study, to be sure, is not the one and all of education, but it is too serious a matter for simple diversion. I regard it as a pity that a great many earnest teachers have been led to look upon written collec- tions of miscellaneous child observations as helps to their educational work. It may be laid down as an axiom that these observations have full value only for the one who gathered them.' To others they may be sug- gestive, but nothing more. One might as well attempt to study botany in a library or from a herbarium bought of some collector. With every observation put down in writing there is connected a residuum of experi- ence which remains concealed. I do not wish to be understood as decrying study of the records of child observers in general. A great deal of valuable thought may be gathered from such studies of individual children as those of Perez and Preyer, and the preserved character sketches written under the direction of Basedow, Pestalozzi, Herbart, Ziller, and others. But the feature of greatest worth is, again, the suggestiveness of these records, and not the observations themselves ; in other words, their chief value is to be found in the method pursued in gathering the observations. Moreover, it should be borne in mind that the aim of these child studies was to construct conjplete pictures of individual children. I regard these studies of indi- vidualities as of higher value than classifications under psychological sub- jects. It is in child study as in nature study : there is too much reading of books and too little actual observation. There seems to be no agreement as to what is really worth studying. The majority of leaders in the child-study field point to physiological studies, and here much valuable work has been done in recent years. But these studies have no direct bearing upon education. They merely 900 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Child Study establish the physical and physiological factors which must be con- sidered in pedagogic procedure. Nor are teachers generally capable of carrying on these investigations in a scientific way. What good does it do to set teachers on a hunt for bacilli, for cases of myopia, chorea, neurasthenia, and other physiological defects ? All this is the business of the medical practitioner who is skilled in pathological diagnosis, particularly the school physician. The fact that many schools are still without medical inspectors does not invalidate the justice of the position here taken. The day must come when a school physician is con- sidered as necessary as a teacher. But, meanwhile, any medical diagnoses teachers may be led to attempt are worse than useless, unless the teacher happens to be one of the very few who have an intelligent acquaintance with human anatomy and physiology. Even under the most favorable conditions it is doubtful whether a teacher could make any practical use of this sort of data. Where there is no regular medical inspection, there ought to be at least a thoro annual physical examination by a physi- cian. At any rate, no child should be admitted to any school without a medical certificate setting forth his physical defects, if there are any. It may be there are many here whose views are diametrically opposed to mine as regards the value of anatomical and physio-psychological studies of children carried on by teachers who have no preparation for making reliable diagnoses of this kind. Having thus disposed, at least to my own satisfaction, of the futility of making child study a substitute for, instead of one of the aids of, pedagogics, the danger of allowing it to become a mere toy, instead of laboring for its development into a serious research in the interest of education, and the blunder of putting lay people to work on investigations which only thoroly trained physiologists, or physio-psychologists, can conduct with profit, I may now turn to those schemes which have at least the appear- ance of justice and pedagogic usefulness. It may be well to consider briefly the various motifs from which these latter plans may originate. First, the child study may be conducted in the interest of psycholo- gists. These studies, so-called, may consist either in the mere collecting and recording of observations or in actual experimentation on children. The former is of doubtful value, the second decidedly pernicious. No doubt experimental psychology occupies an important field, and those teachers who are qualified to assist in its development may be justified in contributing data. But how they can expect ever to get any pedagogical returns is more than I can see. Besides, there is much danger that the psychologic amateur work will deprive ambitious teachers of what little rock bottom they have to stand upon. Psychologic experimentation on children ought to have as little place in the school as vivisection. It is not necessary, and it opens the way to graye dangers. Secondly, there are child studies conducted in the interest of peda- Departmentl SOME CAUTIONS TO BE OBSERVED IN CHILD STUDY 9^1 gogy. Teachers are requested, by someone who is expert in determining educational values, to furnish particular facts about children. Those who thus aid in the accumulation of data may thereby obtain many practical hints. The gain of the one who classifies the collection is rather doubt- ful, unless the collector is favored with an unusual amount of native shrewdness and possesses experience, coupled with thoro pedagogic insight. Even then he will be safer if he relies only upon such informa- tion as is gathered under his direct supervision. It is a well-known fact that most of the child studies of this character are mere summaries of nicely classified prejudices and opinions generally which reflect what teachers would have stated in similar terms without going to the trouble of a special investigation. It may be replied that usually the children's answers to certain questions are gathered. Even that changes the result but slightly. Children, like the "grown-ups," are not willing to aid in any scheme that will reveal their weaknesses. A great deal of nonsense has been proclaimed with solemnity, purporting to be revelations of chil- dren's likes and dislikes. " What books, what songs, what games do you like best?" and other inquisitories of similar character, give birth to so much guessing as to what the teacher would be pleased to hear that the result will not add one iota to our capital of pedagogics. And right here let me add that I am firmly opposed to all methods of prying and spying into the child soul, unless there is serious and absolute need for it. The child's secrets must be respected, and the things which appear most hallowed to him must not be rudely handled. How many of you would be willing to answer pointed questions touching your thoughts concerning your innermost feelings ? Respect the child ! Pedagogy, no doubt, has gained much from such studies as Hall's Con- tents of Children's Minds. The caution to be observed in investigations of this sort is, not to mistake a knowledge of words for ideas, and vice versa. It is very difficult at times to draw any definite conclusions. Many stu- dents of normal schools and colleges stand high in psychology who have not the penumbra of a psychological idea. They might as well have gathered their knowledge from a dictionary. Nowhere else is so much caution required as in examinations into the knowledge contained in a child mind. I think I do not hit far off the mark if I say that 75 per cent, of the injustices committed by teachers are due to defective methods of examinations, intended to be studies of the contents of children's minds. Even the best of teachers are human, and that means they see the child, not as he really is, but as he looks thru their apperceptive spy glasses. I thank the president of this department for his courtesy in making my subject read '^Some Cautions to be Observed in Child Study." He evidently suspected that I would not furnish him anything complete any- way, and his consideration for your comfort also deserves special com- mendation. Let me then conclude my paper with a few fragmentary 902 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Child Study remarks, embodying some of my convictions concerning the purposes of child study and the methods employed in carrying them out. Nothing final must be expected from child study. Every human being surrounds himself with some reserve, and even if teachers could look right into, the child soul, they would not be able to understand it. The most fruitful line of child study is that which aids the teacher to determine the effect of his teaching upon pupils, to find out whether the children have grasped ideas or only words, and to watch their educational growth. Studies of this kind are really self-examinations, and ought to be invaluable sources of counsel as regards choice of studies and form of instruction. Closely allied to this form of child study is that which tests the educa- bility of pupils, which includes the study of their educational needs as well as their capacities, and aids to a recognition of what is good for the pupil and what is best adapted to further his growth. Really profitable educational child studies can be conducted only by trained teachers who possess pedagogic knowledge, skill, and, above all, tact and love of children. Trained educators derive from child study invaluable data revealing the educational needs of their pupils, and they turn it to good account also in the testing of the effect of their methods of teaching. Child study does not aid in the discovery of what is best to give the child to supply his educational needs. This fact is often lost sight of. It may be, for instance, that we can determine the child's likes and dislikes in certain directions, but we do not find thru child study the peda- gogical treatment needed. The child's appetites are not a reliable index to his needs. A boy, and normal at that, may be fonder of green apples than of oatmeal. There is no such thing as spontaneous recognition of what is good for him. Some teachers have found that children can be fed even on gram- mar. Still, the children's appetites and interests must be studied. It is absolutely necessary that they should be known. Economy is the watch- word of modern pedagogics. The study of interests reveals the lines of least resistance in the child's make-up. Child study here serves the most useful purpose. A strong argument in favor of training in systematic child study is that teachers thereby acquire habits of child study, chief among which is the habit of looking constantly for the educational effects of their teach- ing upon and in the development of their pupils. Just one more word and I am done. All child studies must have behind them, under them, and within them an educational or pedagogic purpose, if they are to be of any help to teachers. Before beginning an investigation, it must be known what to do with the result. Department] STUDY OF FIRST-YEAR HIGH-SCHOOL PUPILS 9° 3 A YEAR'S STUDY OF THE ENTERING PUPILS OF THE SPRINGFIELD, MASS., HIGH SCHOOL BY FRED W. ATKINSON, PRINCIPAL OF HIGH SCHOOL, SPRINGFIELD, MASS. The last of May, 1897, the grammar-school principals of Springfield were asked to meet the superintendent of schools and the principal of the high school for the consideration of a plan of high-school pupil study. Six out of the seven principals showed their appreciation of the proposed plan and promised their co-operation. In deference to the objections of two of the principals, it was decided that answers to the questions concern- ing the pupils who were to enter the high school the coming September should not be sent to the high school until the last of October. By that time it was thought the high-school teachers would have become some- what acquainted with their pupils. In all, 181 memoranda were returned by the grammar principals, 94 concerning girls and 87 concerning boys. Generalizations are made on the basis of the first 140 records returned in regard to all of the points covered by the questions. It is to be remembered, to reach generaliza- tions, however valuable they may be found, is not the object, so much as to find out individual needs and capacities. Of 140 boys and girls 93 have passed thru every grade of the Springfield public schools. Twenty-one have either omitted one grade or have done the work of two grades in one year. Eight boys and 9 girls have attended schools out of the city part of the time. Four boys and 5 girls have had only private instruction. These generalizations show con- clusively that the same treatment will not do for all of the pupils of the freshman class. It is only when these facts are considered in connection with the individual himself that they are helpful in determining a distinc- tive method of treatment. Of 140 boys and girls 8 only are reported as irregular in attendance — 3 girls and 2 boys poor in health, and 3 boys of whom 2 worked out of school hours and i was evidently irregular in every respect. Judging from the reports of the principals, there are 9 boys and 16 girls not in good health, and of these 2 only were excessively nervous. Eight have a great deal of headache. There are 14 out of the entire number who have severe and frequent headaches. A great many are growing rapidly and are not very strong, who have otherwise fair health. The principals in several cases noticed defective sight or hearing. The answers concerning qualities are difficult to generalize. The most common temperament among the girls seems to be "cheerful," "sunny," "quick," "winning." A great many have marked ambition and conscien- tiousness. There were only four cases of diffidence noted. The most 904 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Child Study frequent descriptions of character are " good " and " reliable." There are a few cases of vanity, but only two sly and unreliable characters. There are more slow temperaments among the boys and more cases of laziness, care- lessness, and lack of responsibility. The words " ambitious " and " straight- forward " occur often. Four characters are " unreliable" and four "unstable." The subject of scholarship I pass over. The data concerning selection of course of study are peculiarly interesting. Twenty-four girls and 2 1 boys are taking other courses of study in the high school than those which the principals would have recommended. It was the judgment of the principals that 1 2 girls and 5 boys only should be allowed to do extra work the first year. Fifty-three are doing extra work and only 7 of these are of the number recommended for it. The relations between school and outside interests and home condi- tions are very close. The most favorable condition seems to be a home where either some slight work or some accomplishment, as music, is required. The boys who do some work and the girls who help their mothers • at home are usually thoro in their school work. Many make collections of stamps and of minerals. No work is required of the majority. The last question, " In case of difficulty in learning or fault in behavior, what method of instruction or discipline have you found most helpful?" is the least answered. In some cases it is suggested that '* an appeal to ambition " or "an appeal to the better nature" i^ sufficient, where behavior or work is at fault. • Many times " a slight reproof" answers. In several cases it is advised to appeal to the parents. On the whole, the grammar-school principals have shown cordial co-operation, and the information obtained from them is reliable and of practical value. However intimately some city high-school principals have come to know their pupils, and however successfully others have won the cordial co-operation of the grammar-school principals, still it must be admitted that practically little has been done to bring teachers and parents to work together. City life seems to exclude the possibility of knowing the home influences. No one questions the wisdom of bringing parents and teach- ers into a mutually helpful relation, and in a few cities steps have been taken to gain the sympathies and co-operation of parents. Parents have been encouraged to visit the schools, conferences have been held, but rarely have parents been asked by high-school teachers to give them the benefit of their knowledge of the pupils' health, eyesight, hearing, recreation, home study, reading, tastes, temperament, character, etc. To obtain information concerning just these points, 197 blanks were sent to parents of the entering class. Over 85 per cent, were returned with answers carefully filled out. There were those who feared the misappre- hension of parents as to the objects we teachers had in view; and others who prophesied even serious trouble. Here, too, I am able to Department] STUDY OF FIRST-YEAR HIGH-SCHOOL PUPILS 905 say many parents expressed appreciation of the efforts of the teachers and of the interest that led to the asking of the questions concerning each pupil. The health reports of the parents usually agree with those given by the principals, with two exceptions : the principals in several cases noticed defective eyesight or hearing when the parents thought all was right. The other disagreement is that the parent sometimes emphasizes the fact of "nervousness" when the principal does not mention it. About 20 p'er cent, of the girls have not had good health the past two years, and in some cases have not felt so well since entering the high school. In most of these cases there is either no recreation, or the exercise consists in house- work or music study, and the results are worry and nervousness. Do not these facts speak for themselves ? Is there any doubt that the question, school life in relation to health, is one for us educators to consider ? About 20 per cent, of the whole class are reported as having defective eyesight. No special tests, however, were made. The question arises : How many would be found with eyesight below the normal were careful tests made ? The hours of sleep average eight or nine, seldom more, tho sometimes less. One boy sleeps ten or twelve hours, takes plenty of time for breakfast, and has a "very good temper." The question of sufficient time taken for breakfast differs with boys and girls. The answers for boys average " yes," tho sometimes it is " not always " or " usually." " No " occurs four times definitely. One boy eats nothing, and another takes "a part of a cup of coffee." With the girls the answers do not average " yes," but are more often " not always," " eats little," or " no." Some more cheerfully answer " sometimes." One says, "she is not allowed to go with- out, but it is often forced." The character of these answers demanjds that something be done. I wish there were time to give fully the reports concerning recreation and exercise. Judging from these results, it is clear that regular physical exercise in a gymnasium should be provided for. Six boys are reported as taking no exercise. Very few girls take over one or two hours of exer- cise a day. Twenty- five per cent, take very slight recreation or none. One girl takes only evening exercise, studies music, has headaches, and is "nervous." The influence of the bicycle on exercise is interesting; nearly one-half of the boys and about one-third of the girls ride wheels. The questions regarding study are more definitely answered than any others. In general, the feeling is that too much is not required of the pupils, tho no more should be required. A few complain of too long lessons, and one writes ; " Without intent to criticise, permit me to say that I have often felt that it is possible for the teacher to be overzealous, and in the anxiety for advancement to give more for a lesson than some pupils can learn and retain." The study hours vary from one to six. The pupils average two or three hours of study, at least judging from these reports. 906 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Child Study To determine accurately the average amount of study done would, I fear, be a difficult task. The answers to questions regarding individual likes and dislikes are most interesting and often most important. One boy has a "steady" dislike of "scolding at home for not getting his lessons good." One boy "likes everything in school, from cellar to attic." Latin causes the most trouble naturally. A number dislike zoology, tho there is not one com- plaint of finding it hard. Some find English hard, and a few algebra. A great many find classical history hard, even when they like it. One girl "got C for history, and it about made her sick. She talked in her sleep." This is an extreme case, but there are several girls and one or two boys who "worry" over their studies. If there is one feature in this plan of pupil study which distinguishes it from the syllabi used in university youth study, it is that it seeks very little information from the pupil himself. The pupil's outside reading, as an index to the outside activity, may well come under the direct study of the teacher. It will be legitimate to draw data from the pupil himself concerning the books read, favorite characters and authors, favorite magazines and papers, use of library, etc. It is very important that a love for good miscellaneous reading be estab- lished while the young people are in school, for this habit they are likely to carry with them thru life. I am almost ready to say that what our boys and girls read is more important than what they study. Howell says truly: "The average boy does more for his education by observation and reading than the schoolmaster is able to do for him." To find out the reading of the pupils done during the summer, the reading blank was used. Exceedingly suggestive data were obtained. This blank was filled out by all the classes of the school. It was found that in the Springfield High School the best reading is by the freshmen and the poorest by the seniors. That this practical result has been reached of itself more than compensates for the time and effort that have been expended in this study. The reading lists of the freshman class are very uniform, and show plainly the strong influence the grammar schools have in forming a thoroly good literary taste. The books most read last summer by the entering class were Ivanhoe, Lady of the Lake, Marmion, A Tale of Two Cities, Old Curiosity Shop, Oliver Twist, David Copperfield, Pickwick Papers, Ben Hur, Vicar of Wakefield, Pilgrim' s Progress, Uncle TonCs Cabin, Julius Ccesar, Hamlet, Merchant of Venice, Westward Ho, John Halifax, Ramona, Lorna Doone, Treasure Island, Near to Nature's Heart, Wide, Wide World, Peasant and Prince, and the poems of Long- fellow and Whittier. Cooper's novels were also read by many. Scott is the favorite of 49, and Dickens of 38. Other favorites were as follows : Longfellow, 19 ; Miss Alcott, 8 ; Henty, 7. Most liked history in the form of "fiction, with history mixed in," as one young lady expressed it. Department] STUDY OF FIRST- YEAR HIGH-SCHOOL PUPILS 9° 7 The liking for biography is remarkable. One boy rjad the lives of Garfield, Grant, Sherman, and Blaine. Another read lives of Charle- magne and Cromwell, and the biographies of Buffalo Bill, Daniel Boone, and David Crockett. Forty-three read nothing last summer. The reasons of preference are the most interesting portion of freshman lists, and are honest, direct, and forcible. They usually show appreciation of the noblest traits of character, rather than any effort at literary criticism. It is worth noticing that it is usually not the most striking personality or phase of character that is preferred, but the quiet and substantial virtues. One boy likes General Grant, "because he is polite, but stern in his business." Another admires Sherlock Holmes, "because of his strength of mind." Another* likes Little Nell and her grandfather, "because they thought so much of each other." Don Orsino is admired "because of his persever- ance and dislike of idleness." An ideal or heroic character placed in a historic situation seems to appeal to the largest number. Some reasons of preference are unique. Ten Thousand Leagues Under the Sea was enjoyed " because everything in it seems almost impossible." The character of an old maid was preferred " for the reason that it shows so plainly what kind of persons these old ladies are." The various data obtained from grammar-school teachers, the parents, and the pupils have not been taken as an ultimate guide. They have simply been a help toward intelligent study by the high-school teachers. Each teacher of freshmen has had a small number (fifteen or twenty) of pupils to look after, and has tried to make their acquaintance as thoroly as possible. Sixty boys and ninety girls have been studied. As far as possible in so large a class, the teachers were assigned those pupils in whom they had the most interest, and the papers giving the results of this pupil study show that the matter has been carefully and seriously under- taken. The studies are very interesting and sympathetic. Out of the sixty-six boys fifteen only are of absolutely poor scholar- ship ; a study of these shows that, except for one unusual case of a boy who is overworked on a farm and two cases of poor health, these weak pupils lack ambition. They study too little, lack power of application, and have not definite purposes. There are six mentioned as decidedly above the average in ability. Many lack imagination ; others have too great a number of outside interests. In too few cases is there evidence of independent interest in studies. There is need of pushing and special effort to awaken interest on the part of the teacher. This lack of interest arises in a great many cases from too narrow a conception of school life. Many are at school for practical ends only, and do not take any interest in studies of which they cannot see the practical application. This is doubtless the result of home influ- ence. These sixtv-six boys are divided into three very sharp classes- — a few who have further study in view, those who have merely practical 9o8 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION fChild Study motives, and a, very large proportion who have no definite motive for attending school. Most of the boys who take the manual training come under the second class ; they study merely to fit themselves better to earn a living. One such boy is of accurate mind and fair ability, but baffled his teacher who studied him. She came to the conclusion that .what he needs most is "a widened horizon." He dislikes his biology, "which he regards as being of no practical value." His manner is indifferent, his attention wandering, his deportment sometimes troublesome, and yet he is in school "for an education." This case is important as a strong type, of which there are too many less striking counterparts. But the third class, those who have no definite purpose, is the most difficult to under- stand and to educate. Some of these pupils have good possibilities, but cannot be appealed to effectively, because their school work is not grounded on definite purpose. School is in some cases frankly regarded as a place in which to pass away the time. As studies of character many of these papers are thoroly interesting. One boy is well-meaning, but "too sociably inclined," hence forgets him- self often. He is weak in deductive reasoning, hence illogical and blun- dering. This same boy wants to get an education " to be of some earthly use." One is "too indolent to improve weak points," is interesting and exasperating. His purpose seems to be to "do as he pleases." One is " an interesting boy as illustrating the many-sided difference between the private and public-school student." He is unable to "think under pres- sure." His ability to memorize is unusual. One boy "sometimes slights school work for outside work in which he is more interested, but not intentionally. This boy has unusual ability to think for his age, and is so genuinely interested in the study of science outside of school that he has at times made himself ill from overwork." Another is "happy" by nature, "serious" because of responsibility connected with home and school, and of a character " wonderfully fine and strong." He would obtain ideas even under unfortunate circumstances, so eager is he to know. Of the ninety-two girls who have been studied, ten are of poor scholarship. Two of these unsatisfactory pupils are well-meaning girls, but weak in mind. They make efforts in vain to comprehend their work. Two are of poor health. Four seem incapable of serious application because of lack of energy, of interest, and of mental self-control. Eight- een of the ninety-two are of excellent scholarship, and some of the most interesting papers concern these. One is exceptionally original in written work and is "able to apply what she knows." One is slow, but "all- round." One paper is most interesting to read. It concerns a girl who was born in Finland. She is described as "enthusiastic," "fond of jolly out-of-door pleasures," "always on the alert to catch every small bit of information," "keen of observation." She "wants to become a teacher." Department] STUDY OF FtRST-YEAR High-School pupils 909 One girl likes Latin and algebra "because there is something in them to overcon&e." In all of these excellent cases of scholarship there is strength of character, abundant 'motive, and independent interest in work. In most cases there seems to be plenty of out-of-door exercise and some variety of interests outside of school. This leaves sixty-five who are either of medium ability in school work, or who are uneven in their work. Some of this number are pupils of fair normal development ; but there are too many who are characterized by lack of self-confidence, lack of motive, and general lack of vitality — an all-round lack of positive qualities. There are as many as eighteen of the ninety-two who are not interest- ing because they are not interested in anything strongly. Such expres- sions are used to describe their mental conditions as "needs stimulus," "needs to exercise her mind more," "likes English best and tolerates the rest," "listless," "passive," "negative." Of one girl it is said, "she has no definite likes or dislikes." Of another the complaint is, " no vital interest in or out of school." Of several it is said that "mental awaken- ing" is needed. One girl "needs an earthquake to arouse her." There is a great deal of reticence, which at this time of a girl's life seems almost lack of individuality, when it is, in reality, only immaturity and diffidence, sometimes morbid diffidence. This may account for some of the seeming lack of interest. But lack of physical vitality is probably a fundamental reason for lack of positive qualities in so many of these girls. There are few of these ninety-two girls of robust health. There are forty-five of these girls who are not strong, and some of them of weak health. There is a surprising amount of frequent headache. There is insufficient exercise in the open air. A few comparisons may be made. There is a greater number of inter- esting studies of boys than of girls. There is more variety of interest, more physical vitality, fullness of life among the boys than among the girls. There are more girls who enjoy studies from real interest in the subjects. There are more readers and more who can ^express themselves well in writing among the girls. As a whole, these are painstaking and valuable studies in a good cause seeking to know the pupil's individuality as far as it is possible in a large public school. The best studies are those that seek motives and causes. Such a study affords a definite basis for the development of a pupil's peculiar capacities and the correction of his deficiencies. Under this plan of pupil study observations which every good teacher naturally makes are systematized and scientifically directed. Having in mind, solely, the interests of the pupil, the results of one teacher's observations of a particular pupil have been transferred to another. Co-operation has been possible, and the efforts to help a pupil have been more effective. Pupil study has tended to unify the work of the various departments of 9IO NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Child Study our high school. It has shown teachers that the purpose of each depart- ment is the same. High-school teachers, from thinking so much of what and how they teach, are in danger of forgetting the pupils themselves. Pupil study seeks to understand the individual boy or girl in order that the means and methods of instruction may be adapted to his distinctive needs and capacities. At its best, the method suggested of studying, con- sciously, the pupil, during his high-school course, will make us high- school teachers better able to watch over and further intelligently and sympathetically the education and physical health of the boys and girls for whose future happiness and usefulness we are responsible. Such a plan, if wisely and generally administered, ought to show to the educa- tional world what can be accomplished when grammar- and high-school teacher, parent and pupil, work together. HEREDITY AND ENVIRONMENT— A STUDY IN ADOLESCENCE BY EDGAR JAMES SWIFT, NORMAL SCHOOL, STEVENS POINT, WIS. The physical condition of children is a partial test of the vigor of their ancestors. A percentage of 84.76 of the Waukesha Reformatory boys were in good health. Twelve said their health was fair, apd, as most of these had little or nothing the matter with them, it does not seem unreasonable to class half of them with those in good health. If we do this, the percentage rises to 87.61. So far as this indicates the physical vigor of their families, it is not seriously against them. The Elmira Reformatory reports 90.4 per cent, of its inmates in good health at the time of admission, and only 3.7 per cent, diseased. If we turn from the physical condition of the boys to their mental ability, we find 30.45 per cent, good, 41.62 per cent, fair, and 27.91 per cent. poor. This estimate was made for each inmate by the teachers of the several classes. At Elmira, again, 75.8 per cent, of the 7,168 young men who have been in the institution were of good ability, while only 1.2 per cent, were regarded as deficient. The difference between these results may be partly due to the fact that the estimate of the Waukesha boys was based almost wholly on ability as shown in school work, while at Elmira the opportunity for judgment is considerably enlarged. A percentage of 28.35 o^ the boys have lost their father, and 31.03 per cent, their mother. This is rather a large proportion. Morrison found that 20 per cent, of the industrial school population of England and Scotland were fatherless, and 14 percent, motherless. The large number of motherless children found by this investigation may be accounted for Department] HEREDITY AND ENVIRONMENT 9" either by the father's desire to remarry leading him to wish to be rid of his children, or by trouble with the stepmother. This seems to be indi- cated by the fact that 22.5 per cent, of all the children have stepmothers, while only 15.53 P^^ cent, have stepfathers. The danger to young chil- dren if either parent remarries becomes evident when we see that 30.43 per cent, of these boys report unkind treatment by their stepparent. Morrison ' thinks that the large number of reformatory children who have lost one or both parents is evidence " of a degenerate race either on the father's or the mother's side." The inference that these children are more inclined to crime does not seem to be warranted. Partially orphaned children of wage-earners gravitate to the reforma- tory quite regardless of criminal proclivities. If fatherless, they are a burden to the mother who has difficulty in supporting them, and if mother- less, the father finds them an obstacle to remarrying. In both cases they are left to themselves, while the parent is away from home at work, and so they become incorrigible thru street life. Insanity was found in the ancestry of 4.6 per cent., epilepsy in 5,68 per cent., and 6.13 per cent, reported chorea. In only four instances did two of these three nervous diseases appear in the same family line. One boy reported a death from nervous prostration and consumption. Either insanity, epilepsy, or chorea was traced in the ancestry of 13.82 per cent. A percentage of 10.47 ^^^e of ancestry in which at least one has been convicted of crime, while 7.48 per cent, said that their father had been convicted. If we include in the estimate those who had never been con- victed, so far as their sons knew, the percentage falls to 6.96. So far as could be learned from the boys, their fathers were, in almost all cases, hard-working men ; 125 were skilled workmen, 46 unskilled, and 33 farmers. Only 5 did not work, and 2 were saloonkeepers. When asked about the character of their fathers, 86.33 P^"" cent, said they were good men, 11 per cent, thought them bad, and 2.65 per cent. fair. Drunkenness in their ancestry was admitted by 37.32 per cent. The parents seem to have been generally meant here, as the same question asked about them later gave practically the same result. It is interest- ing to note that of the 81 boys one or both of whose parents or ancestors were hard drinkers 52 did not themselves drink, while of the 136 whose parents and ancestors did not drink 31 reported that they were accustomed to drink either whisky or beer, or both. It is not easy to explain this on the supposition that youthful delinquency is the result of debilitated nerve centers brought about by ancestral alco- holism and disease. But, if boyhood crimes originate in a longing for excitement which finds its gratification in crime because a healthier out- let for these feelings is not at hand, the results found here are not so difficult to understand. Intemperance would, then, follow crime rather ^Juvenile Offenders, p. 1 00. 912 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Child Study than precede it, and this has been found to be true.' In any case it leaves a large number of delinquents to be accounted for in some other way. At the Elmira Reformatory over 50 per cent, are of temperate ancestry. If we consider all who were included in this investigation, 34 out of 217 had learned to drink whisky, while 59 in 218 drank beer. Of the 54 who gave the age at which they began to drink, 18 commenced at 10 years of age or younger, and 30 between 10 and 15, while 3 said "very young." Only 3 were older than 15 years ; 9 did. not know the age. The influence of others is seen in the way in which they began to drink. Fourteen became accustomed to its use at home, or were given it elsewhere by their father or some other member of the family; 18 were urged to drink by older boys, i was working in a brewery, 2 wanted to see how it tasted, i was selling papers in a saloon, 2 drank because they saw others do it, 3 "for fun," 2 at a party, i was paid by a man to drink, 3 thought they felt a desire for liquor, and 14 did not remember how they began. The best and worst part of a child's education come to him uncon- sciously. He acts out its suggestions before his judgment is mature enough to be critical. Only 24 had read any books that were not harmful, and many of these were valueless. They were merely not bad. Thirty-five had read none at all, 29 all kinds, and 12 said good books, but were unable to name any. Most of the books belonged to the class of the James boys, Diamond Dick, and detective stories. There seems to be force in Dr. Ferona's assertion that " three-fourths of those who enter prison have been led to a life of crime from neglect of education." Moral ideas are rare among these boys, but there is no evidence of a prevailing absence of the moral sense. Few of them glory in what they have done. One hundred and twenty-seven said that they would have preferred to spend their evenings in a free club room playing games, had there been such a place where they lived. Three admitted they liked the saloon better, and 13 would rather have remained at home. When asked whether they would like to be such a man as their father, 138 replied yes, while 58 wanted to be better. The children of wage-earners in towns and cities, the class from which reformatories are constantly replenished, are, to a large extent, deprived of the stimulus of social respectability. Besides, they do not receive the same treatment as those socially higher. It is rare for anyone who can win their admiration and arouse them to personal effort for improvement to associate with them, at least in any other than a patron- izing way. No one took enough interest in 20 of those who drank to advise them to stop, while only 6 of the remaining 41 reported being urged not to drink by anyone outside of their family. Fifty-four had ' Morrison, Juvenile Offenders, p. 70. Department] HEREDITY AND ENVIRONMENT 913 never seen or heard of anyone whom they greatly admired. Of those who said that they had, 54 gave some member of their own family, 28 Washington, while 25 were scattered, and 42 were unable to name any- one. Almost all of the boys had lived the greater part of their time on the street. They were under the influence of associates older in crime. One hundred and twenty-four said they had never felt any desire to do wrong, but were led on by others and wanted some fun. Of the remain- ing 14 who replied, 11 believed that they alone were responsible for what they did, while 3 were not able to give an opinion, The question of interest to society is not, Can children become criminals because of inherited tendencies? but rather, Must these constitu- tional peculiarities reveal themselves in the life of the individual, however unfavorable to their development the surroundings may be ? The record of 106 children, who had been placed in families by the Minnesota State School for Neglected and Dependent Children, was examined in the hope of getting some information on this subject. The history book of the institution showed that one or both of the parents of all these children were distinctly bad. The least of which any of them had been guilty was habitual drunkenness and desertion of their family. In 39 instances intemperance, insanity, or criminality was found in both parents, and 39 of the mothers were known to be prostitutes. The fathers of 2 had been convicted of murder, and 3 were serving a sentence in the penitentiary. This is certainly a good ancestry to produce criminals, if the effect of heredity is beyond control. The children whose record is given here include all those on the books of the institution, who were more than 17 years of age when last investigated by the state agent, and whose parents, one or both, were known to be bad. All but 16 of them were older than 18 years. Fifty-two of these children were classed by the state agent as excellent, 36 as good, and 18 as bad. Those designated as excellent were so strong in character and ability as to attract unusual attention, while by good was meant above reproach in character. One of those recorded as bad was a prostitute before entering the school. Eighty-three and two- hundredths per cent., then, of all those of known bad parentage developed into young men and women of good character when placed in better surroundings. At the Wisconsin State School the record of 91 children was studied. The same rules of procedure were followed as before, except that a few between the ages of 16 and 17 were admitted. Both parents of 19 chil- dren were either intemperate or insane, or had committed a crime, and 13 of the mothers were prostitutes. In this school 12 were classed as excellent, 73 as good, and only 6 had turned out badly. One of these 6, it was found, had been placed with a man who was a hard drinker, altho this was not known wh^n the boy was given to him. Another, 914 NA TIONAL ED UCA TIONAL ASSOCIA TION [Child Study one of the younger girls, was seduced by the man in whose family she was placed. The small number of these that did not turn out well, com- pared with those from the Minnesota school, is probably due to the fact that many of them are younger. It is quite possible that some may still revert, tho inherited characteristics usually appear in full strength by i6 years of age. When it is remembered that these children remained with their parents long enough to imbibe a good deal of immorality by contact, the signifi- cance of these figures greatly increases. Besides, the children are placed under an indenture contract, and, except in rare instances, are treated as servants by those who take them. They are usually valued in proportion to the work they can do. The average age at which 255 boys were taken to the Waukesha Reform School was not quite 13.7 years. This is the time when the largest amount of energy is seeking occupation and wise guidance is 'particularly needed. Yet this is exactly what these boys do not get. They are left to the chance of the street. At this period of life the nerve tissue is in a hyper-irritable state, and, as Clouston' tells us, certain forms of emotional and irrational willfulness, immorality, impulsiveness, and adolescent insanity are not uncommon. Escapades at this time do not necessarily point to a criminal nature. The excessive irritability of the nerve centers, to which the frequency of nervous disorders at this period points, makes them erratically sensitive. At this age children are especially susceptible to suggestion. The acts for which many of the boys were sent to the reformatory seem to have been a sort of reflex resistance to dull or disagreeable con- ditions of life, a blind effort to escape from a hateful monotony. The history book shows that the common offenses were disobedience, running away from home or school, and stealing articles of little or no value, such as candy, tobacco, knives, or small amounts of money. The wish to have some fun was the prevailing motive with many. In comparatively few instances did the things that 'they took have much value, and most of these were articles which boys long for. They were generally bicycles, watches, and guns. Only six boys out of 254 stole money in excess of $5. A sudden change comes in the early years of adolescence, and with it new demands. Energy is in excess, and the childish sports which formerly absorbed it no longer satisfy. Early education consists to a large degree in meeting and overcoming inherited nomadic and anti-social impulses. The lawless acts of this period are probably the result of surviving rudi- mentary traits.' The successful control of these ancestral tendencies is the most difficult task of child training. If opportunity is given children to engage in enjoyable sports, exciting enough to satisfy their boundless imagination, ' The Neurosis of Development, p. 1 2. 'Ellis, Pedagogical Seminary, October, 1897, p. 188. Department] HEREDITY AND ENVIRONMENT 9^5 and if school work is so planned as to respond to their varying interests, these rudimentary impulses may gradually be eliminated from their life. These reformatory boys were riot only left to the unrestrained influence of these ancestral traits, but, in addition, the surroundings were such as to favor their abnormal development. The entire absence of the moral sense in hardened criminals, resulting in practical reversion and the redevelop- ment of those activities that are ordinarily rudimentary in the human race, is probably due, in many cases, to the environment reviving their latent power of functioning. Infancy and childhood is a transition period from lesser to greater brain complexity. If conditions are favorable, this complexity is in the direction of greater intellectual and moral perfection. New cell connec- tions are now being made, and the associations thus established de^termine the character of the man. It is probable that most of these connections are made unconsciously. Daily contact with associated ideas and acts will end in establishing them in the mental background, however unnatural they may be. Natural and reasonable are relative terms. Their interpretation depends on the paths that have been made among the cells during their expansions from infancy thru adolescence, when development followed, uncritically, the lines suggested by experience. The complexity that characterizes a developed brain is not a spontaneous growth. Tho mental limitations and possibilities lie within the brain itself, the direction that these possibilities shall take, resulting finally in pro-social aspirations or in anti-social tendencies, is determined from without. Criminal training may end in as complex cerebral associations as the best education. Enlarged mentality is the result of life amid broad social relations. The subjective possibility for character is actualized only under the influence of perfecting social stimuli. Moral obtuseness is not necessarily the result of native incapacity. It is more often due to constant exercise in perverted perceptions. Under the action of external stimuli modifications are constantly going on in a child's brain. The form that these modifications take will depend on the relations found in experience. The child accepts relations as they are offered, and the ideas thus related form his standard for future judgment. The immediate value of an idea depends on responsive associations, and these are deter- mined by the relations prevailing in the mental background. Hasty action will be common, unless there are arresting secondary associations of sufficient strength to hold the mind in balance until their full meaning can assert itself. The greater the number of these secondary associations, the more deliberate and reasonable will be the final decision. The relations resulting from constant contact with vicious surroundings account for much of the moral perversion that leads to thoughtless action, and later to crime. It is doubtful whether in three-fourths of the cases criminal tendencies gi6 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Child Study are anything else than a convenient name with which to cover our social failure in education. If, as Morgan tells us, we have good grounds for believing that "the growth of intelligent plasticity, in any given race, is associated with a disintegration of the instinctive plan, congenital adapta- tion being superseded by an accommodation of a more individualistic type, to meet the needs of a more varied and complex environment,'" and if "a suitable training long enough continued can, to a certain extent, derange the hereditary tendencies which we call instinctive, and create new ones,'" heredity loses the charm of necessity, and society with its power to control environment becomes responsible. CHILD STUDY IN THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS BY JOHN G. THOMPSON, NORMAL SCHOOL, FITCHBURG, MASS. This paper deals with but a single aspect of child study and a single ,phase of the training of teachers. It presupposes that child study should have a place in such training and does not advance reasons therefor. It assumes that the study of children should be a large factor in the prepara- tion of those who are to teach children rather than subjects. It offers no opinion as to just how much time or just what part of the work spent in preparation for teaching should be devoted to child study, but discusses in a brief manner the lines along which this study should be conducted so as to give proper training to those fitting themselves to teach. One may venture to predict, without fear of loss in reputation as a prophet, that, when an entirely new subject is added to the curriculum, whether it be to that of the primary school, the secondary school, the normal school, or the college, in the teaching of such a subject will be found nearly all the errors and weaknesses that have been discovered and corrected in other teaching. The years required to convince school authorities, and even teachers of drawing, that the way to learn to draw is to draw, and that the way to learn to draw objects is to draw objects, instead of copying from the flat, is a good illustration of this. We begin to hear that we have been all wrong in regard to nature study, or elemen- tary science, as in our wrongheadedness so many of us have insisted upon calling it. But how long it has taken us to learn that love of nature can only come thru communion with nature and never thru dissection or destruction, or even thru scientific nomenclature ! And in child study, as carried on today in the training of teachers, are we not repeating the old errors ? Missteps and falls are to be expected in learning to ^Nature, February 3, 1898, p. 328. 'Charles Letourneau, Popular Science Monthly, February, 1898. Department! CHILD STUDY IN THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 9^7 , « walk ; but must each new child in the family tumble over the same old objects ? Three movements are now", and have been for the past few years, particularly proniinent in school work. The first is a re-emphasis of the truth, long ago pointed out, that we should study things themselves rather than treatises aboutjhings. In the study of literature today, reviews and criticisms, the story of the life of the author, accounts of the peculiarities of his person or his manners, narration of circumstances attending or leading up to the writing, date and form of publication, are considered of small importance compared with the reading and absorption of the piece of literature itself. In geography, the reading or memorizing of descrip- tions of physical features, or of the work of physical agencies, is no longer allowed to take the place of field work. We are beginning to see that the earth and the out-of-doors are very near to every child and at the hand of every teacher. In nature study it will no longer do to study trees in the schoolroom, or birds from descriptions, pictures, or mounted specimens. Yet in child-study we seem likely to repeat the old mistake and to study about children rather than to study children themselves. Classes of stu- dents preparing to be teachers are required to devote the larger part of their precious time to reading and studying articles and treatises about children, and to collecting anecdotes of child life. In some institutions verbal description is reinforced by collections of pictures of children of various ages. Logically, may we not expect to find pictures followed by mounted specimens ? Summer schools offering courses in child study, so far as I am informed, in no case study children themselves, but always about them. A course of bird study carried on as is so much of our child study would meet with deserved ridicule. Yet the children are always with us, and the least of these little ones is "of more value than many sparrows." That those training to teach should familiarize themselves with what has been done in child study — with the works of Preyer, Perez, Baldwin, Hall, Barnes, Warner, Miss Shinn, and others — is not questioned. The point I wish to make is that such work should be subordinated to the actual study of children. Where such is not the case, and the study of children is made of less importance than the study of works about chil- dren, the old error of studying science and nature from text-books rather than in the laboratory and the field is repeated. The second movement in the new education is a demand for the recognition of the individuality of the pupil. The tyranny of the graded system, the evils of the " lock-step in education," are apparent as never before. In school work in general we seem to be breaking away from the idea that there is some one average or ideal child that may represent the pupils of the first grade, or those of the third grade, or those of the fourth grade, etc. The teacher is beginning to realize that the forty pupils in 9 1 8 NA TIONAL EDUCA TIONAL ASSOCIA TION fChild Study her grade must not be considered as forty times one, but as forty ones, each one differing from every other one. The failure to recognize this truth, and to direct teaching to meet individual needs, should increase the number of the teacher's deadly sins, as enumerated by Dr. Burnham, from seven to eight. To forget the individual in dealing with the class or with the school is one of the easiest things for the young teacher. He must constantly guard against it, and his training should recognize the fact. Naturally we expect the greatest assistance in this matter to come to the teacher thru child study. There are indications that this expectation will be met in the near future ; but in child study so far the greatest stress seems to be placed upon averages. The influence of suggestion upon the child of five, what the child of six likes to read, how often the child of ten plays truant, how the child of twelve regards tale bearing — these and similar ones seem to be the vital questions. Thousands of answers are collected, tabulated, and averaged in the attempt to build up the average or ideal child for each year or grade. Yet the teacher's chief interest is not in the child of five years of age, nor the child of the first grade, but in Mary Smith, Johnny Brown, and Susan Jones. The teacher in training or in actual service can be interested in the advancement of child study as a science only incidentally. It is not his business to prepare questionnaires, and to collect and tabulate answers to the same in the attempt to formulate laws of child development. This is the work of scientific investigation, and should be left to those who are interested in discovering some new general truth in regard to children, more than in the progress and development of some few particular boys and girls. Child study. as a part of the preparation of teachers should develop skill in studying the individual for the sake of the individual. A knowledge of the few general truths established in regard to the development of children is absolutely necessary, but most of these are so old and so almost axiomatic that the acquirement of such knowledge will call for the expenditure of but very little time. Provided the course be long enough, it may be well to give the student teachers some acquaint- ance with the various methods of child study — with the scientific, the semi-scientific, and the unscientific, to use Dr. Scripture's classification. Child study, in so far as its influence in the training of teachers leads them to lose the individual in the mass, to interpret all children in the terms of some single average ideal child, is repeating and adding to the old error that has grown out of the closely graded system. In so far as such study develops in those preparing to teach the knowledge that each child must be studied as an individual, and must be taught as far as pos- sible as an individual, just so far is child study in harmony with one of the most promising educational movements of the day. The third, and perhaps the most important, movement in present education is the growing appreciation of the truth that was in the mind Department] CHILD STUDY IN THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 9^9 of Garfield when he declared that Mark Hopkins on one end of a log and a student on the other constituted a university ; that was in the mind of Emerson when he said that it matters not so much what you study as with whom you study ; of the truth that must come home to everyone who tries to analyze the power of any great teacher, that the personality of the teacher — that inmost spirit which is the man — is of the first impor- tance. The recognition of the supreme importance of this factor is doubt- less due to a better understanding on the part of the public in general as to what education is. In the minds of fewer are scholarship and culture synonymous. More are beginning to see that the result of teaching should be quality of mind rather than quantity of knowledge, that there may be encyclopaedic scholarship without culture, and that there may be culture with small scholarship. As is true of the study of literature and of nature, and, in fact, of ai>y subject, the study of children may result in the accumulation of knowl- edge or may result in culture. Culture has been defined as "the process by which a man takes the world into his nature and is fed, sustained, and enlarged by natural, simple, deep relations and fellowship with the whole order of things of which he is part." Is child study in normal and train- ing schools today so conducted that the student preparing to teach takes the children "into his nature and is fed, sustained, and enlarged by natu- ral, simple, deep relations and fellowship" with them ? Or are instructors in child study repeating the error of the old education in attempting to develop teachers by additions from without, by simply storing in theii* minds vast collections of miscellaneous facts about children ? Personality is to a great extent the result of culture. Is child study so taught that thru it the personality of the student teacher is riper, sounder, more attractive to children ? Children are studied as a mechanic might study nicely adjusted and complicated machines. Many eminent scientists in various parts of the world are engaged in studying them in this way. Much delicate appa- ratus has been invented to assist in this important work. The length of time after the proper stimulus has been applied to the machine before each of its various parts are in motion, the rapidity with which the parts move, the length of time that each can move after being started, these and similar measurements are made, many of which are very minute and very delicate. Boys are compared with girls, young children with old. The object of it all is to add to discovered truth, and, while some familarity with the method will be helpful to the teacher in broadening his outlook, if in no other way, one cannot help agreeing with Professor Munsterberg that such studies as "how in fractions of seconds different just perceiv- able optical stimuli vary for our apperception if the eye remains unmoved" — that such studies cannot develop in teachers the right attitude toward children. 920 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Child Study Children are studied as the naturalist studies specimens collected for that purpose. The child is weighed and measured, parts of the body are measured, and parts of these parts are further measured. The halves of the body and of the head, the limbs, the hands, and the feet are compared to see if they are alike. The cranium is scrutinized to discover if it is bossed or if it has a frontal ridge ; the external ears to see if they are alike in form, if the antehelix is normal, and if the lobes are attached all the way down ; the palate is examined to see if it is narrow, arched, or cleft ; the eyes for orbicularis oculi lax and for epicanthis, and of course for myopia, hypermetropia, and astigmatism ; while the body as a whole is searched for signs of chorea, rickets, malnutrition, and for lordosis. That children should be examined in this way is not questioned. The teacher certainly should be able to recognize at once any very serious developmental defect or any marked signs of nervous disorder. Further than this he ought not to try to go. Were it desirable that as a part of his training he should be educated as a physician, the time now spent in preparation to teach would not admit of it. But even in the time allowed for child study great harm may be done by over-emphasizing this phase of the subject Both of the methods referred to take away the interest of the teacher from the child as a living, sentient creature. They keep alive the error of the old catechism which taught that the child has a soul, implying that the child is a body. The child is a soul and tas a body. His body may be studied in its machine-like functions, or as a natural- history specimen, but all such study must be secondary to the study of the child as a soul, as a spirit; and it is only this latter kind of child study that can strengthen the personality of the teacher by bringing him into "natural, simple, deep relations and fellowship" with children. But even that study of children which seeks to understand the subtle processes of thought, feeling, and will, and which deals with the child as a soul impossible to study under the microscope, and with motives, inter- ests, and powers incapable of formulation in terms of time and space, may fail to assist in the proper development of the teacher. As Goethe says, "the spirit in which we act is the highest matter." Child study, animated, as it seems to me much of it is, by the love of child study, and not inspired by love of and interest in children, must result in the growth of an entirely wrong attitude toward them. The effect of such study upon the minds and hearts of those pursuing it must be similar to the result of the study of nature upon Charles Darwin. He studied nature, not for the love of nature, but for the love of science and that he might establish cer- tain laws. The result was a wonderful scientific achievement, but at what a cost to himself ! He says in a letter written late in life that his study has rendered him incapable of experiencing the highest feelings of the human heart, the religious emotions, and has deprived him of feeling pleasure in poetry and art. He adds : " In my Journal I wrote that whilst Department] DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIAL CONSCIOUSNESS 921 Standing in the midst of the grandeur of the Brazilian forest 'it is not possible to give an adequate idea of the higher feelings of wonder, admi- ration, and devotion which fill and elevate the mind.' I well remember my conviction that there is more in man than the mere breath of his body." This was as a young man. And he concludes : " But now the grandest scenes would not cause such convictions and feelings to rise in my mind." I believe that those who study boys and girls for the love of child study, for the love of science, rather than for the love of children, will in time be obliged to confess that they have lost the power to appreciate the highest and t^e best that is in the child. Neither the accumulation of facts about children nor the discovery of general truths of child life and development can add to the personal power of the teacher. The growth of this power can be fostered only by that study which arouses the feelings and develops sympathy and love for children ; for, as Professor Arlo Bates puts it, " what we learn we possess; what we feel we are." Child study, then, in the training of teachers, should concern itself with children a great deal and with treatises about them much less ; it should Jtiot attempt to estaMrsh general truths of mental and physical growth, but should direct attention "to the individual for the sake of the individual; it should be so conducted that the interest will be in the child rather than in child study ; and finally, it should be a culture study in the best meaning of the word "culture," striving to put the pupil teacher into harmonious relations and fruitful fellowship with children. DEVELOPMENT OF THE SOCIAL CONSCIOUSNESS OF CHILDREN BY WILL S. MONROE, STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, WESTFIELD, MASS. Germs of the social sense — instincts and feelings — which in a more highly organized state give rise to social consciousness, have their roots low down in the species. Animals of many kinds are social ; and a few facts may be borrowed from the literature of natural history that will be of service in interpreting the origin and development of the social sense in the child. Following the classification of Ribot, four principal forms of animal societies may be noted : (i) Those in which the basis of the social tie is nutrition, as the hydroid popypes, animals in whom the social instinct exists in its lowest forms — the search for food, defense, attack. (2) Those based on reproduction — domestic societies and families — in which may 922 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Child Study be observed sympathy and the genesis of altruism. (3) Those founded on the attraction of like for like, irrespective of sex, in which are manifest for the first time true social tendencies, thru the habit of acting in com- mon. They may consist of accidental and unstable assemblages, as is the case in the migrations of birds and insects, or of more permanent assem- blages voluntarily formed and maintained in view of a common aim. (4) Those with a stable and complete organization, in which there is division of labor, solidarity, stability, and continuity thru several genera- tions, as in bees, wasps, and beavers. A study of the social tendencies of animals indicates that many of the elements of man's social consciousness are clearly derivative. Her- bert Spencer is authority for the statement that communities of rooks have a rude form of government, recognize proprietary rights, and punish offenders ; and that among ants there is, besides division of labor, a sys- tem of signaling equivalent to a rude language, and elaborate processes of mining, road-making, and building. Says the same authority : " Gre- gariousngss is joined with some subordination, some combination, some display of the social sentiments. There is obedience to leaders; there is union of effort ; there are sentinels and signals ; there is some idea of property ; there is some exchange of services ; there is adoption of orphans ; and anxiety prompts the community to make efforts in behalf of endangered members." The utility and modality of the plays of animals and children sug- gest some striking reciprocal relations. This is forcibly reiterated in comparing the games of young and growing children with such researches as those of Professor Groos. Witness, for example, the striking parallel- ism between a game of cross-tag as played by children and the aerial antics of a flock of swallows. Mr. W. H. Hudson, who has recently studied the social habits of South American birds, furnishes abundant evidence to show that social games and dances are indulged in frequently, and that they occur at other times than the selection of mates. He cites the frequent mystic cloud dances of hawks, swifts, and vultures ; the mock fights of ducks ; the wing displays of the jacanas, in which both sexes take part; the evening assemblies and aerial dances of the scissors-tail tyrant bird, in which several pairs will leave their nests and young to participate ; the triplet dances of the spur-winged lapwing, in which two birds already mated will call a third to complete the set. These and many similar instances are cited in confirmation of the fact that play in the animal, as in the child, is a veritable instinct and of immense significance in the development of its social sense. Normal men never live in isolation — neither at the lowest scale of savagery nor on the highest plane of civilization. The remains of river- drift men fully confirm the fact that they lived just as primitive and I Department] DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIAL CONSCIOUSNESS 923 cultured men live today — gathered into social groups and communities. Beginning unconsciously, the social sense is preserved by natural selec- tion, and when its benefits are perceived, it is consciously perpetuated. As Professor Giddings has so well stated it : " The groupings of the social composition are natural products of the physiological and psychological activities of individuals, supplemented by natural selection. They arise unconsciously, and their prevailing forms are established by unconscious adaptation to the conditions of life before the social mind begins to reflect upon them." As the tendency to social life, as hinted in a previous paragraph, originated low down in the animal series, so many of the social organiza- tions and institutions, as we know them today, have had their definite beginning far back in the period of savagery. "We have the same brain," remarks Morgan, "perpetuated by reproduction, which worked in the skulls of barbarians and savages in by-gone ages ; and it has come down to us laden and saturated with the thoughts, aspirations, and passions with which it was busied during the intermediate periods. It is the same brain grown older and larger with the experience of the ages." The most savage tribes, who roam about in detached bands living in movable huts, everywhere give evidence of the gregarious instinct and the sense of fellowship. Their federations may be loose, and the camp, rather than the soil, their fatherland ; but they quite universally recognize allegiance to a chief. The social bonds may be the outgrowth of blood kinships or merely the result of congregate associations, habitual inter- course, mutual interests, and co-operation. That most of our modern institutions are clearly derivative from periods of primitive culture a cursory review of the history of mankind fully confirms. Social organizations, for example, founded upon gens, phratries, and tribes, as Morgan has pointed out, are the oldest and most widely prevalent institutions of mankind, furnishing the universal plan of government to the most isolated quarters of the globe. The Grecian gens, phratry, and tribe, and the Roman gens, curia, and tribe, find their counterparts in the gens, phratries, and tribes of the American Indians. "As far as our knowledge extends, this organization runs through the entire ancient world, upon all the continents, and it was brought down to the historical period by such tribes as attained to civilization." Any study of the social sense in its archaic forms clearly reveals its remote origin, its universal distribution, and its abiding character. The acquisition of social interests and institutions by the race are constantly recapitulated in the child. He not only inherits social apti- tudes and tendencies, but he is born into a world of social forces, upon which he reacts from the hour of his birth. As Professor Baldwin has well stated it : " He is born into a system of social relationships just as 9^4 i^A TtONAL EDUCA TIONAL ASSOCIA TtON [Child Study he is born into a certain quality of air. As he grows in body by breathing the one, so he grows in mind by absorbing the other," The social sense appears in the child when he recognizes and takes an interest in persons. This ordinarily takes place not later than the fourth month ; and in spite of the weak memory which characterizes the early months of infancy, the child early evinces a sympathetic interest in the social family group. The late Professor Preyer relates that a child one year old was taken from home on a visit, and that on his return he paid no attention to the cat and dog, but at once manifested keen pleasure in the recognition of his nurse and the other members of the family. Miss Shinn reports that her niece on the eightieth, day smiled and gave a joyous cry on seeing her grandfather enter the room ; and on the eighty- fourth day she watched him out of the room when he quitted her after play, kept her eyes on him as he stood in the next room a few seconds, and gave a joyous crow when he turned to come back. Those who have been much with young children will agree with Sully that "they are instinctively attachable and sociable in so far as they show in the first weeks that they get used to and are dependent on the human presence, and are miserable when it is taken from them. In this instinct of companionship there is involved a vague, inarticulate sympathy." The child's first lessons in social relationships are learned by imitating the actions of the members of the family. As Professor Baldwin puts it : " Everything that he learns is copied, reproduced, assimilated from his fel- lows; and all of them, including him — all the fellows, the socii — do and think what they do think because they have each been through the same course of copying, reproducing, and assimilating that he has." From the second year on, when the child takes such keen pleasure in having others do what he does, and sharing with him what he has, there are remarkable adjustments of the self to the social relationships. It is at the same time, too, that toys serve such a beneficent purpose in disciplining the ego and correlating it to environing actions thru play activities. All these activities of which he partakes in the family — and which he helps to create — react most favorably toward the healthy development of the social sense of the child. Indeed, no one factor in the early life of the child contributes more largely toward the development of its social conscious- ness than toys and playthings. Advocates of the kindergarten have long insisted on the educational value of toys ; for, as Froebel pointed out in his Mutter- und Koselieder, it is thru play that universal life is mirrored to the child, and by '"'playing at" life that he grows unconsciously into an understanding of the truth, dignity, and purpose of life. The social experience which toys bring into the life of the child is wide in range and far-reaching in utility. Note, as Seguin has suggested, the fullness of heart and thankfulness caused by a bright toy, and how it awakens in the child a sense of ownership. " He does not understand the idea of property. Uepartment] DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIAL CONSCIOUSNESS 925 but he feels it in his grasp — a feeling which he never experienced in the case of his garments ; and once his possession is assured, he endows it with all the qualities of an ideal", and devotes himself to it as to a reality. True to his sympathetic conception, though his mind know it to be false, he — who never before looked into the future — opens this blank book of human imagination and writes on it all sorts of contingencies of which the toy is the magic spring and center." Since toys are such immediate means of experience between the great realities of life and the smallness of the child — a gap which can only be filled by a microcosm of playthings — it has seemed to me that a fruitful field of inquiry would be to ascertain from children the basis of their interest in and love for toys. The following test was accordingly given to 678 boys and 770 girls from the age of seven on : " What toys do you like the best for playthings, and why do you like them the best ? " The reasons given suggested the followiijg scheme of classification for the favorite toys : (i) imitation, (2) emulation, (3) love of noise, (4) wonder and surprise. The first group — imitation — embraces 49 per cent, of all the toys mentioned. It includes such toys as enable children to repeat actions once witnessed and which touch at so many points the social sense. The group is represented by 15 per cent, of the boys and 34 per cent of the girls. Dolls are oftenest mentioned, being given by 68 per cent, of the girls and 5 per cent, of the boys. The doll interest, always strong with the girls, is strongest from nine to thirteen years ; and, altho at all times weak with the boys, it is strongest from seven to eleven years. Doll's furniture, and playthings for dolls, have second place in the group. They are mentioned by less than one-third of i per cent, of the boys, and 51 per cent, of the girls. Vehicles — sleds, carts, and wagons — are third, with 30 per cent, of the boys and 10 per cent, of the girls; and toy dishes fourth, with less than one-half of i per cent, of the boys and 30 per cent, of the girls. Among the other toys classed in the imitation group are animals, tools, houses, ships, and soldiers. The second group — emulation and the spirit of success — embraces balls, tops, marbles, kites, checkers, hoops, skipping ropes, cards, and skates, and includes 27 per cent, of the boys and 11 per cent, of the girls. The ball is the favorite toy of the group, being given by 53 per cent, of the boys and 20 per cent, of the girls. It is oftenest mentioned at the age of thirteen years. Tops have the second place, and are favored by 40 per cent, of the boys and 15 per cent, of the girls. Marbles rank third, with 33 per cent, of the boys and 4 per cent, of the girls. The spirit of emulation, chance, and rivalry, if one may judge from this study, is essentially masculine. • • The third group embraces such toys as give pleasure by gratifying a love for noise, and in it are represented 9 per cent, of the boys and 2 per cent, of the girls. Fife, horn, and other wind instruments lead, with 926 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Child Study 1 7 per cent, of the boys and 6 per cent, of the girls ; firecrackers and fire- arms second, with 21 per cent, of the boys and less than one-third of 1 per cent, of the girls j and the drum takes fourth rank, with 12 per cent, of the boys and one-half of i per cent, of the girls. Pianos, organs, and other musical instruments — none of them often mentioned — are included with this group. The fourth group embraces all those toys which excite feelings of wonder and surprise, and it is represented by but 2 per cent, of the whole number of children tested, the boys somewhat in the lead. The group includes the following toys, mentioned in the order of rank : magic tricks, puzzles, jack-in-the-box, punch and judy, and magic animals. The social circle widens when the child reaches the age of three or four years and mingles with other children. New social relationships — more complex in character — are formed. The interests, the passions, and the activities of his cpmpanions are reflected in and related to his own interests, passions, and activities ; and the social sense is widened and clarified thru these new experiences and relationships. In order to determine the social elements mediating children's likes and dislikes, 1 gave the following test : " What kind of a chum (com- panion, intimate friend) do you like the best ? " The question was asked of 2,336 Massachusetts school children — 1,068 boys and 1,268 girls — between the ages of seven and sixteen years. The purpose of the study was to ascertain some of the elements constituting the social sense of children, and to discover the influence conditioning their pre- dilection and aversion for companions and playfellows. The catalog of traits was neither as large nor as varied as might have been expected, and for the most part the children seemed to express their ideals with remarkable intelligence and clearness. The following from a boy of eleven is fairly typical : " For a chum I like a boy who does not use bad language, smoke, or mix with bad company ; who will help me if I get into a scrape, and not run away like a coward ; one who is an honest, upright, kind-hearted boy ; one who will come and see me when I am sick and cheer me, and not a fair-weather friend, who sticks by me because I have good things, and not a friend who is always telling everything about me that he knows, and not one who is always hanging around me. Such is the chum I like." The papers were collated along the following lines : age, sex, moral, physical, and mental traits ; habits, and general characteristics. Age preferences were indicated by 134 of the children, 107 wishing a chum of the same age, and 27 an older or younger chum. The girls had stronger age preferences than the boys. Sex is mentioned by 591 of the children. Among the boys 235 want boy chums and 20 want girl chums; among the girls 328 want chums of their own sex and 28 want boy chums. Sex preferences are most pronounced between the years of Department] DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIAL CONSCIOUSNESS 92? eight to eleven. Size is mentioned by 89 of the children. The same size is desired by 58, and a larger person by 31. A girl of eleven says : " I would like a chum not too fat nor too slim, just between, with long, yellow hair ; " and a boy of ten says : " I like a chum that is about my own age and size. If you would like to know why, I will tell you. If he were larger than I, and he wanted to climb a tree that I couldn't, it wouldn't be very pleasant. While, if we were just the same size, one could do what the other could." A pretty or handsome chum is desired by 5 boys and 14 girls, and special teeth, eyes, hair, and nose by 6 boys and 32 girls ; and 15 boy/s and 55 girls want a quick or sprightly chum. The favorite mental characteristic is good nature — a chum that is jolly and cheerful. " One who is full of fun," " one that don't get mad," "one with a bright, sunny nature," is desired by 141 of the boys and 228 of the girls. Fifty-eight of the children want one that is bright and talented, and 42 one that uses good language. The moral traits, as might be expected, lead. Four hundred and seventy-eight of the chil- dren want a chum that is kind, charitable, or humane, and 455 a chum that is honest, fair, or just. One is impressed in reading these papers with the importance of play in the formation of the child's standards of morality, as is illustrated by the lad of thirteen : "The kind of a chum that I like is one that don't cheat when you're playing ball. I don't like one that says you're two strikes when you're one, or says you're out when you're two strikes." Truthfulness takes third place among the desired moralities. It is more pronounced with the girls than with the boys, and increases with advance in years. Constancy comes next. " I like a chum who would speak just as nice of you back of you as right in front of your face, not one who would pretend to like you just to get something out of you ; and then go away and tell tales about you afterward," is the ideal of constancy of one young miss. This, like kindness, is essentially a feminine virtue and is apparent only among the older children. Unselfishness has fifth place among the moralities ; affection, sixth ; modesty, seventh ; obedience, eighth ; and courage, ninth. But 5 of the boys and 23 of the girls express preference for a religious chum. A chum that is "not rough or quarrelsome" is desired by 418 of the children, the girls leading. Fondness for play is more desired by the boys than by the girls, and diminishes with both sexes as the children grow older; and one finds all sorts^of play specialties enumerated. Says a girl of twelve : " I like a girl chum the best who likes to climb and do stumps." A chum that is polite, " has good manners," does not appear until the ninth year, increases as the children grow older, and is always more marked among the girls than among the boys. It is formulated by a boy of nine in these words : " I like a chum who has very good man- ners. Who never swears or lies, never uses vulgar words. Who takes off his hat at the door and wipes his feet at the door. Who always 928 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION, [Child Study asks to be excused whenever he steps on anybody's toe. Who always lifts his hat when he sees anybody he knows." Thirty-six of the boys and 64 of the girls want a chum that can keep secrets; 91 of the boys and 8 of the girls one that neither uses tobacco nor drinks, and 73 of the boys and 17 of the girls one that don't swear. Dress and neatness influ- ence 22 boys and 65 girls, and wealth 7 boys and 3 girls. Industry is not strong, but 23 boys and 36 girls expressing the desire to have a chum that liked to work. Among the general characteristics were classed "good chum," "respectable chum," and "nice chum." These terms are indefinite, and may mean one or a dozen traits. They are oftenest men- tioned by the young children, and the girls seemed to have an almost undisputed monopoly of that much-used word " nice." The fact that both "good" and "nice" diminish with advance in years indicates that they belong to a period when ideas are not well defined. During the adolescent period there is an apparent struggle between the real, actual self and the ideal self — a pretty strong desire to have a chum that embodies the traits they most desire, but which they are con- scious of lacking. This struggle is well expressed by a girl of thirteen, who says : " I cannot tell the kind of a chum I like the best because I like to have two kinds. I like to have a friend to whom I can go and forget everything I would rather not remember in her presence. I mean by that a person who is never serious. I like also to have a friend who is just the opposite. One who is serious and can help me. I like it this way because of my two moods." And several children specify certain persons whom they like best for chums, because they differ from them- selves— persons who are what they themselves are not, but what they would be — a sort of double that seems to suggest itself to the young mind during this period of inquiry and doubt. The conclusions of such studies must be regarded as tentative rather than final, but the speaker heartily agrees with Professor Baldwin that "the only way to get a solid basis for social theory, based upon human want or desire, is to work out, first, a descriptive and genetic psychology of desire in its social aspects, on the one hand ; and, on the other hand, the only way to get an adequate psychological view of the rise and development of desire in its social aspects is by a patient tracing of the conditions of social environment in which the child and the race have lived, and which they have grown up to reflect." r DEPARTMENT OF- PHYSICAL TRAINING SECRETARY'S MINUTES FIRST SESSION.— Friday, July 8, 1898 The department was called to order at 3 o'clock p. m. in the Universalist Church by the president, Dr. C. E. Ehinger, of West Chester, Penn., Normal School. The first paper, on the subject " Effect of Exercise on the Vital Organs, " was read by Dr. William T. Harris, United States Commissioner of Education, followed by Dr. Henry Ling Taylor, of New York city, on " Exercise and Vigor." Dr. Lightner Witmer, of the University of Pennsylvania, spoke on "The Mental Factor in Physical Training." Discussion was led by Dr. Edward M. Hartwell, of Boston, Mass. The committee on nominations was appointed as follows : Miss Ellen Le Garde, Providence, R. I. Miss Ada F. Thayer, Syracuse, N. Y. , Miss Mabel Pray, Toledo, O. The committee on resolutions was appointed as follows : Dr. G. W. Fitz, Cambridge, Mass. , Miss Aha Wiggins, Salt Lake City, Utah. Miss Zue Brockett, Washington, D. C. SECOND SESSION.— Monday, July ii President Ehinger called the meeting to order at 3 o'clock, and introduced Dr. R, Tait McKenzie, of the University of Montreal, who read a paper on the " Influence of School Life on Curvature of the Spine." An interesting discussion followed, which was participated in by Dr. Fitz, of Cambridge, Mass.; Mr. G. Lane Taneyhill, of Baltimore, Md.; Miss Thayer, of Syracuse, N. Y.; Miss Le Garde, of Providence, R. I.; Miss Shrieves, of Milwaukee, Wis.; Superintendent Aaron Gove, of Denver, Colo.; Superintendent Edwin P. Seaver, of Boston, Mass.; Superintendent G. W. Johnson, of Andover, Mass.; Mr. San- ford, of New York, and Dr. Ehinger, the president. " Play in Physical Education " was the subject of the second paper, by Mr. George W. Johnson, superintendent of schools, Andover, Mass. The discussion was opened by Dr. G. W. Fitz, of Harvard University. The Committee on Nominations reported the following names of persons for officers for the ensuing year : For President — Dr. George W. Fitz, Cambridge, Mass. For First Vice-President — Dr. William Krohn, Illinois Hospital for the Insane. For Second Vice-President — Miss Ellen Le Garde, Providence, R. I. For Secretary — Miss Rebecca Stoneroad, Washington, D. C. As advisory board to confer with the local committee at the next annual meeting : Miss R. Anna Morris, of Cleveland, O. ; Miss Mabel Pray, of Toledo, O., and Mr. Robert Krohn, of Portland, Ore. 929 930 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Physical The report was adopted and the nominees declared unanimously elected as officers for the ensuing year. Dr. Fitz, chairman of the Committee on Resolutions, then presented the following report : REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON RESOLUTIONS In view of tlie kindly shelter we have had in this church, and of the very complete arrangements which have been made in our behalf by the local committee, we offer the following resolutions : 1. That the hearty thanks of the Physical Education Section are due to the trustees of the Universalist Church for their kind hospitality during the meetings of the section ; 2. That the Physical Education Section offers to the local committee its heartiest thanks for the unusu- ally complete and satisfactory provision made for the comfort and convenience of its members and for the success of the meetings. H. B. BoYCE, Secretary. PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS THE EFFECT OF EXERCISE ON THE VITAL ORGANS BY WILLIAM T. HARRIS, UNITED STATES COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION It is well known that physical exercise affects directly the muscular system, and that the muscular system is not all of the body, nor, indeed, itself directly the generator of what may be called nervous energy. There is a nutritive process of digestion and a distributive process of circulation thru the heart and lungs and liver ; the two forming a building-up func- tion which restores, repairs, and increases the organism and removes the waste. There is, besides, a nervous organism which receives impressions from without and conveys impulses that react on the environment. Physical training, as we understand it, deals directly and chiefly with tlie muscular system and with that part of the nervous svstem which con- veys impulses from the brain outward thru the limbs to the environment. Physical exercise indirectly acts on the digestion and the circulatory sys- tem arid on the nerves of sensation ; and its relation to those other bodily functions is nearly or quite as important as the direct relation of exercise to the muscles and the acquiring of strength. During the first fifty years of agitation on the subject of bodily train- ing, connected with the rise of turner societies in Germany and the preaching of the gospel of bodily culture as auxiliary to intellect and will by Spurzheim, his disciple George Comb, and their numerous followers, we may say, without hesitation, that the doctrine of physical exercise was passing thru its stage of superstition and quackery. There was a sharp dividing line between the believers in hygiene and the old school of physicians, and this separation led quite naturally to dismal results. The doctors opposed, with blind conservatism, the new apostles ; and the I Department] EFFECT OF EXERCISE ON TH E VITAL ORGANS 93 1 latter justified the attitude of the former by a radicalism equally blind and fanatical. It is the glory of the present -revival of physical exercise that it is led by educated physicians. It isa new movementof thehighest importance — the establishment of a resident physician in each of our colleges as super- visor of gymnastics and recording inspector of physical development among the students. It means a synthesis of science with reform and the end of the era of quackery in hygiene. Our civilization is so bent on the conquest of nature and the produc- tion of wealth that it perpetually strains its supply of nervous energy and produces disaster along this line. Here is the special problem of our time for hygiene to meet : how to restore and conserve nervous energy. There are three factors here : first, the one of food and its proper assimilation ; second, the factor of rest and sleep ; third, the factor of exercise, muscular and mental. It is obvious enough that digestion requires nervous energy, just as muscular and mental labor do. Hence, digestion must be given time. It must not be encroached on by bodily exercise or by mental exercise. But what is the average amount of time required for this, and should it be total cessation from bodily and mental labor, or is light labor of both or either best for the digestive progress ? Besides the mistake of cutting off the sleeping hours at the beginning or at the end for the sake of physical exercise, there is an equally harmful mistake of bringing the hour of exercise close to the hours for meals. Just preceding or just succeeding a meal, any exercise of sufficiently energetic a character to cause the blood to leave the organs of digestion and fill the muscles of the body or the brain is injurious and tends to produce dyspepsia. The stomach needs the greater share of the nervous energy, and likewise of the arterial circulation. Dr. Sargent thinks that violent exercise should not be taken at a period so long as three hours after a meal, on account of the danger of faintness, which neutralizes the good results of such exercise. Provided the person has just taken vio- lent exercise, the blood is diverted to the muscles and brain, and away from the stomach. The taking of food at this time, when the nervous system is depleted of its vitality, is considered unfavorable to the best action of the digestive functions. The object of gymnastic training, it has been said often enough, is to put the will into the muscles. It is to give one such control over all his muscles that each act performed by the body is performed by the use of all the muscles which nature has provided for the purpose. The farmer or the blacksmith develops a few muscles and neglects others. The gym- nasium is supposed to cultivate many muscles which remain rudimentary in the original man ; and here, I think,' is an item of compensation which makes up for a great deal of the deletedous results coming to the impru- dent gymnast who is careless about the hygienic precautions just now 932 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Physical mentioned in relation to eating and sleeping. The gymnast — and I mean by the gymnast one who has taken sufficiently violent exercise to develop to a considerable degree the muscles of the chest, back, arms, and the other limbs — the gymnast, I say, has acquired the power of putting his will into his muscles by a slight effort. The gymnast performs all slight bodily actions, such as rising from a chair, sitting down, walking, climbing stairs, swinging his arms, turning his head, everything, in short, that he does with his body, by using many more muscles than the untrained person uses. Hence it happens that one who has taken gym- nastic exercise retains till old age the power of getting a maximum of exercise out of a minimum of bodily movement. Walking a few rods and running up and down stairs two or three times a day gives him as much exercise as the average farmer gets from two hours of farm work. The great physical need of the pupil is relaxation ; the pupil needs to stretch his cramped muscles and send the blood in torrents thru his limbs, which become torpid with unuse. The pupil is in want of fresh air and of the deep inflation of the lungs that exercise in the open air gives. He ought to use his voice, too. The reformers propose to sub- stitute calisthenics for the purpose of supplying all these wants. They will throw open the windows and let in fresh air ; they will have a system of well-devised movements which will give the needed circulation of the blood, etc. Calisthenic exercise serves a good place in the schoolroom, but its most important function is not a physiological one. It is true that the blood is caused to circulate more vigorously thru the limbs and those parts of the body that have become partly torpid with sitting or standing still. But the chief demand upon the pupil in calisthenics is a require- ment of him to strain his attention and exercise his will. It is a will training to a greater extent than a physiological training. The great dis- tinction between work and play is this one : in play the mind is spontaneous, governed entirely by its own individuality; in work the will power is exercised to conform its individuality to some externally prescribed course of action. Calisthenic exercise is severe work, and not by any means a relaxation. But the child needs relaxation, and not merely a change of work, altho the change is of some benefit. Exer- cise of the limbs, in accordance with a prescribed formula, is not the thing that nature requires. Our medical advisers who supervise gymnastic exercises are in pro- cess of correcting the evils and extending the benefits of physical educa- tion. Their best service is to be along the line of enlightening the student who is on the verge or beyond the verge of nervous prostration how to build anew his nerves. For they will teach him the function of sleep and amusement ; of rest before and after meals ; of the danger of following a mental strain of the will by another strain of the will directed DepartmentJ EXERCISE AND VIGOR 933 to the muscles ; of the danger of exercise late at night ; of the danger of tobacco and alcoholic liquors. We shall have science instead of quackery. And in the anticipation of the arrival of all these good things, allow me to congratulate you on being the pioneers of the better, the new, physical education. EXERCISE AND VIGOR BY HENRY LING TAYLOR, M.D., NEW YORK CITY The human organism seems to sum up a threefold evolution : First, ascent along the animal scale, with increasing complexity of structure and activity; second, the social, political, and economic evolution from the hunting and fighting savage to civilized man, a change to still greater complexity of relations, which, while it transfers the stress of activity in larger measure to the nervous structures, is still characterized on the whole by an active muscular life. The third evolution, that of the indi- vidual, epitomizes, in its earlier and later stages respectively, the general trend of the two preceding. This race and life history is registered in the bodily structure and tendencies, from which, as well as from experi- ence, we may infer that man is by nature well adapted to a large measure of muscular activity, and poorly constructed for a sedentary life. Exercise and vigor are married and cannot be divorced ; this is also the direct teaching of bodily structure. The five hundred voluntary muscles make up nearly one-half the weight of a well-developed man. They are intimately connected by nervous filaments with the nerve centers, and thru these with nearly all the tissues and organs of the body. Besides the fleshy muscles, whose contractions cause evident movements of the bodily frame, there is an important and widely distributed set of muscular fibers of a different kind, which surround the blood vessels and hollow organs, and by contracting modify their length and caliber. These involuntary fibers are equally subject to the control of nervous forces, tho not to the will, and are largely dependent upon the activity of the voluntary muscles for their proper tone and function. The fundamental, but almost unnoticed, work of the economy — the cardiac contractions, the respiratory movements, the adjustments of the muscular coats of the vessels and viscera, the maintenance of vital heat — calls in twenty-four hours for the expenditure of six times as much energy as the day's work of a man at hard labor. Upon the vigor and activity of the involuntary fibers largely depends the ability of the vessels and organs properly to perform their work, and to protect the body from deleterious influences. 934 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Physica In the muscle itself contraction produces heat, work, sound, and cer- tain chemical and electrical reactions. There is a greater flow of blood to the working muscle; absorption of oxygen and nutritive material is increased; tissue change and the formation of waste are accelerated. Muscular irritability is lowered by diminishing the local supply of oxygen by admitting certain toxic substances to the blood, and by repeated stimu- lation. The conditions of health for a working muscle are, therefore, "a full supply of proper food and oxygen, unimpeded and sufficient drain- age, and rest at due intervals" (Hartwell). Considered dynamically, a muscle is a machine for converting the potential energy of its own substance into heat and motion. In muscular contraction four times as much energy is converted into heat as into work. The muscles and organs exist for and obey the nerve centers, as the soldiers of an army obey their officers. The muscles contribute, also, in a very important degree to modify these centers, as the general and his staff base their orders on the reports of their subordinates, and are dependent for their sustenance upon the service of the soldiers. Each is in fact, absolutely helpless without the other ; for without soldiers orders cannot be executed, and without officers there are no orders to execute. In health and under hygienic conditions muscular movements tend to improve the nutrition and growth of the muscles used ; the black smith's arm is a familiar example. The larger muscles act like so many hearts, kneading and compressing the vessels and organs in their vicinity, and assisting the blood current, their own drainage and that of neighbor- ing structures ; even the bones participate to such a degree in the devel- opment of adjacent muscles that it is often possible from the size and structure of the bones alone to form a fair idea of the muscular life of their former possessor. Only by somewhat prolonged and strenuous exercise are the lungs thoroly ventilated, unless by special pulmonary gymnastics, as the cry of an infant. Upon the heart and circulation the effect of exercise is most important ; the tendency is to relieve the congestion of local areas, and to accelerate the circulation. The effect of exercise upon the digestive organs, upon the skin, and upon the organs of elimination is equally marked, and upon the nervous centers it is of vital importance. If a limb is amputated in early life, the corresponding brain area never reaches full development, and may be visibly shrunken. Every move- ment is registered in the nerve centers, and brings them into new rela- tions and under new influences. The mind depends for its development uponthe registration and comparison of sensory impressions; of these a considerable share is of muscular origin, but the character and amount of all sensory impressions are conditioned by muscular activity. Since the effect of exercise on the different organs and vital processes is so pro- found, it must and does modify general vigor, temper, mind, and charac- Department] EXERCISE AND VIGOR 935 ter. Can you imagine a vigorous and beautiful physique or a thoroly capable and well-balanced mind, except as the correlative of the generous use of God-given faculties, including that of varied and thoro muscular activity ? An indolent or sedentary life is inevitably reflected in weak and flabby muscles, -soft or brittle bones, deficient respiratory power, feeble circulation, an inactive skin, languid and imperfect nutritive pro- cesses, deficient reactive power, in a figure devoid of grace, an ungraceful carriage, and not seldom in an eccentric or sluggish mentality. In the absence of considerable vigorous use of the larger muscles, one must be content to go thru life withered in the essential elements of vitality and steeped in one's own stagnant and poisonous waste. The special effects and general tendencies of exercise will depend upon the kind and amount of the muscular movements and upon many other factors. They are not always or necessarily beneficial. Move- ments involving mainly the smaller muscles, as in piano playing or sewing, are useless, or even harmful, as exercise. Movements of the larger muscles, especially those of the trunk, are the most desirable. Exercise does harm in most acute and many chronic diseases, in condi- tions of over-fatigue, or too scanty nourishment, in severe injuries, hemorrhage, and shock. When exercise is too severe for the reactive powers of the individual, it tends to waste, rather than to develop, his powers ; where it is too monotonous or badly distributed, it may produce deformity. In many diseases, however, exercise, systematically and prop- erly taken, is of incalculable benefit. What the individual, sick or well, usually needs is not exercise or rest, but exercise and rest in due propor- tion and in the proper order. Keeping these fundamental facts in mind, let us briefly trace the role of exercise at the principal periods of development. The infant, like the savage, starts out as an active being. All its crying and kicking and seemingly purposeless movements aid in the development of the individual, begun by the differentiation of a single cell, and carried on thru embryo, infant, child, and adolescent to adult. At first an organism of increasing complexity is built up, later special powers are emphasized at the cost of others. Are strong and healthy organs developed when this spontaneous activity of the baby is habitually restrained and repressed ? The facts speak otherwise ; the over-coddled, over-dressed, and restricted babies are the delicate ones. Nature has pro- vided at the start for this necessary neuro-muscular training by an inborn impulse to movement which will develop and safeguard the growing organs, if the child is protected from ignorant interference, other con- ditions as to diet, fresh air, and sleep being normal. Even the savage mother, often obliged by her peculiar life to impose special restrictions upon her infant, is careful to permit the necessary exercise. In describing Indian infancy and the use of the portable cradle, Mrs. Fletcher says ; 936 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Physical " It is a mistaken notion that the child is kept up all the time. Every day the baby is bathed and placed on a robe or blanket to kick and crow to his heart's content ; but when the family cares call the mother away, he is put into the cradle with his arm free to play with the many bright beads that hang from the hoop that encircles the head of this little port- able bed." In Africa the system of infantile physical training practiced by certain tribes is more vigorous. Mr. E. J. Glave gives the following description in the Century: "I note at Chikwa's that the little baby strapped to his mother's back has a rough-and-tumble time of it, but takes it all good-naturedly, and one hears very little crying in the village. The mother goes to the fields with baby on her back, bobs about four hours in the hot sun, weeding, hoeing, and doing general gardening ; carries huge jars of water on her head ; scrapes him repeatedly as she bends and enters the narrow, low doorways of native huts ; gives him a thorough shak- ing as she vigorously pounds corn with a long wooden pestle ; takes him by the wrist, ducks him in the stream till he is nearly suffocated, and then spreads him on a mat to dry." The characteristic activity of the young child is shown in play, which is the spontaneous and joyous exercise of budding power, and in which motor activity, imitation, fancy, and the social instinct ar^ deftly inter- woven. The play of children furnishes not only amusement, but price- less mental and physical training. The child is practicing the scales of muscular experience in order later to select the chords and arrange the harmony. What the child mainly needs is opportunity; a place to play in, children to play with. Here the city child is placed at a disadvantage, since both these essentials are too often lacking, and the child is repressed in deference to conventional standards of decorum or to the convenience of the elders. Special attention should be paid to this informal motor education of the child during its most plastic period before the school age. One of our wisest men has truly said : " He who helps a child helps humanity with a directness, an immediateness, which no other help given to human creatures at any other time of their human life can pos- sibly give again." With the school age come more conventional stand- ards and more restrictions, essential no doubt, but rendering all the more imperative the relaxation of the recess, the recreation of the playground, and the freedom of out-of-doors, into which play, games, and, later, athletic sports naturally enter. At this point we are brought face to face with the question of a more systematic and formal physical training, namely, some kind of gymnastics. This is needed, in my opinion, espe- cially above the primary grades; and because it does train the nerve centers, the intelligence, and the character, as well as the muscles — in other words, because it forms an essential factor of a solid education — it should take its place on its merits in the regular curriculum. This means for success intelligent, trained, and inspired teachers, and a coherent plan bepartmem] kkERCISE AND VIGOR $37 modified to suit particular circumstances — conditions essential in every branch of instruction. If you ask a horsebreeder how to train a horse, he will probably reply : " W-hat kind of a horse, how old, and for what purpose ?" It is impossible to breed or train an animal which shall at once be suitable for draft and for racing ; nor will the train- ing appropriate for a yearling be applicable to a three-year-old. With regard to a child the situation is similar; means must be varied to suit sex, age, race, social and other conditions. No cut-and-dried for- mula or system will answer. There is no ready-made prescription which will enable us to dispense with observation, experience, intel- ligence, and judgment in the application of established principles. Much relating both to principles and to their application remains to be worked out by pedagogic, gymnastic, and medical experts, for it will take a com- bination of all to produce the best practical results. Indeed, it is a favorite opinion of mine that the knowledge of the medical and sanitary expert should be drawn upon in all school matters, from the choosing of a site and the planning of a curriculum to the daily routine of school life. Physical training without regard to the laws of hygiene is futile. You cannot accomplish everything by exercise any more than you can by diet, sleep, recreation, dress, fresh air, or mental occupation. What is wanted is a proper proportion between the salutary ingredients of life. The rela- tion of physical training to hygiene will furnish a hint for correlation in the scheme of instruction. Its relation to voice culture and manual train- ing may furnish others. One thing that has been established in the opinion of experts is the worthlessness of military drill for physical training in schools. The manual of arms is positively detrimental to the young. Proper physical training, while in the highest degree disciplinary and educational, will also assist in establishing a foundation of organic com- petence which will be of the greatest ultimate value to the individual, and, of course, to the community. Still, of the two kinds of physical train- ing, the formal and the informal, the informal, under favorable conditions, is probably the most valuable for the effects on the vital organs, because it is more attractive, because it is pursued in the open air, because it is on the whole more varied and thoro, and because the child can get more of it. It also is educational, and it furnishes a kind of mental training that comes from informal contact with nature and life, and which can hardly be got from books, schools, or instructors. I heartily agree with what has been said of the evils of competitive athletics, especially in adolescents ; at the same time it must be admitted that they furnish an interest and incentive that we could poorly afford to lose. They emphasize physical competence, beauty, and courage, and the worth and dignity of the physical ; they spread their inspiration among our young people, and fill a place in modern life comparable to that of the old Greek contests, so instructively described. They cannot be made 938 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION LPhysical to take the place of rational physical training, but they illustrate a worthy ideal, and their principal evils may be much diminished by discouraging a too narrow specialism, and by favoring the contests of groups, rather than those of individuals. After the school and college years come the years of performance and the years of decline ; the years of the repetition of the daily task and the years when the daily task may become a burden. Modern industrialism has imposed grievous restrictions upon our people. Excessive division and subdivision of labor make the daily round for the masses dull and one- sided ; for another class the emphasis put upon the wits in the struggle and strain of competition often gives a fatal twist to mind and body ; for increasing numbers the limitations of city life are added ; for the majo- rity, perhaps, false ideals and false standards of success are displayed. Solidity is sacrificed to keenness, power to penetration. Industrialism certainly has its brighter side and is, no doubt, a necessary phase of progress. Perhaps the plan is to elevate the race by killing off the unduly greedy, for those who sacrifice too ardently to greed are ruth- lessly extinguished. Vital organs give way under the unnatural strain, and the community pays its annual tribute in wrecked and ruined lives. What can exercise do for us during the maturity and decline of our powers ? Much, if early training has been broad and thoro ; something, when this has been deficient. Without waiting for the collapse, the wise worker uses a portion of his daily off-hours, his weekly rest, and his occa- sional vacation to round out his physical and mental experience, and to build up neglected or wasted powers thru new activities and avocations. It is well to emphasize contrasts ; let us not carry our work into our play or our play into our work. Alternation is a law of nature. Those addicted to sedentary pursuits will find delight as well as vigor in excursions with rod, gun, or camera; in the cultivation of some taste or fancy for scenery, for rocks, plants, insects, or birds in their natural surroundings. Horseback riding is good ; riding a selected hobby maybe better. Such pursuits provide a perennial interest ; sugar one's pill of physical training so that one is hardly aware of it ; keep us in loving touch with our first mother. Nature, from whom we cannot long or widely stray without danger and loss. Besides giving us exercise in its best form without any necessity on our part for elaborating its details, such pursuits end by giving us new points of view and better ideals. Walking over a hard, level sidewalk is one of the poorest exercises known to man, but hill and mountain climbing, and rambles across an uneven country, with their attendant fence climbing and ditch jumping, are among the best. These are within the reach of thousands who little suspect their possibilities for enjoyment and invigoration. This is the kind of exercise that will ventilate the lungs, strengthen the heart, aid the digestion, and eliminate effete material. Department! CURVATURE OF THE SPINE 939 Still, it remains true that hundreds of thousands suffer from too much rather than too little exercise. Children of tender years are stunted in growth and development by the strain of daily labor in factory or shop, and, under modern conditions, the laboring adult is, perhaps, as often injured and deformed by his work as he is invigorated and perfected. For these, too, country rambles and excursions, with the emphasis on their restful and recreative sides, will bring refreshment and new interests. Our people are just beginning to recognize the value of country life and occupations, combined with out-of-door employments for the defect- ive and degenerate. By such means the idiotic, the insane, the depend- ent, and the vicious may often be reconstructed and redeemed. Dr. Wey, at Elmira, found that the vicious and incorrigible dullards of the State Reform School were physically defective. They respond to system- atic exercise, and bathing, and a generous diet, and to nothing else. Dr. Spratling, of the New York State Epileptic Colony at Sonyea, reports wonderful results from removing the inmates of crowded institutions to the detached buildings of the colony, and putting them at farm work. He says he has seen epileptic seizures disappear into the ground thru a hoe handle. These are but samples of a most promising field that is only just beginning to be worked. In advanced years comfort and refreshment will still come from the less active forms of out-of-door exercise, like gardening, driving, and rambles of moderate length. Happy he who in earlier years has acquired special interests and intimacies under an open sky. Physical training, then, like training of the mind and heart, is for all ages and all conditions a most wholesome and necessary ingredient in the full cup of life. Are there higher ideals than strength, courage, service? Dare we neglect the physical in their cultivation ? We may, I think, safely conclude that man is formed for muscular activity, and that thru a wise use of exercise his organs and powers may be educated, strengthened, and refreshed. INFLUENCE OF SCHOOL LIFE ON CURVAIURE OF THE SPINE BY R. TAIT MCKENZIE, M.D., DEMONSTRATOR OF ANATOMY, MEDICAL EXAMINER, AND INSTRUCTOR IN GYMNASTICS, M^GILL UNIVERSITY In a series of examinations made last year in the Montreal High School, of boys varying in age from thirteen to eighteen, and averaging a little over fifteen years, I was struck by the number that presented some marked irregularity of grOwth ; and on tabulating them I find that 20 per 94© NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Physical cent, had a marked lowering of the right shoulder, 3 per cent, had the left low, scoliosis was found in 2 per cent., lordosis marked in 5 per cent., and round shoulders in 3 per cent.; while the habitual standing position of 30 per cent, approached more or less closely to what Bernard Roth has aptly named the "gorilla type" — abdomen protruded, chest flat, and head'shoved forward. These defects are found not alone among school boys, for out of 204 college students of the athletic class examined at McGill twenty-nine showed these same defects, varying from slight unevenness of the shoulders to marked scoliosis. In a much more extended series of cases than those I have been able to see, other observers have found similar results, and I may quote the name of Dr. Scudder, of Boston, and of Dr. Seaver, of Yale, who found about 6 per cent, of Yale students presenting more or less lateral devia- tion of the spinal column. Admitting the frequency of this fault among boys — and every observer knows that girls are much more particularly liable to spinal weakness and deviations during the critical age of school life — does it not seem worth while to attempt its prevention, if the scientific, hygienic regulation of the hours of school life can be used for that purpose ? Perhaps an inquiry into the condition of the spine during the years of childhood will show better than anything else the way in which ordi- nary scoliosis — or, as I prefer to call it, "fatigue scoliosis" — is brought about. I may say, in passing, that the great bulk of cases are of that class. Other causes, such as rickets, paralysis, etc., are responsible for but very few scattered cases in comparison. In infancy the spinal column is straight, or bent in a slight curve for- ward from hip to neck ; the bones are not yet ossified, and present a mass of pliable, cartilaginous material, with small deposits of bone. Between the vertebrae the disks are very soft and compressible, and the ligaments pliant and easily stretched. Immediately on assuming the upright position certain changes take place. A sharp forward curve develops in the lower lumbar region, con- tinued up into the dorsum, so that the infantile curve is reversed, and the back is hollowed. Gradually a compensating curve in the dorsal region develops and increases, till the well-marked backward curve of the back is the result; and, by the time adult life is reached, a third develops in the cervical in the same direction as the lumbar. It is while these curves are forming that the child's school life is passed. The formation of the first, or lumbar, curve is helped greatly by mus- cular action : the great mass of the erector spinae muscle, pulling back on the vertebrae of the lower part of the dorsal region, acts like a bow string, while the powerful psoas muscles springing from the front and sides of DcpartmcntJ CURVATURE Of THE SPINE 941 the vertebrae, and going down to the thigh, further help in the formation of the forward curve by being on the stretch when the child is in the standing position. The other curves are undoubtedly compensatory in character. The muscles that act on the spinal column are most intricate and numerous, the superficial layers consisting of long strands passing, some to ribs, but mostly from spinous process to transverse process of the vertebra. The deeper layers are shorter, and the deepest pass only from one bone to its next neighbor. Gray describes five distinct layers, each containing from three to twelve muscles. This apparent redundancy and unnecessary complication are, after all, the one safety we have in pre- serving the upright posture. We know that, if we hold the arm out at right angles, the fatigue and pain at the shoulder soon become intolerable, and few can stand the test as long as five minutes. The main strain falls on one muscle, the deltoid, which has no relief from continuous action. The same condition would result in the back without this system of small muscles that keep working in relays, each slight movement bringing into action a new set, and relieving the tired ones. Without this ingenious arrangement the erect posture would be an impossibility. Anything that will interfere with this action of the muscles in relays will hasten the oncome of fatigue and collapse. The constant desire for movement is the most striking quality of young animal life, human or otherwise — the play instinct so wonderfully understood by Froebel, and so sapiently applied in the games of the kindergarten to the development of the best physical powers of the child. With his introduction to regular school life the child's physical troubles begin. He is made to sit still from three to six hours, with but momentary rests at long intervals. The play instinct, expressed by recur- rent attacks of the " fidgets," has to be sternly suppressed by the teacher for the sake of discipline. The rapid fatigue of the undeveloped muscles and compression of the unformed bone are enough to encourage and fix faulty postures ; but if we analyze the writing posture, we can trace the progress from the normal to collapse in the position of pronounced scoliosis, or skewed back. I quote from Dr. Fahrner, whose description is so good that to change it would spoil it : Before writing begins, the children sit perfectly upright, with both scapulae thrown back equally. As soon as writing begins, all the children move their heads slightly for- ward and to the left. Soon head after head drops with a rapid jerk from fatigue of the neck muscles. In a short time the back also collapses, so as to hang from the shoulder blades, supported by the upper arm. Then two types are seen, depending on the part of the book they are at. Those writing on the upper part support themselves on both elbows, and let the chest sink forward against the desk, and back becomes curved for- ward— the round back. 942 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Physical The eyes are three or four inches distant from the desk, and the support is from three points — the left elbow, the chest, and the right forearm, slightly. When at the bottom of the book, they lose their third support, and have the left elbow alone, and add to these faults of position a twisting or screwing of the back toward the right. The head is bent toward the left shoulder, the right arm, with the scapula standing out like a wing, rests anywhere and lightly ; the eyes are too close to the paper. This is the process of collapse by tiring out the spinal muscles as you tire out an arm by holding it at right angles, and scoliosis is the writing position become fixed. The evils of this "confinement with hard labor" are notably increased and made more dangerous by ill-fitting desks and seats. This subject has been taken up so fully by more able and better- informed observers, such as Scudder and Hartwell in America, Cohen in England, and Fahrner, Eulenberg. and Bach in Germany, that I will do little more than mention the defects usually found, and name the reme- dies that have already been found efficient in combating these evils. The seat may misfit in three ways. It may be too low, bringing the weight on the hip bones and cramping the knees ; it may be too high, leav- ing the legs suspended in the air from the knees — a position that inter- feres with the circulation in the legs, and causes rounding of the back. The seat may be too deep, and the back is thus prevented from reaching the back rest, with rounding of the whole back as a result. The desks may misfit in five ways : When too low, the pupil must bend forward and round the shoulders. When too high, the book is brought too close to the eyes, and the shoulder must be raised and the back screwed in writing. When the desk is flat, or but slightly sloped, the head must be brought too far forward in reading. In the placing of a fixed desk too great a distance between it and the seat results in some of the same defects as in a low desk — the forward bend- ing and stretching in writing ; while, if too near, the chest is cramped and respiration interfered with. With so many errors, it would seem a deli- cate matter to steer clear of them all and get the ideal desk, and if our children are to spend five or six hours a day on their seats, before these desks, it is surely a matter of the gravest moment that to confinement and fixity of position — evils in themselves — there be not added the crime of misfitting desks and seats, to accelerate weariness and hasten the projluc- tion of the fixed scoliosis of fatigue. The problem is to have a seat whose length and breadth are propor- tional to the under surface of the thighs and buttocks of the sitter ; to place it at such a height tha,t the sitter's feet may rest flat upon the floor when the legs are bent to a right angle, and to provide a rest that will support the sitter's back, whether quiescent or actively engaged. The desk must be of the right height and slope. The under surface must not cramp the knees ; and, above all, it must not be placed so far for- Department] CURVATURE OF THE SPINE 943 ward in relation to the seat as to require undue leaning forward in the sitter. This last defect is shown in the normal dimensions given by Eulen- berg and Bach, but was probably a concession to convenience as permit- ting the pupil to get in and out more easily. A vertical line dropped from the edge of the desk cover to the chair seat is called the "difference," while the space between this line and the edge of the seat is called the "distance." If the desk overhangs the seat, the distance is said to be minus, if not, it is said to be plus. Remember- ing these two technical terms, it is easy to explain the points of a well- fitting desk. The difference should be equal to measurement from the elbow tip to the seat, the forearm being bent at right angles and elbow to the side. The distance should be minus two inches, but if adjustable for distance, so much the better. The desk slope is best at one in six inches. The seat height should equal the measurement from the under surface of the bent knee to the sole of the foot. The depth of the seat should eijable the back to touch the back rest thruout. The back rest should have a projection for the loins, and should sweep backward to follow the natural curve of the back, and give the figure a slightly reclining pose. If in the furnishing of a schoolroom the furniture cannot be made adjustable thruout, some at least in every room should be so made, and the others constructed on the model just laid down, the result of years of experiments and thought by skilled observers. Even with well-fitting seats and desks the present writing position is such as to favor to a marked extent the formation of fatigue scoliosis or the permanent " screwed back." Vertical writing has been spoken of as a panacea for the "screwed back." It has been so strongly recommended by Cohen, of London, that he says, " with the slanting script one never knows whether a pupil has sat upright or not ; with the vertical script he must have sat upright while writing." Dr. E. R. Shaw has pretty clearly shown this to be fallacious, but the fact remains that its adoption would tend to lessen the frequency of fatigue scoliosis, especially if care were exercised by teachers to keep the pupils rested and in good posi- tion. The third point that tends to produce faulty posture, the starting- point of lateral curvature, is bad lighting of the schoolroom. If insufficient, we have at once the rounded back and stooped shoulders in the pupil who cannot see clearly. The same effect is produced when the windows are so arranged that the pupil sits in his own light. The windows should be placed high up, and the light should fall over the left shoulder, and never directly from the front or back. 944 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Physical Every school system should have a medical officer as adviser. His duties should be, in brief, somewhat as follows : 1. He should give advice in the construction of schoolhouses in mat- ters of general hygiene, but more particularly in the lighting and seating of the schoolrooms. 2. He should inspect the rooms from time to time during school hours, to see that the pupils are not misfitted in desks or seats. 3. He should make a careful examination of the muscular system and heart and lungs, etc., in all pupils, before taking part in the rougher games, such as football and basket-ball, and keep a record of these examinations. 4. He should be consulted by teachers in all cases where they observe a tendency to curvature or weakness, or dullness of any of the senses ; and they should then be examined carefully and a record kept. These cases should be followed thruout their school life, and the teachers advised as to the defects. Where advisable, the parents should be warned and advised. The school should be the place for the detection and prevention of faults in growth, but the treatment of these cases should be confined strictly to what Dr. Sargent has called "straight work," in which both sides of the body are equally used ; and it does not fall within the province of the school specially to treat them, any more than it would to prescribe glasses for shortness of sight. Such work is therapeutic, and requires special, individual medical treat- ment, which the instructor, when one is present, has not the time to give, even if he could and it were advisable. It is in such cases that the value of an adviser is apparent, and even these unfortunates that have passed unheeded thru the plastic first stages of scoliosis till the faulty posture has become habitual may by careful treatment be restored to the symme- try that is man's birthright. DISCUSSION Dr. Fitz, Harvard University. — The question of scoliosis in schools is of perennial interest to all who are teaching and have charge of children. In my own experience, it seems to me that the influence of the desk is not so great as has been maintained, inas- much as the attitude that the child takes is the same attitude he takes at home, and is very frequently the attitude he takes in bed. In the investigations which we have been mak- ing at the Children's Hospital in Boston we have found a great many cases where the scoliosis has been determined by the bed position. The child has had a uniform position in bed, lying upon the same side, and the sagging of the body between the supporting points of hip and shoulder has determined the curve absolutely, as shown by having the child lie upon the table in the habitual posture, and then reverse, making him lie on the I Dcpartmentl CURVATURE OF THE SPINE 945 other side, when the curve will have a tendency to be obliterated, if it has not become fixed by bony change. Whenever a child suggests, by the retention of a posture, the question as to whether it is a habitual posture or not, the teacher should get information from the parents with regard to the position taken in sleep, and, if possible, have it reversed. Nearly all young children curl up in bed, and it will be of the greatest benefit if the teacher can correct that, by getting the parents either to straighten the children out or tie them out. The last suggestion is not a cruel one at all, for the children are very tolerant of rather extreme measures. They should be tied out straight, preferably in a back position, or alternately upon right and left side. The teacher should not be content with observing the child, and deciding that he has scoliosis, or has a habitual posture that may bring on scoliosis, but should go to the parents and investigate with regard to the other habitual postures, and, if possible, correct them. There are so many cases of round shoulders, of flexible spines with habitually depressed shoulders, or with a habitual twist, which can easily be corrected if proper steps are taken, that it is well worth while for every teacher to be on the lookout for them. Miss Le Garde, director of physical training in public schools, Providence, R. I. — I should like to speak of the plan which was tried in the Providence schools. As soon as one of the physical supervisors discovers a case of round shoulders, or lateral curvature, a note is sent to the parents of the child requesting them to meet the teacher and the phys- ical director at the building. The average parent is only too willing to come and see what the state of the case may be. The deplorable ignorance of parents as regards their own children is very apparent to any physical director. If the boys are found possessed of any physical defect, it is suggested that they attend a certain class — in the Y. M. C. A., for instance — where special attention is given to the cure of curvature, and other like defects. The girls are recom- mended elsewhere. One of the graduates of the Boston Hospital for Children takes cases of this nature, and an arrangement has also been made at one of the hospitals where charity cases are taken. This last year, since medical inspection has been put into operation, the doctor makes a visit to each of the schoolrooms, in company with a very broad-minded woman, who is at the head of the primary department. This is done at the request of the different schools. In this way the children are watched, and cases of spinal curvature noted. The teachers give most valuable aid in visiting the homes and helping in every way possible. Adjustable desks are all very well ; every schoolroom in the seven hundred or more rooms in the city of Providence has adjustable desks in the front aud back rows, and the new buildings have all adjustable desks ; but the trouble is that they are not adjusted, and the teacher seats the children indiscriminately. Aaron Gove, superintendent of schools, Denver, Colo. — I am confronted now more and more, year by year, with curvature of the spine, especially of the girls — of which, of course, I know nothing except the fact of the bald statement. It has been suggested to me, in the course of all this work which we are doing, that curvature of the spine with our girls in the grammar and high schools perhaps can better be traced back to the piano stool than to the schoolroom desk. I remember my ancestors lived and worked, healthy and healthful, to a good old age » and were vigorous and bright, physically speaking. Now, what is the trouble today? I don't know. I should be very glad, and, I suppose, I shall be forced, to urge the authori- ties with whom I work hereafter to supply nothing but an expensive adjustable desk. The very difficulty suggested just now is one which occurs constantly in practical work — not with those who' investigate scientifically, but with those who work practically — viz., the necessity of changing pupils from seat to seat, for many reasons that occur in the admin- istration of a schoolroom, I am troubled to know if this great change in the physical 946 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Physical make-up of our girls is something that belongs to modern civilization and abuse, or 'if it must be traced directly to abuse in the schoolroom. Miss Thayer, director of physical training in public schools, Syracuse, N. Y. — After watching the children of the primary and junior grades, and finding the worst cases of round shoulders, upon going to their homes to ascertain how they live, I find, in a very great many cases, that the children are taking care of little babies, their brothers and sisters ; and, of course, after spending so many hours of the day at that kind of work, they have round shoulders. I do not see how we are going to correct that part of the evil. You can talk to the mothers, but these children have to be attended to. With regard to the adjustable desks, I will say that we are using them in many of our new schools with great success. They are under the direction of the department of physical training, and the janitor changes them as they need to be changed. In schools where they have been introduced the children are straighter than before their intro- duction. Edwin P. Seaver, superintendent of schools, Boston, Mass. — Mr. President : I am prompted to say that I do not feel quite as skeptical as Mr. Gove appears to feel about the benefits to be derived from some improvements in school furniture, and more use of the adjustable desks. I will say this, however, that we have experimented with three or four kinds in my city, and we have not been perfectly satisfied with any one make. A committee was set at work about a year and a half ago, consisting of physicians able to deal with the sub- ject, of which committee your associate here. Dr. Hartwell, is chairman. That committee has done a great deal of work in investigating the whole subject, and in trying to devise some simple form of adjustable furniture consisting of chair and desk. When that com- mittee reports, its device will be public property. But no one need be dismayed at the cost of these desks. It is not necessary to furnish the whole room with them. The lady who spoke a moment ago said that, in her schools, the front row and the back row were made adjustable, the rows being fixed in a single room. Our practice is to make two rows out of seven, up and down the room, adjustable. Those seats are used for the very large or the very small pupils, or the abnormally shaped pupils in any way; and then, by having three sizes of the standard furniture for the other five rows, we can manage to fit the children to the seats pretty well — so that the knee is not brought too high, so that the feet are not left dangling in the air, and so that the body is placed in the right relation to the desk — with a tolerable approach to accuracy. George E. Johnson, superintendent of schools, Andover, Mass. — Mr. President : I wish to rise to a very brief point. The objection was made that, inasmuch as these evils which have been mentioned are not due to schools, or school work, we should not bother ourselves with trying to remedy them. I should like to know if that is really the attitude which we should take in the public schools. Now, it is over two hundred and fifty years since Massachusetts made education universal and free. And one of the leading purposes of that action, as stated in the ordi- nances of the state, was that children should be trained to morality and good citizenship. And yet, crime has steadily increased in Massachusetts ever since, and especially during the last decade. Some people go so far as to say that the schools are to blame for making criminals. We do not believe that. But are we to rest satisfied with that fact ? Are not the public schools to do what they can to prevent it ? Now, in the matter of the physical side of the children : the state has a big hand in our public schools ; and it is supposed to train its children for the sake of the state. Are we to confine ourselves, then, to the intellectual side, and to remedying only the evils that arise in the schools ; or is it our province to make the child better, so far as we can, in whatever shape we find him ? If he is round-shouldered, no matter how he got that way, Dcpartmentl CURVATURE OF THE SPINE 947 the fact is, he is round-shotildered. He is lop-sided. Shall we rest content or shall we make him straight ? Dr. EHiNGER.dire'ctor of physical training, West Chester, Pa., Normal School. — Ihave been working for the past eight years in a normal school where we have given physical examinations to all the students, and I find, as most of those who make examinations do, that we have a great many cases of spinal curvature. Now, the unfortunate thing is this, that at the age at which we examine those students it is usually impossible to do very much for spinal curvatures that have been fixed for a long time, even tho those curvatures may not be due to any organic trouble — ^I mean organic in the sense of any bone defect; the vertebriE may be intact — simply beginning with muscular deficiencies, which, I firmly believe, might have been corrected had they been detected earlier. Now, what does this mean ? It simply ^eans that we must, in some way, learn to detect these things a little earlier ; and it is not a difficult matter, in my opinion, to detect the marked cases, even for those who have had no especial instruction, if they know what to look for. Therefore I believe in pressing this point of calling the attention of the regular school-teacher to the danger of spinal curvatures. If it is not detected early, you may usually make up your mind that there is not much to be done. Several points, I think, ought to be mentioned. One is the mode of carrying the infant on the part of the mother or nurse. It is sometimes the cause of spinal curvature in the child, and parents ought to know it. Curvature is readily caused by carrying the child continually on one side, with the little arm thrown over the shoulder, and even by leading it, continually holding the hand upon one side. One cause of spinal curvature of which we all know is that of the incorrect standing position. I believe that the attention of our students ought to be called to their habitual positions, since often these positions, are more at fault than the desks. In the physical examinations of our pupils one of the most marked things I have noticed in the last three years, where there is no spinal curvature, is the unusual prominence of one hip. Of course, in exaggerated cases, there is the protruding abdomen, the head forward, and the differ- ence in the hips ; but you will notice in a large percentage of cases that there is an enlarged hip on one side — that is, the outline of the hip is much curved, while it is straighter on the other. If you go a little farther, you will see the difference in the height of the hips, and the height of the gluteal fold ; also a difference in the shoulders, and perhaps a spinal curvature. Another cause is the carrying of schoolbooks. When children take home regularly a number of books, and carry them usually on the stronger side, or put them in a satchel and swing them across one side, spinal curvature is likely to be induced, since the bodies are flexible, and the bones are in a plastic condition. Superintendent Gove has asked, What is the matter with our girls. What is the matter with our boys ? — because I find that almost as many boys have spinal curvature as girls. I believe it is due to a lack of muscular tone. I believe there is not the muscular vigor that they ought to have. Of course, there are a great many causes ; but the rapid increase of city life, and imperfect exercise and hygienic conditions, are among the causes. Dr. Tait McKenzie, McGiil University, Montreal. — As to the correction of physica defects, I do not think that the school is the place for the correction of scoliosis — after it has developed so as to require treatment, I mean. It is the place to prevent it, if we can ; it is the place to do what we can in z. general way, such as having the positions at the seats made better, and improving the standing position, as Dr. Ehinger pointed out ; but it ffe not the place for the direct treatment, which, I think, is more of a medical specialty just as is the correction of short sight, as I said in my paper. The gentleman from Colorado, Mr. (love, spoke about the straightness of our grand- mothers. Well, I have heard that before ; I have heard it from my own grandmother, about the straightness of the girls in her time. Of course we did not see them when they 948 NATIOMAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Physical were girls, and we do not know. There were no measurements taken, either. I am inclined to think that, conditions being equal, there is no more curvature and no more crooked backs now than there were then. It is a point, of course, which can never be proved, one way or the other, as we have not the facts to go on. If there is any more, however, it is very likely due to this lack of muscular tone, brought out by Mr. Ehinger, I think. When I spoke of the slanting back, I did not mean a straight back. I meant a back whose general position is slanting, so that the pupil, when at rest, is in a slightly reclining position, with a support at the loins, and the seat back following the natural curve of the back. I do not think it is necessary that the body should be poised on the two hip bones. I think that if we have that slightly reclining position, it can be held longer, with less fatigue. * PLAY IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION BY GEORGE E. JOHNSON, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, ANDOVER, MASS. Play as a factor in education is prehistoric; it antedates Adam. It is not known how low in the scale of animal life play occurs, or to what extent, but reliable authorities attribute play to animals no higher in the scale than the insects. Groos classifies the swarming of insects in the sun- shine as Bewegungsspiele. Sir John Lubbock, in Ants, Bees, and Wasps, speaks of the games of ants. He says: "Our countryman Gould noticed certain 'amusements' or 'sportive exercises' which he had observed among ants. Huber, also, mentions scenes which he had witnessed on the hills, and which he says ' I dare not qualify with the title gymnastic, although they bear a close resemblance to scenes of that kind.' The ants raised them- selves on their hind legs, caressed each other with their antennae, engaged in mock combats, and almost seemed to be playing hide and seek." Romanes speaks of the love antics of spiders, as Darwin does of birds ; but Forel, who corroborates the observation of Huber, says that the attraction of the sexes could not have been the cause of the play of the ants. Dr. Hodge called my attention to the curious antics of bees which he had sometimes observed, a kind of ecstatic dance which suggests, in a way, the capers of a well-fed calf or of young'lambs. Probably there is no such thing as play anlong animals which neces- sarily devote their lives to the search of food ; but with well-fed leisure appears the phenomenon of play. This fact doubtless influenced the theory, so widely accepted, that play arises from surplus energy. Anabo- lism being complete, and there being no necessity for the discharge epartment] kEADING LISTS FOR PUBLIC SCHOOLS 1025 than their teachers can influence them. They can safely be allowed a large degree of freedom of choice in selecting from the lists, and the lists should be long, if the material at hand that can be used admits of a long list. The matter of learning to choose is in itself of a good deal of importance, because after leaving school they must choose their own reading. In making reading lists for use in public schools the subjects studied should be considered to some extent. Often a pupil will be inter- ested in a book that gives him help in his lessons when he would not be in any other; besides, the habit of collateral reading is a valuable one. If the pupils attend lecture courses, books bearing upon subjects treated by the lecturers may be accepted for home reading in place of books already on the course. It is necessary to know in some way that the books have been read, and how they have been read. Probably each superintendent would settle that matter for himself. A very satisfactory plan has been to have the teacher assign several topics relating to characters in the work read, the motive of the book, descriptions of scenery, etc., and have the pupils write an essay on whichever of the subjects they chose. This not only insures a careful reading of the book, but is also a good exercise in com- position. In making reading lists you must study the community. If you are in a college town, or one in which the inhabitants are largely well educated, in which a taste for literature is largely an inheritance, you can require reading of a character that you could not hope for in a manufacturing town in which the inhabitants are largely foreign-born, the children com- ing from homes where books are not known, and where the parents at best read only the daily newspapers, and in most cases not even them. You must also consider what a community wants, or thinks it wants. If the parents care nothing about having their children acquire a taste for reading, you have them as well as the children to educate, and you must rely upon the press and the clergy, as well as the teachers, for help ; and you must, for a time, be content to make progress slowly. If public senti- ment is with you, as it ordinarily will be, all that is needed is good judg- ment; if it is against the work, or indifferent, you need to add to good judgment patience. With a competent superintendent, ultimate success is absolutely cer- tain. May I be pardoned if I close with a brief account of my own experience ? I give this because it may encourage someone who feels that his opportunities are so meager that he cannot succeed. We began this work thirteen years ago in a most humble way. Our only library consisted of some four or five hundred articles taken from old magazines and pasted in cardboard covers. There was no public library in the place. It was not a reading community. There was not in it a dozen men 102 6 I^ATIOI^AL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Library with a college education. It is a manufacturing place. Nearly one-third of the population was Canadian French, a large part of whom were unable to read. More than one-half of the population was foreign- born. We began the formation of a school library buying in sets books in cheap bindings. Our work grew slowly. It met with some opposi- tion. Our school library grew slowly, but the interest in the work increased rapidly. We were continually speaking of the need of a public library. One day I was greatly surprised to have a gentleman come to me and offer to start a public library for us and guarantee an annual income. The library did not make the reading course, but the reading course made the library. Today there is no work done in our schools more popular with pupils, teachers, and parents than that required by our reading course, and I am sure none more valuable. I give this bit of history because I think there are few places that would begin this work under more unfavorable circumstances than we did, and, as we succeeded, having no unusual skill, or experience, or wisdom to aid in the work, it would seem that it might be attempted almost anywhere with good hope of suc- cess. It may not be out of place for me to say here that my next report, which will be issued next fall, will give a full and detailed account of what we have accomplished, and that I shall be glad to mail a copy of it to anyone who cares to send me a postal card asking for it. In closing, it seems to me that I cannot do better than to give the fol- ing quotation from Henry Hudson : " What sort of reading are our schools planting an appetite for ? Are they really doing anything to instruct and form the mental taste, so that the pupils on leaving them may be safely left to choose their reading for themselves ? It is clear in evi- dence that they are far from educating the young to take pleasure in what is intellectually noble and sweet. The statistics of our public libraries show that some cause is working mightily to prepare them only for delight in what is both morally and intellectually mean and foul. It would not, indeed, be fair to charge our public schools with positively giv- ing this preparation ; but it is their business to forestall and prevent such a result. If along with the faculty of reading they cannot also impart some safeguards of taste and habit against such a result, will the system prove a success?" DISCUSSION L. D. Harvey, Wisconsin. — In Milwaukee lists are made out by the principals and sent to the public library. The books are then sent to the school buildings for a certain length of time, charged to the principals, and are lent to teachers and pupils. Whenever a change is wanted, notice is sent to the public library. The same arrangement is made with the normal school. The books are kept from one to eight weeks. Department] READING LISTS FOR PUBLIC SCHOOLS 1027 J. H. Van Sickle, Colorado. — Has there been difficulty in getting books ? I^. D. Harvey. — Yes, because the demand increases so rapidly, tho books are added more frequently than formerly. The policy of the librarian is liberal, but the demand out- runs the supply. J. H. Van Sickle. — Is this extended to country places ? L. D. Harvey. — No. J. H. Van Sickle. — What is thejplan in New York ? Miss Myrtilla Avery, New York. — Traveling libraries consisting of duplicates of books for class-room work and supplementary reading are lent to high schools. With these are often included lantern slides and pictures. J. H. Van Sickle. — Is any definite work done by normal schools to create an inter- est in books and reading ? L. D. Harvey. — I do not know in general, but in Milwaukee it is done. It was introduced because for twenty years I have been among the common schools and at every stage have found the difficulty to be that the teachers know nothing whatever about books. At one institute I found that not more than 10 per cent, of the teachers present had read a poem longer than one found in a reading book. In our state, schools are pro- vided with libraries. A visitor once asked a teacher about the library. He said there was none The visitor then asked the district clerk, who also said there was none ; but his wife said: "You are mistaken; it is in the bedroom under the bed." The teacher had not even enough energy to find out about the library. It is an important work to show teachers their needs and acquaint them with the provisions that have been made to satisfy, those needs. Much that has been accomplished in Milwaukee is due to one primary-school teacher, Miss L. E. Stearns, who spent her time and money in this cause. She had also that rare quality — *' sand." When a boy came to her and said his mother didn't want him to read, she replied : " You take those books right home and read them ; that is the work you are to do at home." Presently the same boy came and said : " Please, may I keep this book a little longer ? My mother can't read English, but she likes to have me read this to her." If you can find a teacher like this, cultivate her. Give her every facility to carry on her work. This committee should encourage such efforts. You have a good list, but this will be ineffective unless there is a teacher who believes reading is a good thing. When librarians attempt to do this work alone, there is little success. Sometimes results are accomplished in spite of teachers, but that is rare. Most librarians are overcrowded with other work, while teachers are with their pupils six hours a day. They can exert a con- stant influence toward making reading a pleasure rather than a drudgery. In Milwaukee we require pupils to know what is in the best standard books. We ask them to make lists and to say what they expect to find from them. In reading, when they do not like a book, we advise them not to read it, and we find some book they want to read. Sometimes this is a pretty poor book but we try to get them to read better ones next time. Perhaps we do not get systematic work, but we get reading and a love for good reading, and that is worth more than system. To begin with Henty and end with good books in history means intelligence, interest, and enthusiasm on the part of the teacher. I believe this is the most fruitful field in educational work today. J. H. Van Sickle. — How does this react on the teachers ? L. D. Harvey. — They come to understand what the pupil can appreciate and enjoy. It is a very practical form of child study. Miss WooDARD, Michigan. — In our normal-school library of 20,000 volumes we have lists for all grades, and these books are in the library where students can consult them. The director of the training school has begun a card catalog, which is being carried on by seniors. In our school paper, also, we have printed information in regard to library progress. I should be glad to know if there are any normal librarians here I028 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Library who give instruction, and also what is to be done if the librarian has not time to give a course of lectures. L. D. Harvey. — In Milwaukee we undertake to make our students familiar with our books. S. S. Green, Massachusetts. — The library school at Albany, N. Y., is working on all these problems. The vice-director, Mrs. S. C. Fairchild, is constantly on the lookout for points in this connection, either information or its sources. Sherman Williams. — I wish some steps might be taken to interest teachers. The head of the school must be interested if a large and effective work is to be done. In New York there are not one hundred teachers who take a live interest. S. S. Green. — The way to create interest is to get together the jieople who are interested. When I started this work at Worcester, I asked the principals of the high school and the normal school to meet me. Then the superintendent of schools called all the teachers together, and I found some teachers were already interested. Then the superintendent became interested, and after that the subject was discussed at teachers' meetings. It is important to incite an interest among those in authority. F. A. HuTCHiNS, Wisconsin. — Each state ought to have an enthusiastic man to go thruout the state and teach the teachers how to read. Richard Hardy, Michigan. — After learning of Mr. Harvey's plan I undertook something similar in my school, and as a means of spreading the work I took advantage of the spirit of envy. We began to "brag," and we found it very effective. The papers got hold of it, and northern Michigan was soon interested. J. H. Van Sickle. — Much can be done thru institutes, and widespread influence might be exerted thru the meeting of city superintendents. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION OF THE DEAF, THE BLIND, AND THE FEEBLE-MINDED SECRETARY'S MINUTES The meetings of the department were held in the Franklin School building, a unique and interesting feature being the exhibits by the associate departments. THE DEAF The education of the deaf was represented by daily exercises in speech and gymnas- tics by a class of little pupils from Miss Garrett's school in Philadelphia ; also by speech work by older pupils from the state school at Columbus, O. — J. W. Jones, super- intendent. The Arkansas and New Jersey State Schools for the Deaf made an exhibit of inter- esting kindergarten-occupation work by young children ; the latter also had an excep- tionally fine exhibit of art work by advanced pupils. The Horace Mann School of Boston made an exhibit of stories for young children ; printing and typesetting ; drawing ; card-board work, illustrating a three-years' course for pupils between the ages of eight and eleven years ; wood work, illustrating a four- years' course for pupils aged from seven to seventeen years ; needle work ; cooking-class exhibit. — Miss Sarah Fuller, principal. The McCowen Oral School for Young Deaf Children — the first permanent home kindergarten for the deaf — located at 6550 Yale avenue, Chicago, exhibited class-room work illustrating in sequence the value of drawing and work in materials, such as wood, tin> leather, paper, etc., as a means of expression for very young children in kindergartens and for primary grades of public schools, clearly showing the underlying principle and the correlation of material under varying circumstances and at different stages of thought development. — Miss Cornelia D. Bingham, in charge. THE BLIND The department for the blind was represented by an exhibit of the New York State School for the Blind, Batavia, N. Y., comprising kindergarten work, primary-grade work, script writing by the blind, typewriting class work by the blind, a sewing exhibit, and an American flag, made entirely by blind girls, the forty-five stars of which were sewed on by forty-five different pupils. — Gardner Fuller, superintendent. The North Carolina State School for the Blind exhibited handwork by pupils. — John Ray, principal. A loan exhibit of periodicals, books, music, ihaps, etc., for the blind, from the Con- gressional Library ; a circulating library for the blind of the District of Columbia, and miscellaneous handiwork, exhibited under the auspices of the Aid Association for the Blind of the District of Columbia, which also conducted a series of morning concerts by the blind. — Mrs. John Russell Young, president. 1029 1 030 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Education of THE FEEBLE-MINDED The department for the feeble-minded was represented by an exhibit of the handi- woric of pupils attending the Haddonfield, N. J., Training School for Mentally Back- ward Children. — Miss Margaret Bancroft, principal. An exhibit of work and an entertainment by pupils of the Pennsylvania Training School for Feeble-minded Children, at Elwyn, Pa. — Dr. Martin W. Barr, chief physician, in charge. FIRST SESSION.— Monday, July ii, 1898 The first session of the department was called to order in the auditorium of the Franklin School building, at 2 : 30 P. M., by the president. Dr. Joseph C. Gordon, of Jacksonville, 111. The president's address was followed by words of welcome by General John Eaton and Dr. Alexander Graham Bell, of Washington, D. C. Mary Garrett, principal of the Home for the Training in Speech of Deaf Children before they are of School Age, Philadelphia, Pa., read a paper on " The Duty of the Hour to Young Deaf Children." Superintendent P'rank Hall of the Illinois State Institution for the Blind presented a paper on "Pedagogical Lessons from the Study of the Blind." Dr. E. M. Gallaudet, president of the Columbian Institution for the Deaf, Washing- ton, D. C, spoke on " The Advantages of College Education for the Deaf." Isaac B. Gardner, of Little Rock, Ark., read a paper on " The Relation of the Deaf to the Hearing World." The next paper on the program was by Margaret Bancroft, Haddonfield, N, J., on the subject of " The Trend in the Training of Backward and Mentally Deficient Chil- dren." ' A paper on " The Relation of Language Teaching to Mental Development " was read by S. G. Davidson, Mt. Airy, Philadelphia, Pa. The following committee on nominations was appointed : Dr. Alexander Graham Bell, Chairman. H. E. Dawes, Omaha, Neb., Stcretary. Hon. Robert C. Spencer, Milwaukee, Wis. Mrs. Alice U. Hunt, District of Columbia. Miss Thyrza Williams, Haddonfield, N. J. SECOND SESSION.— Tuesday, July 12, 2:30 p. m. Dr. Martin W. Barr, chief physician, Pennsylvania Training School for the Feeble- minded, Elwyn, Pa., read a paper on " The How, the Why, and the Wherefore of the Training of Feeble-minded Children." An address on " Methods of Instruction " was given by Dr. Louis Klemm, specialist. United States Bureau of Education. Dr. W. O. Krohn, physiologist of hospital, Illinois, explained " Phyiical Laboratory Methods," giving physical examinations and sense tests. Dr. Elmer E. Gates, of the Laboratory of Psychology and Psychurgy, Chevy Chase, Md., presented a paper on the subject of " Brain Building and Mind Building with Spe- cial Reference to Sense Training of the Eye and Ear, and Teaching Mentally Deficient Children." Professor Robert C. Spencer, president of the Phonological Institute, Milwaukee, Wis., gave a report of the "Day Schools for the Deaf of Wisconsin." The Committee on Nominations submitted the following report : For President — Dr. Joseph C. Gordon, superintendent of State School for the Deaf, Jacksonville, 111. Defectives! PRESIDENT'S ADDRESS 1 03 1 For Secretary and Treasure? — Miss Mary McGiwen, supervising principal of the Chicago public day schools for the deaf, Chicago, 111. For Vice-Presidents: Vice -President /or the Dea/— Mrs. Jennie Bright Holden, 6a6 Hayes street, San Francisco, Cal. Vice-President for the Blind — Hon. Frank Hall, superintendent of State School for the Blind, Jack- sonville, III. Vice-President for the Feeble-minded — Dr. A. £. Osborne, superintendent of School for the Men- tally Deficient, Glen Ellen, Cal. The committee further recommended that these five officers constitute the executive committee of the department. The report of the committee was adopted by a unanimous vote. On motion, the department adjourned. Mary McCowen, Secretary. PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS PRESIDENT'S ADDRESS BY DR. JOSEPH C. GORDON, SUPERINTENDENT OF STATE INSTITUTION FOR THE DEAF, JACKSONVILLE, ILL. I am well aware that you have not come to hear me make a speech in these days of action when our young men and our older men as well, are making history so fast. It is deeds, not words, that are wanted. I am very glad, however, to respond for a moment to the kind words of welcome, and, on behalf of all connected with Department Sixteen who have met here in the capital city of the nation, I now return our profound thanks to the committee of arrangements, of which Dr. Bell is chairman. The time is too short to go into the history of the organization of this department. I will say, merely to put the matter on record, that the initiative came from the National Educational Association, at a meeting in Madison, Wis., in 1884. The matter was taken up there of joining hands with the educators of the deaf ; and immediately after the meeting adjourned an invitation came from the officers of the National Educa- tional Association for the teachers of the deaf to form a department ; but nothing came of it at that time. At the Buffalo meeting of the association a formal petition was pre- sented (by whom I know not) asking for the organization of a department for the deaf. This petition was granted, but later was revoked, as an informality was found in it. The following year the day-school teachers of Chicago and Wisconsin united in a petition asking for a round table in the interests of the deaf, in connection with the association at Milwaukee. This petition was properly indorsed by more than the requisite number of active members, and was readily granted. The round table was duly organized, and held 1 032 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Education of a successful and enthusiastic meeting, which furnished a propitious oppor- tunity for a renewal of the former pelfition in an acceptable form ; and thus this branch of the great National Educational Association was formed, and arrangements entered upon which have culminated in this, the first formal meeting of this department of the association. I can only say, speaking for myself, that it gives me the greatest hap- piness to have the honor to be the first president of this department. Many of my brethren have looked upon this movement with .various feel- ings. For my part, I am ready and willing to join hands and keep step with every man and every woman on this broad earth who is working for God and humanity. In planning this organization, it seems to have been laid out upon broad lines. It is, you may say, all-embracing, for it embraces the begin- nings of all things. While it was primarily intended for the educators of the deaf, it soon came to include the educators of the blind, and after- ward it took in those who are interested in the education of backward and feeble-minded children. It invites to attend the meetings of the department all who take an interest in the growth and progress of educa- tion for these classes. We feel that we are a part of the great educational army, and we feel that we are entitled to march along the same road, and that we must do so if we would keep up with the procession. The difference between the education of the defective child and that of the university student, I take it, is not a difference in kind ; it is simply a difference in degree. You take the same kind of step over the same track and pass thru the same processes, and no man can go thru a university successfully who has not taken precisely the same steps some time in his life that the backward and handicapped child must take. I will only say that we who are engaged in these special lines have also been urgently invited to join our forces with the body of associated charities. Some looked with serious misgivings on that, but our friends who are connected with this organization state that they are the power behind the throne, that they are in control of the purse, and that the legislators all depend on what they say as to what the different schools in the states may receive. They tell us it is better for them to know some- thing about us, something about our work, in order that they may sympa- thize with us and appreciate our work ; and that they cannot for their lives see how our coming into their association can harm our work in any way. I agree with those who take this position. The educators of the deaf have a number of organizations peculiarly their own. They have the Association to Promote the Teaching of Speech, which has been very suc- cessful in its work, and a great many of the educators of the deaf are con- nected with that association. They wish us all to become connected with them, and I say Godspeed to their work ; and I am glad, indeed, Defectives] DUTY OF THE HOUR TO YOUNG DEAF CHILDREN 1033 whenever any teacher of the deaf can see his way clear to work with that organization. Then there is a newer organization as to form, but later in fact : the Convention of American Instructors of the Deaf, which holds conventions, when needed, every three or four years, as the case may be ; and it has accomplished in the past, and is still accomplishing, a very great work. I feel that all this shows what a superabundant life and strength there is among us. And we are now also deeply interested in the great National Educational Association, which is the largest and greatest, and I believe the most efficient, educational association in existence. THE DUTY OF THE HOUR TO YOUNG DEAF CHILDREN BY MISS MARY S. GARRETT, PRINCIPAL OF THE HOME FOR THE TRAINING IN SPEECH OF DEAF CHILDREN BEFORE THEY ARE OF SCHOOL AGE, PHILADELPHIA, PA. The duties of the present generation to the rising generation are being recognized and performed, to an extent that is most encouraging, in the general study of the individual child and in providing for it the opportunity for development of its individual powers. Our deaf children have been more or less sharers of the improved opportunities, but the proportion of those who have had the chance for the best development of which they are capable has been distressingly small. The oral method for their instruction is gradually supplanting the sign method, so that out of about 520 schools in the world about 230 are oral schools. While the training of the children in and thru the medium of communication which is used in the world in which they must live is an advantage over a training in an arbitrary sign language which is not understood by others, they still have an additional handicap put upon them which hearing children do not suffer. With a very few exceptions, instead of their training in speech being commenced in baby- hood, as ours was, it is delayed to the school age. We have from a few mothers learned to realize the simple fact that, if deaf children are trained from infancy to look at the mouths and faces of people who are talking, and if they are further guided to imitate the speech they thus see, and if sufficient repetition of this is given them to make up for what hearing children get, unconsciously to them- selves, by hearing every word spoken in their presence, they will talk and understand language from sight. It would seem as tho nothing more were necessary than to tell the mothers and friends of every deaf child this, to induce them to do the I034 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Education of same, but we find that two things must be accomplished before this work can be generally done at home : 1. All mothers must be made to realize that it canh^ done, and then they must be shown how to do it. 2, The public must realize that, instead of treating deaf children dif- ferently from other children, which makes them different, they must simply talk to them from infancy. The most effectual way to do this has seemed to be to establish a home for deaf children^with an environment which would secure to the children, as nearly as possible and under everyday home conditions, the same amount of repetition of the language thru the eye that hearing children get thru the ear while learning to talk. We have done this in Pennsyl- vania, and there is some of this early work being done in Chicago and Massachusetts, but very little elsewhere ; but all of our work together is nothing to what needs to be done to give all deaf children as fair a chance as hearing children. As scarcely anyone who has not seen this work realizes what can be done, and as all thinking people, when they do see it, feel that it should be done for all, it seems reasonable to suppose that, if we should establish such homes simultaneously in all our states and ter- ritories, they would in the course of a generation so instruct the parents, friends, and the community as to what is possible for the children that afterward it would be done in their own homes as naturally as hearing children are taught, and special institutions for this class would no longer be needed. The deaf children who have no suitable homes would doubtless be provided for as our Children's Aid Society in Philadelphia provides for little waifs. It now has on its books 7,618 homes, all visited and certified to by its agents, in which little homeless children have been received and are well cared for. As there is only one deaf child in every fifteen hundred, the demand for homes for them could doubtless easily be supplied. This, then, seems to me the duty of the hour to little deaf children. With articulate speech, speech reading, and language, their happiness and independence may be said to be secure ; without it they are more or less handicapped in every relation in life. If it is better for us to begin in infancy, it is better for them. PEDAGOGICAL LESSONS FROM A STUDY OF THE BLIND BY FRANK H. HALL, SUPERINTENDENT OF THE STATE INSTITUTION FOR THE BLIND, JACKSONVILLE, ILL, The mind is approached thru the senses. The educator depends mainly upon three avenues of approach — sight, hearing, and touch. A Defectives] LESSONS FROM A STUDY OF THE BLIND 1035 psychologist tells us that the normal child obtains nine-tenths of his sense-perception thru the sense of sight. To teach a child to whom this avenue is closed, whose amount of sense-perception is thereby greatly reduced, is the task of every teacher of the blind. Careful observation of the results may possibly throw some light upon the general educa- tional problem. First, let it be observed that about 50 per cent, of the pupils in the schools for the blind have some sight. One -half of the remainder, or 25 per cent, of all, have had sight and readily recall images that origi- nally came to them thru the visual. organs. Of the 25 per cent, remain- ing who have no memory of sight, and therefore cannot recall visual images, many are mentally defective ; the causes that operated to pro- duce blindness having resulted in more or less serious mental disturb- ances. The number of blind persons, then, who have never had visual images, and who are otherwise normal, and who are therefore suitable subjects for the proposed investigation, is exceedingly small — probably not greater than 15 per cent, of those who are found in the institutions, and not more than 5 per cent, of the blind people in any given community. My proposition, then, is to examine with some care educatfve pro- cesses and results attained with that very small class of people who have never had visual images, and who are seemingly, in respect to natural mental endowments, the equals of ordinary children with sight. First let us consider the educative processes employed with this class of pupils. Their education must begin, and, so far as sense-perception is concerned, end, in hearing and touch. They can come into possession of no images except tactile and auditory ones, and such as may be built up from these. This deprives them not only of all ideas of color, and of light and shade, but, what is vastly more important and interesting to the student of pedagogy, it deprives them of all instantaneous sense-percep- tion of large areas. The normal pupil takes in at a glance a landscape. He afterward, by the analytical process, observes its parts, and their rela- tions to each other and to the whole. The largest landscape that a blind person can grasp at one time, as a whole, thru the senses, does not exceed that which he can span with his outstretched arms. Oftener his sense-grasp includes only what comes under the palm of a hand, the tip of a finger, or the sole of a foot. His images of the most common objects, as a tree, a house, a garden, must be built up by the process of constructive con- ception, the material being the images of the very small objects that have come within his sense-grasp. The blind boy must obtain his image of a tree that he cannot climb somewhat as the boy with sight obtains an image of a place which he cannot visit. Each builds with images that have come to him thru sense-perception ; the one builds with the large visual images of landscape, sky, and sea ; the other must build with the minute tactile 1036 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Education of images of objects that have come into the palm of his hand, or under the finger tip, or into absolute contact with some part of the dermal surface. Not only must the blind child obtain his image of a tree or house in this manner, but his image of a foreign country, or of any country, must be built up of the same minute tactile images or of images that he has him- self made from these. A moment's reflection will make it apparent that all the images of objects that come into the consciousness of the blind person, whether the objects themselves be near or remote, large or small, must be made up of small tactile images. The blind child is thus led to give more attention to detail than th^ seeing child. From necessity he exercises the power of constructive conception many times as often as does his seeing companion. Images of a thousand objects with which the seeing child is familiar without any constructive mental process can only come into the consciousness of the blind child by building them of such tactile images as are already in his possession. Let it. be supposed that the normal child of twelve years of age spends one-half of his wakeful hours in sense-perception and one-half in elabora- tion— in reproducing, in comparing, in thinking about that which he has perceived. Take away the sense of sight, and not more than one-third as mucR time will be spent in mere sense-perception. One-third of one- half is one-sixth. This leaves to the blind child five-sixths of his time for reproduction. The sense-perception of the normal child is to his elaboration, in respect to time, as i to i ; of the blind child as i to 5. These two peculiarities in the educative processes of the blind, namely, the synthetic-analytic habit of thought, and the large amount of time given to a reproduction of sense-images, to comparison, and generaliza- tion, account for nearly all the almost marvelous achievements of some sightless students. Blind pupils excel in mathematics. Why ? Mathematics has to do mainly with comparison of quantities — mainly with comparison of measured quantities — mainly with comparison of imaginative measured quantities. The blind student easily creates images of the quantities to be compared. His synthetic habit of thought and his constant practice in imaging give him this power. He brings the terms of the comparison quickly into consciousness. The child with sight sees figures. Too often his images are images of digits. He fails to see the magnitudes or ratios which the figures should suggest. He attempts to see relation when the terms of the comparison are not in consciousness — only the symbols of the terms. The blind child has never seen these symbols, and makes little use of them even thru the sense of touch. He deals directly with number, and number suggests to him magnitude or ratio, or both. Suggested magnitudes he can create ; suggested relations he can appre- hend, because the images of the things related are in consciousness. Blind children excel in geography. Why ? Because they have learned I Defcctivesl LESSONS FROM A STUDY OF THE BLIND 1 03 7 to use the imaginative faculty. They see places only a few feet distant, thru the mind's eye. The task of seeing places a few miles away, or even a few hundred miles away, is scarcely greater. They have built their image of the town in which they live, with its trees, its gardens, its dwelling houses, and its public buildings, mainly by the exercise of the power of constructive conception. They can build a London, or a Paris, or a Moscow in the same manner. The child with sight sees the town in which he lives, but he cannot see London, He fails to see with the mind's eye the villages and cities, and rivers and mountains, which these symbols should suggest. The blind child has never seen these symbols, and those which he uses are sufficiently unattractive and difficult of manipulation to guard against the danger of substituting in the mind of the pupil the symbol for the thing symbolized. Blind students are, for the most part, good rekders and good listeners. Both of these processes, it will be observed, are synthetic, and are there- fore quite in harmony with the operation of the two educative senses which the blind exercise. The amount that a blind student reads is, of course, comparatively small ; but the amount retained is comparatively large, while his digestion and assimilation of what he reads or hears are more complete than those of the seeing child. But blind people do not excel in all branches of study. In mathe- matics, history, and literature, if the means are at hand for providing skilled teachers and the necessary books and appliances, blindness seems scarcely a barrier to progress. The compensations almost, if not quite, equal the deprivations. In natural sciences the blind pupil is seriously handicapped. True, his memory of words may enable him to " pass " even in the science studies, if the tests are such as were usually made in the schools twenty years ago ; but he can at best do little in the labora- tory ; and his knowledge must be lacking for the most part that sense- basis which is necessary to make it of real value. He may acquire a knowledge of scientific terms, and know something of their correct use ; but as to training for power by means of scientific observation and com- parison, blindness presents an almost impassable barrier. A main weakness of the blind is the result of the narrow sense-basis upon which they must build. This is also a main source of their strength. They are narrower in their intellectual acquirements, but deeper and higher, than their seeing companions. Their profundity, however, has been gained at the expense of breadth. They have fewer sense concepts, but these are more perfectly elaborated ; and they seem entirely sufficient for remarkable success along certain lines of purely intellectual effort. There is a danger in " eye-mindedness " that is the counterpart of the main difficulty in blindness. For the blind a most vigorous effort should be made to increase the amount of sense-perception. For the seeing the main source of danger is that in these days of " laboratory methods " 1038 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Education of and " nature study " mere sense-perception will occupy the time of the pupil to such an extent that comparison, classification, generalization, and reflection will not receive a due share of mental effort. Neither is blindness favorable to that kind of intellectual and physical development which prepares for usefulness in society. The education of the blind, if allowed to proceed along the lines of least resistance, has reference mainly to the psychological factor in education. The soci- ological element is almost wholly wanting. The blind child learns that he may be learned. He desires to know that he may possess knowledge. He wants intellectual training for the delight there is in it to himself. He wants music for the sake of music, and the satisfaction which it brings to him. There is pleasure in mental development, in growth; and this pleasure he seeks where it can be most easily obtained. He wants mental power without any idea of the use to which this power is to be put. And the great human heart says. Let the poor blind child have all the pleasure he can get ; and institutions are provided and generously equipped in which the young blind are segregated and trained along physiological and psychological lines, until they almost forget that there is any world outside of a school for the blind, or any duties to perform except such as have a direct bearing upon their own mental and physical development. The weakness of the blind is not chiefly psychical, it is not chiefly physi- cal. It is their inability to use their powers in the proper performance of social duties. It is in the great difficulty they find in adapting them- selves to their social environment after they leave the school and take their place in society. It is in the great difficulty they find in contrib- uting their share to the well-being of the race, or to that portion of the race that forms a part of their environment. In this respect they are not altogether unlike many of the pupils from the common schools. In the case of blind people this defect in their education and in their capacity is fearfully emphasized. In school they are segregated — separated from those with good sight, from such as those with whom they must associate in after-life. The necessities and some of the luxuries of life are provided for them at the public expense. Three-fourths of their time for eight or twelve years they are in an atmosphere utterly unlike that into which they will be thrust at maturity. After leaving school, unless the family wealth is sufficient to provide for their wants, they are confronted with a problem utterly different from any they have found in the books. In some instances their education has unfitted them for the solution of this life problem. Many pupils- — some of them blind, and some of them with two good eyes — learn to measure the value of every exercise by what it will directly contribute to their personal comfort — physical, intel- lectual, spiritual. The idea that their own ultimate happiness and genuine prosperity must come from what they can contribute to community life has no place in their thought. Defectives! RELATION OF THE DEAF TO THE HEARING WORLD 1039 The State recognizes the fact that the feeble-minded will be unable to lake their places in society and contribute to the community as much as will procure, in return for their services, the necessities of life. Hence asylums are provided in which they may spend their days, and perhaps* pay in part for what they receive. The deaf are but slightly handicapped in their productive power. The state educates them, providing in many instances instruction in a trade, and sends them out equipped for service. The blind, with capabilities for intellectual development slightly impaired, with powers of mind that are sometimes akin to the marvelous, capable of intellectual enjoyments of the highest order, are most, sadly handicapped in their attempts to perform useful service. No asylums for them are provided (unless the industrial homes be so regarded, and the number of these that are successfully managed is small). They are segre- gated for years and then sent back to their homes, or sent out into the world to make a home in darkness for themselves. I repeat, the teachers of the blind have the most difficult task of all — properly to co-ordinate the psychological and the sociological factors in education, and this task is rendered doubly difficult by the artificial environment which their segregation produces. And yet there is but one test for all. The value of any educational process must be measured in units of service, and precisely the same measure that determines its value to the community determines its value to those who receive its benefits. In the words of Ruskin : " The human race is a divine family, the ideal of which is that each shall work for the good of all and precisely in so doing secure for himself the greatest good." In this divine family there are no exceptions to this general rule. The rich and the poor ; the bond and the free; the deaf, the blind, and the feeble-minded, can all secure for themselves the greatest good by working for the good of all ; and that educator, or that group of educators, or that educational system, or that educational institution, that shall in a high degree promote the service power of those to whom instruction is given cannot fail to be working on right lines, for their efforts are in accord with a divine law as certain in operation as the law of gravitation itself, and as beneficent in results as that of Christian charity. THE RELATION OF THE DEAF TO THE HEARING WORLD BY ISAAC GARDNER, LITTLE ROCK, ARK. In the study of history we examine the records of past experience so that we may be able to foresee and provide for the experiences which are I040 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION fEducationof to come. The final chapter in the history of the human race is already begun, and each of us may turn to that history and read there the story of his own life, for the history of the individual is in every respect analogous to the history of the race. It is due, in great measure, to education, that the deaf of today are able to contribute their share to the making of his- tory. Years ago, when the condition and welfare of the deaf first began to arrest the attention of thinking men, it was considered impossible for those deprived of the sense of hearing to be formally educated, because it was believed that no medium of communication could be established, and, furthermore, that the deaf were intellectually incapable of receiving such an education. But time and experiment have overcome this puri- tanical prejudice and proven the fallacy of both these premises. The deaf man is not less rational or impressionable because of his deafness. In being shut off from the influence of sound he merely suffers an incon- venience. His sense impressions are not less acute, nor his intellect less strong; his conscious experience is not less perfect, nor its influence less potent. Thus it has been discovered that education may do for the deaf pre- cisely what it may do for the hearing. The deaf child, being of the same constitutional nature, and inheriting all the attributes of that nature, is educated by the same method, subject to the same training, and masters the same course of study by which his hearing brother is educated. The number of sense impressions received within a given period of time is, of course, somewhat diminished, but in the matter of mental development this is the only point of departure from the normally conditioned child. To increase the intellectual activity by supplying the deficiency in sense impressions occasioned by loss of hearing constitutes the special profes- sion of the instructor of the deaf. THE TREND IN THE TRAINING OF BACKWARD AND MENTAILY DEFICIENT CHIIDREN BY MISS MARGARET BANCROFT, PRINCIPAL OF THE HADDONFIELD, N. J., TRAINING SCHOOL FOR MENTALLY BACKWARD CHILDREN Ever an increasing interest is manifest in the "what to do" and the " how to do it " for those who are mentally, morally, or physically defi- cient ; so that even the mite which I can add to the general collection may assist in the building up of those future edifices for the care and training of weaker humanity. It is our hope that a few facts impressed from time to time may spur on these thinking women and men of the National Educational Association to aid in uncovering the minds which Defectives! TREND IN TRAINING OF BACKWARD CHILDREN 1 04 1 have been hidden, and the morals overgrown with weeds, even as the sculptor uncovers the statue when he has wrought his best. Before entering upon the details of training the mentally deficient, there are two essential questions to be settled, namely, the size and char- acter of the state schools, and the necessity for a change in the nomen- clature from idiot and imbecile to one which will demand respect from all. One of our great scientists says : " Science is organized common sense." Can any intelligent human being see or feel that there is organized common sense in bringing together under the care of a single institution hundreds of human beings afflicted in a physfcal sense to such a degree as to cause mental deficiency ? Think of it, you who are students of physiology, and predict the results ! Think of it, you who are interested in the study of psychology, and interpret the loss of mentality to those who, if surrounded by the proper environment, might reach a higher stand- ard ! Think of it, you who are earnest students of biology : is this the way you treat the specimens which you wish to preserve and improve ? The thoughtful must feel that little is as yet known of what may be done for this class of unfortunates, requiring, as they do, more tact, more personal care, and more scientific teaching than the deaf or blind, yet receiving less than any other class of defectives. In 1850, in the United States, the mentally deficient aggregated 9,830 ; in 1890 the increase was to the number of 97,097. The last eight years the number is increasing more rapidly. Dr. Fernald estimates an average of one mentally deficient person in every 500 inhabitants in the United States. In the ye^r 1898 there were twenty-four state schools, with 8,492 inmates. In our opinion, schools should be established thruout the different states, with a capacity not exceeding one hundred in*'number and arranged on the cottage plan. Each cottage should have a family of twenty-five,- graded according to the mental advancement, placing in each family of higher grade two of lower grade, so that the pupils of lower grade would imbibe some of the mentality of the higher order. This would give the matron an opportunity of judging what help and care are required by those of the lower grade. The assembling together of all of a low grade is very detrimental, as many children might, from some disfigurement or physical cause, appear more deficient than they really are ; and at first sight this general plan would seem to involve a very large expenditure, but this would be more than offset by the advantages which would accrue from the practical and scientific management of this class. In each of these small state homes there should be a schoolhouse, equipped as thoroly as for normal chil- dren. Physical-culture and manual-training departments should befitted with the best apparatus and tools. There should be not less than six good teachers for this number, each thoroly qualified in her special branch. 1042 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Education of The physical care should be given over to none but first-class practi- tioners. No resident physician is able to acquire sufficient experience materially to benefit the mentally deficient or insane. An outside physician coming in daily contact with different diseases in private practice, and in the hospital clinic, is the one to care for these who are afflicted in a thou- sand different ways. That outside physician would bring new thought, new impetus, and new interests, which would result in maintaining a higher standard in the homes. Physicians of all schools should have equal opportunities in the treatment of these cases ; conditions which one school might overlook another might remedy. It would be well for this society to formulate and urge the passage of state laws providing that every mentally deficient boy (whose mental deficiency is positively proven by three competent physicians) be castrated before the age of puberty. Such a procedure, regulated by law, is a humane measure to prevent the perpetuation of his kind. These children should be trained in both physical and mental work, thus utilizing the physiological fact that systematic stimulation is as neces- sary for development as is a supply of blood to the nerve centers. Sight and sound are the more common stimuli to movement. A methodical brain training, utilizing and also providing for the appropriate exercise, in rota- tion, of all the brain cells responding to the senses, will, if carried out by earnest teachers of strong mentality, produce good results. In physical culture the work should be done with the feeling that a muscle duly supplied with good blood and properly stimulated to action will grow. The nerve centers of the brain which stimulate the muscles are brought into simultaneous activity, and tend, on future occasion, to act with more exactness and promptitude when stimulated by repetition of command. Much depends, however, on the selection of teachers with strong and adaptive individuality, who are able and sufficiently interested to become for the time the mind, so to speak, of the charges under their tuition, and thus stimulate mentality by a sort of induction. As the work demands so much in the way of mental resource, a suc- cessful teacher in this work, as in the training of normal children, is com- pelled to grow. The second important matter in connection with the advancement of this class of children is the absolute and universal change of the name from that which is neither technical nor dignified. I allude to the terms "idiot" and "imbecile." Dr. Ireland tells us that the terms are not descriptive ; and, furthermore, that it is difficult to frame a terminology comprehensive enough to include all the meanings in which they have been used. We agree with Dr. Ireland, and feel that, until less objectionable terms can be applied to these conditions, the generic title "mental deficiency" is not only free from the stigma of reproach, but is also descriptive of the condition. The ideal teacher for this work must possess inborn tact, as well as a Defective*] LANGUAGE TEACHING IN MENTAL DEVELOPMENT 1 043 good working knowledge of psychology and physiology. No second-rate teacher should evei;. be placed in charge of such children. Another prob- lem that has been so far unsolved presents itself. What is the best train- ing for the morally deficient ? There should be small home schools where the children of this class can remain under the most judicious training from earliest childhood until past twenty-one. Houses of refuge and other so-called reformatories are not the proper places for these children. They should have homes, and these homes should be under the care of the most expert psychologists, and the best physicians should be in daily attendance to note the individual results of management. In the management of the morally deficient there should be no hesi- tation about the unsexing of both male and female, where it has been proven beyond doubt that the case is incurable, as in the case of the hope- lessly insane or mentally deficient. We should meet the question bravely and with " organized common sense," and altho the problem is not solved ; for as long as we are imper- fect we shall have moral lack ; yet the unsexing of those unfitted to take up the duties of life, together with the lines of management previously sug- gested, will go a long way toward the practical solution of this important question. THE RELATION OF LANGUAGE TEACHING TO MENTAL DEVELOPMENT BY S. G. DAVIDSON, MT. AIRY, PHILADELPHIA, PA. [an abstract] The paucity of mental development and the inability of the deaf to express themselves with ease and correctness in spoken or written Eng- lish, which we discover in so many of the pupils in the advanced classes of our schools for the deaf and in our graduates, are due, in a great meas- ure, to our failure to recognize in the work of the primary and interme- diate grades the close relation existing between thought and language, and between the processes for the development of the one and the teach- ing of the other. While we think and speak of language as the expression of thought, in educational practice we too frequently treat the two as if they were things apart, endeavoring to give thought independent of English modes of expression and drilling on language forms without much regard to the thought content of the word or sentence. Moreover, we are quite liable to overlook the less obvious, but equally, if not more, important, office of language as a stimulus to the intellect and an instrument for its development. We do not, as we should, determine the matter and 1044 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Education of method of instruction in language by the mental states of the pupil, nor consider the influence of the work we are doing, and the way of doing it, upon the future mental states. Neither do we commonly recognize the importance of so cultivating the faculties as to make future progress in language possible and easy. To state the matter broadly and briefly, our work lacks the psychological basis that alone can make it progressive and enduring in its results. This is primarily due to the fact that few of our teachers are students of psychology, and particularly of the new psychology, which, by its bear- ing on educational principles, is revolutionizing methods of instruction in the common schools. It is not proposed here to discuss the theoretical aspect of the relation of language to mental development, but to speak of the practical applica- tion in the teaching of the deaf of a few of the principles that have been generally accepted by psychologists and educators. Language of some kind is necessary as a stimulus to the mind, as a means of directing the attention, recalling past perceptions, and affording a means of comparison and reasoning, so that with the very young deaf child signs have an apparent advantage over speech and writing, in that they are so much easier to learn, and put him at once into communication with other children and with his teacher. But this advantage is many times counterbalaaced by the effect of the use of signs upon the child's character, his present and future improvement in spoken and written lan- guage, and the ultimate development of the faculties. Psychologists are agreed that a man's thoughts and feelings are unconsciously molded by his vernacular, the language which he uses from childhood, and in which he spontaneously expresses himself. Hence we are irresistibly impelled to the conclusion that to make signs the vernacular of the deaf child must result in his becoming, not an Eng- lishman, a German, a Frenchman, or a member of any other nationality, but, intellectually, a man without a country. In other words, we find in the sign language a psychological basis for the conditions that are some- times referred to under the term "the deaf-mute mind." How, then, can he be expected to attend to — make an effort to master — that which seems to him superfluous ? Let us ask ourselves the ques- tion : If a child does not master the English language, what will be the effect on his future development ? By all authorities on education, attention is considered the first neces- sity. In the absence of a trained attention, any great development of the other faculties or acquisition of knowledge is impossible, and this is the great lack thru all the grades of many schools for the deaf. It must be cultivated in the lowest grades, and it cannot be done by making lan- guage, which is here practically the only thing taught, a mere form study. Defectives] TRAINING OF FEEBLE-MINDED CHILDREN 1 045 It is therefore necessary, while not neglecting the drill on forms which will rapidly habituate the pupil to correct expression, to devote much time to the presentation of thought that will interest and so excite the attention. Object and nature study are best calculated, not only to accomplish this end, but to exercise the other primary intellectual facul- ties, and so prepare the way for the development of the higher activities. It is also the thought study that most satisfactorily accommodates itself to the language necessary at different periods. In closing the line of thought, Mr. Davidson gave the following quota- tion : "Words have no authority and no office if we divide them from things, nor can things have the light thrown on them by which the mind distinguishes, orders, and groups them, and acquires the power to recall them, if they are detached and set apart from words." THE HOW, THE WHY, AND THE WHEREFORE OF THE TRAINING OF FEEBLE-MINDED CHILDREN BY MARTIN W. BARR, M.D., CHIEF PHYSICIAN OF THE PENNSYLVANIA TRAIN- ING SCHOOL FOR FEEBLE-MINDED CHILDREN, ELWYN, PA. "It is better that every kind of work honestly undertaken and dis- charged should speak for itself rather than be spoken for." This sentiment of Charles Dickens is certainly that which animated the members of your committee when they requested a practical object-lesson in the training of all classes of defectives. While thanking them on the part of our branch of the work for their cordial invitation, I may add the hope that the wisdom of their arrangement may be emulated by all organiza- tions desiring information on a subject which mere language fails to elu- cidate. Thus, and thus only, and by repeated exposition, can the public be brought to estimate rightly the tremendous importance of this work, or, in fact, to understand at all the how, the why, and the wherefore of the training of mental defectives. Our first topic, which, I trust, our boys have clearly demonstrated, and which is further illustrated by their exhibit, is briefly explained in the motto of their little paper : " The working hand makes strong the working brain." ^You will see there also that in our scheme of develop- ment the three H's have superseded the time-worn three R's. Recognizing that the sense of touch is the most sensitive, as well as the most reactive, of all the senses, we utilize it as the master-key which shall set free the powers of the head, the hand, the heart. The axiom that the will is best stimulated by and thru the emotions is daily veri- 1046 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Education of fied in dealing with natures absolutely sluggish and indolent, intensely perverse and obstinate, or unduly nervous and excitable. This stimulus, to be healthful, must be natural, and what more natural to a child, from the days of traditional mud pies up, than the love of making something — unless it be the love of tearing up ; and even that has long since been recognized as due to a spirit of investigation, and therefore to be con- structive rather than destructive. Indeed, we must take the child as he is, without attempting to make him over again. Direct the destructive activities into constructive channels — make the stream turn the wheel, and it will not sweep away the mill. This little ball in my hand I consider the most valuable thing in my exhibit. The boy who made this was next to the lowest grade of mental- ity. His hand against every man, he fancied every man's against him ; always under close custodial care that he might harm neither himself nor others, he would vent his spleen in tearing his clothing. His teacher, a woman of rare patience and devotedness, one day sat beside him tearing strips of old linen and laying them in order. " See, Willie, let us make some pretty strips and lay them so." His wonder grew at seeing her doing what he had been reproved for doing, and at once there was a bond of sympathy. She was playing his game — the only one, poor little fel- low, that he was capable of — and he joined in. "Now we will draw out the pretty threads and lay them in rows.". For weeks the child found quite a pastime in this occupation, and the violent nature grew quieter in proportion. One day the teacher said : " Let us tie these threads together and make a long string." It took him months to learn to tie those knots, but meanwhile his attendants were having breathing space. " Now we will wind this into a pretty-ball, and I will cover all you make for the boys to play with ; " and a new occupation was added to his list. The next link in this curious chain of development was a lesson in knitting. Thru months of patient teaching it was at last accomplished, and the boy to the day of his death found his life happiness in knitting caps for the children, in place of tearing both them and their clothes. You see she was wise enough to utilize the natural activities of the child and direct evil propensities into a healthful channel. Had she brought knitting and bright yarn or anything foreign to him first, it would have been truly put- ting "new wine into old bottles." His obstinacy would have been aroused, and he would have torn clothing to the end of the chapter. Now, just what this shows is to be found in varying results thru all the grades that have been presented to you today — and just here a word on the subject of grades, so little understood by the general public. Mental defectives, broadly considered, are divided into two classes : the imbecile, trainable; the idiot, untrainable. Between the two, the idio-imbecile, the direction of whose feeble powers, so far as to aid in the care of himself and of his weaker brother, can hardly be dignified by the term training. Defective. J TRAINING OF FEEBLE-MINDED CHILDREN 1047 Of these two latter it is not my purpose to speak just now, altho they are found in large proportion in the custodial departments of all training schools of this country, but not in England nor on the continent. It is the imbecile or trainable class which is here presented to you, in the four different grades which experience has dictated and proven. You are not to confound these grades of mentality with school grades in the common acceptation of promotion in studies ; on the contrary, between mental deficiencies there is a distinct line beyond which there is rarely an indi- vidual case of advance, tho there may be, and often is, retrogression. First you have the low-grade who can never learn to read or write — trainable only in the simplest acts of house or farm service, who can know nothing beyond a life of drudgery, but will, on the whole, be content therein. This grade generally presents two types : one, good, docile, obedient, having little or no will power. Such a one out in the world becomes the ready tool or victim of the designing or the vicious, and thus innocently helps to fill our prison wards. The other, obstinate, perverse, and indolent, needs always a strong hand to keep him at constant occupa- tion, which is all that preserves him from a lapse into idiocy. He would be the tyrant of a household — the terror of a community. The middle-grade, trainable in varied degree in the useful and mechanical arts, may or may not, as an aid in his development, be brought to read and write, but will never use the knowledge practically in his work as a good servant or a fairly good mechanic. ^ The high-grade, capable, in intellectual capacity, of advance as far as the first intermediate, can never, without danger of breakdown, attempt all the studies of that course. His life work must, therefore, be sought in the various trades and handicrafts to which his development, by means of manual training from the kindergarten up, has always been directed, and life happiness, possibly as a skilled artisan, for him be assured. Lastly, the moral imbecile — found in all three grades, often abnor- mally bright — may vary intellectually from a brute to a genius, but the moral sense is absolutely wanting. It is from this class that the criminal ranks in all lands are largely recruited. His permanent sequestration under close custodial care, with as many ameliorations as possible, is absolutely essential to the safety of himself and of society. In hearing how we strive to arouse dormant faculties, and that manual training is not only the basis, but the means and the end, in all our efforts, you have probably already arrived at some of the many reasons why. First : Safety for the individual. In dealing with mental weakness, either congenital or accidental, there is always danger, under pressure, of outbreak into insanity or a lapse into idiocy. We must stimulate and arouse the sluggish nature while we guide and restrain the excitable. Now, in the wide field of varied occupations, manual training offers a great advantage over the purely intellectual — an advantage incalculable to us, 1048 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Education of forced as we are to consider not only the different grades of mentality, but the peculiarities and proclivities of individuals in each grade. Not only does it afford great selection for the child, but opportunity for observation and immediate change according to needs. A diagnosis of intellectual processes under the excitement of class competition is not so easy, and the remedy, therefore, not infrequently comes too late. Second : The happiness of the individual is next to be considered ; and all true happiness must have its root in self-respect. We are dealing with a race that has too long been despised and rejected, and science, by indicating many hitherto unrecognized, is adding a host bright enough to be extremely sensitive and unhappy under such conditions. To avoid pauperizing and to stimulate self-respect, we must offer some avenue for gaining the respect and appreciation of others. This is best done by uplifting and maintaining the dignity of labor, and this for all grades. Even the lowest is made to feel : " Who sweeps a room as to Thy law m^kes that and the action fine." "Study to show thyself a workman approved," must be our charge to the many, if each is to realize, " Not what I have but what I do is my kingdom." This, moreover, for the moral imbecile who, in close custodial care, must find his only safety in congenial employment, if we would avoid that blot upon nineteenth-century civilization — the record of the unoccupied in prison cells. The social qualities so often dwarfed in the narrowness of class com- petition expand freely in this natural atmosphere, where honest work well done is made the true gauge of character. The moral effect of the daily use of the try-square cannot be overestimated. Egotism, that bane of the imbecile, finds in it a constant check, while altruism is best fostered in the workroom where each is called to admire and consider "not his own but another's good." Furthermore, when the child in the kindergarten, the girl or boy in the workshop, has faithfully modeled, improved, or originated any one thing worthy to be offered as a gift, these children, who can know nothing of the value of money, have yet within their grasp that without which the rich man with all his possessions would be poor indeed — the power and the right of giving. We aim, indeed, to make this the dominating spirit; even the acquire- ments of reading and writing are made tools to this end ; those who can learn being encouraged to entertain and assist those who cannot. Music and drawing alike are not to be regarded as mere accomplishments of the individual, but all must minister to the common good. And wherefore all this for imbeciles ? Is it worth it ? many may ask. Between that question and the answer lie a hundred years of experi- ence, and the working out of scientists and philosophers of a basis for the coming century to build upon. Work among the mental defectives, having its birth with the nine- Defectives] TRAINING OF FEEBLE-MINDED CHILDREN 1049 teenth century, has grown with it. Enriched by its thought and discoveries, and adapting itself to its ever-increasing demands, it has so modified until its character and aims are "alike changed. What, in the beginning, was a philanthropic purpose pure and simple, having for its object the most needy, and therefore naturally directed toward paupers and idiots, now assumes the proportions of a socialistic reform as a matter of self-preservation, a necessity to preserve the nation from the encroachments of imbecility, of crime, and of all the fateful heredities of a highly nervous age. The enthusiasm of Itard, in 1800, to reclaim the wild boy of Aveyron which inspired the efforts of his pupil Seguin in his wonderful work at BicStre was a noble preparation, but still, as Seguin himself admits, was only experimental until "Haller, Boerhaave and Morgagni had brought physiology to its rightful place at the head of the medical sciences," and Rousseau, Pereira, and others had demonstrated its appli- cation to education. Then the closing decade of our first half century witnessed a simultaneous movement in England, America, and on the continent in the establishment of institutions for the training of mental defectives. The work was good of its kind, and we have not improved upon it, nor can we, for it was expended chiefly upon the class which, as I have told you, is largely unimprovable. It was embarrassed, and is greatly so today, by the idea, eagerly embraced by the ignorant, of cure. I wish it were only possible to convince some of the heart-broken mothers that for congenital mental weakness there is no cure. One may as well talk of curing a child born without an arm as restoring a defective brain. We cannot r Andrew S. Draper, LL.B., '71, Union Univ. ; LL.D., '89, Colgate Univ. 1894. President University of Illinois, President's House, Champaign. 1889. O. F. Barbour. 1866. Principal of Kent School, 512 N. Court St., Rockfoid. Reed Savage. 1895. Principal Graded School, Box 106, Paris. Robert G. Young, B.S., '74, Ph.B., '88. 1896. Superintendent of Schools, Rock Island. 1890. John E. Bradley, Ph.D., '79, Univ. of N. Y. ; LL.D., '93, Williams Coll. 1892. President Illinois College, 1202 W. College Ave., Jacksonville. John Williston Cook, A.M., '86, Knox Coll. ; LL.D., '92, Blackburn Univ. 1890. President Illinois State Normal School, Normal. Henry R. Corbett, B.S., '89, Hastings. 1898. Graduate Student, University of Chicago, 5661 Washington Ave., Chicago. Charles Alexander McMurry, Ph.D., '87, Halle. 1897. Principal of Training School, State Normal School, Normal^ William Lucas Steele, A.M., '80, Monmouth Coll., 111. 1885. Superintendent of Schools, 462 N. Cherry St., Galesburg. P. R, Walker. 1884. Superintendent of Schools, 716 N. Church St., Rockford. 1891. F. J. Albrecht, F. R. G. S. Educational Publisher, Wabash Ave. and Randolph St., Chicago. Herbert F. Fisk, A.B., '60, A.M., '63, D.D., '88, Wesleyan Univ., Conn. 1888. Prin. Academy and Prof, of Ped., Northwestern Univ., 1625 Judson Ave., Evanston. Dana W. Hall, A.M., '93, Colby Univ., Me. 1894. High School and College Department, Ginn & Co., 378 Wabash Ave., Chicago. M. A. Whitney, A.B., '90, A.M., '93, Colby Univ. 1896. Supermtendent of Schools, Elgin. 1892. C. M. Bardwell. Superintendent of East Side Schools, 60 S. Lincoln Ave., Aurora. Albert W. Clancy, Grad. National Normal School. 1880. American Book Co., 531 Wabash Ave.; res., cor. Langley Ave. and 39th St., Chicago. Mrs. M. E. Ferris Gettemy, M.L., '97, Knox Coll. 1895. Assistant High School, 246 N. Academy St., Galesburg. 1893. J. J. Allison. 1898. Student, University of Chicago, 5835 Drexel Ave., Chicago. O. T. Bright. County Superintendent of Schools, 907 The Temple, Chicago. George W. Brown. President Brown's Business College, Jacksonville. Archibald O. Coddington, M.L., '83, Univ. of 111. Principal Knickerbocker School, 1190 Sheffield Ave., Chicago. Mrs, J, N. Crouse. 1890. Director Kindeigarten College, 2331 Prairie Ave., Chicago. Lincoln P. Goodhue. 1889. Principal D. S. Wentworth School, 7029 Yale Ave., Chicago. William O. Krohn, A.B., Western Coll., A.M., Ph.D., Yale. 1897. Psychologist, Illinois Eastern Hospital for the Insane, Hospital. Fred R. Nichols. 1801. Instr. in Physics, Eng. High and Man. Train. Sch., 126 S. Jefferson St., Chicago. Mrs. Auce H. Pittnam. 1881. Superintendent Chicago Froebel Association, 4815 Kenwood Ave., Chicago. LlTCY S. SiLKE. 1890. Assistant Special Teacher in Drawing, Public Schools, 3307 Rhodes Ave., Chicago. Alice E. Sollitt. 1890. Principal Kenwood School, 4020 Prairie Ave., Chicago. Charles H. Thurber, Ph.B., '86, Cornell; A.M., '90, Haverford Coll. 1895. Dean Morgan Park Academy, Morgan Park. Volney Underhill, Ph.B., '71, LL.B., '75, Univ. of Wis. 1875. Principal Carpenter School, 296 S. Paulina St., Chicago. 1894. C. H. Congdon. Music Department, Scott, Foresman & Co., 378 Wabash Ave., Chicago. Ira T. Eaton. Publisher, Eaton & Co., The Temple, 203 Michigan Ave., Chicago. * Died August, 1898. 1O70 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Illinois 1894. Joseph C. Hisey. 1898. Representative, Ginn & Co., 378 Wabash Ave., Chicago. Mrs. Frances Smallwood Lane, B.S., '65, Genesee Coll, ; M.S., '80, Syracuse Univ. 430 W. Adams St., Chicago. L. D. VosE. Agent for D. C. Heath & Co., 355 Wabash Ave., Chicago. 189s. John Nichols Adee, Ph.B., '91, Northwestern Univ. 1898. Superintendent of Schools, Sycamore. B. D. Bbrrv. Educational Publisher, 378-388 Wabash Ave., Chicago. Julia E. BuLKLEv, Ph.D., Zurich. 1892. Associate Professor of Pedagogy, University of Chicago, Chicago. James C. Burns, A.M., '75, Monmouth Coll. 1888. Superintendent of City Schools, 1064 E. Boston Ave., Monmouth. S. Lillian Bvington. 4894. Director of Music, Public Schools, 1723, 6th Ave., Moline. Fremont Luman Calkins, B.S., '81, N. Ind. Nor. Sch. 1894. Superintendent of Schools, Delavan. W. H. Campbell. Superintendent of Schools, Joliet. Joseph H. Collins, A.B., '75, A.M., '78, La Grange Coll., Mo. 1888. Superintendent of City Public Schools, 715 S. 7th St., Springfield. Mrs. Julia H. Collins. 715 S, 7th St., Springfield. Henry C. Cox, A.M., '731 Abingdon Coll. 1884. Principal Froebel Grammar School, 850 W. 21st St., Chicago. May M. Croqcett. 1891. Principal Irving School, 1826 Maine St., Quincy. Edward C. Delano. 1877. Assistant Superintendent of Schools, 59 Aberdeen St., Chicago. W. H: DUCKER. Publisher, 378 Wabash Ave., Chicago. Joseph Hewett Freeman, A.M., '88, Bates Coll. 1898. State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Capitol, Springfield. Enoch A. Gastman. 1862. Superintendent of Schools, 464 W. North St., Decatur. William M. Giffin, A.M., '82, Lawrence Univ., Wis. ; Pd.D., '94, State Nor. Coll., N. Y. 1889. Vice -Principal Chicago Normal School, 7710 Emerald Ave., Chicago. Newell D. Gilbert, A.B., '79, A.M., '82, 111. Wes. Univ. 1887. Superintendent of Public Schools, 413 N. Pine Ave., Austin. John H. Grossman. 1886. County Superintendent of Schools, Lanark. R. A. Haight, A.B., '75, A.M., '78, Shurtleff Coll., 111. 1881. Superintendent of Schools, 1129 Warren St., Alton. John A. Hancock, M.L., '90, Univ. of Wis. ; A.M., '93, Stanford Univ. a 5622 Ingleside Ave.. Chicago. William R. Harper, A.B., '70, Muskingum Coll.; Ph.D., '75, Yale; D.D., '91, Colby Univ.; LL.D., Univ. of Nebr. 1890. President of University of Chicago, 59th St. and Lexington Ave., Chicago. Elizabeth Harrison. Principal of Kindergarten College, 10 Van Buren St., Chicago. Mary S. L. Hartigan. 1893. Principal of Hoerner School, 7409 Morgan St., Chicago. Mary Hartmann, A.M., '88, Lombard Univ. 1882. Instructor in Mathematics, Illinois State Normal School, 109 Normal Ave., Normal. W. H. Hatch. , ^ , 1892. Superintendent of Schools, Oak Park. P. C. Hayden. Teacher of Music, Public Schools, 1826 Maine St., Quincy. Harry Helmer. 315 Wabash Ave., Chicago. Charles Hertel,'M.S., Cent. Wes. Coll., Warrenton, Mo. 1894. Superintendent of Schools of St. Clair County, Court House, Belleville. Amalie Hofer. Editor " Kindergarten Magazine," 1207 Woman's Temple, Chicago. J. A. Hornberger, A.B., '84, A.M., '87, Bucknell Univ., Pa. ; Ph.D., '89, Bellevue Coll. 1895. Superintendent of Schools, 425 S. 7th St., Pekin. Wilbur S. Jackman, A.B., '84, Harvard. Head of Dept. of Nat. Sci., Chicago Nor. School, Instructor in Pedagogy, Univer- sity of Chicago, 6916 Perry Ave., Station O, Chicago. Mrs. Nellie S. Kedzie, Grad. Kan. Agri. Coll., '77. 1897. Professor of Household Economy and Hygiene, Bradley Polytechnic Institute, 214 Fredonia Ave., Peoria. Francis Austin Kendall. 1888. Principal Ellsworth Sch. ; 1894, Secretary 111. Pupils' Reading Circle, cor. Sleight and Mechanic Sts., Naperville. Franklin Mason Kendall, B.S., '78, Cornell Univ. Gen'l Agent, Ginn & Co., 378 Wabash Ave., Chicago. Effie J. Kilbourne. 1891. Head Assistant Kenwood School, 73, soth St., Chicago. Vashti a. Lambert. 1886. Teacher in Jefferson Park School, 4280 Milwaukee Ave., Chicago; res.. Palatine. Leslie Lewis, A.B., '66, A.M., '69, Yale. 1890. District Superintendent of Schools, 5605 Madison Ave., Chicago. William S. Mack. Western Manager, Prang Educational Co., 151 Wabash Ave., Chicago. J. J. McGlynn. 1888. Teacher of Science, High School, 316 St. Louis Ave., East St. Louis. Illinois] LIFE AND ACTIVE MEMBERS 107 1 1895. A. L. McLaughlin. Agent for Sheldon & Oj., 315-321 Wabash Ave., Chicago. Kate S. O'Leary. 1882. Teacher in Public Schools, 208 S. Hickory St., Joliet. C. M, Parker. Editor of " The School News," Taylorville. C. F. Philbrook. 1893. Superintendent of Public Schools, Rochelle. Albert R. Robinson, A.M., Northwestern Univ. 1891. Principal English High and Manual Training School, 126 S. Jefferson St., Chicago, Erastvs H. Scott. , Publisher, 378 Wabash Ave., Chicago. Orion C. Scott, Ph.B., '78, B.D., '80, A.M., '81, Univ. of Iowa. 1898. Superintendent of Schools, Dist. No. 8, Cicero; res., 34th St. and Home Ave., Berwyn. James P. Slade, A.M., '72, Shurtleff Coll. ifltti 9th St., EasfSt. Louis. W. S. Smyth, A.M., '66, Wesleyan Univ., Conn. ; Ph.D., '76, Syracuse Univ. Educational Publisher (D. C. Heath & Co.), 378 Wabash Ave., Chicago. LvDiA E. Snyder. 1893. Teacher in Brentano School, 2622 Hartzell St., N. Evanston. LiLLiE S. Stephenson. 1898, Teacher 6th Grade, Park Ridge School, 1028 Dempster St., Evanston. Frank D. Thomson, A. B., '92, A.M., '95, Knox Coll. 1895. Principal of High School, 228 Tompkins St., Galesburg. J. E. Turner, A.B., ^94, A.M., '^5, Lincoln Univ. 1896. Principal of High School, 722 Alby St., Alton. Edwin O. Vaile. Editor of the " Intelligence," Oak Park. Nathan T. Veatch. 1887. Superintendent of Schools, Rushville. J. W. Warr. Editor of " Business Education," 1723, 6th Ave., Moline. W. E. Watt, Principal Graham School, Director Principals' Male Quartette, 4453 Emerald Ave,, Chicago. Charles W. Weeks. 1888. Supervisor of Music, 320 Congress St., Ottawa. Oliver S. Westcott, A.M., '56, D.S., '92, Brown Univ. 1883. Principal North Divison High School, Chicago; Maywood. Daniel A. White, A.B., '83, Harvard Univ. ; LL.B., '92, Lake Forest Univ. 1896. Principal of Everett School, 3501 Wabash Ave., Chicago, Hakry G. Wilson. 1879. The American Book Co., 521 Wabash Ave,, Chicago, 1896, Mary E. Ahern. Editor of " Public Library," Library Bureau, 125 Franklin St., Chicago, C, J. Albert, B.S. and A.M., '78, Baldwin Univ. Manager of the Albert Teachers' Agency, Central Music Hall, Chicago; res., Elm- hurst, B. F. Armitage, A.B., '80, A.M., '84, Dartmouth Coll, Superintendent of City Schools, 1317 Charleston Ave,, Mattoon, 'Elizabeth Baumgartner, Principal Teachers' Training School, St. Nicholas Hotel, Springfield. Alfred Bayliss, M.S., '73, Hillsdale Coll., Mich. Principal of Township High School, Streator. S, S, Beggs, A,M,, N. E, Ohio Nor. Coll. 1896. Superintendent of City Schools, Beardstown, Charles A, Bennett, B,S., '86, Worcester Polytechnic Inst. Head of Department of Manual Arts, Bradley Polytechnic Institute, 211 S. Garfield Ave., Peoria, R, W, Burton, A,M,, Beloit Coll, County Superintendent of Stephenson Co,, Court House, Freeport. William J. Button. President of the Werner Book Co., 378-388 Wabash Ave,, Chicago. Annice Bradford Butts, A.M. Principal of Kenwood Institute, 40 E. 47th St., Chicago, Nellie M, Carpenter Teacher in Graham School, 6344 Stewart Ave,, Chicago, Mrs. Elizabeth Blanchard Cook, A.M., Wheaton Coll. President Woman's Educational Union, 316 Washington Boul., Chicago. Jambs W. Cupples, A.M., '89, Wesleyan Univ. 1898. Superintendent of Schools, 1086 Oak St., Galena. George W. Davis, 1893, Principal of Hawthorne School, 1430 Montrose Ave., Chicago. William C, Dodge. 1887, Principal of Franklin School, 3268 Kenniore Ave,, Station X, Chicago, Mabel E, Dougherty. 906 E. Bluff St., Peoria. • Mrs, Millie Ryan Eakins, 1898. Chicago Normal School, 6233 Peoria St., Station O, Chicago. John H. Finley, A,B„ A,M., Knox Coll.; Ph.D., LL,D, 1892, President of Knox College, Galesburg, H, A, FoRBSMAN, A,M,, '90, Lafayette Coll, Publisher (Scott, Foresman & Co.), 307 Wabash Ave,, Chicago. Robert Foresman. Educational Publisher (Silver, Burdette& Co.), 262-264 Wabash Ave., Chicago. ♦Deceased. 1 072 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Illinois i8o6. H. L. Grant, M.S., Lawrence Univ. 1889. Principal of Franklin School, 303 Chambers Ave., Peoria. G. Chari-bs Griffiths. 1893. Principal of Schools, Park Ave. and S Boulevard, Austin. Charles W. Grovbs, '80, Univ. of 111. 1897. Superintendent of Schools, 515 Peoria Ave., Dixon. Le Roy Halsev, A.B., A.M., '79, Univ. of Mich. 1897. Agent of Henry Holt & Co., 378 Wabash Ave., Chicago. John W. Henninger, B.S., '81, M.S., '84, LL.B., '91, McKendree Coll. 1896. Superintendent of City Schools, 1127 W. Lafayette Ave,, Jacksonville. Margaret MacDonai-d. 1886. Teacher in Pullman School, 6440 Ellis Ave., Chicago. J. F. McCuLLOUGH. Agent for Silver, Burdette & Co., 378-388 Wabash Ave., Chicago. Mrs. Lida B. McMurrv. 1892. Training Teacher, Primary Department, State Normal Univ., NormaL Adda V. Meacham. Teacher in Public Schools, 601, 6th Ave., Peoria. O. L. Miller, A.B., '90, Univ. of Mich. _ 1898. Principal Township High School, Sterling. Mrs. Sarah J. O'Keefe. Principal of Jefferson Park School, Chicago ; residence, Arlington Heights. F. B. Ormsbv. W. B. Owen. Principal Public Schools, Perkins Bass ; 7242 Perry Ave., Station O, Chicago. Agent, Publishing House, Ginn & Co., Chicago; residence, 851 Grove St., Jack- sonville. R. S. Page, A.M. 1895. Superintendent of Schools, Brewster House, Freeport. Bertha Payne. 1895. Principal of Chicago Froebel Association, Chicago ; residence, Hinsdale. William C. Payne. 1890. Principal Gladstone School, Chicago; residence, Hinsdale. William J. Pringle, A.M., Ph.B., LL.B. 1898. Extension Work of Lewis Institute, 2953 Groveland Ave., Chicago. Mary I. Purer. 1893. Principal of La Fayette School, 1902 Barry Ave., Chicago. W. F. ROCHELEAU. Superintendent of City Schools, Streator. D. Frances Sellars. Supervisor of Public Instruction, 3rd Ward, 715 S. Main St,, Jacksonville. Mabel E. Smallwood. 1892. Teacher of Biology.lEnglewoodHigh School, 322 W. 6sth St., Station O, Chicago E. E. Smith, A.B,, B.S. 1898. Manager Educational Department, Rand, McNally & Co., 166-168, Adams St. Chicago. W. W. Speer. 1895. Assistant Superintendent of Schools, 6454 Armour Ave., Chicago. Arnold Tompkins, A.M., '91. Univ. of Ind. ; Ph.D., '96, Univ. of Ohio, Athens. Professor of Pedagogy, Univ. of Illinois, 410 John St., Champaign. Frank N. Tracy. 1881. Superintendent of City Schools, 316 Harrison Ave., Kankakee. Charles R. Vandervort, A.B., '80, A.M., '87, Eureka, 111. 1885. Principal Greeley School, 519 N. Jefferson Ave., Peoria. Richard Waterman, Jr., B.S., '92, Mass. Inst, of Tech, 1896. Secretary of the Educational Committee of the Civic Federation of Chicago, 26 Scott St., Chicago. J. D. Williams, A.M., '72, Hillsdale Coll., Mich. General Agent, Maynard, Merrill & Co., 203 Michigan Ave., Chicago. Francis M. Woods, A.B. and A.M., Northwestern Univ. Manager, Educational Aid Association, 1278 Washington Boulevard, Chicago, 1897. Emma V. Bailey. Teacher in 7th Grade, 340 N. Oakley Ave., Chicago. William J. Bartholf, A.B., Univ. of 111.; B.S., Ind. Nor. Sch. 1888. Principal of Von Humboldt School, 11 Roslyn Place, Chicago. Homer Bevans. 1884. La Salle School, 353 W. 6oth|Place, StationJO, Chicago. William J. Black. 1887. Principal of Sherwood School, 6620 Lafayette Ave., Station O, Chicago. Emanuel R. Boyer, A.B., Harvard. 1890. Professor of Biology, Englewood High School, 536 W. 6rst St., Chicago. Delos Buzzell, M.S., '74, Univ. of Mich, Principal of Irving Park Grammar School, 2406 N. 42d Court, Chicago. Taylor C. Clendenen. 1886. Superintendent of City Schools, 722 Center St., Cairo. E. G. CoOLEY, Ph.B. 1893. Lyons Township High School, La Grange. Emma Coy. Principal of Hall School, 521 Walnut St., Rockford. Mrs. Charles R. Crane. President of Parents' Educational Association of Chicago, 2559 Michigan Ave., Chicago. John Dewey, A.B., '79, Univ. of Vt. ; Ph.D., '84, Johns Hopkins. 1894. Professor of Philosophy, University of Chicago, Chicago. Letitia L, Doane. 1898. Teacher Public Day Schools for the Deaf, 6350 Yale Ave,, Chicago, M, LuELLA Dodge, 1752 W. Balmoral Ave., Forest Glen Station, Chicago. Illinois] LIFE AND ACTIVE MEMBERS *^0-]l 1897. Clarissa E. Ela. I 888. Drawing Department, State Normal School, Bloomington. F. D. Farb, A.B., 'ga. Univ. of Vt. State Agent for Silv.er, Burdette & Co., 263 Wabash Ave.. Chicago. M. Elizabeth Farson. 1889. Principal of Brown School, 134 Warren Ave., Chicago. Mary C. Footk. 1891. Principal of School, 134 Auburn Place, Rockford, J. M. Frost, A.M., Hobart Coll. 1896. Superintendent of Schools.l^Hinsdale. Mary Gillkspik. 1893. Principal of High School. Winnetlca. Nellie Gillespie. 1893. Assistant in High School, Winnetlca. Joseph Clavbaugh Gordon, A.B., '66, A.M., '69, Ph.D., '92, Monmouth Coll. 1897. Superintendent of State Institute for Education of Deaf, Jacksonville. A. V. Grbenman. Superintendent of Schools, 331 Spruce St., Aurora. Frank H. Hall. 1897. Superintendent of Institution for the Blind, Jacksonville. James Hannan. 1890. Assistant Superintendent of Schools, 5136 S. Park Ave., Chicago. Samuel A. Harrison, A.B,, '82, A.M.. '88, Univ. of 111. 1892. Principal of Burroughs School, J104 S. Park Ave., Chicago. DtnJLEV Grant Hays, Graduate State Normal Univ. 1896. Assistant Science Instructor, Chicago Normal School, 550 W. 6oth Place, Englewood Chicago. Samuel H. Heidler. Superintendent of Schools, Ottawa. Mrs. Kate A. Henderson. 1897. Superintendent of Schools, Barber Building, Joliet. R. M. Hitch. • Principal Dore School, 15T S. Robey St., Chicago. Mrs. E. a. Hubbard. Supervisor of Primary Schools, 113 Battleson St., Joliet. A. W. Hussey. B.S., '78, Nat. Nor. Univ. 1896. Superintendent of Schools, Geneseo. G. OvBDLA Jacobs. 1895. Head Assistant, 8th Grade, 170 N. Morgan St., Chicago. John Crerar Library, Chicago. President, Norman Williams ; Librarian, C. W. Andrews, Chicago. J. A. Johnson. Principal Mark Sheridan School, 3300 Ellis Ave., Chicago. Emma F. Jones. 1879, Assistant in High School, 1131 S. 6th St., Springfield. C. H. Kamman, B.L., Univ. of III. Teacher of Modem Languages in High School, 810, 6th Ave., Peoria. Sarah A. Kirklev. T89S. Principal of Grant School, 738 Washington Boul., Chicago. Hbnristtb \I. Knispel. 1871. Teacher in Public Schools, 308 S. Charles St., Belleville. Carl J. Kroh. 1891. Head of Physical Training Department, Chicago Normal School, 6817 Honore St., Chicago. Cephas H. Leach. Principal of A. H. Burley School, 523 Greenleaf Ave., Station Y, Chicago. Lincoln University. President, A. E. Turner; Secretary, C. E. Conant, Lincoln. I. F. Mather, A.B.. A.M., Iowa Coll. Superintendent of Schools, Centralia. Mary McCowen. Principal Day Schools for the Deaf, 6550 Yale Ave., Chicago. Francis M. McKay. Principal Anderson .School, 61 Alice Court, Chicago. Anna McKillop. 1886. Head Assistant Graham School, 740 W. 47th Place, Chicago. Walter Reynolds Mitchell, B.S., '87, Univ. of III. Department of Biology, High School, 433, 57th St., Hyde Park, Chicago. Dora Montgomery. 1894. Oral Class for the Deaf, Public Schools, 4319 Drexel Boul., Station O, Chicago. A. C. Moore, A.B., '87, S. Car. Coll. 1898. Graduate Student, Univ. of Chicago, 5829 Jackson Ave., Chicago. Royal T. Morgan, A.B., '74, A.M., '77, Wheaton Coll. 1886. County Superintendent of Schools, 710 College Ave., Wheaton. Frank L. Morse, A.B., '86, A.M., '89, Brown Univ. Principal of Hayes School, 393 Warren Ave., Chicago. Fanny E. Oliver. 1885. Principal of Montefiore School, 390 Washington Boul., Chicago. Edwin H. Owen. Superintendent of Schools, Carlinville. Hugh A. Owen, Graduate of State Normal School. 1891. Principal of High School, Box 193, Maywood. Danibl Baldwin Parkinson, A.M., '74, Ph.D., '98, McKendree Coll. 1898. President Southern Illinois Normal University, 335 Walnut St., Carbondale. Mary Reid Pierce. 1808. Agent American Book Co., 521-531 Wabash Ave., Chicago. Frederick W. Plapp, A.B., '85, Dartmouth Coll. 1890. Assistant in High School, 3549 N. 42d Ave., Station 35, Chicago. I074' NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Indiana ILLINOIS— Continued 1897. Mrs. Andrea HoFER Proodfoot. Editor " Child Garden," 9333 Prospect Ave., Chicago. •John K. Rassweiler, A.M., '90, Northwestern Coll. 1876. Superintendent of Schools, Downer's Grove. Louise D. Rennick-. Teacher in Pullman School, 7142 Evans Ave., Station R, Chicago. Robert H. Rennie. 1889. Principal of Gresham School, 817 W. 87th St., Chicago. John Richeson, M.S., '80; A.M. (honorary), '84, Ewing Coll. 1897. Superintendent of City Schools, District No. i, 819 Ohio Ave., East St. Louis. George A. Robbins. 1891. Teacher of Woodwork, Public Schools, 6922 Union Ave., Chicago. H. L, Roberts. 1895. Superintendent of Public Schools, Farmington, Joseph L. Robertson. 1894. County Superintendent of Schools, Court House, Peoria. J. A. Root. Teacher, 3111 Michigan Ave., Chicago. George H. Shornev. Hope Publishing Co., 84 Wabash Ave., Chicago. Edward O. Sisson, B.S., '86, State Agr. Coll. ; A.B., '93, Univ. of Chicago. 1897. Director of Bradley Polytechnic Institute, Peoria. Eva a. Smedlev. 1898. Principal of Noyes St. School, Evanston ; 138 Wells St., Chicago. E. R. Smith. General Agent for D. C. Heath & Co., 378 Wabash Ave., Chicago. Arthur J. Snyder. 1897. Superintendent of Schools, 523 E. Madison St., Belvidere. Mrs. Helen E. Starrett. Principal of Scoville Place College Preparatory School for Girls, Lake St., Oak Park. JOHN'H. Stehman. 1881. Principal of Avondale School, 1571 Kimball Ave., Station Y, Chicago. Albert LeRoy Stevenson, B.S., '81, N. Ind. Nor. Sch. 1885. Principal of Oakland Grammar School, 3995 Drexel Boul., Chicago. A. J. Tiffany. Publisher " Natural Science Cabinet," 210 E. 40th St., Chicago. Emma J. Todd. 283 Downer Place, Aurora. Henry L. Tolman, A.M., '69, Rochester Univ. Professor of Medical Jurisprudence, School of Medicine, Univ. of 111., 929 Chicago Opera House Building, Chicago. William Welton. 1893. Principal Public Schools, Lansing. John F. Wicks. 1890. Principal of School, Blue Mound. 1898. John A. Forbes. ' With Sheldon & Co., Educational Publishers, 315 Wabash Ave., Chicago. Clyde Sloane, A.B. 1890. Principal of Schools, Carrollton. INDIANA life director 1877. James Henry Smart, A.M., '72, Dartmouth ; LL.D., '83, Ind. Univ. 1883, President of Purdue University, 191 Columbia St., Lafayette. LIFE members 1876. William A. Bell, A.M., '63, Antioch Coll. 1871. Editor of "Indiana School Journal," 66J^ N. Penn St., Indianapolis. Moses Cobb Stevens, A.M., '83, Earlham Coll. 1883. Professor of Mathematics, Purdue University, 11 Waldon St., W. Lafayette. 1880. John S. Irwin, A.B., '42, Western Univ. of Pa. ; M.D., '47, Univ. of Pa. ; LL.D., '75, Univ. of Ind. 1203 E. Main St., Lafayette, active members 1885. Mary E. Nicholson. Principal of Normal School, 1222 Broadway, Indianapolis. 1890. Anna Suter. 1889. Principal of High School, 115, 4th St., Aurora. 1891. W. S. Almond. 1893. Superintendent of Schools, cor. Monroe and Willson Sts., Delphi. Jesse H. Brown. Lecturer on Art and General Educational Subjects, 1615 Broadway, Indianapolis. Miss N. Cropsey. 1894. Assistant Superintendent of Schools, 1219 College Ave., Indianapolis. 1892. Edward Ayres, A.B., '78, A.M., '85, Amherst Coll. 1890. Supermtendent of Schools, 625 Ferry St., Lafayette. 1893. William L. Bryan, Ph.D., '92, Clark Univ. 1887. Professor of Philosophy, 1893 ; Vice-President, Indiana University, Bloomington Albert E. Humke. i8gi. Superintendent of Public Schools, Vincennes. Joseph Swain, B.L., M.S., Ind. Univ. ; LL.D., Wabash Coll. 1893. President of Indiana University, 328 Kirkwood Ave., Bloomington, * Died September, 1897. Indiana] LIFE AND ACTIVE MEMBERS 1075 1893. H. G. Woody, B.S., National Normal Univ. Superintendent of Schools, Greencastle. 1894. Gkorgk W. Benton, A.B., '84, A.M., '87, Wabash Coll. 1888. Instructor in Chemisfry, Hich School, 2428 Broadway, Indianapolis. George W. Hufford, A.M., '67, Antioch Coll. 1892. Principal of High School, 1209 Park Ave., Indianapolis. 1895. W. C. Belman. 1883. Superintendent of Schools, 130 OG:den St., Hammond. Edward Boyle, A.B., Univ. of Mich. 1888. Superintendent of City Schools, Michigan City, H. B. Brown, A.M. President Northern Indiana Normal School, 53 Jefferson St., Valparaiso. George Stockton Burroughs, A.B., '73, A.M., '76, Ph.D., '84, D.D., '87, Princeton; LL.D., '95, Mariette Coll. 1892. President of Wabash College, 506 S. Washington St., Crawfordsville. J. A. Carnagey, A.B., '81, A.M., 84, Hanover Coll., Ind. 1890. Superintendent of City Schools, lojgFraniclin St., Columbus. T. F. FiTZGiBBONs, Grad., '90, Ind. St. Nor. Sch. ; A.B., '07, Ind. Univ. 1890. Superintendent of Public Schools, 1015 Main St., Elwood. W. B. Flick. Student, 35 E. Washington St., Indianapolis. D. M. Geeting. 1895. State Superintendent of Public Instruction, 2026 Central Ave., Indianapolis. David Kopp Goss, A.B., '87, Indiana Univ. ; Fellow in Cornell, '92-3. 1894. Superintendent of Schools, 2329 College Ave., Indianapolis. William A. Hester, A.M., '83, De Pauw Univ. 1894. Superintendent of City Public Schools, 428 Chandler Ave., Evansville. Cyrus W. Hodgin, A.M., '88, Earlham Coll. 1887. Prof, of History and Political Science, Earlham Coll., 30 Central Ave., Richmond. Frank L. Jones, B.S., '90, N. Ind. Nor. Sch. ; A.B., '98, Ind. Univ. 1895. Superintendent of City Schools, W. Madison St., Tipton. G. F. Kenaston, A.B., '78, Dartmouth; A.M., '81, Univ. of Mich. 1897. Superintendent of Schools, Crawfordsville. Mary E. Rowe. 1898. Author, Lecturer, and Normal Instructor, 2307 Talbot Ave., Indianapolis. W. S. Rowe, A.B., '92, De Pauw Univ. 1895. Superintendent of Schools, Rising Sun. Jambs F. Scull. 1882. Superintendent of Schools, Room 11, Central Building, Rochester. W. R. Snyder, A.M., Pennsylvania Coll. 1887. Superintendent of City Schools, 319 W. Adams St., Muncie. W. R. J. Stratford, A.B., '85, A.M., '89, Hanover Coll. Superintendent of Schools, 62 E. 2d St., Peru. Wabash College. President,'_George Stockton Burroughs; Sec, Henry Z. McLain, Crawfordsville. Welford D. Weaver. 1890. Superintendent of Schools, Marion. 1896. George F. Bass. Manager " Ind.-Young People's Reading Circle," 103 Commercial Club Building, Indianapolis. Mrs. Eliza A. Blaker. 1882. Superiutendent Indianapolis Free Kindergartens, 2320 N. Meridian St., Indianapolis. Henry Willard Bowers, A.B., '77, A.M., '81. De Pauw Univ. 1896. Superintendent of Schools, Union City. John Franklin Brown, Ph.B., '89, A.M., '95, Eariham Coll. ; Ph.D., '96, Cornell. 1898. Vice-President and Professor of Philosophy, Earlham College, Richmond. Isaac Vinton Busby, A.B., '91, Indiana Univ. 1894. Superintendent City Schools, 705 S. Harrison St., Alexandria. Robert I. Hamilton. 1887. Sui>erintendent City Schools, 53 Poplar St., Huntington. Miles W. Harrison, A.B., '79, Oberlin. 1886. Superintendent City Schools, 109 Sinclair St., Wabash. W. H. Hershman, A.B.J '98, Ind. Univ. 1894. Superintendent City Schools, cor. Bank and Spring Sts., New Albany. J. R. Houston, M.S., '93, Moore's Hill Coll. 1896. Superintendent Public Schools, Aurora. John O. Lewellen, B.S., N. Ind. Nor. School. 301 North St., Muncie. Nannie C. Love. 1881. Supervisor of Music, 401 £. Washington St., Muncie. C. M. McDaniel, B.S., "85, A.M., '93. Superintendent of Schools, Madison. William A. Millis, A.M., Ind. Univ. 1894. Superintendent of Schools, Attica. B. F. Moore. 1890. Superintendent of City Schools, Frankfort. Thomas Abbott Mott, A.M., '98, Eariham Coll. 1896. Superintendent of Schools, Richmond. Charles N. Peak, A.B., '84, Moore's Hill Coll.; Ph.B., '86, Ind. Univ. 1891. Superintendent of City Schools, Princeton. Flora Roberts, B.S., '87, M.S., '98, Purdue Univ. 1894. Teacher in West La Fayette High School, Northwestern Ave., La Fayette. Howard Sandison. Vice-President, Indiana State Normal School, 434 N. Center St., Terre Haute D. W. Thomas, A. B., '75, De Pauw Univ. 1886. Superintendent of City Schools, 506 Pigeon St., Elkhart. 1076 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [lowa INDIANA— Co«tf«w#rf 1896. William H. Wiley, A.B., '64, A.M., '67, Butler Univ. 1869. Superintendent of Schools, 451 N. 7th St., Terre Haute. Albert Henry Voder, A.B., '93, Ind. Univ._ 1896. President of Vincennes UniversitVj Vincennes. 1897. Adelaide Steele Baylor, Ph.B., '97, Univ. of Chicago. 1888. Principal of High School, 108 E. Hill St., Wabash. J. W. Carr, A.B., '85, A.M., '90. Ind. Univ. 1890. Superintendent of City Schools, 178 W. 12th St., Anderson. John Cooper, A.M. Principal Ward School, 8 Brightwood Ave., Indianapolis. Indl/vna State Library. State Librarian, W. E. Henry, State House, Indianapolis. Francis M. Merica, B.S., '96, Wm. Taylor Univ. ; Ph.B., '97, Univ. of Chicago. Superintendent of Schools, La Grange. Edwin S. Monroe, Ph.B., '96, 111. Wesleyan Univ. ; A.M., '97, Hanover Coll. 1895. Superintendent of City Schools, Box 552, Mt. Vernon. H. C. Montgomery, A.B., '80, Hanover Coll. ; A.M., '91, Univ. of Mich. i8q2. Superintendent of Schools, Seymour. Will A. Myers, A.B., Indiana Univ. 1898. Graduate Student, Indiana University, 609 N. Walnut St., Bloomington. Northern Indiana Normal School Library. President, H. B. Brown ; Librarian, O. P. Kinsey, Valparaiso. Robert Alexander Ogg, B.S., '72, A.M., '92, Ind. Univ. Superintendent of Schools, ICokomo. May Wright Sewall, M.S., A.M., '69, Northwestern Univ. 1882. Principal Girls' Classical School, 635 N. Pennsylvania St., Indianapolis. State Normal School at Terre Haute. President, W. W. Parsons, Terre Haute. Justin N. Study, A.M., '73, Ohio Wes. Univ. 1896. Superintendent of Public Schools, Fort Wayne. 1898. Harriet F. Case. Supervisor of Methods, Public Schools, Muncie. W. S. Hiser. , Director of Penmanship, Public Schools, 33 S. 13th St., Richmond. John A. Wood, A.B„ Ind. Univ. Superintendent of Schools, La Porte. INDIAN TERRITORY active member 1898. Leonard Worcester Williams, A.B., '95, A.M., '98, Hanover Coll. 1896. Teacher of Natural Science, Henry Kendall Coll.; 1898, at Princeton for post- graduate work ; Muskogee. -^ IOWA life director 1886. JosiAH Little Pickard, A.B., '44, A.M., '47, LL.D., '94, Bowdoin Coll. Ex-President. State University of Iowa, 419 N. Clinton St., Iowa City. LIFE members 1884. Henry J. Taylor, A.B., '78, LL.B., '80, A.M., '84, Univ. of Wis. Lawyer, 1635 Douglas St., Sioux City. W. A. Willis, A.M., '65. Proprietor and Principal of Iowa City Academy, 308 Church St., Iowa City. active members 1884. Hamline H. Freer, B.S., '69, M.S., '78, A.B., '80, A.M., '83. Cornell Coll., la. 1872. Prof, of Science and Art of Teaching and Polit. Econ., Cornell Coll., Mt. Vernon. WiLLLiAM Fletcher King, A.B., '57, A.M., '60, Ohio Wesleyan Univ.; D.D., '70, 111. Wesleyan Univ.; LL.D., '87. State Univ. of Iowa, Ohio Wesleyan Univ. 1863. President of Cornell College, Mt. Vernon. 1889. William Miller Beardshear, A.B., '76, A.M., '79, LL.D., '85. 1891. President of Iowa State College of Agriculture and Mechanical Arts, Ames. Henry Sabin, LL.D., '93, Drake Univ. ; '94, Cornell Coll. ; '95, State Univ. of Iowa. Ex -State Superintendent of Public Instruction, 615 Iowa Loan and Trust Building, Des Moines. Homer H. Seerley, Ph.B., '73, B.D., '75, A.M., '76, State Univ. of Iowa ; LL.D., '98, Penn. Coll. 1886. President State Normal School, 2403 Normal St., Cedar Falls. 1890. H. E. Kratz, A.m., '77, Ph.D., '90. Univ. of Wooster, O. 1891. Superintendent of Schools, 805 Douglas St., Sioux City. 1891. O. P. BosTWiCK, A.B., '78, Lombard Univ., 111. 1889. Superintendent of Schools, 313, 8th Ave., Clinton. 1892. J. M. Mbhan. 1884. President Capital City Commercial College, Y. M. C. A. Building, Des Moines. 1893. Jacob Theodore Merrill, A.B., '62, A.M., '65, Otterbein Univ. 1890. Superintendent of City Schools, 518, 7th St., Cedar Rapids. 1894. Frank B. Cooper. 1891. Superintendent of Schools, 753, 17th St., Des Moines. Ashley Van Storm, Ph.B., '98, 111. Wesleyan Univ. 1898. Superintendent of City Schools, Cherokee. Iowa] LIFE AND ACTIVE MEMBERS 1077 1894. A. B. Warnkr. 1896. Superintendent of Schools, Mi IH- Wesleyan Univ. 1892. Principal of Academy, Carleton College, Northfield. 1890. Robert Eduard Denfeld, A.B., '76, A.M., '77, Amherst Coll. 1885. Superintendent of Schools, Central High School, Duluth. 1892. Virgil G. Curtis, A.M., Tufts Coll. 768 Goodrich Ave.. St. Paul. 1893. Charles M. Jordan, Ph.D., '92, Tufts Coll. 1892. Superintendent of Schools, 615 E. i8th St., Minneapolis. A. W. Rankin, A. B., '80, University of Minn. 1895. State Inspector of Graded Schools, 1529 University Ave. S. E., Minneapolis. 1894. George B. Aiton, A.B., '81, A.M., 'S^r, Univ. of Minn. 1893. State Inspector of High Schools, 1601 University Ave. S. E., Minneapolis. Io86 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Minnesota ' -^' ■ Supervisor of Kindergartens and Primary Work, 631 Westminster St., St. Paul. 1886. Principal of Cleveland High School, 529 Case St., St. Paul, J. G. Hopkins. 318 West King St., Winona. Stenographer, State Normal School, 318 W. King St., Winona. Isabel Lawrence. or./-., 1879. Training Teacher in Normal School, 417, 2d Ave. S., St. Cloud. Livingston C. Lord. 1888. President of State Normal School, Morehead. Lucia M. Miller. . „ „ „ , Principal of Webster School, 631 Westminster St., St. Paul. Mary L. Olds. ., ^ , , 1889. Principal of Washington School, 301 E. 3d St., Duluth. William Wirt Pendergast, A.M., '93, Bowdoin Coll., Me. 1893. Superintendent of Public Instruction, St. Paul ; residence, Hutchinson. Mrs. Louise Preece. Teacher of Elocution, Hotel Berkeley, Minneapolis. Alex M. Rowe, A.B., '^o, A.M., '79. Oberlin Coll. 1897. Superintendent of Schools, Little Falls. 1895. F. J. Bomberger, B.S. 1894. Superintendent of Schools, Zumbrota. A. E. Engstrom, A.B., '78, A.M., '81, Carleton Coll. 1881. County Superintendent of Schools, Cannon Falls. Thomas J. Gray. University of Minnesota, College of Medicine, 602 Nicollet Ave., Minneapolis. F. V. Hubbard. 1896. Superintendent of Schools, Red Wing. C. W. G. Hyde. Asst. State Superintendent of Public Instruction, 1983 St. Anthony Ave., St. Paul. George R. Kleeberger. 1895. President of State Normal School, St. Cloud. S. S. Parr. 1889. Superintendent of City Schools, 520, 2d Ave. S., St. Cloud. Samuel J. Race, B.L., Univ. of Pa. 1886. County Superintendent of Schools, Redwood Falls. *Edward Searing. 1880. President State Normal'School, Mankato. W. A. Shoemaker, Pd.M., '98, N. Y. Univ. 1881. Teacher of Mathematics and Methods, State Normal School, 921, loj^ Ave. S., St. Cloud. Willliam G. Smith, Editor '"School Education," Secretary Educational Press Association, 26 Washington Ave. S., Minneapolis. James W. Strong, A.B., '58, A.M., '61. D.D.. '72, Beloit Coll.; LL.D., '96, 111. Coll. 1870. President of Carleton College, 108 College Ave., Northfield. Adolph C. Tibbetts. 1896. Superintendent of Schools, St. Charles. Frank A. Weld. 1895. Superintendent of Schools, 515 S. 3d St., Stillwater. 1896. C. A. Ballard, B.S., '94, Univ. of Minn. 1894. Superintendent of Schools, Fergus Falls. J. D. Bond, B.S., '72, M.S., '73, Milton Coll., Wis. 1872. Assist. Superintendent in Public Schools, 451 Marshall Ave., St. Paul. Clarence M. Boutelle, LL.D., '96, St. Stephen's Coll., Annondale, N. Y. 1895. Superintendent of Schools, Marshall. Mrs. Alice W. Cooley. 1895. Supervisor of Primary Schools, 1674 Hennepin Ave., Minneapolis. R. W. Cranston. 1898. Agent for Sheldon & Co., 1928 Portland Ave., Minneapolis. C. C. CuRTiss, A.M., Hamilton Coll. President of Curtiss' Commercial College, $06% Nicollet Ave., Minneapolis. James J. Dow, A.B., '74, A.M., '78, Carleton Coll. 1875. Superintendent of School for the Blind, Faribault. Etta J. Fay. 1892. Teacher Intermediate Grade, Washburn Memorial Orphan Asylum, Station D, Minneapolis; home address, Richfield. Waldo W. Hobbs. 1892. Principal N. S. High School, 48 N. i6th St., Minneapolis. Janet H. Nunn. 1891. Teacher of Latin, High School, 161 W. Wabasha St., Winona, Bonnie E. Snow. _ • 1896. ■ Supervisor of Drawing, Public Schools, 801 E. isth St., Minneapolis. Helen Ford Staples. 1891. Teacher Primary Department, 127 E. Broadway, Winona. J. A. Vandyke, A.M., '90, B.Pd., '89, B.Ph., '87, Univ. of Iowa. 1892. Superintendent of Schools, Wabasha. William Franklin Webster, A.B., '86, Univ. of Minn. Principal of East Side High School, 1025, 5th St., S. E., Minneapolis. 1897. I. I. Bargen, _ . 1890. County Superintendent of Schools, Mountain Lake. William A. Bartlett, B.S., '87, A.M., '90, Iowa Coll. 1896. Principal of High School, 214 W. Wabasha St., Winona. ♦Died October 22, 1898, Missouri] LIFE AND ACTIVE MEMBERS 1087 M INNESOTA— Co«/»««f Princeton Coll. ^ X884. Professor of Mathematics, Dr. Julius Sachs Collegiate Institute, 38 W. sgth St. New York city; res., Hawortn. Frank H. Scobev. ..,. o xt 101., t^ 1884. Instructor in Arithmetic and Algebra, State Normal school, Irenton, HenrySnyder,A.B.,'78, A.M., '88 Lafayette Coll. 1892. Superintendent of Public Schools, City Hall, Jersey City, Margaret I. Wade. Teacher of Mathematics, High School, 701 Grand Ave., Asbury Park. 180S. Wilson Farrand, A.B., '86, A.M., '89, Princeton. „ , r. ^. 1889. Associate Master Newark Academy, 544 High St., Newark. Ada Van Stone Harris. . . „,,.„,,,, 1807. Supervisor of Primary Instruction, Public schools, Newark. Linn Marie Hawn. . c ^ 1896. Superintendent of Music, Public Schools, 152 Mam St., East Orange. Robert Mezger, Graduate of the Univ. of Heidelberg, '90. 1897. Instructor in German, High School, 295 Garside St., Newark. W. J. Shearer, A.B., '87, A.M., '90, Dickinson Coll. 1895. Superintendent of Schools of City of Elizabeth and County of Union, 470 Monroe Ave., Elizabeth. 1896. Charles J. Baxter. 1896. State Superintendent of Public Instruction, 930 Putnam Ave., Plainfield. Mrs. Lvdia A. Bennett. Principal of School No. 2, Rideefield Park Township, Leonia, Bergen County. H. B. BoiCE, M.D., '88, Univ. Med. Sch., New York city. 1891. State Normal School, 37 Southard St., Trenton. Mrs. Orrell F. Elwell. 1876. Teacher of Grammar School, 119 S, Stockton St., Trenton. D. H. Farley. Teacher in State Normal School, 119 S. Stockton St., Trenton. E. R. Johnstone. 1898. Vice -Principal N. J. Training School for Feeble-Minded, Vineland. Edwin C. Merrill. Publisher, Maynard, Merrill & Co., 29-33 E. 19th St., New York; residence, East Orange. F. E. Spaulding, A.B,, '89, Amherst; Ph.D., '94, Univ. of Leipzig. 1897. Superintendent of City Schools, 54 High St., Passaic. Miss M. J. B. Thomas, Pd.M., '93, N. Y. Univ. 1889. Principal of High School, 425 Ave. E, Bayonne City. Albert H. Wilson. 1892. Principal of Elmwood School, iii Chestnut St., East Orange. 1897. Margaret Bancroft. Principal Haddonfield Training School, The Lindens, Haddonfield. Miss Jean Cox. Principal Haddonfield TrainingjSchool, The Lindens, Haddonfield. Anna M. Fell, M.E.L., Pennington Seminary. 892. Principal of Cadwalader Scho Free Public Library of Jersey City. 1892. Principal of Cadwalader School, 304 W. State St., Trenton. Librarian, E. E. Burdick, Jersey City. Sarah Stubbs James. 1896. Teacher, Montclair; Upper Montclair. Mary A. Lyon. P. O. Box 352, Boonton. Andrew J. Rider. President Rider Business College, Ribsam Bldg., Trenton. E. K. Sexton, Pd.M., '92, New York Univ. Principal of Ann St. School, 64 Ninth Ave., Newark. State Normal School at Trenton. President, J. M. Green, Trenton. Ira Winthrop Travell, A.B., 'go, Williams Coll. 1893. Principal of High School, 815 College Place, Plainfield. • Thyrza C. Williams. Associate Principal Haddonfield Training School, The Lindens, Haddonfield. 1898, S. V. Arrowsmith. Superintendent of Schools, 97 Maple Ave., Red Bank. Arthur Grant Balcom. Principal Franklin School, 167 Prospect Ave., Newark. S. Olin Garrison, A.M., Wes. Univ., Middletown, Conn. Principal of the New Jersey Training School for Feeble-Minded Children, Vineland. Phoebus W. Lyon, A.M., Princeton. Principal West Jersey Academy, Bridgeton. Claude L. West. 1897. Principal of Elementary School, 478 Ellison St., Paterson. NEW MEXICO active members T891. Hiram Hadley, A.M. 1894. Vice-President, in charge of University of New Mexico, 321 S. Walter St„ Albuquerque. ARENCE T. Hagerty, B.S., '90, M.S., '95, Notre Dame Univ., Ind. 1891. Professor of Mathematics in New Mexico College of Agriculture and Mechanical Arts, Las Cruces. New York] LIFE AND ACTIVE MEMBERS 1093 NEW UYXiZO— Continued 1895. Charles E. Hodgin, Grad., '81, Ind. St. Nor, ; B.Pd., '93, Univ. of N. Mex. 1897. Principal of Normal Department, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque. Mrs. Elizabeth R. Jackson. 1893. Member of Examining Board, Grant County, Silver City. C. M. Light, Ph.D.. Univ. of City of N. Y. 1896. Principal of Normal School of New Mexico, Silver City. 1897. Jambs Auhkus Wood, A.B., '77, A.M., '80. 1898. Principal Las Vegas Business College, East Las Vegas. NEW YORK LIFE DIRECTORS 1880. Albert Prescott Marble, A.M., '63, Ph.D., '83, Colby Univ., Me. 1896. Associate Superintendent of Schools, 146 Grand St., New York. 1885. Nicholas Murray Bittler, A.B., '82, Ph.D., '84, Columbia Coll. _ 1889. Professor of Philosophy and Education, Columbia University, 119 E. 30th St., New York. EzEKiAL Hanson Cook, A.B., '66, A.M., '68, Bowdoin Coll. ; Ph.D., '89, Colgate Univ. and St. Law- rence Univ. 33 Livingston Ave., Yonkers. Caleb G. Hall. New Berlin. 1890. Charles R. Skinner, A.M., Hamilton Coll. ; LL.D,, Colgate Univ. 1895. State Superintendent of Public Instruction, 453 State St., Albany. LIFE members 1857. James Cruikshank, LL.D., '62. 1875. Principal of Grammar School No. 12, and Evening High School, Secretary of Council of Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences, 206 S. Oxford St., Brooklyn. 1870. OuvBR Cromwell Arev, A.M., '65, Union Coll. 229 Averill Ave., Rochester. 1871. John Jacob Anderson, A.M., '67, Rutgers Coll. ; Ph.D., '76, New York Univ. Author of School Histories and Historical Readers, 343 Adelphi St., Brooklyn. 1876. Charles C. Rounds, B.S., '57, M'.S., '60, Dartmouth Coll.; A.M., Bowdoin Coll. and Waterville Coll. ; Ph.D., Bates Coll. ' 1896. Institute Instructor and Lecturer, 256 W. looth St., New York. 1882. Josephine E. Hodgdon, Pd.M., '91, Univ. of City of New York. 1898. Principal of Primary School No. no, 80 Willoughby St., Brooklyn. Menco Stern. 1879. Professor of German Language and Literature, Stem's School of Language, 37 E 44th St., New York. 1884. Mrs. Georgiana Van Aken. 1858. Principal of Day School, Ladies' Home Mission, 63 Park St., New York. 1885. Thomas Hunter, A.M., '66, Columbia Coll. ; Ph.D., '77, Williams Coll. ; LL.D.. N. Y. Univ. 1869. -President of Normal College, Park Ave. and 68th St., New York. 1891. Mrs. M. J. B. Wylie. 261 Hampshire St., Buffalo. 1893. University of State of New York. Secretary, Melvil Dewey, Albany. active members 1882. Walter S. Goodnough. 1890. Director of Drawing, Borough of Brooklyn, 267a Lewis Ave., Brooklyn. 1884. Edward N. Jones, A.B., A.M., Ph.D., Hamilton Coll. 1898. The New York Traming School^ for Teachers, Henry and Oliver Sts., New York city; res., 50 Church St., White Plains. 1886. Charles L, Patton. University Publishing Co.. 43 E. loth St., New York. 1887. Loins H. Galbreath, B.L., "oo, Cornell Univ. 1898. Fellow in Teachers' College, Columbia University, 528 W. 123d St., New York. GussiE Power. 1880. Teacher, 535 Warren St., Hudson. 1889. Charles DeGarmo, Ph.D., 'i86, Halle. 1898. Professor of Science andJArt of Education, Cornell University, Ithaca. T. F. Kane, A.B.. '92, Cornell Univ. 1898. Principal of High School, East Aurora. Gratia L. Rice. 1892. State Director of Drawing, P. O. Box 321, Buffalo. 1800. C. W. Bardben, A.B., '69, Yale. 1874. Editor of " School Bulletin," 406 S. Franklin St., Syracuse. A. B. Blodgett. 1889. Superintendent of School, 127 Burnet Ave., Syracuse. John T. Buchanan, A.B., '72, A.M., '74, Central Coll. 1897. Principal of "Boys' High School, New York city, 592 Greene Ave., Brooklyn. John W. Chandler, Ph.D., '77, Univ. of State of New York. 1894. Superintendent of Schools, Ellenville. Edward D. Farrell, A.M., '67, Coll. of the City of New York. 1889. Assistant Superintendent of Schools, 163 E. 124th St., New York. Mary A. Fleming. 1878. Teacher in Grammar School No. 13, 13 W. Chippewa St., Buffalo. Amos M. Kellogg, A.M., '57, Hamilton Coll. Editor of " School Journal," 61 E. 9th St., New York. James M. Milne. A.M.. '83, Rochester Univ. ; Ph.D., '85, Colgate Univ. {888. Principal State Normal School, Oneonta. • I094 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [New York i8go. Francis B. Palmef, A.B., '58, A.M., '63, Ph.D., '79, Univ. of Rochester. 1878. Principal of State Normal School, Central Ave., Fredonia. Charles B. Scott, A.M., '87, Rutgers Coll. Instructor in Nature Study Methods, Geology, and Geography, State Nor. School, Oswego. Isaac H. Stout, A.M., '88, Hobart Coll. 1887. State Conductor of Teachers' Institutes, 58 Genesee St., Geneva. 1891. Vincent Aldridge, A.M., '81, Syracuse. 1889. Teacher of Mathematics, Boys' High School, z6 Clarkson St., Brooklyn. Francis John Cheney, A.B., '72, A.M., '75, Ph.D., '89, Syracuse Univ. 1892. Principal of State Normal School, 45 Church St., Cortland. A. S. Downing, A.M., Pennsylvania Coll. , 1898. Principal Training School for Teachers, Boroughs of Manhattan and the Broux, Henry and Oliver Sts., New York. Matthew J. Elgas, A.B., '62, A.M., '63, Montreal Coll. ; Ph.D., '69, St. Johns Coll. 1896. Associate Superintendent of Public Schools, 121 W. 87tn St., New York. Harlan P. French, A.B.,'68, A.M., '71, Amherst Coll. 1895. Member Board of Education, Manager Albany Teachers' Agency, 24 State St., Albany. George D. Hale, A.B., '70, A.M., '73, Univ. of Rochester. 1871. Principal of Hale's Classical and Scientific School, 409 Lake Ave., Rochester. OssiAN H. Lang. 1895. Managing Editor" School Journal " and " Educational Foundations," 61 E.9th St., New York. Henry M. Leipziger, A.M., Coll. of City of N. Y. ; Ph.D., Columbia Coll. 1896. Supervisor of Free Lectures, New York, 324 E. 50th St., New York. Albert Leonard, A.B., '88, A.M., '91, Ohio Univ. ; Ph.D.. '94, Hamilton Coll. 1897. Dean of College of Liberal Arts and Professor of Pedagogy, Syracuse University Syracuse. John M. Milne, A.M., '79, Rochester Univ. ; Ph.D., '90, Univ. of State of N. Y. 1889. Principal of State Normal School, Geneseo. Alexander A. Munro, A.B., '84, Univ. of Neb. 989 Amsterdam Ave., New York. Thomas B. Stowell, A.M., '65, Genesee Coll. ; Ph.D., '8' Syracuse Univ. 1889. Principal of State Normal and Training School, 6 Le Roy St., Potsdam. 1892. Thomas O. Baker, A.M., '92, Ph.D., Univ. of City of New York. 1895. Principal of High School, Yonkers. Elias J. Beardslev, C.E., A.B., '55; A.M., Union Coll. 1889. Superintendent of Schools, City Hall, Lake and Church Sts., Elmira. Emmet Belknap, A.B., '80, A.M., '83, Marietta Coll. 1889. Superintendent of Schools, 206 East Ave., Lockport. W. H. Benedict, A.B., '75, A.M., '78, Hamilton Coll. 1889. Principal School No. 8, 508 W. 3d St., Elmira. A. Hall Burdick. 1898. Principal of Public School No. 14, and High School, 4 Harrison St., Stapleton. Charles W. Cole, A.B., A.M., Ph.D., Hamilton Coll. 1878. Superintendent of Schools, 354 Hudson Ave., Albany. Melvil Dewey, A.B., '74, A.M., '77, Amherst. 1888. Secretary of University of State of New York, RM;ents' Office, Albany. William B. Friedberg, B.S., '73, Coll. of New York; LL.B., '77, Columbia Law School. 1890. Principal of Grammar School No. 95, 21-23 E. 125th St., New York. William B. Harison. Educational Publisher, 3 and 5 W. 18th St., New York. H. E. Hayes. 1890. Manager Educational Department, D. Appleton & Co., Publishers, 72, 5th Ave., New York. Mary F. Hyde. Author of "Lessons in English," 208 Main St., Binghamton. James Lee, M.D., '86, " The Univ. and Bellevue Hospital Medical Coll." 1892. Associate Superintendent of Schools, 235 E. 124th St., New York. William H. Maxwell, A.B., '72, A.M., '74, Queen's Univ., Ireland. Superintendent of Public Instruction, 131 Livingston St., Brooklyn. William J. Milne, Ph.D., Rochester Univ. ; LL.D., DePauw Univ. President State Normal College, 94 Willett St., Albany. R. V. K. Montfort, M.D., '56, Albany Med. Coll. 1859. Superintendent of Schools, 22 Montgomery St., Newburgh. S. S. Packard. President of Packard's Business College, loi E. 23d St., New York. Oscar D. Robinson, Ph.D., '87, Dartmouth Coll. 1886. Principal of High School, 501 State St., Albany. Henry Talbot. 1897. Special Teacher of Manual Training, Public Schools, 244 W. 14th St., New York. ' James Winne, A.M., ^-jp, Hamilton Coll. 1886. Principal of High School, 30 Hooker Ave.. Poughkeepsie. 1893. Henry P. Emerson. A.B., A.M., Univ. of Rochester. Superintendent of Education, 122 College St., Buffalo, John Arthur Greene. 1896. Manager American Book Co., 100 Washington Square, New York. George Griffith, A.B., '77, Hamilton Coll.; Ph.D., '93, 111. Wesleyan. 1892. Superintendent of Schools, 40 Jewett Place, Utica, Mary F. Hall. Ex-Supervisor of Primary Work, Milwaukee, Wis. ; Spencer. Jenny B. Merrill, Pd.D., '92, New York Univ. 1896. Supervisor of Kindergartens, Boroughs of Manhattan and the Bronx, 112 E. 8ist St. New York. Josephine E. Rogers. _ Principal of Public School No, 75, 25 Norfolk St,, New York, New York] LIFE AND ACTIVE MEMBERS 1095 1893. Edward Richard Shaw, B.L., '78, Del. Coll. ; Ph.B., '81, Lafayette Coll. ; Ph.D., '90. N. Y. Univ. 1894. Dean of School of Pedagogy, NeV York University, University Building, Wash- ington Sq., New York. Arthur Merrill Wright, A.B., '72, A.M., '80, Hamilton Coll. Supervisor, Bureau of. Compulsory Education, Department of Public Instruction Watervillc. 1894. J. W. Babcock, A.B.,'78, ComellUniv. 1881. Superintendent of Schools, 627 Washington Ave., Dunkirk. Frank D. Beattys, A.B., '85, A.M., '88, Weslcyan Univ. Manager, Silver, Burdette & Co., 29-33 E- ^9'^ St., New York. Mrs. B. Ellen Burke. 1895. Exiucational Lecture Bureau, 91, 5th St., New York, Francis R. Clair. 1893. School Commissioner, Queens County, College Point. CHARms Nkwbll Cobb, A.B. '77, and A.M., '80, Syracuse Univ. 1893. Inspector of University of State of New York, 26 N. Pine Ave., Albany. Florence Browning Himes. 1894. State Instructor in Drawing, 126 Chestnut St., Albany. Logan D. Howell, A.B., '89, Univ. of N. C. 1898. Teacher of English, Bronx High School, 157th St. and 3d Ave., New York. Richard Jones, A.M., '81, Iowa Coll. ; Ph.D., '93. Heidelberg, Germany. 1898. Professor of Literature, Syracuse University, 604 University Ave., Syracuse. Cynthia Lagomarsino. 1884. Teacher in Ladies' Home Mission School, 63 Park St., New York. William A. Mackev. 1898. Principal Grammar School No, 35, 43 Vernon St., Buffalo. Charles E. Merrill. Educational Publisher, 29-31 E. 19th St., New York. Frederick Monteser, Ph.D., '85, Univ. of Vienna, Austria; Pd.D., '93, N. Y. Univ. 1893. Lecturer, School of Pedagogy, New York University; 1897, Teacher in Boys' High School, New York city; Caryl Station, Yonkers. Mrs. Agnes O'Brien. Principal School No. 151, 91st St. and 1st Ave.,*New York. W. F. O'Callaghan, A.B., Harvard Univ. 1894. First Assistant Grammar No. 29, Washington and Albany Sts., New York. George A. Plimpton. Publisher, 70, sth Ave., New York. Hester A. Roberts. 1886. Principal of Primary Department No. 10, 149 W. 128th St., New York. Edgar O. Silver, A.B., '83, A.M., '86, Brown Univ. Publisher, President of the Corporation Silver, Burdette & Co., 29-33 E. 19th St. New York. Joseph S. Taylor, Pd.D., '92, New York Univ. 1885. Principal Public School No. 19, Sedgwick Park, Fordham Heights, New York. Martha Van Rensselaer. 1894. School Commissioner, Second District, Cattaraugus Co., Randolph. 1895. H. T. Ambrose. Book publisher, Washington Square, New York. Ida C. Bender,M.D., '90, Univ. of Buffalo (Med. Dept.). 1893. Supervisor of Primary Grades, 731 EllicottiSt., Buffalo. N. L. Benham. 1890. Sui>erintendent of Schools, 539, 4th St., Niagara Falls. C. C. Birchard. Agent American Book Co., 100 Washington Square, New York. Annie M. Bissell. 1882. Assistant Grammar School No. 6a, 265 Alexander Ave., New York. Columbia University. President, Dr. Seth Low ; Secretary, W. H. H. Beebe, New York. Fannie S. Comings. 1893. Principal Primary Department, Grammar School No. 77, 42 Macon St., Brooklyn. JuuA Ettie Crane. o Teacher of Vocal Music, State Nrmal School, and Director of Crane Normal Insti- tute of Music, 91 Main St., Potsdam. John W. Davis. 1886. Public School No. 81, Bedford Park, New York. H. T. Dawson, A.B., '82, 111. Wesleyan Univ. 43 E. loth St., New York. George W. French, LL.B., '78, Columbia Coll. 1881. Pnncipal of Public Schools, Jamaica Ave., opp. Enfield St., Brooklyn. Mrs. Anna Eggleston Friedman. 1898. Instructor in Primary Work, Teachers' Institutes, 45 Wadsworth St., Buffalo. RuFUS Henry Halsev, A.B., '77, Williams Coll. 1896. Superintendent of Schools, 228 Main St., Binghamton. Edward Havward, Ph.D., '00. Union Coll. 1892. Principal of High School, 177 Genesee St., Lockport. Welland Hbndrick, A.B., '80, A.M., '83, Colgate Univ. 1898. Assistant Principal, New York Training School for Teachers, 85 W. iiSth St., New York. Walter L, Hervey, A.B., A.M., Ph.D., '93, Princeton. 1898. Examiner of Board of Education, 146 Grand St., New York. Samuel B. Howe, A.M., '65, Ph.D., '87, Union Coll. 1865. Superintendent of Schools, 615 Union St., Schenectady. WiLBER W. Howe. 1891. Superintendent of Schools, Whitehall. Mrs. Sara D. Jenkins. 1895. Teacher of English, High School, Editor of "Popular Educator," 3 Huestis St. Ithaca. 1096 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [New York 1895. Thomas R. Knkil, A.B., '75, A.M., V8, Wesleyan Univ., Middletown, Conn. 1893. Superintendent of Schools, High School Building, Saratoga Springs. Louise M. Lapey. Department Principal of School No. 16, 731 Ellicott St., Buffalo. Charles D. Larkins, Ph.B., '81, Alfred Univ. 1893. Principal of Manual Training High School, 76 Court St., Brooklyn. Seth Low, LL.D., '89, Amherst; '90, Univ. of State of N. Y., Univ. of Pa., Harvard, Trinity; '96, Princeton. 1889. President of Columbia University, New York. Kate Palmer Macdona. Principal's Assistant in Public School No. 6, Hunt's Point, Station R, New York. J. MiLFORD McKEE.Ph.B., '95. 111. Wesleyan Univ. 1891. Principal of^ Union School, Silver Creek. F. M. McMuRRV, Ph.D;, Jena. 1898. Professor of Theory and Practice of Teaching, Teachers' College, Columbia Univer- sity, New York. H. D. Newson. Manager Educational Department, Harper Bros., Franklin Square, New York. Andrew V. V. Raymond, A.B., '75, D.D., '86, Union Coll. ; LL.D., '94, Williams Coll. 1894. President of Union College, College Hill, Schenectady. J, M. Rice, M.D., '81, Coll. of Phys. and Sur., New York. Educational Writer, EUlitor of the " Forum," 1245 Madison Ave., New York. RoviLLUs R. Rogers, A.B., Oberlin Coll. 1890. Superintendent of Schools, 627 E. 6th St., Jamestown. James E. Russell, A.B., '87, Cornell ; Ph.D., '94, Leipzig. 1898. Dean of Teachers' College, Columbia University, 120th St. W., New York. Henry R. Sanford, A.M., '64, Genesee Coll. ; A.M., '73, Syracuse Univ. ; Ph.D., '94, Union Coll. State Institute Conductor, Penn Yan. Alfred T. Schauffler, A.B., '65, A.M., '68, Williams. 1898. Associate Superintendent of Schools, Boroughs of Manhattan and the Bronx, New York city; 23 Woodland Ave., New Rochelle. Jane A. Schermerhorn. 1889. Kindergartner in Union Free School, Hillside Ave., White Plains. Henry G. Schneider, B.S., '87, Coll. City of New York. Third Assistant Grammar School No. 90, 610 W. 47th St., New York. S. R. Shear. 1897. Superintendent of Schools, 23 Court St., White Plains. Herbert J. Smith, A.B., '88, A.M., '91, Colgate Univ. Oswego. J. Mace Smith, B.S., '82, Michigan Agri. Coll. 1897. Principal of St. John Ave. School, 122 LeRoy St., Binghamton. Plowdon Stevens, Jr., B.S., '88, Coll. City of New York. 1898. Assistant Principal Public School No. 81, 2126 Washington Ave., New York. John H. Walsh, A.B., '73, A.M., '89, Georgetown Coll., D. C. ; LL.B.. '80, Columbia Coll. 1889. Associate Superintendent of Public Instruction, 39, 3d Place, Brooklyn. Frank E. Welles, Ph.B., '86, A.M., '92, Ph.D., '97, III. Wesleyan Univ. 1889. Professor of Latin and Greek, State Normal School, Geneseo. Charles F. Wheelock. B.S., '73, Cornell Univ. 1891. Head Inspector, University State of New York, Canaioharie. 1896. J.S.Adams. Agent for Ginn & Co., 70, sth Ave., New York. Mrs. Amelia D. Alden, Graduate, '68, State Nor. Sch., Albany, N. Y. 1895. Vice-Principal Westerleigh Collegiate Institute, West New Brighton. Mrs. Fannie Schwedler Barnes. Editor of " The Mother's Voice," 141 W. 24th St., New York. John Elmer Brandegee, B.A., '74, Trinity. 1896. Member of School Board, 30 Geneva St., Utica. E. N. Bristol. Book Publisher, 29 W. 23d St., New York. Kate G. Broderick. i88t. Principal of Public School No. 76, E. 68th St., New York. Frank S. Capen, A.B., '68, A.M., '71, Rochester Univ. ; Ph.D., '87, Colgate Univ. Principal State Normal School, New Paltz. Eugene C. Colby. 1885. Principal Rochester Athenseum and Mechanics' Institute, 38 S. Washington St. Rochester. Le Roy C. Cooley, A.M., Ph.D. 1874. Professor of Physics, Vassar College, 2 Reservoir Sq., Poughkeepsie. Cornell University Library. President, J. G. Schurman ; Librarian, George W. Harris, Ithaca. Henry M. Crist. Manager New York Office; Milton Bradley Co., 11 E. i6th St., New York. BOOTHE CoLWELL Davis, A.B., '90, A.M., '93, AHred Univ. ; B.D., '93, Yale; Ph.D., '96, Nat. Nor. Univ. 1895. President Alfred University, 8 Terrace St., Alfred. George S. Davis. 1888. Associate Superintendent of Schools, 146 Grand St., New York. William R. Eastman, A.B., Yale; B.S., Univ. of N. Y. Inspector of Pub. Libraries, Univ. of State of New York, State Library, Albany. A. W. Edson, A.B., '78, A.M., '81, Dartmouth Coll. 1897. Associate Superintendent of Schools, 146 Grand St., New York. Ella C. Elder. 1892, Superintendent of Buffalo Free Kindergarten Assoc, 86 Delaware Ave., Buffalo. Henry W. Ellsworth, Grad. Fredonia Acad., N. Y. Author and Publisher of Schoolbooks, 127 Duane St., New York. James A. Estee, A.M., Alfred Univ. Superintendent of Schools, 17 Marshall Ave., Gloversville. New York] LIFE AND ACTIVE MEMBERS 1097 1896. Mrs. E. D. Farrell. 163 E. ia4th St., New York. Gborgb Fsnton. Agent American Book Co., Broadalbin, Fulton Co, Charles E. Gorton. 1883. Superintendent of Schools, 55 Hawthorne Ave., Yonkers. Elbert W. Griffith, Ph.B., 111. Wes. Univ. ; A.M., Wes. Univ., Conn. Superintendent of Schools, 94 E. Main St., Norwich. Walter B. Gunnison, A.B., '7s. A.M., '78, Ph.D., '93. Principal Erasmus Hall Hig^h School, Flatbush Ave., Brooklyn. Alfred Hallam. Superintendent of Music, 116 N. 9th Ave., Mt. Vernon, Mary E. Harris 1895. Principal of Intermediate Department, State Normal School, New Paltz. Caroline T. Haven. 1884. Principal Kindergarten Department, Ethical Culture Schools, 109 W. 54th St., New York. Frances C. Haves. 1898. Supervisor of Kindergartens, Borough of Queens, New York city; residence. Flushing. F. J. Heiermanm. Prefect of Studies, Canisius College, 65T Washington St., Buffalo. William C. Hess, B.S,, '67, M.S., '71, Coll. of City of N. Y. , 1897. Principal of Public School No. 30, and (1896) Principal East Side Evening High School, 439 E, ix8th St., New York, W, D, Hewes. 1893. Principal of High School, Shortsville, J, W. Jenks, Ph.D.. '85, Halle. 1891. Professor of Political Science, Cornell University, Ithaca. L. C, JiTOD, B.S. Agent Ginn & Co., 70, 5th Ave., New York. Alphbus B. Kenvon, B.S., '74, M.S., '77, Alfred Univ. 1874. Professor of Mathematics and (1891) Registrar of Alfred Univ., 33 S. Main St., Alfred. Roland S. Keyser, A. B., '72. Ph.D., '81, Syracuse Univ. 1898. Department of English, Normal School, Jamaica. Mrs. Maria Kraus-Boelt^. 1873. Principal of Kraus Seminary for Kindergartners, Hotel San Remo, Central Park, West, New York. Charles E. Lawton. 1889. Principal of Central Grammar School, 7 Franklin St., Auburn. Louise A. Lounsberry. 1896. Teacher of Music and Drawing, St. Johnsville. Thomas B. Lovell, A.B., '62, A.M., '65, Univ. of Rochester. 1892. Principal of High School, 1018 South Ave., Sta. A, Niagara Falls. Howard Lyon, M.S., '00, Lafayette; A.B., '93, Harvard. 1893. Teacher of Science, State Normal School, 35 Cedar St., Oneonta. Mary A. Magovern. 1876. Head of Department, Public School No. 8, 29 King St., New York. Nathalie Mankell, Graduate Central Royal Institute, Sweden. Teacher in Gymnastics Id Franklin School, 85 Mariner St., Buffalo. J. Edman Massee, A.B., '73, A.M., '76, Hamilton Coll. 1897. Superintendent of City Schools, 145, i6th St., Watervliet. Mark M. Mavcock, M.P., Syracuse Univ., '75. Teacher in State Normal School, 220 Jersey St., Buffalo.. Clarence E. Melenev, A.B., '76, A.M., '79. Colby Univ. 1896. Assistant Superintendent of Schools, 146 Grand St., New York. Gurdan R. Miller, Ph.B., '93, Syracuse Univ. 1893. Principal of Union School, Matteawan. Otis Montrose. Principal of Haldam Union School, Coldspring. Charles M. Ryon. 1875. Superintendent of Schools, and Secretary of Board of Education, 130 Elmendorf St., Kingston. Elisa a. Sargent. 1889. Director of the Prang Normal Art Classes of New York, 3 W. i8th St., New York. Sara A. Saunders, Grad., '73, Cortland State Nor. Sch. 1895. Method Teacher, State Normal School, 40 South Ave., Brockport. J. G. Schurman, A.B., '771 A.M., '78, London Univ. ; D.Sc, '78, Edinburgh ; LL.D., Columbia. 1892. President, Cornell University, Ithaca. Charles D. Seely, A.M., '79, Amherst Coll. 1885. Department of Latin and Greek, State Normal School, Brockport. Mary V. Squire. Assistant in School No. 39, 19 Marigold Ave., Buffalo. Henry Morse Stephens, A.M., '92, Oxford. 1894. Professor of History, Cornell University, Ithaca. Edward Walmsley Stitt, M.S., 'q8,CoII. City of New York; Pd.M., '97, N. Y. Univ. 1880. Principal of Public School No. 89, Lenox Ave. and 134th St., New York. Ada Frances Thayer. 1893. Supervisor of Physical Training, Public Schools, Board of Education Rooms, Syracuse. Amelia Earle Trant, M.D., '94, Univ. of Buffalo. 1890. Principa^ of Boys' Department, Instructor of Physiology, Masten Park High School, Buffalo. Emma S. Waite. Superintendent of Training in Nebraska State Normal School ; i Chestnut St., Potsdam. NA TIONAL EDUCA TIONAL ASSOCIA TION [New York NEW \QiViYi— Continued 1896. M. H. Walrath. A.B., 'So, A-M., '92, Syracuse Univ. 1896. Principalof High School, Paiolmg Ave., Troy. Director of Physical Culture, Albany Female Academy, Training School No. 7 Albany, and Woman's Athletic Club, Hudson, 163 Hamilton St., Albany. ,897. MvKTiLLA Avery, A.B., '91, Wellesley; B.L., '96, N.Y. State Univ. ^ , c» . t -u ^' 1892. Director's Assistant, Home Education Department, New Vork state Library Albany. Principal of City Training Class, 39 S. Hamilton St., Poughkeepsie. Jessie Bancroft. .,,„.. x^,,. „,, -, ■ • ot.,, 1893. Director of Physical Training, Public Schools, 131 Livingston St., Brooklyn. C. L. Barstow, A.B., Union Coll. .,_, ^ _ „„ v.xt Manager Educational Department, Longmans, Green & Co., 93, sth Ave., New York. Anna Gertrude Childs, A.B., A.M., Iowa Coll. 1889. Teacher in State Normal School, 28 Ford Ave., Oneonta. *Dr. Henrv Clark Coon, A.B., '68, A.M., '71, Ph.D., '92, Alfred Univ. 1872. Professor of Physics and Chemistry, Alfred University, 35 S. Main St., Alfred. Enoch Henry Currier, A.M., Nat. Coll. of the Deaf. 1893. Principal New York Institute for Instruction of the Deaf and Dumb, 163d St. and nth Ave., Station M, New York. Editors' Library, American Book Co. Librarian, L. H. Peet, Washington Square, New York. Henry W. Jameson, B.A., Yale. Associate Superintendent of Schools, 47 W. 119th St., New York. (■Frederic Allison Lyman, Associate of the College of Musicians, '86. 1888. Supervisor of Music in Public Schools, 421 Warren Ave., Syracuse. Miss L. A. Melhinch, Grad. St. Nor. Sch. 1898. Teacher of English Literature, Academy Ogdensburg. A. L. Peck. 1880. Librarian of Free Library, Gloversville. J. H. Thiry. Introducer of the School Savings Bank System, 181 Academy St., Long Island City Henry H. Vail, A.B., '60, LL.D., '96, Middlebury Coll. Publisher, 322 W. 75th St., New York. Z. F. Westervelt, LL.D., '95, Rochester Univ. 1876. Superintendent of Western N. Y. Institution for Deaf-Mutes, 945 N. St. Paul St., Rochester. Jessie M. Winterton. 1891. Director Kindergarten Dept. and Training Class, Merington School, 118 W. 75th St., New York. 1898. Arthur Deerin Call, Ph.B., '96, Brown Univ. Principal Grammar School No. 3, 324 W. Gray St., Elmira, Mary H. Carroll. Private Teacher, Church St., Kingsbridge. Susan F. Chase, B.L., Wis. Univ. ; D.Pd., Teachers' Coll., Buffalo Univ. Teacher of Literature and History, State Normal School, 139, 14th St., Buffalo. I. O. Crissy. 18915. Assistant to Director, University Southern New York, 137 Eagle St., Albany. George B. Germann, A.B., Columbia Univ. Fellow in Education, Columbia University, 90 Norman Ave., Brooklyn. Charles C. Holden, Pd.M. 1893. First Assistant M.D., (Public School No. 39, Manhattan ; 39 W. i32d St., New York. John F. Hughes. Chairman Board of Education, 35 Charlotte St., Utica. Arthur Marvin, B.A., '91, M.A., '96, Yale. 1897. Principal Union Classical Institute, 832 Union St., Schenectady. Edward Beverly Nelson, A.B., '73, A.M. (honorary), '94, Harvard Univ. Principal Central N. Y. Institution for Deaf-Mutes, 711 N. Madison St., Rome. Milton Noves. Superintendent of Schools, Free Academy Building, Rochester. Vinton S. Pressler, Civil and Mech. Eng. Principal Barton School of Industrial Arts, 23 Walnut St., Binghamton. C. N.Richards, B.S. Director Manual Arts Department, Teachers' College, Columbia University, New York. W. F. Vroom. 1893. Teachers' College, 896 West End Ave., New York. J. C. Witter. Emily M. Coe. Editor " Art Education," 76, 5th Ave., New York. NORTH CAROLINA LIFE members Principal of Normal Department, Red Springs Seminary, Red Springs. Robert Bingham, A.M., '60, LL.D., '90, Univ. of N. C. 1873. Superintendent of Bingham School, Asheville. active members 1894. Edwin A. Alderman, Ph.B., Univ. of N. C. ; D.C.L., Univ. of the South. 1892. President of University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill. ♦Died May 9, 1898. t Died July 17, 1898. Ohio] LIFE AND ACTIVE MEMBERS X099 NORTH CAROLINA— 0»/i»r«#rf 1895. John J. Blair, A.B., '85, Haverford Coll., Pa. 1890. Superintendent of Schools, Winston. 1896. Charles D. McIvkr, A.B., '81, D.L., .'93, Univ. of N. C. President of State Normal and Industrial College, Greensboro. Dora B. Rogbrs. 1898. Teacher of History, Literature, and Sciences, Kinsey Seminary, Wilson. 1898. Philander P. Claxton, A.M., '86, Univ. of Tenn. Professor of Pedagogy, State Normal and Industrial College, Greensboro. G. A. Grimslky. Superintendent of Schools, 217 £, Lee St., Greensboro. J. y. JOVNER. Professor of English Literature, State Normal and Industrial College, Greensboro. D. Matthew Thompson, A.M., Butterford Coll. 1891. Superintendent of Schools, Statesville. NORTH DAKOTA ACTIVE MEMBERS 1894. Walter L. Stockwell, B.S., '89, Univ. of Minn, 1891. Superintendent of Schools, Grafton. Mrs. Helen H. Stockwell, B.L., Univ. of Minn. Grafton. • 1895. George A. McFarland, B.S., '83, M.S., '86, Hiram Coll. 1892. PiincipaJ State Normal School, Valley City. Webster Merrifield, A.B., '77, A.M. ,'92, Yale. 1891. President of State University of North Dakota, University, Grand Forks Co. Lura L. Perrine, A.B., '80, Albion Coll., Mich. 1892. Teacher of Natural Sciences, State Normal School, Valley City. 1896. Ralph H. Burns, A. B., Yale. Superintendent of Schools, Bathgate. Educational Association of North Dakota. President, Superintendent E. J. Taylor, Grand Forks ; Secretary, Superintenden A. M. Simpson, Forman. Joseph Kennedy, B.S., Univ. of Minn. 1893. Professor of Pedagogy and Principal of Normal Department, University of North Dakota, 1102 Broadway, Grand Forks. 1897. L. H. Allen, A.B., '87, E. Ind. Normal School. • Superintendent of Schools of Richland Co., Wahpeton. Anna Baknum. Critic Teacher in State Normal School, Mayville. J. G. Halland, A.m., Luther Coll., la. State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Bismarck. W. E. Hoover, M.S., O. W. Univ. Superintendent of Schools, Park River, Rosalie Pollock. State Institute Instructor, 210, 8th St. S., Fargo. OHIO life directors r87o. Emerson Elbridge White, A.M., Western Reserve Coll. ; LL.D., '76, Ind. Univ. and Marietta Coll. Author and Lecturer, 387 E. Broad St., Columbus. 1884. James H. Canfield, A.B., '68, A.M., '77, LL.D., '94, Williams Coll. 1895. President of Ohio State University, 1873 N. High St., Columbus. x888. L. W. Day, A.M., '82, Hillsdale Coll. ; Ph.D., '84, Baldwin Univ. 1895. Superintendent of Schools, 506 High St., Canton. LIFE members i866. Ulysses T. Curran, A.B., A.M., Miami Univ. Ex -Superintendent of Schools, 622 Columbus Ave., Sandusky, 1870. Mrs. Delia Lathrop Williams, Pd.D., '94, N. Y. State Nor. Univ. 1880. Instructor in English Literature and Normal Work, Ohio Wesleyan University, 62 S. Liberty St., Delaware. 1879. fRBUBBN McMillan, A.M., '67, Western Reserve Coll. ; Ph.D., Franklin Coll., New Athens, O. Cx- Superintendent of Schools of Voungstown, Canfield. 1880. •Hampton Bennett. 1897. Superintendent of Schools, Kings Mills. J. J. Burns, A.M., Washington and Jefferson Coll. ; Ph.D., '76. Ohio State Univ. 1896. Superintendent of Schools, 60-2 Washington St., Defiance. Charles E. Davidson, A.M., '87, Ohio Univ. 1891. Trustee Ohio University, 59 W. Ely St., Alliance. Bbttik a. Dittton. 1870. Principal of Kentucky Street School, 94 State St.. Cleveland. Mrs. Reuben McMillan. S. Broad St., Canfield. Lewis Miller. President Chautauqua University, Oak Place, Akton. John Bradley Peaslee, A.B., '63, A.M., '66. Dartmouth; LL.B., '67, Cincinnati Law Coll • Ph.D., '78, Ohio State Univ. ' 189s. Director of University of Cincinnati ; 1898, Member Union Board of High Schools, 330 W. 4th St., Cincinnati. IIOO NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Ohio 1880. Esther A. Widner. 3X Maple St., Dayton, 1882. James A. Robert, A.M., '67, Yale; Ph.D., '83, Denison Univ. 230 Sunset Ave., Dayton. 1883. E. W. Gov, A.M., '58, Brown Univ. ; Ph.D., '86, Princeton. 1873. Principal of Hughes High School, Cincinnati. 1884. C. W. Bennett, A.B., '66, A.M., '69, Ohio Wesleyan Univ. ; Ph.D., '89, Moores Hill Coll., Ind. 1874. Superintendent of Schools, 218 W. Ash St., Piqua. 1894. J. A. Shawan, A.B., '80, A.M., '83, Oberlin Coll. ; Ph.D., '93, Muskingum Coll. 1889. Superintendent of City Schools, 1122 Bryden Road, Columbus. ACTIVE MEMBERS 1879. William Nicholas Hailmann, A.M., '64, Univ. of Louisville; Ph.D., '85, Ohio State Univ. 1898. Superintendent of Instruction, Steele High School, Dayton. 1884. E. A. Jones, A.M. 1869. Superintendent of Schools, 138 E. Tremont St., Massillon. 1886. Christine Gordon Sullivan, A.M., Ph.D. 1885. Supervisor of Art Instruction, Public Schools, cor. Harvey and Park Aves., Walnut Hills, Cincinnati. 1887. Oscar T. Corson, A.M., '87. 1891. State Commissioner of Common Schools, The Marion, Columbus. 1889. Edwin B. Cox, A.B., 'ta^, Ohio Wesleyan Univ. 1881. Supermtendent of Schools, 205 W. Church St., Xenia. Nathan L. Glover. 1872. Teacher of Music, Public Schools, 627 E. Mill St., Akron. L. H. Jones. 1894. Superintendent of Schools, 190 Euclid Ave., Cleveland. 1890. Louis D. Bonebrake, A.M., Ph.D. 1898. Commissioner of Schools of Ohio, 1315 Forsythe Ave., Columbus. Mrs. Ada E. Laird. 1892. Principal of Waverly School, 265 Franklin Ave., Cleveland. Anna M. Osgood. 1893. Principal of Avondale School, 1348 Oak St., Columbus. J. P. Sharkey. 1885. Superintendent of Schools ; 1893, Member of State Board of Examiners, Van Wert. Sophie Vance. 1876. Grammar Department, P. O. Box 463, Van Wert. tSgi. Arthur Owen Jones. 1890. Teacher of Drawing, Public Schools, 2315 Highland Ave., Walnut Hills, Cincinnati. R. Anna Morris, Grad., '88, Anderson Nor. Sch. of Physical Training. 1894. Special Teacher of Physical Culture, Public Schools, 34 Granger St., Cleveland. Ellen G. Revelev, Pd.D., '94, State Nor. Coll., Albany, N. Y. 189B. Supervisor of Public Schools, 190 Euclid Ave., Cleveland. Charles W. Super, A.B., '66, Dickinson Coll. ; A.M., '82, Syracuse Univ. ; Ph.D., '74, 111. Wesleyan Univ.; LL.D., '94, Dickinson Coll. 1883. President of Ohio University ; 1896, Professor of Greek, ibid.. Dean of Faculty, 110 Union St., Athens, F. Treudley, A.B., '78, Univ. of Ind. 1885. Superintendent of Schools, 623 Elm St., Youngstown. W. J. White. 1410 E. 3d St., Dayton. 1892. C. C. Miller, A.B., '83, Ohio State UniV. 1893. Superintendent of Schools, 719 W. North St., Lima. N. CoE Stewart, F.C.M. 1867. Director of Music, Public Schools, 71 Jennings Ave., Cleveland. Matilda L. Walke. ^ , Twenty-sixth District School, 471 Riddle Road, Clifton Heights, Cincinnati. 1893. Charles Haupert, A.B., '80, A.M., '83, Heidelberg Univ. 1893. Superintendent of Schools, and (1894) Member State Board of Examiners, 9 College Ave., Wooster. M. A. Kimmel. 1880. Superintendent of Schools, Poland. Mrs. Caroline Newhall Lathrop. Principal of Normal School, 9th St., w. of John, Cincinnati. H. H. Raschig. 1874. Principal of loth District School, 618 Prospect Place, Avondale, Cincinnati. S. D. Sanor, A.M., '98, Western Reserve Univ. 1897. Student in Graduate School, Western Reserve University, 150 Hawthorne Ave., Cleveland. James W. Scott, A.B., Duquesne Coll. 1890. Superintendent of Schools, Loudonville. William H. Scott, A.M.. '65, Ohio Univ. ; LL.D., '84, Ohio Univ. and Ohio Wesleyan Univ. 1883. Professor of Philosophy, Ohio State University, 131, 15th Ave., Columbus. Lucia Stickney, A.M., '95, Oberiin Coll. . 1877. Hughes High School, Cincinnati. 1894. James W. Bashford, A.B., '73, A.M., '76, Univ. of Wis.; S.T.B., '76, Ph.D., '81, Boston Univ.; D.D., '90, Northwestern Univ. 1889. President of Ohio Wesleyan University, 23 Oak Hill Ave., Delaware. J. Remsen Bishop, A.B., '82, Harvard. , Principal of High School, Alpine Place, Walnut Hills, Cincinnati. W. W. Boyd, A.B., '84, A.M., '86, Marietta Coll. 1891, Superintendent of Schools, Paynesville. C. J. Britton. Superintendent of Schools, De Graff, Emma C. Davis. 1893. Supervisor of Public Schools, 190 Euclid Ave., Cleveland, Ohio] LIFE AND ACTIVE MEMBERS IIOI 1894. Arnold J. Gamtvoort. 1844. Professor of Music, G>IIege of Music, Cincinnati, Edward L. Harris, A.B.. A JVl,, Ph.B. 1889. Principal Harriet L. Kekler, A.B., '70, Obcrlln Coll. 1878. Assistant, Central High School, 93 Olive St., Cleveland. * Charles P. Lynch, A.B., '86, A.M., '8g, Ph.D., '97, Allegheny Coll. 1891. Teacher of Latin, Central High School, 146 Hawthorne Ave., Cleveland. E. E. Richards. Principal of High School, 34 E. Church St., Newark. William O. Thompson, D.D., '91, Muskingum Coll. ; LL.D. 1891. President of Miami University, Oxford. George R. Twiss, B.S., '83, Ohio State Univ. Head Science Teacher, Central High School, 142 Cornell St., Cleveland, Anna J. Wright, A.B., '72, Oberlin Coll. West High School, 94 State St., Cleveland. 1895. C. G. Ballou, B.S., O. Wes. Univ. Principal of High School, n6 Floyd St., Toledo. Charles S. Barrett, B.S.. '8s, Hopedale Coll., O. 1887. Principal 5th Ave. School, 78 W. 9th Ave., Columbus. Mary Blakiston, Ph.B., '93, Ohio State Univ. 1898. Head of JJepartment of Latin, East High School, 1117 Oak St., Columbus. Willis Boughton, A.B., Univ. of Mich. ; A.M., Dickinson Coll. 1890. Professor of Rhetoric and English Literature, Ohio Univ., Athens. William Paxton Burris, Ph.B.. '91, A.M., '94, DePauw Univ. 1898. Superintendent of Schools, Salem. C. E. Carey, Ph.B. 1897. Superintendent of Public Schools, J05 Mahoning Ave., Warren. William Wallace Chalmers, A. B., '87, Univ. of Mich. ; A.M., '89, Eureka Coll.; B.Pd.. '91, Mich State Normal. 1898. Superintendent of Instruction, Toledo. S. T. Dial, A.B., '80, A.M., '84, Ohio Wes. Univ. ; Ph.D., '94, Syracuse Univ., N. Y. 1890. Superintendent of Schools, Lockland. Clayton L. Dickey. 1883. Superintendent of Schools, Clinton, Sharon, and Perry Townships, Worthington. George A, Howard. With American Book Co., Cincinnati. Anne H. King, B.L., '92, Univ. of Cincinnati. 1894. Teacher in Public School, 3716 Morris Place, Cincinnati, Julia C. Kolbe, 1896 Annie Laws. Primary Teacher, 337 Milton St., Cincinnati. Secretary International Kindergarten Union, 818 Dayton St., Cincinnati. S. Herrick Layton, B.S., '92, O. N. W. 1896. Superintendent of Schools, 49 Main St., Mechanicsburg. William R. Lazenbv, B.Agri., Cornell; M.Agri., Iowa Agri. Coll. 1881. Professor of Horticulture and Forestry, Ohio State University, Columbus. Charles L. Loos, Jr., A.B., '69, A.M., '71, Bethany Coll., W. Va. 1888. Head of English Department, Steele High School, 133 Salem St., Dayton. J. S. Lowe, A.M., '67. 1891. Superintendent of Schools, 24 Henry St., Ashtabula. S. H. Maharry, A.m., '90, Muskingum Coll., New Concord, O, 1896. Superintendent of Schools, Millersburg, Holmes Co. S. K. Mardis, Ph.B., Pd.B., '03, Ohio Univ., Athens. 1881. Superintendent of Schools, Uhrichville. G. C. Maurer, Ph.M., '90, Univ. of Wooster. 1893. Superintendent of Schools, 409 W. Ray St., New Philadelphia. M. R. McElroy, A.B., '95, Univ. of Wooster. 1897. Representative of The John Church Co., Cincinnati, W. W. McIntire, Ph.B., '96, Univ. of Wooster. 1897. Manager School Music Department, The John Church Co., Cincinnati, Henry N. Mertz, A.B., '70, A.M., '80, Bethany Coll. 1891. Superintendent of Public Schools, La Belle Ave., Steubenville. Miami University. President, William O, Thompson; Secretary, Anna J. Bishop, Oxford. Carrie E. Moores. 1896. Teacher in College, College Hill, Hamilton Co. W.H.Morgan. Superintendent of Schools, City Hall, Cincinnati. Henry M. Parker, A.B., '59, A.M., '65, Marietta Coll., O. 1873. Superintendent of Public Schools, Elyria. J. W. Pfeiffer, B.S., Hopedale C0II..O. t888. Superintendent of Schools, 141 Wooster Ave., Canal Dover. E. H. Prichard. Principal Third Int. (Gram.) School, Cincinnati; residence, Wyoming. Superintendent of Public Instruction, East Liverpool. R. E. Rayman. 1897 W. S. Robinson, B.S., '91, M.S., '93, Mt. Union Coll. 1897. Superintendent of Schools, 28 Washington St., Ashland, William C. Skinner. 1896. Superintendent of ManOal Training, 2145 Ashland Ave., Toledo. Horace A. Stokes, A.B., '87, Ohio Wesleyan Univ. ; A.M., '96, DenisonUniv. 1807. Superintendent of Schools, 70 Lincoln Ave., Delaware. Margaret W. Sittherland. 1889. Principal of Normal School, 1160 Neil Ave., Columbus. Charles F. Thwing, D.D., '88, Chicago Theo. Sem. ; LL.D., '94, III. Coll. and Marietta Coll. 1890. President Adelbert College and Western Reserve University, Cleveland. II02 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Oh i8os. J. S. Young, A.M., '98, Univ. of Mich. 1898. Superintendent of Schools, 301 Tiffin St., Fostona. 1806. P. J. Anderson. „ , , „ , „ ^ , , tSgs. Principal of Felton Ave. School, 648 E. Long St., Columbus. J.J. Bliss, A.B.. '81, A.M., '86, Oberlin Coll. 1895. * Superintendent of Schools, 512 E. Rensselaer St., Bucyrus. G. B. BOLENBAUGH. ^ . . 1897. Principal of High School, Station C, Cincinnati. Marie L. Bruot. 1889. Teacher of Elocution and Oratory, Central High School, Cleveland. Howard Champlin. 1892. Superintendent of Writing, Public Schools, Station D, Walnut Hills, Cincinnati. Tressa M. Corcoran. 1886. Assistant Principal, 8th District, Normandie Apartments, Dayton. E. S. Cox, Lit.D. 1894. Superintendent of Public Schools, Sidney. F. B. Dyer, A.B. 1886. Superintendent of Schools, Madisonville August F. Foerste, A.M., Ph.D., '90, Harvard Univ. 1893. Teacher of Physics, Steele High School, Dayton. W. L. Fulton, B.S., '95, Ohio Wes. Univ. Superintendent of Schools, Clyde. Jennie Gifford, B.S., '67, A.M., '80, Nat. Nor. Univ., Lebanon, O. 1874. Principal of Preparatory Department, Buchtel Coll., 107 S. Union St., Akron. Alfred E. Gladding, A.M., '91, Bethany; Ph.D., '98, Mt. Hope. 1894. Superintendent of Schools, LaRue. J. P. GORDV, Ph.D., Leipzig Univ., LL.D. Professor of Pedagogy, Ohio State University, Columbus. Lemira W. Hughes. 1892. Principal Normal Training School, The Lennox, Cleveland. J. W. Jones, B.S., N. Nor. Univ. ; B.P., O. Univ. Superintendent of the Ohio Institute for the Deaf, Columbus. Frederick Alwin King, A.M. Teacher of Latin and Greek, Hughes High School,, no Huntington Place, Mt. Auburn, Cincinnati. Mrs, Frances W. Leiter. Superintendent Physical Education Department of The National W. C. T. U., 220 W. Park Ave., Mansfield. Anna E. Logan. 1896. Teacher in Intermediate Grade, Westwood, Cincinnati. J. V, McMillan. 1893. Superintendent of Schools, Dennison. George M. Plumer. Principal of Ward School, 623, 4th St., Marietta. ♦Wilbur V. Rood, A.B., '73, A.M., '76, Oberlin Coll. 1880. Principal of High School, 1x3 Adolph Ave., Akron. S. L. Rose. 1895. Superintendent of Schools, 219 N. 2d St., Hamilton. John H. Rowland, A.M. General Agent, American Book Co., 240 N. Main St., Delaware. Joseph H. Snyder, A.M., Heidelberg Coll., O. 1890. Superintendent of Schools, 169 Monroe St., Tiffin. Mary E. Stockleman. Buchtel College, Akron. Harriet E. Terrel. 1890. Principal of Scranton Schools, 381 Jennings Ave., Cleveland. R. S. Thomas, Ph.B., Madison Univ. ; Ph.D., '98, Nit. Hope Coll. 1898. Superintendent of Schools, 210 N. Prospect St„ Akron. Anna M. P. Tucker. Principal of Anna M. P. Tucker School of Ethical and Physical Culture, 878 Case Ave., Cleveland. Charles Liggett Van Cleve, A.B., A.M., O. Wes. Univ., Delaware. Superintendent of Public Schools, Troy. William M. White, A.B., McNeely Nor. Sch. 1868. Superintendent Union Schools, Mt. Pleasant. Ida M. Windgate, A.B., O. W. Univ. Principal High School, Delaware. 1897. Ella Beistle. 1888. Principal loth District, 31 E. McOwen St.. Dayton. Charlotte J. Caldwell. Station K, Cincinnati. Cleveland Public Library. President, John C. Hutchins; Librarian, William H. Brett, Cleveland. Cora M. Gayer. Special Teacher of German, 135 Miles Ave., Cleveland. Isabella A. Kolbe, Norwood Public School Teacher, 1891 Walker St., Cincinnati. Rose Morrison. 1894. Teacher in Normal School, 257 Kennard St., Cleveland. Ohio State University Library. President, James H. Canfield; Librarian, Olive Jones, Columbus. Mabel L. Pray. Director of Physical Training, 1727 Summit Ave., Toledo. John C. Ridge. 1877. With the American Book Co., 2322 Nelson Ave., Mt. Auburn, Cincinnati ♦Died June 21, 1898. Pennsylvania] LIFE AND ACTIVE MEMBERS 1 103 OHIO— Co«rt««*rf 1897. Sylvester Scovhl, A.B., '^3, A.M., '56, Hanover. 1898. Ex-Presidentand Professor of Morals and Sociology, University of Wooster.Wooster. JUUA C. SiLCOX. - Teacher in 8th Grade, 137 Miles Ave., Cleveland. Edward M. Van Cleve, A.B., '86, A.M., '89, Ohio Wes. Univ. 1802. Superintendent of Schools, Bamesville. Mary-Belle Westfall. Principal nth District, Dayton. i8q8. Pbrla G. Bowman. 1897. Associate Professor Domestic Science, Ohio State University, Hayes Hall, Columbus. Robert Brown Ewing, B.S., '85, Nat. Nor., Lebanon, O. 1895. Superintendent of Schools, Gallipolis. , Harvey V. Merrick, A.B., '80, A.M., '83, Mt. Union Coll. 1888. Superintendent of Schools, Cadiz. James E. Randall. 1897, Superintendent of Schools, Camden. P. N. Sigler. 1897. Member of Board of Education, 424 Grand Ave., Dayton. J. F. Smith, A.B., '85, A.M., '90, Kenyon. 1888. Prmcipal High School, 130 Hancock St., Findley. Ralph Richard Upton, A.B., Yale; LL.B., LL.M., Columbian. 1898. Principal High School, Chillicothe. Isaac Newton Van Tassel, Superintendent of Schools, 33 N. Prospect St., Bowling Green, Mary Walter. Primary Teacher, Public Schools, Pomeroy, Miss M, A. Woodmansee. . 205 N, Broadway, Dayton. OKLAHOMA ACTIVE MEMBERS 189a. David R. Boyd, A.B., '78, A.M., '81, Univ. of Woostcr. 1892. President of University of Oklahoma, Norman. 1895. H.E. Thompson, B.S. Principal of Preparatory Department, A. and M. College, Stillwater. 1898. L. W. Cole, B.Pd., S. W. Kan. Coll. 1897. Superintendent of Schools, El Reno. S, N. Hopkins. Territorial Superintendent of Public Instruction and ex-oflScio Auditor, 411 N. Broad St., Guthrie. Edmund D. Muroaugh. President Territorial Normal School of Oklahoma, Edmond. OREGON life director 888. Charles Carroll Stratton, A.M., Willamette Univ. ; D.D., '79, Northwestern Univ., and '80, Ohio Wes. Univ. Portland University, University Park. LIFE member 1884. Henry M. James, A.B., '61, A.M., '64, Williams Coll. 370, 14th St., Portland. active members 1892. Edwin DeVore Ressler, A.B., '91, Otterbein Univ. ; A.M., '97, Ohio State Univ. 1897. Superintendent of Public Schools, Eugene. 1895. J, H. Ackerman. 1898. State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Portland. E, B. McElrOy, A.m., '83, Christian Coll.; Ph.D., '84, Willamette Univ. 1895. Professor of Ethics, University of Oregon, Eugene. 1897. Charles Fribdel, Ph.D., '95, Leipzig. Professor of Physics in University of Oregon, Eugene. 1898. Frank Rigler. 1896. Superintendent of Schools, 533 Yamhill St., Portland. PENNSYLVANIA life director 1879. Teachers' Institute. President, Dr. William H. Samuel ; Secretary, Mary Wallace, Philadelphia. Representative for 1898, Andrew J. Morrison, 1430 N. 7th St., Philadelphia. LIFE members 1876. Edward Brooks, A.M., '58, Union Coll. ; Ph.D., '76, Lafayette Coll. 1891. Superintendent of Schools, 713 Filbert St., Philadelphia. II04 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Pennsylvania 1879. Rachel Foster Avery. Somerton. Simon Gratz, A.M., Univ. of Pa. President of Board of Eklucation, 1919 Spruce St., Philadelphia. Edward Shippen. Ex-President Board of Education, 532 Walnut St., Philadelphia. 1880. Edgar Arthur Singer, Ph.D., '96, Univ. of Pa. ... 1887. Assistant Superintendent of Schools, 4662 Penn St., Station F, Philadelphia. 1884. Sarah A. Stewart. 1615 Chestnut St., Philadelphia. 1891. Eliphalet Oram Lvte, M.S., Millersville; A.M., Ph.D., Franklin and Marshall Coll. 1887. Principal Pennsylvania First State Normal School, Millersville. ACTIVE MEMBERS 1879. George Morris Philips, A.M., '74, Ph.D., '84, Bucknell Univ. • 1881. Principal of State Normal School, West Chester. 1881. Andrew J. Morrison. 1883. Assistant Superintendent of Schools, 1430 N. 7th St., Philadelphia. 1884. George H. Stout. 1888. Supervising Principal of Boys' Grammar School, 3746 Powelton Ave., Philadelphia. 1887. Nathan C. Schaeffer, LL.D., '95, Wesfem tJniv. of Pa. 1893. State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Harrlsburg. 1891. E. Mackev, A.B., '78, Mercersburg Coll. i8g6. Boys' High School, Reading. 1892. Eliza A. Bishop. 211 Pine St., Harrisburg. R. K. Buehrle, A.m., '78, Ph.D., '87, Franklin and Marshall Coll.. Pa. 1880. Superintendent of Schools, 408 Manor St., Lancaster. W. WiLBERFORCE Deatrick, A.B., '76, A.M., '79, Mercersburg Coll. 1891. Professor of Psychology and Pedagogy, Keystone State Normal School, Kutztown. , Mrs.. Constance Mackenzie Durham. Formerly Director of Public Kindergartens, 4816 Florence Ave., Philadelphia. H. W. Fisher, Grad. State Nor. Sch., Millersville, Pa. 1875. Supervisor 17th Ward Schools, 350 Lehigh Ave., Pittsburgh. Joseph K. Gotwals, A.M. 1872. Superintendent of Schools, 19 E. Chestnut St., Norristown. Mary J. Lamberton. 1891. Supervising Principal of George W. Childs School, 4403 Osage Ave., West Phila- delphia. E. C. Lavers, A.m., Pd.D., Ph.D. Principal of High School, 324 Cattell St., Easton. Herman T. Lukens, A.M., '85, Univ. of Pa. ; Ph.D., '91, Jena. 1898. Head Training Teacher, State Normal School, California. John A. M. Passmore, M.S., '62, State Nor. Sch., Millersville, Pa. 1890. Agent American Book Co., 318 S. 42d St., Philadelphia. S. C. Schmucker, A.m., '85, M.S., '90, Muhlenberg Coll., Pa. ; Ph.D., '93, Univ. of Pa. Professor of Biological Sciences, State Normal School, 610 S. High St., West Chester. H. H. Spavd. 18? _ J. Liberty Tadd. Principal of Public Schools, P. O. Box 310, Minersville. Director of Industrial Art School, 319 N. 32d St., Philadelphia. 1893. C. A. Babcock, A.M., '71, LL.B., '83, Hamilton Coll. 1883. Superintendent of Schools, 313 Petroleum St., Oil City. M. G. Brumbaugh, A.M., '93, Ph.D., '94, Univ. of Pa. 1893. President of Juniata College, and (1894) Professor of Pedagogy, University of Pennsylvania, 311 S. 40th St., Philadelphia. James A. Dewey, M.E., '84, State Nor. Sch., Mansfield. 1890. Superintendent of Schools, Newport Township, Wanamie. Loyal Freeman Hall, M.E.D., State Nor. Sch., Indiana, Pa. Principal of First Ward Schools, Springdale and McKean Sts., Butler. William Henry Samuel, Ph.D., '92, Univ. of Pa. 1878. Supervising Principal Public Schools, 2505 N. 12th St., Philadelphia, Andrew Thomas Smith, Pd.D., '93, School of Pedagogy, Univ. of N. Y. 1885. Professor of Pedagogy, State Normal School, West Chester. Pauline W. Spencer. 1893. Teacher of Literature, Girls' Normal School, 3421 Race St., Philadelphia. 1894. Emma J. Longstreth, M.E., '76, State Nor. Sch., West Chester, Pa. 1894. Teacher of History, Girls' High School, 1416 Euclid Ave., Philadelphia. Miss M.J. McCracken. 1887. Assistant Principal, Franklin School, 4632 Center Ave., Pittsburgh, Franklin B. Sawvel, A.M., Hopedale Coll. ; Ph.D., '86, Wittenberg Coll. 1890. Professor of English Literature and Philosophy, "Diiel College, Greenville. *James F. C. Sickel. 1883. Assistant Superintendent of Schools, 637 N. 40th St., Philadelphia. Henry T. Spangler, A.B., '73, A.M., '76, Ursinus Coll.; D.D., '94, Heidelberg Univ., O. 1893. President Ursinus College, Collegeville. Charles K. Witmer, A.B., '88, A.M., '91, Franklin and Marshall Coll. 1893. Principal of High School, United States Hotel, Lebanon. 1895. S. H. Albro, Ph.D., Colgate Univ. Principal of State Normal School, Mansfield. A. D. Colegrove, A.M.J '84, Allegheny Coll. 1883, Superintendent of City Schools, 73 Euclid St., Corry. *Died September, 1898. Pennsylvania] LIFE AND ACTIVE MEMBERS 1105 1895. W. G. Cans. „. . 1898. Principal of Union High School, Turtle Creek ; East PituburK. Mary Heins, B.E., '87, Keystone Nor. Sch., Kutztown. 1887. Teacher in Public Schools, Eshbach. . . James Mac Alistkr, A.M., LL.D., Brown Univ. ; LL.B., Univ. of N. Y. ; OflScier d' Academic, Pari*. 1890. President of Drexel Institute, Philadelphia. Mrs. Mary E. Mumford. Member of Board of Public Education, 1401 N. 17th St.. Philadelphia. B. F. Patterson. Superintendent of Schools, iii George St., Pottsville. Thed Pershing, A. B., Princeton. Representative of Publishing House of Ginn & Co., 1229 Arch St,, PJuladelphta. Rev. J. W. Shanahan. 1894. Superintendent of Parochial Schools, 48th St. and Lancaster Ave., Philadelphia. Sydney T. Skidmore, A.M., '85, Amherst Coll. 1893. Professor of Natural Sciences, Normal School, 1706 N. 18th St., Philadelphia. H. M. Trask. Agent for Silver, Burdette & Co., 1328 Arch St., Philadelphia. 1896. J. George Becht, M.S., Lafavette Coll. 1893. Superintendent of Schools, Lycoming County, Muncy, R. M, Cargo. 1868. Principal Mt. Washington School, 127 Sycamore St., Pittsburgh. Watson Cornell. Supervising Principal Logan Grammar School, 1725 N. i6th St., Philadelphia. L.O. FoosE, A.M., '78, Penn. Coll., Gettysburg. 1879. Superintendent of City Schools, 123 Chestnut St., Harrisburg. John Arthur Gibson, A.B., '01, Allegheny Coll. 1896. Superintendent of Schools, 418 N. McKean St., Butler. George Howell. Superintendent of Schools, 1007 Scranton St., Scranton. W. L. MacGowan, A.B., Allegheny Coll. ; Ph.B. and Ph.M. 1890. Superintendent of Schools ; office, East St. Building, Warren, C. B. McCabe, Principal of North Braddock Borough Schools, 1019 Halkett Ave., Braddock. S. R. McClure, A.M., '94, Ph.D., '97. Grove City Coll. 1893. Principal of High School, 616 Jones Ave., North Braddock. Theodore B. Noss, A.M., '82, Ph.D., '83, Syracuse Univ. 1883. Principal of State Normal School, California. W. Riddle. Exlucational Author, 314 N. Lime St., Lancaster. J. N. Smith. 1875. Principal of 6th Ward School, 18 Franklin St., Allegheny City, JiTOSON Perry Welsh, A.M., '84, Ph.D., '93, Lafayette Coll., Easton, Pa. 1890. Principal of State Normal School, Bloomsburg. Margaret Catharine Zillafro, M.E.D., State Nor. Sch., Edinboro. 1893. Primary Teacher, 4th Ward Schools, 56 Kennedy St., Bradford. 1897. Francis Burke Brandt, A. B., '92, Harvard; Ph.D., '95, Columbia. 1896. Professor of Pedagogy, Central High School, 1637 S. isth St., Philadelphia. C. E. Ehinger, M.D. Physical Director State Normal School, 15 Normal Ave., West Chester. The Free Library op Philadelphia. Librarian, John Thomson, 12x7-1221 Chestnut St., Philadelphia. Henry Houck. Deputy State Superintendent, Harrisburg. N. P. McNelis. Inspector of Parochial Schools, St. Bernard's Church, Indiana. State Normal School at Millersville. Principal, E. Oram Lyte, Millersville. State Normal School Library, Mansfield. Principal, S. A. Albro, Mansfield. 1898. D. H. Bergey, A.m., 111. Wes. Univ. ; M.D., Univ. of Va. ; B.S., Univ. of Pa. 1895-. First Assistant, Laboratory of Hygiene, University of Virginia, 34th and Locust Sts., Philadelphia. Anna Bodler, M.S., '95, Mansfield, Pa., State Nor. Sch. 1893. Superintendent of Schools of Potter County, Coudersport. A. J. Davis, M.S. 1887. Principal State Normal School, Clarion, Pa. Franklin Spencer Edmonds, A.M., Cen. H. S., Philadelphia; Ph.B., Univ. of Pa. Assistant Professor of Political Science, Central High School, 1538 Centennial Ave., Philadelphia. J. R. FuCKiNGER, A.B., '77, A.M., '80, Princeton. , 1896. Principal State Normal School, Edinboro. H. W. Golden, B.Didac, '90, M.Didac.,'92, Edinboro State Normal. 1897. Principal 5th Ward Public Schools, Allegheny City; 8 Dawson Ave., Bellevue. John W. Lansinger. State Normal School, Millersville. William A. Mason. 1892. Director of Drawing in Schools, aia W. Chelton Ave., Germantown. Jesse H. Michener, Ph.D., Univ. ofPa. Principal Grammar School, 4512 Regent St., Philadelphia. Rev, Eugene Murphy. Director of St. John the Baptist Parochial School, 146 Rector St., Manayunk, Philadelphia. William Smith Murray, B.S., '88, M.S., '93, Syracuse Univ. Principal of Graded and High School, Troy, Bradford Co. R. H. Pratt. Major U. S. A. ; LL.D., '98, Dickinson Coll. Superintendent Indian Industrial School, Carlisle. llo6 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION (South Dakota PENNSYLVANIA— Continued 1898. Eli M. Rapp. . Superintendent of Berks County Schools, 115, 4th St., Hamburg. Edward Weldon. 1898. President Bethlehem Borough School Board, 127 Wall St., Bethlehem. LiGHTNER WiTMER, Ph.D., '91, Leipzig, Germany. 1893. Professor of Psychology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia. RHODE ISLAND LIFE DIRECTOR 1882. Thomas W. Bicknell, A.M., '60, Brown Univ. ; '78, Amherst Coll. ; LL.D., '84, Drury Coll. 719-721 Industrial Trust Building, Providence. ACTIVE MEMBERS 1891. Thomas B. Stockwell, A.M., '65, Brown Univ. 1875. Commissioner of Public Schools, Box 1432, Providence. Horace S. Tarbell, A.M., '62, Weslevan Univ. ; LL.D.,'96, Brown Univ. 1884. Superintendent of Schools, 169 Power St., Providence. 1892. Benjamin Baker, A.M., '78, Brown Univ. 1890. Superintendent of Schools, to Mt. Vernon Court, Newport. George E. Church, A.B., '72, A.M., '78, Amherst Coll. 1889. Principal Peace Street Grammar School, 37 Adelaide St., Providence. GiLMAN C. Fisher, A.B., '60, A.M., '86, Colby Univ. 1892. Superintendent of Schools, no Central Ave., Pawtucket. 1894. Walter Ballou Jacobs, A.M., '85, Brown Univ. 1895. Associate Professor of Pedagogy, Brown University, 362 Point St., Providence. Abby L. Marlatt, B.S., '88, M.S., '90, State Agri. Coll., Kan. 1894. Teacher of Domestic Science Manual Training, High School, 261 Benefit St., Providence. 1896. Victor Frazee, A. B., '89, Dalhousie Coll., Halifax. 1893. Teacher in East Side High School, 98 Prospect St., Providence. Henry Dwight Hervey, A.B., '89, A.M. ,"96, Denison Univ., Granville, O. 1898. Superintendent of Schools, 80 Lyon St., Pawtucket. Ellen Le Garde. 1893. Physical Director of Schools, 10 Mawney St., Providence. Mrs. Ella M. Pierce. 1891. Supervisor of Grammar and Primary Schools, 19 Lester St., Providence. Bessie M. Scholfield. Supervisor of Primary Work in Public Schools, 83 Vernon St., Providence. W. R. Whittle, A.B, '83, A.M., '88, Colby Univ. 1891. Principal of Schools, 56 Elm St., Westerly. 1897. The Rhode Island Normal School. Principal, Fred Gowing, Providence. SOUTH CAROLINA life member 1891. Martha Schofield. 1868. Founder and General Manager of Schofield Normal and Industrial School, Aiken. active MEMBERS 1895. WiNTHROP Normal and Industrial College. President, D. B. Johnston, Rock Hill. 1896. E. S. Dreher, A.m., '93, Roanoke Coll., Salem, Va. 1895. Supermtendent of Schools, Columbia. W. H. Hand. 1893. Superintendent of City Schools, Chester. 1897. C. A. Graeser, A.m., Charleston Coll. 1898. Superintendent of Schools, Bennettsville, 1898. J. Frank Fooshe. 1897. Superintendent of Schools, Blackville. J, S. Marquis, A.B., '87, A.M., '93, Lafayette Coll., Easton, Pa. 1892. Principal Brainerd Institute, P. O. Box 235, Chester. SOUTH DAKOTA active members 1890. William H. H. Beadle, A.B., '61, A.M., '64, LL.B., '67, Univ. of Mich. 1889. President of State Normal School, Madison. 1894. Mattie Jones. Teacher in Indian Industrial School, Flandreau. Kate Taubman. 1895. Principal of High School, 514 S. Jay St., Aberdeen. 1895. Frank Crane, B.S., Galesville Univ. Superintendent of Public Instruction, Pierre. Anna B. Herrig, Grad. Oswego Normal School. 1898. Superintendent, Training Department, State Normal School, Madison. George M. Smith, A.B., '73, A.M., '77, Colby Univ. Professor of Greek and Pedagogy, University of South Dakota, Vermillion. Edmund J. Vert, Pd.D., '94. Ph.B., '96. 1895. Superintendent of Schools, 502 Lynn St., Yankton. Texas] LIFE AMD ACTIVE MEMBEHS tio; SOUTH YikYJOTK— Continued i8g6. A. H. Avery, 1894. Principal Public Schools, Woonsocket. 1897. Albxander Strachan, A.m., '8a, Univ. of Rochester. Superintendent of Schools, 71 Forest Ave., Deadwood. TENNESSEE LIFE DIRECTOKS 1886. William Robertson Garrett, A.M., '57, William and Mary Coll. ; Ph.D., "91, Univ.of Nashville. 1895. Professor of American History, Peabody Normal College, 813 S. Summer St., Nashville. 1889. Board of Education of Nashville. President, J. L. Weakley; Secretary, William R. Payne, Nashville. 1887. 1889. 1892. 1894. j895. 1896. 1897. ACTIVE MEMBERS Wharton Stewart Jones, A.B., '73, Kentucky Univ. 1881. Principal of Memphis Institute, 501 VanceSt., Memphis. W. T. White, A.B., '77, A.M., '93, Univ. of Tenn. 1885. Principal of Girls' High School, 508 Broad St., Knoxville. William H. Payne, LL.U., Univ. of Mich. ; Ph.D.", Univ. of Nashville. Chancellor of University of Nashville and President of Peabody Normal College, 16 Lindsley Ave., Nashville. A. T. Barrett, LL.D., '81, S. W. Univ. 1891. Superintendent of City Schools, looi E. 9th St., Chattanooga. John Braden, A.B., A.M., Ohio WesWan Univ. ; D.D., Iowa Wes. Univ. 1867. President of Central Tennessee College, 82 Maple St., Nashville. James A. Henry, A.B., '83, Atlanta Univ. 1886. Principal of Hip;h School, 207 Grove St, Chattanooga. James C. Blasingame, A.B., Univ. of Ga. President Holbrook Normal College, Fountain City. J. M. Guilliams, A.B., Central Nor. Coll. ; A.M., "^qS. 1898. Professor of English Grammar and History, Holbrook Normal College, Fountain City. J. H. McCallie, B.S., Grant Univ. Superintendent of Schools, 233 Deaderick St., Knoxville. H. C. Weber. 1897. Superintendent of Schools, cor. Broad and Spruce Sts., Nashville. William Riley Payne. 1892. Secretary and Treasurer of Peabody Normal College; 189s, Secretary Board of Eklucation, City of Nashville, 16 Lindsley Ave., Nashvilie. TEXAS active members 1874. Alexander Hogg, A.M., '57, Randolph-Macon Coll. ; '74, William and Mary Coll ; '89, Univ. of Ala. 1892. Superintendent of Schools, 303 Lamar St., Fort Worth. 1883. Joseph Baldwin, A.B., '52, A.M., '56, LL.D., '90, Bethany Coll. Professor of Pedagogy, University of Texas, 1801 Congress Ave., Austin. 1892. H. C. Pritchett, A.M., '78, Pritchett Institute, Glasgow, Mo. 1891. Principal of Sam. Houston Normal Institute, Huntsville. 1894. Oscar Henry Cooper, A.B., '72, Yale; A.M., LL.D., '91, Univ. of Nashville. Carthage. A. H. WlLKINS. Representative of American Book Co., 418 Main St., Dallas. 1895. D. S. Bodenhamer, A.B., '70, A.M., '73, B.D., '74, Ph.D., '84, C.E., '92, Cumberland Univ. Professor of Mathematics, Trinity University, Tehuacana. James M. Carlisle, A. B., '98, Cumberland Univ.; A.M., '78, Emory Coll., Ga. ; LL.D.,'98, Univ.of. Nashville. 1891. State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Austin. J. M. Fendley, A.B., '82, Univ. of Nashville. 1885. County Superintendent and Principal of Avenue L School, 3202 Avenue N, Galveston. T. G Harris, A.B., '76, A.M., '80, Carson Coll., Tenn. 1895. Superintendent of Schools, Austin. H. S. Parsons, A.B., '86, N. Ind. Nor. Sch. 1896. Vice-President of Grayson College, Whitewright. W. S. StnTON, A.M., '84, Arkansas Univ. 1897. Professor of Pedagogy, University of Texas, 1812 Congress Ave., Austin. 1896. J. L. Long. Superintendent of Public Schools, High School, Dallas. George Tavloe Winston, B.L., '^4, Cornell ; A.M., Davidson Coll. ; LL.D., Trinity. 1896. President of University of Texas, Austin. 1897. Charles T. Alexander. . Superintendent of Schools, 1122 Columbus St., Waco. N. J. Clancy, Grad. State Nor. Sch. Superintendent of Schools, Mansfield. C. E. Foster, B.S., E, Tex. Nor. Principal of School, Handlej-. John A. Moldstad, A.B., '94, Luther Coll., Decorah, la. Principal of Lutheran College, Clifton, 1I08 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Washington l^yiK^— Continued 1898. J. K. McBride, F.I., Peabodjr Nor. Coll. ; A.B., '93, Univ. of Nashville. Principal Salem School, Greenville. R. E. Miller, A.B., Nat. Nor. Univ. President of Jefferson Davis College and Superintendent of Schools, Pittsburg. UTAH ACTIVE MEMBERS 1892. Allen Allensworth. A.M. 1886. Superintendent of Schools, 23 Fountain Square, Fort Douglas. 1895. William Jasper Kerr, B.S., D.B. 1894. President of Brigham Young College, Logan. J. F. Millspaugh, A.B., '89, Univ. of Mich. ; M.D., '83. Univ. of Pa. 1890. Superintendent of Schools, 209. 13th East St., Salt Lake City. University of Utah. President, J. T. Kingsbury; Secretary, David R. Allen, Salt Lake City. 1896. M. Adelaide Holton. 1897. Supervisor Primary School, 6 Thornton Ave., Salt Lake City. 1597. A. O. Clark. Principal of High School, 1059, 3d St., Salt Lake City. Joseph M. Tanner. President of Agricultural College, Logan. VERMONT LIFE MEMBER T889. Edmund Wentworth Wright, A.B., '66, A.M., '69, Harvard Coll. Teachers' Examiner, Lunenburg. active members 1894, Mason S. Stone, A.B., '83, Univ. of Vt. 1892. State Superintendent of Education, Montpelier. 1896. Herbert J. Jones, Ph.B., '94, Cornell Univ. 1897 Superintendent of Schools, St. Johnsbury, VIRGINIA active members 1894. John H. Bader. 1893. Superintendent of Schools, Staunton. William F. Fox, A.M., '58, Richmond Coll. 1889. Superintendent of Schools, City Hall, Richmond. E. C. Glass. 1893. Superintendent of Schools, 622 Madison St., Lynchburg. Maximilian P. E. Groszmann. Pd.D., '93, New York Univ. " Montebello," University of Virginia, Charlottesville. 1896. Albert H. Tuttle, M.S, '68, Penn. Coll. 1888. Professor of Biology, University of Virginia, i West Lawn, University of Virginia, Charlottesville. 1897. Celestia S. Parrish, Ph.B., '96, Cornell Univ. 1893. Professor of Mathematics and Pedagogy in Randolph Macon Woman's College, Lynchburg. 1898. Bessie Crawford Anderson. 16 S. Coulter St., Staunton. M. M. Lynch. Superintendent of Schools, Winchester. WASHINGTON LIFE MEMBER 1891. John Hull, A.M., '76, 111. Wes. Univ. Urban, Sinclair Island. active MEMBERS 1890. William E. Wilson, A.M., '75, Monmouth Coll., 111. 1898. President Washington State Normal School, Ellensburg. 1891. Frank J. Barnard. 1890. Superintendent of Schools, Seattle. 1893. J. T. Forrest, Ph.B., '83, Central Univ. of Iowa. 1885. Superintendent of Schools, Chehalis. M. G. Royal, A.B., '75, A.M.. '78, W. Univ., Salem, Ore. Olympia. 1896. Reuben S. Bingham, A.B., A.M., Hamilton Coll. 1896. Superintendent of City Schools, 616 Tacoma Ave., Tacoma. Charles F. Reeves, B.S., '78, M.S., '81, Pa. State Coll. 1B94. Professor of Modern Languages, University of Washington, Seattle; residence. Columbia City. Wisconsin] LIFE AND ACTIVE MEMBERS 1 1 09 WASHINGTON— Co«/f««*rf 1897. Statk Normal School at Ellbksburg. President, W. E. Wilson, Ellensburg. 1898. O. C. Whitney, B.L., '96, Puget Sound Univ. 1895. Principal Bryant School, 704 S. I St., Tacoma. WEST VIRGINIA life director 1877. T. Marcellus Marshall. Glenville. LIFE MEMBER 1870. William H. Cole, A.B., A.M., Ohio Wesleyan Univ. 1898. Superintendent of Schools, Huntington. ACnVB MEMBERS 1890. W. H. Anderson, A.M., '89, Bethany Coll. 1885. Superintendent of Schools, 45, 14th St., Wheeling, 1891. J. Walter Barnes, A.M., West Virginia Univ. 1892. Principal of State Normal School, Fairmont. BvRD Prillerman, B.S., '89, Knoxville Coll. ; A.M., '94, Westminster Coll. 1895. Professor of English Language, West Virginia Colored Institute, Charleston. 1894. Robert A. Armstrong, A.M., '90, West Virginia Univ. 1893. Professor of English Literature, and (1897) Vice-President, West Virginia Univer- sity, Morgantown. 1895. D. M. Willis. Principal Commercial Department, West Virginia University, Morgantown. 1896. J. N. Deahl, A.B., '93, Harvard. Grafton. Charles W. Evans. 1897. Superintendent of Schools, Walnut Ave., Fairmont. Lucy Robinson. Supervisor of Music, 36 Virginia St., Wheeling. 1897. George S. Laidlev, A.B., West Va. Univ. Superintendent of Schools, Charleston. Frederic W. Sandkrs, A.B., '83, Coll. of City of N. Y. ; A.M., '92, Harvard Univ.; Ph.D., '95 Univ. of Chicago. 1897. Assistant Professor of European History, West Virginia University, Morgantown. J. R. Trotter, A.M., '96, Harvard. State Superintendent of Free Schools, Charleston. WISCONSIN UFB MEMBERS 1884, *George Sumner Albee, A.B., '64, Univ. of Mich. ' 1871. President of State Normal School, Oshkosh. ALimNi Association, State Normal School at Milwaukee. President, Lutie E. Steams; Secretary, Annette Rosenthal, Milwaukee. John Arthur Avlward, B.A., '84; B.L. (Law), '90. Univ. of Wis. Vilas Block, Madison. George Beck, M.S., '63, Univ. of Mich. 514N. Elm St., Platteville. Beloit City School Board. President, F. E. Converse; Secretary, A. N. Bort, Beloit. Board of Education of the City of Janesville. President, James Shearer; Clerk, Fred. L. Clemons, Janesville. Board of Education, La Crosse. President, J.J, Fruit ; Secretary, John P. Bird, La Crosse. Board of Education, Oshkosh. President, J. Howard Jenkins; Clerk, Dan Witzel, Oshkosh. Board of Education. Watertown. Board of Regents, State Normal Schoocs. President, A. E. ITiompson, Oshkosh; Secretary, S. S. Rockwood, Portage. Board op School Directors, Milwaukee. President, Frank M. Hoyt, 222 Prospect Ave. ; Secretary, Henry E. Legler, City Hall, Milwaukee. City Superintendents' and Supervising Principals' Association of Wisconsin. President, L. A. Williams, Fond du Lac ; Secretary. J. H. Derse, Black River Falls, Jairus Harolin Carpenter, A.M., '74, Vale; LL.D., '76, Univ. of^ Wis. 1868. Professor of Law, University of Wisconsin, 315 Wisconsin Ave., Madison. WiLLARD H. Chandler. 1895. State Inspector of High Schools, Madison Lewis Herbert Clark. 1892. Professor of Mathematics, State Normal School, River Falls. CoiWTY Teachers' Association, Milwaukee County. President, Herbert J. Piper, Bay View; Secretary, John E. Roch, S. Milwaukee. Philip Eden, Ph.B., '72, Univ. of Wis. 6or Pine St., Platteville. John Q. Emery, A.M., Ph.B. 1895. State Superintendent of Public Schools, Madison. mo NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Wisconsin 1884. John T. Flavin. 1874. County Superintendent of Schools of Dodge County, Watertown. Lorenzo Dow Harvey, Ph.D., '91, Milton Coll. 1892. President of State Normal School, 225, 23d St., Milwaukee. Andrew J. Hutton. 1879. institute Conductor, State Normal School, 1105 Main St., Whitewater. Charles H. Nye. 1893. County Superintendent of Schools of Grant County, 212 N. Adams St., Lancaster. W. D. Parker, A.M., tfniv. of Wis. River Falls. John Barber Parkinson, A.B., A.M., Univ. of Wis. 1885. Vice-President and (1867) Professor of Constitutional and International Law, Uni- versity of Wisconsin, 803 State St., Madison. Public School Teachers of Janesville. Superintendent, D. D. Mayne ; Secretary, Lizzie A, Paterson, Janesville, Samuel Shaw, A.M., '75, Univ. of Wis. District Attorney, Crandon, Forest Co, Robert Closson Spencer. 1863. President of Spencerian Business College, Broadway and Wisconsin St., Milwaukee. Joshua Stark, A.B,, '48, Union Coll., Schenectady, N. Y. 355 Farwell Ave., Milwaukee. State Historical Society of Wisconsin. President, John Johnston, Milwaukee; Secretary, Reuben G. Thwaites, Madison ; Librarian, Isaac S. Bradley, Madison. State Normal School at Platteville. President, Duncan McGregor; Secretary, Carol Goff, Platteville. John William Stearns, A.B., '60, A,M,, '64, Harvard ; LL.D., '74. Chicago Univ. 1888. Professor of Philosophy and Pedagogy, and (1897) Director of School of Education, Univ. of Wis., 512 Wisconsin Ave., Madison. I, N, Stewart, B,S., '62, Univ. of Wis, Editor, Staff of Milwaukee " Daily Journal," Box 124, Milwaukee, Teachers* Association of Wisconsin. President, G. G. Williams, West Superior; Secretary, W. H. Cheever, Milwaukee. Rev. William C, Whitford, A,B,, '53. A.M., '58, Union Coll., N, Y.; D,D., '85, Blackburn Univ,, Illinois, N 1858, President of Milton College, Milton, Rock Co, active members 18S4, Mrs. Eva D. Kellogg, Editor of "Primary Education," 237 Langdon St., Madison. 1887. Albert Salisbury, Ph.D., Milton Coll., Wis. 1885. President of State Normal School, Whitewater. r889. Sanford A. Hooper, A.B.,'72, A.M., '82, Beloit Coll. 1893. Principal South Side High School, Milwaukee. 1890. JuDSON E. Hoyt, A.B., '80, Univ. of Wis. Superintendent of Schools, 512 Wilson Ave., Menomonie. 1891. Marie Doyle, 1894. Supervisor of Practice, State Normal School, West Superior. 1892. Mrs. Ella N. Allen. 1897. Supervisor of Practice, State Normal School, Platteville I. C. McNeill, 1896, President State Normal School, West Superior. Mrs. I. C. McNeill. West Superior. M. V. O'Shea, B.L., '92, Cornell. 1895. Professor of the Science and Art of Education, University of Wisconsin, 431 Lake St., Madison. A. W. Tressler, A.B., '91, Univ. of Mich. 1898. Principal of Schools, Ripon. 1893. William George Bruce. Editor of " American School Board Journal," 435 Hanover St., Milwaukee. 1894. BuEL T, Davis, 1896, Superintendent of Schools, 71 Washington St,, Oshkosh. R, B, Dudgeon, A.B., '76, Univ. of Wis. 1891. Supenntendent of Schools, 520 Jefferson St., Madison. D. D. Mayne. 1893. Superintendent of Schools, 226 S. Main St., Janesville. George P. Perry. Principal of 7th District School, 1218 Caledonia St., La Crosse. Theron B. Pray, A.M., '72, Univ, of Chicago. President of State Normal School, 402 Pine St., Stevens' Point. 1895. G. L, Bowman, 1896, Teacher of Mathematics and Reading, State Normal School, 1713 Hughitt Ave,, West Superior. Warren J. Brier. 1898. President of State Normal School, River Falls. C. E. Brown. 1034 Spaight St., Madison. C, R. Cross. Superintendent of Schools, Oconomowoc. W. H. Elson, A.B., Univ. of Ind. Superintendent of Schools, West Superior. Silas Y. Gillan, A.M., '87, 111. Wesleyan Univ. 1892. Editor " Western Teacher," 141 Wisconsin St., Milwaukee. Jonathan Piper, A.B., Iowa State Univ. ; A.M., Bowdoin Coll. Institute Instructor, Honey Creek. Wisconsin] LIFE AND ACTIVE MEMBERS 1 1 1 1 1895. Ellen C. Sabin, A.M., '95, Univ. of Wis. 1895. President of Milwaukee -Downer College, 614 Milwaukee St., Milwaukee. H. O. R. SiKFKRT. 1896. Superintendent of Schools, City Hall, Milwaukee. H. A. SiMONDS, A.B., '8^, A.M., '86, Apiherst Coll. 1890. Superintendent of Schools and Principal High School, 934 Clark St., Stevens' Pointy Carrie J. Smith. 1894. Instructor in General History and English, State Normal School, River Falls. Rose C. Swart, A.M., '95, Univ. of Wis. 1884. Inspector of Practice Teaching, State Normal School, 37 Elm St., Oshkosh. Samuel B. Todd, Ph.B. I E. Main St., Madison. E. V. Wernick. 1895. President of Board of Exlucation, Hillsboro. Charles F. A. Zimmerman, Ph.B., '96, 111. Wes. Univ. ; A.M., '96, Charles City Coll. 1888. Principal of 17th District School, 622 Otjen St., Milwaukee. 1896. Walter Allen. 1883. Principal lath District School, 502 Greenbush St., Milwaukee. William H. Beach. Professor of History and Civics, East Side High School, 229 Pleasant St., Milwaukee. William O. Brown. 1894. Principal of East Side High School, 414 Stewart St., Green Bay. Arthur Burch. Assistant Superintendent of Public Schools, 116, 32d St., Milwaukee. W. H. Cheever. 1893. State Institute Conductor, 229, 23d St., Milwaukee. Otis C. Gross, B.S., '90, Univ. of Minn. 1896. Superintendent of Schools, 338 Oxford Ave., Eau Claire. Mary Hill. 1891. Assistant Teacher, 3d District, 881 Mound St., Milwaukee. Harriett B. Merrill, B.S., '90, M.S., '93, Univ. of Wis. Instructor of^ Biology in High School, 661 Jackson St., Milwaukee. Kate S. Nelson. Grade Teacher, no Park Ave., Janesville. Mae E. Schreiber. Teacher of Reading, Literature, and Director of Library, Normal School, Milwaukee. Emma Willard Shrieves. 1895. Physical Training Department, State Normal School, 2834 Cedar St.; Milwaukee. George C. Shutts, Ph.M. Teacher of Mathematics and History, State Normal School, 306 Main St., AVhite- water. J. L. Thatcher, B.L., '93, Univ. of Wis. 1898. Principal of City Schools, Waupaca. R. A. Waterburv. , 933 Ruse St., N. La Crosse. 1897. R. L. Barton. 1893. Superintendent of Schools, Chippewa Falls. Mrs. Helen E. Bateman. Teacher of Literature in National German -American Teachers' Seminary, 558-568 Broadway, Milwaukee. John P. Bird. 1897. Superintendent of Schools, 904 Cass St., La Crosse. Julia Campbell. 1880. Assistant Teacher in Public Schools, 7th Grade, 202, 24th St., Milwaukee. C. P. Carv. Supervisor of Practice Teaching, State Normal School, 1703 Cedar St., Milwaukee R. L. Clark. 1897. Principal of School, 508 Washington St., Oshkosh. W. G. Clough, A.B., '75. Teacher in High School, Portage. F. E. Converse, B.L., '88, Univ. of Mich. 1897. Superintendent of Schools, Prospect Ave., Beloit. G. £. Cin.vER. 1893. Teacher of Physical Science, State Normal School, 1103 Main St., Stevens' Point, Eber Dafoe. Principal of High School, Plainfield. F. E. Doty, B.L. 1897. Superintendent of Schools, Sparta. J. T. Edwards. Superintendent of City Schools, Marinette. Mrs. J. Q. Emery. Albion. A. L. EwiNG, M.S., '8s, Cornell Univ. Professor of Natural Science, State Normal School, River Falls. Mrs. Medora Dodge Gammon, Grad. Froebel Asso., Chicago. 1898. Training Department, State Normal School, 1x16, i8th St., Milwaukee. Albert Gihtman. 1886. Principal of Schools, Manitowoc. N. A. Harvey, Ph.D. 1896. Teacher in State Norma! School, 2007 Hughitt Ave., West Superior. Mrs. p. H. Hewitt. 1897. Teacher in 3d Grade, 612 St. Clair St., Manitowoc. Ellbn C. Lloyd Jones. Proprietor of Home School, Hillside. Jank Lloyd Jones. 1887. Principal and Proprietor of Home School, Hillside. 1112 NA TIONAL EDUCA TIONAL ASSOCIA 7 ION [Wyoming WISCONSIN— Ctf«^i««*<^ ' ''' ' ' * Superintendent of Schools, Washburn. William T. Langley, B,S., Mich. Agr. Coll. Assistant Principal of High School, 2130 John Ave., West Superior. Mrs. W. T. Langley. 2130 John Ave., West Superior. J, W. Livingston, Grad. State Normal School. 1897. Institute Conductor in State Normal School, 419 Pine St., Stevens' Point. Emma J. Luebke. 1895. Principal of loth District Primary School No. i, 872, loth St., N. W. Station, Mil- waukee. Mary L. Lugg. 1893. Teacher in 17th District School, 219 Austin St., Milwaukee. Harriet Cecil Magee, Grad. Mt. Holyoke Coll., '82. 1884. Director of Drawing, State Normal School, Oshkosh. C. O. Marsh. 1893. Principal of High School, and (1898) Superintendent of Schools, 103 Clermont St., Antigo. E. C. Meland, B.L., '89, Univ. of Wis. Principal of Windsor High School, De Forest. Charles O. Merica, A.M. 1898. Superintendent Wisconsin Industrial School for Boys, Waukesha. Thomas B. Mills. Senator nth District, West Superior. John G. Nageler. 1896. Principal of Primary School, 2517 Elm St., Milwaukee. Oliver Needham, Grad., '96, State Normal School. Student in Normal School, P. O. Box 30, Midway. Richard J. O'Hanlon. 1892. Principal of 21st District School, 959, ist St., Milwaukee. Frank Ostrander. Regent of Normal Schools, West Superior. J. P. Peterson. 1894. Superintendent of Schools, Polk County, West Denmark. Lorenzo D Roberts. •1889. County Superintendent of Schools, Shawano. J. F. Sims. 1896. Teacher of Geography and Civics in State Normal School, River Falls. Edwin R. Smith. County Superintendent, Manitowoc. Harriet E. Smith, Grad. Oshkosh Nor. Sch. 1892. Principal of i6th District Primary School, 2409 Cedar St., Milwaukee. Lizzie P. Swan. _ _ • 1897. Librarian of State Normal School, Whitewater. J. W. Swiler. 1880. Superintendent of State School for the Deaf, Delavan. State Normal School at Oshkosh. President, Oshkosh. Miss J. L. Terry. Teacher in Model Department, State Normal School, River Falls. J. M.JTURNER. Superintendent of Schools, Burlington. E. W. Walker. Institute Conductor, State Normal School, 1910 John Ave., West Superior. Edith M. Watson. 1896. Kindergartner, 1611, 14th St., West Superior. A. W. Weber. Principal of High School, Fort Atkinson. ♦Ellen G. Weeks. 720 Ontario Ave., Sheboygan. Allen B. West, Grad., '84, Whitewater State Nor. Sch. 1893. Principal of High School, Lake Mills. H. A. Whipple. Principal of High School, Whitewater. William Hill Williams, A.B., '84, A.M., '87, Williams Coll. Teacher of Mathematics in State Normal School, Platteville. 1898. Elizabeth Fleming. 1896. Model Teacher Grammar Grade, River Falls. Thomas Higdon Gentle. 1898. Assistant Professor of Psychology aud Pedagogy, State Normal School, Platteville John Henry Mason, B.S., '82, Worcester Polytechnic Inst., Mass. Principal Stout Manual Training School, Menomonie. A. H. Sage, B.S., '86, Cornell Univ. 1893. Teacher of Physics in Normal School, Oshkosh. Guy Allan Tawney, A.B., '93, A.M., '94, Princeton; Ph.D., '96, Leipzig. 1897. Associate Professor of Mental Science, 674 College Ave., Beloit. WYOMING active members 1894. Estelle Reel. 1894. State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Capitol, Cheyenne. 1895. Henry Merz, B.S., A.M., Blackburn Univ. 1888. Professor of Philosophy and Social Science, University of Wyoming, 407, gth St., Laramie. I LIFE AND ACTIVE MEMBERS 1113- ^ 'WiGWi^Q— Continued 1895. Emanuel Stuvkr, B.S., '77, M.S., '85, Nat. Nor. Univ., Lebanon, O. ; M.D., '80, Ohio Med. Coll. ; Ph.D., '95, Wyo. Normal and Scientific Coll. 1895. President Wyoming Normal and Scientific College, Rawlins. 1897. J. O. Churchill. Superintendent of Schools, 2504 Ferguson St., Cheyenne. Library, University of Wyoming. President, Frank Pierrepont Graves ; Librarian, Grace Rajrmond Hebard, Laramie ALASKA active member 1895. Cassia Patton. 1894. Teacher of School No. 3, Sitka, Alaska. CANADA active members 1890. James L. Hughes. Inspector of Schools, cor. York and Richmond Sts. ; 58 Henry St., Toronto. 1891. Samuel Bower Sinclair, A.M., '93, Univ. of Toronto. 1893. Vice-Principal of Normal School, Ottawa. 1895. Mrs. Ada M. Hughes, Superintendent of Kindergartens, Public Schools, 58 Henry St., Toronto. HUNGARY active MEMBER 1893. B^la Kr]£csy, State High School Teacher's Diploma, '81. State High School, 6th District at Budapest, VI Lovag Utca 18, Budapest, Hungary. MEXICO active MEMBER 1897. Mrs. Olive E. Weston, Grad., '85, of Froebel Kindergarten Asso. 1896. Principal of Normal Kindergarten Department in Denny School, Puente de Alvarado, 1441, City of Mexico. CORRESPONDING MEMBERS [See Minutes of Meeting of Board of Directors, Washington Meeting, p. 38; also Art. Ill, sec. 2, Constitu- tion, p. i] Miss Dorothea Bbale, Principal of Ladies' College, Cheltenham, London, England. SiGNOR LuiGi Bodio, Direttore Generate della Statistica del Regno, Roma, Italia. Professor Ferdinand Buisson, Professor of Education at the Sorbonne, Paris, France. Gabriel CoMPAVRfi, Rector of the University at Lyons, France. Sir Joshua G. Fitch, LL.D., formerly Her Majesty's Inspector of Training Colleges and Lecturer on Education at the University of Cambridge, 13 Leinster Sq., Bayswater, W., London, England. S. S. Laurie, LL.D., Professor of the History and Institutes of Education in the University of Edinburgh, Scotland. Dr. E. Levasseur, Professor at the College of France, President of the Statistical Commission for Primary Instruction. Friedrich PAtn-SEN, Ph.D., Professor of Philosophy and Education in the University of Berlin, Germany. Michael Sadler, A.M., Director of Special Inquiries and Reports, Department of Education, Whitehall, S. W., London, England. Hon. E. Lyulph Stanley, Member of the London School Board. INDEX TO LIST OF LIFE DIRECTORS, LIFE AND ACTIVE MEMBERS [Capital letters following years indicate : D, Life Director ; L, Life Member ; A, Active Member.] [Deceased members are indicated by a *.] Abbott, D. Q., Ga., 1896, A. Ackennan, J. H., Ore., 1895, A. Adams, Cecilia, Iowa, 1898, A. Adams. J. S., N. Y.. 1896, A. Adee, J. N.. III., 1895, A. Agricultural Coll., Kan., 1897, A. Ahem. M. E., 111.. 1896, A. Aiton, George B., Minn., 1894, A. Ala. Polytechnic Insti., Ala., 1897, A. *AIbee, George Sumner, Wis., 1884, L. Albert, C. J., 111., 1896, A. Albrecht, F. J., 111., 1891, A. Albro, S. H., Pa., 1895, A. Alden, Mrs. Amelia D., N. Y., 1896, A. Alderman, E. A., N. C, 1894, A. Aldridge, Vincent, N. Y., 1891, A. Alexander, Charles T., Tex., 1897, A, Allen, Mrs. Ella N., Wis., 1892, A, Allen, Ira W., 111., 1870, L. Allen, L. H., N. D., 1897. A. Allen, Walter. Wis., 1896, A. AUensworth, Allen, Utah, 1892, A. Alley, F. S.. Ky., 1896, A. Allgood, Robert V., Ala., 1898, A. Allison, J. J., 111., 1893, A. Almond, W. S., Ind., 1891, A. Alumni Asso.. Milwaukee, Wis., 1884, L. Ambrose, H. T., N. Y., 1895, A. Ames, Charles H., Mass., 1896, A. Amherst Coll. Library, Mass., 1897, A. Amidon, L. E., Mich., 1896, A. Anderson, Bessie C, Va., 1898, A. Anderson, John J., N. Y., 1871, L. Anderson, P. J., Ohio, i8q6, A. Anderson, Mrs. P. J., Ohio, 1896, A. Anderson, W. H., W. Va., 1890, A. Arbury, Frederick W., Mich., 1895, A. . Arey, Oliver C, N. Y., 1870, L. Armitage, B. F., 111., 1896, A. Armstrong, George P., Mass., 1896, A. Armstrong, G. W., Mo., 1898, A. Armstrong, Robert A., W. Va., 1894, A. Arnold, E. Herman, Conn., 1896, A. Arnold, Sarah L., Mass., 1895, A. Arnot, S. P., Neb., 1897, A. Arrowsmith, S. V., N. J., 1898, A. Ashbaugh, Z. R., Mo., 1897, A. Ashmore, Otis, Ga., 1894, A. Atkinson, Fred W., Mass., 1894, A. Atlanta Univ., Ga., 189s, A. Augsburg, D. R., Cal., 1895, A. Avery, A. H., S. D., 1896, A. Avery, Lewis B., Cal., 1895, A. Avery, Myrtilla, N. Y., 1897, A. Avery, Rachel F., Pa., 1879, L. Aylward, John A., Wis., 1884, L. Ayres, Edward, Ind., 1892, A. Ayres, Henrietta B., Colo., 1893, A. Babcock, C. A., Pa., 1893, A. Babcock, J. W., N. Y., 1894, A. Bader, John H., Va., 1894, A. Baer, Clara G., La.. 1897, A. Bailey, Emma V., 111., 1897, A, Bailey, M. A., Kan., 1895, A. Bailey, Walter J., Cal., 1895, A. Baird, Mrs. J. H., N. Y., 1897, A. Baker, Benjamin, R. I., 1892, A, Baker, James H., Colo., 1884, A. Baker, O. M., Mass., 1892, A. Baker, Thomas O., N. Y^., 1892, A. Baker, W. H., Ga., 1890, L. Balcom, Arthur G., N. J., 1898, A. Baldwin, Joseph, Tex., 1883, A. Ballard, C. A., Minn., 1896, A. Balliet, Thomas M., Mass., 1895, A. Ballou, C. G., Ohio, 1895, A. Bancroft, Jessie, N. Y., 1897, A. Bancroft, Margaret, N. J., 1897, A. . Banker, Lizzie L., Neb., i8go, A. Barbour, O. F., III., 1889, A. Bardeen, C. W., N. Y., 1890, A. Bardwell, C. M., 111., 1892, A. Bargen, I. I., Minn., 1897, A. Barnard, Frank J., Wash., 1891, A. Barnard, Henry, Conn., 1884, L. Barnard, James U., Mo., 1893, A. Barnard.Job, D. C, 1898, A. Barnes, Earl, Cal., 1891, A. Barnes, Mrs. F. S., N. Y., 1896, A. Barnes, J. Walter, W. Va., 1891, A. Barnes, O. P., Kan., 189s, A. Barnum, Anna, N. D., 1897, A. Barrett, A. T.,Tenn., 1894, A. Barrett, Charles S., Ohio, 1895, A. Barrett, H. M., Colo., 1895, A. Barrett, R. C, Iowa, 1896, A. Barrett, S. M., Mo., 1897, A. Barringer, William N., N. J., 1894, A Barstow, C. L., N. Y., 1897, A. Bartholf, William J., 111., 1897, A. Bartholomew, Susie M., Ky., 1894, A. Bartholomew, W. H., Ky., 1877, L.- Bartlett, William A., Minn., 1897, A. Barton, R. L., Wis., 1897, A. Bascom, John, Mass., 1884, L. Bashford, James W., Ohio, 1894, A. Bass, E. E., Miss., 1895, A. Bass, George F., Ind., 1896, A. Bateman, Mrs. H. E., Wis., 1897, A. Bates, William C, Mass., i8g6, A. Baumann, C. C, Iowa, 1897, A. *Baumgartner, Elizabeth, 111., 1896, Baxter, Charles J., N. J.. 1896, A. Bayliss, Alfred, 111., 1896, A. Baylor, Adelaide S., Ind., 1897, A. Beach, William H., Wis., 1896, A. Beadle. William H. H., S. D., 1890, A. Beal, William, Iowa, 1896, A. Beals, S. DeWitt, Neb., 1876, L. Beardshear, W. M.. Iowa, 1889, A. Beardsley, A. E.. Colo., 1895, A. Beardsley, Elias J., N. Y., 1892, A. Beattys, Frank D., N. Y., 1894, A. Becht, J.George, Pa., 1896, A. Beck. George, Wis.. 1884, L. Beggs, Robert H., Colo., 1884, A. Beggs, S. S., 111.. 1896, A. Beistle. Ella, Ohio, 1897, A. Belknap, Emmet, N. Y., 1892, A. Bell, Alexander Graham, D. C, 1884, L. Bell, William A.. Ind., 1876, L. Belman, W. C, Ind., 1895. A. Beloit City School Board, Wis., 1884, L. Bender, Ida C, N. Y., 1895, A. III4 INDEX TO LIFE AND ACTIVE MEMBERS 1115 Benedict, £. M., Ga., 1897, A. Benedict. W. H., N. Y., 1892, A. Benham, N. L., N. Y.. 1895, A. Bennett, Charles A., III., 1896, A. Bennett, C. W., Ohio. 1884, L. ♦Bennett, Hampton, Ohio, 1880. L. Bennett, Mrs. Lydia, N. J., 1896, A. Benson, Christine, Cal., 1S97, A. Benton, George W., Ind., 1894, A. Bereey, D. H., Pa., 1898, A. Berlin, A. H., Del., 1896, A. Berry, B. D., 111^ 1895, A. Bessey, Charles E., Neb., 1895, A. Bevans, Homer, 111., 1897, A. Bicknell, Thomas W., R. I., 1882, D. Billingsly, J. J., Iowa, 189s, A. Bingham, Reuben S., Wash., 1896, A. Bingham, Robert, N. C, 1884, L, Birchard, C. C, N. Y., 1895, A. Bird, John P., Wis., 1897, A. Bishop, Eliza A., Pa., 1892, A. Bishop, J. Remsen, Ohio, 1894, A. Bishop, Nathan L., Conn., 1895, A. Bissell, Annie M., N. Y.. 1895, A, Black, James C, Ida., 1888, A. Black, S. T., Cal., 1895, A. Black, William H., Mo., 1895, A. Black, William J., 111., 1897, A. Blair, John J., N. C, 1895, A. Blaisdell. H. R., Ky., 1893, A. Blake, Mrs. E. M., Ark., 1898, A. Blaker, Mrs. E. A., Ind., 1896, A. Blakesley, O. J., Colo., 1896, A. Blakiston, Marjs Ohio. 1895, A. Blasingame, J. C., Tenn., 1897, A. Blewett, Benjamin, Mo., 1897, A. Bliss, Frederick L., Mich., 1895, A. Bliss, J. J., Ohio, 1896, A. Blodgett, A. B.,N. Y., 1890, A. Blodgett, S. F.. Mass., 1897, A. Board of Ed., Abilene, Kan., 1886, L. Board of Ed., Dodge City. Kan., 1886, L. Board of Ed., Janesville, Wis., 1884, L. Board of Ed., La Crosse, Wis., 1884, L. Board of Ed., Milwaukee, Wis.. 1884, L. Board of Ed., Nashville, Tenn., 1889, D. Board of Ed., Northfield, Minn., 1890, L. Board of Ed., Oshkosh, Wis., 1884, L. Board of Ed., Ottawa, Kan.. 1886, L. Board of Ed., Sedgwick, Kan., 1886, L. Board of Ed.. Watertown, Wis., 1884, L. Board of Regents, State Nor. Sch., Wis,, 1884, L. Bodenhamer, D. S., Tex., 1895, A. Bodler, Anna, Pa., 1898, A. Bodwell. Edwin J., Neb., 1895, A. Boice, H. B., N. J., 1896, A. Bolenbaugh, G. B., Ohio, 1896, A, Bombeiger, F. 1., Minn., 1895, A. Bond, G. G., Ga., 1894, A. Bond, J. D., Minn., 1896, A. Bonebrake, Lewis D., Ohio, 1890, A. Boone, Richard G., Mich., 1884, A. Boston College, Mass., 1897, A, Bostwick, O. P., Iowa, 1891, A. Boughton, Willis, Ohio, 1895, A. Bouldin, Susie S., Md., 1898, A. Boutelle, C. M., Minn.. 1896, A. Bouton, Eugene, Mass., 1895, A. Bowers, H. W,, Ind., 1896, A. Bowman, G. L., Wis., 1895, A. Bowman, Perla G., Ohio, 1898, A. Boyd, David R., Okla., 1892, A. Boyd, Mrs. Gaston, Kan., 1897, A. Boyd, Jennie, Ark., 1898, A. Boyd, W. W,, Ohio, 1894, A. Boyden, Albert G., Mass., 1890, A. Boyden, Arthur C, Mass., 1897, A. Boyden. Wallace C, Mass., 1896, A. Boyer, E. R., 111., 1897, A. Boyle, Charles A., Kan., 1897, A. Boyle, Edward, Ind., 1895, A. Braden, John, Tenn., 1895, A. Bradley, 'Charles A., Colo., 1893, A, Bradley, John E., 111., 1890, A. Bradley, Milton, Mass.. 1892, A. Bradt, E. T.. Mich., 1897, A, Brandegee, J. E., N. Y., 1896, A. Brandt, F. B., Pa., 1897, A. n J., Wis.,iS Bright, O.T.. 111., 1893, A. Bristol, E. N., N. Y., 1896, A. Britton, C. J., Ohio, 1894, A. Brock. H. Z., Mich., 1897, A. Bn>ckett, Zue H.. D. C, 1898, A. Broderick. Kate G., N. Y., 1896, A. Brooks, Edward, Pa., 1876, L. Brooks, Sarah C, Minn., 1894, A. Brown, C. E., Wis., 189s, A. Brown, Elias, D. C, 1898, A. Brown, Elizabeth V., D. C, 1898, A. Brown, Ellis W.. D. C, 1898, A. Brown, Elmer E., Cal., 1891, A. Brown, Eugene, Iowa, 1897, A. Brown, George P.. 111., 1880, L. Brown, George W., 111., 1893, A. Brown, George W., Mass., 1896, A. Brown, H. B., Ind^ 1895, A. Brown, Helen M., Colo., 1895, A. Brown, Jesse H., Ind., 1891, A. Brown, lohn F., Ind., 1896, A. Brown, Kate L.. Neb., 1897, A. Brown, LeRoy D., Cal., 1888, D. Brown, Miss Marion, La., 1889, A, Brown, William O., Wis., 1896, A. Bruce, William G., Wis., 1893, A. Brumbaugh, M. G., Pa., 1893, A. Bruot, Marie L., Ohio, 1896, A. Bryan, William L,. Ind., 1893, A. Buchanan, George V., Mo., 1894, A. Buchanan, John T., N. Y., i8y>, A. Bucholz, L. W., Fla., 1898, A. Buechele, J. L., Iowa, 1897, A. Buehrle, R. K., Pa., 1892, A. Bulkley. Julia E., 111., 1895, A. Bunzef. Belle, Ark., 1898, A, Burch, Arthur, Wis., 1896, A. Burdick, A. Hall, N. Y., 1892, A. Burk, Frederic L., Cal., 1892, A. Burke, Mrs. B. Ellen, N. Y., 1894, A. Burke, J. E., Mass., 189s, A. Burkett, G. F., Neb., 1897, A. Bums, James C., III., 1895, A. Bums, J. J., Ohio, 1880, L. Burns, Ralph H., N. D., 1896, A. Burris, William P., Ohio, 1895, A. Burroughs, George S., Ind., 1895, A. Burton, R. W., III., 1896. A. Busby, Isaac V., Ind., 1896, A. Bushnell, H. T., Iowa, 1897, A. Butler, Nicholas M., N. Y., 1885, D. Button, William J., 111., 1896, A. Butts, Annice B., 111., 1896, A. Buzzell, Delos, 111., 1897, A. Byington, S. Lillian, 111., 1895, A, Cahalan, Mary A.. Ala., 1895, A. Caldwell, B. C., La., 1896. A. Caldwell, Miss C. J., Ohio, 1897, A. Caldwell. H. W., Neb., 1896, A. Calkins, F. L., 111., 1895. A. Call, A. D., N. Y., 1898, A, Cammack, Ira I., Mo., 1895, A. Camp, David N., Conn., 1892, A. Campbell, A. G., Kan., 1886, L. Campbell, Julia. Wis., 1897, A. Campbell, W. H.. III., 1895, A. Canficld, James H., Ohio, 1884, D. Cannon, George L., Colo., 1895, A. Capen, Elmer H., Mass., 1896, A. Capen, Frank S., N. Y., 1896, A. Garden, A. D., Ark., 1898, A. Carey, C. E., Ohio, 189.S, A. Carfrey, J. H., Mass.. 1897, A. Cargo, R. M., Pa., 1896, A. Carlisle, James M., Tex., 1895, A. Carlton, E. A., Mont., 1897, A. Camagcy, J. A., Ind., 1895, A. Carpenter, I. H., Wis.. 1884, L. Carpenter, "Nellie M., 111., 1896, A. Carr,J. W., Ind., 1897, A. Carroll, C. F., Mass., 1895, A. Carroll, Mary H., N. Y., 1898, A. Carter, A. H., Ark., 1898, A. Gary, C. P., Wis., 1897, A. Case, Harriet F., Ind., 1898, A. Case, Richard, N. J., 1894, A. Casey, W. V., Colo., 1895, A. iii6 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION Gates, E. E., Md., 1898, A. Chadsey, Charles E., Colo., 1895, A. Chalmers, W. W., Ohio, 1895, A. Chamberlain, A. H., Cal., 1897, A. Champlin, Howard, Ohio, 1896, A. Chandler, John W., N. Y., 1890, A. Chandler, Willard H., Wis., 1884, L. Chapman, Frederick E., Mass., 1894, A. Charles, Thomas, 111., i888, A. Chase, Susan F., N. Y., 1898. A. Cheever, W. H., Wis., 1896, A. Cheney, Augustus J.. 111.. 1884, L, Cheney, Francis J., N. Y., 1891, A. Childs, Anna G., N. Y., 1897, A. Christy, A. B., Minn., 1897, A. Christy, Anna H., Minn., 1897, A. Church. George E., R. I., 1892, A. Churchill, J. O., Wyo., 1897, A. Clair, Francis R., N. Y., 1894, A. Clancy, Albert W.. 111., 1892, A. Clancy, N. J., Tex., 1897, A. Clark, A. O., Utah, 1897, A. Clark, Frank H., Colo., 1886, L. Clark, John S.. Mass., 1892, A. Clark, L.H., Wis., 1884, L. Clark, R. L., Wis., 1897, A. Clark, W. A„ Neb., 1895, A. Clarke, Elva E., Kan., 1894, A. Clarke, Etta I., Kan., 1894, A. Clarke, Francis D., Mich., 1897, A, Clarke, Jessie L., Kan., 1895, A. Claxton, P. P., N. C, 1898, A. Clendenen, T. C, 111., 1897, A. Cleveland Pub. Library, Ohio, 1897, A. Clough, W. G., Wis., 1897, A, Clute, Oscar, Fla., 1895, A. Cobb, Charles Newell, N. Y., 1894, A, Coddington, A. O., 111., 1893, A. Coe, Emily M., N. C, 1880, L. Cogswell, Francis, Mass., 1893, A. Colby, E. C, N. Y., 1896, A. Cole, Charles W., N. Y., 1892, A. Cole, L. W., Okla., 1898, A. Cole, William H., W. Va., 1870, L. Colegrove, A. D., Pa., 1895, A. Coleman, J. D. Ky., 1892, A. Colgrove, C. P., Iowa, 1897, A. Collins, J. H., 111., i8gs, A. Collins, John S.. Mo., 1897, A. Collins, Mrs. Julia H., 111., 1895, A. Columbia University, N. Y., 1895, A. Comings, Fannie S., N. Y., 1895, A. Comstock, Theodore B., Cal., 1895, A. Congdon, C. H., 111., 1894, A. Conkling. W. E., Mich., 1896, A. Conley, George H., Mass., 1897, A. Converse, F. E., Wis., 1897, A. Conway, Clara, 111., 1887, L. Cook, Charles F., Me., 1898, A. Cook, E. H., N. Y., 1872, D. Cook, Elizabeth B., 111., 1896, A. Cook, George B., Ark., 1895, A. Cook, Jennie, Ark., 1898, A. Cook, John W., 111., 1890, A. Cooley, Mrs. Alice W., Minn., 1896, A. Cooley, E. G., 111., 1897, A. Cooley, Frank W., Mich., 1895, A. Cooley, Le Roy C, N. Y., 1896, A. *Coon, H. C, N. Y., 1897, A. Cooper, Frank B., Iowa, 1894, A. Cooper, Frank Irving, Mass., 1893, A. Cooper, John, Ind., 1897, A. Cooper, Oscar H., Tex., 1894, A. Coover, Nathaniel, Kan., 1886, L. Corbett, Henry R., 111., 1890, A. Corbin, J. C, Ark., 1898, A. Corcoran, Tressa M., Ohio, 1896, A. Cornell Univ. Library, N. Y., 1896, A. Cornell, Watson, Pa., 1896, A. Corson, O. T., Ohio, 1887, A. Corthell, W. T., Me.. 1892, A. Co. Teachers Asso., Milwaukee, Wis., 1884, L. Cox, Edwin B., Ohio, 1889, A. Cox, E. Morris, Cal., 1896, A. Cox, E. S., Ohio, 1896, A. Cox, Henry C, 111., 1895, A. Cox, Jean, N. J., 1897, A. Cox, Martin Luther, N. J., 1893, A. Coy, Emma, 111.. 1897, A. Coy, E. W., Ohio, 1883, L. Crabbe. J. G., Ky., 1897, A. Crabtree, J. W., Neb., 1895, A. Craig, Oscar J., Mont., 1892, A. Crane, Mrs. Charles R.. 111., 1897, A. Crane, Frank, S. D., 1895, A. Crane, Julia E., N. Y., 1895, A. Cranston, R. W., Minn., i8gi6, A. Crissy, I. O., N. Y., 1898, A. Crist, Heniy M.. N. Y., 1896, A. Crockett, May M., 111., 1895, A, Cropsey, Miss N., Ind., 1891, A. Crosier, M. E., Iowa, 1895, A. Cross, C. R., Wis., 1895, A. Crossley, J. J., Iowa, 1895, A. Crouch, Sarah E., Mo., 1895, A. Crouse, Mrs. J. N., 111., 1893, A. Cruikshank, James, N. Y., 1864, L. Culbertson, E. D. Y., Iowa, 1895, A. Culver, G. E., Wis., 1897, A. Cummins, Mrs. M. S., Mont., 1897, A. Cunningham, J. B., Ala., 1895, A. Cupples, J. W., III., 1896, A. Curran, tflysses T., Ohio, 1866, L. Currier, E. H., N. Y., 1897, A. Curry, Robert, Neb., 1884, L, Curtis, A. E. Mich., 1896, A. Curtis, C. C, Minn., 1896, A. Curtis, Virgil G., Minn., 1892, A. Curtiss, Frederick A., Conn., 1894, A. Dafoe, Eber, Wis., 1897, A. Dalton, T. E., Ariz., 1898, A. Dana, Fenella, Kan., 1895, A. Daniels, J. W., Ida., 1898, A. Davidson, Charles £., Ohio, 1880, L. Davidson, William M., Kan., 1890, A. Davis, A. J., Pa.. 1898, A. Davis, Allan, D. C, 1895, A. Davis, Booth C, N. Y., 1896, A. Davis, Buel T., Wis., 1894, A. Davis, Charles M., N. J., 1893, A. Davis, Emma C, Ohio, 1894, A. Davis, Eva L., Ark., 1898. A. Davis, George S., N. Y., 1896, A. Davis, George W., 111., 1896, A. Davis, John W., N. Y., 1895, A. Davis. J. M., Iowa, 1898, A. Dawes, H. E., Neb., 1896, A. Dawson, H. T., N. Y., 1895, A. Day, L. W., Ohio, 1888, D. Deahl, J. N., W. Va., 1896, A. Deane, Charles W., Conn., 1889, A. Deatrick, W. W., Pa., 1892, A. De Garmo, Charles, N. Y., 1889, A. Delano, Edward C, 111., 1895, A. Denfeld, Robert E., Minn., 1890, A. Denison, Hattie, Ark., 1898, A. Deupree, J. G., Miss., 1897, A. Dewey, James A., Pa., 1893, A. Dewey, John. 111., 1897, A. Dewey, Melvil, N. Y., 1892, A. D ial, S. T, Ohio, 1895, A. Dick, Fred., Colo., 1895, A. Dickey, C. L., Ohio, 1895, A. Dietrich, Charles H., Ky., i8gi, A. Dietrich, John, Colo., 1895, A. Dillman, L. M., III., 1886, A. Dixon, B. V. B., La., 1897, A. Doane, Letitia L., 111., 1897, A. Dobson, W. D., Mo., 1897, A. Dodd, Arthur A., Mo., 1885, A. Dodge, M. Luella, 111., 1897, A. Dodge, William C, 111.. 1896, A. Dodson, Mary F., Ky., 1892, A. Dolphin, N. E., Kan., 1895, A. , Donohoe, Mary J., N. J., 1894, A Doron, W. A., Iowa, 1897, A. Doty, F. E., Wis., 1897, A. Dougherty, Mabel E., IIl.,t 89 Dougherty, N. C, 111., 1887, D, Douglas, R. S., Mo., 1897, A. Dow, J. J., Minn., 1896, A. Downes, J. M. N., Ky., 1894, A. Downing, A. S., N. Y., 1891, A. Doyle, Marie, Wis., 1891, A. Dozier, Melville. Cal., 1895, A. Draper, Andrew S., 111., 1888, A. INDEX TO LIFE AND ACTIVE MEMBERS 1 1 17 Draughan, Abbie W., Ark., 1895, A. Dreher, E. S., S. C, 1896, A. Ducker, W. H., III., 7895, A. Dudgeon. R. B., Wis., 1894, A. Dudley, Mrs. E., Iowa, 1897, A. Dunton, Larkim Mass., 1895, A. Durham, Mrs. C. M., Pa., 189a, A. DuttOD, Bettie A., Ohio, 1880, L. Dutton, S. T., Mass., 1895, A. Dyer. F. B., Ohio, 1896, A. Dyer, Frank R., Kan., 1891, A. Eakins, Mrs. Millie R., 111., 1896, A. Eastman, William R., N. Y., 1896, A. Easton, Warren, La., 1895, A. Eaton, Ira T., 111., 1894, A. Eaton, James F., Iowa, 1897, A. Eaton, John, D. C, 1893, A. Ebaugh, Z. C., Md., 1897, A. Eden, Philip, Wis., 1884, L. Eklgerly, Joseph G., Mass., 1896, A, Ed. Assoc., N. D., 1806, A. Editor's Library, N. Y., 1897, A. Edmonds, F. S., Pa., 1898, A. Edmund, Gertrude, Mass., 1897, A. Edson, A. W. N. Y., 1896, A. Edwards, H. R., Minn., 1897, A. Edwards, J. T., Wis., 1897, A. Ehinger, C. E., Pa., 1897, A. Ela, Clarissa E., 111., 1897, A. Elder, Ella C, N. Y., 1896, A. Elder. E. W., Colo., 1895, A. Elgas, Mathew J., N. Y., 1891, A. Eliot, Charles W., Mass., 1892, A. Elliott, J. F., Ala., 1898, A. Ellis, John C, 111., 1887. A, Ellis, William Austin, Mich., 1887, A. Ellsworth, Henry W., N. Y., 1896, A. Elmer, Frances A., Minn., 1897, A. Elson, W. H., Wis., 1895, A. Elwelt. Mrs. O. F., N. J., 1896, A. Ely, Sarah Y., N. J., 1802, A. Emerson, Henry P., N. Y., 1893, A. Emery, John Q., Wis., 1884, L. Emery, Mrs. J. Q., Wis., 1897, A. English, Rebecca F., Cal., 1888, L. Engstrom, A. E., Minn., 1895, A. Estee, James A., N. Y., 1896, A. Evans, Charles H., Mo., 1886, L. Evans, Charles W., W. Va., 1896, A. Evans, Lawton B., Ga., 1894, A. Evans, William P., Mo., 1898, A. Ewing, A. L., Wis., 1897, A. Ewing, R. B., Ohio, 1898, A. Fairchild, E. T., Kan., 1886, L. Fairchild, George T., Ky., 1886, D. Fall, Delos, Mich, 1897. A. Fant, John C, Miss., 1897, A. Farley, D. H., N. J., 1896, A. Farley, George L., Neb., 1897, A. Farnsworth, S. A., Minn., 1894, A. Farr, F. D., 111., 1897, A. Farrand, Wilson, N. J., 1895, A. Farrell, Edward D., N. Y., 1890, A. Farrell, Mrs. E. D., N. Y., 1896, A, Farson, M. Elizabeth, 111., 1897, A. Fay, Etta J., Minn., 1896, A. Felker, Alfie M., Cal., 1895, A. Fell, Anna M., N. J., 1897, A. Fendley, J. M., Tex., 1895, A. Fenton, George, N. Y., 1896, A. Ferguson, E. E., Mich., 1896, A. Fernald, M. C, Me., 1890, A. Finley, John H., 111., 1896, A. Fisher, Oilman C., R. I., 1892, A. Fisher, H. W., Pa., 1892, A. Fisk, Herbert F., 111., 1891, A. Fitch, Ferris S., Mich., 1890, A. Fitz, George W., Mass., 1898, A. Fitzgibbon, T. F., Ind., 1895, A. Fitzpatrick, Frank A., Mass., 1884, A. Flavin, John T., Wis., 1884, L. Fleming, Elizabeth, Wis., 1898, A. Fleming, Mary A., N. Y., 1890, A. Fleshman, Arthur C, Ky., 1894, A. Flick, W. B., Ind., 1895, A. Flickinger, J. R., Pa., 1898, A. Fling, Allen C, Neb., 1898, A. Foerste, A. F., Ohio, 1896, A. Foos, Anna, Neb., 1897, A, Foose, L, O., Pa., 1896, A. Fooshe, J. Frank, S. C, 1898, A. Footc, Nfary C, 111., 1897, A. Forbes, Alexander, 111., 1876, L. Forbes, Ira L., Mich., 1895, A. Forbes, John A., 111., 1898, A. Ford, Lyman H., Minn., 1897, A. Foresman, H. A., 111., 1896, A. Foresman, Robert, 111., 1896, A. Forrest, J. T., Wash., 1895, A. Fort, W. H., Mich., 1897, A. Foshay, James A., Cal., 1893, A. Foster, C. E., Tex.. 1897, A. Fowler, W. K., Neb., 1892, A. Fox, William F., Va., 1894, A. Franklin, George A., Minn., 1897, A. Frazee, Victor, R. I., 1896, A. Free Pub. Lib'yi Jersey City, N. J., 1897, A. Free Pub. Lib'y, Philadelphia, Pa., 1897, A. Free Pub. Lib'y, San Francisco, Cal., 1^7, A. Free Pub. Lib'y, Worcester, Mass., 1898, A. Freeman, J. H., 111., 1895, A. Freeman, John T., Md., 1898, A. Freer, H. H., Iowa, 1884, A. Freer, Paul C, Mich., 1897, A. French, George W., N. Y., 1895, A. French, Harlan P., N. Y., 1891, A. French, O. E., Iowa, 1895, A. Friedberg, William B., N. Y., 1892, A. Friedel, Charles, Ore., 1897, A. Friedman, Anna E., N. Y., 1895, A. Frost, H. H.,Mich., 1895, A. Frost, J. M., 111., 1897, A. Fruchte, Amelia C, Mo., 1896, A. Fulton, Robert B., Miss., 1894, A. Fulton, W. L., Ohio, 1896, A. Ifutrall, Lula M., Ark., 1898, A. Futrall, ITiomas A., Ark., 1887, A. Gage, Nathaniel P., D. C, 1898, A. Galbreath, L. H., N. Y., 1887, A. Gamble, George W., Conn., 1896, A. Gammon, Mrs. M. D., Wis., 1897, A. Gans, W. G., Pa., 1895, A. Gantvoort, A. J., Ohio, 1894, A. Garrett, William R., Tenn., 1886, D, Garrette, Irene, Iowa, 1897, A. Garrison, S. Olin, N. J., 1898, A. Garvin, John B., Colo., 1895, A. Gastman, E. A., 111., 1895, A. Gates, Elmer, Md., 1898, A. Gates, Howard, Ark., 1896, A. Gayer, Cora M., Ohio, 1897, A. Gayhart, Walter C, Nev., 1895, A. Geary, Grace, Mo., 1897, A, ' Geer, David S., 111., 1886, A. Geeting, D. M., Ind., 1895, A. Gentle, T. H., Wis., 1898, A. George, Austin, Mich., 1805, A. Germann, George B., N. Y., 1898, A. Gettemy, Mrs. Mary E., HI., 1892, A. Gibson, C. B., Ga., 1898, A. Gibson, John A., Pa., 1896, A. Giffin, W. M., Ill,, 1895, A. Gifford, Jennie, Ohio, 1896, A. Gilbert, C. B., N. J., 1893, A. Gilbert, Newell D., 111.. i89s,«A. Gilday, Mary, Mo., 1895, A. Gillan, Silas Y., Wis., 1895, A. Gillespie, Mary, 111., 1897, A. Gillespie, Nellie, 111., 1897, A, Gillett, Emma M., D. C, 1898, A. Gillman, Daniel C, Md., 1896, A. Gladding, A. E., Ohio, r896, A. Glass, E. C, Va., 1894, A. Glenn, G. R., Ga., 1895, A. Glover, Nathan L., Ohio, 1889, A. Gminder, A. J., Md., 1898, A. Golden, H. W., Pa., 18^, A. Goodhue, Lincoln P., 111., 1893. A. Goodnough, Walter S., N, Y., 1882, A. Gordon, Joseph C, 111., 1897, A. Gordy, J. P., Ohio, 1896, A. Gordy, W. F.. Conn., 1898, A. Gorton, Charles E., N. Y., 1896, A. Goss, David K., Ind.. 1895, A. Gotwalls, Joseph K., Pa., 1892, A. Gove, Aaron, Colo.. 1888, D. ii8 NATIONAL Ml>aCATIONAL ASSOCIATION Graeser, C. A., S. C. 1897, A. Graham, Hugh A., Mich., 1895, D. Grandy, Mary A., Mass., 1893, A. Grant, Miss A. L., D. C, 1898, A. Grant, H.L, 111., 1896, A. Gratz, Simon, Pa., 1879, L. Gray, Thomas J., Minn., 1895, A. Green, James M.. N. J., 1892, A, Greene, John A., N. Y., 1893, A. Greenlee. Ida K., Mass., 1893, A. Greenlee, L. C, Colo., 1892, A. Greenraan, A. V., 111., 1897, A. Greenwood, J. M., Mo., 1886, D. Gregory, Benjamin C, N. J., 1894, A. ♦Gregory, John T., Ala., 1895, A. Griffith, E. W., N. Y., 1896. A. Griffith, George, N. Y., 1893, A. Griffiths, G. C., 111., 1896, A. Grimsley, G. A., N. C, 1898, A. Gross, Otis C.Wis., 1896, A. Grossman, John H., 111., 1895, A. Groszmann, M. P. E., Va., 1894, A. Groves, Charles W., HI., 1896, A. Guden, Anna J., N. J., 1894, A. Guilliams, J. M., Tenn., 1897, A. Gunnison, Walter B., N. Y., 1896, A. Gurnea, Jennie E., 111., 1897, A. Guss, Roland W., Mass., 1895, A. Guttmann, Albert, Wis., 1897, A. Gwynn, Henry B., Md., 1898, A. Hadley, Hiram, N, Mex., 1891, A. Hafford, F; S., Ariz., 1897, A. Hagerty, C. T.,N. Mex., 1895, A. Haggett, George B., Ky., 1897, A. Haight, R. A., 111., 189s, A, Hailmann, W. N., Ohio, 1879, A. Hale, George D., N. Y., 1891, A. Hall, Caleb G., N. Y., 1885, D. Hall, Dana W., 111., 1891, A. Hall, Frank H., 111., 1897, A. Hall, G. Stanley, Mass., 1891, A. Hall, Isaac Freeman, Mass., 1895, A. Hall, Loyal Freeman, Pa., 1893, A. Hall, Mary F., Wis., 1893, A. Hall, R. C., Ark , 1898, A. Hallam, Alfred, N. Y., 1896, A. Halland, J. G., N. D., 1897, A, Halleck, R. P., Ky., 1897, A. Halsey, L. R., III., 1896, A. Halsey, R. H., N. Y., 1895, A. Hamilton, James M., Mont., 1895, A. Hamilton, R. I., Ind., 1896, A. Hamilton, William. D. C, 1898, A. Hammond, Jason E., Mich., 1895, A. Hancock, John A., 111., 1895, A. Hand, Laura, Minn., 1897, A. Hand, W. H., S. C, 1896, A. Hanks, L. L. L., Kan., 1897, A. Hanna, G. C, Ky., 1897, A. Hannan, James, 111., 1897, A. Hanus, Paul H., Mass., 189s, A. Hardy, Richard, Mich., 1894, A. Harison, W. B., N. Y., 1892, A. Harper, William R., 111., 1895, A. Harris, Abram, Me., 1898, A. Harris, Ada Van Stone, N. J., 1895, A. Harris, Edward L., Ohio, 1894, A. Harris, William T., D. C, 1876, D. Harrison, Elizabeth, 111., 1895, A. Harrison", Miles W., Ind., 1896, A. Harrison, S. A., 111., 1897, A. Hart, Albert Bushnell, Mass., 1895, A. Hartigan, Mary S. L., 111., 1895, A. Hartman, E. M., Mich., 1898, A. Hattman, Mary, 111., 1895, A. Harvard Coll. Library, Mass., 1895, A. Harvey, G. I., Mo., 1886, L. Harvey, L. D., Wis., 1884, L. Harvey, N. A., Wis., 1897, A. Haslup, Ida B., Colo., 1896, A. Hatch, W. E., Mass., 1897, A. Hatch, W. H., 111., 1895, A. Haupert, Charles, Ohio, 1893, A. Haupt, J. G., Neb., 1896, A. Haven, Caroline T., N. Y., 1896, A. Hawn, Linn Marie, N. J., 1895, A. Hayden, H. B., Iowa, 1897, A. Hayden, P. C.,Ill.,i89S, A. Hayes, Frances C, N.Y., 1896, A. Hayes, H. E., N. Y., 1892, A. Hays, Dudley G., 111., 1897, A. Hayward, Edward, N. Y., 1895, A. Hayward, Emily A., 111., 1884, L. Hazen, David H., D. C, 1898, A. Heath, D. C, Mass., 1891, A. Heermans, Josephine, Mo,, 1896, A. Heidler, S.H.,111., 1897, A. Heiermann, F. J., N. Y., 1896, A. Heineken, J. F. D., N. J., 1894, A. Heins, Mary, Pa., 1895, A. Helmer, Harry, 111., 1895, A. Henderson, Mrs. Kate A., 111., 1897, A. Hendrick, Welland, N. Y., 1895, A. Hendricks, J. P., Mont., 1898, A. Hendrix College, Ark., 1897, A. Henninger, J. W., 111., 1896, A. Henry, James A., Tenn., 1896, A. Hermanns, Edward F. , Colo., 1895, A. Herrig, Anna B., S. D., 1895, A, Hershman, W. H., Ind., 1896, A. Hertel, Charles, III., 1895, A. Hervey, Henry D , R. I., 1896, A. Hervey, Walter L., N. Y., 1895, A. Herzog, Peter, Mo., 1897, A. Hess, William C, N. Y., 1896, A. Hester, W. A., Ind., 1895, A. Hewes, Wi D., N. Y., 1896, A. Hewett, Edwin C.,111., 1884, L. Hewitt, Mrs. P. H., Wis., 1897, A. Hicks, Mrs. Mary Dana, Mass., 1890, A. Hill, Frank A., Mass., 1895, A. Hill, Mary, Wis., 1896, A. Himes, Florence B., N. Y.,1894, A. Hinemon, J. H., Ark., 1896, A. Hinman, Lydia, Iowa, 1895, A. Hinsdale, B. A., Mich., 1884, A. Hiser, W. S., Ind., 1898, A. Hisey, Joseph C, 111, 1894, A. Hitch, R. M., 111., 1897, A. Hitte, Alice E., Neb., 1896, A. Hitz, John, D. C, 1880, L. Hobbs, W. W., Minn., 1896, A. Hobe, Augusta W., Cal., 1889, L. Hodgdon, Josephine E., N. Y., 1882, L. Hodgin, Charles E., N. Mex., 1895, A. Hodgin, Cyrus W., Ind., 1895, A. Hoegelsboer^er, Nora, D. C, 1898, A. Hofer, Amalie, 111., 1895, A. Hoffman, Benjamin F., Mo., 1897, A. Hoffman, Gains, N. J., 1894, A. Hogan, Louise E., D. C, 1898, A. Hogg, Alexander, Tex., 1874, A. Hogg, Miss F. O., Ark., 1898, A. Holden, B. A., Mich., 1897, A. Holden, C. C, N. Y., 1898, A. Hollingsworth, J. L., Fla., 1895, A. Holloway, J. L., Ark., 1895. A. Holt, H. E., Mass.. 1890, A. Holton, M. Adelaide, Utah, 1896, A. Homans, Amy Morris, Mass., 1891, A. Hooper, Sanford A., Wis., 1889, A. Hoose, James H., Cal., 1879, L, Hoover, W. E., N. D., 1897, A. Hopkins, J. G., Minn., 1894, A, Hopkins, L, Grace, Minn., 1894, A, Hopkins, S. N., Okla., 1898, A, 'Horchem, B. J., Iowa, 1897, A. Hornberger, J. A., 111., 1895, A. Houck, Henry, Pa., 1897, A. Houghan, Mrs. F. R., Colo., 1895, A. Houston, J. R., Ind., 1896, A. Howard, F. E., Conn., 1896, A. Howard, George A., Ohio, 1895, A. Howe, George H., Mo., 1898, A. Howe, S. B., N. Y., 1895, A. Howe, Wilbur W., N. Y., 1895, A. Howell, George, Pa., 1896, A. Howell, Logan D., N. Y., 1894, A. Hoyt, C. O., Mich., 1897, A. Hoyt, Judson E., Wis., 1890, A. Hubbard, Mrs. E. A., 111., 1897, A. Hubbard, F. V., Minn., 1895, A. Hufford, George W., Ind,, 1894, A, INDEX TO LIFE AND ACTIVE MEMBERS 11I9 Hughes, Mrs. Ada M., Can., 1895, A. Hughes, Isaac H., Mo., 1898, A. Hughes, James L., Can., 1890, A. Hughes, John F., N. Y., 1898, A. Hughes, Lemira W,, Ohio, 1896, A. Huling, Ray Greene, Mass., 1891, A. Hull, John, Wash., 1891, L. Hull, Lawrence C, N. J., 1893, A. Hull, Warren C, Mich., 1897, A. Humke, Albert E., Ind., 1893, A. Hunt, Lydia L., Ariz., 1895, A. Hunt, Mary H.,Mass., 1887, D, Hunter, Thomas, N. Y., 1885, L. Hurd, George B., Conn., 1888, A. Hussey, A. W. 111., 1897. A. Hutton, A. J., Wis., 1884, L. Hutton, Charles E., Cal., 1895, A. Hyde, C. W. G., Minn., 1895, A. Hyde. Mary F., N. Y., 1892, A. Indiana State Library, Ind., 1897, A, Ingalls, Will C, N. J., 1894, A. Irwin, John S., Ind., ,1880, L. 'ackman, Wilbur S., 111., 1895, A. ackson, Mrs. E. R., N. Mex., 1895, A. Jackson, Joseph P., Colo., 189S, A. Jackson, William R., Neb., 1896, A. Jacobs, G. Ovedia, 111., 1897, A. Jacobs, Walter Ballou, R. I., 1894, A. James, Henry M., Ore.. 1884, L. James, Sarah S., N. J., 1897, A. Jameson, H. W.. N. Y., 1897, A. Janney, B. T., D. C, 1898, A. Jenkins, Sara D., N. Y., 1895, A. Menkins, William, 111., 1886, A. Jenks. J. W.. N. Y.. 1896, A. Jesse, Richard H., Mo., 1892, A. [ewett, A. v., Kan., 1886, D. John Crerar Library, 111., 1897, A. 'ohnson, Ernest Henry, Mass., 1893,, A. ohnson, H. M., D. C, 1898, A. Johnson, J. A., 111., 1897, A. Johnson, S. Arthur, Colo., 1894, A. Johnson, W. H., Mont., 1895, A. Johnstone, E. R., N. J., 1896, A. Jones, Arthur O., Ohio, 1891, A. Jones, Daniel W., Mass., 1870, L. Jones, E. A., Ohio, 1884, A. Jones, E. C. Loyd, Wis., 1897, A. Tones, Edward N.,N. Y., 1884, A. Jones, Emma F., 111., 1897, A. Tones, Frank L., Ind., 1895, A. Jones, Herbert J., Vt., 1896, A. Jones, Jane Lloyd, Wis., 1897, A. Jones, J. W., Ohio, 1896, A. Jones, L. H., Ohio, 1889, A, Jones, Lizzie P., Mont., 1897, A. Jones, Mattie, S. D., 1894, A. Jones, Myra, Mich., 1892, A. Jones, Richard, N. Y., 1894, A. Jones, Wharton S., Tenn., 1887, A. Jones, W. W., Wis., 1897, A. Jordan, Charles M., Minn., 1893, A. Joyner, J. Y., N. C, 1898, A. Judd, L. C, N. Y.,1896, A. Kalbach, l^wis A.. D. C, 1898, A. Kamman, C. H., 111., 1897, A. Kane, T.F.,N. Y.,1889, A. Kayser, Carl F., N. J., 1894, A. Keane, John J., D. C., 1889, L. Keating, J. F., Colo., 1895, A. Keating, Mary K., Ky., 1894, A. Kedzie, Mrs. Nellie S.. 111., 1895, A. Keel, J. H., Ark., 1898, A. Keeler, Harriet L., Ohio, 1894, A. Kellogg, Amos M., N. Y., 1890, A. Kellogg. Mrs. Eva D., Wis., 1884, A. Kelly, Kate, La., 1896, A. Kelly, Lizzie, La., i89is, A. Kenasion, G. F., Ind., 1895, A. Kendall. C. N., Conn., 1895, A. Kendall, F. A.. III., 1895, A. Kendall, F. M., 111.. 189^, A. Kenerson, Austin H., Mass.. 1895, A. Kennedy, James W., N. J., 1894, A, Kennedy, Joseph. N. D. , 1896, A. Kennedy, P. P., Minn., 1897, A. Kenyon, Alpheus B., N. Y., 1896, A. Keppler, Mrs. W. S., Fla., 1894, A. Kerr, William J., Utah, 1895, A. Keyes, Charles H., Mass., 1895, A. Keyes, Mary A., Minn., 1897, A. Keyset, Roland S., N. Y., 1896, A. Kiehle, D. L., Minn., 1880, A. Kilbon, George B., Mass., 1893, A. Kilbourne, Effie J.. 111., 1895, A. Kimmel. M. A., Ohio, 1893, A. Kincannon, A. A., Miss., 1896, A. King, Anna H., Ohio, 1895, A. King, F. A.. Ohio. 1896. A. King, Rachel, Conn., 1893, A. King. William F., Iowa, 1884. A. Kinsley, M. H.. N, J., 1892, A. Kirk, John R., Mo., 1891, A. Kirk, Thomas J., Cal., 1895, A. Kirkley, Sarah A., 111., 1897, A. Kirkpatrick, E. A., Mass.^ 1897, A. Kleebereer, George R., Minn., 1895, A. Klock, J. E., Mont., 1886, L. Knapp, Warren E., Colo., 1890, A. Kneil, Thomas R., N. Y., 1895, A. Knepper, George E., Idaho, 1898, A. Knight, J. A., Ala., 1898, A. Knispel. Henriette M., III.. 1897, A. Kolbe, Isabella A., Ohio, 1897, A. Kolbe, Julia C, Ohio, 1895, A. Krall, G. W., Mo., 1898, A. Kratz, H. E., Iowa, 1890, A. KrausBoelte, Mrs. Maria, N. Y., 1896, A. Krecsy, Bela, Hungary, 1893, A. Kroh, Karl J., 111., 1897, A. Krohn, William O., III., 1893, A. Kruse, Edwina B., Del., 1891, A. Kuykendall, A. C, Ky., 1898, A. Lagomarsino, Cynthia, N. Y., 1894, A. Laidley, George S., W. Va., 1897, A. Laird, Mrs. Ada E., Ohio, 1890, A. Laird, S. B.. Mich., 1896, A. Lamb, Eli M., Md., 1894, A. Lamb, Rachel E., Md., 1894, A. Lambert, Vashti A., 111., 1895, A. Lamberton, Maiy J., Pa., 1892, A. Lancaster, G., Minn., 1898, A. Landrum, L. M., Ga., 1897, A. Lane, Albert G., 111., 1884, D. Lane, Mrs. F. S., 111., 1894, A. Lang, Ossian H., N. Y., 1891, A. Langley, William T., Wis., 1897, A, Langley, Mrs. William T., Wis., 1897, A. Lansinger, J. W., Pa., 1898, A. Lapey, Louise M., N. Y., 1895, A. Larimer, Henry G., Kan., 1886, L. Lark, F. E., Iowa, 1807, A. LarkiM, Charles D.,N. Y., 1895, A. La Taste, Lucien V., Ala., 1894, A. Lathrop, Mrs. C. N., Ohio, 1893, A. Lavers, E. C, Pa., 1892, A. 0 Lawrence, Isabel, Minn., 1894, A. Laws, Annie, Ohio, 1895, A. Lawson, Florence, Cal., 1897, A. Lawton, Charles E., N. Y., 1896, A. Laylander, O. J., Iowa, 1895, A, . Layton, S. Herrick, Ohio, 1895, A Lazenby, William R., Ohio, 1895, A. Leach, Cephas H., 111., 1897, A. Leavell, Richard M., Miss., 1896, A. Le Conte, Joseph, Cal., 1895, A. Lee, James, N. Y., 1892, A. Le Garde, Ellen, R. I., 1896, A. Leipziger, Henry M., N. Y., 1891, A. Leiter, Mrs. Frances W., Ohio, 1896, A. LeIand Stanford Univ., Cal., 1897, A. Lemon, Nora H., Neb., 1897, A. Leonard, Albert, N. Y., 1891, A. I>eslie, Miss H. S., N. J., 1894, A. Leviston, Irwen, Neb., 1895, A. I^wellen, John O., Ind.. 1896, A. Lewis, Leslie, III.. 1895, A. Library, Univ. of Mich., 1898, A, Library, Univ. of Wyo., 1897, A. Light, C. M.. N. Mex., 1895, A. Lightbody, William, Mich., 1896, A. Limerick, A. N., Kan., 1886, L. Lincoln Univ., Ill„ 1897, A. Ling, Charles J., Colo., 1895, A. Lipscomb, Dabney, Miss., 1892, A. Little, Clara L., Colo., 1895, A. NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION Liringston, J.W,, Wis., 1897, A. Locke, John S., Me., 1895, A. Logan, Anna E., Ohio, 1896, A. Long, J. L., Tex., 1896, A. Longan, G. B., Mo., 1897, A. Longstreth, Emma J., Pa., 1894, A. Look, Frances H., Mass., 1896, A. Ix)OS, Charles L., Ohio, 1895, A. Lord, L. C, Minn., 1894, A. Lott, H. C, Mich., 1897, A. Lounsbery, Louise A., N. Y., 1896, A. Love, Nannie C, Ind., 1896, A. Lovell, Thomas B., N. Y., 1896, A. Low, Seth, N. Y., 1895, A. Lowe, J. S., Ohio, 1895, A. Lowther, L. A., Kan., 1897, A. Luckey, Edwin D., Mo., 1894, A. Luckey, G. W. A., Neb., 1895, A. Luebke, Emma J.. Wis., 1897, A. Lugg, Mary L., Wis., 1897, A. Lukens, Herman T., Pa., 1892, A. ♦Lyman, F. A., N. Y., 1897, A. Lynch, Charles P., Ohio, 1894, A. Lynch, Mary E., Minn., 1897, A. Lynch, M. M., Va., 1898, A. Lynch, William H., Mo., 1895, A. Lyon, Howard, N. Y., 1896, A. Lyon, Mary A., N. J., 1897, A. fcyon, P. W., N. J., 1898, A. Lyon, W. F., Mich., 1897, A. Lyser, Albert, Cal., 1898, A. Lyte, E. Oram, Pa., 1891, L. MacAlister, James, Pa., 1895, A. Macdona, Kate P., N. Y., 1895, A. MacDonald, A. H., Cal., 1898, A. MacDonald, John, Kan., 1886, L. MacUonald, Margaret, III., 1896, A. MacGowan, W. L., Pa., 1896, A. Mack, William S., 111., 1895, A. Mackenzie, David, Mich., 1896, A. Mackey, E., Pa., 1891, A. Mackey, William A., N. Y., 1894, A. MacLean, George E., Neb., 1897, A. Magee, Harriet C, Wis., 1897, A. Magovern, Mary A., N. Y.. 1896, A. Maguire, Mrs. S. C, Mo., 1897, A. Maharry, S. H., Ohio, 1895, A. Maitland, Mrs. Louise, Cal., 1898, A. Mandeville. James M., Mich., 1896, A. Mankell, Nathalie M.,N. Y., 1896, A. *Manley, R. M., Cal., 1870, L. Mann, Emma, Ark., 1898, A. Manness, S. E., N. J.. 1892, A. Marble, A. P., N. Y., 1880, D. Mardis, S. K., Ohio, 1895, A. Mark, E. H., Ky., 1893, A. Marlatt, Abby L., R. I., 1894, A. Marquis. J, S., S. C, 1898, A. Marsh, C. O., Wis., 1897, A. Marthall, Carl C, Mich., 1895, A. Marshall, T. Marcellus, W. Va., 1877, D. Martin, Artemas, D. C, 1898, A. Martin, George H., Mass., 1893, A. Martindale, W. C, Mich., 1898, A. Martineau, J. E., Ark., 1898, A. Marvin, Arthur, N. Y., 1898, A. Mason, J. H., Wis., 1898, A. Mason, William A., Pa., 1898, A. Massee, J. Edman, N. Y., 1896, A. Massey, John, Ala., 1894, A. Mather, I. F., 111., 1897, A. Mathews, Byron C, N. J., 1892, A. Maurer, G. C, Ohio, 1895, A. Maxson, Henry M., N. J., 1892, A. Maxwell, William H., N. Y., 1892, A. Maycock, Mark M., N. Y., 1896, A. Mayne, D. D., Wis., 1894, A. McBride, J. K., Tex., 1898, A. McBroom, George O., Ky., 1892, A, McCabe. C. B., Pa., 1896, A. McCahan, John E., Md., 1891, A. McCallie, J. H., Tenn., 1897, A. McCartney. Livingston, Ky., 1895, A. McCaslin, E. E., D, C. 1898, A. McClintock,0. P. M., Kan., 1894, A. McClung, J. S., Colo., 1895, A. McClure, S. R., Pa., 1896, A. McClurken, Mrs. E. G., Ga., 1896, A. McConathey, W. J., Ky., 1896, A. McConnell. J. J., Iowa, 1895, A. McCord, W. A., Iowa, 1895, A. McCowen, Mary, 111., 1897, A. McCracken, Miss M.J., Pa., 1894, A. McCulloch, Mary C, Mo., 1892, A. McCullough, J. F., 111., 1896, A. McDaniel, C. M., Ind., 1896, A. McElroy, E. B., Ore., 1895, A. McEIroy, M. R., Ohio, 1895, A. McFadon, O. E., Iowa., 1896, A. McFarland, George A., N. D., 1895, A. McGhee, John S., Mo., 1897, A. McGinniss. James, Ky., 1893, A. McGlynn, J. J., 111., 1895, A. Mclntire, W. W,, Ohio, 1895, A. Mclver, Charles D., N. C, 1896, A. McKay, F. M., 111., 1897, A. McKee, J. Milford, N. Y., 1893, A. McKenny, Charles, Mich., 1897, A. McKillop, Anna, III., 1897, A. McLaughlin, A. L., 111., 1895, A. McMillan, J. v., Ohio, 1896, A. ♦McMillan, Reuben, Ohio, 1879, L. McMillan. Mrs. Reuben, Ohio, 1880, L. McMurry, Charles A., 111., 1890, A. McMurry, F. M., N. Y., 1895, A. McMurry, Mrs. Lida B., 111., 1896, A, McNaughton, James, Ariz., 1895, A. McNeal, Florence, Mo., 1892, A. McNeill, I. C, Wis., 1892, A. McNeill, Mrs. I. C, Wis., 1892, A. McNeils, N. P., Pa., 1897, A. McNevin, C. F., Iowa, 1896, A. McVicar, Peter, Kan., 1886, L. Meacham, Adda V„ 111., 1896, A. Mehan, J. M., Iowa, 1892, A. Meland, E. C, Wis., 1897, A. Meleney, Clarence E., N. Y., 1896, A. Melhinch, Miss L. A., N. Y., 1897, A. Merica, C. O., Wis., 1897, A. Merica, F. M., Ind., 1897, A. Merrick, H. V., Ohio, 1898, A. Merrifield, Webster, N. D., 1895, A. Merrill, Charles E., N. Y., 1894, A. Merrill, Edward C, N. J., 1896, A. Merrill, Harriet B., Wis., 1896, A. Merrill, J. A., Mo.^ 1897, A Merrill, Jennj Merrill, J. T., Iowa, 1893, A. 0., 1097, Pi , N. Y., I 893, A. MertZj Henry N., Ohio, 1895, A. Merwin, J. B., Mo., 1871, L. Merz, Henry, Wyo., 1895, A. Meserve, Alonzo, Mass., 1895, A. Metcalf, Robert C., Mass., 1892, A. Mezger, Robert, N. J., 1895, A. Miami University, Ohio, 1895, A. Michener, J. H., Pa., 1898, A. Mickle, Robert A., Ala., 1895, A. Miller, Miss A. N., Colo., 1895, A. Miller, C. C, Ohio, 1892, A. Miller, George I., Iowa, 1896, A. Miller, G. R., N. Y., 1896, A. Miller, J. H., Neb., 1886, L. Miller, Kelly, D. C, 1898, A. Miller, Lewis, Ohio, 1880, L. Miller, Lola M., Colo., 1898, A. Miller, Lucia M., Minn., 1894, A. Miller, O. L., III., 1896, A. Miller, R, E., Tex., 1898, A. Milligan, Sarah J., Mo., 1897, A. Millis, William A., Ind., 1896, A. Mills, Lcida H., Kan., 1895, A. Mills, T. B., Wis., 1897, A. Millspaugh, J. F., Utah, 1895, A. Milne, James M., N. Y., 1890, A. Milne, John M., N. Y., 1891, A. Milne, William J., N. Y., 1892, A. Miner, J. Perry, Neb., 1896, A. Mitchell, Mary E., Ark., 1898, A. Mitchell, M. S., Kan., 1895, A. Mitchell, W. R., 111., [897, A, Moldstad, John A., Tex., 1897, A. Monlux, J. B., Cal., 189s, A. Monroe, E. S. Ind., 1897, A. Monroe, Will. S., Mass., 1893, A. Monsarrat, Mrs. Laura L., Ky., 1877, L. Monteser, Frederick, N. Y., 1894, A. INDEX TO LIFE AND ACTIVE MEMBERS I 121 Montfort, R. V. K., N. Y., 189a, A. Montgomery, Dora, III., 1897, A. Montgomery, H. C, Ind., 1897, A. Montgomery, W. S., D. C, 1898, A. Montrose, Otis, N. Y., 1896, A. Moon,A. W.,N. J., 1889, A. Moon, Kate E., Ala., 1895, A. Moon, Schiiyler B., Md., 1898, A. Moore, A. C., III., 1897, A. Moore, B. F., Ind., 1896, A. Moore, Dora M., Colo., 1895, A. Moores, Carrie E., Ohio, 1895, A. Morgan, R. T., 111., 1897, A. Morgan, W. H., Ohio, 1895, A. Morris, Harriet N., III., 1882, L. Morris, John, Ky.. 1896, A, Morris, R. Anna, Ohio, 1891, A. Morrison, Andrew J., Pa., 1881, A. Morrison, Rose, Ohio, 1897, A. Morse, Frank L., III., 1897, A. Morss, Charles H., Mass., 1895, A. Molt, T. A., Ind., 1896, A. Mowry, William A., Mass., 1886, L. Mulford, A. Isabel, Mo., 1896, A. Mumford, Mrs, M. E., Pa., 1895, A. Munro, Alexander A,, N, Y,, 1891, A, Munroe, James Phinney, Mass., 1895, A, Murdaugh, E, D„ Okla., 1898, A. Murdock, F, F„ Mass,, 1898, A. Murlin, L. H„ Ran,, 1895, A. Murphy, Eugene, Pa., 1898, A. Murphy, George T,, Mo,, 1891, A. Murphy, Maggie, Ark., 1898, A, Murray, William S., Pa., 1898, A, Murrey. T. P., Ark., 1898, A. Myers. Will A„ Ind.. 1897, A. Nagel, J. I., Iowa, 1895, A. Nageler, J, G., Wis,, 1897, A, Needham, O., Wis,, 1897, A, Neet, Mrs. Mary V,. Mo., 1894, A. Nelson, E. B., N. Y., 1898. A. Nelson, Kate S.. Wis., 1896, A, Newell, A, C, Iowa, 1896, A, Newell, Miss C, S„ Kan.. 1895, A, Newson, H. D.. N, Y„ 1895, A, Nichols, Fred R,, III,, 1893, A. Nicholson, Mary E,, Ind,, 1885. A. Nielsen, Carl H,, Cal,, 1898, A, Nightingale, A, F., 111., 1886, A. Noel, Alex H., Mo., 1897, A, Nolen, A. Eugene, Mass,, 1891, A, N. Dak, Ed, Assoc,, N. D,, 1896. A, N, Ind. Nor. Sch. Library, Ind., 1897, A, Norton, A. W., Neb,, 1893, A, Norton, R, C, Mo,, 1895, A. Norville, Josephine, Mo., 1895, A, Noss, Theodore B,, Pa,, 1896, A, Noyes, Milton, N, Y,, 1898, A. Nunn, Janet H,, Minn,, 1896, A. Nussbaum, Sophie F. E„ D. C, 1898, A. Nye, Charles H., Wis., 1884, L. Nykirk, John B., Mich., 1892, A, O'Brien, Mrs. Agnes, N. Y,, 1894, A, O'Callaghan, W, F,, N, Y,, 1894, A. O'Connor, D. C, Neb., 1894, A. Ogg, R. A., Ind., 1897, A. O'Hanlan, R. J., Wis., 1897, A, O'Keefe, Mrs, S, J,, 111., 1896, A. Olds, Mary L., Minn., 1894, A. Oldt, K. T., Iowa, 1896, A. O'Leary, Kate S., 111., 1895, A. Olin, Arvin S., Kan., 1890, A. Oliver, Fanny E., 111., 1897, A. Olmstead, Emma G., Conn., 1896, A. O'Neill, A. A., D, C, 1898, A. Ormsby, F. B., III., 1896, A, Orr, J. D., Kan., 1891, A. Osborne, A. E., Cal., 1898, A. ♦Osborne, George L., Mo., 1889, A, Osenbaugh, C. M,, Colo., 1895, A. Osgood, Anna M., Ohio, 1890, A, O'Shea, M. V., Wis., 1892, A. Ostrander, Frank, Wis., 1897, A. Owen, E. H., Ill,, 1897, A. Owen, Ermine, Mo., 1897, A, Owen, H. A,, III., 1897, A. Owen, Lincoln. Mass., 1896, A Owen, W. B., III., 1896, A. Packard, S. S., N. Y., 1892, A. Packer, Ella L., Iowa, 1895, A. Page, R. S.. 111., 1896, A. Palmer, A. N., Iowa, 1896, A. Palmer, Charles S., Colo., 1895, A. Palmer, E. D., Mich., 1894, A. Palmer, Francis B., N. Y., 1890, A, Parker. Alice N., D. C, 1898, A, Parker, Charles I., Ill,, 1887, D, Parker, Charles V., Colo., 1887, A, Parker, C. M., 111., 1895, A. Parker, Francis W,, III,, 1880, A, Parker, Henry M,, Ohio, 1895, A, Parker, J. W., Ark., 1897, A, Parker, W. D., Wis., 1884, L, Parker, W, S., Mass., 1896, A, Parkinson, D. B., 111., 1897, A. Parkinson, John B., Wis., 1884, L. Parmenter, Charles W., Mass., 1895, A, Parr, S. S., Minn,, 1895, A, Parrish, Celestia S., Va., 1897, A. Parrish, Ophelia A., Mo., 1896, A. Parsons, H. S., Tex., 1895, A, Passmore, John A. M,, Pa., 1892, A, Patten, Frank C, Mont., 1897, A, Pattengill, Henry R., Mich., 1892, A. Patterson, B. F,, Pa,, 1895, A, Patton, Cassia, Alaska, 1895, A. Patton, Charles L,, N, Y., 1886, A, Paxson, Everett E,, Mont., 1889, A. Payne, Bertha, 111., r896, A. Payne, W. C., III., 1896, A. Payne, William H.,Tenn., 189a, A, Payne, William R., Tenn., 1898, A, Peacher, A. L,, Ark,, 1896, A, Peairs, H. B., Kan., 1897, A, Peak, Charles N,, Ind., 1896, A. Pearse, C. G,, Neb., 1891, A. Pease, Alvin F.. Mass., 1891, A, Pease, N, W,, N, J 1894, A, Peaslee, John B.. Ohio, 1880, L. Peck, A, L,, N, Y,, 1897, A, Pendergast, W, W,, Mmn., 1894, A. Pennell, Calvin S,, Minn,, 1864, L, Perkins Institution, Mass., 1897, A, Perrine, Lura L., N. D., 1895, A, Perry, Elizabeth H., Mass., 1891, A, Perry, George P,. Wis,, 1894, A. Perry, William H., Ky., 1898, A. Pershing, Thed., Pa., 1895, A. Peterson, J, P,, Wis,, 1897, A, Pfeiffer, J, W., Ohio. 1895, A. Phelan, W, W„ D. C., 1898, A. Phelps, William F., Minn,, 1870, D, Philbrook, C, F„ 111,, 1895, A. Philips, George M,, Pa., 1879, A, Phillips, Hattie A,, Iowa, 1886, A. Phillips, J. H., Ala., 1888, A, Pickard, Josiah L., Iowa, 1886, D. Pierce, Edward T., Cal., 1887, A, Pierce, Mrs. Ella M., R. I., 1896, A. Pierce, Lovich, D. C, 1898, A. Pierce, Mary R., 111., 1897, A. Pike, Joshua, III,, 1891, D, Piper, Jonathan, Wis,, 1895, A, Place, Mrs, C, L., Cal,, 1896, A, Plapp, F. W., 111., 1897, A, Plimpton, George A,, N.Y., 1894, A. Plumer, George M,, Ohio, 1896, A, Poland, A, B., N. L, 1892, A. Pollock, Jessie, Ark.. 1898, A. Pollock, Rosalie, N. D, 1897, A. Pollock, Susan P„ D. C, 1892, A. Posse, Baroness Rose, Mass., 1895, A. Powell, W. B., D. C, 1892, A. Powell, W. F., D. C„ 1889, A, Power, Gussie, N, Y„ 1887, A. Powers, James K,, Ala., 1895, A. Pratt, R. H.. Pa., 1898, A. Pray, Mabel L., Ohio, 1897, A, Pray, T, B,, Wis., 1894, A, Pteece, Mrs. Louise, Minn., 1894, A, Prentiss, H. W,, Mo,, 1897, A, Pressler, V. S., N, Y,, 1898, A. Preston, J, R,, Miss,, 1890, A. Prettyman, E, B,, Md,, 1892, A. Prichaid, E, H,, Ohio, 1895, A, PrilJeittan,Byrd,W. Va., 1891, A. I 122 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION Prince, John T., Mass., 1891. A. Pringle, William J., 111., 1896, A. Pritchard, M. T., Mass., 1896, A. Pritchett, H. C, Tex., 1892, A. Pvudfoot, Mrs. A. K.,I11., 1897, A. Pub. Librar>' of Detroit, Mich., 1897, A. Public-School Teachers, Janesville, Wis., 1884, L. Purer, Mary I., 111., 189(3, A. Putnam, Mrs. Alice H., 111., 1893, A. Raab, Henry, 111., 1884, L. Race, S. J., Minn., 1895, A. Ralston, James M., N. J., 1892, A. Ramsay, Charles C, Mass., 1893, A. Ramsey, George T., La., 1889, A. Randall, J. E., Ohio, 1898, A. Rankin, A. W., Minn., 1893, A. Rapp, Eli M., Pa., 1898, A. Raschig, H. H., Ohio, 1893, A. •Rassweiler, J. K., III., 1897, A. Raub, A. N., Del., 1892, A. Rayman, R. E., Ohio, 1895, A. Raymond, Andrew V. V., N. Y., 1895, A. Read, J. I., Neb., 1898, A. Redfield, Jennie L., Neb., 1895, A. Reed, A. A., Neb., 1895, A. Reel, Estelle, Wyo., 1B94, A. Reeves, C. E., Wash., 1896, A. Reid, James, Mont., 1895, A. Reiley, Cynthia E., Mont., 1895, A. Reinhart, J. Albert, N. J., 1894, A. RemingtOH, Lew. D., Mich., 1896, A. Rennick, Louise D., III., 1897, A. Rennie, Robert H., 111., 1897, A. Ressler, Edwin D., Ore., 1892, A. Reveley. Ellen G., Ohio, 1891, A. Reynolds, Charles B., Mo., 1895, A. Reynolds, J. H., Ark., 1897, A. Rhoads, McHenry, Ky., 1891, A. Rice, Emily A., N. J., 1892, A. Rice, Gratia L., N. V., T889, A. Rice, J. M., N. Y., 1895, A. Richards, C. N., N. Y., 1898, A. Richards, E. E., Ohio, 1894, A. Richards, Mrs. E. H., Mass., 1898, A. Richards, Zalmon, D. C. 1857, D. Richeson, J., 111., 1897, A. Richmond, Sarah E., Md., 1876, L. Rickoff, Andrew J., Cal., 1881, D. Riddle, W., Pa., 1896, A. Rider, Andrew J., N. J., 1897, A. Ridge, J. C, Ohio, 1897, A. Ridgeway, William C, Mo., 1898, A. Rightsell, J. R., Ark., 1898, A. Rigler. Frank, Ore., 1898, A. Riley Co. Ed. Assoc, Kan., 1886, L. Riley, Mrs. Matilda E., Mo., 1890, A. Riste, W. G., Kan., 1897, A. Rivers, W. W., Ark., 1895, A. Robbins, C. W., Mo., 1892, A. Robbins, George A., III., 1897, A. Robert, James A., Ohio, 1882, L. Roberts, Flora, Ind., 1896, A. Roberts, Hester A., N. Y., 1894, A. Roberts, H. L., 111., 1897, A. Roberts, L. D., Wis., 1897, A. Robertson, J. L., 111., 1897, A. Robertson, Powhatan W., D. C, 1896, A. . Robinson, Albert R., 111., 1895, A. Robinson, Lucy, W. Va.. 1896, A. Robinson, Oscar D., N. Y., 1892, A. Robinson, W. S., Ohio, 1895, A. Rocheleau, W. F., 111., 1896, A. Rocholl, L. J., Minn., 1897, A. Rogers, Dora B., N. C, 1896, A. Rogers, J. N., Ga., 1897, A. Rogers, Josephine E., N. Y., 1893, A. Rogers, Lillian E., Mass., 1897, A. Rogers, Rovillus R., N. Y., 1895, A. *Rood, Wilbur v., Ohio, 1896, A. Roof, F. M., Ala., 1892, A. Roop, C. Y., Cal., 1886, L. Root, J. A., Ill,, 1897, A. Rose, George E., Kan., 1886, L. Rose, S. L., Ohio, 1896, A. Roth, Anna C, Ky., 1897, A. Rounds, Charles C., N. Y., 1876, L. Rourke, Mary, Iowa, 1895, A. Rowe, Alex M., Minn., 1894, A. Rowe, H. M., Md., 1896, A. Rowe, Mary E., Ind., 1895, A. Rowe, Stuart H., Conn., 1898, A. Rowe, W. S.,Ind., 1895, A. Rowland, J. H., Ohio, 1896, A. Royal, M. G., Wash., 1896, A, Rudolf, Ida, Ky„ 1896, A. Russell, James E., N. Y., 1895, A. Russell, J. A., Mass., 1894, A. Ryan, George G., N. J., 1894, A. Ryon, C. M., N. Y., 1896, A. Sabin, Albert R., 111., 1884, A. Sabin, Ellen C, Wis., 1895, A. Sabin, Henry, Iowa, 1889, A. Sage, A. H., Wis., 1898, A. Sage, W. v., Mich., 1896, A. Sale, A. R., Iowa, 1897, A. Salisbury, Albert, Wis., 1887. A. Samuel, William H., Pa., 1893, A. Sanders, D. E., Mont., 1895, A. Sanders, F. W., W. Va., 1897, A. Sandison, Howard, Ind., 1896, A. Sanford, F., Cal., 1897, A. Sanford, Henry R., N. Y., 1895, A. Sanor, S. D., Ohio, 1893, A. Sargent, Dudley A., Mass., 1896, A. Sargent, Elisa A., N. Y., 1896, A. Saunders, Sara A., N. Y., 1896, A. Savage, Reed, HI., 1889, A. Sawhill, Thomas A., Kan., 1886, L. Sawvel, Franklin B., Pa., 1894, A. Sawyer, C. L., Minn., 1897, A. Saylor, J. F., Neb., 1B96, A. Scarlett, Augustus, N. J., 1891, A. Schaeffer, Nathan C, Pa., 1887, A. Schauffler, Alfred T., N. Y., 1895, A. Schermerhorn, Jane A., N. V., 1895, A. Schiller, J. D., Mich.,>i896, A. Schmucker, S. C, Pa., 1892, A. Schneider, Henry G.^ N. Y., 1895, A. Schofield, Bertha, Minn., 1897, A. Schofield, Martha, S. C, 1891, L. Scholfield, Bessie M., R. I., 1896, A. Schreiber, Mae E., Wis.. 1896, A. Schryver, Anna A., Mich., 1896, A. Schurman, J. G., N. Y., 1896, A. Schuyler, Aaron, Kan., 1886, L. Schuyler, E. H., N. J., 1894. A. Scobey, Frank H., N. J., 1894, A. Scott, Charles B., N. Y., 1890, A. Scott, E. H., 111., 189s, A. Scott, F. N., Mich., 1897, A. Scott, Harriet M., Mich., 1896, A. Scott, Izora, Colo., 1897, A. Scott, James W., Ohio, 1893, A. Scott, O. C, 111., 1895, A. Scott, W. H., Ohio, 1893, A. Scovel, Sylvester, Ohio, 1897, A. Scudder, Myron Tracy, Conn., 1895, A. Scull, James F., Ind., 1895, A. *Searing, Edward, Minn., 1895, A. Searle, Miss S. M., N. J., 1893, A. Seaver, Edwin P., Mass., 1893, A. Seeley, Charles D., N. Y., 1896, A. Seeley, Levi, N. J., 1890, A. Seerley, H. H., Ixjwa, 1884, A. Sellars, D. Francis, 111., 1896, A. Selleck, W. F. F., Minn., 1898. A. Sewall, May W., Ind., 1897, A. Sexton, E. K., N. J., 1897, A. Shanahan, Rev. J. W., Pa., 1895, A. Sharkey, J. P., Ohio, 1890, A. Shaw, A. L., Mich., 1897, A. Shaw, Edward R., N. Y., 1893, A. Shaw, Samuel, Wis., 1884, L, Shawan, J. A., Ohio, 1894, L. Shear, S. R., N. Y., 1895, A. Shearer, W. J., N. J., 1895, A. Shearer, W. S., Iowa, 1897, A. Sheats, W. N., Fla., 1893, A. Sheber, Cora, Ark.. 1898, A. Sheldon, William E., Mass., 1857, D. Shelley, W. H., Md., 1895, A. Shepard, George C, Mich, 1897, A. Shepard, Irwin, Minn., 1883, A. Sherwood, Jennie M., Ark., 1898, A. Shinn, Josiah H., Ark., 1890, A. Shippen, Edward, Pa., 1879, L. INDEX TO LIFE AND ACTIVE MEMBERS 1123 Shirk, David F., Kan., 1895, A. Shives, Julia, Ark., 18^8, A. Shoemaker, W. A., Minn., 1895, A. Shorney, George H., 111., 1897, A. Shrieves, Emma, Wis., 1896, A. Shutts, George C, Wis., 1896, A. Sibley, Charles A., Mass., 1895, A. •Sickel,!. F. C, Pa., 1894, A. Siefert, H. O. R., Wis., 1895, A. Sigler, P. N., Ohio, 1898, A. Silcox, Julia C, Ohio, 1897, A. Silke, Lucy S., 111., 1893, A. Silver, Edgar O., Mass., 1894, A. Simenvell, E. A., Kan., 1895, A, Simonds, H. A., Wis., 1895, A. Sims, J. F., Wis., 1897, A. Sinclair, S. B., Can., 1891, A. Singer, Edgar A., Pa., 1880, L. Sisson, E. O., 111., 1897, A, Skidmore, Sydney T., Pa., 1895, A. Skinner, Charles R., N. Y., 1890, D. Skinner, William C, Ohio, 1895, A. •Skinner, W. H., Neb., 189s, A. Slack, H. W., Minn., 1897, A. Slade, James P., 111., 1895, A. Slaton, W. F., Ga., 1897, A. Slaton, W. M., Ga., 1894, A. Slauson,H. M., Mich., 1894, A. Sloane, Clyde, 111., 1898, A. Smallwood, Mabel E., 111., 1896, A. Smart, James H., Ind., 1877, D. Smedley, Eva A., 111., 1897, A. Smiley, William H., Colo., 1892, A. Smith, A. T., Minn., 1898, A. Smith, Arthur P., Mass., 1890, A. Smith, A, Thomas, Pa., 1893, A, Smith, Anna T., D. C, 1895, A. Smith, Carrie J., Wis., 1805, A. Smith, Mrs. Clinton, D. C., 1898, A. Smith, Edwin R., Wis., 1897, A. Smith, E. E., 111., 1896, A. Smith, E. R., 111., 1897, A. Smith, Euler B., Ga., 1887. A. Smith, F. P., Kan., 1897, A. Smith, George M., S. D., 1895, A. Smith, Harriet E., Wis., 1897, A. Smith, H.j.,N.y., 189s, A. Smith, J. F., Iowa, 1897, A. Smith, J. F., Ohio. 1898, A. Smith, J. Mace, N. Y., 1895, A. Smith, J. N., Pa., 1896, A. Smith, Sydney F., Colo., 1895, A. Smith, William G., Minn,, 1895, A. Smyth. W.S., 111., 189s, A. Snoboda, Dora, Ky., 1897, A. Snow, Bonnie E., Minn., 1896, A. Snow, Francis H., Kan., 1893, A. Snow, Mary S., Me., 1898, A. Snyder, A. J., 111., 1897, A. Snyder, E. R., Colo., 1895, A. Snyder, Henry, N. J., 1894, A. Snyder. Jessie M., Ga., 1897, A. Snyder. J. H., Ohio, 1896, A. Snyder, J. L., Mich., 1889, A, Snyder, Lydia E., 111., 1895, A. Snyder, W. R., Ind., 1895. A. Snyder, Z. X., Colo., 1887, A. Snyder, Mrs. Z. X., Colo., 1896, A. Sofdan, F. Louis, Mo., 1877, D. Sollitt, Alice E., 111., 1893, A. Somers, E. J., D. C, 1898, A. Soule, George, La., 1892, A. Spangler, H. T., Pa., 1894, A. Spaulding, F. E., N. J., 1896, A. Spaulding, Randall, N. J., 1892, A. Spayd, H. H., Pa., 1892, A. Speer, W. W., 111. 18^, A. Spencer, Pauline W., Pa., 1893, A. Spencer, Robert C, Wis., 1884, L. Spencer, Mrs. Sara A., D. C, 1893, A. Spcro, Anna K., Cal., 1877, L, Springer, Durand W., Mich., 1894, A. Squire, Mary V., N. Y., 1896, A. Stableton, J. K., Mass., 1892, A. Stanford, Alma B., Minn., 1897, A. Stanley, Edmund, Kan., 1886, L. Staples, Helen F.. Minn., 1896, A. Stark, Joshua, Wis., 1884, L. Starrett, Mrs. H. E., 111., 1897, A. State A^ri. Coll., Kan., 1897, A. State Historical Society, Wis., 1884, L. State Library> Mass., 1898, A. State Nor. School, Cedar Falls, Iowa, 1897, A. State Nor. School, Chico, Cal., 1897, A, State Nor. 'jchool, Ellensbui|;^, Wash., 1897, A. State Nor. School, Greeley, Colo., 1897, A. State Nor. School, Los Angeles, Cal., 1897, A. State Nor. School, Mansfield, Pa., 1897, A. State Nor. School, Millersville, Pa., 1897, A. State Nor. School, Moorhcad, Minn., 1897, A. State Nor. School, Oshkosh, Wis., 1897, A. State Nor. School, Platteville, Wis., 1884, L. State Nor. School, Providence, R. I., 1897, A. State Nor. School, San Jos^, Cal., 1898, A. State Nor. School, St. Cloud, Minn., 1897, A. State Nor. School, Terre Haute, Ind., 1897, A. State Nor. School, Trenton, N. J., 1897, A. State Nor. School. Westfield, Mass., 1897, A. State Nor. School, Winona, Minn., 1897, A. State Teachers' Association of 111., 1890, D. State Univ. Library, Ohio, 1897, A. Stearns, J. W., Wis., 1884. L. Steele, William L., 111., 1890, A. Steere, E. A., Mont., 1896, A. Stehman, J. H., 111., 1897, A. Stephens, H. Morse, N. Y., 1896, A. Stephenson, Lillie S., III., 1895, A. Stem, Menco, N. Y., 1882, L. Stetson, W. W., Maine, 1895, A. Stevens, Moses C, Ind., 1876, L. Stevens, Plowden, Jr., N. Y., 1895, A. Stevenson, A. L., 111., 1897, A. Stevenson, William C, Kan., 1890, A. Stewart, I. N., Wis., 1884, L. Stewart, John A., Mich., 1884, A. Stewart, Joseph S., Ga., 1895, A. Stewart, N. Coe, Ohio, 1892, A. Stewart, Sarah A., Pa., 1884, L, Stickney, Lucia, Ohio, 1893, A. Stitt, E.W.,N. Y,, 1896, A. Stockleman, Mary E., Ohio, 1896, A. Stockwell, Mrs. Helen H., N. D., 1894, A. Stockwell, Thomas B., R. I., 1891, A. Stockwell, Walter L., N. D., 1894, A. Stokes, Horace A., Ohio, 1895, A. Stone, Mason S., Vt., 1894, A. Stoneroad, Rebecca D., D. C, 1896, A. Storm, A. v., Iowa, 1894, A, Stout, George H., Pa., 1884, A. Stout, Isaac H., N. Y., 1890, A. Stout, J. D., Iowa, 1898, A. Stowell, Thomas B., N. Y., 1891, A. Strachan, Alexander, S. D., 1897, A, Stratford, W. R. J., Ind., 1895, A. Stratton,C. C, Ore., 1888, D. Stratton, Frederick E., Minn., 1886, A. Strong, Edwin A., Mich., 1892, A. Strong, James W., Minn., 1895, A. Stubbs, J. E., Nev., 1895, A, Study, }. N., Ind., 1897, A. Stuver, E. Wyo., 1895, A. Sudborough, Mrs. Grace B., Neb., 1880, L. Sullivan, Christine, Ohio, 1886, A. Summers, Alexander, D. C, 1898, A. Super, Charles W., Ohio, 1891, A. Suplee, Etta, Iowa, 1895, A. Suplee, Fannie, Iowa, 1895, A. Supts. and Princ. Assoc, Wis., 1884, L, Suter, Anna, Ind., 1890, A. Suter, Miss H. A., La., 1894, A. Sutherland, Margaret W., Ohio, 1895, A. Sutton, W. S., Tex., 1895, A. Swain, Joseph, Ind., 1893, A. Swan, Lizzie P., Wis., 1897, A. Swart, Rose C, Wis., 1895, A. Swiler, J. W., Wis., 1897, A. Syphax, Carrie E., D. C., 1895, A. Tadd, J. Liberty. Pa., 1892, A. Talbot, Henry, N. Y., 1892, A. Tanner, T. M., Utah, 1897, A. Tapley, William W., Mass., 1892, A. Tarbell, Horace S., R. I., 1891, A. Taubman, Kate, S. D., 1894, A. Tawney. Guy A., Wis., 1898. A. Taylor, A. R., Kan., 1886, D. Taylor, Cordic, Mo., 1895, A. 1 1 24 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION Taylor, Edward, Ky., 1896, A. Taylor, Henry J.. Iowa, 1884, L. Taylor, J. F., Neb., 1896, A. Taylor, Joseph S., N. Y., 1894, A. Teachers' Asso. of Cowley Co., Kan., 1886, L. Teachers' Asso. of Rilev Co., Kan., 1886, L. Teachers' Association, Wis., 1884, L. Teachers' Institute. Philadelphia, Pa., 1879, D. Teague, Leamy, Ark., 1898, A. Templeton, J. C, Cal.. 1894, A. Terrel, Harriet E., Ohio, 1896, A. Terrell, Mary C, D. C, 1898, A. Terry, Miss J. L., Wis., 1897, A. Thames, W. I., Miss, 1897, A. Tharpe, F. D.. Mo., 1891, A. Thatcher, J. L., Wis., 1896, A. Thayer, Ada F., N. Y., 1896, A. Theilman, Louis, Mo., 1895, A. Thiry,J. H.,N. Y.,1897, A. Thomas, D. W., Ind., 1896, A. ITiomas, Mrs. Emma A., Mich., 1896, A. Thomas, Miss M. J. B., N. J., 1896, A. Thomas, R. S.,Ohio, 1896, A. Thompson, D. M., N. C, 1898, A. Thompson, E. C. Mich., 1894, A. Thompson, H. E., Okla., 1895, A. Thompson, John G., Mass., 1895, A. Thompson, Langdon S., N. J., 1876, L. Thompson, O. U., Mich., 1896, A. Thompson, T. E., Mass., 1897, A. Thompson, William O., Ohio, 1894, A. Thomson, Frank D., 111., 1895, A. Thudium, C. C, Mo., 1898, A. Thurber, Charles H., 111., 1893, A. Thwing, Charles F., Ohio, 1895, A. Tibbfts, Anna, Neb., 1894, A. Tibbetts, A. C, Minn., 1895, A. Tiffany, A. J.. 111., 1897, A. Tillotson, D. C, Kan., 1886, L. Tinker, B. W., Conn., 1897, A. Titus, Cynthia, Iowa, 1897, A. Todd, Emma J , 111., 1897, A. Todd, Samuel B., Wis., 1895, A. Tolman, Henry L., 111., 1897, A. Tompkins, A.. 111., 1896, A. Tompkins, Lillian M., Minn.,' 1898, A. Tormey, J. A., Minn., 1897, A. Tower, Belle M., Mich., 1897, A. Tracy, Frank N., 111., 1896, A. Trant, Amelia Earle, N. Y., 1896, A, Trask, H. M., Pa., 1895, A. Travell, Ira W., N. J., 1897, A. Tressler, A. W., Wis., 1892, A. Treudley, F., Ohio, 1891, A. Trotter, J. R., W. Va., 1897, A. Tucker, Anna M. P., Ohio, 1896, A. Tulloch, Mrs. M., D. C. 1898, A. Turner, Alfred, Mass., 1895, A. Turner, J. E., 111., 1895, A. Turner, J. M., Wis., 1897, A. Turner, Marie L., Mo., 1895, A. Tuttle, Albert H., Va., 1896, A. Tutwiler, Julia S., Ala., 1882, A. Twichell, Hattie, Mass., 1895, A. Twining, Nathan C, Cal., 1884, L. Twiss, George R., Ohio, 1894, A. Underbill, Volney, 111., 1893, A. University of California, 1895, A. University of Georgia, 1895, A. University of Iowa, 1897, A. University of Michigan, 1898, A. University of Missouri, 1895, A. University of Nebraska, 1898, A. University of Omaha, Neb., 1897, A. University of State of N. Y., 1893, L. University of Utah, 189s, A. Upton, R. R., Ohio, 1898, A. Vail, Henry H., N. Y., 1897, A. Vaile, E. O., 111., 1895, A. Van Aken, Mrs. G., N. Y., 1894, L. Vance, Sophie, Ohio, 1890, A. Van Cleve, C. L., Ohio, 1896, A. Van Cleve, Edward M., Ohio, 1897, A. Vandervort, C. R., 111., 1896, A. Vandyke, J. A., Minn., 1896, A. ' Van Liew, Charles C, Cal., 1894, A. Van Ostrand, B. D., Kan., 1896, A. Van Rensselaer, Martha, N. Y., 1894, A. Van Sickle, James H., Colo., 1892, A. Van Tassel, L N., Ohio, 1898, A. Van Wie, Charles B., Ala., 1895, A. Veatch, Nathan T., 111., 1895, A. Vert, Edmund J., S. D., 1895, A. Virtue. G. O., Minn., 1898, A. Vose,L. D., 111., 1894, A. Vroom, W. F., N. Y., 1898. A. Wabash College, Ind., 1895, A, Wade, Margaret I., N. J., 1894. A. Waite, Emma S„ N. Y., 1896, A. Waldo, Eveline A., La., 1897, A. Walke, Matilda L., Ohio, 1892, A. Walker, E. W., Wis., 1897, A. Walker, Miss E., Minn., 1897, A. Walker, P. R., 111., 1890, A. Walrath, M. H., N. Y., 1896, A. Walsh, J. H., N. Y., 1895, A. Walter, Mary, Ohio, 1898, A. Walter, Sarah J., Conn., 1898, A. Walton, George A., Mass., 1892, A. Ward, Henry B., Neb., 1897, A. Ware, N. E., Ga., 1896, A. Waring. J. H. N., Md., 1898, A. Warner, A. B., Iowa> 1894, A. Warr,J. W., 111., 1895, A. Washburn, Kirk N., Mass., 1896, A. Waterbury, R. A., Wis., 1896, A. Waterhouse, A. H., Neb., 1896, A. Waterman. Richard, 111., 1896, A. Watson, Edith M., Wis., 1897, A. Watt, W. E., 111., 189s, A. Weaver, E. W., Ky., 1897, A. Weaver, W. D., Ind., 1895, A. Weber, A. W., Wis., 1897, A. Weber, H. C, Tenn., 1897, A. Webber, Lottie, Ark., 1898, A. Webster, W. F., Minn., 1896, A. Weeks, C. W., 111., 1895, A. ♦Weeks, Ellen G., Wis., 1897, A. Weld, Frank A„ Minn., 189s, A. Welles, Frank E., N. Y., 1895, A. Welsh, J. P., Pa., 1896, A. Weldon, Edward, Pa., 1898, A. Welton, William, 111., 1897, A. Wentz, Etta L., N. Y., 1896, A. Wernick, E. V., Wis., 1895, A. West, Allen B., Wis., 1897, A. West, Claude L., N. J., 1898, A. Westcott, Edith, D. C., 1898, A. Westcott, O. S., 111., 189s, A. Westervelt, Z. F., N. Y., 1897, A. Westfall, Mary B., Ohio, 1897, A. Weston, Mrs. O. E., Mex., 1897, A. Wheatley, Emma, Neb., 1895, A. Wheaton, Ellen F., Minn., 1897, A. Wheeler, Henry N., Mass., 1892, A. Wheelock, Charles F., N. Y., 1895, A. Whelpley, J. W.. D. C, 1898, A. Whipple, H. A., Wis., 1897, A. Whitcomb, Arthur K., Mass., 1892, A. White, Charles G., Mich., 1895, D. White, Daniel A., 111., 1895, A. White, Emerson E., Ohio, 1870, D. White, H. C, Ga., 1896, A. White, ----- ■ White, Wh White; W. J., Ohio, i89i',A White, William M., Ohio, 1896, A. White, W. T., Tenn., 1889, A. Whiteford, J. A., Mo., 1895, A. Whitford, William C. Wis., 1884, L. Whitman, B. L., D. C, 1895, A. Whitney, Allen S., Mich., 1894, A. Whitney, M. A., 111., 1891, A. Whitney, O. C, Wash., 1898, A. Whitney, S. Emory, Mich., 1893, A. Whittemore, Henry. Mass., 1895, A. Whittle, W. R., R. I., 1896, A. Wiard, Louise A., Ky., 1896, A. Wickham, Kate M., Neb., 1895, A. Wicks, John F., 111., 1897, A. Widner, Esther A., Ohio, 1880, L. Wiley, William H., Ind., 1896, A. Wilkins, A. H., Tex., 1894, A. Wilkinson, J. J., Kan., 1896, A. Wilkinson, J. N., Kan., 1884, A. Hue, xi. »^., vjra., 1090, i\. Iiite, J. T., Md., 1898, A. lite, J. U., Mo., 1887, A. lite, W. H., Mich., 1897, A. INDEX TO LIFE AND ACTIVE MEMBERS I125 Wjllard, F. E., Iowa, 1806, A, Williams Coll. Library, Mass., 1897, A. Williams, Mrs. Delia, Ohio, 1870, L. Williams, J. D., 111., 1896. A, Williams,!. W., Ind. T.. 1898, A. Williams, Philo J., Kan., 1886, L. Williams, T. E., Ga., 1895, A. Williams. Thyrza C, N. J., 1897, A. X, Wis.. 18 1897, A. Williams,' William rf., Williams, William J., Neb., 1895, A. Williamson, J. E., Iowa, 18105, A. Willis, D. M., W. Va.-, 189s, A. Willis, H. B., N. J., 1892, A. Willis, W. A., Iowa, 1884, L. Wilson, A. H., N. J., 1896, A. Wilson, Harry G., 111., 1895, A. Wilson, H. E., Ariz., 1895, A. Wilson, J. H., D. C, 1898, A. Wilson, J. Ormond, D. C., 1880, D. Wilson, V. L., Iowa, 1897, A. Wilson, William E., Wash., 1890, A. Windgate, Ida M., Ohio, 1896, A. Wing, Jessie, Colo., 1895, A. Winne, James, N. Y., 189a, A. Winship, Albert E.. Mass., 1892. A. Winston, George T., Tex., 1896, A. Winterton, Jessie M., N. Y., 1897. A. Winthrop Nor. Sch., S. C, 1895, A. Wirick, L. A., Mo., 1897, A. Wise, Henry A.. Md., 1885, A. Wise, W. J., Colo., 189s, A. Witchard, T. H., Ga.. 1896, A. Witmer, Charles K., Pa., 1894, A. Witmer, Lightner, Pa., 1898, A. Witter, F. M., Iowa, 1897, A. Witter, T. C, N. Y., 1898, A. Wolfe, H. K., Neb., 1896. A. Wolfe, L. E., Kan., 1890, A. Wood, Court F., D. C, 1897. A. Wood, Emory M., Kan., 1889, A. Wood, James A., N. Mex., 1897, A. Wood, John A., Ind., 1898, A. Wood, O. M.. Mo.. 1893, A. Wiwdley, O. I., Mich., 1896, A. Woodmansee, Miss M. A., Ohio, 1898, A, Woods, Francis M., Ill,, 1896, A. Woodward, C. F., Iowa, 1897, A. Woodward, C. M., Mo., 1887, A. Woodward, J. C, Ga., 1897, A. Woody, H. G., Ind.. 1893, A. Wooley, L. C, N. J., 1893, A. Worden, Mrs. E. D., Kan., 1897, A. Worthington, John D., Md., 1893, A. Wright, A. M., N. Y., 1893, A. Wright, Anna J., Ohio, 1894, A. Wright, Edmund W., Vt., 1889, L. Wright, L. L., Mich., 1896, A. Wright, William R., N. J., 189a, A. Wylie, Mrs. M. J. B., N. Y., 1891, L. Yerby, John D., Ala.. 1895, A. Yoder, A. H., Ind., 1896. A. Young, J. B., Iowa, 1896, A. Young, J. S., Ohio, 1895, A. Young, Nathan B., Ga., 1896, A. Young, Robert G., 111., 1889, A. Ziek, Mary, Iowa, 1898, A. Zillafro, Margaret C, Pa., 1896, A. Zimmerman, Charles F. A., Wis., 1895, A. Zirkle, H. W., Colo., 1898, A. Zook, Mrs. Laura, Mont., 1897, A. CLASSIFIED MEMBERSHIP BY STATES IN THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION FOR THE YEAR 1898 — (WASHINGTON MEETING) State or Territory Total, . ... North Atlantic Division, Soutli Atlantic Division, Soutli Central Division, Nortli Central Division, Western Division, Foreign Unclassified, . North Atlantic Division- Maine, .... New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, . . . New York, New Jersey, , Pennsylvania, South Atlantic Division — Delaware, Maryland, District of Columbia, Virginia, West Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, .... South Central Division — Kentucky, . . ' . Tennessee, , . ' . Alabama, . . ■ . Mississippi, Louisiana, Texas, .... Arkansas, Oklahoma, Indian Territory, North Central Division- Ohio, .... Indiana, , . ' . Illinois, .... Michigan, Wisconsin, . . Iowa, .... Minnesota, Missouri, North Dakota, South Dakota, . ' . Nebraska, Kansas, .... Western Division — Montana, Wyoming, Colorado, New Mexico, . Arizona, Utah Nevada, .... IdahOj .... Washington, . Oregon, .... California, Alaska Canada Hunsrary, nexico Argentine, Active Membership Life Directors 38 Life Members Active Members 126 138 133 S Total Active Member- ship 93 14 16 208 72 77 3 19 44 132 69 233 63 102 61 75 59 13 9 39 34 13 5 43 6 5 7 1,952 521 139 143 996 15 17 223 73 85 150 73 247 6S 136 64 78 64 13 9 43 55 14 5 45 6 5 7 2 3 9 7 44 Associate Member- ship 8,s8i 971 1,007 I.44S 4,886 264 14 286 99 473 6 60 332 55 116 66 8S 237 50 377 =•35 212 91 135 238 95 55 7 1,163 518 i»093 314 225 319 86 731 13 36 60 327 6 3 151 21 16 18 Total Member- ship 10,654 1,492 1,146 1,589 5,882 412 13 I20 159 36 31 509 172 558 9 80 382 63 129 76 92 261 54 408 248 229 100 146 257 132 60 1.313 591 1,340 379 361 383 164 795 26 45 103 382 196 27 II26 RECORD OF MEMBERSHIP BY STATES IN THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION FOR EACH YEAR FROM 1884-98, INCLUSIVE, Excepting for 1893, when no regular meeting was held. Heavier numbers show membership rom the state in which the meeting for the year was held. Slate or Territory .1 •3 n f '6 1 u B n J) ■> a ■3 & 0 1 e2 eg E « ■if b < i V 0 a 3 a 3 It is a I B CI "3 e2 .0. 2 E V V 1884 1885 1886 1887 1888 1889 1890 1891 1892 1894 189s 1896 1897 1898 Total, .• . . 8,739 1^ 1. 197 9."S 7,216 1,984 5.474 795 4,778 3,360 5,915 1,711 11,397 9.072 7,111 10,653 80,526 5.752 North Atlantic DIv., •792 406 386 773 803 lOI 426 1. 187 1,462 2,940 942 1.492 14,216 1. 01 5 South Atlantic DIv,, 77 16 31 44 "3 123 95 151 309 271 289 237 172 1,146 3.079 219 South Central DIv., in 19 47 370 216 1,074 261 417 253 460 899 419 304 1.588 6,038 *l'* North Central DIv., 1,712 176 708 7,671 1.074 642 4,156 2,933 1,456 3.357 7,211 5.083 5.315 5.882 47,378 3.384 Western DIv., . . 26 7 2S 102 4.974 38 122 196 104 73 1,403 377 366 412 8,225 588 Foreign, .... II I 155 36 I 45 655 SI 43 33 16 12 13 1,072 76 Unclassified, . . -^ • I30 120 North Atlantic Div — Maine, . . . 21 2 s as II 32 30 10 5 24 7 7 10 189 13 New Hampshire, 64 6 10 23 II 32 9 5 7 27 K 6 6 214 15 Vermont, . . . 43 8 3 41 4 40 4 20 4 13 14 15 II 220 16 Massachusetts, . 310 145 85 277 206 28 290 "4 212 52 191 197 159 159 2,425 173 Rhode Island, . SO 13 13 29 30 4 31 42 23 12 55 35 23 36 386 27 Connecticut, . . 40 18 23 36 48 4 3J 18 63 13 26 43 24 31 408 29 New York, . . 143 159 91 211 210 29 228 117 611 326 521 2,132 411 509 S.701 407 New Jersey, . . 40 27 35 23 41 13 13 16 65 969 i6a 179 no 172 1,698 134 Pennsylvania, , 81 28 121 108 242 23 99 76 178 323 437 325 187 558 2,786 199 South Atlantic DIv — Delaware, . . I 4 3 I 3 5 6 8 17 It 8 9 75 5 Maryland. . . District of Col., 5 10 "s 17 3 7 13 49 45 S3 23 31 - 80 345 25 30 I 7 12 32 13 21 10 35 24 47 29 57 382 703 50 Virginia, . . . 6 4 3 2 18 12 2 8 2 24 36 21 10 63 210 15 West Virginia, . IS 3 3 8 6 6 27 49 20 37 49 52 16 129 419 30 North Carolina, 3 2 2 8 13 2 '3 17 15 5 14 4 76 175 13 South Carolina, S 4 I 2 '3 32 4 18 14 52 I 31 7 92 263 19 Georgia, . . . Florida, . . . II I 2 10 16 43 23 31 163 64 62 43 30 261 760 54 I I I 16 7 4 3 2 19 13 9 54 129 9 South Central Div — Kentucky, . . 33 2 8 151 22 114 39 57 42 128 176 77 98 408 I.3SS 98 Tennessee, . . 12 •6 5 62 83 607 97 134 57 124 66 57 25 248 1.573 112 Alabama, . . . 9 I I 16 45 123 35 79 51 41 41 59 25 229 755 54 Mississippi, , . 7 I 2 7 10 87 44 42 36 20 49 25 19 100 449 32 Louisiana. . . 3 7 8 II 7 19 13 25 21 35 108 25 42 146 470 34 Texas, . . . 22 I 15 55 29 89 30 S3 9 82 294 99 41 257 1,066 76 Arkansas, . . 22 8 67 12 29 13 34 33 25 84 63 41 132 559 40 Oklahoma, . . 4 S8 14 II 60 147 25 Indian Territory, 3 I I 's "6 I 3 4 I 23 3 7 60 4 North Central Div — Ohio, .... 121 43 67 581 225 60 361 355 178 990 592 565 357 1,313 5.808 415 Indiana, . . , S4 IS 46 418 71 89 206 149 6S 258 321 350 205 SQi 2.738 196 Illinois, , . , 354 33 164 1,7!)0 233 204 625 666 214 871 1,495 1,174 78s 1.340 9,895 707 Michigan, . . 77 12 20 273 40 29 t37 259 285 155 204 589 327 379 2.786 198 Wisconsin, . . 546 18 18 486 57 28 443 322 72 143 188 413 1,870 361 4.864 347 Iowa, .... 304 18 87 1,146 96 67 572 278 no 164 1,086 578 543 383 5.432 387 Minnesota, . . 132 9 II 649 58 16 933 118 54 86 193 303 333 164 3,059 219 Missouri, . , . 46 11 73 625 133 68 249 320 189 435 1,113 406 28s 795 4,748 339 North Dakota, . 8 \ 99 32 16 8 28 34 53 26 j 982 South Dakota, . 23 I 5 149 7 (109 31 20 9 78 83 118 45 70 Nebraska . . . 39 5 77 634 40 10 147 330 126 127 742 363 251 103 2.834 202 Kansas, . , . 16 II 19U 960 124 64 275 383 127 III 1,171 325 187 382 4,226 302 Western Div — Montana, . . ._ 3 I I 9 4 5 37 24 9 3 IS 43 78 20 252 18 Wyoming, . ,' I 2 3 8 8 5 13 4 3 48 7 10 8 J20 9 Colorado, , . 12 2 n 40 X09 "s 56 114 59 S8 1.138 177 145 196 2,123 152 New Mexico, 3 36 3 7 5 26 16 31 27 133 13 Arizona, . . . I 45 I 3 3 II 6 6 21 96 10 Utah I 3 4 127 10 8 4 89 37 33 25 330 28 Nevada. . . . I I 6 134 3 S 3 2 15s 10 Idaho, .... I 13 I I 3 10 6 3 37 3 Washington, . . I I 3 37 I 6 18 I 2 6 16 8 12 102 7 Oregon, . . . 3 I I II 204 8 7 5 S 14 9 7 10 285 20 California, . . 5 4 18 4.278 13 8 5 10 I 53 51 56 87 4.589 328 Alaska, . . , I I I Miscellaneous, • • II L 143 16 651 , ,3 . . ? I 3 5 4 193 14 Canada "i %'.:!hia ;"«i \ :* .'M ; *8 i :♦>' : 3« ..' '*♦ 8 9 891 64 V. Tr '. ' , . -> ■1 V \— - « ' •> ' ", ^ II27 INVENTORY AND PRICE LIST OF PUBLICATIONS OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION IN THE DEPOSITORY AT WASHING- TON, D. C, JULY I, i{ LIST OF SUBJECTS Paper covers. i6 pages 461 Price per Number of Prices in single vol- copies sets, carriage ume, carriage in stock not prepaid prepaid $0.10 $0.10 HISTORY OP THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION, 1857-1891 Paper covers, 141 pages 197 $0.25 $0.30 PROCEEDINGS OF THE DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 1891 i8g2 1894 88s 890 891 894 89s 1865 1866 1869 1873 1874 1875 1876 1877 1878 1879 1880 1881 1882 1883 1884 i88s 1886 1887 1890 1891 1892 1893 1897 Paper cover, 147 pages " " 237 " PROCEEDINGS OF THE NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION Paper covers, 120 pages 73 " 98 " 80 " 114 " PROCEEDINGS OF THE NATIONAL TEACHERS Paper covers, 117 pages " " 140 " « 36 " Elmira Detroit Minneapolis Baltimore Louisville (No meeting) Philadelphia Chautauqua Atlanta Saratoga Springs Saratoga Springs Madison Saratoga Springs Topeka Chicago San Francisco Nashville St. Paul Toronto Saratoga Springs Chicago (International Congress of Education) Asbury Park Denver Buffalo Milwaukee Washington, D. C. (in press) *Stock exhausted. 169 $0.25 $0.30 410 •25 •30 302 •25 .30 50 .25 .30 F EDUCATION 25 $0.20 $0.25 144 .20 .25 239 .20 •25 246 .20 •25 107 .20 •25 131 .20 .25 56 .20 •25 ASSOCIATION 43 $0.50 » 45 ■ 50 15 •50 DUCAT 274 lONAL ASSC $1.25 >CIATION $1.50 296 1.25 1.50 212 1.25 1.50 302 1.25 1.50 203 I.2S 1.50 321 1.25 1.50 263 I.2S 1.50 523 1-25 1.50 60 2.00 * * « 584 1.50 1.75 49 2.00 253 1.50 1-75 ISS 1-75 2.00 279 1.75 2.00 458 1-75 2.00 488 1.75 2.00 743 1-75 2.00 736 1-75 2.00 59° 2.00 2.50 507 I-7S 2.00 385 1-75 2.00 320 1-75 2.00 251 1-75 2.00 1-75 2.00 Copies of the Reports of the Committee of Ten and the Committee of Fifteen can be obtained of the American Book Co. for 30 cents each, postage paid. Copies of the Report of the Committee of Twelve on Rural Schools will be supplied by the Secretary at the following rates, viz, : fifty or more copies, by freight at purchaser's expense, at 15 cents per copy; ten or more copies, by express, prepaid, at 20 cents per copy; single copies, by mail, 25 cents per copy. A complete Subject Index of all published proceedings has been issued in a separate volume, bound in cloth, uniform with the volumes of proceedings. The index will be sent free of charge to those who purchase five or more volumes; to others it will be sent postpaid for $1. The index volume will be supplied to active members for 25 cents for postage, wrapping, etc. The association will be pleased to pay cash for copies of proceedings for 1871, 1872, and 1883, or will send copies of any other years in exchange. Application for sale or exchange should be made to the Secretary. All publications can be obtained of the Secretary. Remittances should be made by Draft or P. O. Money Order. . InwR) ,Skepard, Secretary, ; .',""' Winona, Minn, '■''"' 'til's, ' ■ INDEX [Names of authors of papers are set in small capitals. A f indicates an obituary notice.] Abnormalities in Children, Minor Mental, .... Act of Incorporation, Active Members, List of, Business Meeting of, Adams, Carrie B. — The Next Step -What shall It Be? Address of Welcome by- John W. Ross, B. I.. Whitman, W. T. Harris, Webster Davis, B. Pickman Mann, Howard Helmick, Administration and Bookkeeping of a National Bank — George M Coffin, .... Amended Spellings, List of. Resolution Adopting, Amendment to Constitution, Amendments to Constitution, . American Citizen, The Proper Edu cation of, ... American Colonial Universities, American Educational History, Les sons from — A. D. Mayo, American Universities and the Na- tional Life — Andrew S.Draper, Distinguishing Features of, . Annual Business Meeting of Active Members, .... Appropriation to Library Department, Are there Studies as Constants That should be Pursued in Every Course? — James M. Green, Discussion, Arnold, Sarah Louise — The Du ties and Privileges of the Su pervisor. Discussion, Art Education, Relation of the Li brary to, . Art in Education of American Citi zens. Function of, . Ashmore, Otis — Discussion, Atkinson, Fred W. — A Year's Study of the Entering Pupils of the Springfield, Mass., High School, Avery, Myrtilla — Secretary's Minutes, Library Department, Discussion, .... Backward and Mentally Deficient Children, Training of, . Bagen, Eugene D., t Baker, F. O. — Discussion, Baker, J. M. — Discussion, 162 Ballard, Mr. — Discussion, 5 Bancroft, Margaret — The Trend 1061 in the Training of Backward 26 and Mentally Deficient Chil- dren 848 Barbour, O. F. — Discussion, Barnard, Job — Manual Training, 43 Its Purpose and Value, . 45 Barr, Martin W. — Training of 49 Feeble-minded Children, 51 Baths in School Furnishings, 590 Baxter, C. J. — The Township High 789 School Bell, Alexander Graham — Clos- ing Address, Department of the 874 Deaf, etc., .... 37 Bergey, D. H. — School Architec- 37 ture — Heating, Lighting, and 27 Sanitary Arrangements, 4 Better Supervision of the Public Schools in the South — Charles 272 D. Mclver, .... 105 Discussion, . . . . Bibliography of School Hygiene — 223 William H. Bumham, . Books and Articles, 103 Journals, 120 Reports, . . . . . Biology in High School, The Teach- 26 ing of, .... . 41 Blackboards as School Furniture, Blake, Henry W.,t . Blind, Lessons from Study of the, 702 Board of Directors for 1897-98, Pro- 707 ceedings of, . for 1898-99 Boice, H. B. — Secretary's Minutes,De- 228 partment of Physical Training, 855 Bookkeeping and Accounting of the Periodical Publishing Business 812 —A. O. Kittredge, Books and Articles on School Hy- 819 giene, 328 Boone, R. G. — Instruction and Dis- cipline, ..... The North Central State Normal Schools, .... 903 Bosworth, Miss — Discussion, . Botany in Secondary Schools, Report 1005 of Subcommittee on, 1027 Bowers, W. H. — In Memoriam Mrs. Susan G. Patterson, 1040 Bowman, Perla G. — Discussion, 298 BoYDEN, A. G. — The New England 690 State Normal Schools, . 1 129 720 957 1040 1015 989 1045 533 308 1057 524 325 328 505 506 521 522 960 528,533 • 299 1034 37 39 929 880 506 583 740 747 967 292 773 729 1I30 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION Brain Building and Mind Building for Mentally Defective Chil- dren— Elmer Gates, . .1051 Brand, Mr. — Discussion, . . . 202 Brandegee, J. E. — Discussion, . .1015 Branson, E.G.— What Kind of Nor- mal Training does the Com- mon-School Teacher of the South Need? .... 319 Brigham, Albert Perry — Prelim- inary Report of Subcommit- tee on Physical Geography, . 973 Brooks, Edward — The Constants in Mathematics, . . .191 Brown, David Wolfe — The Duties and Qualifications of the Con- gressional Reporter, . . 885 Brown, Elizabeth V. — Discussion, . 630 Brown, Elmer E. — The Larger Uni- versity Idea 278 Brown, Miss Marion — The South- em State Normal Schools, . 732 Bruce, William George — Secretary's Miiiutes, Department of School Administration, . . . 985 Brumbaugh, Martin G. — The Mis- sion of the Elementary School, 343 Bryan, Mr. — Discussion, . . . 747 Buehrle, R. K. — Resolution, . . 175 Discussion, . . . 318, 417 BuRNHAM, William H. — Biblio- graphy of School Hygiene, . 505 Burrage, Severance — Medical In- spection of School Children, . 539 Business Education — Durand W. Springer, . . . .857 in the High School — Emory R. Johnson, .... 867 in the State of Nevsr York — I. O. Crissy, ..... 882 Reasonable Expectations Concern- ing, 863 Butler, Nicholas Murray — On Shortening the Undergraduate Curriculum, . . . .717 Nominating Corresponding Mem- bers 38 Rema*-ks on Amendment to Con- stitution, .... 27 Report of Committee on Resolu- tions, ..... 34 Byington, S. Lillian — Secretary's Minutes, Department of Music Education, .... 832 By-Laws, ...... 4 Calendar of Meetings, ... 6 Cautions to be Observed in Child Study — Ossian H. Lang, . 898 Centralization, What Kind will Strengthen Our Local School System? 986 Chaney, Dr. — Discussion, . .177 Charlton, Edwin A., f . . .301 Chase, Susan F. — Choice of Read- ing for the Early Adolescent Years loil Cheney, F. J. — Discussion, . 747, 756 Children's Gardens — Jenny B. Mer- rill, 598 Child's Course of Study or the Teach- er's—Which?— Sarah J. Wal- ter, 243 Child's Song, A — Mari Ruef Hofer, 602 Child Study, Cautions to be Observed in, 898 in the Training of Teachers, . 916 What can It Contribute to the Science of Education? . . 348 Choice of Reading for the Early Ado- lescent Years — Susan F. Chase, loi i Discussion, .... 1014 Classification of Universities, . .109 Classified Membership by States, 1898 11 26 Closing Address — Alexander Graham Bell 1057 Coffin, George M. — The Adminis- tration and Bookkeeping of a National Bank, . . . 874 Colleges of the National Period, . 106 Denominational, .... 107 Comic vs. Tragic in Literature and Art, 396 Commercial High School, Course of Study for, . . . .862 Committee on National University, . 497 Necrology, Report of, . . . 32 Nominations, . . . 25, 30 Normal Schools, Report of, . . 34 Resolutions, Report of, . . 34 Common-School Teacher of the South, What Training? . : 319 Congdon, C. H. — Individual Sing- ing, 840 Congressional Reporter, The Duties and Qualifications of the, . 885 Connection between Libraries and Schools — S.S.Green, . 1009 Conscience, The Social Basis of, . 196 Conservatism of Manual-Training Teachers, . . . .781 Constants That should be Pursued in Every Course, . . 702 in Mathematics, . . . .191 Constitution of General Association, i of National Council, . . . 489 Consulting Psychologist, Ther New Psychology and the, . . 554 Contagious Diseases in School — T. A. Mott, . . . .381 Discussion, .... 387 Continuous Sessions, with Special Ap- plication to Normal Schools — Irwin Shepard, . . .410 Discussion, . . . -417 Contributions of Child Study to the Science of Education — Reu- ben Post Halleck, . -354 Discussion, .... 362 Cook, John W. — Supply of Teach- ers, ..... 578 Discussion, . 544, 554, 747, 756 Corley, Mr. — Discussion, ... 85 INDEX II31 Corresponding Members, List of, Coulter, John M. — Report of Sub- committee on Botany in Sec- ondary Schools, Course of Study for a Commercial High School, .... Crissy, I. O. — Business Education in the State of New York, . Cubic Space in School Architecture, . Culture Value of Higher Mathe- matics— W. B. Smith, . Discussion, .... Curvature of the Spine, Influence of School Life on, Daniels, Fred H. — The Supervisor of Drawing in Public Schools, Davidson, S. G. — The Relation of Language Teaching to Mental Development, Davis, J. M. — Discussion, Davis, Webster — Address of Wel- come, Day School and Reform School — Carroll G. Pearse, . Deaf Children, Duty of the Hour to. Deaf, Relation to the Hearing World of the, .... Deaf, The, and Their Possibilities, Defects in School Architecture, Democracy and Education — Edwin P. Seaver, ... Discussion, ... Denominational Colleges, Department of Superintendence Secretary's Minutes, Departments, List of. Development of the Inner Life of the Child — Mrs. Maria Kraus Boelt^ Development of the Social Conscious ness of Children — Will S Monroe, . . » . Dewees, W. W. — Discussion, . Dewey, John — Report of the Com mittee on a Plan for a Report on Elementary Education, Diplomas, State and Normal-School, Reciprocal Recognition by the States of, .... Discussion of Report on Rural Schools, School Maintenance, School Supervision, Supply of Teachers, Instruction and Discipline, Distinguishing Features of American Universities, .... Domestic Science as a Synthetic Study for Girls — Mrs. Ellen H. Richards, .... Discussion, . . . . Dougherty, N. C. — School Super- vision, Downing, A. S. — Discussion, . Draper,AndrewS. — American Uni- versities and the National Life, Discussion, . . . . 38 967 862 882 525 178 191 939 795 1043 708 51 / 270 1033 1039 207 531 249 260 107 303 I 608 921 1015 335 451 575 575 576 578 583 766 773 576 756 103 575 Duties and Privileges of the Super- visor— Sarah Louise Arnold, 228 Duties and Qualifications of the Con- gressional Reporter — David Wolfe Brown, . . . 885 Dutton, Bettie a. — In Memoriam Mrs. Rebecca D. Rickoff, . 286 Secretary's Minutes, National Council, 494 Discussion, .... 554 Duty of the Hour to Young Deaf Children — Mary S. Garrett, . 1033 Duty of the State in Education — E. E. White, .... 204 Dye, Charity — A Proposed Four- Years' Course in English for Secondary Schools, . . 678 Dyer, F. B. — Discussion, . . . 203 Eaton, John — Education and Gold . in Alaska, . . . .214 Economic View of Medical Inspec- tion of Schools, . . . 458 Education and Gold in Alaska — John Eaton, 214 Education, Democracy and, . . 249 Education for the Industrial Classes — J. L. Snyder, . . .758 Discussion, .... 763 Education of an American Citizen, The Proper, .... 272 Educational Exhibit at the Interna- tional Exposition in Paris in 1900 — W. T. Harris, . . 122 Educational Outlook, The — W. W. Stetson, ..... 131 Educational Principles Which should Govern the Teaching of Draw- ing — M. V. O'Shea, . . 802 Discussion, . . . .811 Educational Value of Geometry — Kelly Miller 194 Educational Value of the Tragic as Compared with the Comic in Literature and Art — W. T. Harris, 396 Effect of Exercise on the Vital Organs — William T. Harris, . 930 Ehinger, C. E. — Discussion, . 947, 958 Elementary Chemistry, Report of Sub- committee on, . . . 965 Elementary Curriculum, . . . 639 Elementary Schools, Essentials of United States History to be Taught in — Homer H . Seerley, 7 7 Discussion, .... 82 Elementary Schools, Successive Dif- ferentiation of Subjects in, . 632 Elementary Schools, The Function of Manual Training in, . . 649 Elizabeth (N. J.) Plan of Grading, . 441 Ellis, D. L. — Discussion, . . . 420 Emery, J. Q. — Discussion, . . 316 English, a Proposed Four- Years' Course for Secondary Schools, 678 English Composition, Essentials of, for Elementary Schools, . . 87 II32 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION English Composition, Essentials of, for Secondary Schools, . . 94 English Round Table, Secondary De- partment, . . . .691 English, Syllabus of a Course in, 681, 687 English the Core of a Secondary Course — John Calvin Hanna, 665 Essay Correcting — Can It be Made a Joy Forever? — F. N. Scott, . 691 Essay Subjects, What Proportion shall be Drawn from Litera- . ture? 693 Essentials of English Composition for Elementary Schools — E'. R. Shaw, . . . . 87 Discussion, .... 102 Essentials of English Composition for Secondary Schools — C. C. Thach 94 Discussion, . . . .102 Essentials of United States History to be Taught in Elementary Schools — Wilbur F. Gordy, . 70 Discussion, .... 82 Essentials of United States History to be Taught in Secondary Schools — Homer H. Seerley, 77 Discussion, . . . .82 Evans, Margaret J. — Women's Clubs as an Educational Fac- tor, 237 Exercise and Vigor — Henry Ling Taylor, 933 Fairchild, George T. — Discussion, . 778 Fall, Delos — School Diseases and Medical Inspection, . . 534 Discussion, .... 544 Fatigue — Edward R. Shaw, . . 550 Discussion, .... 554 Federation of Colleges and Universi- ties, Is it Possible and Desir- able to Form, . . . 720 Feeble-minded Children, Training of, 1045 Felker, Allie M. — Play as a Means of Idealizing and Extending the Child's Experience, . . 624 Final Aim in Education, Realizing Our, 462 FiTZ, G.W. — The Hygiene of Instruc- tion in Primary Schools, . 544 Discussion,. 177,554,944,954,956 Floor Space in School Architecture, Forrester, Miss J. L. — Supplement to Report of Committee, Freedom of Electives in Junior and Senior Years, .... Fuller, Mrs. S. E. W. — Discussion, . Function of Art in the Education of the American Citizen — Wil- liam Ordway Partridge, . Function of Manual Training in the Elementary School — Richard Waterman, ' . Function of the Library in Relation to the Public School, 526 817 717 799 819 649 815 Gage, Lyman J. — Reasonable Ex- pectations Concerning Business Education, .... 863 Gallaudet, E. M.— The Deaf and Their Possibilities, . . 207 Gantvort, a. J. — The Influence of Music and Music Study upon Character, .... 390 Gardner, Isaac — The Relation of the Deaf to the Hearing World 1039 Garrett, Mary S.— The Duty of the Hour to Young Deaf Chil- dren, 1033 Gates, Elmer — Brain Building and Mind Building for Mentally Defective Children, . . 1051 General Sessions, . . . 43-302 Geometry, the Educational Value of, 194 Geospheres, The — W. J. McGee, . 149 Discussion, .... 160 Gilbert, Charles B. — School P'urni- * ture, 532 Supply of Teachers, . . . 582 Discussion, .... 554 Gilchrist, J. C, t • . . .291 Glenn, G. R. — What the Negro Gets from the Common-School Edu- cation and What He Gives to It, 330 Goodsell, Bishop — Discussion, . 420 Gordon, Joseph C. — President's Ad- dress, 1031 Gordy, J. P.— What can Child Study Contribute to the Science of Education? .... 348 Gordy, Wilbur F. — Essentials in United States History to be Taught in Elementary Schools, 70 Goss, David K. — Discussion, . . 87 Gove, Aaron — Discussion, . . 945 Graded Schools, List of Library Books for, .... 1019 Grading and Promotion — Edward R. Shaw, ..... 422 Discussion, . , . . 432 Grading and Promotion, Plan of the North Side Schools of Denver — James H. Van Sickle, . 434 Grading and Promotion, Some New England Plans — John T. Prince, ..... 423 Discussion, .... 432 Grading and Promotion, The Eliza- beth (N. J.) Plan — William J. Shearer, . . . . -441 Green, James M. — Are there Studies as Constants That should be Pursued in Every Course? ..... 702 Discussion, . . . 7^9, 747 Green, S. S. — Connection between Libraries and Schools, . . 1009 Discussion, . . 1015, 1028 Greenlee, L. C. — Discussion, . 173 INDEX 1133 Greenwood, J. M. — President's Ad- dress, ..... 56 Introduction of President-Elect, 36 Gregory, B. C. — Social Co-opera- ■ tion 655 Gresham, G. N. — The Proper Edu- cation of an Annerican Citizen, 272 Griffith, George — Discussion, . . 648 Grove, M. A. — Secretary's Minutes, Department of Business Edu- cation, ..... 856 Hafford, F. S. — Discussion, . 102 Hailmann, William N. — Presi- dent's Address, . . .621 Hall, Frank — Is the Science of Mathematics Qualitative as Well as Quantitative? . . 193 Pedagogical Lessons from a Study of the Blind, . . 1034 Hall, Mary F. — Value of the Hand in the Acquisition of Knowl- edge and Expression of Thought, .... 642 Secretary's Minutes, Department of Kindergarten Education, . 589 Halleck, Reuben Post — Some Contributions of Child Study to Education, . . • 354 Halsted, B. D. — The Leaf a Light- related Organ, . . . 970 Hanna, John Calvin — English the Core of a Secondary Course, . 665 Hardy, Richard — The Use of the School Library, . . . 1007 Discussion, . . . 263, 1028 Harris, W. T.— Address of Wel- . come, 49 Our Educational Exhibit at the International Exposition in Paris in 1900, . . ,122 Rational Psychology for the Teacher, .... 570 The Effect of Exercise on the Vital Organs, . . . 930 The Educational Value of the Tragic as Compared with the Comic in Literature and Art, 396 Harrison, Elizabeth — The Value of Ideals Set Forth in the " Mother- Play Book," . . 592 Hartwell, Edward M. — School Hygiene, What It Is and Why We Need It, . . . . 498 Harvey, L. D. — Discussion, . . 1026 Harvey, N. A.— The Latest Practi- cal Discoveries in Biological Science, 172 Discussion, . . . -175 Hay, W. p.— The Teaching of Biol- ogy in the High School, . 960 Secretary's Minutes, Depart- i ment of Natural-Science In- struction, .... 959 Heating in School Architecture, . 529 Helmick, Howard — Address of Welcome, .... 789 Heredity and Environment— Edgar James Swift 910 High-School Teacher.the Training of, 709 Himes, Florence Browning — Secre- tary's Minutes, Department of Art Education, . . 787 Hindrances and Helps to Manual Training, . . . -779 Hinsdale, B. A. — Federation of Col- leges and Universities, . . 720 Discussion, . . 544, 554, 575 HoFER, Mari Ruef — A Child's Song, 602 What is Music and How can We lielp the Children to Become Musical? . . . .833 Hogg, Alex., Resolution Offered by, 33 Horticulture, Manual Training in, . 776 Hoyt, Charles O. — Discussion, . 362 Hoyt, David W. — Discussion, . . 161 Hoyt, J. E. — Secretary's Minutes, * Department of Manual and Industrial Education, . • 757 HuBBERT, Harvey H. — What Kind of Centralization, if Any, will Strengthen Our Local School System? 986 Hughes, Mrs. Ada Marean — A Kindergarten Message to Mothers, . . .614 Hutchins, F. A. — Discussion, . . 1014 Hygiene of Instruction in Primary Schools — G. W. Fitz, . . 544 Hygiene, School — What It Is and Why We Need It, . . . . 498 Ideal Play in the Kindergarten — Susan Plessner Pollock, . 604 Index, 1 129 Index to List of Active Members, . 11 14 Individual Singing — C. H. Congdon, 840 Industrial Education, Report of Com- mittee 779 Influence of Environment on the De- velopment of United States History — Jacques W. Redway, 139 Influence of Music and Music Study upon Character — A. J. Gant- vort, 390 Influence of School Life on Curva- ture of the Spine — R. Tait McKenzie, .... 939 Discussion, .... 944 Influence of the Kindergarten upon the Schools — F. Louis Soldan, 619 Inglis, S. M. — Discussion, . 377 Inglis, Samuel M.,f .... 288 Inner Life of the Child, Development of the 608 Inspection of Schools, Medical, . 454 Instruction and Discipline — R. G. Boone 583 Inventory and Price List of Publica- tions 1 128 Is it Possible and Desirable to Form a P'ederation of Colleges, etc.? — B. A. Hinsdale, . . . 720 Discussion, .... 727 II34 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION 300 the 867 948 946 957 295 23 521 604 619 614 720 880 19 41 Jay, Walter M.,t Johnson, Emory R. — Business Ed ucation in the High School, Johnson, George E. — Play in Phys ical Education, Discussion, Johnson, G. W. — Discussion, . Jones, Joseph C.,t • Journal of Proceedings, Journals on School H)'giene, Kindergarten, Ideal Play in the. Kindergarten, Influence upon Schools, .... Kindergarten Message to Mothers — Mrs. Ada Marean Hughes, King, William F. — Discussion, . KiTTREDGE, A. O. — The Bookkeep- ing and Accounting of the Pe- riodical Publishing Business, Kratz, H. E. — Discussion, . I75. I99 KRAUs-BoELxi, Mrs. Maria — De- velopment of the Inner Life of the Child 608 Krohn, W. O. — Minor Mental Ab- normalities in Children, . 162 Discussion, . . 173, 176, 178 Lane, A. G. — Report of Board of Trustees, .... Report on Authorized Appropri- ations, . . ... Lang, Ossian H. — Some Cautions to be Observed in Child Study, Language Teaching in Mental Devel- opment, ..... Lansdon, Wr C. — Discussion, . Larger University Idea, The — Elmer E. Brown, .... Lazenby, William R. — Manual Training in Horticulture, Leaf a Light-related Organ — B. D. Halsted, .... Le Garde, Miss — Discussion, . Leibig, Mr. — Discussion, . Lessons from a Study of the Blind, . Lessons from American Educational History — A. D. Mayo, . Libraries and Schools, Connection between, .... Libraries, Publfc, in Relation to Pub- lic Schools, .... Library and Public School Instruc- tion, Relation of, . . Library, Relation to Art Education, Library, School, the Use of, Lig'hting and Seating of School- rooms — W. A. Mowry, . Discussion, .... Lighting in School Architecture, List of Books for Graded Schools, . List of Books for Lower Grades, Re- port of Committee, List of Books for Rural Schools, ■ List of Life and Active Members, Lowell, A. Lawrence — The Pro- fessional and Non-Professional Bodies in Our School System, 1043 278 776 970 945 176 1034 223 1009 1006 815 8i3 1007 364 369 527 1019 1016 1017 1061 and the Proper Function of Each 999 Luckey, G. W. A. — Secretary's Min- utes, Department of Child Study, 893 Lyons, P. W. — Discussion, . . 690 Lyte, E. O. — Response as President- Elect, 36 Mackey, E. — Discussion, . . . 763 Magee, Harriet Cecil — Presi- dent's Address, . . -791 Major, Ernest L. — Discussion, . 811 Mann, B. Pickman — Address of Welcome, .... 590 Manual Training in Horticulture — William R. Lazenby, . . 776 Discussion, .... 778 Manual Training in the Elementary School, Function of, . . 649 Manual Training, Its Purpose and Value — Job Barnard, . • 989 Manual Training, Report of Com- mittee, 779 Maps as School Furniture, . . 533 Marble, A. P. — Ventilation of School- rooms, . . . . '371 Marsh, Miss — Discussion, . .201 Mathematics, Higher, Culture Value of, 178 Mathematics, Is the Science of. Qual- itative as Well as Quantitative? 193 Mathematics, the Constants in, . 191 Mayo, A. D.— Lessons from Ameri- can Educational History, . 223 McCowen, Mary — Secretary's Min- utes, Department of Educa- tion of the Deaf, Blind, and Feeble-minded, . . . 1029 McGee, W. J. — The Geospheres, . 149 McGinness, Mr. — Discussion, . .1015 McIver, Charles D. — Better Super- vision of the Public Schools in the South, .... 325 Discussion, .... 265 McKenzie, R. Tait — Influence of School Life on Curvature of the Spine, .... 939 Discussion, .... 947 McKinley, President William — Let- ter, 23 McMurry, C. A. — Discussion, . . 87 McNeill, I. C. — Treasurer's Report, 16 Mechanics as Teachers of Manual Training, .... 780 Medical Inspection and School Gov- ernment, . . • . . 459 Medical Inspection of School Chil- dren—Severance Burrage, . 539 Discussion, .... 544 Medical Inspection of Schools — W. B. Powell 454 Medical Inspection vs. School Dis- • eases, 534 Meetings, Constitutional Provisions for, 3 Membership, Conditions of, . i INDEX "35 Memorandum Concerning Report of the Committee of Sixty, . . 964 Memorial Addresses, . . .281 Mentally Defective Children, Brain Building and Mind Building for, 105 1 Merrill, Jenny B. — Children's Gardens, .... 598 Message to Mothers, A Kindergarten, 614 Methods of Connecting Libraries and Schools, loii Middle. States Normal Schools — N. C. Schaeffer, .... 748 Miller, Edwin L. — Subjects for Compositions : Shall We Draw Them from Literature or from Life? 696 Miller, Kelly — -The Educational Value of Geometry, . -194 MiLLSPAUGH, J. F. — Sociology's De- mand upon the Schools, . . 267 Discussion, .... 554 Minimum Preparation for Teaching — Price Thomas, . . . 448 Minimum Requirements for Six- Years' Secondary Course, . 702 Minor Mental Abnormalities in Chil- dren— W. O. Krohn, . .162 Discussion, . . . .173 Mission of the Elementary School, The — Martin G. Brumbaugh, 343 Monroe, Will S. — Development of the Social Consciousness of Children, . . . .921 Discussion, .... 747 Moten, Lucy E. — Discussion, . . 756 " Mother-Play Book," The Value of Ideals Set Forth in, . . 592 MoTT, T. A. — Contagious Diseases in School, . . . .381 Discussion, .... 640 MowBY, W. A. — The Lighting and Seating of Schoolrooms, . 364 Murphy, George T. — Discussion, . 160 Music and Music Study, Influence on Character of, . • . . 390 National Council of Education, . 489 Constitution, .... 489 Officers and Members, . . . 492 Secretary's Minutes, . . . 494 Report of Committee on Reorgani- zation, ..... 495 Report of Committee on Member- ship 497 National University, Committee on, • 497 New England Plans and Conclusions Drawn from a .Study of Grad- ing and Promotion — John T. Prince, 423 New England State Normal Schools — A. G. Boyden, . . . 729 New Psychology and the Consulting Psychologist — Josiah Royce, 554 Next Step, The — What shall It Be ? — Carrie B. Adams, . . 848 Discussion, .... 855 Normal Department, Secretary's Min- utes 728 Normal Schools and Continuous Ses- sions, 410 North Central State Normal Schools — R. G. Boone, . . . 740 Northrop, Birdsey Grant, "j" . 283 Noss, T. B. — Discussion, . . . 755 Officers, Constitutional Provisions for, 2 Officers, List for 1897-98, . . 8 Officers, List for 1898-99, . . i2 Ormond, A. T. — Discussion, 202, 708, 720 O'Shea, M. V. — President's Ad- dress, ..... 894 Some Educational Principles Which should Govern the Teaching of Drawing, . . 802 The Training of the High-School Teacher, . ... . 709 Outlook, The Educational, . . 131 Pacific Coast State Normal Scliools, 744 Painter, F. V. N. — What Propor- tion of Essay Subjects shall be Drawn from Literature ? . 693 Palmer, F. B. — Secretary's Minutes, Department of Normal Schools 728 Palmer, Solomon, "f . . . . 297 Palmer, U. G. — Discussion, . . 82 Partridge, William Ordway — Function of Art in the Educa- cation of the American Citizen, 819 Patterson, Mrs. Susan G., "f" . . 292 Pearse, Carroll G. — Between Day School and Reform School, . . ■ . . . 270 Pedagogical Lessons from a Study of the Blind — Frank Hall, . 1034 Pendergast, W. W. — Discussion, . 318 Perry, Walter S., f • • • • 298 Physical Geography, Report of Sub- committee on, . . . 973 Pierce, Edward T. — Report on State Normal Schools of the Pacific Coast, .... 744 Play as a Means fqr Idealizing and Extending the Child's Experi- ence— AUie M. Felker, . 624 Discussion, .... 630 Play in Physical Education — George E. Johnson, .... 948 Discussion, .... 954 Playgrounds, 533 Pollock, Susan Plessner — Ideal Play in the Kindergarten, . 604 Powell, W. B. — Medical Inspection of Schools, . . . . 454 Poynter, W. C, f • • • • 294 Preamble, ...... I Preliminary Report of Committee on Course of Study of Normal Schools, .... 729 Discussion. .... 747 Preliminary Report of the Subcom- mittee on Physical Geography — Albert Perry Brigham, . 973 II36 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION Preparation for Teaching, The Mini mum, .... President's Address — Joseph C. Gor don J. M. Greenwood, William N. Hailmann, Harriet Cecil Magee, . M. V. O'Shea, Prettyman, E. B. — Discussion. Primary Schools, Hygiene of Instruc tion in, . Prince, John T. — Some New Eng- land Plans and Conclusions Drawn from a Study of Grad- ing and Promotion, Discussion, .... Professional and Non-Professional Bodies in Our School System, and the Proper Function of Each — Lawrence A. Lowell, Proper Education of an American Citizen — G. N. Gresham, Proposed Four-Years' Course in English for Secondary Schools — Charity Dye, Psychology, Rational, for the Teacher, Psychology, The New, and the Con- sulting Psychologist, Public Questions and the Universities, Public Schools of the South, Better Supervision of, . . . Purpose of Manual Training, . Questions Bearing on Reports on Elementary Schools, Ramsay, Charles C. — Discussion, 176, 177, 201, 690, 708 Rational Psychology for the Teacher — W. T. Harris, . Reading, Choice of, for Early Adoles- cent Years, .... Reading Lists for Public Schools — How Prepared — Sherman Williams, .... Discussion, .... Realizing Our Final Aim in Education — Sylvester F. Scovel, . Reasonable Expectations Concerning Business Education — Lyman J. Gage, .... Reciprocal Recognition of State and Normal School Diplomas by the States — Z.X.Snyder, Record of Membership by States since 1884, .... Redway, Jacques W. — Influence of Environment on the Develop- ment of United States History, Reference Books, . . 1019, 1022 Reform School, Between Day School and, , . . . . Relation of Language Teaching to Mental Development — S. G. Davidson, .... Relation of Library to Art Education Relation of the Deaf to the Hearing World — Isaac Gardner, . 1039 448 1031 56 621 791 894 86 544 423 575 999 272 678 570 554 114 325 341 570 1022 1026 462 863 451 1127 139 270 1043 812 Report of Board of Trustees, . . 19 Report of Committee of Sixty, Mem- orandum Concerning, . . 964 Report of Committee on a Detailed Plan for a Report on Elemen- tary Education — John Dewey, 335 Report of Committee on Hindrances and Helps to Manual Training — George A. Robbins, Chair- man, ..... 779 Report of Committee on Lists of Books for Lower Grades, • . 1016 Report of Committee on Necrology, 32 Report of Committee on Necrology — In Memoriam — Eugene D. Bagen, . . . 298 Henry Woolcott Blake, . . 299 Edwin Azro Charlton, . . -301 Anna A. Cummings, . . . 281 George R. Fowler, . . .281 J. C. Gilchrist 291 L. A. Gray, 281 Samuel Martin Inglis, . . . 288 Walter M. Jay, .... 300 Joseph C. Jones, .... 295 Birdsey Grant Northrop, . . 283 Solomon Palmer, .... 297 Susan Given Patterson, . . 292 Walter S. Perry, . . . .298 Wiley T. Poynter, . . . 294 Rebecca D. Rickoff, . . .286 Comodore Perry Rogers, . . 293 Edward Austin Sheldon, . . 282 John H. Tear, .... 296 N. B. Thompson 281 Report of Committeee on Nomina- tions, . . . . -30 Report of Committee on Resolutions, Department of Superintend- ence, ..... 306 Report of Committee on the Relation of the Library to Art Education, 812 Report of Committee on the Relations of Public Libraries to Public Schools, .... 1006 Report of Committee, Supplement to — Miss J. L. Forrester, . .817 Report of Subcommittee on Botany in Secondary Schools — John M. Coulter, . . . .967 Report of Subcommittee on the Out- line of Elementary Chemistry — Alexander Smith, . . 965 Report of Treasurer, . . .16 Report on Elementary Education, . 335 Report on Rural Schools, Discussion of, 575 Report, Preliminary, of the Subcom- mittee on Physical Geography, 973 Reports on School Hygiene, . . 522 Rhoads, McHenry — Discussion, . 260 Richards, Mrs. Ellen H. — Domes- tic Science as a Synthetic Study for Girls, . . .766 Discussion, .... 727 Rickoff, Mrs. Rebecca D., t . . 286 INDEX "37 RoBBiNs, George A. — Report of Committee on Hindrances and Helps to Manual Training, Robinson, Dr. — Discussion, Rogers, C. P.,t Ross, John W. — Address of Wei come, .... Rowe, A. M. — Discussion, ROYCE, JosiAH — The New Psy chology and the Consulting Psychologist, . . . . The Social Basis of Conscience, Discussion, Rural Schools, List of Books for, Sabin, Ellen C. — Discussion, . Sabin, Henry — In Memoriam J. C Gilchrist, ... In Memoriam C. P. Rogers, Report of Committee on Necrol ogy, .... Sanford, H. R. — Discussion, . SCHAEFFER, N. C. — School Supervi sion The Middle State Normal Schools, School Architecture — Heating, Ven tilation, Lighting, and Sani tary Arrangements — F. Louis Soldan, . D. H. Bergey, School Desks and Seats, . School Diseases and Medical Inspec tion — Delos Fall, School Furniture — Charles B. Gil bert School Hygiene, Bibliography of — William H. Burnham, Books and Articles, Journals, Reports, School Hygiene — What It Is and Why We Need It — Edward M. Hartwell School Maintenance, School Music in Character-Making — A. E. Winship, School of the Future, The — A. E. Winship, . . . . School Supervision — N. C. Dough- erty, N. C. Schaeffer, Scott, F. N. — Essay Correcting — Can It be Made a Joy For- ever ?..... Discussion, . . . . ScovEL, Sylvester F. — Realizing Our Final Aim in Education, . Seaver, Edwin P. — Democracy and Education, Discussion, .... Secondary Course, English the Core of, Secondary English Teaching, Some Main Principles of. Secondary Schools, A Proposed Four- Years' Course in English for, 779 708 293 43 756 SS4 196 201-203 1017 575 291 293 281 203 577 748 523 524 532 534 532 505 S06 521 522 498 575 844 276 576 577 691 696 462 249 946 665 671 678 Secondary Schools, Essentials of United States History to be Taught in — Homer H. Seer- Discussion, Secretary's Minutes: General Sessions National Council, . Department of Superintendence, Department of Kindergarten Edu cation, .... Department of Elementary Educa tion, .... Department of Secondary Educa tion, .... Department of Higher Education, Department of Normal School Education, Department of Manual and Indus trial Education, Department of Art Education, Department of Music Education, Department of Business Education Department of Child Study, . Department of Physical Education Department of Natural Science Instruction, Department of School Administra tion, .... Library Department, Department of Deaf, Blind, and Feeble-minded, Seerley, Homer H. — The Essen tials of United States History to be Taught in Secondary Schools, .... West Central State Normal Schools, .... Discussion, . . . 554, 747 Shaw, Edward R. — Essentials of English Composition in Ele- mentary Schools, . Fatigue Grading and Promotion with Ref- erence to Individual Needs, . Shearer, William J. — The Eliza- beth (N. J.) Plan of Grading and Promotion, Sheldon, Edward A., f Sheldon, Edward Austin — Charles R. Skinner Sheldon, W. E. — In Memoriam Ed- ward A. Sheldon, . Discussion, . . 544, 554, 575 Shepard, Irwin — Continuous Ses- sions with Special Application to Normal Schools, Secretary's Minutes — Board of Directors, 1897-98, Board of Directors, 1898-99, General Sessions, Should the Undergraduate Curricu- lum be Shortened ? — Nicholas Murray Butler, Discussion, .... Site and Location in School Archi- tecture, .... 524 77 82 23 494 303 589 620 664 701 728 757 787 832 856 S93 929 959 985 1005 1030 77 736 87 550 422 441 282 63 282 410 37 39 23 717 719 II38 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION Skinner, C. R. — Life and Character of Edward Austin Sheldon, . 63 Discussion, . . . . 57^ Smith, Alexander — Report of Sub- committee on the Outline of Elementary Chemistry, . . 965 Smith, Harriett E. — Secretary's Min- utes, Department of Ele- mentary Education, . . 620 Smith, W. B. — The Culture Value of Higher Mathematics, . 178 Discussion, . . . .718 Snyder, J. H. — Discussion, , , 387 Snyder, J. L.— Education for the Industrial Classes, . . -758 Snyder, Z. X. — Reciprocal Recog- nition of State and Normal- School Diplomas by the States, 451 Report of Progress of Normal- School Committee, . . 34 Successive Differentiation of Sub- jects in the Elementary Schools, 632 The Training School in the United States, . . -751 Discussion, . . . 747, 756 Social Basis of Conscience — Josiah Royce, ig6 Discussion, . . . .199 Social, Consciousness of Children, De- velopment of, , . .921 Social Cooperation — B. C. Gregory, 655 Sociology's Demand upon the Schools — J. F. Millspaugh, . , 267 SoLDAN, Louis F. — School Archi- tecture— Heating, Ventilation, Lighting, and Sanitary Ar- rangements, .... 523 The Influence of the Kindergar- ten upon the Schools, . .619 Discussion, .... 369 Some of the Main Principles of Sec- ondary English Teaching — Samuel Thurber, . . ,671 Southern State Normal Schools — Miss Marion Brown, . . 732 Spofford, A. R. — Discussion, . .1014 Springer, Durand W. — Business Education 857 State and National Aid for Manual Training 783 State in Education, Duty of the, . 204 State Normal Schools of the Middle States, ..... 748 State Normal Schools of the Pacific Coast — Edward T. Pierce, . 744 State Normal Schools, The New Eng- land, 729 State Normal Schools, The North Central, .... 740 State Normal Schools, The Southern, 732 State Normal Schools, The West Central, 736 State Universities, . . . .108 Steele, W. L. — Secretary's Minutes, Department of Superintend- ence, 303 Stetson, W. W.— The Educational Outlook, . . . -131 Discussion, . . . .318 Stickney, Lucia — Discussion, . 690 Stoker, Gertrude A. — Discussion, . 801 Stoneroad, Rebecca — Discussion, . 956 Study in Adolescence, . . .910 Study of First-Year High-School Pu- pils— Fred W. Atkinson, . 903 Subjects for Compositions : Shall We Draw Them from Literature or from Life ? — Edwin L. Miller, 696 Successive Differentiation of Sub- jects in the Elementary Schools — Z. X. Snyder, . . , 632 Discussion, .... 640 Supervision, Inefficient, a Hindrance to Manual Training, . . 779 Supervisor, Duties and Privileges of the, 228 Supervisor of Drawing in Public Schools — Fred H. Daniels, . 795 Discussion, .... 799 Supply of Teachers — John W. Cook, 578 Charles B.. Gilbert, . . .582 Sutton, W. S. — Discussion, . . 432 Swift, Edgar James — Heredity and Environment, . . .910 Syllabus of a Course in English, with a Defense of the Same — W. F.Webster, . . . 681,687 Discussion, Tawney, G. A. — Secretary's Minutes, Department of Higher Educa- cation, ..... Taylor, A. R. — Discussion, Taylor, Henry Ling. — Exercise and Vigor, .... Taylor, Professor — Discussion, Teacher as a Traveler, The — Lillie A. Williams, Teaching of Biology in the High School-— W. P. Hay, . Teaching of Drawing, Educational Principles for. Tear, John H., f . . . . Tenure of Office of the Teachers — B. W. Wright, Thach, C. C. — Essentials of Eng- lish Composition in Secondary Schools, .... Thayer, Miss — Discussion, Therapeutic Aspect of Medical In- spection of Schools, Thilly, Frank — Discussion, Thomas, Price — Minimum Prepara- tion for Teaching, . Thompson, John G. — Child Study in the Training of Teachers, . Thompson, Langdon S. — Discussion, Thurber, Samuel — Some of the Main Principles of Secondary English Teaching, . Discussion, .... Township High School, The — C.J. Baxter, 690 701 756 933 727 247 960 802 296 996 94 946 457 707 448 916 812 671 690 308 INDEX 1139 Township High School, The — Dis- cussion, Tragic, The Educational Value of, as Compared with the Comic in Literature and Art, Training of Feeble-minded Children — Martin W. Barr, Training of Teachers, Child Study in the Training of the High-School Teacher — M. V. O'Shea, . Training School in the United States — Z. X. Snyder, . Discussion, .... Treasurer's Report, .... Trend in Training of Backward Children — Margaret Bancroft, 1040 United States History, Essentials in, to be Taught in Elementary Schools — Wilbur F. Gordyi . 70 Discussion, .... 82 United States History, Essentials in, to be Taught in Secondary Schools — Homer H. Seerley, 77 Discussion, . . - . .82 United States History, Influence of Environment on the Develop- ment of, ... Universities, American, and the Na tional Life, American Colonial, and Public Questions, . and the Industrial Arts, . Catholicity of Spirit in, . Classification of, . Patriotic Aims of, . State, the Influence of, . the Curriculum of, . the Origin of, Upton, Ralph R. — Secretary's Min- utes, Department of Second- ary Education, Use of the School Library — Richard Hardy, ..... Vacation Schools — Richard Water- man, Jr., .... Value of Ideals Set Forth in the " Mother-Play Book " — Eli- zabeth Harrison, Value of Manual Training, Value of the Hand in the Acquisition of Knowledge and Expression of Thought — Mary F. Hall, Discussion, .... Van Sickle, James H. — Grading and Promotion, Plan of the North Side Schools of Denver, Discussion, . 176, 1014, 1015, 1028 Ventilation in School Architecture, . 528 Ventilation of Schoolrooms — A. P. Marble, . . . -371 Discussion, .... 377 Walter, Sarah J. — The Child's 316 396 1045 916 709 751 755 16 139 103 105 114 112 116 109 118 119 III 104 664 1007 404 592 989 642 648 434 Course of Study or the Teach- er's, Which? .... Water-Closets and Latrines in School Architecture, .... Waterman, Richard, Jr. — Vaca- tion Schools, .... Function of Manual Training in the Elementary Schools, Webster, W. F.— Syllabus of a Course in English, with a De- fense of the Same, 681, 687 Webster, William Clarence — Dis- cussion, ..... West Central State Normal Schools — Homer H. Seerley, What can Child Study Contribute to the Science of Education ? — J. P. Gordy What Is Music, and How can We Help Children to Become Mu- sical? — Mari Ruef Hofer, What Kind of Centralization, if Any, will Strengthen Our Local School System? — Harvey H. Hubbert, .... Discussion, What Kind of Normal Training does the Common-School Teacher of the South Need? — E. C Branson, What Proportion of Essay Subjects shall be Drawn from Litera- ture? — F. V. N. Painter, Discussion, What the Negro Gets from the Com- mon-School Education and What He GU^es to It — G. R Glenn, . ' . Whitcomb, A. K. — Discussion, White, Emerson E. — In Memoriam Birdsey Grant Northrop, The Duty of the State in Educa tion, . . . . Whitman, B. L. — Address of Wei come, .... Wilkinson, J. N. — Discussion, . Williams, Lillie A. — The Teacher as a Traveler, Williams, Sherman — Reading Lists for Public Schools, How Prepared. Discussion, Wilson, W. E. — Discussion, WiNSHiP, A. E. — School Music in Character-Making, . The School of the Future, . Wolfe, L. E. — Discussion, Women's Clubs as an Educational Factor — Margarei J. Evans, Discussion, Woodward, Miss — Discussion, Wright, B. W.— The Tenure of Office of the Teachers, . 243 530 404 649 988 736 348 833 986 319 693 696 330 318 283 204 45 756 247 1022 1015 755 844 276 86 237 243 1027 996 y^ L 13 N3A13 1898 National Education Association^; of the United States Addresses and pro- ceedings... 'i^: PLEASE DO NOT REMOVE CARDS OR SLIPS FROM THIS POCKET UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO LIBRARY «/►- S^ ^: ■0i